United States Oil and Special Materials June 1979
Environmental Protection Control Division
Agency Marine Protection Branch
Washington DC 20460
Water
*»EPA Environmental Impact DRAFT
Statement (EIS)
for 106-Mile Ocean Waste
Disposal Site Designation
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DRAFT
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS)
for
106-MILE OCEAN WASTE
DISPOSAL SITE DESIGNATION
June 1979
A EPA
Prepared Under Contract 68-01-4610
T. A. Wastler, Project Officer
for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Oil and Special Materials Control Division
Marine Protection Branch
Washington, D.C. 20460
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Draft Environmental Impact Statement On
106-Mile Ocean Waste Disposal Site Designation
Prepared By
Office of Water Program uperations
Marine Protection Branch
Environmental Protection Agency
Approved By
2 5 JUN 1979
(Date)
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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON. D C 20460
TO ALL INTERESTED GOVERNMENT AGENCIES,
PUBLIC GROUPS, AND CITIZENS
Enclosed for your review is the draft Environmental Impact
Statement for 106-Mile Ocean Waste Disposal Site Desig-
nation.
Ocean dumping has long been a convenient and
economical means for the disposal of wastes and other mate-
rial; until the passage of the Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act in 1972 (MPRSA) and the coming into
force of the International Ocean Dumping Convention, this
practice was essentially unregulated either domestically or
internationally. Since 1972, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has had the responsibility of regulating the
dumping of municipal and industrial wastes into ocean
waters, and, as part of this mandate, also has the
authority to select and designate sites in the ocean for
the dumping of such wastes and dredged material.
EPA policy on the ocean dumping of any waste material
has been that land-based methods of disposal must be used
when they are available, even when ocean dumping would not
result in unreasonable degradation of the marine environ-
ment. The designation of a particular location for the
ocean dumping of certain materials does not constitute
blanket approval of ocean dumping as a means of ultimate
waste disposal, but merely the recognition that ocean
dumping is necessary and appropriate in certain situations.
When this is the case, a location must be designated which
has the least adverse environmental impact for such
dumping.
The determination as to whether or not a permit for
dumping at a designated site will be issued in any
particular situation is a separate action decided on a
case-by-case basis, and the designation of a site for
dumping certain wastes in no way prejudges the
determination to be made on particular permit applications.
Each applicant must demonstrate compliance with the EPA
Ocean Dumping Criteria, including the lack of viable
land-based alternatives, before a permit may be issued.
This present proposed action concerns a site off the
Continental Shelf in the New York Bight area. This site,
commonly known as the "106-mile site," has been used for
many years as a location for the ocean dumping of indus-
trial wastes. Between 1974 and 1978, the site was studied
extensively by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, and the results of these studies form the
primary technical basis for this analysis.
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2
Over 100 different dumpers have utilized the 106-mile
site for waste disposal since 1961. Now, only four per-
mittees are using the site. Despite this large decrease in
ocean disposal activity at the site, a present and future
need exists for its continued use for those permittees
whose wastes meet the environmental impact criteria and
cannot be feasibly treated by current land-based methods.
There will also be a continuing need to have available for
use a site of known environmental characteristics for the
disposal of some wastes under emergency conditions and for
the disposal of new wastes which EPA deems acceptable for
ocean disposal.
Designation of this site for use in this manner is
also fully consistent with the requirements of Annex III of
the Ocean Dumping Convention.
In making designations of sites for ocean dumping, EPA
has made the voluntary commitment to prepare EIS's on pro-
posed site designations as part of the documentation which
demonstrates the suitability of the location chosen for
dumping. This approach has been taken to provide the
greatest possible degree of public participation in
reaching a decision.
Comments on this Draft EIS should be provided as indicated
in the EIS summary. A public hearing on this Draft EIS will be
held on August 21 in Trenton, New Jersey. Recipients of the
Draft EIS will be notified of exact time and place at a later
date.
Sincerely,
Deputy j :
for Water Program Operations (WH-546)
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
DRAFT
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT ON
THE 106-MILE OCEAN WASTE DISPOSAL
SITE DESIGNATION
Prepared by: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Oil and Special Materials Control Division
Marine Protection Branch
Washington, D.C. 20460
Approved by: ^/?/?
T. A. Wastler Date
Project Officer
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Summary Sheet
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
FOR
106-MILE OCEAN WASTE DISPOSAL SITE DESIGNATION
(X) Draft
( ) Final
( ) Supplement to Draft
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF WATER PROGRAM OPERATIONS
MARINE PROTECTION BRANCH
1. Type of Action
(X) Administrative/Regulatory action
( ) Legislative action
2. Brief description of background of action and its purpose indicating what
States (and counties) are particularly affected.
The proposed action is the designation of the 106-Mile Chemical Waste
Disposal Site for continuing use. The Site is located approximately one
hundred nautical miles east of Cape May, New Jersey, and is primarily
used by industries located in the New York-New Jersey-Delaware area. The
purpose of the action is to provide an environmentally acceptable area
for the disposal of wastes which (1) comply with EPA's rigid marine
environmental impact criteria, or (2) must be disposed of until a
suitable, land-based disposal method is available.
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3. Summary of major beneficial and adverse environmental and other impacts.
Ocean disposal has occurred at the 106-Mile Site since 1965, and
long-term adverse effects caused by the various waste types dumped have
not been demonstrated. There are short-term adverse effects, especially
on the plankton, but the ecosystem recovers very rapidly. EPA's permit
program mitigates these adverse effects as much as possible. None of the
environmental effects caused by waste disposal at the 106-Mile Site are
irreversible or irretrievable.
4. Major alternatives considered.
The alternatives considered in this EIS are (1) no action, which would
force the use of land-based methods or the shutdown of the waste
producing manufacturing processes, and (2) use of another ocean site for
these wastes—the New York Bight Acid Wastes Site, the Delaware Bay Acid
Site, and the Northern and Southern Areas near the Hudson Canyon.
5. Comments have been requested from the following:
Federal Agencies and Offices
Council on Environmental Quality
Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Maritime Administration
Department of Defense
Army Corps of Engineers
Office of the Oceanographer of the Navy
Department of the Air Force
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Department of the Interior
Fish and Wildlife Service
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
Bureau of Land Management
Geological Survey
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Department of Transportation
Coast Guard
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Water Resources Council
National Science Foundation
States and Municipalities
Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York,'
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia
New York City, N.Y.; Camden, N.J.; Office of the Public Advocate,
Trenton, N.J.; Philadelphia, Pa.
Private Organizations
National Wildlife Federation
American Eagle Foundation
Sierra Club
Environmental Defense Fund, Inc.
Resources for the Future
Water Pollution Control Federation
National Academy of Sciences
American Littoral Society
Center for Law and Social Policy
American Chemical Society
Manufacturing Chemists Association
Academic/Research Institutions
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
University of Rhode Island
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
University of Delaware
New York State University
Rutgers University
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6. The draft statement was officially filed with the Director, Office of
Environmental Review, EPA, on or about June 22, 1979.
7. The 60-day review period for comments on the Draft EIS is estimated to
begin on June 29, 1979.
Comments should be addressed to:
Mr. T.A. Wastler
Chief, Marine Protection Branch (WH-548)
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Copies of the Draft EIS may be obtained from:
Environmental Protection Agency
Marine Protection Branch (WH-548)
Washington, D.C. 20460
Environmental Protection Agency
Region II
Surveillance and Analysis Division
Edison, N.J. 08817
The draft statement may be reviewed at the following locations:
Environmental Protection Agency
Public Information Reference Unit, Rm 2404 (rear)
401 M Street, SW
Washington, D.C.
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Environmental Protection Agency
Region II
Library, Room 1002
26 Federal Plaza
New York, N.Y.
Environmental Protection Agency
Region II
Woodbridge Ave.
GSA Raritan Depot
Edison, N.J.
NOAA/MESA NY Bight Project
Old Biology Bldg.
State University of New York
Stony Brook, N.Y.
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SUMMARY
DATE: June 1979
TYPE OF STATEMENT: Draft Environmental Impact Statement
RESPONSIBLE FEDERAL AGENCY: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTENTION: Mr. T.A. Wastler
Marine Protection Branch (WH-548)
Oil and Special Materials Control Divieion
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
TYPE OF ACTION: Final designation of 106-Mile Chemical Waste Disposal Site
This EIS serves several purposes: It primarily provides
documentation of data and analysis necessary for the
consideration of the supporting formal designation of the
106-Mile Chemical Waste Disposal Site for continued ocean
waste disposal; secondly, it evaluates the types of
industrial materials which may be disposed of at the site; in
an environmentally sound manner; thirdly, it presents a
rationale for consideration of the Site as an alternate site
for the emergency disposal of sewage sludge; finally, the EIS
provides guidance for the permitting authority to manage the
site through the ocean dumping permit program.
ORGANIZATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
This EIS has several levels of detail. The Summary presents highlights of all
the EIS chapters, and ib written to permit the reader to achieve a level of
understanding of the major points of the document, without reading the entire
text. The main body of the text contains reduced technical information.
Highlights from each chapter are summarized at the start of the chapter.
Appendices contain supplemental technical information, and are included for
the benefit of the reader who desires details. Reading the appendices is not
necessary for an understanding of the rest of the document.
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Chapter 1 specifies the purpose of and need for the proposed action and
presents background material relevant to ocean waste disposal. It also
describes the legal framework by which EPA selects, designates, and manages
ocean waste disposal sites, and by which EPA grants ocean disposal permits for
use of the sites.
Chapter 2 presents alternatives to designating the 106-Mile Site, outlines
procedures by which alternatives were chosen and subsequently evaluated, and
summarizes the relevant comparisons of all alternative site locations.
Chapter 3 describes the environments of the 106-Mile Site and the alternative
sites. Descriptions of previous waste disposal activities are provided for
alternative locations that have been historically used as disposal sites.
Finally, other uses of the ocean at and near the site are evaluated.
Chapter 4 discusses the environmental consequences of all alternatives,
including the proposed action. Chapter 5 discusses the feasibility of sewage
sludge disposal at the 106-Mile Site, Chapter 6 lists the primary authors of
the EIS, and Chapter 7 contains a glossary and list of references.
Several appendices are included: Appendix A is a compendium of environmental
data and information on the 106-Mile Site; Appendix B discusses in detail
current and historical waste disposal practices at the 106-Mile Site; and
Appendix C provides information on present monitoring practices at the Site,
and defines general guidelines for future site monitoring. Appendix D
presents Chapter III of the Final Environmental Impact Statement on the ocean
dumping of Sewage Sludge in the New York Bight (EPA, 1978), describing ocean
dumping alternatives.
PROPOSED ACTION
EPA proposes to designate the 106-Mile Chemical Waste Disposal Site for
continuing use. This action proposes to fulfill the need for a suitable
location off the Middle Atlantic States for the disposal of certain wastes
meeting the criteria for ocean disposal under the U.S. EPA's ocean dumping
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permit program. The criteria are based on a demonstrated need for ocean
disposal over land-based alternatives and an evaluation of the potential
impact on the marine environment.
As this EIS demonstrates, there is a need for ocean disposal of some chemical
wastes and sewage sludge in the northeastern United States. This need
comprises four categories of materials:
(1) Materials that meet the marine environmental impact
criteria and whose land-based disposal alternatives are
less acceptable than ocean disposal;
(2) Material that meets the impact criteria and for which
land-based alternatives are under development;
(3) Materials that do not meet the impact criteria but for
which land-based alternatives will be imposed by 1981;
and
(4) Material which must be ocean dumped under emergency
conditions, either because it represents a health
hazard, or because no feasible alternative is available
at the time of the emergency.
The 106-Mile Site was first used for waste disposal in 1961. In 1973, the
Site was by EPA designated for disposal of industrial wastes on an interim
basis, pending completion of trend assessment surveys. Designation of. the
Site for continued use will permit approved disposal of industrial wastes
currently ocean dumped and will provide for a disposal site for new wastes
judged acceptable for disposal.
Although over 100 industries have dumped wastes at the 106-Mile Site, only
four industrial permittees remain: E.I. duPont de Nemours and Co. (Edge Moor
and Grasselli plants), Merck and Co., and American Cyanamid Co. Of the four,
DuPont-Edge Moor, Merck, and American Cyanamid are scheduled to cease ocean
disposal by the end of 1981 when they will complete implementation of
land-based alternatives. DuPont-Grasselli, the remaining permittee, will
continue ocean disposal since no viable land-based alternatives to ocean
disposal are presently available which are environmentally acceptable and its
waste presently complies with EPA's marine environmental impact criteria.
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Municipal sewage sludge also has been dumped at the 106-Mile Site. The City
of, Camden, New Jersey, utilized the Site during 1977 and 1978; also, small
amounts of digester clean-out sludges from New York/New Jersey metropolitan
ar.ea wastewater treatment plants are dumped there. Permitting future use of
the site for additional sewage sludge disposal, will be considered only upon a
finding by EPA that the New York Bight ("12-Mile") Sewage Sludge Disposal Site
cannot safely accommodate any more sewage sludge without endangering public
health or degrading coastal water quality.
OVERVIEW
Ocean dumping, particularly in the heavily populated northeast, has been used
as an ultimate means of waste disposal for. generations in the United States.
Prior to the early 1970's, there was very little regulation of ocean waste
disposal. Limited regulation was primarily provided by the New York Harbor
Act of 1888, which empowered the Secretary of the Army to prohibit disposal of
wastes, except for that flowing from streets and sewers, into the harbors of
New York, Hampton Roads, and Baltimore. Additionally, the Refuse Act of 1899
prohibited the disposing of materials into navigable waters when, disposal
impeded safe navigation. Under these Acts, selection of disposal locations by
the U.S., Army Corps of Engineers (CE) and the issuance of permits for ocean
disposal were based primarily on transportation and navigation factors rather
than environmental concerns.
Public interest in the effects of ocean disposal was aroused in 1969 and 1970
by a number of incidents involving the disposal of warfare agents in the
ocean. Coincidentally, studies by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) and several universities identified potential adverse
effects of sewage sludge and industrial waste disposal in the New York Bight.
Then, in its 1970 report to the President, the Council on Environmental
Quality (CEQ) identified poorly regulated waste disposal in the marine
environment as a potential environmental danger.
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CEQ's report and the increasing public awareness of the potential undesirable
effects of poorly regulated ocean waste disposal were largely responsible for
the enactment of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA)
of 1972, the primary U.S. legislation now regulating barged waste disposal in
the ocean. In the fall of 1972, when it became apparent that Congress would
promulgate an act to regulate ocean disposal, EPA began developing criteria
for an effective technical base for the regulatory program. During the
development of the technical criteria, EPA sought advice and counsel from its
own marine scientists, as well as from marine specialists in universities,
industries, environmental groups, and Federal and State agencies. These
criteria were published in May 1973, finalized in October 1973, and revised in
January 1977. The criteria are utilized in evaluating the need for ocean
waste disposal and its potential impact on the marine environment.
Ocean disposal became an international topic of concern and discussion in this
same period. An intergovernmental conference, held in London in the fall of
1972, developed the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by
Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter. This Convention regulates ocean waste
disposal at the inte national level with provisions for prohibited materials
and regulation of dumping by participating nations. The MPRSA was amended in
March 1977 to bring the national legislation into full compliance with the
international Convention.
The EPA Ocean Dumping Regulations and Criteria contain provisions for
selecting, designating, and managing ocean disposal sites, and for issuing
permits to use the sites for waste disposal. Thirteen interim municipal and
industrial waste disposal sites (most of them located in the U.S. midAtlantic)
were listed in EPA's Final Ocean Dumping Regulations and Criteria published in
January 1977. These existing sites will continue to be used for the disposal
of specific materials on an interim basis, pending completion of baseline or
trend assessment surveys, and ultimate designation for continuing use or
termination of use. EPA is presently conducting trend assessment surveys, as
needed, and preparing Environmental Impact Statements (EIS's) on most sites
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proposed for continued use. The subject of this EIS is the proposed
designation of the 106-Mile Chemical Waste Disposal Site for continued use and
a determination of the types and quantities of wastes which can be disposed of
at the Site in an environmentally acceptable manner.
MAJOR ALTERNATIVES
The major alternatives to designation of the 106-Mile Site are: (1) no
action, thereby forcing current permittees to use other disposal methods
(primarily land-based), or forcing shutdown of activities which generate
wastes presently dumped at the Site:; and (2) use of an alternative ocean
disposal site, either an existing site or a new one. The mid-Atlantic
Continental Shelf -and adjacent off-Shelf area were evaluated as potential
alternative disposal site locations. As a result of this evaluation, four
alternative locations were selected for , detailed evaluation as possible
alternative sites.: the New York Bight Acid Wastes Disposal Site, the Delaware
Bay (formerly DuPont) Acid Waste Disposal Site, the New York Bight Southern
Area, and the New York Bight Northern Area (see Figure 2-1, Chapter.2.)
