THE CALCAREOUS FENS OF PARK COUNTY, COLORADO: THEIR
VEGETATION, ENVIRONMENTAL FUNCTIONING, AND THE
EFFECTS OF DISTURBANCE
Prepared by:
J. Bradley Johnson
Department of Biology
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80523
Submitted To:
The United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region VU3,
Colorado Department of Natural Resources
and
Park County Department Government
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Hydrology
Water Table
Piezometric Surface and Patterns of Hydraulic Head
Physical Soil Characteristics
Vegetation
Classification
Ordination
Direct Gradient Analysis
Effects of Disturbance on Fen Vegetation
Water and Soil Chemistry
Water Chemistry
Soil Chemistry
Compliance with Water Quality Standards
Metal Enrichment in Fen Peat
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . .
REFERENCES CITED
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project was funded by US EPA StateWetlands Grant (104[b][3]) monies, granted to Park
County Government and Brad Johnson I would especially like to thank Dave Rathke from US EPA
and Doug Robotham from Colorado Department of Natural Resources for making this project
possible through their agencies' generous funding. Debra Mellblom, of CDNR, provided unfailing
assistance, without which this project would no doubt have foundered. Mike Gilbert of the Army
Corps of Engineers greatly helped with project facilitation, piezometer installation, and perspective
Mary Gentry, formerly of Park County Department of Environmental Health, made this
project possible through her strong commitment to the maintenance of the environmental quality of
Park County and generous funding Steve Randall, formerly of the Park County Mapping
Department, helped with geographic analysis and volunteered his departments resources, and Tom
Burnett, of the Park County Mapping Department, performed the site surveys.
I owe thanks to Mark Beardsley, Meredith Edmiston, Troy Gerhardt, and John Sanderson
who helped immeasurably in the field and without whose help this project could of in no way been
completed Dr. David Steingraeber provided support and assistance throughout the whole project
and it has benefitted greatly from his input.
Bruce Hale and Denver Water graciously provided analyses of uranium and strontium in
ground water, and Dr. William Weber identified moss species.
The shear number of people who I've acknowledged underscores how important everybody's
help has been. If I've forgotten to mention someone, to them my thanks
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INTRODUCTION
The calcareous fens of South Park, are one of the most important wetland resources in
Colorado. These wetlands contain some fifteen state rare or endemic plant species, eleven rare
invertebrate species and three regionally endemic vegetation types (Sanderson and March 1996). The
fens form rich islands of biodiversity and unique habitat in the short grass steppe that surrounds them
and perform important environmental functions such as water quality improvement and water storage.
Fens take centuries to form and their losses are essentially irreparable. In recognition of these facts,
the US Fish and Wildlife Service has elevated fens to a the most protected "Resource Category 1"
and the US Army Corps of Engineers has exempted fens from the Nation Wide 26 permit coverage.
Our knowledge of these systems is significantly disproportionate to their importance in the ecosystem
This is primarily due to our recent discovery of the significant role that fens play on the landscape
Fens are a type of peatland; that is, a wetland which accumulates undecomposed organic
matter, called peat. Peat accumulates due to anaerobic conditions brought about by a high water
table. There are two types of peatlands, bogs and fens. Bogs only receive moisture and nutrients
from precipitation and dust. They are therefore termed ombrotrophic ("rain-fed"). Due to their
ombrotrophy, they are extremely nutrient poor. Bogs are also highly acidic because of the
chemical processes of the Sphagnum mosses which dominated their biota. Bogs have a low
species richness resulting from these unamenable combination of factors. Although, poor in
species, bogs are rich in coverage, blanketing more of the worlds surface than any other ecosystem
type except steppe. Most of these bogs occur in the boreal and arctic regions of the world, where
countries such as Norway, can be more than 50% covered by these peatlands (Gore 1983).
Fens are peatlands whose vegetation is in contact with groundwater. The term for this
condition is minerotrophic. Fens in the semi-arid west are further dependent on ground water as
their primary water source. In South Park, without significant ground water inputs, fens could
not exist.
Colorado's peatlands have been referred to using a number of different terms such as bogs,
swamps, marshes. Technically speaking all of Colorado's peatlands are "fens"; therefore "fen"
and "peatland" are often times used interchangeably in our region. No extensive bogs have ever
been found in Colorado due to insufficient precipitation, but it has been proposed that large peat
hummocks can form areas environmentally equivalent to miniature bogs in peatlands which are
otherwise fens (Johnson 1996).
In Colorado, fens are found above about 2600 m (8500 ft.), but are most common in the
subalpine zone and above (> 2750 m). Subalpine fens are generally found in valley bottoms and
mountain parks. They may also be associated with river systems, usually occurring at slope
breaks such as where valley sides or terrace shoulders intersect relict floodplains. In general, fens
can occur anywhere in the subalpine zone where enough ground water emerges to perennially
saturate the soil. A shallow grade also helps to increase the residence time of the discharged water
and aids in soil saturation. Many such locations occur in the mountains of Colorado, and fens are
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not uncommon. Subalpine fens are generally small and easily damaged, however. The exact
extent of fens in Colorado is not know precisely, but it seems to certainly be less than one percent
of the total land area.
The character of ground water entering a fen is heavily influenced by the regional geology.
Ground water flowing though granitic parent material is very nutrient poor and slightly acidic (pH
" 6.5). Ground water flowing through calcareous or dolomitic parent material on the other hand
tends to be rich in nutrients, especially calcium and magnesium, and is basic (pH >7.5). The
nutrient concentration of groundwater is a major determinant of fen vegetation. As such, fens
have been classified according to their nutrient richness, which is in turn reflected in the species
composition present. The most common fen divisions are poor, moderate, rich, and extremely-
rich fens (Du Rietz 1949).
The calcareous fens of South Park are classified as rich to extremely-rich fens. These fen
types are the most uncommon in North America, and maybe the world. In North America,
extremely-rich fens have been found in only three or four areas besides South Park and near
Hudson Bay in Canada (Sjors 1961, Lesica 1986, Fertig & Jones 1992). Elsewhere in the world,
extremely-rich fens are found in the British Isles and Scandinavia (Wheeler 1980, Sjors 1948).
While scientists have only recently discovered the peatlands of South Park, these sites have
been of interest to ranchers and developers since the 1800's. Historically, these wetlands were
ditched and drained so they could be converted to "productive land" and to prevent cattle from
becoming bogged down in their soft soils. More recently, miners have discovered the value of
peatlands as a source of horticultural "peat moss". Compared to other peatlands in the state, those
of South Park readily lend themselves to peat mining, since they are relatively expansive, flat and
have easy access. Due to such land use practices, a large percentage of South Park's fens have
been negatively impacted - many have been completely obliterated.
The uniqueness and fragility of these fens is in direct conflict with such practices. Mining
strips away the peat, leaving a foreign substrate with new chemical and hydrological properties.
The environment created in the wake of mining is so dissimilar to that of the native fen, sites
mined several years in the past remain nearly devoid of vegetation (Johnson, pers. obs.). De-
watering a fen through ditching changes the fundamental hydrologic properties of the wetland,
impacting every facet of the wetland's ecology. Even more threatening to these systems is the
prospect of ground water development projects. Such projects have the potential to usurp the
ground water flow into the wetlands - a situation which would utterly and irrevocably destroy
these sites.
This project was initiated to study the ecology and environmental functions performed by the
calcareous fens of South Park, CO. It is an extension of a pilot study carried out in 1995, by this
author working in conjunction with the Park County Department of Environmental Health. Due to
the initial success and compelling results of that study, the current project was designed to expand
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and complement it. Three calcareous fens were used as study sites. Each site had both intact sections
as well as areas that had been impacted by peat mining or ditching.
This project had the goal of investigating the environmental functions performed by fens
in South Park, CO. It accomplished this goal by: (1) Characterizing fen vegetation and the most
important factors influencing plant species composition; (2) Describing their hydrology; (3)
Characterizing the fens' water and soil chemistry; and (4) evaluating the impact that land use
practices such as peat mining or ditching have on wetland functionality. All of this information
is placed in the context of developing a reference data set for use in the Hydrogeomorphic (HGM)
Approach to wetland functional evaluation. It is intended that this information be used towards
development of a regional slope wetland HGM guidebook.
This study primarily funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through its
State Wetlands Grant Program [104(b)(3)]. The Park County Department of Environmental
Health and Colorado State University provided the matching funds to this Federal Grant.
Additional in-kind support was afforded by the Denver Water Board. Although the grant period
for this project only covered the 1996 and 1997 field seasons, data from 1995 and 1998 were also
included. These data resulted from studies funded by a State Wetlands grant to Brad Johnson and
Park County Department of Environmental Health and funds from Park County Government
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THE SETTING
GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY OF SOUTH PARK
Although in a local area of low relief, South Park lies at an elevation of between 2735 m and
3040 m (9000 to 10,000 ft.), which places it within the subalpine vegetation province (Marr 1961)
Most of the park is characterized as relatively flat short-grass steppe; the fens which occur on this
otherwise arid landscape are anomalous. During the Quaternary, most of South Park served as an
outwash plain for glacial rivers originating in the Mosquito range (Tweto 1974). This accounts for
much of the Park's relative flatness. Most of the topographical relief in South Park consists of
Quaternary fluvial terraces and bedrock ridges.
While all of the inter-mountain parks are unrepresentative of typical montane conditions,
South Park is exceptionally unique. Most of the inter-mountain parks are underlain with outwash
primarily composed of granitic material. South Park in contrast, has a till with a high proportion of
calcareous and dolomitic material (Tweto 1974, Appel 1995) The geology of this area is complex
and not precisely known, but following the description of Lozano (1967) and Valdes (1967), this till
was mainly derived from the Pennsylvanian Maroon Formation. The till is associated with thePindale
and Bull Lake glacial intervals (Tweto 1974). The calcareous and dolomitic nature of the these strata
cause groundwater flowing through them to become quite alkaline, and pH can be as high as 11
(Appel 1995). In contrast, water flowing through granitic outwash is of a nearly neutral or slightly
acidic. The highly basic, minerally rich ground water is a primary cause of the unique and rare species
composition found in South Park's fens.
Regional Physiography and geomorphology
South Park is one of the four major inter-mountain basins in Colorado formed during the
Larimide Orogeny (Lozano 1967). The park is bounded by the Front Range on the east, on the west
and north by the Mosquito Range, and by the Buffalo Peaks in the south. Roughly speaking, the park
encompasses 2330 km2 (900 mi.2), is 80 km2 (50 mi.) long and 56 km2 (35 mi.) wide (Stark et al
1949).
Compared with the surrounding mountains South Park has little topographical relief The
primary topographical features of the park are several prominent north-northwest oriented ridges of
exposed bedrock, Quaternary alluvial terraces, and scattered moraines. The Park slopes to the east
in the northern regions and progressively more to the southeast traveling south (Stark et al 1949).
The average slope of the valley floor is one degree.
Based on physiography, South Park can be divided into three regions: the Elkhorn Uplands
in the northwest; the plains in the north, center and west; and the southern volcanic region (Fig. 1)
This study focuses plains region and western foothills. Therefore, the remaining two regions will not
be discussed except incidently.
Although the park's physiography is reminiscent of that of the low elevation plains, it resides
in the structurally highest region of the state and elevations in the park range from approximately
2590 to 3050 m (8500 ft. to 10,000 ft).
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Figure 1. A block drawing showing the physiography of South Park. The key to
symbols is: C - Como, EE - Elkhorn Upland, F - Fairplay, G - Garo, H - Hartsel, AJ -
Antero Junction. The rise due west of Garo is Little Black Mountain. From Stark et
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Geologic History of South Park
Structural geology and historical erosional cycles are the root of South Park's current
physiography. The park is a complexly faulted, asymmetrical, north-northwest trending syncline which
has been filled with Tertiary sediments and Quaternary glacial outwash (Lozano 1967, De Voto
1971).
The beginning of South Park was in the late Cretaceous and Paleocene The initial shaping
of the park began during the mountain building of the Laramide Orogeny (De Voto 1971)
Differential uplift occurred along the north-northwest trending faults of South Park's basement blocks
creating the Sawatch and Front Ranges. The uplift also laterally compressed and deformed South
Park's floor Through this differential uplift, the primary syncline of the valley was formed as well
as the Elkhorn, Mosquito, and London faults, the major faults of the region (De Voto 1971) The
aforementioned faults essentially describe the boundaries of the park as we see it today.
The newly created mountain ranges surrounding the park began their first erosional cycles
during the lower Tertiary Period, including the Paleocene and Eocene Epochs. This was a time of
sedimentation within the South Park syncline In the southern areas, around the Buffalo Peaks,
extensive volcanic activity also occurred beginning around the Oligocene.
In subsequent periods, erosion dominated the valley floor processes as rivers carved their way
into the newly deposited sediments. During erosional periods, cycles of river downcutting and
planation, alternated with terrace and pediment formation. These cycles were especially pronounced
during the Pleistocene as the climate cycled between glacial and interglacial periods. The glaciers did
not reach the park floor. The greatest glacial extent was just west ofFairplay, during the Fairplay
glacial interval.
Geology of South Park and the Mosquito Range
Much of the unique character of South Park's wetlands stems from the nature of the
underlying parent material, the geology of the adjacent Mosquito Range and their combined effect
on the regional geochemistry. The Mosquito Range was formed during the Sawatch Uplift of the
Laramide Orogeny. Figure 2 shows a typical stratigraphic section through the range. The Park has
a similar stratigraphy, although, some units may be missing. The central core of the Mosquito Range
is comprised of Precambrian granites, primarily, the metamorphosed granites, Gneiss and Schist
(Chronic 1964). Over these granites are laid Cambrian to Pennsylvanian sediments. Of primary
concern here are the upper four strata: the Leadville Limestone, Belden, Coffman and Maroon
Formations. It should be noted that inconsistencies abound surrounding the nomenclature of these
units (Lozano 1967, De Voto 1971) This is especially true of the stratigraphy of the park itself,
seemingly due to the complex folding that has occurred and the locally complete erosion of certain
units. Table 1 provides a key to the Paleozoic and Mesozoic stratigraphic terms used by various
authors. This paper uses the terminology of De Voto 1971.
What follows is a brief description of the Formations mentioned above. Figures G3a-c are
geological maps of South Park in the vicinity of the three study sites. The site locations and
approximate extents are shown on each map
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PALEOZOIC
age formation
THICKNESS
Permian
Unnamed
Upper
Pennslyvanian/
Lower Permian
I
Pony Springs
MAROON UNDIFF.
1810 m
Middle
Pennslyvanian
Chubb
560 m
Coffman
0 - 305 m
Early
Pennsylvanian
Belden
0-500 m
Early
Missippian
Leadville
80 m
Late
Devonian
X X"
Dyer Dolomite
27 - 65 m
Parting Quartzite
20 - 47 m
Early
Orodvician
&
Manitou
Limestone
55 - 60 m
Late
Cambrian
Sawatch
Quartzite
47 m
PRECAMBRIAN - Gneiss, Schist, Granite
Figure 2. A typical stratigraphic cross section through the Paleozoic
and Lower Permian rocks in South Park. The right column gives the
approximate thickness of each stratum. The central column shows the
major formations with members shown but not named. Important
formations and their comprising members are described in the text
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PAGE NOT
AVAILABLE
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Leadville Limestone:
The Leadville Limestone member was deposited during the early Mississippian Although
called a limestone, in many areas it is essentially pure dolomite, while in other regions it is actually
limestone (Stark et al. 1949, Chronic 1964) The reason for the dolomitization is uncertain but is
perhaps due to Laramide tectonism and mineralization. The thickness of this formation ranges from
45 to 100 m.
Belden Formation.
The Belden Formation was probably deposited during the early Pennsylvanian although good
index fossils for this period have not been found (Chronic 1964). The formation consists of dark gray
to black shales, and thin limestones and fine sandstones; although the shales dominate the profile
(Stark et al. 1949). The total formation thickness ranges between 150 to more than 900 m
Coffman Formation.
The Coffman formation consists of "crossbedded, siliceous, buff, gray, to red, arkosic
conglomerates and micaceous, arkosic sandstones" of Des Moinesian age (De Voto 1971). This
formation is interbedded with the shales of the Belden Formation and lies below the Maroon
Formation. Also reported are the presence of Des Moinesian fusulirvids imbedded in a limestone
matirx in direct contact with Precambrian granite knolls (Chronic 1964) Chronic (1964) suggests
that based on this evidence portions of South Park were in the past an island shoreline.
Maroon Formation
The Maroon is a massive formation, up to 3000 m thick, formed during the mid-
Pennsylvanian through the Permian (De Voto 1971). In the southwestern areas of South Park, it has
been divided into the Chubb and Pony Springs Members. In other areas, these units are unmappable
and so are left undifferentiated. This is the case in the study area, so the undifferentiated Maroon
Formation will be described
North of Antero Reservoir the Maroon formation is dominated by red arkosic sandstones,
conglomerates, siltstones and shales (Stark et al 1949, Ettinger 1964, De Voto 1971) Interbedded
in these strata are irregular beds of limestone. Near Fairplay the limestone beds appear as mappable
strata (Stark et al. 1949). Also reported are gypsiferous layers up to 50' thick, however, it is unclear
whether these strata occur in the study area. Appel (1995) asserts that the gypsiferous beds occur
in the immediate vicinity of High Creek Fen
The most common unit in South Park is the undifferentiated Maroon Formation, however,
within the study area this unit may be overlain with Quaternary sediments (see below) Several
Tertiary units not found in the surrounding Mosquito Range are present in South Park. Only those
units found in the vicinity of the study area will be described.
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Johnson, 1934
Gould 1935
Stark et al. 1949
Brill 1952
Chronic
1958
De Voto 1971*
Maroon
Undiff.
T3
Unnamed
Maroon
T5
4)
.2
Unnamed
Maroon
Pony
Springs
Member
S3
a
(D
Pony
Springs
Maroon
19
*o
c
Pony-
Springs
e
a
o
&
2
Chubb
D
C
o
o
Chubb
Jacque Mt.
Is. Member
&
unnamed
03
cS
Chubb
Upper
Zone
Member
s
Member
Minturn
Minturn
c
o
o
t-H
03
S
Member
¦8
£
Coffman
Mem.
Coffman
Member
Coffman
Middle
Zone
Weber (?)
CL>
x>
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Pierre Shale.
The Pierre Shale is comprised almost entirely of black fissile shale with, occasional sandstone
and calcareous beds (Stark et al. 1949, Ettinger 1964). The Pierre Shale was deposited during the
Cretaceous and reaches thickness of 3,600 ft (Ettinger 1964)
Fox Hills Sandstone.
The Fox Hills Sandstone is nearly pure, fine-grained, highly friable yellow to light gray
sandstone. In many places the layer is so poorly cemented that it is practically loose sand (Stark et
al. 1949, Ettinger 1964).
Eshe Porphyry:
The Eshe Porphyry was so named due to its prominence around the Eshe ranch in northern
South Park. This is the ranch on which much of the Fremont's Fen lies The Porphyry is an intrusive
quartz monzonite and quartz diorite corresponding to Tertiary intrusive events. The ground mass
of the porphyry is finely granular with phenocrysts of feldspar, biotite, hornblende and quartz The
Eshe Porphyry sits conformably atop the Pierre Shale.
Quaternary Deposits:
The Wisconsin glaciers did not reach the South Park valley floor, although terminal moraines
are found as near as the South Platte valley west of Fairplay (Singlewald 1950). The primary
Paleocene deposits in South Park are glacial outwash plains and alluvial terraces. Most of these
deposits are due to the Pinedale glacial interval, however, Bull Lake aged deposits are not
uncommon The depth of till varies considerably across the park, from thin deposits 15 ft. thick, to
terminal moraines over 400 ft high. Across the plain areas 50 ft. is perhaps the average till thickness
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CLIMA TE OF SOUTH PARK
South Park is a cool and arid region located in the rain shadow of the Mosquito Range. There
are two weather stations in South Park relevant to this study, one located at Antero Reservoir and
one formerly located in Fairplay. There have also been several shorter-term studies which have
examined climate as it relates to evapotranspiration in South Park Information from each of these
sources will be used to characterize the regional climate.