Use of each alternative site was evaluated for environmental acceptability,
monitoring and surveillance requirements, associated economic burden, and
logistics implications, and compared to use of the 106-Mile Site. As a result
of this evaluation, the 106-Mile Site was assessed to be the best alternative.
Currently (1979), eight municipal and industrial waste disposal sites (not
counting dredged material disposal sites) exist in the mid-Atlantic area on
the Continental Shelf. Six of these sites are in the New York Bight and two
are near Delaware Bay. Only two of these existing sites (the New York Bight
and Delaware Bay Acid Waste Sites) are considered to be viable alternatives to
the 106-Mile Site. The remaining sites are used for disposal of other wastes
(wood, wrecks, construction debris, and sewage sludge); none are used for
industrial waste disposal. Since the remaining sites are small, located in
heavily utilized . areas, and because the disposal of chemical wastes, in
viii
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combination with other typee of material, is generally an undesirable
practice, only the two existing industrial acid sites were examined in detail,
*
in addition to the 106-Mile Site.
Two new site locations on the mid-Atlantic Continental Shelf were also
examined in detail: the so-called Northern and Southern Areas, located mid-way
between the nearshore alternative sites and the 106-Mile Site. These areas
have been extensively surveyed as prospective sites for sewage sludge
disposal. A small portion of the Northern Area is now a designated alternate
sewage sludge disposal site.
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT
The 106-Mile Site is located in the mid-Atlantic just beyond the edge of the
Continental Shelf. The site is oceanic in nature: it is deep (1,500 meters to
2,700 meters) and the water masses and biology of the area are more like the
open ocean to the east than the coastal environment to the west. The bottom
terrain is a vast plain sloping to the east, punctuated by several submarine
canyons. The Site iB currently used primarily for ocean disposal of
industrial chemical wastes and is managed by EPA Region II.
From 1961 to 1978, approximately 5.1 million metric tons of chemical wastes,
102 thousand metric tons of sewage sludge, and 287 thousand metric tonB of
digester residue were dumped at this site. Environmental monitoring of the
106-Mile Site and surrounding areas have shown no impact of dumping on either
the water quality or biology of the disposal area. Since the Site is oceanic,
it is not highly productive biologically and supports no commercial or
recreational fishery.
The New York Bight Acid Wastes Site and the Northern and Southern Areas are
located in the New York Bight, over the Continental Shelf. The sites are
shallow (25 to 53 meters) and the water and biota are characteristic of the
Disposal of industrial and municipal wastes at the 106-Mile Site is only
acceptable because the immense size of the Site is sufficient to prevent
mixing of the wastes.
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shelf region. The Hud eon Canyon separates the Southern and Northern Areas and
terminates near the Acid Site. Potentially valuable biological resources
exist near the Acid Site and Southern Area. Mineral resource development is
occurring near the Southern Area as well. Waste disposal in the Acid Site and
Southern Area may conflict with these other uses. Activities which may
conflict with waste disposal operations are not expected to occur in the
Northern .Area.
Only the ;New Yor.k Bight Acid Wastes Site located 15 n mi offshore, has been
used for ocean waste disposal. From 1958 to 1978, 4-5.2 million metric tons of
acid and .caustic wastes were released at this site. After numerous special
studies .and a continuing environmental monitoring program, adverse effects
from waste disposal have not been demonstrated. The contaminant load of the
New Yor.k Bight Apex is high from all the sources of contamination; therefore,
effects from any one source of contamination are difficult to trace. Waste
disposal has -not occurred in either the Southern or Northern Areas, although
the Alternate New York Sewage Sludge Site has been designated for use, if
required, in a small section on the east edge of the Northern Area.
The Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site is located just south of the New York Bight,
approximately 30 n mi off the Delaware coast. The Site is located on the
Continental Shelf and is shallow (38 to 45 meters). The water and biota are
typical for other mid-Atlantic Shelf regions. Bottom sediments are medium to
fine sands and the relatively smooth topography is punctuated with sand
ridges and swales. Valuable shellfish resources exist in and near the Site,
however, their exploitation is currently restricted because the area is closed
to shell fishing. The Philadelphia Sewage Sludge Site is located only 5 n mi
south. From 1973 to 1977, 2.3 million metric tons of DuPont-Edge Moor acid
wastes were released at the site; it has been inactive since March 1977 when
DuPont's dumping was transferred to the 106-Mile Site. Environmental studies
and monitoring for impacts of acid disposal on the environment have been
inconclusive. Preliminary studies identified elevated vanadium concentrations
in shellfish from the Site vicinity.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
The environmental consequences from the disposal of industrial wastes at the
proposed site and all alternative sites were assessed. Although some
uncertainty of the environmental effects of waste disposal at the 106-Mile
Site still exists (even after several years of monitoring and research
studies), the 106-Mile Site is identified as the best alternative for several
reasons:
• The depth of water and physical environment of the Site
allow significant dilution and dispersion of aqueous
wastes, and thereby prevent wastes from reaching the
bottom in measurable concentrations.
• The Site is not located near any significant commercial
or recreational fishery, so aqueous wastes released at
the Site will not endanger fishery resources, or
endanger human health, by contaminating edible fish or
shellfish.
« The reduced biological productivity beyond the
Continental Shelf, (as compared to on the Shelf), makes
disposal at an off-Shelf Bite less likely to affect
indigenous organisms.
• An extensive data base exists for predicting the effects
of future waste disposal at the Site. Over the last six
years, several Federal agencies, academic institutions,
and industrial groups have studied the 106-Mile Site and
the consequences of past disposal activities.
• Because non-dumping uses of the Site and vicinity are
limited, designation of the Site for continued dumping
will not interfere with the conduct of other activities.
Known negative consequences of ocean disposal are expected at the 106-Mile
Site; however, these negative factors (primarily economic), do not outweigh
the potential negative environmental consequences of using alternative sites:
9 The extreme distance of the 106-Mile Site from ports
requires the use of vessels for disposal and monitoring
with extended seargoing capability. Also, increased
wages, fuel costs, and other operating expenses, make
waste disposal at a distant site economically
disadvantageous for waste generators, compared to
disposal at nearshore sites.
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• Unless automatic surveillance is developed and
implemented, surveillance at the 106-Mile Site will
require a greater commitment of manpower, since this
site is outside of the range of normal patrol ship and
aircraft surveillance activities.
• Laboratory and field studies indicate that acute
short-term mortality of sensitive plankton will occur
upon immediate discharge of wastes; however, mortality
will be mitigated by the rapid dilution and dispersion
,of wastes in seawater within the Site. This impact of
disposal is not unique to the 106-Mile Site; it would
occur at any ocean disposal site.
SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL
The feasibility of using the 106-Mile Site for municipal sewage sludge
disposal is addressed as a special case. While it is acknowledged that the
only reasonable long-term solution for disposal of harmful sewage sludge is
through land-based processes, adverse conditions at the existing New York
Bight Sewage Sludge Site could require moving sludge disposal to another site.
Effects of past sludge disposal at The 106-Mile Site and at other sludge
disposal sites were evaluated to provide a basis for determining impacts from
future sludge disposal at the 106-Mile Site. On this basis, sludge disposal
at the Site is determined to be feasible under certain restrictions.
RECOMMENDATIONS
After carefully evaluating all reasonable alternatives, EPA recommends that
the 106-Mile Chemical Waste Disposal Site receive final designation for
continued industrial waste disposal in accordance with the EPA Ocean' Dumping
Regulations and Criteria. However, in keeping with the MPRSA, exploration of
alternatives to ocean disposal should continue, and such research and
development should be a condition imposed on waste generators receiving ocean
disposal permits.
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Induetrial wastes permitted for disposal at the Site should have the following
characteristics:
e Aqueous, with concentrations of solids generally less
than 1 percent
e Neutrally or slightly negatively buoyant in seawater
9 Demonstrate low toxicity to representative planktonic
and demersal marine organisms
• Contain no materials prohibited by the MPRSA
« Contain constituents in concentrations that are
dispersed within 4 hours after discharge in the
surrounding water so as not to be detectable outside of
the site in concentrations above ambient.
« Dischargeable from a vessel underway, to enable rapid
and immediate dilution.
Each waste load should be sufficiently small to permit adequate dispersal of
the waste constituents prior to disposal of the next load, so that accumu-
lation of waste materials does not occur with successive dumps. Vessels
releasing wastes concurrently should be located in different quadrants of the
site to provide for maximum dilution of wastes within the site boundaries.
It is reconmended that all future permits contain the following conditions:
1. Independent shiprider surveillance of all disposal operation will be
conducted by either the USCG or USCG auxiliary (the latter at
permittee's expense).
2. Comprehensive monitoring for long-term impacts will be accomplished
by Federal agencies and for short-term impacts by environmental
contractors (the latter at permittee's expense). All monitoring
studies are subject to EPA approval. Short-term monitoring should
include laboratory studies of waste characteristics and toxicity,
xiii
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and field studies of.waste behavior upon discharge and its effect on
local organisms. Long-term monitoring should include studies of
chronic toxicity of the waste at low concentrations and field
studies of the fate of materials, especially any particulates formed
after discharge, in the waste.
3. EPA will enforce a discharge rate based on the limiting permissible
concentration, disposal in quadrants of the Site, and maintenance of
a'0.5 n mi separation distance between vessels.
4. Key constituents of the waste will be routinely analyzed in waste
samples at a frequency to be determined by EPA on a case-by-case
basis, but sufficient to accurately evaluate mass loading at the
Site.
5. Routine bioaeeays will be performed on waste samples using
appropriate sensitive marine organisms.
It is further recommended that use of the Site for sewage sludge disposal be
decided by EPA case-by-case, on the basis of severity of need. Any permit
issued should include provisions for adequate monitoring and surveillance to
ensure against significant adverse impacts resulting from disposal. Sludge
disposal should be allowed at the Site only under the following conditions:
• The existing New York Bight Sewage Sludge Site cannot
safely accommodate more sludge disposal without
endangering public health, severely degrading the marine
environment, or degrading coastal water quality.
• Independent surveillance by the U.S. Coast Guard or USCG
Auxiliary (the latter at the permittee's expense) be
conducted.
• Monitoring for short- and long-term impacts be
accomplished by Federal agencies and environmental
contractors (the latter at the permittee's expense).
This monitoring must include studies of the fate of
solids and sludge microorganisms, both inside and
outside of the Site, in addition to a comprehensive
analysis of environmental effects.
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« Vessels discharge the sludge into the wake so that
maximum turbulent dispersion occurs.
9 Vessels discharging sludge be separated from vessels
discharging chemical wastes so that the two types of
wastes do not mix.
• Key constituents of the sludge be routinely analyzed in
barge samples at a frequency to be determined by EPA on
a case-by-case basis, but sufficient to accurately
evaluate mass loading at the Site.
tt Routine bioassays be performed on sludge samples using
appropriate sensitive marine organisms.-
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page
SUMMARY iii
ORGANIZATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT iii
PROPOSED -ACTION iv
OVERVIEW vi
MAJOR ALTERNATIVES viii
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT x
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES xii
SEWERAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL xiii
RECOMMENDATIONS xiv
1 PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR ACTION 1-1
FEDERAL LEGISLATION AND CONTROL PROGRAMS 1-3
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act .... 1-5
Ocean Disposal Site Designation 1-9
Ocean Dumping Permit Program 1-12
INTERNATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 1-15
2 ALTERNATIVES INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTION 2-1
NO ACTION ALTERNATIVE 2-3
CONTINUED USE OF THE 106-Mile Site . 2-4
Environmental Acceptability 2-4
Environmental Monitoring 2-7
Surveillance 2-8
Economics 2-8
Logistics 2-10
USE OF ALTERNATIVE EXISTING SITES 2-12
New York Bight Acid Wastes Disposal Site 2-12
Delaware Bay Acid Waste Disposal Site 2-20
USE OF NEW SITES 2-24
Locations on the Continental Shelf 2-24
Logistics 2-29
Overall Comparison to the 106-Mile Site 2-30
Locations off the Continental Shelf 2-30
xvii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Chapter Title Page
SUMMARY 2-31
BASIS FOR SELECTION OF THE PROPOSED SITE 2-3
"Geographical Position, Depth of Water Bottom
Topography and Distance from Coast" 2-37
"Location in Relation to Breeding, Spawning, Nursery,
Feeding, or Passage Areas of Living Resources in
Adult or Juvenile Phases" ....... 2-37
"Location in Relation to Beaches and
Other Amenity Areas" 2-38
"Types and Quantities of Wastes Proposed to be
Disposed of, and Proposed Methods of Release,
Including Methods of Packing the Waste, if Any" 2-38
"Feasibility of Surveillance and Monitoring" 2-38
"Dispersal, Horizontal Transport and Vertical
Mixing Characteristics of the Area, Including
Prevailing Current Direction and Velocity" 2-39
"Existence and Effects of Current and Previous
Discharges and Dumping in the Area
(Including Cumulative Effects)" 2 —39
"Interference with Shipping, Fishing, Recreation,
Mineral Extraction, Desalination, Fish and Shellfish
Culture, Areas of Special Scientific Importance,
and Other Legitimate Uses of the Ocean" ........ 2-39
"The Existing Water Quality and Ecology of the Site
as Determined by Available Data or By Trend
Assessment or Baseline Surveys" 2-40
"Potentiality for the Development or Recruitment of
Nuisance Species in the Disposal Site" 2-40
"Existence at or in Close Proximity to the Site of any
Significant Natural or Cultural Features of
Historical Importance" 2-40
RECOMMENDED USE OF THE 106-MILE SITE 2 "40
Types of Wastes 2-41
Waste Loadings 2 "41
Disposal Methods 2-42
Dumping Schedules 2 -42
Permit Conditions 2-43
3 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT 3-1
THE PROPOSED 106-MILE SITE 3-1
Physical Conditions 3-1
Geological Conditions 3-4
Chemical Conditions 3-5
Biological Conditions 3-6
Waste Disposal at the Site 3-8
Concurrent and Future Studies .............. 3-8
Other Activities in the Site Vicinity 3-8
ALTERNATIVE SITES IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT 3-10
Physical Conditions 3-10
Geological Conditions 3-11
Chemical Conditions 3-12
xviii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Chapter Title Page
Biological Conditione 3-13
Waste Disposal at the New York Bight Acid Wastes Site . . 3-17
Concurrent and Future Studies 3-24
Other Activities in the Site Vicinity 3-24
DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE DISPOSAL SITE 3-35
Physical Conditions 3-35
Geological Conditions 3-36
Chemical Conditions 3-36
Biological Conditions 3-36
Waste Disposal at the Site 3-37
Concurrent and Future Studies ..... 3-40
Other Activities in the Site Vicinity .......... 3-40
4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES . 4-1
EFFECTS ON PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY 4-2
Commercial and Recreational Fish and Shellfish 4-2
Navigational Hazards 4-6
EFFECTS ON THE ECOSYSTEM 4-9
Plankton 4-10
Nekton 4-13
Benthos 4-14
Water and Sediment Quality 4-16
Short Dumping 4-25
UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
AND MITIGATING MEASURES 4-26
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERM USES OF THE SITE
AND LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY 4-27
IRREVERSIBLE OR IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENT 4-28
5 SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL AT THE 106-MILE SITE 5-1
AMOUNTS OF SLUDGE DUMPED 5-5
ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY 5-7
Fate of Sewage Sludge 5-8
Effects on Water Chemistry 5-11
Interaction with Industrial Wastes 5-15
Effects on Organisms 5-15
Survival of Pathogens 5-16
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 5-17
SURVEILLANCE 5-18
ECONOMICS 5-18
LOGISTICS 5-3 9
SUMMARY 5-20
RECOMMENDATIONS 5-20
6 LIST OF PREPARERES .... * 6-1
7 GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES 7-1
GLOSSARY 7-1
REFERENCES 7-17
xix
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
APPENDICES
A ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 106-MILE CHEMICAL
WASTE DISPOSAL SITE A-l
B CONTAMINANT INPUTS TO THE 106-MILE CHEMICAL WASTE SITE B-l
C IMPACTS . . . C-l
D RECOMMENDED MONITORING D-l
ILLUSTRATIONS
Number Title Page
2-2 Current Disposal Sites in the Mid-Atlantic 2-13
2-1 Proposed Site and All Alternative Sites 2-5
3-1 New York Bight and Alternative Disposal Sites 3-2
3-2 Location of the 106-Mile Site 3-3
3-3 Oil and Gas Leases in the New York Bight 3-9
3-4 Benthic Faunal Types in the Mid-Atlantic Bight 3-15
3-5 Distribution of Surf Clams, Ocean Quahogs, and Sea Scallops
in the Mid-Atlantic 3-16
3-6 Total Commercial Landings of Marine Fishes and Shellfishes
in the New York Bight Area, 1880-1975 3-26
3-7 Total Landings of Commercial Marine Food Finfishes in the
New York Bight Area, 1880-1975 3-27
3-8 Location of Foreign Fishing off the U.S. East Coast 3-29
3-9 Gravel Distribution in the New York Bight 3-31
3-10 Navigational Lanes in the Mid-Atlantic 3-33
3-11 Ocean Disposal Sites in the New York Bight Apex 3-34
3-12 Oil and Gas Leases Near the Delaware Bay 3-42
5-1 Alternative Sewage Sludge Disposal Sites 5-3
TABLES
Number Title Page
1-1 Responsibilities of Federal Departments and Agencies for
iRegulating Ocean Waste Disposal Under MPRSA 1-7
2-1 Finish and Shellfish—Landings by States—1974 2-11
2-2 Comparison of Contaminant Inputs to the New York Bight 2-15
2-3 Sumnary Comparative Evaluation of Alternative Toxic
Chemical Waste Disposal Sites 2-33
3-1 Disposal Volumes at the New York Bight Acid Wastes Disposal Site . 3—18
3-2 Reported Dilution Values for Wastes Dumped at the Acid Dump Site . 3-20
3-3 Estimated Volumes of Trace Metals Released Annually at the
New York Bight Acid Wastes Disposal Site 3-21
3-4 Mass Loads of Trace Metals Entering the New York Bight 1960-1974 . 3-22
3-5 Total Landings in the 1974 of Five Major Commercial Finfishes
in the New York Bight 3-25
3-6 Total Commercial Landings in 1974 and 1976 of Important
Shellfish Species in the New York Bight 3-26
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
TABLES
Number Title Page
3-7 Dumping Volumes at the Delaware Bay Acid Waete Disposal Site . . . 3-37
3-8 Estimated Quantities of Trace Metals Dumped Annually at the
Delaware Bay Acid Waste Disposal Site 3-39
3-9 Commercial Landings of Three Major Species of Finfish for
Delaware Region, 1974 3-40
4-1 Worst-Case Contribution of Waste Metal Input to the Total Metal
Loading at the 106-Mile Site 4-18
4-2 Worst-Case Contribution of Waste Metal Input to the Total Metal
Loading at the New York Bight Acid Waete Site 4-21
4-3 Worst-Case Contribution of Waste Metal Input to the Total Metal
Loading at the Delaware Bay Acid Site 4-23
4-4 Worst-Case Contribution of Waste Metal Input to the Total Metal
Loading at the Southern Area 4-24
4-5 Worst-Case Contribution of Waste Metal Input to the Total Metal
Loading at the Northern Area 4-24
4-6 Transit Times to Alternative Sites (Round Trip) 4-26
5-1 History of the Proposal to Relocate Sewage Sludge Disposal
to the 106-Mile Site 5-4
5-2 Comparison of Typical Physical, Chemical, and Toxicological
Characteristics of Sewage Sludge and Industrial Waste
Dumped at the 106-Mile Site 5-6
5-3 Estimated Amounts of Sewage Sludge to be Dumped in the
New York Bight 1979 to 1981 5-7
5-4 Worst-Case Projections of Metal Loading Due to Sewage Sludge
Disposal in a Quadrant of the 106-Mile Site 5-13
5-5 Worst-Case Projections of Inorganic Nutrient Loading in a
Quadrant of the 106-Mile Site Due to Sewage Sludge Disposal . . . 5-14
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Chapter 1
PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR ACTION
Because of the need for an ocean disposal site, due to the
unavailability of land-based disposal methods for some waoiie
materials, EPA proposes to designate the 106-Mile Chemical
Waste Disposal Site in the Atlantic Ocean for waste dumping
according to the January 11, 1977, EPA Ocean Dumping
Regulations and Criteria. This Chapter provides background
information on the purpose of and need for the proposed
action of designating this site. It sets the stage in terms
of defining the action, the location of the proposed site,
and the legal regime for identifying and establishing viable
options.