Temperature
The only long-term annual temperature data available come from the Antero Reservoir Station
(1961-1997). Mean annual temperature at this station is 1.92 °C(Table2) Spahr( 1981) and Walter
et al (1990) also took temperature measurements, but only during the growing season (Table 3)
Spahr reports that the average temperature differed significantly between his three stations(p<0.01),
with Antero Reservoir being the warmest and Fairplay the coldest. Figure 4 shows the annual
temperature distribution for Antero Reservoir
Precipitation
Precipitation data are also provided in Table 2. Antero Reservoir is the only station with
long-term and contemporary data, but a station also was maintained in Fairplay from 1954 -1956.
Figure 5 shows the monthly precipitation for Fairplay and Antero Reservoir On an annual basis
Fairplay receives more precipitation than Antero Reservoir. However, Spahr (1981) reported that
during the growing season neither, Fairplay, Antero Reservoir, nor Jefferson received statistically
different precipitation amounts (p<0 01) This indicates that the difference in precipitation between
Fairplay and Antero Reservoir occurred during late fall, winter, and early spring. The precipitation
distribution in Figure 5 corroborates this assertion. Fairplay receives its greatest monthly
precipitation in April during the spring snows. Antero Reservoir receives its greatest precipitation
during August, primarily in the form of convective showers. Fairplay also shows a peak in rain fall
during this period. Figure 6 shows the fourteen-day precipitation distribution for Antero Reservoir
from 1995 - 1997 - the years during which this study was completed.
Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
Table 3 presents evaporation and evapotranspiration data compiled by Spahr (1981) and
Walter et al. (1990). In the rows containing pan evaporation (PE) data, total pan evaporation is
given, followed parenthetically by potential evapotranspiration (PET) calculated from this number
PET is determined by multiplying total PE by an empirically derived pan coefficient. Kruse and Haise
(1974) determined the average pan coefficient for South Park to be 0.89. Later studies obtained
values similar to this, as well.
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25
20 -
J FMAMJ JASOND
Month
-------
Station
Antcro Reservoir
Fairplav
Jefferson
Hartsel
Measurement
Period
Record
Source
Mean Air Temperature
(°C)
1.92
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
Jan - Dec
1961-1997
Reservoir Weather
Station
12.8
10.4
11.0
n.a
May - Oct.
1977-1979
Spahr 1981
10.72
n.a.
7.8
9 4
May - Sept
1961-1986
Walter etal. 1990
Mean Total
Precipitation (cm)
25.81
40.21
n.a.
n.a.
Jan - Dec.
1961-1997 & 1954 - 1966,
Respectively
Weather Station
Data
17.9
n.a.
23 7
21.8
May - Sept
1962 - 1986 (Antero),
1982-1985 (Others)
Walter etal. 1990
15.0
15 8
16.83
n.a.
May - Sept.
1977-1979
Spahr 1981
Table 2 Air temperature and precipitation data from weather stations and published data
Station
Antero Reservoir
Fairpla}
Jefferson
Hartsel
Measurement
Period
Record
Source
Mean Daily Pan
Evaporation (cm)
0.70
0.71
0.56
n a.
May 1 - Sept 30
1977-1979
Spahr 1981
Pan Evaporation (cm)
108.54 (96.6)
111.4(99.1)
86.44 (76.1)
n a.
May 1 - Sept 30
1977-1979
Spahr 1981
n a
n.a.
83 2 (74.0)
99 0 (88 1)
April 26-Oct. 31
1982-1983
Walter et al. 1990
Flooded/Saturated
Lysi meters
n.a
n.a.
77 6
88 9
April 26-Oct. 31
1982-1983
Walter etal 1990
Penman
n.a
n a.
68 53
74 2
April 26-Oct 31
1982-1983
Walter etal 1990
Jensen-Haise
n a.
n.a.
77.6
81.2
April 26-Oct 31
1982-1983
Walter et al 1990
Table 3. Evaporation and evapotranspiration data from published reports The numbers in parentheses are potential evaporation as
measured by pan evaporation multiplied by an empirical pan coefficient of 0 89 (Kruse & Haise 1974).
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iFairplay DAntero Res.
Figure 5. Monthly precipitation recored at the Antero Reservoir and
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7
6
E
o
—' 4
C
o
ra
14-Day Period
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Spahr reports that during his study, Jefferson had less PE than Fairplay and Antero Reservoir,
but Antero Reservoir and Fairplay had statistically similar PEs (p < 0.01). In Walter et al's. (1990)
extensive study, they installed an evaporation pan, several lysimeters, and a weather station at each
climate station. Table 3 reports the data from their evaporation pans, and flooded and damp
lysimeters The flooded and damp lysimeters were chose for inclusion here because their
experimental conditions are similar to the wetland conditions being studied Walter et al. also
calculated PET based on energy budget methods. Included in Table 3 are PET values calculated
through the Pennman and Jensen-Haise methods.
The average PET measured in the three lysimeters at each site was very close to PET
calculated from the pans. The difference between these measures is 2.6 cm and 0.8 cm for Jefferson
and Hartsel, respectively Of the two synthetic methods, the results of the Jensen-Haise method most
closely corresponded to the PET measured in the pans and the actual ET measured in the lysimeters.
These results suggest that actual ET is at, or slightly higher than, calculated PET
Of primary concern, ecologically and hydrologically, is the interplay between PET and
precipitation. Figures 7-9 show the relationship between precipitation and pan PET as measured
by Spahr (1981). At all times during the growing season, and at all stations, there is a significant
moisture deficit, as much as 19 cm in a given month This relationship underscores the importance
of ground water and soil moisture recharge during the colder months.
Wetlands exist only where there is a net surplus of water for an extended period of the year
Fens require perhaps the most stable water table levels of any wetland type in this region; their water
tables remaining at or near the surface perennially (see Hydrology section). Moisture deficits, such
as those shown in Figures 7-9, clearly show that additional hydrologic inputs are necessary for the
maintenance of fens. These inputs come primarily in the form of ground water. Without maintenance
of ground water levels, fens, and many other wetland types, could not exist in such an arid climate
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May June July August September
Month
— -» — Fairplay Precip.
¦Fairplay Pan PET
Figure 7. Precipitation vs. Potential Evaporation from 1977 - 1979 at
-------
0 -I 1 1 1 1
May June July August September
Month
— — Jefferson Precip U Jefferson Pan PET |
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25
20 -
w
15 -
a>
E
§ 10 -
o
5 -
0 -
May June July August September
Month
— -~ — Antero Precip. —¦— Antero Pan PET
Figure 9. Precipitation vs. Potential Evaporation from 1977 - 1979 at Antero
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STUDY SITES
Three sites on the west side of South Park were chosen for this study - High Creek Fen,
Crooked Creek Fen, and Fremont's Fen (Figure 10). The sites span the majority of the park from
north to south. These sites were chosen because they encompassed a range of sizes, landscape
positions, disturbance levels. Each is described below.
High Creek Fen
High Creek Fen is a Nature Conservancy Preserve located about 13 km (8 miles) south of
Fairplay, Colorado (Fig. 11). Although the whole wetland complex is regarded as High Creek "Fen",
it is important to note that not all of the wetland is truly fen; that is, it also contains areas with mineral
soils The main fen with predominantly peat soils area covers about 150 hectares (350 acres), while
the entire wetland complex encompasses more than 300 hectares (740 acres). A technical delineation
has not been performed, however.
Typically, the fen is covered with a dense canopy of sedges and grasses Within this
graminoid matrix, slightly raised islands of willows exist, in even drier areas stands blue spruce (Picea
pungens) grow. Dissecting the entire wetland is a maze of water- tracks These water-tracks are
characterized as having flowing surface water and somewhat sparse vegetation comprised primarily
of spike-rushes (Eleocharis spp.) and sedges (Carex spp. and Kobresia spp.). The water-tracks may
be underlain by relatively solid peat, but are frequently composed of floating vegetation mats. These
vegetation mat areas are frequently referred to as quagmires, alluding to their tenuously soft nature.
The peat is fairly thin on this fen, ranging between 0.5 and 1 meter thick.
Portions of High Creek Fen were first purchased by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) in 1991
At present TNC owns about 480 hectares (1,185 acres) of land including High Creek Fen and the
surrounding short-grass steppe. The fen has had a grazing history dating back to the 1860's (Appel
1995). During the 1970's and 1980's portions of the northern and western areas of the fen were
mined for peat. A portion of the peat extracted by miners was mishandled and devalued,
consequently, the miners abandoned it as spoils near the mine pit. After the acquisition of the fen by
TNC, the mine was regraded using the spoiled peat, and returned to roughly the same grade as prior
to mining (Allen Carpenter, TNC, 1995, pers. comm.).
Crooked Creek Fen
Crooked Creek Fen is located in the Pike National Forest on the periphery of South Park and
covers 21.5 hectares (Fig. 12). It is surrounded by shrubby marginal wetlands to the east, and trails
north up Crooked Creek's narrow valley in the form of scattered beaver ponds and willow carrs. The
fen is located on a fan-shaped slope at the foot of an extant beaver pond complex. The fen has a
relatively steep slope at its head near the ponds, but the slope decreases towards the foot as it opens
out to the park. Vegetation at the fen head in the north is dominated by graminoids and tall to
medium willows. This vegetation grades into open fen having only low, scattered shrubs and a carpet
of sedges.
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Figure 10. Map of a portion of Park County showing the study site locations. The shaded
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Figure 13. Section of the U.S.G.S. Jefferson Quadrangle.
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Crooked Creek Fen is generally intact and undisturbed by human activities. The exception
to this is a single ditch that runs transversely across the fen near its foot. This ditch intercepts
virtually all ground and surface water flow to a depth of about 1.5 m The vegetation beyond the
ditch is comprised of mesic grass and shrub species. Although the vegetation of the ditch-impacted
area is not typical of fens, the soils of the area consist of deep peat remaining from when the fen
hydrology was intact.
Fremont's Fen
Fremont's Fen lies at the foot of the Mosquito Range and forms an expansive fen-meadow
complex. It is the largest and most heavily altered of the three fens studied. The peat areas of the
complex cover 97 hectares (240 acres), while the total wetland expanse is more than 526 hectares
(1300 acres). The fen lies on land owned both privately and by the Colorado Division of Wildlife
The fen begins at a colluvial fan and slopes shallowly to the east. A series of drainage ditches cris-
cross the fen and an expansive peat mine covers much of the fen where the deepest peat deposits once
were The age of the mine is not known, nor is the date that it was abandoned.
The vegetation of Fremont's Fen is dominated primarily by graminoids with a relatively little shrub
cover The whole wetland complex is still grazed by cattle.
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\
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Crooked
Fen
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Figure 14. View south across High Creek Fen.
Figure 15. View southwest overlooking Crooked Creek Fen. The fen is located in the un-treed
area above and to the left of the ponds.
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Figure 16. View east overlooking Fremont's Fen. Dark areas are remaining peat mine scars.
Two areas of mining can be seen with a mineral soil meadow area between them.
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METHODS
FIELD METHODS
HYDROLOGY
Water Table and Piezometric Surface
Each site was equipped with a matrix of sampling stations consisting of a shallow ground
water well and one or more piezometers. High Creek Fen had 35 stations, Crooked Creek 27,
and Fremont's Fen 23. Station were placed along hydrological gradients within the fens and in
characteristic vegetation types. An attempt was also made to locate stations in as many ground
water discharge zones as practical. Figures 17 - 19 show the location of sampling stations and
other site features.
These figures were produced by overlaying the surveyed sample station coordinates onto
a color infrared areal photograph and resizing the photograph until surveyed landmarks registered
on the photograph. The boundaries of the areas predominately underlain by organic soil were
generated by keying off infrared coloration, surveyed points, and relation to sample stations.
Areas outside of these boundaries are oftentimes also wetlands and part of the contiguous fen-
meadow complex, but since the meadow areas were not the focus of this study they were not as
intensively investigated.
Wells were constructed of 2.54 cm inside diameter (I.D.) polyvinalchloride (PVC) pipe,
approximately 1.5 m long. Wells bottoms were capped, and the bottom 30.5 cm of the wells were
perforated. Wells were driven into the peat until the stickup was approximatley 20 cm above the
ground's surface, or until they reached an impermeable mineral layer located below the peat.
Excessive stickups were sawn off when appropriate. Wells were not driven deeper than an
impermeable layer, even at the risk of having them go dry, because samples extracted from the
wells were intended to characterize the chemistry of water flowing through the peat. Once
installed, wells were allowed to recharge and then were drained several times to ensure proper
functioning.
Piezometers were made of 2.54 cm I.D. PVC pipe. Piezometer bottoms were uncapped
and the pipe unperforated. Piezometers were installed to a uniform depth of 75 cm at High Creek
Fen and variable depths at the other fens depending on peat depth and depth to an impermeable
layer. Piezometers were installed by placing a small diameter pipe, slightly longer than the
piezometer, inside of the piezometer and driving the two pipes into the ground simultaneously
with a small sledge hammer. Once the piezometer was driven to its final depth, the inner pipe
was removed, leaving the piezometer pipe clear.
Sample stations were surveyed by Tom Burnett of the Park County Mapping Department
using a laser transit. At High Creek Fen, two wells previously surveyed (Appel 1995) served as
elevation bench marks, and two global positioning system (GPS) units were used to measure the
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Figure 17. Color infrared photograph of High Creek Fen. Numbered points are sampling stations. Symbols mark the
sample point. Symbols are: + is ground water discharge; - is recharge; and 0 is zero head. The black outline indicates the
approximate extent of organic soils, although note that the boundaries continue off the figure. Dark grey areas have been
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Figure 18. Color infrared Photograph of Crooked Creek Fen.. Numbered points are sampling stations.
Symbols are: + is ground water discharge; - is recharge; and 0 is zero head. The black outline indicates
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Figure 19. Color infrared photograph of Fremont's Fen. Numbered points are sampling stations. Symbols indicate sampling location.
Symbols are: + is ground water discharge; - is recharge, and 0 is zero head. Stations with only a black dot have no piezometers.
Dark grey and black areas in the photograph indicate the extent and nature of peat mining at the site. The black outline indicates the
approximate extent of predominately organic soils. Grey lines are the major mining road, additional minor grades can be seen in the
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horizontal coordinates of the bench marks. At Crooked Creek and Fremont's Fen, section quarter
section markers were used to tie land surveys to geographic coordinates.
Well and piezometer water depths were measured every 10 to 14 days from the beginning
of June through September or early October. Water depth was measured by inserting a steel tape
measure down the pipes.
Peat characteristics
Peat depth was measured by inserting a 5 cm piston corer through the peat until it hit
underlying alluvium or bedrock. The depth was then measured off the extracted corer. The soil
core was then removed and examined to characterize peat decomposition and stratigraphy.
To examine physical and chemical soil properties, two additional sets of soil samples were
taken at each sampling station. The first set of samples was taken from the upper 20 cm using a hand
trowel and was used in chemical analysis. The second set was extracted using a piston-corer so
sample volume could be determined. These samples were used for the calculation of soil porosity and
bulk density. The piston-corer was inserted into the soil as gently as possible to minimize soil
compaction. When the sample was removed from the corer it was cut to form a uniform cylinder and
its length measured. Although every effort was taken not to compact soils, a small amount of
compaction was inevitable. To compensate for this, measured soil volumes were increased by 5
percent in the calculations. Once samples were obtained from the field, they were kept chilled and
transferred to Colorado State University (CSU). Samples for chemical analysis were brought to the
CSU Soil and Water Testing Lab and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, and percent organic
matter, and concentration of nitrate, phosphorous, potassium, zinc, iron, manganese, copper, sulfate,
calcium, magnesium, sodium, strontium, lead, uranium, and calcium carbonate Soil uranium
concentration was determined by Paragon Analytics, Fort Collins, CO.
Soil samples obtained using the piston-corer were placed in basket-shaped, paper filters and
soaked in trays of water until fully saturated in Dr. David Steingraeber's lab at CSU. The samples
were then weighed using a table top balance. Next, the samples were placed in a drying oven at 60°
C and dried to a constant weight. The samples were then reweighed. Bulk density was calculated
by dividing the dry weight of the sample by its volume. Porosity, which is a measure of saturated
volumetric water content, was calculated using the following formula:
Porosity - Sample Wet Weight - Sample Dry Weight
Sample Volume
Water Chemistry
Pore and surface water samples were collected on August 22-23, 1995 and September 13,
1997. Samples were extracted from wells using a Teflon bailer. Surface water samples were
collected in a polystyrene cup. Surface water samples were obtained from rivulets, small ponds
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or channels in the vicinity of sampling stations. All samples were filtered through 0.45
nitrocellulose filters using a vacuum aspirator, placed in polyethylene bottles, and preserved with
nitric acid. Samples were analyzed for the metals Ca, Mg, NA, K , P, Al, Fe, Mn, Ti, Pb, V,
Cu, Zn, Ni, Mo, Cd, Cr, B, Ba, Si and hardness at the CSU Soil Testing Lab, using inductively
coupled ion spectrophotometry (ICP). Uranium and strontium concentrations were determined
by Denver Water's water quality lab using direct florescence and flame atomic absorption,
respectively.
VEGETATION SAMPLING
Vegetational composition was determined At High Creek Fen on July 7 - 9, 1995, and at
Crooked Creek and Fremont's Fen on July 28 - August 3, 1997 . At each sampling station, a 5
m diameter (15.71 m2) sampling plot was centered on the groundwater well. These plots are
referred to as releves. Within each releve the cover of each plant species was visually estimated.
The percent cover of hummocks in releves was also visually estimated, and the height of 12
hummocks (when possible) was measured. Releves were centered on sampling stations so
vegetational composition and changes therein could be directly related to the environmental
conditions.
DATA ANALYSIS
A suite of analytical techniques were used to examine the data obtained in this study; the
broad nature of the data required such a diverse approach. In general a multivariate approach to
analysis was employed to most efficiently illustrate environmental and biological relationships.
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
The computer program Systat Version 7.0 (SPSS, Inc. 1997) was used for all analyses
unless otherwise stated. Principal components analysis was used as an initial exploratory
technique and to highlight any potential spatial patterns in water and soil chemistry (Jongman et
al., 1995). PCA is a multivariate ordination technique related to multiple regression (Sokal &
Rohlf 1981). With the technique hypothetical environmental gradients are created and sample
stations are placed along these gradients according to their environmental characteristics. The
technique is designed such that the first gradient, or axis of variation, is the most significant. The
importance of an axis is measured by its eigenvalue, which is the fraction of the total variance in
the data accounted for by that axis. PCA creates linear equations with environmental factors as
variables, each having a weighting coefficient, or "factor loading". When values of environmental
factors are entered into these equations station placement is calculated. By examining the factor
loadings produced in equations one can acquire information about which factors are most
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important in determining station placement, that is, which environmental factors vary most
between stations.
VEGETATIONAL GRADIENTS
Description of vegetational assemblages was a target of this study. From a functional
standpoint, it was important to characterize the environmental habitat for species and communities,
because maintenance of species habitat is a critical function of wetlands and needs to be evaluated
by assessment techniques. From a conservational standpoint, one must determine the
environmental characteristics primarily driving species composition, so that one may focus
management efforts around preserving those attributes. A secondary goal of this section was to
evaluate differences between impacted and un-impacted fen vegetation.
TWo-way INdicator SPecies ANalysis (TWINSPAN) (Hill 1979) was used to classify
releves based on species composition. TWINSPAN is a derisive, polythetic classification
technique which is based on correspondence analysis (Jongman et al., 1995). The result of a
TWINSPAN analysis is a dichotomized dendrogram. At each level of division groups of similar
releves are created. Upon subsequent divisions, each group is divided based upon differences in
species composition. Therefore, the more divisions that have occurred, the more similar are those
releves within a group. At each division, one or more species are identified as being key to the
separation of the two groups. These species are commonly known as indicator species since their
presence, in part, defines group membership.
Indirect and Direct Gradient Analyses
While TWINSPAN provides discreet community groupings which are of great descriptive
and managerial utility, such classifications may obscure the character of vegetation gradients and
how vegetation change is correlated with changes in environmental factors. Two related
techniques were applied to evaluate vegetation gradients - detrended correspondence analysis
(DCA) and canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). DCA is a indirect gradient analysis, or
ordination, technique, while CCA is a direct gradient analysis method. In DCA, species and
samples are arranged across the ordination in a way in which the most similar samples are placed
closest to one another. Each axis of the graph corresponds to an environmental gradient, such as
going from dry to wet sites along the x-axis. But gradients may also be complex, juxtaposing
effects of changes of several environmental variables simultaneously. There are as many gradients
of variation as there are samples, however, usually only the first two or three are significantly
important. DCA ordinates samples purely according to vegetation, producing the most accurate
depiction of changes in species composition. It leaves up to the investigator elucidation of the
driving environmental factors, however. Many times environmental gradients may easily be
coupled to known changes in the environment. Other times an additional technique, generally
direct gradient analysis, is needed to identify important environmental factors.