Use of the ocean for waste disposal has been practiced for generations on an
international scale. In the early 19701s, U.S. legislation and international
agreements were enacted to control waste disposal into the marine environment.
The number of industries and municipalities utilizing the ocean for waste
disposal has decreased dramatically since passage of this legislation, as a
result of the development of land-based alternatives. However, some
industries and municipal waste treatment facilities produce wastes that
cannot, using current technology, be treated or disposed of safely or
economically on land, but can be disposed of in the ocean without seriously
degrading the marine environment. Most of this waste-generating activity is
centered around the heavily populated and industrialized East Coast. To help
safely accommodate this need for ocean waste disposal, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) proposes to designate the 106-Mile Chemical Waste
Disposal Site (hereafter 106-Mile Site) for continued use.
*The 106-Mile Site has also been known as Chemical Waste Site, Deepwater
Dumpsite 106, Toxic Chemical Site, Industrial Waste Site.
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The 106-Mile Site has been used intermittently for ocean disposal since 1961.
A wide variety of waste materials have,been released at the site and vicinity:
among these are munitions, radioactive materials, acid, nonspecific, chemical
wastes, sewage sludge, and residues from sewage sludge digesters. In 1973,
EPA designated the site primarily for the disposal of industrial chemical
wastes on an interim basis until studies of the effects of waste disposal at
the site were conducted. These monitoring studies have been underway since
the spring of 1974. After five years of intensive study effort, ho signi-
ficant adverse effects have been demonstrated from" disposal of any of the
waste materials.
Over 100 different dumpers have utilized the 106-Mile Site for waste disposal
since 1961. Now only four permittees are using the Site (E.I. duPont de
Nemours and Co. (Edge Moor and Grasselli plants), Merck and Company, Inc., and
American Cyanamid Co.) Despite this large decrease in ocean disposal activity
at the Site, a present and future need exists for its continued use. The
reasons for this continuing need are four-fold: (1) although three of the
four current permittees (DuPont-Edge Moor, American Cyanamid, and Merck) will
cease ocean disposal within the next two years, they must continue to ocean
dispose their wastes while alternative land-based disposal methods are under
development; (2) DuPont-Grasselli produces wastes which cannot be disposed of
by land-based methods, but which can be dumped safely at the 106-Mile Site
without degrading the environment; (3) some municipal permittees, who have
been disposing of their sewage sludge at other sites, may have to move their
ocean disposal operations to the 106-Mile Site if public health is endangered
or marine water quality at the existing 12-Mile Site is severely degraded; and
(_4) a site of known environmental characteristics is required for disposal of
some wastes under emergency conditions.
By January 1, 1982 only wastes that can be demonstrated to comply with EPA's
environmental impact criteria and cannot be discarded on land, will be
permitted to be disposed of in the ocean. For the short term, however, while
land-based disposal methods are being developed, some industrial chemicals and
sewage sludge must continue to be disposed of in the ocean, even though these
materials have not been demonstrated to meet the impact criteria. Neither
Merck, American Cyanamid, nor the municipal sludge permittees have demon-
strated compliance with the impact criteria; however, because they have
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demonstrated an adequate need to ocean dump, accompanied by a schedule for
developing suitable land-based alternatives, these dumpers are permitted to
use the ocean for waste disposal on an interim basis.
As part of its decision-making process on whether to propose designating the
106-Mile Site for continued use, EPA has investigated all reasonable
alternatives to using the 106-Mile Site. Two broad categories of alternatives
exist: (1) take no action, thereby forcing the use of other disposal methods,
or, in the event that other disposal methods are unavailable, causing
cessation of the waste-producing processes; or (2) designate and use another
ocean location for disposing of these wastes. After a careful review of the
alternatives, EPA has determined that designation of the 106-Mile Site for
continued use is the most favorable course of action.
Therefore, based upon the continued need for ocean disposal, the lack of any
significant adverse impact as determined by the monitoring studies conducted
at the Site, and the lack of a better alternative to designating this
particular site, EPA proposes to designate the 106-Mile Site for continued
use. Continued use of the Site will allow approved dumping of the wastes
released at the Site under current ocean dumping permits and will provide for
the disposal of new wastes which the EPA deems acceptable for ocean disposal.
EPA Region II will manage the Site; regulate times, rates, methods of
disposal, and quantities and types of materials disposed; develop and maintain
effective monitoring programs for the Site; conduct disposal site evaluation
studies; and recommend modifications in Site use or designation as necessary.
FEDERAL LEGISLATION AND CONTROL PROGRAMS
Prior to the early 1970's, there was very little regulation of ocean waste
disposal. Limited regulation was primarily provided by the New York Harbor
Act of 1888, which empowered the Secretary of the Army to prohibit disposal of
wastes, except for that flowing from streets and sewers, into the harbors of
New York, Hampton Roads, and Baltimore. Additionally, the Refuse Act of 1899
prohibited the disposing of materials into navigable waters when disposal
impeded safe navigation. Under these Acts, selection of disposal locations by
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the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (CE) and the issuance of permits for ocean
disposal were based primarily on transportation and navigation factors rather
than environmental concerns.
Public interest in the effects of ocean disposal was aroused in 1969 and 1970
by a number of incidents involving the disposal of warfare agents in the
ocean. Coincidentally, studies by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) and several universities identified potential adverse
effects of sewage sludge and industrial waste disposal in the New York Bight.
Then, in its 1970 report to the President, the Council on Environmental
Quality (CEQ) identified poorly regulated waste disposal in the marine
environment as a potential environmental danger.
CEQ's report and the increasing public awareness of the potential undesirable
effects of poorly regulated ocean waste disposal were largely responsible for
the enactment of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA)
of 1972, the primary U.S. legislation now regulating barged waste disposal in
the ocean. In the fall of 1972, when it became apparent that the Congress
would promulgate an act to regulate ocean disposal, EPA began developing
criteria for providing an effective technical base for the regulatory program.
During the development of the technical criteria, EPA sought advice and
counsel from its own marine scientists, as well as from marine specialists in
universities, industries, environmental groups, andd Federal and State
agencies. These criteria were published in May 1973, finalized in October
1973, and revised in January 1977. The criteria are utilized in evaluating
the need for ocean waste disposal and its potential impact on the Marine
environment.
Despite legislation dating back almost 100 years for controlling waste
disposal into rivers, harbors, and coastal waters, ocean waste disposal was
not specifically regulated in the United States until passage in October 1972
of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA, PL 92-532, as
amended). To enable better understanding of this important legislation, it is
discussed here in detail together with other relevant Federal legislation,
Federal control programs ' initiated by MPRSA, and EPA programs for ocean
disposal site designation and issuance of ocean disposal permits.
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The Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1977 (PL 95-217), which amended and replaced
earlier legislation, established a comprehensive regulatory program for
controlling discharge of pollutants from outfalls into navigable waters of the
United States, including ocean waters. The primary objective of the CWA is to
restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the
nation's waters. CWA regulates discharges through the promulgation of
criteria to prevent degradation of the marine environment (Section 403), and
the application of the criteria in the issuance of permits (Section 402).
Thus, CWA and MPRSA are the primary Federal legislative means for controlling
ocean waste disposal, whether through use of ocean outfalls or offshore
disposal sites.
MARINE PROTECTION, RESEARCH, AND SANCTUARIES ACT
The MPRSA regulates the transport via vessel, and ultimate dumping of waste
materials in ocean waters. The Act is divided into three parts: Title I -
Ocean Dumping; Title II—Comprehensive Research on Ocean Dumping; and Title
III—Marine Sanctuaries. This EIS is concerned with Title I specifically
Section 102(c), which charges EPA with the responsibility for designating
sites or times for dumping.
Title I, the primary regulatory vehicle of the Act, establishes the permit
program for the disposal of dredged and non-dredged materials, mandates
determination of impacts, and provides for enforcement of permit conditions.
Through Title I, the Act provides a mechanism for regulating ocean disposal of
waste originating from any country into ocean waters under the jurisdiction or
control of the United States. Likewise any transport for dumping in U.S.
waters requires a. permit. In addition, Title I requires that a permit be
obtained by any person of any nationality wishing to transport waste material
from any U.S. port or under a U.S. flag with the intention of disposing of it
anywhere in the world's oceans.
Title I prohibits the dumping in ocean waters of certain wastes, among them
biological, radiological, - and chemical warfare agents, and all high-level
radioactive wastes. Title I was amended in November 1977 (PL 95-153 ) to
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further prohibit dumping of harmful sewage sludge after December 31, 1981.
The provisions of Title I include criminal fines of $50,000 maximum and jail
sentences of up to one year for every unauthorized dump or violation of permit
requirement, and a civil fine of $50,000 maximum. Any individual may seek an
injunction against an unauthorized dumper with possible recovery of all costs
of litigation.
Title II of MPRSA provides for comprehensive research and monitoring of ocean
dumping effects on the marine environment. Under Title II, The National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) ocean dumping program has
conducted extensive survey and laboratory investigations over the past several
years at ocean waste disposal sites in the North Atlantic Ocean. This
work aids EPA in its management of sites by providing data for site use
decisions.
Several Federal departments and agencies share responsibility under the Act
(Table 1-1). The major responsibility is mandated to EPA to review, grant,
and enforce dumping permits for all wastes except dredged materials, and to
designate and manage all disposal sites. In October 1973 EPA implemented its
responsibility for regulating ocean dumping under MPRSA by issuing final Ocean
Dumping Regulations and Criteria (hereafter the "Ocean Dumping Regulations"),
which were revised in January 1977 (40 CFR, Parts 220 to 229). These
regulations established procedures and criteria for: designating and managing
ocean disposal sites (Part 228); reviewing ocean disposal permit applications
and assessing impacts of ocean disposal and alternative disposal methods (Part
227); and enforcing permits. Interim disposal sites were authorized pending
final designation for continuation or termination of use. The 106-Mile Site
was one of 13 municipal and industrial sites approved for interim use.
Harmful sewage sludge is defined by PL 95-153 as sewage sludge that "may
significantly degrade or endanger human health, welfare and amenities, the
marine environment and ecological systems, or economic potential."
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TABLE 1-1. RESPONSIBILITIES OF FEDERAL DEPARTMENTS AND AGENCIES
FOR REGULATING OCEAN WASTE DISPOSAL UNDER MPRSA
Department/Agency
Responsibility
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Issuance of waste disposal permits,
other than for dredged material
Establishment of criteria for
regulating waste disposal
Enforcement actions
Site designation and management
Overall ocean disposal program
management
U.S. Department of the Army
Corps of Engineers
Issuance of dredged material
disposal permits
U.S. Department of Transportation
Coast Guard
Surveillance
U.S. Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Long-term monitoring and research
Marine sanctuary designation
U.S. Department of Justice
Court actions
U.S. Department of State
International agreements
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (CE) issues permits for disposal of dredged
material after determining compliance of the material with EPA's environmental
impact criteria (40 CFR 227). Compliance with the criteria is subject to
EPA's concurrence. Although the CE is responsible for evaluating disposal
applications and granting permits to dumpers of dredged materials, dredged
material disposal sites are designated and managed by EPA.
Under MPRSA, the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) is assigned responsibility for
conducting surveillance of disposal operations to ensure compliance with the
permit conditions and to discourage unauthorized disposal. Violations are
referred to EPA for enforcement. Surveillance is accomplished through spot
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checks of disposal vessels for valid permits; interception or escorting of
dump vessels; use of shipriders; aircraft overflights during dumping; and
random surveillance missions at land facilities. In addition, the USCG is
testing the applicability of an automatic Ocean Dumping Surveillance System
(ODSS), based on electronic navigation. This system has been field-tested,
and is currently being evaluated by the USCG for future use in routine
surveillance. For the present, shipriders are the primary means of surveil-
lance at the 106-Mile Site.
Under Title II of MPRSA, NOAA conducts comprehensive monitoring and research,
programs on the effects of ocean dumping on the marine environment, including
potential long-term effects of pollution, over-fishing,, and man-induced
changes in oceanic ecosystems. Some of the responsibility for conducting
field investigations of ocean disposal effects has been shared by EPA. Title
III of MPRSA authorizes NOAA to designate coastal marine sanctuaries, after
consultation with other affected federal agencies, and to regulate all
activities within these sanctuaries.
The Department of Justice initiates relief actions in court, at EPA's
request in response to violations of the terms of MPRSA. When necessary,
injunctions to cease ocean dumping are sought. Criminal fines, as well as
jail sentences, may be levied, based on the magnitude of the violation.
The1 Department of State seeks effective international action and cooperation
in protecting the marine environment by negotiating international agreements
furthering the goals of MPRSA. Perhaps the most significant international
negotiation regarding ocean dumping is the Convention on the Prevention of
Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (hereafter "the
Convention" or "the Ocean Dumping Convention," which is discussed later in
this chapter) .
The MPRSA has been amended several times since its enactment in 1972, and most
amendments concern annual appropriations for administration of MPRSA.
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However, two of the amendments are noteworthy. Passage of an amendment in
March 1974 (PL 93-254), brought the Act into full compliance with the
Convention. Also, an amendment (PL 95-153) passed in November 1977, prohibits
disposal of harmful sewage sludge in ocean waters after December 31, 1981.
OCEAN DISPOSAL SITE DESIGNATION
Under Section 102(c) of the MPRSA, the EPA Administrator is authorized to
designate sites and times for ocean disposal, provided that the waste does not
contain prohibited materials and will not significantly degrade, or endanger,
human health, welfare, and amenities, the marine environment and ecological
systems, or economic potential. In response to this mandate, EPA established
criteria for designating sites in its Ocean Dumping Regulations and Criteria
(Part 228). These include criteria for site selection and procedures for
designating the sites for disposal. General criteria for selection of sites,
as provided in the Regulations, are:
(a) The dumping of materials into the ocean will be permitted
only at sites or in areas selected to minimize the
interference of disposal activities with other activities in
the marine environment, particularly avoiding areas of
existing fisheries or shellfisheries, and regions of heavy
commercial or recreational navigation.
(b) Locations and boundaries of disposal sites will be so chosen
that temporary perturbations in water quality or other
environmental conditions during initial mixing caused by
disposal operations anywhere within the site can be expected
to be reduced to normal ambient seawater levels or to
undetectable contaminant concentrations or effects before
reaching any beach, shoreline, marine sanctuary, or known
geographically limited fishery or shellfishery.
(c) If at anytime during or after disposal site evaluation
studies, it is determined that existing disposal sites
presently approved on an interim basis do not meet the
criteria for site selection set forth in [Section] 228.5 to
228.6, the use of such sites will be terminated as soon as
suitable alternate disposal sites can be designated.
(d) The sizes of ocean disposal sites will be limited in order
to localize for identification and control any immediate
adverse impacts and permit the implementation of effective
monitoring and' surveillance programs to prevent adverse
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long-term impacts. The size, configuration, and location of
any disposal site will be determined as a part of the
disposal site evaluation or designation study.
(e) EPA will, wherever feasible, designate ocean dumping sites
beyond the edge of the continental shelf, and other such
sites that have been historically used [Section 228.5].
Factors considered under the specific criteria for site selection relate more
closely with conditions at the proposed sites by treating the general criteria
in additional detail. If a proposed site can satisfy the specific criteria
for site selection, it can meet the broader general criteria. Ihe factors to
be considered are:
9 Geographical position, depth of water, bottom topography and
distance from coast;
o Location in relation to breeding, spawning, nursery, feeding,
or passage areas of living resources in adult or juvenile
phases;
© Location in relation to beaches and other amenity areas;
s Types and quantities of wastes proposed to be disposed of and
proposed methods of release, including methods of packing the
waste, if any;
o Feasibility of surveillance and monitoring;
« Dispersal, horizontal transport and vertical mixing character-
istics of the area, including prevailing current direction and
velocity, if any;
s Existence and effects of current and previous discharges and
dumping in the area (including cumulative effects);
» Interference with shipping, fishing, recreation, mineral
extraction, desalination, fish and shellfish culture, areas of
special scientific importance, and other legitimate uses of the
ocean;
e The existing water quality and ecology of the site as
determined by available data or by trend assessment or baseline
surveys;
a Potentiality for the development or recruitment of nuisance
species in the disposal site;
e Existence at or in close proximity to the site of any
significant natural or cultural features of historical
importance [Section 228.6].
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These factors are addressed for the 106-Mile Site in Chapter 2. (See p. 2-4,
Chapter 2.)
Once designated, the site must be monitored for adverse impacts of waste
disposal. EPA monitors the following types of effects in determining to what
extent the marine environment has been affected by material released at the
site:
o Movement of materials into estuaries or marine sanctuaries, or
onto oceanfront beaches, or shorelines;
• Movement of materials toward productive fishery or shellfishery
areas;
o Absence from the disposal site of pollution-sensitive biota
characteristic of the general area;
® Progressive, non-seasonal, changes in water quality or sediment
composition at the disposal site, when these changes are
attributable to materials disposed of at the site;
« Progressive, non-seasonal, changes in composition or numbers of
pelagic, demersal, or benthic biota at or near the disposal
site, when these changes can be attributed to the effects of
materials disposed of at the site;
9 Accumulation of material constituents (including without
limitation, human pathogens) in marine biota at or near the
site [Section 228.10b].
EPA has established impact categories in its Ocean Dumping Regulations
(Section 228.10) which specify impacts detected through site monitoring that
require modifications in use of the disposal site:
IMPACT CATEGORY I: The effects of activities at the disposal site
shall be categorized in Impact Category I when one or more of the
following conditions is present and can reasonably be attributed to
ocean dumping activities:
e There is identifiable progressive movement or accumulation, in
detectable concentrations above normal ambient values, of any
waste or waste constituent from the disposal site within 12
nautical miles of any shoreline, marine sanctuary designated
under Title III of the Act, or critical area designated under
Section 102 (c) of the Act; or
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e The biota, eediments, or water column of the disposal site, or
any area outside the disposal site where any waste or waste
constituent from the disposal site is present in detectable
concentrations above normal ambient values, are adversely
affected by the toxicity of such waste or waste constituent to
the extent that there are statistically significant decreases
in the populations of valuable commercial or recreational
species, or of specific species of biota essential to the
propagation of such species, within the disposal site and such
other area as compared to populations of the same organisms in
comparable locations outside such site and area; or
c Solid waste material disposed of at the site has accumulated at
the site or in areas adjacent to it, to' such an extent that
major uses of the site or of adjacent areas are significantly
impaired and the Federal or State agency responsible for
regulating such uses certifies that such significant impairment
has occurred and states in its certificate the basis for its
determination of such impairment; or
0 There are adverse effects on the taste or odor of valuable
commercial or recreational species as a result of disposal
activities; or
e When any toxic waste, toxic waste constituent, or toxic
byproduct of waste interaction, is consistently identified in
toxic concentrations above normal ambient values outside the
disposal site more than four hours after disposal.
IMPACT CATEGORY II: The effects of activities at the disposal site
which are not categorized in Impact Category I shall be categorized
in Impact Category II [Section 228.10c].
OCEAN DUMPING PERMIT PROGRAM
EPA's Ocean Dumping Regulations also establish a program for the application,
evaluation, and issuance of ocean dumping permits. Once a site is selected
and duly designated, permits for the use of the site can be issued by the EPA
or CE permitting authority having jurisdiction over that site. The Ocean
Dumping Regulations are specific about the mechanism used in evaluating permit
applications and granting or denying such applications. EPA and the CE
evaluate permit applications principally to determine whether there is (1) a
demonstrated need for ocean disposal and that no other reasonable alternatives
exist (40 CFR 227 Subpart C); and (2) compliance with the environmental impact
criteria (40 CFR 227 Subpart B, D, and E).
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Compliance with EPA's environmental impact criteria also ensures that the
proposed waste disposal will not "unduly degrade or endanger the marine
environment" and ensures that this disposal will not cause unacceptable
adverse effects on human health, the marine ecosystem, or other uses of the
ocean. The criteria are too lengthy to quote; however, the relevant points
are briefly summarized here.
• Prohibited Materials: High-level radioactive wastes; materials
produced for radiological, chemical, or biological warfare; unknown
materials; persistent floatable materials .that interfere with other
uses of the ocean.
o Materials present as trace contaminants only: Organohalogens;
mercury and mercury compounds; cadmium an3 cadmium compounds; oil;
known or suspected carcinogens, mutagens, or teratogens.
o Trace contaminants in the liquid fraction do not exceed the marine
water quality criteria (EPA, 1976) or exist in nontoxic and
nonbioaccumulative form.
a Bioassays on the suspended particulate or solid fractions do not
indicate occurrence of significant mortality or significant adverse
sublethal effects, including bioaccumulation due to waste dumping.
e When bioassay methods are unavailable: Maximum concentrations of
mercury and cadmium apply; organohalogen concentrations must be less
than is known to be toxic to organisms; oils in the waste must not
produce a visible sheen on the water.
» Trace contaminants do not render edible marine organisms unpalatable
or endanger health of humans, domestic animals, shellfish, or
wildlife.
Six types of ocean dumping permits may be issued: Interim, Special, General,
Emergency, Research, and Incineration at Sea. With few exceptions, EPA has
issued only Interim Permits. These permits are valid for one year maximum and
are issued when the permittee cannot demonstrate compliance of the waste with
the environmental impact criteria and can demonstrate that the need for ocean
disposal is of greater significance to the public interest than possible
adverse environmental impact. Moreover, Interim Permits cannot be issued to
applicants who were not issued dumping permits prior to April 23, 1978.
Holders of present Interim Permits must have a compliance schedule which will
allow either the complete phaseout of ocean dumping or compliance with the
environmental impact criteria by December 31, 1981. After that date, EPA will
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not issue Interim Permits and ocean disposal of harmful wastes will cease. At
the 106-Mile Site, American Cyanamid and Merck are dumping under Interim
Permits.
Special Permits, which are issued when the applicant can adequately
demonstrate compliance of the wastes with the environmental impact criteria
and can demonstrate a need for ocean disposal, may be issued for a maximum of
three years and holders of Special Permits are not subject to the 1981
deadline for cessation of the ocean disposal of harmful wastes. Some
industrial permittees and all CE permittees have been granted Special Permits.
Specifically, at the 106-Mile Site, DuPont-Edge Moor and DuPont-Grasselli are
holders of Special Permits.
General Permits may be issued for ocean disposal of small amounts of materials
which will have minimal adverse effects on the environment. Examples of
materials which warrant a General Permit include human remains or ashes for
burial at sea, target vessels for ordnance testing, and derelict vessels
transported for scuttling.
Emergency Permits may be issued for ocean disposal of materials which pose an
unacceptable risk to human health and for which there is no other reasonable
disposal technique. Emergency Permit requests are considered case-by-case by
EPA on the basis of the waste's characteristics and the safest means for its
disposal.
Research Permits may be issued for dumping material into the ocean as part of
a research project when the scientific merit of the project outweighs the
potential adverse impacts of the dumping. EPA designates the disposal site(s)
to be used by Research Permit holders on the basis of the nature of the study
project.
Incineration-at-Sea Permits are either Research, Interim, or Special permits.
Current Incineration-at-Sea permits are Special Permits that are issued for
disposal at the New York Bight Wood Incineration Site. As Special Permits,
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they are issued for a maximum of three years. Burning is conducted under
controlled weather conditions and the ash is transported back to shore and
used as land-fill. Research and Interim Permits have also been issued for the
incineration of organochlorine wastes.
INTERNATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
The principal international agreement governing ocean dumping is the Conven-
tion on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter (Ocean Dumping Convention), which became effective in August 1975, upon
ratification by 15 contracting countries. Designed to control dumping of
wastes in the oceans, the Convention specifies that contracting nations will
regulate disposal in the marine environment within their jurisdiction,
disallowing all disposal without permits. Certain other hazardous materials
are prohibited, such as biological and chemical warfare agents and high-level
radioactive matter. Certain other materials (such as cadmium, mercury,
organohalogens and their compounds, oil, and persistent synthetic materials
that float) are also prohibited, except when present as trace contaminants.
Other materials--arsenic, lead, copper, zinc, cyanide, fluoride, organ-
osilicon, and pesticides—while not prohibited from ocean disposal, require
special care. Permits are required for at-sea disposal of materials not
specifically prohibited. The nature and quantities of all waste material, and
the circumstances of disposal, must be periodically reported to the Inter-
Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) which is responsible
for administration of the Convention.
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Chapter 2
ALTERNATIVES INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTION
Some chemical waste products from industrial processes cannot
be disposed of using land-based methods, but can be safely
dumped in the ocean while land-based disposal alternatives
are being developed. Therefore, a suitable ocean location is
necessary for disposal of these wastes. EPA investigated
four alternative waste disposal locations in addition to the
106-Mile Site and evaluated them for environmental
acceptability, ease of environmental monitoring and
surveillance, economic burden, and logistics. Based on this
evaluation, the 106-Mile Site was determined to be the best
location for disposal of the chemical wastes under
consideration.
Use of the 106-Mile Site for sewage sludge disposal is
technically feasible and, under suitable conditions, the Site
could provide an alternate location for the short-term
disposal of sewage sludge.
In accordance with the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) recommended
format, this chapter is the heart of the Environmental Impact Statement. It
is based on the information and analyses presented in the other chapters and
appendices, particularly the chapters on the Affected Environment (Chapter 3)
and the Environmental Consequences (Chapter 4).
This Chapter specifically discusses the following alternatives:
® No Action
c Continued use of the 106-Mile Site (the proposed action)
o Use of the New York Bight Acid Wastes Disposal Site
e Use of the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Disposal Site
• Use of a new site on the Continental Shelf
- Southern Area
- Northern Area
o Use of a new site off the Continental Shelf
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It presents "the environmental impacts of the [proposed action] and the
alternative sites in comparative form, thus sharply defining the issues, and
providing a clear basis for choice among options by the decision-maker and the
public
The following factors form the basis for comparison between alternative
locations for the waste disposal proposed at the 106-Mile Site:
e Environmental acceptability
0 Ease of monitoring
® Ease of surveillance
© Economic burden
© Logistical problems
This EIS does not specifically address land-based alternatives to ocean
disposal because feasibility of using land-based disposal processes is
assessed on a case-by-case basis as part of EPA's ocean dumping permit
process. For example, Merck, American Cyanamid, and DuPont-Edge Moor,
currently authorized to dump wastes at the 106-Mile Site, are only using ocean
disposal while they develop land-based processes that permit them to reclaim
the wastes or to dispose of them. On the other hand, current technology is
inadequate to supply land-based disposal alternatives for DuPont-Grasselli's
waste. Since DuPont-Grasselli has demonstrated that its waste meets EPA's
environmental impact criteria, EPA has authorized disposal of this waste at
the 106-Mile Site with the stipulation that DuPont continue to seek land-based
alternatives for the waste.
Use of the 106-Mile Site as an alternate site for sewage sludge disposal was
addressed in the Final EIS on The Ocean Dumping of Sewage Sludge in the New
York Bight (U.S. EPA, 1978). This EIS presents additional considerations
about the environmental acceptability of sewage sludge at the 106-Mile Site
(Chapter 5) and includes Chapter III—Alternatives to the Proposed Action—of
the earlier EIS as Appendix D. Land-based alternatives are also discussed in
Appendix D.
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NO ACTION ALTERNATIVE
The No Action alternative would result in canceling or postponing the
designation of an industrial waste disposal site off the Middle Atlantic
States, thus requiring disposal of industrial wastes by other means, or, if
other means of disposal were unavailable, would require termination of the
waste-producing processes. This alternative would only be feasible under
limited conditions; e.g., (1) existence of technologically, environmentally,
and economically feasible land-based disposal methods; and (2) evidence that
ocean disposal causes sufficiently adverse environmental consequences to
preclude it from consideration. Neither of these "No Action" conditions are
pertinent to proposed waste disposal at the 106-Mile Site.
In Chapter 1, a need was established for designating the 106-Mile Site for
continued use. EPA evaluates the feasibility of land-based disposal methods
when evaluating applications for ocean dumping permits, and permits are not
issued if a waste can be disposed of safely on land. Therefore, the present
106-Mile Site permittees have adequately demonstrated that land-based disposal
is currently unfeasible for their wastes. The consequences of terminating the
waste generation, because no disposal methods were available, would be
dramatic. In the case of American Cyanamid, for example, shut-down of its
Warners plant would result in the direct loss of 850 jobs, valued at
$14,000,000 annually (Reid, 1978). The impact would not only be economic.
American Cyanamid is the sole U.S. producer of malathion, a non-persistent
insecticide, widely used for protection of crops and eradication of several
disease-causing insects. Termination of malathion production would be felt
around the world. Shut-down of any of the other permittees could also result
in severe consequences .