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CCA is a type of multivariate direct gradient analysis (Ter Braak & Prentice 1988). This
technique of eigenanalysis is one of the most powerful and widely used statistical methods in
vegetation science. It ordinates samples using a correspondence analysis of vegetation data, but
then constrains sample placement to also be a linear combination of sample environmental
characteristics. What is produced by the analysis is a diagram showing either species or releve
placement, much like a typical ordination diagram produced by DCA, but the diagram also has
correlation vectors for environmental variables. These vectors provide information on correlations
between changes in vegetation and changes in species composition. Further explanation of this
technique and diagram interpretation is provided in the Results section, where the analytical results
are presented.
One of the advantages of performing both techniques is that the correlation between site
axis scores can be used to gauge the goodness-of-fit, or distortion caused by the constraints
imposed by CCA. A high correlation between the two techniques' axis scores indicates that little
distortion has occurred in the CCA, and therefore the most significant environmental variables
were measured and included in the analysis.
Before employing CCA, a step-wise selection of environmental variables was performed
using the Monte Carlo permutation test from Canoco Version 4 (ter Braak and Smilauer 1998).
This is done to remove superfluous environmental variables which would have had little
descriptive power, but would have introduced additional statistical error to the analysis (Ter Braak
1990).
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
HYDROLOGY
A total of 84 shallow ground water wells and 71 piezometers were installed on High Creek,
Crooked Creek and Fremont's Fen. At each of these sites a soil core was taken to determine physical
soil properties related to hydrologic functioning. All sites were also surveyed to determine
topographical gradients and water table elevations. Using these data the hydrologic characteristics
critical to fen functioning were elucidated.
Water Table
Figures 20 - 22 show the water table behavior measured in ground water wells from 1995 to
1997 at High Creek Fen, and 1996 to 1997 at Crooked Creek and Fremont's Fen. Numerous wells
are included in each graph. Although such a presentation strategy obscures the behavior of some
individual wells, it allows one to detect the more general and common water table regimes. At times
wells and piezometers went dry. In these cases 20% plus the depth of the well was used as an
estimate of water depth for graphing purposes.
The hydrology of South Park's fens is complicated, and regional trends may be confounded
by local topography and geology. In spite of these difficulties, discrete patterns can be discerned, and
some generalities can be made about the nature of fen hydrology in the region. Upon examination
of the constructed hydrographs, four general water regimes or "hydrotypes" were discerned (Fig. 23).
The first, called Hydrotype 1, is the situation wherein the water table is stable throughout the
year. Usually the water table is at or near the ground's surface, however, some areas have stable
water tables which remain 10 to 30 cm below the surface. In Hydrotype 1 areas, enough water is
present that the water table is little effected by the increasing ET demands during the middle of the
summer. The chief water table fluctuation found in these sites is a decrease in water table depth or
a deepening of surface water. These changes result from heavy precipitation events, mainly spring
snows and late-summer afternoon convective storms, that temporarily increase the surplus of water
(see also Figure 6). Fens are some of the most hydrologically and environmentally stable systems in
the world. Fen soils have remained waterlogged since their inception soon after the recession of the
Wisconsin Glaciation approximately 12,000 years ago. Land use activities which alter the fen
hydrologic regime by destabilizing or increasing water table depth are among the most serious and
unmitigable threats to these wetlands.
Hydrotype 2 is one in which the water table is at a high point early in the growing season, then
during mid-summer there is a water table depression resulting from higher ET demands on a equitable
and limited water supply. That is, the amount of water inputted to these areas remains constant.
During the early spring, this water supply coupled with low ET demands amounts to a water surplus.
Later in the season, the same amount of water is not enough to meet the higher ET demands,
resulting in a water table depression. In fall, cooler temperatures, shorter days, and senescening
plants reduce ET demands and the water table rises again to its base level (e.g. HC well 1, 2, 8, Fig.
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J. Water table surface at High Creek Fen during the 1995-1998 growing seasons,
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Figure 20b. Water table surface at High Creek Fen during the 1995-1998 growing seasons.
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Figure 21. Water table surface at Crooked Creek Fen during the 1996-1998 growing seasons.
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Well 19
—A—Well 22
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Figure 22b. Water table surface at Fremont's Fen during the 1996-1998 growing seasons.
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20 a and b). Frequent or heavy precipitation events, can temporarily elevate the water tables in these
areas, resulting in a oscillating hydrograph tail
Hydrotype 3 is the driest water regime. These areas are wettest in the spring, many having
soils saturated to the surface or shallow standing water. As the spring snowmelt-flush tappers off,
the water table in these areas drops rapidly and stays low through the fall and summer. Soil moisture
is mainly recharged during the winter and early spring at these sites.
Hydrotype 4 is a slightly unnatural grouping in which highly fluctuating hydrographs are
placed. Two explanations for these fluctuations is proposed. First, the sampling well could be placed
in a small shallow basin which rapidly fills with surface and ground water runoff after storms. Later,
these basins then act as natural evaporation pans during drier periods when the water table is drawn
down. This wetting and draw down occur several times during the summer. Examples of this are
Fremont's Fen wells 1 and 13 (Fig. 22).
Hydrotype 1 is the most common fen water regime, 46% of sites being classified as such. It
typifies the richest fen areas and fen expanses. Fen features associated with this hydrotype are water-
tracks and quagmires (Fig. 24 a & b), discharge aprons (Fig. 25 a & b), and fen lawns (Fig. 26).
Hummocks, although frequently present, are scattered and low. All areas with quaking soils are of
this hydrotype. Hydrotype l's association of vegetational communities will be undertaken in the
vegetation section.
Hydrotype 2 is the next most common, representing 33% of sites. This Hydrotype is
frequently found in the most hummocky areas of the fens (Fig. 27). These areas are frequently found
around the margins of the fens. The hydrotype is also commonly present in mineral soil wet meadows
surrounding the fens, or within the fen on isolated topographical rises. In a large study of wet
meadow hydrology at the greater Fremont wetland and vicinity this hydrotype dominated (City of
Thornton, unpublished data).
Land usages which increase water table depth by even a small amount may have a profound
effect on Hydrotype 2 systems when underlain by peat soils, because this hydrotype maintains soil
saturation to the surface throughout much of the year, but draw-downs and decreases in soil moisture
do occur In spite of this seasonal drying, soils remain saturated for long enough for peat to
accumulate, since development of organic soils depends on waterlogged, anaerobic conditions Any
increase in the duration of non-saturated conditions, could cause the degradation of peat due to
oxidation. Such a situation would have negative impacts on every aspect of fen ecology, from long-
term changes in biochemical cycling, to loss of soil structure and recession of soils due to peat
decomposition, to radical shifts in wetland flora and fauna. The vegetation section below, gives
additional details on the vegetational effects of peatland de-watering.
Hydrotype 3 is the least common of the regimes within the fen complexes. It is found in the
driest areas within the fen complex, in areas with mineral soils. These soils are too well drained to
support the development of Histosols. The fact that fens are perhaps the most hydric of terrestrial
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Date
Figure 20-2. Piezometric surface at High Creek Fen during the 1996-1998 growing seasons
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Date
—P1
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P 15
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Figure 21-2. Piezometric surface at Crooked Creek Fen during the 1996-1998 growing seasons.
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Figure 22-2a. Piezometric surface at Fremont's Fen during the 1996-1998 growing seasons.
Green series are HT 1, Red HT 2, Blue HT3, and Black HT 4.
1996
1997
1998
—•—P1
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Figure 22-2b. Piezometric surface at Fremont's Fen during the 1996-1998 growing seasons.
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Figure 24a. View southwest from water track vegetation at High Creek Fen station 20.
Figure 24b. Closeup of the nature of quagmire and water track vegetation. Taken at High Crrk
Fen near station 19.
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Figure 25a. View southwest across Crooked Creek Fen showing a large discharge apron. Apron
is the shrubless area just below the aspen stand in the photograph.
Figure 25b. View west at Crooked Creek Fen Showing a closer view of a typical discharge apron.
The slightly domed shape of the apron can barely be made out in the photograph.
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Figure 26. View south a fen lawn at High Creek Fen station 20.
Figure 27. View south across Fremont's Fen showing typical hummock fen habitat with
Hydrotype 2. The basin wherein the wettest portions of the fen are found can been seen as a dark
area near the middle of the photograph.
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environments, provides an explanation as to why this drier site hydrotype is uncommon in these
wetlands. Other studies frequently report this type of hydrologic behavior, suggesting its
commonness in precipitation and snow-melt driven systems such as meadows, marshes, kettle ponds,
and alpine snow melt wetlands (e.g., Windell et al. 1986, Cooper 1990) Soil moisture measurements
from lysimeters located in meadows near Jefferson and Hartsel generally displayed this hydrotype
(Walter et al. 1991).
Hydrotype 4 is similar to 3 in that it is found in precipitation, rather than ground water,
dominated systems. Fluctuations in the water table occur due to spring snow melt runoff and
seasonal precipitation events. High Creek Fen wells 33 - 35 have been included in this group, but
during 1997, it is believed the well screens had become clogged and the wells no longer functioned
properly The placement of these wells into hydrotype 4 is probably incorrect, and they might more
accurately be placed in Hydrotype 1 or 2, since the areas are in a peat producing area that had been
mined.
Piezometric Surface and Patterns of Hydraulic Head
Ground water wells measure the realized height of the water table. In contrast, piezometers
measure the amount of positive or negative water pressure, or the potential water table height. Often
times the realized and potential water table heights are the same.
Each piezometer hydrograph was also placed within one of the four hydrotypes described
above (Fig. 20-2 to 22-2). There is a close correspondence between water table and piezometric
levels behavior; therefore, piezometric surface alone will not be considered in detail, but rather in
relation to water table levels.
The real utility of measuring piezometric level is in its comparison to water table levels. Such
a comparison allows one to determine where ground water discharge, recharge, or neutral flow-
through areas are. This information addresses one of the basic questions posed by these fens, "How
can perennially waterlogged wetlands exist in a semi-arid environment when many have no surficial
water inputs beside precipitation?" An earlier study (Johnson 1996), demonstrated that High Creek
Fen is highly dependent on relatively stable groundwater inputs to maintain hydrologic conditions
This study considers whether the findings from High Creek Fen can be extended to cover South Park
Fens in general, and if pattens may differ between fens in disparate landscape positions.
Put discharge into functional terms
Well water level was subtracted from piezometer level to obtain a measure of head on each
sampling date These head levels were subjected to a Student's t-test to determine whether the
average head level was greater than zero, indicating ground water discharge, less than zero indicating
recharge, or equal to zero indicating equilibrium. Because of the number of comparisons, a
Bonferroni correction was employed to give a conservative measure of statistical significance. The
raw p-value is also supplied to give a weaker indication of significance. Table 4 shows the results of
this analysis. The status column indicates whether the station reported net groundwater discharge
(+), recharge (-), or equilibrium (0). Figures 17-19 show the distribution of recharge/discharge
status on the study sites.
At High Creek Fen (Fig. 17) has two main areas of ground water discharge were identified;
along the northern edge, and in the central interior. Another study (Appel 1995), suggested that
-------
Station
Mean
S.D.
Adjusted
Raw
Status
Station
Mean
S.D.
Adjusted
Raw
Status
Head
p-value p-value
Head
p-value
p-value
(cm)
fern)
HC 1
-0.3
8.1
1.00
0.83
0
FS 8
-2.9
4.6
0.05
0 00
_
HC 2
-0.2
12.3
1.00
0.93
0
FS 9
-13.7
5.0
0.00
0.00
.
HC 3
5.0
5.6
0.00
0.00
+
FS 10
2.5
2.6
0.00
0.00
+
HC 4
2.4
4.4
0.07
0.00
0/+
FS 11
0.0
1.5
1 00
0.94
0
HC 5
-1.3
4.3
1.00
0.07
0
FS 12
00
6.0
1 00
1 00
0
HC 7
-30.1
18.8
0.00
0 00
-
FS 13
-5.4
3.2
0.00
0 00
-
HC 8
-1.2
12.1
1.00
0.54
0
FS 14
-1.5
2.0
0.01
0.00
-
HC 9
1.0
2.9
1.00
0.06
0
FS 15
-1.7
4.1
0 70
0.03
0/-
HC 10
8.4
11.0
0 00
0.00
+
FS 18
-5.6
1 5
0 00
0 00
-
HC 11
10.9
13 9
0.00
0 00
+
FS 19
0.5
2 5
1.00
0.25
0
HC 12
0 3
8.1
1.00
0.81
0
FS 20
2.5
10 9
1.00
0.23
0
HC 13
3.0
3.0
0.00
0.00
+
FS 21
-0.4
13.6
1.00
0.86
0
HC 14
-0 2
2.8
1.00
0.72
0
MC 1
13.8
10.0
0.00
0 00
+
HC 15
-3.7
4.1
0.00
0.00
-
MC 2
-8.8
20 3
0 59
0.03
0/-
HC 16
-1 2
4.3
1.00
0.10
0
MC 3
11.3
23.2
0.31
0.01
0/+
HC 17
6.0
16.2
1.00
0 04
0/+
MC 4
5 8
59.9
1.00
061
0
HC 18
-5.6
20.8
1.00
0.12
0
MC 5
-15.0
37.5
0 88
0.04
0/-
HC 18-p2
-1.5
3.1
0.15
0.00
0/-
MC 6
2.9
29.3
1.00
0.60
0
HC 19
-0.8
10.1
1.00
0.63
0
MC 7
7 3
7.8
0 00
0.00
+
HC 20
-0.4
3.8
1.00
0.51
0
MC 8
-14.4
58.2
1.00
0.19
0
HC 21
6.8
8.4
0.00
0.00
+
MC 9
38.1
31.5
0.00
0.00
+
HC 22
1.0
3.9
1.00
0.13
0
MC 10
2.4
14.3
1 00
0.38
0
HC 23
2.3
3.6
0.01
0.00
+
MC 11
4.4
79
0.12
001
0/+
HC 24
28.1
5.6
0.00
0.00
+
MC 12
-8.6
38.4
1.00
0.24
0
HC 25
5.6
5.8
0.00
0.00
+
MC 13
-24.6
50.9
0.32
001
0/-
HC 26
5.5
5.1
0 00
0.00
+
MC 14
-51.2
31 5
0.00
0 00
_
HC 27
3.8
4.7
0.00
0.00
+
MC 15
27 7
17.2
0.00
0.00
+
HCDF
-0.6
4.7
1.00
0.49
0
MC 16
-2.2
31 1
1.00
071
0
HC 18p3
-1.2
26.6
1.00
0.84
0
MC 17
-26.2
26.2
0 00
0.00
-
HC 12p2
1.9
5.8
1.00
0.17
0
MC 19
5.0
9.9
0.24
0.01
0/+
HC 16p2
3.8
5.9
0.30
0.01
0/+
MC 20
13.3
22.6
0.08
0.00
0/+
FS 1
26.4
7.0
0.00
0.00
+
FS 2
-1.2
3.6
1.00
0.07
0
FS 3
-2.9
4.2
0.03
0.00
-
FS 4
2.6
66
0.92
0.04
0/+
FS 4p2
2.0
5.9
1.00
0.12
0
FS 5
3.7
15.3
1.00
0.20
0
FS 6
2.9
4.0
0.02
0.00
+
FS 7
2.1
3.0
0.01
0.00
+
FS 7p2
1.4
7.3
1.00
0.39
0
Table 4. Average head and its standard deviation. P-values result from t-tests testing the null
hypothesis that average head is equal to zero. Raw p-values are from individual analyses, adjusted
p-values have been Bonferroni adjusted to account for multiple comparisons The status column
indicates whether the site has ground water discharge (+), recharge (-), or is neutral (0) When two
symbols appear, the first indicates the result of the adjusted t-test, the second the individual t-test
-------
significant ground water discharge also occurs in the southwestern portion of the fen (indicated by
white circular features, sinkholes, in Fig 17). This seems to be the case evidenced by perennial water
in this area and the presence of karst topography Appel's (1995) water chemistry data also showed
that water in this area came from a different source than the water in the northern portions of the fen
It is unclear whether the discharge at stations 23 - 25 is due to macro- or micro-hydrologic
conditions. These stations are located at the bottom of edge of the central fen basin Therefore,
discharge may be resulting from the hydrologic gradient imposed locally by the hill/ground water table
slope. Discharge could also be resulting from the larger geomorphic and geologic situation, or some
combination of both. The latter seems the most likely explanation.
Little ground water recharge occurs on the fen. Station 15 recorded an average head of -3 7
cm, and there is some evidence for recharge at station 18(18 P-2; Table 4). This piezometer was set
below a shallow aquaclude and so represents deeper recharge which is removed from the more
surficial hydrologic situation. Station 7, in the meadow outside of the fen, was also in a recharge
zone.
The majority of sites are located in areas of zero head. These areas are essentially flow
through systems, comprised of many of the quagmire and water-track portions of the fens. Such
areas act as semi-terrestrial river systems and allow the conduction large amounts of water compared
to the drier fen regions
Four areas of net ground water discharge were found Crooked Creek, and there is some
evidence for discharge at a fifth site as well (station 4). Discharge was predominately found at peat
aprons (stations 4, 6, 7, and 10). These aprons are likely situated over geological unconformities
which allow pressurized ground water to emerge in discrete locations.
Crooked Creek Fen (Fig. 18) is located at the base of the narrow Crooked Creek valley,
where it opens up to meet South Park. Crooked Creek enters the fen at the northern most beaver
pond and traverses south east across the fen, exiting just to the south of the lowermost pond The
channel is indistinct in the" vicinity of these ponds and flow occurs mainly as sheet flow and
channelized surface flow in a myriad of rivulets. The channel forms again after leaving the final pond
All of the ponds are leaky and allow significant water to flow down through the fen as
indicated in Fig. 18. This water generally travels as diffuse sheet-flow across the width of the fen,
although small channelized rivulets do form in many places This surface flow is a very significant
water source for the fen, but as flow in this river drops to base levels, the water table in the fen is still
maintained at or near the ground's surface due to ground water inputs. This again highlights the
importance of ground water discharge in these fen systems.
Essentially all of the surface flow and ground water flow to approximately 1 5 m in depth is
intercepted by the ditch which spans the wetland at its south end. The ditch has the effect of inducing
a negative hydrologic gradient in its vicinity, this is shown by the recharge status of the stations
arrayed near its edge
-------
Fremont's Fen (Fig. 19) is in a geomorphic and hydrologic position, not unlike High Creek
Fen. Discharge occurs along the northern fen boundary and in its interior Within the fen interior
areas of recharge and equilibrium are present, but natural patterns are undoubtably obscured by the
presence of several ditches, berms and roads.
A ditch entering the wetland from the north provides a significant source of water for the
wetland. This water is conveyed through a distinct channel though, and its influence on the wetland's
hydrology in unknown In the interior of the fen, it is unclear whether this ditch connects to a natural
channel, or whether the entire length of the channel is constructed. Based on channel morphology,
1 think that a natural channel existed in the interior of the wetland which was extended by the ditch.
Ground water discharge and recharge are important functions that these wetlands perform
More precisely, recharge and discharge are functions of the regional geomorphology and geology,
but they are critical processes which occur in wetlands Since they are inseparable from the wetland
system they are considered wetland functions. The slow release of ground water from aquifers,
buffers steep peaks and troughs in the wetland's hydrographs. This consistent ground water
discharge, in a region dominated by spring flushes of snowmelt followed by arid conditions in the
summer, is absolutely critical to the maintenance of fen systems.
Once ground water is discharged the wetland soils and vegetation act to slow water flows
These two organic entities work in tandem to reduce the energy of the flowing water. This reduction
causes water to dissipate, rather than down-cut into discrete channels The low-energy flow is further
impeded by micro-topographical features such as hummocks. A result of this dissipation is that a
relatively even moisture distribution is maintained throughout the wetland. A second significant result
of water flow impediment, is that these wetlands act as short-term reservoirs, releasing water slowly
throughout the year. This is a unique function of wetlands, and in South Park it is critical for helping
to maintain stream base-flow. Without the wetland soils and vegetation, ground water flow rapidly
becomes channelized and is conveyed quickly out of the wetland. This situation is evident in the
mined sections of Fremont's Fen, for example. Land use practices such as peat mining and ditching
impede or negate the performance of this function.
Physical Soil Characteristics
The physical characteristics of wetland soils have a profound influence on hydrologic behavior
and functionality. This is especially true in fen systems To characterize the physical soil
environment, porosity, bulk density and soil organic content were measured The results of these
analyses are shown in Tables 5-7.
Organic matter ranged between 13 .3 and 86.7%, with a mean value of 51.6%. Bulk density
was between 0.07 and 0.89 g/cm3, with a mean of 0.32 g/cm3 Porosity ranged between 0.49 and
-------
Sample
Station
Porositj
% O.M.
Bulk density
fo/riri3^
HC1
0.77
44.7
0 32
HC2
0 76
41.5
0.29
HC3
0.66
78.1
0 15
HC4
0.70
47.2
0.22
HC5
0.69
71.2
0.13
HC7
0.71
23.4
0.64
HC8
0.71
34.4
0.20
HC9
0.71
41.5
0.33
HC10
0.58
62.0
0.21
HC11
0.72
63 8
0.23
HC12
0.69
75.5
0 11
HC13
0.68
39 6
0.22
HC14
0.77
66.6
0.15
HC15
0.70
60.9
0 16
HC16
0.83
44 2
0.14
HC17
0.81
35.5
0.24
HC18
0.62
59.8
0.15
HC19
0.99
38.9
0.19
HC20
0 77
37.4
0.15
HC21
0 92
35.8
0 23
HC22
0.83
75 0
0.11
HC23
0.68
51.7
0.12
HC24
0.77
79.3
0.14
HC25
0.69
71.5
0.18
HC26
0.85
72.6
0.13
HC27
0.66
36.0
0.21
HC28
0.93
43 8
0.31
HC29
0.72
47.5
0.31
HC30
0.82
50 8
0.38
HC32
0.53
13.3
0.89
HC33
0.59
28.0
0.59
HC34
0.59
28.9
0.68
HC35
0.71
29.8
0.64
HCDF
0 74
81.4
0.16
HC28M
0.80
24 1
0 62
Mpan
0 73
4Q 50
n?R
Table 5. Physical characteristics of High Creek Fen Soils.
-------
Sample
Statinn
Porosity
% O.M.
Bulk density
fa/rm^
CC1
0.82
60.5
0.16
CC2
0.66
42.8
0.59
CC3
0.81
70.0
0.17
CC4
0.61
86.7
0.07
CC5
0.89
59 4
0.36
CC6
0.97
57 0
0.27
CC7
0.64
83 0
0.18
CC8
0.69
80 7
0.07
CC9
0.74
46.5
0.28
CC10
0.61
40.7
0.20
CC11
081
31.5
0.23
CC12
081
21.1
0.39
CC13
0.78
19.5
0.39
CC14
0.81
36.4
0.22
CC15
0.55
23.6
0.72
CC16
0.92
36.8
0.30
CC17
0.89
14.6
0.24
CC18
0 79
54.8
0 27
CC19
0.78
45 6
0.30
CC20
0.76
39.2
0 30
CC21
0.79
38.5
0.25
CC22
0.78
40.0
0.27
CC23
0.88
21.5
0.25
CC24
0.73
77.7
0.22
CC25
0.63
30.5
0.54
CC26
0.62
45.4
0.57
CC27
0.69
64 4
0.43
Mpjin
0 7 a
47 0
n to
Table 6. Physical characteristics of Crooked Creek Fen Soils.
-------
Sample Station
Porosity
% O.M.
Bulk density
FF1
0.84
75 6
0 22
FF2
0.72
62.4
0.32
FF3
0.95
58 3
0 48
FF4
0.74
63 7
0.47
FF5
0.50
34 7
0.47
FF6
0 71
53 0
0.43
FF7
0 86
59.9
0.34
FF8
0 97
76 1
0.25
FF9
0.89
42.9
0.49
FF10
0.56
59.1
0.71
FT 11
0.79
55.6
0.38
FF12
0.61
14.1
0.85
FF13
0.91
36.9
0.69
FF14
0.95
47.9
0 29
FF15
1.07
74 6
0.19
FF16
0 69
58 0
0 44
FF17
0.78
79 3
0.25
FF19
1.00
78.0
0.20
FF21
0.78
78.2
0.16
FF 23
0.78
60.2
0.34
FF 24
0.95
79.3
0 21
IVfpan
0 81
59 47
0-!Q
Table 7. Physical characteristics of Fremont's Fen Soils
-------
1 07, with a mean of 0.76. The measurement of 1.07 for porosity is a reflection of measurement error
since it suggests that the soil was entirely air space. Porosity measurements of 90 % or more are
common in peat soils, however (Boelter 1964). Porosity is an important characteristic in fen
functional analysis, because it is a measure of the soil water storage capacity of the wetland For
example, in a given peat column saturated to the surface with a porosity of 0.90, 90% of the volume
of the column is actually water. Therefore, to calculate the amount of water held in wetland soils the
following formula can be used'
V = £ A*(D-W)P
Where V is volume of water, A is the surface area of the sample, D is the total peat depth, W is the
depth of peat existing above the water table (often zero), and P is the porosity This formula can be
used over an entire wetland area using averages of point samples, or water volumes from individual
sample polygons can be summed to give a more accurate estimate. This formula underestimates
actual water volume held in the wetland since soils above the water table contain residual, commonly
significant, amounts of water.
Porosity is time consuming to collect, however, so easier-to-measure estimators of porosity
were sought Porosity and bulk density are significantly correlated (p=0.004), but their correlation
is only -0.312 - not enough for accurate estimation. Porosity and organic matter content were not
significantly correlated As of the conclusion of this study, no surrogate for the actual measurement
of porosity has been found, and investigators are left to measure it directly or estimate it from the
porosity measurements obtained during this study.
Soil organic content is an important soil characteristic as it is one of the factors determining
whether a soil is a organic soil (i.e., Histosol), or a mineral soil. According to the NRCS organic soils
must have a organic matter content of at least 12 to 18 % Additional criteria must be met as well
All soils measured met this criterion.
Figure 28 shows the relationship between organic matter content and bulk density. In general
bulk density decreases as organic matter increases. This relationship has been noted in soil science
for many years. The somewhat low correlation, r =-0.55 (R2 = 0.30) is the result of differing levels
of peat decomposition As peat decomposes the fibrous structure breaks down, the peat compresses
and consequently the bulk density increases. The organic matter content does not change
significantly, however.
VEGETATION
This first suite of vegetation analyses will only consider samples located in relatively
undisturbed portions of the wetlands. The vegetation of the disturbed sites is significantly different
from the intact sites, and to include them would obscure the gradients displayed by the natural
vegetation. The effect of disturbance on vegetation is discussed in a later section. In all analyses,
-------
1
09 H
08
« 07 -
u
O) 0 6
05 -
04
03
0.2
0.1
0
R2 = 0.3019
20 40 60 80
% Organic Matter
100
Figure 28. The relationship between percent organic matter and bulk density in
South Park wetlands.
species cover values were transformed by taking the log of species cover plus one Soil nutrient
levels were log transformed.
Classification
The TWINSPAN classification produced four divisions and eight vegetation types (Figure
29). The flow of community types from left to right across the diagram primarily corresponds to a
moisture gradient going from drier to wetter releves. Other environmental factors such as nutrient
levels also play a role in distributing vegetation types along this gradient, though (see below).
The tall hummock, fen & meadow communities reside in the more seasonally wet areas of the
wetlands and are dominated by grasses and sedges (Fig. 27). Shrub cover is absent. Releves HI and
H2 are the are deepest peat areas found at High Creek Fen in this study, while H7 is located on
mineral soil. This illustrates, to a degree, the difficulty of determining organic soil presence or extent
based on plant species composition alone. These releves are located on the margin of High Creek
Fen and so are more subject to water table fluctuations as seasonal ET demands increase. Releves
HI and H2 are associated with Hydrotype 2, whereas H7 is Hydrotype 3. The relatively short
depression of the water table at sites HI and H2 allows biomass decomposition to remain lower than
accumulation resulting in peat accumulation. Site H7, however, remains unsaturated throughout
much of the growing season and so has mineral soil.
-------
ELEQU1, TRIPAL,
KOBSINl, TRIMAR
DESCES, ELYTRA, JUNBAL
MOSS, SALPLA
CARSIM, CARAQU, KOBS1M
ELEQUI, UTROCH
•00
•oco
h1.h2,h7
ELYTRA, ARGANS
Tall
Hummock
Fen
&Meadow
•0010
h29.h30,f2,f3,f5>fBlf»c15
)CARAQU
•0011
628,(1,17,(0,(13,
(16,(17,f19,(20.ftr
Meadow & Dry Fen
2
CARAQU
*0100
c1.c2.c3.e5.c23
•0101
c9,c10,c11 ,c1S,c18.c22
Fen Margin Shrub
Communities
•100
c7
SALCANr
•0110
c4.c6.c8,c13,c14,c18
c17.c18.c20.c21
•0111
h21.ft0.f1l.fsc2
Hummocky and Meadow
Extremely Rich Fen
CARL1V r
•1010
hi 5
Extremely
Rich Fen
Meadow
5
•101
•no
h18.h20.h22.h26
•ion
h3.h4.h5,h8.h9,h13,h17
h23.h24.h25.h27.hde
Extremely
Rich Fen
Meadow
6
Hummocky
Quagmire
Quagmire
8
Figure 29. TWINSPAN dendrogram of intact vegetation plots. At each division abbreviations for
diagnostic species are given. See Appendix 1 for a key to abbreviations. Within each box is its
diagram address and in the final groupings are lists of the vegetation plots included. H indicates
releves from High Creek Fen, C those from Crooked Creek Fen, and F from Fremont's Fen. These
final groupings were subjectively complied into habitat types based on the environment in which they
-------
These sites are characterized by the presence of Deschampsia cespitosa, Elymus
trachycaulus, and Juncus balticus. The high production and cespitose growth form of the dominant
sedge, Car ex scirpoidea, helps produce the large hummocks found in these areas. Cattle grazing may
also contribute to the development of these hummocks.
Community type 2 is comprised of meadow and fen vegetation and possesses two
associations. The first, (box 0010; Figure 29), contains the driest meadow communities and is
generally associated with Hydrotype 3 (Fig. 30). These sites are located on mineral soil and may have
an open canopy of willow, commonly Salix brachycarpa or shrubby cinquefoil (Potentillafruticosa).
Other diagnostic species arz Argentina anserma and Elymus trachycaulus. Site H30 is very different
from other releves placed in this group in that it has a nearly closed canopy of blue sprue ( Picea
pungens) It is located on a relatively dry rise comprised of soil covered cobbles. The moisture
regime present at H30 is shared with the other releves included in the community type, and therefore
all of the sites share a common understory flora. The second association in this community type is
defined by a high cover of C. aquatilis. These are wetter sites than those found in the previous
association and are associated with HTII. These sites may rest on either peat or mineral soil.
Community type 3 is a marginal fen community (Fig. 31). It was only found on Crooked
Creek Fen study site, although it has been seen at numerous other subalpine fens It has a somewhat
open canopy of Salix planifolia and S. monticola, generally two to three meters in height. The
understory is dominated by Caricies. The sites in the first association (box 0100) are near rivulets and
relatively quickly flowing diffuse sheet-flow. The sites in the second association (box 0101) are found
along the border of the fen and at the base of large bedrock hills located in the interior of the fen.
Community type 4 is an extremely rich fen type of vegetation comprised of two associations
The first (box 0110), is found at Crooked Creek Fen. This is a low hummocky vegetation dominated
by sedges with a low, sparse shrub cover (Fig. 25b and 41). Mosses such as Scorpidium scorpiodes
and Drepanocladus aduncus may carpet the field layer in the hollows between hummocks. Carices
such as C. aquatilis and C. simulata dominate the herb layer. Hummocks have a slightly less
hydrophilic vegetation, comprised of stunted S. Candida, S. planifolia, and Potentilla fruticosa in
the shrub layer, and Thalictrum alpinum, Kobresia myosuroides, K. simpliciuscula and C. scirpoidea
in the herb layer. These sites are perennially wet, associated with Hydrotype 1, and are frequently
found on ground water upwelling aprons.
The second association (box 0111), is a lawn-type of vegetation, dominated, sometimes
almost to the point of monoculture, by C. simulata (Fig. 32). These plots are underlain by a 15 cm
thick mat of vegetation floating on 40 - 50 cm of unconsolidated aqueous peat. Such soils are typical
of the quaking fens in South Park. It must be noted that releve H21 is on the bank of High Creek
on mineral soil. This placement seems like a miss-classification in it lies in a very different habitat
type and possesses a different vegetational physiognomy compared the other releves.
-------
Figure 30. View southeast across Fremont's Fen showing the driest meadow vegetation in the
foreground, and the abrupt transition to hummocky fen Station 5 can be seen right of center.
Figure 31. View west at Crooked Creek Fen station 23 showing the character of the tall-shrub
marginal fen community. Shrubs are mainly Salix monticola, S. planifolia, and S. brachycarpa.
-------
Community types 5 & 6 are nearly identical vegetationally and environmentally, therefore will
be described together. These communities are typical of the extremely rich fen areas of High Creek
Fen. They form lawn-like communities with sparse, low hummocks and are dominated by Carex
simulata, Carex aquatilis, and Kobresia simpliciuscula. These sites are HT1, and are frequently
associated with ground water discharge. Community type 5 seems to not be a natural grouping, but
rather a repository for two somewhat unique vegetation types. Releve C7 is on a upwelling apron
and has diagnostic extremely rich fen species, however, it also has a significant cover of bog birch
(Betula glandulosa), which sets it apart from the other extremely rich fen communities Releve HI 5
also has the suite of extremely rich fen species but it also posses a population of the rare sedge C.
livida
Community types 7 and 8 are quagmire communities. These sites are dominated by the most
hydrophilic species such as Eleochans quinqueflora, IJtricularia spp., Triglochin spp., and mosses
such as Scorpidium scorpioides. The soils at these sites are tenuously thin, hardly holding the weight
of a biologist. Marl coats essentially all surfaces, and forms soil strata. As the name implies, the
hummocky quagmire possess scattered hummocks of varying sizes, but most are under ] 0 cm. On
these hummocks, slightly less hydrophilic plants such as Thalictrum alpinam, Salix Candida, and
Kobresia simpliciuscula can survive.
The community types derived by TWIN SPAN closely fit subjective concepts of the vegetation
assemblages on these fens. Several of the minor vegetation types found in the fen system were not
sampled. This is due to one of the primary goals of the study, which was to tie species composition
directly to local environmental factors. Therefore, an environmental sampling point was needed at
each releve. Installing and monitoring wells and piezometers in every discernable community type
was not a feasible option. One may consult Cooper (1996) for a more general survey of High Creek
Fen's vegetational communities without linkage to environmental conditions.
Ordination
Figure 34 shows axis 1 and 2 of a detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) of intact
vegetation releves. Figure 35 shows axis 1 and 3 of the same ordination. These axes correspond to
the three most important vegetational gradients exhibited by the wetlands. The graph symbols
correspond to the eight different community types parsed out by TWINSPAN. As can be seen from
Fig. 34 and 35, TWINSPAN groupings had a high fidelity for one another in both of the DC A
diagrams.
Releves from each study area tend to cluster near one another, with the array of sites forming
a gradient across axis 1. This indicates that there are regional differences between sites. Also
exhibited in the axis 1 gradient, is a trend going from wetter releves on the left, to drier releves on
the right. Axis 2 is primarily comprised of a gradient occurring on Crooked Creek Fen, but causal
factors are not immediately obvious from evaluation of the DCA alone The axis 3 gradient is
likewise not readily interpretable without additional environmental information. Therefore, these
gradients will be more throughly explored after discussion of the direct gradient analysis.
-------
Figure 32. View southeast at Fremont's Fen station 11, showing C. simulata dominated fen.
Mined areas can be see above the middle of the photograph.
Figure 33. View south across an extremely rich fen meadow vegetation. High Creek station 25
can be seen in the foreground.
-------
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Figure 34. Gradients 1 and 2 of a DCA ordination of intact wetland sites. Symobols indicate the TWINSPAN
-------
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Figure 35. Gradients l and 3 of a DCA ordination of intact wetland sites. Symobols indicate the TWTNSPAN
-------
2 4
Axis 1 - eigenvalue 0.631
Figure 36. Gradients 1 and 2 of a DCA ordination of species
-------
3
2.5
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o Fen margin shrub
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x Hummocky & lawn
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a E-R fen meadow
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Figure 37. Gradients 1 and 2 of a
CCA of intact wetland sites.
Symobols indicate the TWINSPAN
communities to which the releves
belong. See text for additional
details.
-------
Figure 36 is a species ordination of the same data. Species characterizing each of the
communities defined by TWINSPAN are enclosed within polygons. The species enclosed in each
polygon is only an indication of the actual plant species found within each community, because
species placement in the diagram indicates the species' optimal habitat with respect to a particular
environmental gradient. Therefore, a species might have its optimal environmental conditions in one
type of habitat, but it is found in several others at a lower abundance level. Such is the case with
many generalist fen species like C. aquaiilis and C. simulala.
The driest areas in the fen complexes are inclosed by the community 2 polygon. These sites
can be found in many of peat areas on the edge of fens, on mesic, raised islands of mineral soil, till,
or peat, and in the mineral soil meadows surrounding the fens. Such sites are dominated by several
grass species and posess a lower field layer of scattered forb species. Especially common species in
these areas are: Elymus trachycaulum, Agrostis gigantea, Hordeum brachyantherum, H. jubalum,
Calamagrostis canadensis, Poapratensis, Argentina anserina and Cirsmm canadensis. Mosses are
sparse or absent in these communities.
Fen margins that have a high water table, such Crooked Creek Fen, have a very hydrophilic
vegetation that may be dominated by a shrub canopy of varying height. Species with their maxima
in these conditions are inclosed by the community 3 polygon. Nearest the edge of Crooked Creek
Fen, shrub cover of Salix monticola, Salix brachy car pa, and to a lesser degree Salix planifolia forms
a nearly complete canopy two to three meters in height. The under story is comprised by herbaceous
species such as C. aquatilis, C. utriculata, Coniosehnum scopulorum, Swertia perennis and
Equisetum arvense.
These tall-shrub fen margin communities then grade into the typical short-shrub moderate fen
of the Southern Rocky Mountains towards the fen expanse (see also Johnson 1996). The shrub
canopy here is composed of one meter, or shorter shrubs, generally Salix planifolia, S. brachycarpa,
and Pentaphylloidesfloribunda. The field layer is mainly composed of caricies such as C. aquatilis,
C. utriculata and C. simulata. Often times a rich moss flora may cover a substantial portion of the
ground surface. Mosses generally considered as rich fen species dominate, including: Drepanocladus
aduncus, D. revolvens, Campellium stellatum, Calliergon giganteum, and Brachythecium nelsonii.
The meadow-like extremely rich fen areas are covered by a dense carpet of Carex simulata
(communities 5 & 6 polygon). Generally these areas possess low scattered hummocks. On the
isolated hummock micro-sites, additional species such as Sisyrmchiumpallidum, Primula egahkensis,
Pedicularis groenlandica, Trichophorum pumilum and Salix Candida are often found. This
vegetation type is perhaps the most expansive of any of the fen communities. Mosses do not
generally cover significant areas of this vegetation type, although Scorpidium scorpiodes, S.
turgescens, Warnstorfia exannulata, and Distichum capillare may be present as scattered colonies.
Extremely rich fen lawns, hummocky areas and the adjacent mineral soil meadows
(communities 1 & 4) are typically dominated by C. aquatilis and C. simulata. When hummocks are
present these species generally inhabit the wetter hollow areas. On the drier, raised hummocks the
-------
graminoids Deschampsia cespitosa, Kobresia myosuroides, K. simpliciuscula, C. scirpoidea, and
stunted shrubs, such as S. Candida and Pentaphylloides floribunda are the most common species
The graminoid and shrub flora is richened by several scattered forb species, noticeably Thalictrum
alpmum, Dodecatheon pulchellum, Polygonum bistorta, Gentiana fremontii and Pamassia
parviflora.