Most important, there is no evidence that ocean disposal at the 106-Mile Site
causes long-term adverse environmental consequences. (This subject is treated
in more detail in Chapter 4.) Numerous monitoring studies, conducted since
1974, have shown that the wastes are quickly diluted and' dispersed. Plants
and animals at the site experience only short-term adverse effects while the
dumping operation is underway.
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CONTINUED USE OF THE 106-MILE SITE
The proposed action is to continue use of the 106-Mile Site for waste
disposal. This section summarizes anticipated impacts, forming the basis for
comparison with the other alternatives (discussed later in this chapter).
The 106-Mile Site was established in 1965 for the disposal of industrial
wastes not suitable for land disposal. It is located 196 kilometers (160 n
mi) southeast of Ambrose Light, New York, and 167 kilometers (90 n mi) east of
Cape Henlopen, Delaware (Figure 2-1). The Site covers 1,648 square kilometers
on the Continental Slope and Continental Rise, and its latitude and longitude
are 38°40'N to 39°00'N, and 72°00'W to 72°30'W, respectively. Water depths at
the site range from 1,440 meters (in the topographically rugged northwest
corner) to 2,750 meters (in the relatively flat southeast corner). An
inactive munitions waste disposal site is located within the Site boundaries,
and an inactive radioactive waste disposal area is located 9 kilometers due
south.
NOAA, assisted by other Government agencies and academic institutions, has
been surveying this site for many years, and has published its observations in
two summary reports (NOAA, 1975; 1977), several memoranda, public hearing
testimony, and in its annual report to Congress (NOAA, 1978). A private
contractor, acting on behalf of the permittees, has been monitoring the site
for two years.
ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY
Continued use of the 106-Mile Site for Waste disposal would not directly
endanger public health since the Site is not located in a commercially or
recreationally important fishing or shellfishing area. Limited Foreign
fishing does occur in the Site vicinity, but the organisms caught are highly
migratory, and hence not likely to be contaminated by waste disposal at the
Site.
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Figure 2-1. Proposed Site and All Alternative Sites
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Wastes presently being disposed of at the Site have not caused demonstrable
long-term adverse effects on water and sediment quality or on the site biota.
The natural variability of the water at the Site, resulting from the
interaction of three major water masses, causes much greater changes in the
biotal assemblages of the site and vicinity than does waste disposal.
Routine laboratory bioassay tests performed on the waste, together with field
dispersion data, indicate that levels of contaminants in the waste are rapidly
diluted, and elevated concentrations of the waste contaminants do not remain
for periods that permit significant mortality in organisms. Field monitoring
by NOAA (1975; 1977) has confirmed these observations. Laboratory studies on
wastes currently being released at the Site have shown adverse effects only at
concentrations much higher than those occurring in the Site. Although
laboratory studies cannot be directly extrapolated to the ocean environment,
the difference between the concentrations found at the Site and the very high
concentrations required for measurable effects in the laboratory, provides a
safety factor for short-term and long-term adverse impacts. (Detailed
discussion of environmental consequences of waste disposal at the Site appears
in Chapter 4.)
Since the presently permitted wastes are primarily aqueous solutions and the
site is in deep water where currents are strong, there is extensive dilution
and dispersion of disposed wastes. Consequently, significant adverse bottom
impacts are highly unlikely. This conclusion has been corroborated by benthic
investigations at the Site. Future wastes with chemical and physical
properties similar to present wastes are expected to behave in the same
manner, hence, causing no adverse impacts.
Permitting sewage sludge disposal at the 106-Mile Site will be considered only
upon a finding by EPA that the New York Bight (12-Mile) Sewage Sludge Site
cannot safely accommodate additional sludge release without endangering public
health or unacceptably degrading coastal water quality. (The other
alternative sites discussed later in this chapter would be designated for
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industrial wastes only, not sewage sludge.) Chapter 5 discusses in more
detail the environmental acceptability of releasing sewage sludge at the Site;
the major findings are:
e Volumes of sludge requiring ocean disposal will increase 150 percent
from 1978 to 1981,
o Settling of sludge particles will be strongly inhibited by the
seasonal (about 60 meters in depth) and permanent (about 250 meters
in depth) pycnoclines.
® Time to penetrate these pycnoclines will range from 12 hours (very-
unlikely) to 80 days. The particles will have traveled 400 to 450
nautical miles from the Site during the longer time period.
e Horizontal dispersion will probably exceed vertical settling by two
orders of magnitude.
« If all sludge from one year (1978 volume) dumped at the Site settled
within the Site boundaries, the particles would form a layer only
0.6 microns thick on the bottom.
• Only the more refractory constituents will reach the bottom and the
probability of creating an anaerobic area in the deep sea is
extremely remote.
9 Sludge would add only 2 percent additional nitrogen to the Site.
Therefore, excessive phytoplankton blooms are not expected.
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
The purpose of monitoring a waste disposal site i6 to ensure that long-term
adverse impacts do not develop unnoticed, especially adverse impacts that are
irreversible or irretrievable. As NOAA has observed in its baseline report on
effects of dumping at the 106-Mile Site, monitoring is more difficult at sites
beyond the Continental Shelf:
The environmental effects of disposal in deeper waters
are...more difficult to measure and, hence, to predict.
This is due to factors such as greater depths of water and
distances from shore and also to the general paucity of
environmental and biological information in off-the-shelf
areas. In the case of [the 106-Mile Site], this situation
is further complicated by the interactions of major water
masses, Shelf Water, Slope Water, and Gulf Stream eddies.
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The [site] is a complex oceanographic area in which to
assess natural environmental conditions and the impact of
man'8 activities upon those conditons (NOAA, 1977).
Another problem in monitoring involves the interaction of liquid wastes with
the surrounding water and marine life. Under the dynamic conditions at the
106-Mile Site, long-term impacts will be nearly impossible to measure because
affected plants and animals will most likely have moved out of the area,
either carried by currents or by swimming. The difficulty of monitoring for
long-term impacts in the water column in inherent in aqueous waste disposal at
any oceanic site. Monitoring will be difficult until new techniques and more
precise measurements are available.
SURVEILLANCE
Although nearshore sites permit use of patrol vessels and helicopters for
surveillance, until other techniques are developed surveillance at the
106-Mile Site will require use of on board observers (shipriders) because the
Site is located outside the range of other effective means of surveillance.
The USCG has stated that they will monitor 75 percent of the disposal activity
at all industrial waste sites (Mullen, 1977).
ECONOMICS
TRANSPORTATION COSTS
The cost of barging chemical wastes to the 106-Mile Site is estimated to be in
the range of $8.80 to $11.00 per metric ton ($8.00 to $10.00 per ton).
Therefore the total cost of ocean disposal at the Site in 1978 (612 metric
tons) was about $4.4 to $5.6 million for all permittees. The port of
departure affects the costs somewhat because vessels originating at ports in
Delaware Bay must travel a greater distance to the Site than vessels
originating in New York Harbor. This total cost will drop as some permittees
phase out ocean disposal; however, the costs to individual permittees will
rise as a result of inflation and increased fuel prices.
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MONITORING COSTS
The costs of monitoring at the 106-Mile Site are high compared to other areas,
because of the complexity of the environment and distance of the Site from
shore, NOAA is responsible for biological monitoring. A cost to NOAA of $1
million per year has been estimated to conduct seasonal monitoring surveys
based on a cost ranging from $200,000 to $300,000 for EPA or NOAA baseline
surveys (Breidenbach, 1977). The NOAA Ocean Pulse Program, based at the NMFS
Laboratory at Sandy Hook, New Jersey, monitors the entire mid-Atlantic,
including the 106-Mile Site, The cost to permittees for monitoring is also
high, due to the Site's distant location.
If new materials, industrial and/or municipal sludge for example, were
permitted to be released at the Site, monitoring costs would substantially
increase. The new permittees would be required to perform dispersion studies
and other investigations concerned with short-term effects of waste
discharges, and would augment the on-going monitoring program. NOAA would
have to intensify its monitoring to determine if the biota is affected by
interactions between waste types, and to assess long-term trends.
SURVEILLANCE COSTS
The current U.S. Coast Guard Instruction regarding surveillance and enfor-
cement of ocean disposal sites requires 75 percent of all chemical waste
disposal operations to be checked (USCG, 1976). Surveillance activities
include a shiprider onboard the vessel for the disposal operation, random spot
checks before the barge leaves port, and checking a vessel's log for departure
and arrival times. The USCG presently assigns several full-time people to the
surveillance of disposal activities in the Bight, including the 106-Mile Site.
Surveillance of disposal activities at the 106-Mile Site requires more
manpower than surveillance at nearshore sites, because shipriders are required
since the Site is outside of the range of USCG patrol boats.
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LOSS OF BIOTIC OR MINERAL RESOURCES
Almost all U.S. fishing activities are located over the Continental Shelf, and
are therefore not directly affected by the wastes. Table 2-1 shows the most
economically important finfish and shellfish taken in the mid-Atlantic. Fluke
and lobster along the edge of the Continental Shelf are the only organisms
from this list that remotely occur near the Site. Since the wastes would be
extremely dilute when, and if, they reached the bottom where these animals
dwell, and since these animals are demersal and highly mobile, it is unlikely
that stocks would be adversely affected by disposal operations, Red crabs on
the Continental Shelf/Slope break near the Site represent a potentially
valuable resource that may be further exploited in the future. However, no
crabs of commercial size occur in the Site, and the adult crabs are taken
sufficiently far from the Site that wastes released at the Site are not likely
to reach them. Foreign ships fish along the edge of the entire Continental
Shelf from Georges Bank to Cape Hatteras, especially during the late winter
and early spring. However, the Site is not a unique location for foreign
fishermen, nor does it obstruct migration routes of species valuable to
foreign fishermen. Therefore, the probability of foreign fish stocks being
affected by disposal operations at the Site is extremely slight.
Future oil and gas development is possible near the Site, although virtually
no mid-Atlantic oil exploration occurs presently off the U.S. Outer
Continental Shelf. Waste disposal would not interfere with petroleum
exploration or droduction activities. The only navigation hazard could be due
to the barge traffic to and from the Site.
LOGISTICS
Use of the 106-Mile Site presents some logistical problems. A distant
disposal site requires careful transport operation planning. Weather
conditions in the mid-Atlantic are subject to rapid change, and must be
carefully monitored for adequate "windows" to permit a barge or tanker to
complete transits in safety. Emergency discharge of wastes prior to reaching
the legal site (called "short dumping") becomes more likely in transit to a
distant site, as the length of time spent at sea increases.
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TABLE 2-1. 1974 FINFISH AND SHELLFISH LANDINGS BY STATES
(Adapted from NOAA-NMFS, 1977a)
New York
New Jersey
Delaware
Total
000 Lb
$000
000 Lb
$000
000 Lb
$000
000 Lb
$000
Fish
Fluke
2,487
846
3,499
1,153
-
-
5,986
1,999
Menhaden
576
18
107,307
2,735
13
0.5
107,896
2,753
Scup
3,635
852
6,040
880
-
-
9,675
1,732
Whiting
1,955
250
7,022
587
8
1
8,985
838
Shellfish
Lobsters
731
1,396
1,191
1,916
26
55
1,948
3,367
Surf Clams
3,951
719
22,657
2,948
5,817
770
32,425
4,437
Seallops
884
1,158
344
531
-
-
1,228
1,689
Note: Landings are shown in round (live) weight except
(total meat), and scallops (edible meat).
for clams, oysters
On the other hand, the Site is outside the heavily used transit lanes to New
York Harbor, and is convenient to the ports of New York, Philadelphia, and
Baltimore. This location has advantages over several existing nearshore New
York Bight sites that are located at the entrance to New York Harbor, an area
congested with ship traffic of all types. Therefore, the dumping operation
(which can take 5 to 6 hours) at the 106-Mile Site is less likely to adversely
impact other ship traffic.
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USE OF ALTERNATIVE EXISTING SITES
Eight municipal and industrial waste disposal sites (aside from dredged
material sites and the proposed site) presently exiet in the mid-Atlantic area
(Figure 2-2): six in the New York Bight, and two near Delaware Bay. Two of
the sites have been used for industrial chamical waste disposal (the New York
Bight and Delaware Bay Acid Wastes Sites) and were considered viable
alternatives, warranting careful consideration. (These sites are discussed in
this section.) The other existing sites were -eliminated from further
consideration for several reasons:
® None of the sites have ever been used for chemical waste disposal.
® All of the sites are small and additional activity would create
logistical problems.
® Because the sites are small, they could not safely accommodate more
waste material.
o The sites are all located close to shore in areas that are heavily
utilized for a wide variety of activities.
Consequently, most of the existing sites were eliminated from consideration
for chemical waste disposal.
A discussion of the New York Bight and Delaware Bay Acid Wastes Disposal Sites
follows, and these sites are individually compared to the 106-Miie Site.
HEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES DISPOSAL SITE
This disposal site was established in 1948 for the disposal of acid wasted
generated by industries in the New Jersey-New York areas (Figure 2-1). The
Site is situated on the Continental Shelf 26.8 kilometers (14,5 n mi) from the
New Jersey and Long Island coasts, and covers 41.2 square kilometers (12
square nautical miles). The Site's boundaries are latitude 40°16'N to
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Figure 2-2. Current Disposal Sites in the Mid-Atlantic
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40°201N, and longitude 73°36'W to 73°40'W. Topographically, the bottom is
relatively flat with an average depth of 25.6 meters (84 feet).
The dominant waste dumper since the Site was first established has been NL
Industries, Inc., which presently dumps about 95 percent of the Site s total
annual volume. The only other active permittee is Allied Chemical Corpor-
ation. DuPont-Grasselli released part of its caustic wastes at this site
until 1975,'when its waste disposal operation moved to the 106-Mile Site.
The effects of waste disposal on the Bight Apex, including those at the Acid
Site, have been extensively investigated by the NOAA-Marine Ecosystems
Analysis Program (MESA) New York Bight Project, the NFMS-Sandy Hook Labora-
tory, and the permittees. The site environment, the history of waste disposal
at the Site, and the important waste constituents presently dumped there are
described in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 includes a description of the environmental
consequences of acid wastes disposal at this site.
ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY
Several materials are present in wastes currently barged to the 106-Mile Site
which are not presently released at the Acid Site or at any other location in
the New York Bight Apex. These include nonpersistent organophosphorus
pesticides, surfactants, concentrated salts (sodium sulfate and calcium
chloride), and by-products from the manufacture of rubber, mining, and paper,
chemicals. Since these waste materials are not entering the Apex from other
sources (Mueller et al., 1976), they would, if released at the Acid Site, be
an additional contaminnant load on the environment of that area.
Several wastes constituents disposed of at the 106-Mile Site are also present
in wastes discharged at the Acid Site. Compared to the present mass loading
of wastes at the Acid Site, significant amounts of cadmium, mercury, oil and
grease, and petroleum hydrocarbons would be added by dumping 106-Mile Site
wastes at the Acid Site. However, additional loading of these contaminants at
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the Acid Site would be a small fraction of the total amount of material
flowing into the area from rivers and land discharges (Table 2-2),
TABLE 2-2. COMPARISON OF CONTAMINANT INPUTS TO THE NEW YORK BIGHT, 1973
(metric tons/day) Adapted from Mueller et al., 1976
All Sources
Acid Site
Permittees
106-Mile Site
Permittees
Cadmium
2.4
0,00]
0.0003
Mercury
0.52
0,02
0.0002
Oil and Grease
782 .7
0.1
0.09
Petroleum Hydrocarbons
No Data
0.08
0.2
The New York Bight Acid'Wastes Site is located in relatively shallow water.
The potential for accumulation of waste constituents in shellfish and other
organisms marketed for human consumption exists and would be aggravated by
further waste discharges in the area. However, to date, benthic populations
at the New York Bight Acid Wastes Site have not shown evidence of uptake as
the site is presently used. (Additional discussion of this subjjeot is in
Chapter 4.)
Considering environmental acceptability, disposal at the New York Bight Acid
Wastes Site of wastes from the 106-Mile Site must be discouraged for several
reasons:
• It would introduce materials not presently entering the Bight Apex,
thus possibly placing greater strain on a system that is already
suffering from man's wastes.
e Significantly greater amounts of waste constituents, which are
presently disposed of at the Site, would be introduced.
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® Some constituents of the wastes presently dumped at the deepwater
106-Mile Site, could adversely affect the bottom dwelling organisms
at the shallow Acid Site.
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
The Bight Apex, where the Acid Site is located, is one of the most intensively
studied regions in the world. Beginning in 1973, the NOAA-MESA New York Bight
project has coordinated the study of all oceanographic disciplines within the
Bight and has provided data and guidance for environmental management
decisions (NOAA-MESA, 1977). In addition, numerous studies of the Acid Site
environment and the effects of waste disposal there have continued since 1948
(Redfield and Walford, 1951; Ketchum and Ford, 1948; Ketchum et al., 1958b,
1958c; Vaccaro et al., 1972). Lastly, the current permittees, in compliance
with condition of their permits, are sponsoring a monitoring program to
evaluate the short-term effects of their waste discharges.
Transferring wastes from the 106-Mile Site to the New York Bight Acid Site
would cause difficulty in monitoring waste effects at the site. The three
decades of studies of the Acid Site provide an excellent historical baseline
for acid dumping, particularly by NL Industries. If subtle long-term changes
are taking place as a result of acid waste disposal, other waste discharges
would complicate the use of the data base for detecting these changes.
Long-term changes in the environment caused by acid dumping would be
difficult, if not impossible, to differentiate from impacts caused by the new
waste materials.
SURVEILLANCE
The Acid Site is well suited for surveillance. Its proximity to shore permits
the use of patrol vessels and aircraft to conduct surveillance and record
dumping vessel sightings, activities, and positions. Shipriders, although an
effective surveillance method, are rarely used at this site because of the
significant commitment of manpower and the adequacy of other surveillance
methods. Additional waste discharges at the site are not expected to create
problems with respect to surveillance.
2-16
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ECONOMICS
Transportation Costs
The costs of barging wastes to the Acid Site are estimated to be in the range
of $0.90 to $2.50 per metric ton ($0.80 to $2.25 per ton). The total cost of
ocean disposal in 1978 for 106-Mile Site permittees leaving New York Harbor,
would therefore have ranged from $300,000 to $800,000 at the Acid Site. For
permittees leaving Delaware Bay, the Acid Site is about the same distance as
the 106-Mile Site, and the barging costs would not be significantly reduced by
using the Acid Site instead of the 106-Mile Site. Using the previously
calculated costs for disposal at the 106-Mile Site, the 1978 barging cost from
Delaware Bay to the Acid Site would have been in the range of $2.5 to $3.2
million. Thus, the total transportation cost to the permittees would range
from $2.8 to $4.0 million at the Acid Site. This total cost would drop as
some permittees phased out ocean disposal however the cost to individual
permittees would rise as a result of inflation and increased fuel prices.
Monitoring Costs
As previously mentioned several groups are currently studying the effects of
waste disposal in the New York Bight Apex. Included are the NOAA-MESA Program
at Stony Brook, Long Island; the Ocean Pulse Program at NMFS-Sandy Hook, New
Jersey; and the permittees who barge wastes to disposal sites in the Apex.
Except for the permittees authorized to use the Acid Waste Site, the other
programs are not specifically orientated to evaluate the effects of acid waste
disposal. However, if new wastes are released at the Site, NOAA and EPA
programs would probably conduct special studies at the Site. New permittees
would be required to conduct dispersion studies and participate in an on-going
monitoring program to evaluate short-term effects of waste. Since other types
of wastes are released at the Site, a rigorous monitoring program would be
required to distinguish between the effects of the chemical wastes and the
acid wastes currently permitted at the Site.
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The cost of monitoring at this site cannot be reliably estimated. Although
the Site is shallow and located close to shore, the costs would still probably
be substantial. The Bight Apex has numerous sources of contaminants, and
other waste types are released at the site; consequently, a substantial effort
would be required to evaluate the effects of these new wastes. The cost would
be borne by both the permittees, in determining waste dispersion and
short-term effects, and the Federal government, in investigating trends and
chronic, long term effects.
Surveillance Costs
The cost of surveillance for additional waste disposal operations in the Bight
Apex would be relatively low. The Site is well within the normal range of
Coast Guard ships and aircraft, and surveillance is routinely carried out for
the current permittees using disposal sites in the Bight.
Loss of Biotic and Mineral Resources
Except for whiting, the most valuable commercial fish and shellfish taken in
the New York Bight (Table 2-1) are either not present near the Site, would not
be affected by the chemical waste, or have been contaminated by other
pollutants. Disposal of additional chemical wastes at this site would
threaten the commercial whiting fishery near the Site during the late Fall and
Winter. No dollar value can be placed on these resources.
More important, the Bight Apex is a highly stressed ecosystem (NOAA-MESA,
1978), and adding new contaminants would only increase the stress. Since
other disposal sites are nearby, interactions between different waste types
could cause unpredictable adverse effects on the ecosystem. Although it does
not appear that fishery resources in addition to these already mentioned,
would be threatened, the possibility of a significant, deleterious change in
the total Bight environment would exist with additional waste loading at the
Site.
2-18
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Acid-iron wastes currently released at the Acid Site apparently attract
bluefish (a popular sport fish) and, during spring and summer, the area is a
popular fishing ground (Westman, 1958). If bluefish are, in fact, attracted
to the Site, the release of additional wastes could cause several problems:
fisherman might avoid the area because of the increased barge traffic and the
presence of wastes which are perceived as more toxic than those currently
permitted at thee site; the fish might no longer concentrate in the area; or
the fish might accumulate contaminants from the new wastes causing the area to
be closed to fishing to protect public health. The loss of this fishing area
would cause significant economic impact on the charter and party fishing boats
which presently use the area. Potential mineral resources in the Bight Apex
have been contaminated by other pollutant sources so there would be no
additional loss from these chemical wastes.
LOGISTICS
The current permittees using the New York Bight Acid Wastes Site and the
106-Mile Site barge wastes approximately once daily. Use of the Acid Site for
the wastes presently being dumped at the 106-Mile Site would double the
disposal activity at the Site, thereby increasing the navigational hazards to
waste disposal vessels and other shipping, since the Acid Site is located
across the outbound lane and separation zone of the Ambrose-Hudson Canyon
Traffic Lane. (See Chapter 3, Figure 3-10.)
OVERALL COMPARISON TO THE 106-MILE SITE
Permitting the industrial permittees to utilize the New York Bight Acid Wastes
Site instead of the 106-Mile Site would result in decreased transportation
costs for most dumpers, easier surveillance of the disposal operations, and,
possibly, a better ability to monitor total impacts. However, the ability to
monitor the specific impacts^of the existing wastes released at the Site would
be degraded, and there would be a significantly increased shipping hazard.
Most important, contaminants not presently disposed of in the Bight Apex would
be discharged, and these wastes could cause additional damage to an already
highly stressed ecosystem. Therefore, this alternative is rejected in favor
of the 106-Mile Site.
2-19
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DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE DISPOSAL SITE
This interim disposal site, centered approximately 64 kilometers (35 nautical
miles) southeast of Cape Henlopen, Delaware, is bounded by latitude 38°30'N
and 38°35'N, and longitude 75°15'W and 74°25'W (Figure 2-1). It encompasses a
rectangular area of about 130 square kilometers (51 square nautical miles),
with depths of water ranging from 38 to 45 meters (127 to 150 feet). The
Philadelphia Sewage Sludge Site is located 9 kilometers (6 miles) southeast of
the Site.
DuPont-Edge Moor disposed of its acid-iron wastes at this site from 1969 to
1977, when the operation was moved, at DuPont's request, to the 106-Mile Site.
During this period, the Edge Moor plant's titanium dioxide manufacturing
process changed from a sulfide process to a chloride process, producing
different acid wastes.
DuPont sponsored several monitoring surveys at the Site Between 1969 and 1971.
In 1973, EPA Region III initiated a monitoring program at this Site and the
nearby sewage sludge site. EPA still maintains historical stations in and
around the Site which are sampled twice yearly to monitor the Site's recovery
toward natural conditions.
ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY
Using the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site for disposal of wastes presently dumped
at the 106-Mile Site would not be environmentally acceptable.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) closed this site to shellfishing in
December 1976 at the same time the Philadelphia Sewage Sludge Site was closed.
However, a potentially valuable ocean quahog resource exists southwest of the
Site. Scallops are taken nearby. Renewed chemical waste disposal at the Acid
Site could conceivably contaminate this shellfish resource since the Site is
located in relatively shallow water.
2-20
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Tn addition, use of the Acid Site, for chemical waste disposal instead of the
106-Mile Site would require transit by dump vessels from New York Harbor along
the coast of New Jersey. Any emergency short dumping along this route could
cause a health hazard for beaches, coastal industry, or the exteensive
commercial and recreational fishing along this coast.
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
Several years of background environmental data exist at the Delaware Bay Acid
Waste Site. Pre--dumping surveys provide a marginal "basis for comparison with
post-dumping surveys, primarily because the latter work was much more
extensive and more quantitative. However, there are enough data from the area
to provide tho basis for comparison.
Monitoring of the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site would be complicated by the
proximity of the Philadelphia Sewage Sludge Site. Although the primary net
water movement in the area is to the southwest, storms may affect the
direction of water movement, causing water from the vicinity of the sewage
sludge site to migrate northward. Therefore, it would be difficult to clearly
differentiate the effects of proposed chemical waste disposal and previous
acid waste disposal from that of municipal waste disposal.
SURVEILLANCE
Since the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site is presently inactive, the only ongoing
USCG surveillance activities in the vicinity involve the nearby sewage sludge
site. The current USCG policy is to monitor 10 percent of the sludge disposal
operations, whereas they attempt to monitor 75 percent of the industrial waste
discharges. Therefore, surveillance activities in this area would have to be
increased substantially if the Site were activated for industrial waste
disposal. However the increase in surveillance at the Acid Site would be
concurrent with a decrease in surveillance at the 106-Mile Site.
2-21
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ECONOMICS
Transportation Costs
Since this site is close to Delaware Bay, the hauling costs for vessels
leaving New York Harbor will be significantly higher than for vessels
originating in Delaware Bay. The Site is about the same distance from New
York as the 106-Mile Site, and the annual barging costs will probably be about
the same—$8.80 to $11.00 per metric ton, or $2.8 to $3.6 million. The round
trip would take between 54 and 72 hours (average speed 5 to 7 knots) through
the coastal waters off New Jersey. The cost would be much less for vessels
coming from Delaware Bay. Based on the respective distances to the Acid Site
and the 106-Mile Site, barging costs would be from $2.20 to $2.75 per metric
ton, or $0.6 to $0.8 million annually. Thus the annual total transport cost
for this site would be about $3.4 to $4.4 million. This total cost would
decrease as some permittees phased out ocean disposal; however the costs to
individual permittees would rise as a result of inflation and increased fuel
prices.
Monitoring Costs
The monitoring cost for the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site id difficult to
estimate, but would probably be lower than the cost of monitoring the 106-Mile
Site. The effects of chemical wastes on the environment would have to be
separated from the effects of nearby sewage sludge disposal as well as from
the effects of water coming out Delaware Bay. EPA Region III has an ongoing
monitoring program for the sewage sludge site, and these surveys could be
expanded at a reasonable cost to evaluate long-term effects of chemical waste
disposal. Since the Site was used until 1977, and was surveyedseveral times,
sufficient data exist to recognize long-term environmental changes; extensive
additional surveys would not be required.
Surveillance Costs
The Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site is near the limits of the normal range for
Coast Guard ships and aircraft. Surveillance would require shipriders on some
of the disposal vessels.
2-22
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Loss of Biotic or Mineral Resources
Commercial surf clam beds exist in the vicinity of the Delaware Bay Acid Waste
Site, but not close enough to be adversely affected by chemical waste
disposal. Other shellfish, such as sea scallops and ocean quahogs, are
abundant in the area, and scallops are presently being harvested. The Site is
sufficiently shallow that wastes may reach the bottom and may contaminate
these shellfish. Preliminary work by Pesch et al. (1977) indicates that
previous acid waste disposal has contaminated scallops near the Site. At this
time , the Site is still closed to shell fishing by FDA.
Mineral resources are not present at the Site. Chemical waste disposal at
this site would not interfere with oil and gas exploration and development
east of the Site.
LOGISTICS
The Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site is located outside of major shipping lanes
and daily use, if maintained at the level occurring presently at the 106-Mile
Site, would present few, if any, navigational hazards to the dumping vessels
within the Site. However, its great distance from New York Harbor, would
necessitate careful planning and scheduling.
OVERALL COMPARISON TO THE 106-MILE SITE
Although the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site is more convenient to one of the
permittees currently using the 106-Mile Site, little economic advantage would
be gained in moving waste disposal operations from the 106-Mile Site to this
location. The risks associated with renewed industrial waste discharges at
the Acid Site and the possible adverse impact on potential fishery resources
j.n the area make this alternative less preferable than continued use of the
106-Mile Site.
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USE OF NEW SITES
In addition to the alternative of using existing interim disposal sites, use
of new sites on or beyond the Continental Shelf (Figure 2-1), provides
alternatives to disposal at the 106-Mile Site. The area under consideration
is the New York Bight arid the Continental Slope along the eastern edge of the
Bight. To be considered a feasible alternative to existing sites, a new site
for ocean dumping must meet the site selection criteria in Part 228 of the
Ocean Dumping Regulations. The site must not conflict with other uses of the
area, such as resource development or commercial fisheries; must not endanger
human health or amenities; and should be located within the range of the
current fleet of waste disposal vessels in order to make ocean disposal
economically feasible.
LOCATIONS ON THE CONTINENTAL SHELF
The New York Bight is one of the busiest oceanic regions in the world, and
includes extensive commercial shipping, fishing, shellfishing, recreation,
resource development, and waste disposal. In selecting a site within the
Bight for ocean waste disposal, other conflicting activities in the area must
be evaluated for their potential effect on disposal operations and vice versa.
In addition, adequate background environmental information on the area must
presently exist so as to provide a firm basis for projecting impacts of waste
d isposal.
Most of the survey work in the Bight has centered around existing disposal
sites. However, two candidate areas for sewage sludge disposal have also been
studied extensively: the so-called Northern and Southern Areas (Figure 2-1).
These areas were selected for study by NOAA, in part, to avoid conflict with
living marine resources (NOAA-MESA, 1976) and therefore, were concluded to be
the most reasonable new candidate locations for industrial waste disposal.
Within the large areas suggested by NOAA for consideration, two smaller areas
were studied in detail, the Northern and Southern Areas discussed below.
2-24
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SOUTHERN AREA
The Southern Area (Figure 2-1) is square, centered at latitude 39°41'N and
73°18'W and compriser an area of 484 sq km (144 sq n mi). The average water
depth in the Area is 40 m.
Environmental Acceptability
The Southern Area is located in an area of presently and potentially valuable
commercial fishery resources. The surf clam, sea -scallop, and ocean quahog
are often found in numbers suitable for commercial harvesting. Therefore,
there exists significant risk in using the Southern Area to dispose of
chemical wastes since they contain elements that could be assimilated by
organisms .
Environmental Monitoring
Due to the existence of the NOAA data base on predisposal conditions in the
Southern Area, monitoring would be feasible. This site is outside the heavily
contaminated Bight Apex, so monitoring waste disposal impacts at the site
would not be confused by contaminants from other sources.
Surveillance
The Southern Area is outside of the range of USCG patrol vessels and aircraft
normally used for surveillance, so shipriders would be required. This would
not result in significant changes in the allocation of USCG manpower over
surveillance at the 106-Mile Site.
Economics
Transportation Costs - The costs of transporting wastes to the Southern
Area would be intermediate between those for a nearshore site and one beyond
the Continental Shelf. The estimated barging costs for vessels leaving New
York Harbor for the Southern Area would be $2.70 to $10.00 per metric ton, or
$0.9 to $3.2 million annually. A round trip would take from 38 to 44 hours
(average speed from 5 to 7 knots) through the coastal waters off New Jersey.
2-25
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For permittees barging from Delaware Bay, the cost would probably be about
three-quarters of the cost of barging to the 106-Mile Site (based on the
distances to the respective sites): $6.60 to $8.25 per metric ton or from
$1.9 to $2.4 million annually. The travel time would be 38 to 48 hours
(average speed from 5 to 7 knots).
The total annual transportation cost for all waste disposal at the Southern
Area would range from $2.8 to 5.6 million. This total cost would decrease as
some permittees phased out ocean disposal; however, the costs to individual
permittees would rise as a result of inflation and increased fuel prices.
Monitoring Costs - Monitoring costs at the Southern Area would probably be
lower than at either a nearshore or an offshelf site. Since NOAA has
completed predisposal studies in the area (NOAA-MESA, 1976), and other
contaminants are not present, monitoring would be fairly uncomplicated.
Surveillance Costs - The site location is outside the normal range of Coast
Guard ships and aircraft; therefore, surveillance of actual ocean disposal
operations would require shipriders and would be relatively costly.