The quagmire communities (communities 7 & 8), are the wettest of the fen environments
Both community types share the same basic hydrophilic and aquatic flora dominated by Eleocharis
quinqueflora, Triglochin maritimum, T. palustre, Utricularia spp., and Potamogeton pectinatus.
The mosses Scorpidium scorpiodes, and S. turgescens commonly carpet the shallow water hollows
When hummocks are present they may additionally have Juncus balticus, J. longiflora and Carex
spp
Direct Gradient Analysis
The sections above considered the vegetation assemblages found on the three fens, but many
of the factors driving vegetation composition could not be determined with the ordinations alone
In this section, correlations between vegetational communities and their environments will be
considered to uncover the probable causative factors of species change. To analyze these
correlations, Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used. CCA is a technique of
multivariate direct gradient analysis which relates changes in species abundance to changes in the
environment. CCA calculates releve placement, first based on its vegetational composition, but it
then further constrains releve placement based on the local environmental characteristics (Ter Braak
1986) Patterns in soil and water chemistry will be discussed in will be discussed in a later section
Figure 37 shows the results of a CCA of intact wetland sites. Labels correspond to the
TWINSPAN groups, as in the DCAs above. The vectors correspond directions of change in the
environmental variables. The interaction of hummock height and hummock cover was used as a
variable in this analysis to quantify the effect of micro-topography. Vector orientation indicates the
direction in which an environmental factor is increasing in value, while its relative length denotes the
strength of the factor's correlation with vegetational change. The absolute vector lengths are
arbitrary, while the relative vector lengths convey information about the strength of association. A
vector's orientation relative to another vector also describes the correlation between the two
environmental factors. That is, nearly parallel vectors pointing in the same direction are highly
positively correlated, nearly parallel vectors in opposite directions are highly negatively correlated,
while vectors orthogonal to each other are uncorrelated. Additional detail about releve environment
and a species' environmental preference can be extracted from the diagram by drawing a
perpendicular line from a vector to a species or releves of interest The order in which these lines
intersect the vectors relates the relative value of the factor at the site. An example of diagram
interpretation is provided below.
Table 8 presents the CCA diagnostics for the first four ordination axes (only two shown in
diagram). Eigenvalues relate the importance of each axis Dividing an axis's eigenvalue by the total
inertial (the sum of all eigenvalues) gives the percent of variance accounted for by that axis, these
-------
percentages are shown in the second row. Unconstrained eigenvalues are those that are calculated
based only on species data. An unconstrained analysis, such as DCA, is considered to represent the
"true" total variance in the species data. Constrained eigenvalues result from species data being
additionally constrained to be linear combinations of the environmental variables; a constrained
analysis is the goal of CCA. Dividing the sum of the constrained eigenvalues by the sum of the
unconstrained eigenvalues provides a measure of how much of the change in species composition has
been accounted for by the measured environmental factors, and how much is due to unmeasured
factors. The species-environment correlation measures how well changes in environmental factors
mirror changes in species composition.
Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3 Axis 4 Totallnertia
Eigenvalues 0.516 0.418 0.205 0.180 5 336
Cumulative Percentage of 9.7 17.5 21 3 24.7
Species Variance
Sum of Unconstrained 5.336
Eigenvalues
Sum of Constrained 2.045
Eigenvalues
Table 8. CCA diagnostics. See text for explanation.
An example of diagram interpretation is as follows In Fig. 37 the vector for water table
depth points in the direction of increasing water table height. This factor is highly negatively
correlated with water conductivity (nearly parallel but pointed in opposite directions) and is nearly
uncorrected with hummock cover*height (vectors at nearly 90 degrees to one another). Water table
depth is strongly correlated with the axis 1 gradient since it is nearly parallel with axis 1, and based
on its relative length, it has a strong correlation with vegetational changes occurs in the releves
arrayed along axis 1. Extending the water table vector in both directions and drawing perpendicular
lines from it to the releves, one can see that releve C8 has the highest water table, followed by releve
H25, then C7, etc. Releve M5 has deepest water table measured.
The measured environmental factors account for 38% of the species variance measured by
DCA, that is 62% of species variance was not due to measured environmental factors. Axis 1 is most
highly correlated with water table depth, soil sodium, and pore water pH. Axis 2 is most highly
correlated soil Mn, soil Mg, and soil EC. Therefore, changes in water table and soil moisture most
strongly affect species composition. Vegetation change along this gradient is also affected by changes
in soil sodium content and ground water pH Gradient two is primarily a soil chemistry gradient. The
other environmental factors also significantly influence the vegetation but to a lesser degree compared
to those mentioned.
By comparing the results of the DCA and CCA it can be seen that the arrangement of sites
is noticeably different between the techniques, in particular along axis 2 This indicates significant
distortion by the CCA has occurred. To evaluate this supposition, correlation between site placement
by DCA and CCA was performed. Table 9 presents the results of this analysis.
-------
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Axis 1 - eigenvalue 0.631
Figure 38. Gradients 1 and 2 of a DCA ordination of intact and disturbed
wetland sites. Symobols indicate the TW1NSPAN communities to which
-------
Axis
DCA 1
DCA 2
DCA 3
DCA 4
CCA 1
0.869
-0.068
0.183
0.107
CCA 2
-0.388
-0.207
-0.609
0.359
CCA 3
0.016
-0.244
0.381
0.199
CCA 4
0.011
-0.145
-0.031
0.076
Table 9. Correlation matrix between DC A and CCA axes.
The correlations in Table 9 corroborate this supposition. Axis 1 of the analyses are highly
correlated, but axis 2 scores have only low correlation. Upon further examination of the table,
however, one can see that CCA axis 2 is highly correlated with DCA axis 3. This indicates that CCA
axis 2 actually depicts DCA axis 3. This is an interesting situation in which the environmental factors
driving gradient two of the DCA were not measured, and the axis 2 of the CCA simply represents the
next most important vegetational gradient, i.e., DCA axis 3 An examination ofFig. 35 confirms this,
although note that the CCA axis 2 is a mirror image of DCA axis 3 since they are negatively
correlated.
The unmeasured DCA axis 2 gradient is a mire margin to mire expanse gradient. This type
of gradient has been frequently noted in the peatland literature (e.g. Moore & Bellamy 1974, Maimer
1986), and mire margin and expanse communities were defined by the TWINSPAN analysis in this
study. The releves near the top of the diagram are all found near the edge of Crooked Creek Fen.
Proceeding down axis 2, sites are continually located closer to the interior of the fen. This gradient
is visually obvious although no attempt was made to measure it as there are significant technical
difficulties in trying to do so. Near the bottom of the axis, marginal sites are once again encountered
although these sites are relatively dry, graminiod dominated areas. Lack of data quantifying this
gradient explains the slightly low total species variance accounted for by the CCA.
To summarize the above, there were three primary environmental/vegetational described in
this analysis. The first is a moisture gradient affected by soil chemistry and pH. The chemistry
gradient is attributed to regional differences in geology and soils described in the next section. The
second vegetational gradient is a mire margin, to mire expanse, to mire margin gradient. This
gradient was not elucidated in the CCA since environmental factors related to the gradient were not
measured. The third vegetational gradient is driven by soil chemistry, once again due to differences
in regional geology and soils.
The Effects of Disturbance on Fen Vegetation
Figure 38 is a DCA diagram which includes vegetation data from disturbed, as well as intact,
sites. The amount of bare ground within a releve was included as a "species" in this analysis since
this is an important difference between many of the disturbed and intact sites Two natural groupings
of disturbed sites arise in the DCA - the ditch impacted and the mining impacted sites The first
group includes Crooked Creek Fen sites 24 - 27 along with other dry sites from High Creek Fen and
-------
Fremont's Fen The mined group includes mined releves from all fens interspersed with marginal dry
fen sites.
These results show that activities such as mining and ditching have a demonstrable effect on
the vegetation of fen complexes, and these effects persist for years after the initial disturbance
Mining has the most significant impact on the biotic community since it essentially removes it. Mined
areas can remain bare for years after cessation of mining. The most denuded mined sites are those
to the left in the diagram: hi0, hi 1, h32, f5, f4, f9, andfl4. Releves which have had more substantial
vegetational recovery are h28m, h33, h34, and h35. Site h28m was regraded with native peat from
the mine spoils, while the other sites are located in areas that had more heterogeneous impacts In
these areas patches of remnant vegetation have helped speed recovery, but their vegetational
composition is still significantly different than the natural communities.
In terms of species diversity impacts, average species diversity in the intact portions of the
wetlands is 13.7 species per 15 7m2 plot (1 1 spp./m2) Species diversity in the mined plots averages
7.5 species per plot, or 0.47 spp./m2. These values are statistically different according to a two-
sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (p=0.003), showing that even after years of recovery, species
diversity in mined areas is less than half that of intact areas.
Artificially draining a fen has a significant effect on community structure, but no differences
in species diversity between drained and intact sites were detected (p=0.357) Sample size was
extremely low, however, (n=4) so this conclusion should be treated with suspicion. The drained
communities share few or no species in common with the intact fen areas. Some species with broad
ecological tolerances such as Pentaphylloides floribunda and Poa pratensis may be found in both
habitats, but these are the exception. Following wetland draining, the vegetation converts to a mesic
grass community dominated may weedy or exotic species such as Poa spp., Elymus trachycaulum,
Hordeum jubatum, Lepidium ramosisswium, Lappula redowskii, and Argentina anserma None of
the fen indicator species remain in these areas, and the majority of species are not even generally
considered wetland plants (Reed 1988).
These results clearly show that land use practices such as mining or draining have profound
effects on the biotic communities of these wetlands. Such impacts seriously degrade both the plant
and animal habitat functions performed by these wetlands in their natural state The ability to restore
such damaged ecosystems is unknown, although studies are currently addressing this question (see
below).
-------
Figure 39. View east across Fremont's Fen station 15. Plant cover is low or absent owing to the
effects of mining, but a moderate amount of revegetation has occurred naturally due the presence
of remnant patches of vegetation.
Figure 40. Revegetation on a former mine site at High Creek Fen. Peat spoils from the mine were
regraded into the mine. This photo shows the result of approximately three years of recovery.
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Figure 41. View southeast from near Crooked Creek Fen station 17 The path of the ditch can
be seen near the middle of the photograph separating the hummocky extremely rich fen vegetation
(community type 4) from a mesic meadow vegetation
WA TER AND SOIL CHEMISTR Y
At each sampling location, pore water pH and electrical conductivity (CND) were measured
on a bi-monthly or monthly basis, a single water sample was obtained in 1997, and two soil samples
obtained in 1996 and 1997. The various plant community assemblages were all significantly
influenced by chemical aspects of their environment. Principal Components Analysis (PC A) was used
to assess whether regional trends in water and soil chemistry exist and whether they might correspond
with patterns of vegetation. Soil and water chemistry data was also used to determine whether these
wetlands performed significant water quality enhancement functions.
Water Chemistry
A PC A of water chemistry characteristics was undertaken but no clear regional or ecological
patterns were evident. Therefore, this analysis is not included here. Table 10 reports the average pH
and CND measured during the study. The bottom row in the table shows the grand mean for each
wetland. Crooked Creek Fen has the highest mean pH and Fremont's Fen the lowest. A major
contributing factor to Fremont's Fen's relatively low average pH is station 2 which has a pH of 3 .88.
-------
The reason for this extremely low pH is uncertain, but the presence of the uncommon Laramie and
South Park Conglomerate formations (Fig. 3c) suggests that geologic factors may be playing a role
Electrical conductivity is an overall measurement of salt concentration in pore water
Crooked Creek Fen has the lowest water conductivity, while Fremont's Fen and High Creek Fen have
essentially the same conductivity. This shows that Crooked Creek Fen is, overall, the least nutrient
rich site, while the other two fens have similar overall salt contents This is somewhat surprising since
the flora of Crooked Creek Fen is more similar to High Creek Fen's than it is to Fremont's, including
many more extremely rich fen species than does Fremont's Fen This floristic difference is perhaps
due do the calcium and magnesium levels found at Crooked Creek and High Creek Fens These areas
have mean calcium levels of 116.7 and 119.2 mg/1, respectively; whereas Fremont's calcium level is
only 66.5 mg/1. One of the definitions for "extremely rich fens" is that they are exceptionally rich in
calciphyllous ("calcium-loving")species, and calcium concentration has frequently been found to be
an important species determinate on fens (see Chee & Vitt 1989 for examples). This study
corroborates the findings of these earlier studies. Magnesium, a metal related to calcium, has a
similar distribution between study sites and may play a similar ecological role. Tables 11-13 show
the ground water chemistry data obtained at the three fens, and Table 14 presents values obtained
from surface water sources.
-------
Station
CND
pH
Station
CND
dH
Station
CND
i)H
HC 1
0.85
7.20
FS1
0 33
8 04
FF1
0 52
6.99
HC 2
0.87
7.51
FS 2
0.39
7.52
FF2
2.09
3.88
HC 3
0.44
7.99
FS 3
0.36
7 85
FF3
1 30
5.68
HC 4
0.52
7.28
FS 4
0.33
8.1
FF4
1 27
5.29
HC 5
0.53
6.8
FS 5
0.63
7.76
FF5
0 44
7.37
HC 7
0.82
7.37
FS 6
0.54
7.8
FF6
0.70
5 62
HC 8
0.50
7.4
FS 7
0.31
8.09
FF7
0.49
7.09
HC 9
0.69
7.07
FS 8
041
7.97
FF8
0.50
7.19
HC 10
0 74
7 06
FS 9
0 56
7.73
FF9
0.29
7.56
HC 11
0 57
761
FS 10
0 42
7.85
FF10
0.22
7 82
HC 12
0 50
7 59
FS 11
0.52
8.13
FF11
0.54
7 50
HC 13
0.47
7.62
FS 12
0.57
7.52
FF12
-
-
HC 14
0.63
7.59
FS 13
0.50
7.93
FF13
0.09
7.40
HC 15
0.59
7.12
FS 14
0.58
7.90
FF14
-
.
HC 16
0.62
7.35
FS 15
0.61
7.72
FF15
0 33
7.07
HC 17
0 63
7 59
FS 16
0.58
7.78
FF16
0.93
6 32
HC 18
0.45
7.42
FS 17
0 70
8.03
FF17
0.30
6.65
HC 19
0 56
7.27
FS 18
0.56
8.17
FF19
0.56
7.09
HC 20
0.64
7.43
FS 19
0.62
7.99
FF20
0.34
7.09
HC 21
0.63
7.69
FS 20
0.60
7.58
FF21
0.98
6.52
HC 22
0.48
7.38
FS 21
0.62
7.63
FF22
0.48
7 20
HC 23
0 55
7.36
FS 22
0 51
7 76
FF23
0 28
7 23
HC 24
0.55
6.83
FS 23
0.76
7.58
FF24
0 15
7.34
HC 25
0 47
7.88
FS 24
0.71
7.46
HC 26
0.53
7.68
FS 25
0.50
7.43
HC 27
0.59
7.57
FS 26
0.40
7.39
HC 28
0 46
6.86
FS 27
0.35
7.33
HC 29
0.57
7.24
HC 30
0.47
7.71
HC 32
0.89
7.86
HC 33
0.50
7.66
HC 34
0.66
7.59
HC 35
0.93
7.74
HP DF
0 43
7 78
Mean
0.60
7.37
0.52
7.84
Mean
0.61
6.76
Table 10. Average electrical conductivity (CND) and pH measured during the 1996 and 1997
growing seasons.
-------
Station #
Ca
Mg
Na
K
P
Al
Fe
Mn
Ti
Pb
HC1
288.2
105.4
24.5
1.4
0.1
<0.1
0.14
0.02
<0.01
<0 05
HC2
197.6
54.50
16.2
1.3
0.1
<0.1
0.27
0.07
<0 01
<0.05
HC3
71.5
28.84
6.5
0.7
0.1
<0.1
0.13
0.00
<0 01
<0.05
HC4
95.4
31.97
5.9
0.7
0.1
<0.1
0.14
001
<0.01
<0 05
HC5
92.1
33.39
7.9
1.2
0.1
<0.1
0.28
0.01
<0 01
<0 05
HC8
1164
29.04
4.6
1.1
0.1
<0.1
0.27
0.02
<0 01
<0 05
HC9
168.7
33.56
7.9
0.4
0.0
<0.1
0.08
0.01
<0.01
<0 05
*HC10
101.4
66.42
17.0
2 1
0.1
<0 1
0 48
0.00
<0.01
<0.05
*HC11
57.8
20.96
5.5
1.6
0 1
<0.1
0.18
0.00
0.01
<0 05
HC12
143.9
42.25
7.7
1.2
0.2
<0.1
**14.55
0 09
<0.01
<005
HC13
143.6
50.88
9.0
0.5
0.2
<0.1
0.30
0.07
0.01
<0.05
HC 14
156.1
61.48
13.4
<0.1
0.1
<0.1
0.12
0.03
<0.01
<0.05
HC 15
79.2
22.27
8.9
0.4
0.1
<0.1
0.23
0.05
<0.01
<0 05
HC 16
139.4
40.93
7.1
0.3
0.1
<0.1
0.17
0.06
<0.01
<0 05
HC 17
114.8
37.46
8.1
0.2
0.1
<0.1
0.16
0.02
<0.01
<0.05
HC 18
112.6
36.81
6.8
<0.1
0.0
<0.1
0.06
0.01
<0.01
<0.05
HC 19
125.3
43.63
7.8
1.2
0.1
<0.1
*0.45
0.06
001
<0 05
HC 20
137.7
35.34
9.8
0.6
0.1
<0.1
0.27
0.14
<0.01
<0.05
HC 22
113.3
39.09
9.5
0.7
0.1
<0.1
0.11
0.04
<0.01
<0.05
HC 23
104.2
37.78
9.6
07
0.1
<0.1
*0.32
0.02
<0.01
<0.05
HC 24
84.9
29.53
7.7
0.7
0.1
<0.1
*0.62
0.02
<0.01
<0.05
HC 25
36.3
12 73
4.2
3.6
0.2
0.1
*1.36
0.02
0.06
<0 05
HC 26
113.4
32.3
7.5
<0.1
<0.1
<0 1
0.04
0.01
<0.01
<0.05
HC 27
164.9
38.6
8.2
0.3
0.1
<0.1
**8.57
*0.21
<0.01
<0 05
HC 28
162.2
37.5
8.6
0.5
0.1
<0.1
0.12
0.01
0.01
<0.05
*HC 32
63.7
19.9
5.6
0.8
0.1
<0.1
0.08
<0.01
<0.01
<0 05
*HC 34
79.9
27.3
7.2
<0.1
0.1
<0.1
0.07
0.00
<0.01
<0.05
HCDF
74.7
27.1
5.2
00
©
0 1
<0.1
0.14
0.01
<0.01
<0.05
Mean
119.2
38.5
8.8
0.84
0.10
<0.1
1.0
0.04
<0.01
<0.05
Table 11. Chemistry of pore water at High Creek Fen. All measurements are in mg/1. An * in the
station column indicates sites that have been mined or ditched. An * in any other column shows
samples that did not meet drinking water standards (see pg. 74), ** means that the sample did not
meet drinking water, nor agricultural standards. Uranium (U) and Sr* samples were analyzed by the
Denver Water Laboratory.