Surveillance of this site would not be significantly easier than the present
requirements for the 106-Mile Site.
Loss of Biotic or Mineral Resources - Both biological and mineral resources
exist near the Southern Area, and the potential loss of the former could be
substantial. Economically important finfish (sculpin and whiting) and
shellfish (lobster, surf clams, and scallops) occur in the Area. Another
shellfish which may be exploited in the future, the ocean quahog, also is
abundant in the area (EPA, 1978). Since the Area is located in relatively
shallow water, wastes may reach the bottom and shellfish may be contaminated.
Finfish may either avoid the Area or accumulate contaminants in their bodies
from wastes. Thus, use of this location for chemical waste disposal could
cause a significant adverse economic impact on these living resources,
although the impact could not be reliably estimated because even the actual
amount of fish and shellfish taken from the Area is unknown.
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Use of the Southern Area for chemical waste disposal would not be expected to
affect yearly mineral resource development.
Logistics
Navigation of dump vessels in this location might be complicated by traffic
(work boats, supply ships, oil tankers, etc.) associated with development of
nearby oil and gas lease tracts (see Chapter 3, Figure 3-3). The likelihood
of these hazards occurring would depend on the speed and scope of oil and gas
development in the Area and on the magnitude of ocean dumping at the site.
Overall Comparison with the 106-Mile Site
Waste disposal in the Southern Area would present some advantages over the
106-Mile Site, mainly in the ease of monitoring the site and reduced
transportation costs. However, the existence of a fishery resource in the
Area, the possibility of adversely affecting that resource, and the economic
consequences of such an impact, make this alternative less favorable compared
to the 106-Mile Site for the kinds of industrial wastes presently discharged
at that site.
NORTHERN AREA
The Northern Area (Figure 2-1) is a rectangle centered at approximately
latitude 40°10'N and longitude 72°46.5'W, and comprising 770 sq km (224 sq n
mi) water depths in the Area average 55 m (180 ft). The inactive Alternate
Sewage Sludge Disposal Site is located within the Northern Area at latitude
40°10.5'N to 40°13.5'N, and longitude 72°40.5'W to 72°43.5'W, comprising an
area of 31 sq km (9 sq n mi).
Environmental Acceptability
Although the Northern Area is not known to be fished, it contains sea scallops
and ocean quahogs which may be caught in the future. Because the shallowness
of the site makes bottom effects from waste disposal possible, there is a
slight to moderate possibility of modifying the benthic community of the Area
or bioaccumulation contaminants in benthic organisms.
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Environmental Monitoring
An adequate data base on predisposal conditions at this site exists for
monitoring. Possible sewage sludge dumping near one edge of the study area
could complicate the differentiation of industrial waste effects from sludge
effects.
Surveillance
The Northern Area is outside of the range of USCG patrol vessels and aircraft
normally used for surveillance, so shipriders would be required. This would
not result in significant changes in the allocation of USCG manpower for
surveillance.
Economics
Transportation Costs - Transportation costs for the Northern Area are
similar to those for the Southern Area. The costs for hauling waste material
to this site would be intermediate between those for a nearshore site and
those for an off-shelf site. Estimated barging costs for vessels leaving New
York Harbor are $3.60 to $7.50 per metric ton, or $1.2 to $2.4 million
annually. A round trip would take between 38 and 44 hours (average speed 5 or
7 knots), through the coastal waters off Long Island.
For permittees barging from Delaware Bay, the cost would be about the same as
present transportation costs for ocean disposal at the 106-Mile Site, since
the Northern Area is about the same distance from the mouth of the Bay as the
existing site. Thus, the estimated cost per metric ton would be $8.80 to
$11.00, or $2.5 to $3.2 million annually. A round trip would take 54 to 72
hours.
Total annual transportation costs, of all waste disposal at this site would be
from $3.7 to 5.6 million, slightly greater than costs for the Southern Area.
This total cost would decrease as some permittees phased out ocean disposal,
although the costs to -individual permittees would rise as a result of
inflation and increased fuel prices.
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Monitoring Costs - Monitoring costs for the Northern Area would probably be
similar to those for the. Southern Area and less than those for a site located
off the Shelf or a nearshore site with other sources of contaminants nearby.
Surveillance Costs - Since the Site is outside the normal range of Coast Guard
ships and aircraft, so surveillance of actual disposal operations would
require shipriders and be relatively costly. However, surveillance of this
area would not be significantly more difficult than either the Southern Area
or the 106-Mile Site.
Loss of Biotic or Mineral Resources - Although the Northern Area is located
within the normal distribution of surf clams, they are not abundant at the
site. Both ocean quahogs and sea scallops are abundant, and chemical waste
disposal could possibly interfere with the development of these potentially
valuable crops.
Ocean disposal in the Northern Area would not interfere with the development
of mineral resources. The Site is approximately 110 kilometers (60 nautical
miles) northeast of the oil and gas lease tracts identified on the Mid-
Atlantic Shelf (see Chapter 3, Figure 3-3). Chemical waste disposal could not
possibly interfere with exploration or development of the oil and gas reserves
which are presumed to occur in the vicinity of the Southern Area.
LOGISTICS
No significant logistic problems would be expected in using the Northern Area
for chemical wa6te disposal unless the Alternate Sewage Sludge Site located
within the area was activated. The large volume of sludge that is presently
dumped in the Bight requires a steady frequency of trips to the 12-Mile Site.
If sewage sludge disposal operations were transferred to the Alternate Site,
barge/vessel traffic in the Northern Area would increase. Thus use of this
area for sludge disposal and chemical waste disposal would present problems in
scheduling and navigation.
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OVERALL COMPARISON TO THE 106-MILE SITE
Using the Northern Area for chemical waste disposal would have an economic
advantage over the 106-Mile Site in transportation cost. However potential
sludge disposal at the Alternative Sewage Sludge Site in addition to chemical
waste diisposal would createe monitoring and logistics difficulties. Lastly,
the Northern Area would not be environmentally favorable over the 1.06-Mile
S.ite because of the presence of a potential shellfish resource that could be
adversely affected by chemical waste disposal.
LOCATIONS OFF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF
Information on the mid-Atlantic Continental Slope and Continental Rise is
generally lacking except for the vicinity of the 106-Mile Site (TRIGOM, 1976).
The 106-Mile Site is located at the closest point to New York Harbor that is
beyond the Continental Shelf (Figure 2-1). Immediately north of the Site is
Hudson Canyon, a major migratory route for fish entering the New York Bight.
Waste disposal near the Canyon would be environmentally unacceptable primarily
because migrating organisms could accumulate toxic constituents from the
waste, presenting a potential health hazard to humans consuming the
contaminated animals. The environment immediately southwest of the 106-Mile
Site along the Continental Slope is also unknown. Designating a site for
waste disposal here would require extensive baseline survey work.
There are no data indicating that the 106-Mile Site is located over or near an
especially unique portion of the Shelf. The same physical processes affect
this entire region and the benthos is relatively uniform over large horizontal
distances at these depths. Other localities, further northeast or south of
the 106-Mile Site, would add considerable distance to round trips to the site
without any clear environmental benefit. In addition, the increased
traveltime raises the probability of an emergency occurring, which would
result in short dumps.
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OVERALL COMPARISON TO THE 106-MILE SITE
In selecting an ocean waste disposal site located beyond the Continentall
Shelf, the 106-Mile Site is clearly the best viable alternative for a number
of reasons- Unlike other areas off the Mid-Atlantic Shelf, the 106-Mile Site
has been studied extensively, so adequate information exists for projecting
impacts of disposal activities. Use of any other Continental Slope area would
require extensive survey work to produce as much data as are presently
available for the 106-Mile Site. The site is located on that portion of the
Continental Slope closest to New York Harbor (Figure 2-1), and thus, is the
Continental* Slope location most convenient to potential users of the site.
Lastly, no advantage would be gained by choosing another off-Shelf location
over the 106-Mile Site.
SUMMARY
Several alternative locations on and off the Continental Shelf were evaluated
as potential chemical waste disposal sites. A number of features of the
106-Mile Site make it the best choice among the alternatives examined:
o It conforms with the MPRSA directive to use sites located off the
Continental Shelf whenever feasible,
a It has been extensively studied for many years.
© No adverse environmental impacts resulting from waste disposal have
been demonstrated at the Site from previous usage,
e Because the Site is located in deep water, dilution and dispersion
of introduced aqueous materials are enhanced. The Gulf Stream
ensures good mixing.
® The Site is not in an area of significant commercial or recreational
fishing or shellfishing.
e The Site is convenient to the major ports in the Middle Atlantic
states.
Thus, in considering all - reasonable alternatives to the proposed action, the
proposal of designating the 106-Mile Chemical Wastes Disposal Site for
continued use is the most favorable alternative for the foreseeable future.
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Although there are risks involved in this action (discussed in detail in
Chapter 4), the environmental risk of waste disposal at this site is judged to
be less serious than the risk of disposing of wastes at locations on the
Continental Shelf or other locations the Continental Slope or Continental
Rise. If subsequent monitoring at the site shows negative impacts resulting
from waste disposal to be greater than anticipated, EPA, as the management
authority, may discontinue or modify use of the Site, in accordance with
Section 228.11 of the Ocean Dumping Regulations.
Table 2-3 presents the comparative evaluation of the possible effects of
chemical wastes at the five alternative sites discussed in this chapter. The
effects on environmental acceptability, environmental monitoring, surveil-
lance, economics, and logistics are summarized.
BASIS FOR SELECTION OF THE PROPOSED SITE
Part 228 of the Ocean Dumping Regulations describes general and specific
criteria for selection of sites to be used for ocean waste disposal. In
brief, the general criteria state that site locations will be chosen "to
minimize the interference of disposal activities with other activities in the
marine environment," and so chosen that "temporary perturbations in water
quality or other environmental conditions during initial mixing...can be
expected to be reduced to normal ambient seawater levels or to undetectable
contaminant concentrations or effects before reaching any beach, shoreline,
marine sanctuary or known geographically limited fishery or shellfishery." In
.addition, ocean disposal site size6 "will be limited in order to localize for
identification and control any inmiediate adverse impacts and permit the
implementation of effective monitoring and surveillance programs to prevent
adverse long-range impacts." Finally, whenever feasible, EPA will "designate
ocean dumping sites beyond the edge of the Continental Shelf and other such
sites that have been historically used." The 106-Mile Chemical Wastes
Disposal Site meets all of these criteria.
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TABLE 2-3. SUMMARY EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE CHEMICAL WASTE DISPOSAL SITES
NO
LO
LO
106-Mile Site
New York Bight
Acid Wastes Site
Delaware Bay
Acid Waste Site
Northern
Area
Southern
Area
ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY
IMPACTS ON PURLIC HEALTH
Commercial Fish and
Shellfish
Recreational Fish and
Shellfish
Navigational Hazards
IMPACTS ON THE ECOSYSTEM
Extremely slight
potential for
adversely affecting
public health from
spills during transit
to site. Very slight
potential for long-
term impacts on eco-
system at site.
None to very slight
potential for adverse
impacts.
No potential for con-
sumption of contam-
inated fish or shell-
fish as commercial
fishing is not concen-
trated in this region.
No potential adverse
effects since the
site is beyond the
normal range of recre-
ational fisherman.
Very slight risk
because of the great
distance to the site.
Very slight potential
for adverse impacts.
Moderate to severe
potential for
adverse impacts on
public health because
the site is located
in area of commercial
and recreational fish-
ing and heavy ship
traffic. Very slight
to moderate potential
for long-term impacts
on the ecosystem.
Moderate to severe
potential for adverse
impacts.
Moderate potential for
consumption of contam-
inated fish or shell-
fish.
Moderate potential for
adverse short and long-
term effects.
Severe risk because
the site is small*
Located close to shore,
and located within
the central traffic
lane to New York
Harbor.
Very slight to moder-
ate potental for
adverse impacts.
Very slight to moderate
potential for adversely
affecting fishing from
transit to the site,
and on-site disposal
operations. Slight to
moderate potential for
long-term impacts on
the ecosystem.
Very slight to moderate
potential for adverse
impacts.
Moderate potential for
consumption of contam-
inated fish or shell-
fish as commercially
abundant resources
exist near the site.
None to very slight
potential for adverse
effects as the area
is beyond Lhe normal
range of most fishing.
Slight risk because
barge traffic must
travel down coast of
New Jersey and an
accident could occur
near fishing grounds.
Very slight to moder-
ate potential for
adverse impacts.
None to very slight
potential for adverse
impacts on fishing:
Very slight to sLight
potential for long-
term impacts on the
ecosystem.
None to very slight
potential for adverse
impacts.
Low potential for
consumption of contam-
inated fish or shell-
fish as the area does
not have commercially
abundant fish and
shellfish.
None to very slight
potential for adverse
effects since the
area is beyond the
normal range of most
recreational 'fishing.
No anticipated risk.
Very slight to slight
potential for adverse
impacts.
Very slight to moder-
ate potential for
adverse impacts on
public health. Very
slight to slight poten-
tial for adverse long-
term impacts on the
ecosystem.
Very slight to moder-
ate potential for
adverse impacts.
Moderate potential
for consumption of
contaminated fish or
shellfish as commer-
cially exploitable
shellfish exist in
the area.
None to very slight
potential for adverse
effects as the area
is beyond the normal
range of most recrea-
tional fishing.
Slight risk because
barges must transit
through fishing
areas.
Very slight to slight
potential for adverse
impacts.
-------
TABLE 2-3. (Continued)
Ni
I
106-Mile Site
New York Bight
Acid Wastes Site
Delaware Bay
Acid Waste Site
Northern
Area
Southern
Area
ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY
(Continued)
Plankton
Very slight short-
term effects. None
to verv slight
potential for accu-
mulation of contam-
inants .
Slight short-term
adverse effects when
the wastes are
released. No poten-
tial accumulation of
contaminants due to
numerous other waste
sources.
Slight short-term
adverse effects when
the wastes are
released with poten-
tial of some accumu-
lation of contami-
nants .
Slight short-term
adverse effects when
the wastes are
released with poten-
tial of some accumu-
lation of contam-
inants .
Slight short-term
adverse effects when
the wastes are
released with poten-
tial of some accumu-
lation of contam-
inants.
Nekton
Very alight poten-
tial of accumulation
of contaminants.
Very slight potential
for accumulation of
contaminants.
Very slight potential
for accumulation of
contaminant s.
Very slight potential
for accumulation of
contaminants.
Very slight potential
for accumulation of
contaminants.
Benthos
No potential for
adverse effects
because of the
waste dilution occur-
ring in the water.
Moderate potential for
adverse effects. Dif-
ficult to differentiate
from adverse effects
of other nearby
dumping.
Moderate potential for
adverse effects.
Slight to moderate
potential for adverse
effects.
Slight to moderate
potential for adverse
effects.
Water Quality
Slight rise in
concentration when
wastes released, with
very slight potential
for longer term mod-
ification of ambient
levels.
Slight rise in concen-
tration when wastes
released, with very
slight potential for
longer term modlfl»
cation of ambient
levels.
Slight rise in concen-
tration when wastes
released, with very
slight potential for
longer term modifi-
cation of ambient
levels.
Slight rise in concen-
tration wher. wastes
released, with very
slight potential for
longer term modifi-
cation of ambient
levels.
Slight rise in concen-
tration when wastes
released, with very
slight potential for
longer term modifi-
cation of ambient
levels.
Sediment Quality
No potential for
adverse effects.
Moderate potential for
adverse effects. Dif-
ficult to differentiate
from adverse effects
of other nearby
dumping.
Moderate potential for
long-term accumula-
tion .
Slight to moderate
potential Iror long-
term accumulation.
Slight to moderate
potential for long-
term accumulation.
Short Dumping
Slight potential for
emergency because of
extreme round-trip
distance to site. No
significant threat to
commercial or recre-
ational fisheries.
Very slight potential
for emergency since
site is so close to
shore.
Slight potential for
emergency because of
extreme round-trip
distance to site.
Severe potential threat
to commercial and
recreational fisheries.
Slight potential for
emergency.
Slight potential for
emergency.
-------
TABLE 2-3• (Cont inued)
N>
I
U>
Ui
106-Mile Site
New York Bight
Acid Wastes Site
Delaware Bay
Acid Waste Site
Northern
Area
Southern
Area
ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING
Extremely alight dif-
ficulty in monitoring
short-terra effects of
waste since the site
is so far from shore.
Moderate to severe dif-
ficulties in detecting
long-term trends as
site's environment is
complex. Data base is
large and expanding.