-------
Table 11 con't
HC1 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 <0.005 0.04 0.0176 0.83 0.85 0.05 0 17 1153
HC2 0 01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.03 - 0.48 - 0 03 0 21 717
HC3 <001 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0 005 <0.01 0.0072 0 17 0.17 0.03 0 18 297
HC4 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 - 0 24 - 0.01 0.24 370
HC5 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.00 <0.01 <0.005 <0.0 - 0 25 - 0.02 0.30 367
HC8 0.01 <0 01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 *0.0320 0.28 0.26 0.16 0.30 410
HC9 <0 01 <0.01 <0 01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 0.0016 0.32 0.29 0 01 0 45 559
*HC10 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.02 0.03 <0 005 0.02 *0.0740 0 44 0 44 0.04 0 24 526
*HC11 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 001 001 <0005 0.01 *0.0920 0 15 0.16 0.01 0.09 230
HC12 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 - 0.38 - 0.04 0.43 533
HC13 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 - 0.45 - 0.03 0.28 568
HC 14 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0 01 0.0014 0.48 0 47 0.02 0.32 642.3
HC 15 <0 01 <0 01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 <0.01 0.17 - <0 01 0.21 289.2
HC 16 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 0.0022 0.31 0.29 0.01 0.35 516.0
HC 17 <001 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 - 0.31 - 0.03 0.18 440.5
HC 18 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 - 0.30 - 0.04 0.16 432 2
HC 19 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 0.0012 0 36 0.32 0 01 0.28 492.2
HC 20 0.01 <0.01 <0 01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 - 0.38 - 0 02 0 30 488 8
HC 22 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 - 0.32 - 0.01 0.21 443 3
HC 23 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 0.0056 0 26 0.27 0.01 0.28 415 4
HC 24 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 0.0018 0.25 0.28 0 01 0 27 333 2
HC 25 0.03 0.02 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 <0.005 0.03 - 0.12 - 0.02 Oil 142.9
HC 26 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 0.0076 0.31 0.29 0.01 0.30 415.6
HC 27 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 0.0016 0 40 0.43 0.01 0.43 570.3
HC 28 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.01 <0.005 0.03 *0.0700 0.34 0.37 0.01 0.37 558.6
*HC 32 0.01 0.03 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 0.0028 0.17 0.22 0.01 0.14 240.6
*HC 34 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <001 <0.005 <001 0.0030 0.23 0.22 0.01 0.12 311 3
HCDF <001 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 0.0036 0.18 0.19 0.01 0 19 297.5
Mean 0.011 <0.011 <0.01 0.011 <0.011 <0.01 0.016 0.0255 0.35 0.36 0.02 0.25 455 7
-------
ID#
Ca
Mg
Na
K
P
Al
Fe
Mn
Ti
Pb
CC 1
75.1
8.2
2.4
1 3
<0 1
<0.1
0.08
<0.01
<0 01
<0 05
CC 3
41 7
44
1.6
0 5
<0 1
<0.1
0.06
0.01
<0.01
<0 05
CC 4
83.2
6.6
2.3
0.6
<0.1
<0.1
0.05
<0.01
<0 01
<0 05
CC 5
69 2
14.2
4.3
<0.1
0.1
<0.1
0.10
0.01
<0 01
<0 05
CC 6
188.9
26.8
7.4
<0.1
0.1
<0.1
0.16
0.01
<0.01
<0 05
CC 7
97 3
8.8
2.9
0.2
<0.1
<0.1
0.06
<0 01
<0 01
<0 05
CC 8
104.3
8.9
3.3
2.8
0 1
<0.1
*0 47
0.01
<0.01
<0 05
CC 9
87.0
8.4
2.6
1.8
<0 1
<0.1
*0.76
**1 56
<0 01
<0 05
CC 10
116.8
10.8
4.2
1.1
0 04
<0 1
*1 15
**2.93
<0.01
<0 05
CC 11
109.3
8.2
2.7
1.7
0.04
<0.1
*1.74
**6 64
<0.01
<0.05
CC 13
1114
9.6
3.6
0.5
0.04
<0.1
**9.38
**0 75
0.01
0.01
CC 14
84 5
15.4
6.0
2.2
0.09
<0.1
*0.88
**4 89
<0.01
<0.05
CC 15
151 8
27.7
8.6
06
0.04
<0.1
*0 91
**0.69
<0 01
<0 05
CC 16
183.1
23.1
41.6
<0.1
0.13
<0 1
*0.31
0.08
<0 01
<0.05
CC 17
162.3
19.6
7.3
0.6
0.17
<0.1
*0.58
**0.60
0.01
<0.05
CC 18
171.9
18.7
7.2
1.3
0.15
<0.1
*0.72
**0.52
<0 01
<0.05
CC 19
51.0
46.5
44 9
9.4
0.97
0 9
*1 21
**0.97
0.92
<0 05
CC 20
167.2
24.5
11.5
<0.1
0.04
<0.1
*0.50
**0 41
<0.01
0.09
CC 21
124.8
38.2
23.1
03
0.02
<0 1
0.17
0.04
<0.01
<0.05
CC 22
105.0
10.9
3.4
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
*0.08
<0.01
<0.01
<0.05
CC 23
165.3
20.5
9.4
0.2
0.1
<0.1
0 18
*0.18
<0.01
<0.05
Mean
116 7
17.1
9.5
1 2
0.1
<0.14
0.93
0.97
<0 05
<0 05
V Cu Zn Ni Mo Cd Cr U Sr Sr} B Ba Hardness
CCl <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.00 <0.01 <0.005 <0.01 0.0012 0J5 0.14 <0.01 0.21 221.0
CC 3 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.00 <0.01 <0.005 <0.01 0.0012 0.07 0.10 <0.01 Oil 122 0
CC 4 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 - 0.12 - <0.01 0.16 234 7
CC 5 <0.01 <0.01 <001 0.00 <0.01 <0.005 <001 0.0300 0.14 0.26 <0.01 0.23 231 1
CC 6 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0 01 <0 01 <0.005 0.01 0 0076 0 38 0.34 <0.01 0.50 581 4
CC 7 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 001 <001 <0.005 0.02 0.0056 0.15 0.17 <0.01 0.21 278 8
CC 8 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 - 0.16 - <0 01 0.24 296 7
CC 9 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 - 0.13 - <0.01 0.23 251 4
CC 10 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 - 0.19 - <0.01 0.32 336.1
CC11 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 - 0.01 - <001 0 43 306.2
CC 13 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 0.0010 0.02 0.24 0.01 0.33 317.6
CC 14 <0.01 <0 01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 - 0.01 - <0.01 0.54 274.3
CC 15 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 0.0016 0 02 0.29 <0 01 0 51 492 6
CC 16 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.01 - 0.01 - <0.01 0 41 552.0
CC 17 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 - 0.02 - <0.01 0.34 485 6
CC 18 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.005 0.02 - 0.02 - <0 01 0.47 506.0
CC 19 0.94 0.92 0.95 0.93 0.94 0.928 **0 94 - 0.94 -**0.90 0.93 318 4
CC 20 <0 01 <0.01 <0 01<0 01<0 01 <0.005 0.01 0.0016 0.01 0.34 <0.01 0 38 517 8
CC 21 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.005 <0.0 - 0.00 - <0.01 0.21 468.3
CC 22 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.005 <0.01 0.0008 0.19 0.22 <0.01 0 25 306 5
CC 23 <0.01 <001 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0 005 0.01 0.0168 0.28 0.31 <0.01 0 34 496 7
Mean 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.0070 0.14 0.24 0 05 0 35 361 68
Table 12. Chemistry of pore water at Crooked Creek Fen All measurements are in mg/1. An * in
the station column indicates sites that have been mined or ditched. An * in any other column shows
samples that did not meet drinking water standards (see pg. 74), ** means that the sample did not
meet drinking water, nor agricultural standards. Uranium (U) and Sr1 samples were analyzed by the
Denver Water Laboratory.
-------
ED#
Ca
Mg
Na
K
P
Al
Fe
Mn
Ti
Pb
FF 7
180.4
29.5
29.3
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.14
0.04
<0 01
<0.05
FF 10
44.5
10.1
10.0
1.1
<0.1
<0.1
*0.69
**2.68
<0.01
<0.05
FF 11
28.6
6.4
26.1
0.15
0.1
0.37
**7 77
*0 09
0 07
<0 05
FF 12
32.0
7.5
15.7
0.4
<0.1
021
*0 97
0.01
0.06
<0 05
*FF 14
27.2
6.5
12 9
1.0
<0 1
<0.1
*2.14
<0.01
<0.01
<0.05
*FF 15
35.6
5.5
8.5
1.2
<0 I
<0.1
0 18
0.07
<0 01
<0 05
FF 16
178.9
27.3
49.8
0.2
<0.1
<0.1
0 27
0.02
001
<0.05
FF 17
39.8
5.5
10.0
<0.1
0.1
0.90
*3.56
0.04
0.20
<0 05
FF 20
31.6
7.6
9.2
1 4
0.04
<0.1
*1 65
*0.13
0.01
<0 05
FF 21
26.9
6.9
12.5
0.7
<0.1
<0.1
0.27
<0.01
<0.01
<0 05
Mean
66.48
11.81
19.01
0.59
<0 09
<0.23
1.72
0.34
<0.04
<0.05
ID#
V
Cu
Zn
Ni
Mo
Cd
Cr
u
Sr
Sr?
B
Ba Hardness
FF 7
<0 01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.02
0.0006
1.19
1.20
<0.01
0 04
571 4
FF 10
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0008
0.43
0.43
<0.01
0.26
152.5
FF 11
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
<0.0004
0.22
0.38
0.26
0.09
97.6
FF 12
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0010
0.25
0.25
0.01
0.10
110.7
*FF 14
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
001
<0.005
<0.01
<0 0004
0.22
0.22
0.02
0.02
94 4
*FF 15
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0006
0.22
0.20
<0 01
0.02
111.5
FF 16
<0.01
<0.01
<0 01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.02
0.0004
0.91
0 76
0.04
0.02
558.5
FF 17
0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
<0.0004
0.25
0.28
0.04
0.08
121.7
FF 20
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0 01
<0 01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0004
0.27
0.30
<0.01
0.07
110.1
FF 21
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0004
0.21
0.43
0.01
0.02
95.5
Mean
<0 01
<0 01
<0 01
<0.01
<0.01
<0 01 <0 012
0 0006
0.44
0.47
0.04
0 078
214 39
Table 13. Chemistry of pore water at Fremont's Fen. All measurements are in mg/1 An * in the
station column indicates sites that have been mined or ditched. An * in any other column shows
samples that did not meet drinking water standards (see pg 74), ** means that the sample did not
meet drinking water, nor agricultural standards. Uranium (U) and Sr} samples were analyzed by the
Denver Water Laboratory.
-------
ID#
Ca
Mg
Na
K
P
Al
Fe
Ti
Pb
V
Mn
HC 4-Sur
81.6
30.9
8.2
0.8
0.1
<0.1
0 04
<0.01
<0.05
<0 01
<0 01
HC 14-Sur
66.7
26.4
64
0.5
0.1
<0.1
0.05
<0.01
<0.05
0.01
<0.01
HC 16-Sur
86.2
31.7
6.5
0.4
0.1
<0.1
0.08
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0.01
HC20- Sur
84.1
31.9
5.1
0.3
<0.1
<0.1
0.08
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0.01
HC 21-Sur
82.2
31.0
7.6
0.5
0.1
<0.1
0.04
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0 01
HC 23-Sur
91.8
33.2
6.6
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.06
<0.01
<0.05
<0 01
<0.01
HC 24-Sur
89.7
31.6
5.8
0.8
<0.1
<0.1
*0.91
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
0.00
HC 33-Sur
78.0
30.0
7.1
0.6
<0.1
<0.1
0.08
<0.01
<0.05
<0 01
<0.01
CC 2- Sur
57.0
6.2
1.3
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.03
0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0.01
CC26/27-Sur
190.5
25.3
9.6
0.3
0.3
<0.1
*2.86
0.01
<0.05
<0.01
*0.47
FF9- Str
16.3
2.4
2.4
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.11
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0 01
FF 9-Sur
•56.0
11.4
66.0
0 1
<0.1
<0.1
*0 52
0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0.01
FF12- Sur
15.6
2.2
2.4
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.13
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0.01
FFI5- Str
19.8
3.0
3.7
0.4
<0.1
<0.1
0 16
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0.01
FF15- Sur
44.1
7.0
8.8
0.6
<0.1
<0.1
*0.92
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0 01
Station
Cu
Zn
Ni
Mo
Cd
Cr
u
Sr
Sr*
B
Ba Hardness
HC 4-Sur
<0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.01
0 0026
0.24
0.18
0 02
0 19
330.5
HC 14-Sur
<0 01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0 005
0.01
0.0026
0.17
0.17
0.04
0.17
275 2
HC 16-Sur
<0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.01
0.0014
0.23
0.22
0.02
0.21
345.3
HC20- Sur
<0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.01
0.0020
0.24
0 24
0 02
0.19
341.1
HC 21-Sur
<0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.01
0.0022
0.24
0.23
0.02
0.19
332 6
HC 23-Sur
<0.01
<0.01
0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.01
0.0012
0.25
0.23
0.02
0 22
365 6
HC 24-Sur
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.01
0.0092
0.25
0.23
0.01
0.20
353.6
HC 33-Sur
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0044
0.23
0.22
0.00
0.14
318.1
CC 2- Sur
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.01
-
0 10
-
<0.01
0.10
167.9
CC26/27-Sur
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
0.01
0.0028
0.35
0 15
<0 01
0 23
579 3
FF 9- Str
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0 01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0006
0.10
0.10
<0.01
0.00
50 5
FF 9-Sur
<0.01
<0 01
<0.01
0.06
<0.005
<0.01
0.0060
0.44
0.34
0.04
0.09
186.6
FF12- Sur
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0006
0.10
0.11
<0.01
0.01
47.9
FF15- Str
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0004
0.13
0.13
<0.01
001
61.7
FF15- Sur
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.005
<0.01
0.0006
0.26
0.23
0.01
0.02
1390
Table 14. Analyses of surface water samples at the three fens. All units are mg/1. An * in the station
column indicates sites that have been mined or ditched An * in any other column shows samples that
did not meet drinking water standards (see pg. 74), ** means that the sample did not meet drinking
water, nor agricultural standards. Uranium (U) and Sr} samples were analyzed by the Denver Water
Laboratory.
-------
Soil Chemistry
A PCA of soil chemistry was performed to elucidate regional patterns in soil chemistry (Fig
42). Regional patterns in soil chemistry were evident following this analysis. Three major soil type
groups were defined: theFremontFen wet meadow and Crooked Creek apron group, the High Creek
Fen sites along with Fremont's Fen meadows, and Crooked Creek Fen sites with Fremont's Fen lawn
sites. High Creek station 7 does not fit well into the other groups. This site was located in a
relatively dry (Hydrotype 3) highly marly meadow. No other sites were located in such a habitat
Why such a pattern was not produced by the water chemistry PCA is uncertain, but the differentiation
of sites based on soil chemistry may be due to an amplification of minor regional differences in water
chemistry due to accumulation of ions in the soil. That is, soil particles adsorb ions from the ground
water. Over centuries, the subtly different signatures in water chemistry are amplified as the soil
sequesters more and more of the ground water ions.
Tables 15-17 show the results of soil analyses Values from the 1996 and the 1997 analyses
were averaged in the tables.
Water Quality
Compliance with Water Quality Standards
Currently, no water quality standards exist specifically for wetlands, although data for such
standards are being compiled by the U.S. EPA (EPA 1990). In lieu of specific wetland water quality
standards, the general state standards for surface water are to be used (EPA 1990, Colorado Dept
of Health 1995a). Table 18 lists the water standards promulgated by the State of Colorado The
State of Colorado has addressed water quality standards for wetlands, but has only discussed them
with reference to surface water sources. Clearly, however, groundwater sources are involved in these
wetland systems. Therefore, general State of Colorado groundwater standards have also been
included in the table, if only for comparative purposes (Colorado Dept. of Health 1995b).
Ground and surface water samples for most stations were within State of Colorado water
quality standards (Tables 11-14). At High Creek Fen, iron was found above promulgated standards
at six stations. Stations 12 and 27 had iron levels above the standard for even agricultural use.
Uranium levels in and around the central mined portion of the fen, stations 8, 10, 11, and 28, were
above recommended levels (Milvy & Cothern 1990). These results confirm the earlier findings of
Johnson (1996) where peat mining was found to elevate ground and surface water uranium levels in
the vicinity of mined areas. Uranium levels in wells sampled during 1997 were slightly lower than
those found during the 1995 study In 1995, uranium was 0 116 and 0.770 mg/1 at wells 10 and 11,
respectively; during 1997, levels were 0.074 and 0.092. This reduction in uranium concentration
during 1997 could have resulted from a seasonal effect, as the 1997 samples were taken in June while
the 1995 samples were taken in late August.
-------
0
Axis 1
Figure 42. PCA of wetland sites based on soil characteristics. Samples have
been grounped according to the type of wetland habitat from which they were
-------
ID#
Avg dH
Avg EC
Avg OM
Avg N03
Avg P
Avg K
Avg Zn
Avg Fc
HC 1
7.5
1.8
42.35
23.5
4.7
181
11.425
997 5
HC 2
7.5
1.2
44.75
16
7
166 5
11.225
711
HC 3
6.85
0.95
73.05
11
6.65
172.95
12.525
160
HC 4
6 95
2.85
54.1
12
4.6
175.75
9 03
701
HC 5
6.95
2.15
68.1
10.5
3 4
101.25
10.275
631 75
HC 7
7.75
1.35
22.45
17.5
3.55
59.35
3.55
2186
HC 8
7.55
1 1
47.2
12
2.8
132 65
6.62
902
HC 9
7.15
2.3
48.75
12
5.2
65.2
3.595
284 5
*HC 10
7.45
1.9
52
20
2.8
70.2
5.98
945 4
*HC 11
7.25
1.55
64.8
15
6.8
54.1
10.33
884.5
HC 12
7.1
2.8
72.95
11.5
10.8
223.9
9.17
747
HC 13
7.25
2 2
39.6
18 5
6.4
90.6
4.1
146 7
HC 14
7.35
1.55
68.05
15
12 6
137 75
7.73
226 1
HC 15
7.25
2.25
61 6
13.5
5.6
125.3
7.215
326
HC 16
7.265
2.2
45.35
8.5
9.6
74.6
5.525
189.1
HC 17
7.05
2.3
37 25
11
11
57 75
3.58
165.3
HC 18
7.35
2.05
61.15
11
18.4
138.1
12 43
282 9
HC 19
7.65
1.4
50.2
17
5.6
104.45
7.965
178 3
HC 20
7.45
2.5
50.9
9.5
6.2
42.775
4 12
469.6
HC 21
7.3
2.6
35.85
12.5
3.6
115.95
21.3
390 4
HC 22
7.45
2.1
75.4
16
17.7
181.5
17.55
659
HC 23
7.15
1.65
55.05
8
17.5
138.2
7 49
434.5
HC 24
6.7
2.1
80.05
12.5
16 8
169.9
12.66
223 7
HC 25
7.5
1.35
74.2
14
10.4
194
7.845
464.5
HC 26
6 95
1.35
78.25
21.5
15.6
144.4
4.475
101.1
HC 27
7.15
1.55
35.3
11.5
10.5
202
11.39
273.8
HC 28
7.4
1
46.25
17.5
1.6
106 45
6.495
742 4
HC 29
7.55
1.05
51.35
22
14.2
136.5
11.79
442 9
HC 30
7.9
1.3
51.725
20
21.6
220
8.06
107.6
*HC 32
7.3
0.8
14.15
5.19
5.2
166.6
5.475
189.46
*HC 33
7.7
0.9
29.485
12.5
56
54.25
5.305
443 4
*HC 34
7.85
1.3
27.865
13 5
3.4
72 85
8.715
609.8
*HC 35
7.85
1.25
32.685
17.5
8.2
78.85
12.21
624.2
HC DF
7.15
1.4
77.6
6.5
4
75.05
10.52
348.9
*HC 28M
8
1
24.1
12
0
49.6
4.64
263.2
Mean
7.35
1.68
51.52
13.65
8.38
120.57
8.5
426.13
Table 15. The average of 1996 and 1997 soil measurements from High Creek Fen.
Electrical conductivity is in mmhos/cm2, all other measures are mg/kg. An * indicates a
disturbed site.
-------
Table 15 con't
ID # Avg Mn
Avg Cu
1996
Avg Ca
Avg mg
Avg Na
Avg Sr
Avg Pb
1996 U
Avg
S04
CaC03
HC 1
24.1
7.27
1300
9514.2
1473.3
166.15
445.55
46.165
12.11
39 625
HC 2
32.35
5.445
680
9427.55
1138.8
108.8
382.1
36.705
-
44.39
HC 3
8.44
7.155
V.O.S
10547.2
1972.5
145.85
34
12
-
1.44
HC 4
13.8
4.995
2160
10324.45
1519.05
92.1
59.485
14.937
25.84
2 245
HC 5
5.565
5.94
V.O.S
9748.95
1713.3
132.6
27
31.5
-
1.05
HC 7
11.1
3.485
300
6801.15
1263.85
68.8
444.7
26 165
-
62.105
HC 8
23.72
4.545
410
10510.15
1003.55
122.45
295.1
21.43
6.71
34.64
HC 9
8.66
3.085
1110
10570.2
944.8
112
136 7
20.22
4.05
23 91
HC 10
10.355
3.975
300
11680.45
1931.65
114.45
208 59
10.5105
67.64
22.165
HC 11
9.59
3.875
NES
13114.9
1784
109.5
108.65
7.066
89.81
4 55
HC 12
12.91
5.85
NES
6360
758.5
180
40.5
20.5
-
4.21
HC 13
15.69
2.695
1530
9729.9
1361.2
115.15
311.5
42.525
-
48
HC 14
16.42
7.095
NES
11462.75
2060.4
171.5
113.75
31.595
6.38
8.77
HC 15
24.25
4.605
V.O.S
11697.95
1418.3
175.6
151.55
31.39
-
15.11
HC 16
17.97
3.545
NES
11536.5
1446.3
106.6
55
8.5
_
25.905
HC 17
9.01
2.89
1130
8615.3
1144.5
85.9
344.5
34.62
-
48.955
HC 18
10.255
5.2
NES
10398.75
1613
175.7
113.55
54.78
_
14.57
HC 19
15.75
5.285
780
9953.45
1602.85
162.65
231.75
40.125
-
39 38
HC 20
30.95
2.78
NES
14481.05
1526.35
211.55
145.7
12.81
.
19.145
HC 21
31.65
6.605
NES
9987 1
1304.3
157.7
209.55
56.17
3 13
27.325
HC 22
14.87
5.185
NES
13390.65
2080
131 4
93.05
74.575
_
5.17
HC 23
18.86
5.405
NES
4825
898
75.5
25
9
_
17.39
HC 24
7.42
3.6
NES
11227.65
1759.15
177
73.765
33.56
29.68
2.75
HC 25
7.635
4.17
NES
6340
1046
68.5
45
13
.
1.5
HC 26
7.46
2.725
NES
13136.5
1797.25
104.3
76.215
78.925
14.37
3.71
HC 27
11.35
5.67
NES
9004.5
787 4
73.1
246.55
76.365
12.98
42.92
HC 28
15.555
5.21
<10
11428.05
968.15
93.15
211.75
20.47
3.30
24.19
HC 29
32.84
5.635
NES
11722.45
1473.05
117.3
295.05
52.895
_
25.54
HC 30
31.2
4.1
NES
8718.8
3258.75
306.85
282.8
41.12
_
15.5
HC 32
17.86
5.86
<10
4793.7
939.4
64.25
53.56
19.925
48.71
0
HC 33
6.885
8.18
<10
7917
1188.65
82.1
85.815
20.43
12 61
4 33
HC 34
12.11
8.07
<10
7741.85
1604.95
195.9
84.165
27.11
7.69
3.44
HC 35
9.95
6.965
<10
8468.15
1674.5
167.25
84.285
24.665
13.12
3
HC DF
5.95
7.825
NES
11981
1998.9
197.55
26.5
29
_
0.4
HC 28M
2.61
1.82
125
7727.7
1084.2
36.5
232.8
30 48
-
24.1
Mean
15.29
5.05
617.19
9853.85
1472.54
131.59
165.01
31 75
22.38
18.90
-------
ID#
Ave dH
Ave EC
Ave OM
>
<
re
Z
o
Ave P
Avg K
Ave Zn
Avg Fc
CC 1
7.35
1.3
65.34
17
45.7
266.5
16.05
1180
CC 2
7.5
04
38.75
9
6 6
139.5
4.475
259
CC 3
7
0 45
68.65
12.5
21 45
209
8.425
718.5
CC 4
7.85
0.4
79.42
21.5
8.4
205
9.475
210
CC 5
7.9
0.45
51.75
24
5 5
56 45
2.46
436.9
CC 6
8 1
0.4
43.165
22.5
7.4
83.7
4 285
171.3
CC 7
7 9
0.35
84 3
10.5
14
112 5
3 335
476.25
CC 8
7.85
0.6
83 86
17 5
23.5
773
8.765
694
CC 9
7.75
0.8
47.25
9 5
4 8
100.75
5.045
1025
CC 10
6.85
1.2
43 75
14 5
3.2
102.3
4.945
809
CC 11
8.05
0.75
39.8
9
5.4
119.75
5.795
655.5
CC 12
7.95
0 5
18.82
8
3.6
51
1.655
375.5
CC 13
7.8
0.55
21.7
8.5
1.4
30 7
1.4
591.5
CC 14
7.65
0.8
37.9
11.5
8.3
153.5
8.38
315.25
CC 15
7.95
0.65
21.78
9
8.7
52.45
1 875
575.5
CC 16
78
0.85
37 14
15
6.4
82.35
8.55
234.75
CC 17
7.55
0.65
29.545
12.5
4.25
114.25
7.575
182.5
CC 18
7.5
0.45
47.605
14.5
3 4
82.6
5.43
487.5
CC 19
7.5
0.6
41.75
48.5
8.8
92 6
7.65
544.5
CC 20
7.7
06
36.19
7.5
4.3
63
4.94
366 75
CC 21
7.55
0 65
43.35
16.5
5.3
89
9 56
428.25
CC 22
7.5
0.65
38.85
20.5
3.9
83
4.68
490 25
CC 23
7.8
0.55
23.03
10
7.85
185
13.63
279 75
*CC 24
7.55
1.4
74 175
266.5
13 2
85.7
10 535
337.5
*CC 25
7.7
2.85
31.74
821.5
16.4
79.35
13.09
251
*CC 26
7.85
_ 1.1
47.065
46.75
7.8
55.46
19.77
492.6
*CC 27
8.1
0.7
64.4
66
16.2
92 6
40.8
458
Mean
7.69
0.76
46.71
57 42
9.84
131 89
8.61
483.20
Table 16. The average of 1996 and 1997 soil measurements at Crooked Creek Fen
Electrical conductivity is in mmhos/cm2, all other measures are mg/kg. NES indicates
cases non-sufficient sample. VOS samples had organic contents too high to perform the
analysis. An * indicates a disturbed site.
-------
Table 16 con't
ID#
Avg Mn
Avg Cu 96 S04
Avg Ca
Avg mg
Avg Na
Avg Sr
Avg Pb
1996 U
Avg
CaC03
CC 1
88 8
6.015
NES
11687.75
791.4
142.9
66.21
43.885
5.48
0 15
CC 2
36.8
5.1
<10
10333.4
589.65
91 65
49.93
29.11
-
0.23
CC 3
150.25
5.445
NES
13021.9
779.1
135.9
61.765
50.285
10 65
0.05
CC 4
30.5
3.815
NES
14323.85
803.35
228.1
37.5
39
-
8 24
CC 5
32
6.765
<10
13593.7
1281.65
130 15
182.35
7.5
22.41
23.995
CC 6
25.31
13.235
NES
8905.6
686 7
122.25
248.05
32
-
48.825
CC 7
98 9
6.4
NES
14002 4
757 55
197.65
29
2
-
1 77
CC 8
69.05
10.59
NES
7796.1
449
91.9
29
7
-
2 28
CC 9
257.75
4.575
490
11287.25
373.7
105.1
130.75
37.27
-
42.845
CC 10
119.5
5.585
NES
9701.45
382.15
108.2
170 45
35.155
-
43 89
CC 11
130.65
4.225
400
11119.15
379
113.6
154.6
24.625
-
50.55
CC 12
36.7
4.385
<10
7034.2
270.15
36.6
253.75
23.19
-
43.5
CC 13
40.25
3.07
135
6671.15
163.6
47.25
289.85
13.4595
1.59
71.2
CC 14
106.95
5.845
145
8608 15
471.8
92.95
207.9
27.16
7.27
54.1
CC 15
57.75
3.625
355
7705.55
507
50.45
322.9
3 5
-
62 735
CC 16
69.15
3.79
400
8589.75
586.65
100.6
204.15
31.64
-
52.55
CC 17
41.95
4.3
NES
9994.65
570.95
77 15
171.65
17.7485
-
44.855
CC 18
35.7
4.36
190
9751.5
465.5
81.65
183.05
22.2655
-
49.405
CC 19
54.9
4.83
NES
10340 5
339.15
66.8
179.35
27.185
-
40015
CC 20
44.275
3.24
v.o.s
8158.55
652.8
70.6
238.1
20 265
-
60 195
CC 21
87.6
7.745
NES
9584.85
943 4
191 8
222.05
27.565
-
44.21
CC 22
34.675
3.67
<10
8919.1
397.55
78.6
257.65
19.675
-
52.47
CC 23
79.2
7.44
115
8968.4
503.9
63.85
77.135
18.855
-
16.88
*CC 24
46.75
3.755
500
16252
1397.85
95.6
111.35
3.5
22.57
10 47
*CC 25
48.35
2.8
435
10134.3
643.4
93.65
124
18.5
6.55
56.54
*CC 26
63.65
5.455
NES
13056.8
888.35
178.7
140.65
20 885
5.44
17.275
*CC. 27
1004
3 72
WS
14471.8
1154 7
135.6
147.2
17
_
19.4
Mean
73 62
5.32
228.93
10519.03
638.15
108 49
158.90
22.97
10 245
34.02
-------
ID # Avg pH Avg EC Avg OM Avg N03 Avg P
Avg Zn
FF 1
6.9
1.1
52.32
42.5
7.95
97.15
24.05
867.5
FF 2
6.05
2.25
67.675
119
10.4
170.9
25 95
1170
FF 3
7.35
3.05
59.45
37.5
5.8
78
9.29
939
*FF 4
5.6
3.55
57.825
31
3.8
75
8 95
734.5
FF 5
6.25
4 15
28.92
11.5
13.9
90 65
2.915
1294.5
FF 6
7.55
3.1
38.905
21
6.7
150.3
15.39
523 5
FF 7
6.3
1.6
59.015
19.5
7.3
65 65
2 41
1366
FF 8
6.2
1 8
72.235
22
3.2
124.7
38 955
1517 5
*FF 9
6.3
1.4
56.56
22
4 9
83.7
29.62
1224
FF 10
6.35
0.45
37.63
8.5
7.45
59.4
4.295
794.5
FF 11
6.2
0.9
47.24
8.5
4.6
90.5
11.77
1297.5
*FF 12
6.5
0.6
31 56
6.5
3.4
57.35
6 695
921 5
FF 13
6.45
0.75
27.69
85
1 6
87.4
5 535
530.5
*FF 14
5.05
2.05
42.53
14
4.8
71.95
8.995
1070
*FF 15
4.15
2.9
53.65
20
12.2
45.95
17 74
2297.5
FF 16
7.6
1.2
58
16
3.6
33.36
13
242 4
FF 17
5.6
1 4
76.555
13
5.7
160
68.15
1445
FF 19
6.3
0.7
72.02
16.5
18.45
165
34.2
1212.5
FF 20
6.2
1
74.425
16.5
11.25
173 7
12.545
1590
FF 21
5.95
1.3
69 775
9.5
20.75
345
21.125
990
FF 23
6.95
2.4
52.85
51
7.95
134.2
19.79
1011
FF 24
6.8
0.5
79.3
10
7.5
311.5
28.6
980
Mean
6.17
1.74
55.75
22.89
8.05
121.08
18.32 1102.62
ID#
Avg Mn
Avg Cu
96 S04
Avg Ca
Avg mg
Avg Na
Avg Sr
Avg Pb
1996 U
Avg
CaC03
FF 1
30.5
3.8
NES
10808.3
571.75
84.95
185.5
39.17
13 46
31.74
FF 2
17.75
4.105
2400
12055.9
1235.6
246.45
147.1
27 405
6 58
2 675
FF 3
18.1
2.91
NES
15641
2269.2
313.2
133 5
8
7.79
*FF 4
7.74
2.88
NES
23102.5
1609.6
515.8
234.5
10.145
13.46
1 875
FF 5
3.655
9.675
2240
6715
1153
978.15
260.1
9.5
3.62
6 15
FF 6
14.685
3.66
1775
11662.5
1467.1
633.3
378.3
17.39
.
13.07
FF 7
13.28
2.13
370
11653.35
770.75
170.4
175.1
12.6
7.77
0.355
FF 8
17.76
4.805
V.O.S
11085.5
874.8
386.8
145.65
38.975
9.42
3.15
*FF 9
13.595
5.23
140
8681.3
787.7
479.35
131.8
28.9
10.31
0.965
FF 10
191.115
3.975
NES
5886.45
694.25
151.45
119.8
10.9
36 34
0.615
FF 11
213.575
17.88
V.O.S
7431.3
689 95
199
117.55
11.76
9.43
1.72
*FF 12
18.215
8.295
<10
5875.25
660.7
177.1
90.325
15 485
4 62
0 795
FF 13
7.97
6.44
270
5521.35
692.6
245.65
67.37
8
2.12
0.81
*FF 14
37.55
5.575
2975
14248.55
658.3
259.25
191.5
6.9075
9.28
0 91
*FF 15
34.05
5.36
V.O.S
5751.15
718.95
228.65
91.8
8.7085
5.79
0.15
FF 16
4.88
4.36
660
12469.5
728.9
179.2
138.8
37.97
3.88
0 1
FF 17
51.5
10.8
V.O.S
11156.45
712.9
305.4
112.1
29.695
3.33
1.39
FF 19
61.85
7.84
NES
9928.1
835.8
188.1
137.65
37.75
3.81
0.875
FF 20
62.85
7.69
NES
8558.45
909.8
225.8
126.9
40.065
5 98
1 21
FF 21
44.5
4.05
NES
8868.4
1110.85
265.05
56
13.5
0
FF 23
32.95
4.38
NES
14579.4
758.15
289.9
231 4
23.595
_
3 39
Mean
42.76
5.99
1204.44
10556.18
948.13
310.62
155.84
20 78
8.78
3.80'
Table 17. The average of 1996 and 1997 soil measurements at Fremont's Fen. Electrical
conductivity is in mmhos/cm2, all other measures are mg/kg NES indicates cases non-sufficient
sample. VOS samples had organic contents too high to perform the analysis. An * indicates a
disturbed site.
-------
At Crooked Creek Fen, iron and manganese were found at levels exceeding health standards
at the majority of stations. Chromium was also found at high levels at one station This same
situation was found at Fremont's Fen, were iron and manganese were found at high levels at several
stations No spikes in uranium levels were found in disturbed areas of either of these fens. The likely
explanation for this is that because background uranium levels are much lower in Crooked Creek and
Fremont's Fen (0.0070 mg/1 and 0.0006 mg/1, respectively), compared to High Creek Fen (0.0048
mg/1), not enough uranium has been sequestered in the soils to elicit an elevation in ground water
levels when the fen soils are disturbed. This underscores the importance of considering regional
attributes, such as geology and water source, when considering impacts wetland disturbance.
Metal Enrichment in Fen Peat
The environmental function of water quality enhancement by fens is to a large degree
accomplished by the adsorption and sequestration of metals by the organic matter in peat. This
results in the reduction of metal concentrations in groundwater, while metal concentrations are
concomitantly increased in the peat. Enrichment factors measure the metal level in the peat as
compared to that in the ground water Higher values indicate higher levels of metal sequestration,
that is more filtration of the metal by peat.
Table 18 Water quality standards for the State of Colorado (from Colorado Dept. of Health 1995a,
Colorado Dept. of Health 1995b).
Parameter Standard (mg/1)
Surface Water -
Drinking Water
Surface Water -
Agricultural Use
Groundwater -
Human Health
Groundwater -
Agricultural Use
Barium
1.000
N.A.
1 000
N.A.
Boron
N.A.
0.750
N.A
0.750
Chromium (VI)
0.050
0.100
0.050
0.100
Iron
0.300
N.A.
0.300
5.000
Lead
0 050
0.100
0 050
0.100
Manganese
0.050
0.200
0.050
0.200
Zinc
2.000
5.000
5.000
2.000
Uranium
0.030-0.149'
N.A.
0.030-0.149'
N.A.
This value was obtained from Milvy & Cothern 1990, as a suggested standard or maximum allowable range. This
is not a promulgated standard.
N.A. = No standard available
Table 19 contains enrichment factors for the metals for which both soil and water data were
available. All metals showed at least some degree of enrichment in the wetland soils, although,
phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and sodium are only sequestered to a small degree. Most
-------
significant are the enrichment of iron, manganese, lead, strontium and uranium Precise interpretation
of levels of enrichment is difficult. Tables describing cut-off levels for low, medium, and high
enrichment have not been developed Enrichment of 103 to 104 seems significant, however, while
enrichment on the order of 104 to 106 is very high.
Iron and manganese are most enriched on Crooked Creek and Fremont's Fen, where they
were also most concentrated in the ground water. The concentration of lead was generally lower in
the water than analysis detection limits. In these cases, lead's detection level was used as a surrogate
for the actual level to provide a conservative estimate of soil enrichment. Using this approach, lead
was found to be enriched at moderate to high levels on all sites. Strontium was enriched at only
moderate levels at High Creek and Fremont's Fen, but at Crooked Creek Fen it was found
sequestered to an extremely high degree, with as much as 62,336 times as much strontium in the soils
as in the ground water. Interestingly, Crooked Creek Fen had the lowest strontium ground water
level of the three sites.
Uranium was again shown to have a high affinity for fen soils Uranium is the most
consistently, highly sequestered of all metals. High Creek Fen has high enrichment in soils in the
vicinity of mined areas as was shown previously (Johnson 1996). Within many of the mined areas,
however, enrichment is comparatively low, suggesting an eluviation of uranium. Uranium is most
highly enriched in the soils of Fremont's Fen, although this site clearly has the lowest uranium
background levels. This is highly reminiscent of the case of strontium on Crooked Creek Fen,
suggesting that when back ground levels of some metals are low, wetlands are highly efficient at
removing the ions. When metal background levels are higher, fen soils could be approaching
saturation with regard to the metal, and so be less efficient filters.
-------
Table 19. Soil enrichment factors on at the study sites. Table is continued on next page.
K
Zn
Fe
Mn
Cu
Ca Mg
Na
Sr
Pb
HC 1
HC 2
HC 3
HC 4
HC 5
HC 8
HC 9
HC 10
HC 11
HC 12
HC 13
HC 14
HC 15
HC 16
HC 17
HC 18
HC 19
HC 20
HC 22
HC 23
HC 24
HC 25
HC 26
HC 27
HC 28
HC 32
HC 34
HCDE
FS1
FS3
FS4
FS5
FS6
FS7
FS8
FS9
FS10
FS11
FS13
43 4
79.6
12.4
117.8
95.2
80 9
582 4
49.2
70.1
71 2
35.3
102.4
209.1
101.5
236.8
256 0
54.1
106.8
108.4
32.0
113.0
71.7
40.0
171 1
49.4
6.4
132.5
132.7
324.0
304.0
148.0
179.2
59.7
140.0
758.2
96.0
179.2
284.6
66.0
138 1
142.2
58.9
358.8
92.6
67.4
99 9
28.1
19.8
180 3
159.0
871.0
257.9
203.4
172.5
1610 0
77.4
15.0
161.1
81.5
136.4
43.5
638 0
426 6
150.5
64.9
485.0
92.0
158.6
432.4
231 6
475.0
502.0
376.4
442.1
66.7
142.0
90 1
72.4
860.0
745.0
1050.0
836.0
1140.0
900.0
411.0
460.0
1330.0
950.0
364.0
726.0
627.0
353.0
308.0
1490.0
881.0
348.0
2250.0
478.0
1260.0
561.0
403.0
630.0
143.0
639.0
679.0
1140.0
2020.0
1080.0
1260.0
194.0
225.0
72.0
523.0
414.0
301.0
742.0
160.0
10309 9
3836.1
1335.7
6761.4
3496.0
4813.9
4547.4
3214.9
5303.5
70.8
429 2
1513 7
1090.8
973.1
11174
7942.3
570.0
2309.9
4020.0
976.2
412.3
349.7
2820.7
62.1
9699.3
4272.7
13249.8
2694.5
16558.6
14186.0
2150.1
7113.4
1266.6
9043.2
1903.0
1482.9
1006.8
463.2
92.4
1747.3
403.6
866.5
1107.0
579.6
978.5
565 8
9780.6
1593.9
107.0
208 5
400.9
530.2
210.3
324.6
520.2
183.4
150.9
153.0
261.9
156.4
491.3
1621.5
68.8
752.4
64.0
14179.3
673.9
5960.0
20135.5
1220.0
6360.6
972.9
5830.0
5340.6
82.1
27.7
13.2
65.7
964.0
686.0
656.0
489 0
628.0
542.0
349.0
423.0
443 0
742.0
348.0
595.0
481.0
440.0
336.0
528 0
649.0
353.0
565.0
493.0
382.0
287.5
390.0
694.0
554.0
240.9
866.0
913.0
682.0
625 0
473.0
387.0
203.0
831.0
858.0
469.0
693.0
534.0
502.0
29 0
45.2
146 5
109.4
93 6
104 3
65.6
106.1
210 2
88.4
59.5
76.9
150.3
72.3
75.6
95 2
88.5
136.7
139.4
92 6
120.0
349.5
132.3
54.7
73.7
78.8
95.0
163.1
156 3
279 9
184.8
171.1
36.5
167.7
81.6
132.1
77.7
128.3
61.5
12.3
26 6
70.9
54.0
51.7
45 6
31.4
25.9
97.9
35 9
26 4
36.2
68.0
31.6
26 9
45.6
43.9
54.6
58.5
47.5
64.9
164.3
66.8
20.1
25.2
53.1
62.2
79.7
96.3
173.9
124.1
72.2
19.1
91.7
59 0
51 4
37.5
60.0
19.4
8.0
12.2
30.0
30.6
24.3
43.7
23.9
10.9
317
46.8
22 5
17.6
28.9
18.7
21.0
43.9
37.1
38.5
14.2
15.7
19.0
32.9
10 8
11.3
8.9
22.6
34.3
56.5
78.7
109 8
144.0
559 4
715.6
407.5
257.7
212.1
648.1
318.8
731.7
621.6
214.1
714.3
175 7
715.8
356 2
866.3
210.1
496.5
232.7
257 1
192.5
255.7
755.6
206.8
654.3
509.6
325.6
357.6
297.8
4108
854.0
622.2
42.6 1590.6
19.9 811.8
94.9
36.6
56.5
37.5
382.9
354 9
938.7
860.6
73.5 8870.4
24.4 16886 9
1060.0
700.0
480.0
400.0
1260.0
380.0
480.0
280 0
100.0
820.0
1160 0
580.0
680.0
340.0
800 0
1140.0
1060.0
120.0
1760.0
360.0
620.0
520 0
1240.0
1760.0
300.0
400.0
440.0
1160.0
1220 0
1100 0
1560 0
300.0
1000.0
80.0
280.0
720.0
680.0
360.0
1705.5
688 1
209 7
2531.2
914.1
976.2
4557 1
16488 9
1890.8
8112.5
47.1
17396 4
2563.3
4566 7
8875 0
747.0
-------
P
K
Zn
Fe
Mn
Cu
Ca
Mg
Na
Sr
Pb
U
FS14
174.8
80.6
906.0
429.7
17.9
725.0
103.9
35.1
23.8
26867.2
380.0
-
FS15
388.3
115.7
67.0
973.4
91 2
451 0
48.0
16.3
7.5
18480.0
140.0
-
FS16
97.2
737.0
1130.0
823.4
847.7
433.0
48.2
24.5
3.2
16324.0
760 0
-
FS17
49.5
188.5
715.0
271.6
67.1
598.0
57.5
29.6
14 6
9394.0
540.0
-
FS18
44.8
64.6
551 0
830.7
61.2
401.0
51 7
22.4
17 8
8338.6
760.0
-
FS19
14.4
8.0
2.3
670.2
58.8
5.8
198.5
6.6
2.1
200 6
520 0
-
FS20
180.7
405.0
293.0
1154.2
120.8
349 0
49.3
25.4
9.9
31017.8
334.4
-
FS21
401.3
265 6
832.0
3507 5
1756 5
664.0
82.4
34.6
8.8
62335 8
500 0
-
FS22
72.0
985 0
401.0
7276 0
3060.0
448.0
85 0
35.6
26.5
1353.1
480.0
-
FS23
196.0
515.1
661.0
1570.6
311.1
878.0
64.0
29.2
10.1
343.4
520.0
-
MC7
72.0
723 0
186.0
14583.0
462 3
301.0
60.5
24.1
8.5
154.2
260.0
12950 0
MC9
48.0
837 5
5440 0
3760 9
9170
871 0
154.6
69.0
4 7
282.0
900 0
-
MC10
44.0
35.6
299.0
891.6
0.6
541.0
91.5
48.1
18 2
218.1
180 0
45425.0
MCI 1
153.8
757.1
644.0
181.4
4510.7
501.0
189.5
113.9
4.5
567.5
200 0
23575.0
MC12
68.0
124.4
1060.0
1661.7
1851.3
836.0
183 7
95.5
12.8
402.7
380 0
4620.0
MC14
96.0
129.8
811.0
798.7
1230.0
659.0
238.4
128.2
21.6
496.7
180.0
-
MC15
184 0
24.2
683.0
20759.4
762.5
812.0
37.6
105.7
36.6
274.3
200 0
9650 0
MC17
27.9
1730.0
8049.3
463.9
1113 9
1400.0
326.9
160.7
41 9
450 8
100.0
8325 0
MC20
278.7
69.3
449.0
1180.4
499 0
1250.0
238.6
97.9
30.6
497.6
680.0
14950.0
SCI
200.0
341.7
2100.0
3737.7
3550.0
541.0
256.0
137.6
22.6
521.8
540.0
-
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Ecological and environmental data at three fen complexes in South Park, Colorado were
collected in the course of this study. Although the granting period for this project only covered the
1996 and 1997 field seasons, additional data from 1995 and 1998, collected in related projects, was
included to enrich the data record. These data were funded through a State Wetlands Grant to Brad
Johnson and Park County and, funds provided by Park County Government.
Through this project, a reference data set on the environmental functions performed by
calcareous subalpine fens was compiled. It is intended that this information be used to development
a regional slope wetlands guidebook for the Rocky Mountain Region, and for use by resource
managers when faced with issues surrounding fen conservation. Investigated during this study were
factors related to hydrologic, plant species habitat, and water quality improvement functions.
Hydrologic regimes varied across and between wetlands, but all hydrographs could be
classified in one of four newly developed hydrotypes. These hydrotypes were readily related to
vegetation types found on the wetlands. All of the fens possess areas of ground water discharge and
this process occurs perennially at these sites. In fact, these fens are critically dependent on the
maintenance of ground water discharge since the arid climate of South Park would not otherwise
-------
support fens. The fen vegetation and soils help to disburse and store water in the short- to mid-term,
and maintain a non-channelized, diffuse water flow The slow release of water from the fens helps
buffer the hydrographs of connected waterways and helps to maintain base flow during the warm, dry
summer.
The fens.may also be sites of ground water recharge or zero head. Recharge can be induced
by the construction of ditches. Such induced recharge is a situation in which a wetland performing
a function to a higher degree is not desirable
Three primary directions of change, or gradients, in wetland vegetation were found through
indirect and direct gradient analysis. The first is a moisture gradient influenced by soil and water
chemistry The second gradient is a mire margin to expanse gradient. This was expressed on
Crooked Creek Fen as a gradient from tall willow communities to short, scattered willow-graminiod
communities. On the other fens, it was seen as a change from tall hummock communities on the
margins to extremely rich fen lawns and water-tracks in the interior. This gradient was not present
in the CCA since quantification of the gradient was not attempted. The third gradient was related to
changes in soil and water chemistry. The importance of soil moisture in these analyses, again,
underscores the importance of hydrologic inputs, other than direct precipitation, in the maintenance
of wetland vegetation.
The significant differences in the vegetation between intact and impacted sites was discussed.
Mined sites have a lower plant coverage and species diversity compared to intact sites. Many times
mined areas are devoid of vegetation, even many years after the cessation of mining. This again
demonstrates the sensitivity of these areas and their poor recovery after disturbance On sites
impacted by ditching, species richness is not significantly different from hydrologically intact sites,
however, species composition is distinct in each area, sharing few species in common.
Based on soil enrichment factors, all fens performed a significant water quality improvement
function. Of the metals for which data were available, iron, manganese, strontium, lead and uranium
were most highly sequestered in the soil. Disturbance of the fen soils releases many of these metals
leading to soil metal enrichment down gradient.
A Ph.D. dissertation and published manuscripts will be additional products from this project.
These peer reviewed documents will contain additional analyses of the data contained herein. These
documents will be made available to the Federal and State agencies involved in this project.
-------
References Cited
Appel, J. L. 1995. Hydrogeologic Framework of the High Creek Calcareous Fen, South Park, Park
County, Colorado M.S. Thesis, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N M.
Boelter, D. 1964. Water storage characteristics of several peats in situ. Soil Science Society
Proceedings.
Chee, W. & D.H. Vitt. 1989. The vegetation, surface chemistry and peat chemistry of
moderate-rich fens in central Alberta, Canada. Wetlands 9:227-261.
Chronic, J. 1964. Geology of the southern Mosquito Range, Colorado. The Mountain Geologist
1:103-113.
Colorado Dept. of Health. 1995. Basic Standards and Methodologies for Surface Water Water
Quality Control, Denver.
Colorado Dept. of Health. 1995. Basic Standards for Ground Water. Water Quality Control,
Denver.
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Appendix 1. Species list for the three study sites. Species abbreviations in figures are the first
three letters of the genus name and specific epithet.
Kartez Name
Weber Name
Achillea millefolium*
Achillea lanulosa
Acomtum Columbianum
Aconitum Columbianum
Agrostis gigantea
Agrostis gigantea
Agroseris glauca
Agroseris glauca
Allium geyeri
Allium geyeri
Alopercurus borealis*
Alopercurus alpinus
Alopercurus aequalis
Alopercurus aequalis
Aster pauciflorous*
A Imutaster pauciflorous
A lyssum sp
A lyssum sp
Scirpus nevadensis*
Amphiscirpus nevadensis
Anemone sp
Anemone sp
Anaphalis margaritacea
Anaphalis margaritacea
Antennaria microphyllus
Antennaria microphyllus
Arabis hirsuta
Arabis hirsuta
Potentilla anserina*
Argentina anserina
Artemisia frigida
Artemisia frigida
Aster lanceolatus
Aster lanceolatus
Aster occidentahs
Aster occidentahs
Astragalus leptophyllus
Astragalus leptophyllus
Astragalus sparsijlorus
Astragalus sparsiflorus
A triplex argentea
Atriplex argentea
Ranunculus longiostris*
Batrachium circinatum
Beckmania syzigachne
Beckmania syzigachne
Betula fontinalis
Betula fontinalis
Betula glandulosa
Betula glandulosa
Polygonum bistortioides*
Bistorta bistortoides
Polygonum viviparum *
Bistorta vivipara
Arabis fendleri*
Boechera fendleri
Scirpus maritimus*
Bolboshoenus maritima
Bromus candensis*
Bromopsis canadensis
Calamagrostis canadensis
Calamagrostis canadensis
Calamagrostis stricta
Calamagrostis stricta
Campanula parryi
Campanula parryi
Cardamme cordifolia
Cardamme cordifolia
Carex aquatihs
Carex aquatilis
Carex aurea
Carex aurea
C. capillaris
C. capillaris
Carex gynogrates *
C. dioica
C. disperma
C. disperma
Carex microptera*
C. festivella
C. hasset
C. hassei
C. interior
C. interior
C. lanuginosa
C. lanuginosa
C microglochin
C. microglochin
Carex festivella*
C. microptera
C. nebraskensis
C. nebraskensis
C. norvegica
C. norvegica
Carex halln *
-------
C praegracillis
C. praegracillis
C saxatilis
C. saxatilis
C. scirpoidea
C. scirpoidea
C. simulate/
C simulala
Car ex ro strata*
C.. utriculata
Castilleja sulpherea
Castilleja sulpherea
Catabrosa aqutica
Catabrosa aqutica
Ceratophyllum demersum
Ceratophyllum demersum
Epilobium angustifolium spp. angustifolium*
Chamerion angustifolium
Gentiana fremontu *
Chondrophylla aquatica
Bouteloua gracilis*
Chondrosum gracilie
Cirsium arvense
Cirsium arvense
Cirsium coloradensis
Cirsium coloradensis
Sedum rhodanthum *
Clementsia rhodantha
Coniselnium scopulorum
Coniselnium scopulorum
Hordeum brachyantherum *
Critesion brachyantherum
Hordeum jubatum*
C.ritesion jubatum
Delphinium barbeyi
Delphinium barbeyi
Deschampsia cespitosa
Deschampsia cespitosa
Descurania mcana
Descurania mcana
Disttchihs stricta
Distichilis stricta
Dodecatheort pulchellum
Dodecatheon pulchellum
Eleocharis palustris
Eleocharis palustris
Eleocharis quinqueflora
Eleocharis quinqueflora
Elymus trachycaulus
Elymus trachycaulus
Epilobium leptophyllum
Epilobium leptophyllum
Equisetum variegatum
Equisetum variegatum
Erigeron flagellars
Erigeron flagellars
Trimorpha lonchophylla*
Erigeron lonchophyllus
Erigeron peregrmus
Erigeron peregrmus
Enophorum angustifolium
Eriophorum angustifolium
Eriophorum gracilie
Eriophorum gracilie
Erysimum capitatus
Erysimum capitatus
Erysimum cheiranthoides
Erysimum cheiranthoides
Festuca arizomca
Festuca arizomca
Fragaria sp
Fragaria sp
Galium boreale
Galium boreale
Gentiana affinis
Gentiana affinis
Gentianopsis thermalis
Gentianopsis thermalis
Gentianella amarella*
Gentianella strictiflora
Gentianella amarella
Gentianella amarella
Geranium fremontu
Geranium fremontii
Geum macropyllum
Geum macropyllum
Glaux maritima
Glaux maritima
Glyceria striata
Glyceria striata
Hackelia floribunda
Hackelia floribunda
Ranunculus sceleratus*
Hecatonia sceleratus
Ranunculus cymbalaria*
Halerpestes cymbalaria
Heracleum sphondylium
Heracleum sphondylium
Hippuris vulgaris
Hippuris vulgaris
Saxifraga hirculus*
Hirculus prorepens
Iris missouriensis
Iris missouriensis
lva axillaris
lva axillaris
Juncus albescens
-------
Juncus balticus montanus*
Juncus castaneus
Juncus longistylus
Juncus saximontanus
Kobresia myosuroidies
Kobresia simpliciuluscula
Koeleria macrantha
Lepidium ramosissimum
Platanthera hvperborea*
Linium lewisii
Lomatogonium rotatum
Lonicera mvolucrata
Luiula parviflora
Macranthera sp
Maianthemum stellatum
Mentha arvense
Mertensia ciliata
Mimulus glabaratus
Muhenbergia montana
Muhenbergia richardsonis
Myriopyllum sibiricum
Artemisia dracunculus*
Orthocarpus luteus
Oxytropis deflexa
Oxytropis lambertii
Senecio pauciflorus*
Senecio pauperculus*
Senecio pseudaureous*
Pamassia parviflora
Pascopyrum smithii
Pedicularis crenulata
Pedicularis groenlandica
Pedicularis scopulorum
Pentaphylloides floribunda
Persicaria amphibia
Perasites sagittata
Phleum pratense
Picea engelmannu
Plantago eriopoda
Pneumonanthe affmis
Pneumonanthe parryi
Poa compressa
Poa secunda*
Poa pratensis
Polemonium caeruleum
Populus balsamifera
Potamogeton pusillus
Potamogeton pectinatus
Potentilla gacillis
Potentilla hippiana
Potentilla plattensis
Potentilla subjuga
Primula egalikensis
Primula mcana
Juncus arcticus ssp. ater
Juncus castaneus
Juncus longistylus
Juncus saximontanus
Kobresia myosuroidies
Kobresia simpliciuluscula
Koeleria macrantha
Lepidium ramosissimum
Limnorchis hyperborea
Linium lewisii
Lomatogonium rotatum
Lonicera involucrata
Luzula parviflora
Macranthera sp
Maianthemum stellatum
Mentha arvense
Mertensia ciliata
Mimulus glabaratus
Muhenbergia montana
Muhenbergia richardsonis
Myriopvllum sibiricum
Ohgosporus dracunculus
Orthocarpus luteus
Oxytropis deflexa
Oxytropis lambertii
Packera pauciflora
Packera paupercula
Packera pseudaurea
Parnassia parviflora
Pascopyrum smithn
Pedicularis crenulata
Pedicularis groenlandica
Pedicularis scopulorum
Pentaphylloides floribunda
Persicaria amphibia
Perasites sagittata
Phleum pratense
Picea engelmannii
Plantago eriopoda
Pneumonanthe affmis
Pneumonanthe parryi
Poa compressa
Poa juncifolia
Poa pratensis
Polemonium caeruleum
Populus balsamifera
Potamogeton pusillus
Potamogeton pectinatus
Potentilla gacillis
Potentilla hippiana
Potentilla plattensis
Potentilla subjuga
Primula egalikensis
-------
Crepis runcmata *
Caltha leptosepala*
Ptilogrostis porteri
Punccinelha nuttalliana*
Pyrrocoma dementis
Ranunculus cardiophllus
Ranunculus escholtzu
Ranunculus gmelinii
Ranunculus hyperboreus
Ranunculus pedatifius
Ranunculus reptans
Rhmanthus minor
Ribes tnerme
Rudbeckia hirta
Rumex aquaticus
Rumex salicifolius var mexicanus*
Sahcornia europea
Salix bebbiana
Sahx brachycarpa
S. Candida
S. drummondiana
S. exigua
S. monticola
S. myrtillifoha
S. plamfoha
S wolfii
Scirpus pungens*
Scirpus tabernaemontanii (S. vallidus) *
Senecio crocatus
Senecio mtergrimus
Sisvrinchium montanum
Sisyrinchium pallidum
Sparganium angustifolium
Spartina gracilis
Spiranthes romanzoffiana
Sporobolus airoides
Stellaria crassipes
Stellaria longipes
Suadea calseohformis
Swertia perennis
Taraxacum officinale
Thalictrum alpinum
Thalictrum sparsiflorum
Thlaspi arvense
Thermopsis montana
Scirpus rollandu *
Trifolium hybridum
Trifolium pratense
Trifolium repens
Triglochm concinna
Triglochin maritimum
Triglochin palustre
So 11 dago ptarm icoides*
Utricularia ochroleuca
Psilochema runcmata
Psychrophila leptosepala
Ptilogrostis porteri
Punccinella airioides
Pyrrocoma clementts
Ranunculus cardiophllus
Ranunculus escholtzu
Ranunculus gmelinii
Ranunculus hyperboreus
Ranunculus pedatifius
Ranunculus reptans
Rhmanthus minor
Ribes merme
Rudbeckia hirta
Rumex aquaticus
Rumex triangulivalvis
Sahcornia europea
Salix bebbiana
Sahx brachycarpa
S. Candida
S. drummondiana
S. exigua
S. monticola
S myrtillifolia
S. plamfoha
S. wolfii
Schoenoplectus pungens
Schoenoplectus lacustris
Senecio crocatus
Senecio intergrimus
Sisyrinchium montanum
Sisyrinchium pallidum
Sparganium angustifolium
Spartina gracilis
Spiranthes romanzoffiana
Sporobolus airoides
Stellaria crassipes
Stellaria longipes
Suadea calseohformis
Swertia perennis
Taraxacum officinale
Thalictrum alpinum
Thalictrum sparsiflorum
Thlaspi arvense
Thermopsis montana
Trichophorum pumilum
Trifolium hybridum
Trifolium pratense
Trifolium repens
Triglochin concinna
Triglochin maritimum
Triglochin palustre
Unamia alba
-------
Utricularia vulgaris
Valeriana eduhs
Viola adunca
Viola sororia
Zizia aptera
Anticlea (Zigadenus) elegans
Utricularia vulgaris
Valeriana eduhs
Viola adunca
Viola sororia
Zizia aptera
Anticlea (Zigadenus) elegans
Mosses
Amblystegium serpens
Aulaconmuim palustre
Campylium stellatum
Chmacium dendroides
Cratoneuron fihcmum
Drepanocladus aduncus
Plagiomnium elhpticum
Pholia nutans
Scorpidium scorpioides
Scorpidium turgescens
Tomenthyphum nitens
Warnstorfia exannulata
Mosses
Amblystegium serpens
Aulaconmuim palustre
Campylium stellatum
Chmacium dendroides
Cratoneuron filicinum
Drepanocladus aduncus
Plagiomnium elhpticum
Pholia nutans
Scorpidium scorpioides
Scorpidium turgescens
Tomenthyphum nitens
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