No difficulty in
iranitoring short-term
effects of waste.
Severe difficulties in
detecting Long-term
trends as other permit-
tees use the site and
other contaminant
inputs would mask this
waste. Monitoring
is also complicated by
close proximity of
other disposal sites.
No difficulty in moni-
toring short-term
effects of waste.
Moderate difficulties
in detecting long-term
trends since the site
was previously used and
another disposal site
is nearby.
No difficulty in mon-
itoring short-term
effects of waste.
Slight difficulties in
detecting long-term
trends since existing
data for area are few.
Monitoring may be com-
plicated if the alter-
nate sewage sludge site
is activated.
No difficulty in mon-
itoring short-term
effects of waste.
Slight difficulties
in detecting long-
term trends since
existing data for
area are few.
SURVEILLANCE
Shipriders required.
Within the range of
convential surveillance
by aircraft and vessels.
Shipriders required.
Shipriders required.
Shipriders required.
. ECONOMICS
TRANSPORTATION COSTS
(Incl. ENERGY COSTS)
High cost of trans-
portation and moni-
toring. No conflict
with other uses of
the area.
Estimated to be $8.80
to $11.00 per metric
ton.
Low cost of transpor-
tation and surveil-
lance. Slight possi-
bility of adversely
affecting fishery
resource.
Estimated to be $0.90
to $2.50 per metric
ton.
High cost of trans-
portation. Slight pos-
sibility of adversely
affecting fishery
resources.
Estimated to be $8.80 to
$11.00 per metric ton
for wastes transported
from New York Harbor.
Moderate transportation
cost. Slight potential
for adversely affecting
future fishery resource.
Estimated to be $3.60
to $7.50 per metric ton
for wastes transported
from New York Harbor.
Moderate transpor-
tation cost. Slight
potenrlal for adversely
affecting present
fishery resources.
Estimated to be $2.70
to $10.00 per metric
ton for wastes trans-
ported from New York
Harbor.
MONITORING COSTS
Directly related to
difficulty of monitor-
ing. No dollar value
available.
Directly reLated to
difficulty of monitor-
ing. No dollar value
available.
Directly related to
difficulty of moni-
toring. No dollar value
avaLlable.
Directly related to
difficulty qf moni-
toring. No dollar
value available.
Directly related to
difficulty of moni-
toring. No dollar
value available.
SURVEILLANCE
COSTS
Expensive unless ODSS
is implemented since
area is outside nor-
mal Coast Guard patrol
ranges. Present prac-
tices are more man-
power entensive than
alternate sites.
No exceptional expense
as many disposal oper-
ations in the area
undergo routine surveil-
lance .
Expensive unless ODSS
is Implemented. Some
mitigation of expense
due to other site in
area.
Expensive unless ODSS
is implemented as area
is outside normal
Coast Guard patrol
ranges.
Expensive unless ODSS
is Implemented as area
is outside normal
Coast Guard patrol
ranges.
-------
TABLE 2-3. (Continued)
N5
I
u>
a>
106-Mile Site
New York Bight
Acid Waste Site
Delaware Bay
Acid Waste Site
Northern
Area
Southern
Area
' ECONOMICS (Continued)
LOSS OF BIOTIC RESOURCES
No potential for loss
of resource since pop*
ulations are not
exploitable. None to
very slight potential
of interference vith a
lobster or red crab
fi 8hery.
Slight potential for
loss of significant
portion of recre-
ational resources.
Slight potential for
loss of future com-
mercial shellfish
resource.
None to very slight
potential for loss
of future resource.
Slight potential for
adverse effects on
resources and very
slight potential for
loss of significant
portion of resources.
LOSS OF MINERAL
RESOURCES
No conflict.
No conflict.
No conflict.
No conflict.
Possible very slight
conflict.
LOGISTICS
Moderate scheduling
and operational dif-
ficulties because of
extreme distance to
site. No conflicts
with shipping.
Some conflict with
other shipping
because the site is
located in a traffic
zone.
Moderate scheduling
and operational dif-
ficulties because
of distance from New
York Harbor. No con-
flicts with shipping
near site.
No conflict with
shipping.
Very slight potential
conflict with oil and
gas development.
-------
The eleven specific site selection criteria are presented in Section 228.6 of
the Ocean Dumping Regulations. Each factor is briefly discussed in turn
within this section. More detailed information for the eleven factors, con-
tained elsewhere in the EIS, will be cited as appropriate to avoid needless
repetition.
"GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION, DEPTH OF WATER,
BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY AND DISTANCE FROM COAST"
The 106-Mile Site is located beyond the raid-Atlantic Continental Shelf, over
portions of the Continental Slope and Continental Rise (Figure 2-1). Its
coordinates are latitude 38°40'N to 39°00'N and longitude 72°00'W to 72°30'W.
Water depths range from 1,440 meters (in the topographically rugged northwest
corner) to 2,750 meters (in the relatively flat southeast corner). The
nearest point of land is the New Jersey coast north of Cape May, located
roughly 200 km (110 n mi) from the northwest corner of the site.
"LOCATION IN RELATION TO BREEDING,
SPAWNING, NURSERY, FEEDING, OR PASSAGE
AREAS OF LIVING RESOURCES IN ADULT OR
JUVENILE PEASES"
All of these activities occur in some measure within the oceanic region along
the shelf break which contains the 106-Mile Site; however, no feature of the
life history of valuable organisms is known to be unique to the 106-Mile Site
or its vicinity.
Rare or endangered species may be present at the 106-Mile Site. However, the
Site is not a concentration point for these animals, which are migratory and
would be present for only a few hours. Both turtles (e.g. Hawksbill and
Leatherback) and whales (e.g. sperm and right) may occasionally pass through
the Site. The possibility that these animals would be affected by a waste
disposal operation is extremely remote. Rare or endangered birds are not
present at the Site (Gusey, 1976).
2-37
-------
"LOCATION IN RELATION TO BEACHES
AND OTHER AMENITY AREAS"
The Site is 200 km (110 nmi) from the nearest point of land, the coast of New
Jersey. This distance is adequate to provide for extensive dilution and
dispersion of wastes prior to reaching shore. Therefore, use of the Site
should not impinge on recreation, coastal development, or any other amenities
along the shoreline.
"TYPES AND QUANTITIES OF WASTES PROPOSED
TO BE DISPOSED OF, AND PROPOSED METHODS
OF RELEASE, INCLUDING METHODS OF PACKING
THE WASTE, IF ANY"
Wastes to be disposed of at the Site must meet the EPA environmental impact
criteria outlined in Part 227, Subparts B, D, and E of the Ocean Dumping
Regulations, or, as in the case of some of the current permittees at the Site,
dumping of wastes not meeting the impact criteria must be phased out by
December 31, 1981. In all cases, in accordance with Subpart C, a need for
ocean dumping must be demonstrated. Upon site designation, types and
quantities of wastes currently dumped will apply. At this time, no new permit
applications are anticipated. All wastes expected to be disposed of now, and
following final site designation, will be aqueous industrial wastes (and
possibly municipal sewage sludge) transported by vessels with subsurface
release mechanisms. None of the wastes will be packaged in any way.
'FEASIBILITY OF SURVEILLANCE
MJD MONITORING"
Both activities are feasible at the 106-Mile Site, although costly.
Additional discussion of this subject appeared earlier in this chapter.
2-38
-------
"DISPEKSAL, HORIZONTAL TRANSPORT AND
VERTICAL MIXING CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE AREA, INCLUDING PREVAILING
CURRENT DIRECTION AND VELOCITY"
The physical oceanographic characteristics of the 106-Mile Site are described
in detail in Appendix A. The physical action of the site environment, on the
wastes currently disposed there, is described in Appendix B.
"EXISTENCE AND EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND
PREVIOUS DISCHARGES AND DUMPING IN THE
AREA (INCLUDING CUMULATIVE EFFECTS)"
No significant adverse in situ effects
have been demonstrated at the Site.
Chapter 4.
"INTERFERENCE WITH SHIPPING,
FISHING, RECREATION, MINERAL
EXTRACTION, DESALINATION, FISH
AND SHELLFISH CULTURE, AREAS OF
SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE,
AND OTHER LEGITIMATE USES OF
THE OCEAN"
of current or previous waste disposal
This subject is discussed further in
Present use of the 106-Mile Site interferes with none of the listed
activities, nor is future use of the Site for dumping likely to cause an
obstruction. Since most resource exploitation occurs on the Continental
Shelf, use of a site off the Continental Shelf ie not likely to adversely
influence such activities. The only relevant consideration is the effect, if
any, of transit to and from the Site. Emergency waste dumping could cause
chemicals being transported to the Site to be short dumped in an area where
other ac.tivite6 are occurring; however, such a situation would be expected to
cause only short-term interference and short-term adverse impacts, if any.
2-39
-------
"THE EXISTING WATER QUALITY AND
ECOLOGY OF THE SITE AS DETERMINED
BY AVAILABLE DATA OR BY TREND
ASSESSMENT OR BASELINE SURVEYS"
No known pre-disposal baseline data from the Site vicinity exist; however,
trend assessment surveys and limited laboratory studies have been conducted
since waste disposal began at the Site. This work is detailed in Chapter 4
and Appendix A.
"POTENTIALITY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT
OR RECRUITMENT OF NUISANCE SPECIES
IN THE DISPOSAL SITE"
In several years of Site survey work, since waste discharging began, no
development or recruitment of any nuisance species has been observed.
"EXISTENCE AT OR IN CLOSE PROXIMITY
TO THE SITE OF ANY SIGNIFICANT
NATURAL OR CULTURAL FEATURES OF
HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE"
No such features are known to exist at or near the Site.
RECOMMENDED USE OF THE 106-MILE SITE
All future use of the 106-Mile Site for ocean waste disposal must comply with
the EPA Ocean Dumping Regulations and Criteria—a requirement which also
brings prospective dumping into compliance with the MPRSA and the London Ocean
Dumping Convention. EPA determines compliance with the OCEAN DUMPING
Regulations on a case-by-case basis as applications for disposal permits are
evaluated. This section offers general guidelines for determining accept-
ability of applicant wastes once a clear need for oceann disposal has been
demonstrated due to a lack of land-based disposal methods.
2-40
-------
TYPES OF WASTES
Waste materials similar to those presently, dumped at the Site will be
provisionally acceptable since no significant adverse environmental effects
have yet been demonstrated from dumping these wastes. If adverse effects are
observed in later monitoring, dumping must be altered (reduced or stopped)
according to Section 228.11 of the Ocean Dumping Regulations until such
effects do not occur. For the present, however, industrial wastes having the
following characteristics may be released at the site:
e Aqueous with concentrations of solids generally less than 1 percent
e Neutrally buoyant or slightly denser than seawater such that upon
mixing with seawater the material does not float
e Demonstrate low toxicity and low bioaccumulat ion potential to
representative marine organisms
© Contain no materials prohibited by the MPRSA and the Ocean Dumping
Convent ion
e Contain constituents in concentrations that are not observed outside
of the site in concentrations above ambient levels after four hours.
Sewage sludge represents a special category of waste being considered for
dumping at the Site and is discussed in additional detail in Chapter 5.
WASTE LOADINGS
Since cumulative effects of past waste loading have not been demonstrated at
the Site, no upper limit can be named beyond which effects could occur. The
maximum historical input, roughly 750,000 metric tons of industrial wastes and
sewage sludge in 1977, has not caused observable long-term adverse effects.
However, the critical element for evaluating the effects of waste loading at
the Site, is not the total annual input, but, rather, the input of each
individual dump. The rate of release of each waste load must not be greater
than the ability of the water to dilute it to acceptable levels within a short
period of time. Compliance with Section 227.8 of the Ocean Dumping
Regulations (limiting permissible concentration) should ensure that the marine
environment will not be adversely or irreversibly impacted.
2-41
-------
The total assimilative capacity of the Site is unknown because the physical
conditions which cause waste dispersal there are still not well understood.
Therefore, making accurate predictions of maximum permissible waste loading is
impossible at this time. However, the emphasis of future NOAA research at the
Site is to further define the physical characteristics of the Site and its
action on the waste. Each waste proposed to be dumped must be evaluated, both
individually and in relation to other wastes being dumped ^ for dispersion
characteristics and input of toxic elements to the environment of the area.
In the absence of more accurate information, waste- loadings increased above
the present level may be permitted as long as the Site is carefully monitored
for adverse effects. However, the amount of material dumped in each barge
load must not be greater than that amount which dispersal and mean transport
of water at the Site can reduce to acceptable levels within the period of
initial mixing (4 hours). EPA establishes the size of barge loads and rates
of release of materials at the Site to meet this objective.
DISPOSAL METHODS
Present disposal methods practiced by permittees at the site appear acceptable
for future waste disposal. Wastes are transported to the Site in specially
constructed barges or self-propelled tankers and discharged from underwater
valves while the barge/vessel is underway within the disposal site boundaries.
The turbulence created in the barge/vessel wake causes immediate dilution of
the waste. This method (or any other method that maximizes initial dilution
upon discharge) is recommended for all future disposal.
DUMPING SCHEDULES
EPA presently manages the disposal operations so that different quadrants of
the site are used seasonally by each permittee. This plan minimizes contact
of wastes being released within the site at the same time and maximizes the
dilution of wastes by using the entire Site for dumping. When two or more
waste vessels are discharging wastes concurrently the vessels should be
separated by the maximum possible distance (at least 0.5 nmi) within the
quadrant to allow for adequate dilution of the wastes.
2-42
-------
PERMIT CONDITIONS
EPA specifies special conditions for inclusion in individual permits as
necessary. It is recommended that all future permits contain the following
conditions :
1. Independent shiprider surveillance of all disposal operation will be
conducted by either the USCG or USCG auxiliary (the latter at
permittee's expense).
2. Comprehensive monitoring for long-term impacts will be accomplished
by Federal agencies and for short-term impacts by environmental
contractors (the latter at permittee's expense). All monitoring
studies are subject to EPA approval. Short-term monitoring should
include laboratory studies of waste characteristics and toxicity, and
field studies of waste behavior upon discharge and its effect on
local organisms. Long-term monitoring should include studies of
chronic toxicity of the waste at low concentrations and field studies
of the fate of materials, especially any particulates formed after
discharge, in the waste.
3. EPA will enforce a discharge rate based on the limiting permissible
concentration, disposal in quadrants of the Site, and maintenance of
a 0.5 nmi separation distance between vessels.
4. Key constituents of the waste will be routinely analyzed in waste
samples at a frequency to be determined by EPA on a case-by-case
basis, but sufficient to accurately evaluate mass loading at the
Site.
5. Routine bioassays will be performed on waste samples using
appropriate sensitive marine organisms.
2-43
-------
Chapter 3
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT
This Chapter describes the environments of the proposed site
and the alternative sites. Because the 106-Mile Site is
located in deep water off the Continental Shelf, it exhibits
environmental features that are different from the
alternative sites, which are located on the Continental Shelf
in shallow water. These unique features of the 106-Mile Site
make it a better location for chemical waste disposal than
any of the alternative sites.
The Chapter is organized geographically. It begins with the 106-Mile Site
(Figure 3-1), and then treats the New York Bight alternative sites together.
The Chapter concludes with a discussion of the Delaware Bay Acid Site. For
the alternative sites where waste disposal has already occurred, a brief
history of the disposal operation is provided. For all sites, concurrent and
future site studies and all other known activities in the site area are
described.
THE PROPOSED 106-MILE SITE
Detailed information on the 106-Mile Site appears in Appendix A. The
following discussion is excerpted from Appendix A.
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
Because the Site is located just beyond the edge of the Continental Shelf
within the influence of the Gulf Stream (Figure 3-2), surface water at the
Site may belong to three different water masses, each having distinct
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics: Shelf Water, Slope Water,
and Gulf Stream Water. Slope Water normally occupies the Site; however, when
the Shelf/Slope ocean front migrates eastward, Shelf Water of equal or lower
A
salinity and temperature mixes with Slope Water, and the differing densities
of the water masses cause them to form separate layers within the water
column. Therefore, the mixing of waters at the Site can be quite complex,
influenced both by predictable seasonal factors, and by highly unpredictable
factors (Warsh, 1975b).
3-1
-------
) lv-/ y 0 50 100
V \ NAUTICAL MILES
/ J 1 1 1 1 1 1
./ / .—J 0 50 38°¦—
75° f ,74"C 73° 72'
J L f 1 > I , — I
Figure 3-1. New York Bight and Alternative Disposal Sites
3-2
-------
74° 72° 70°W
40°
39°
38° N
Figure 3-2. Location of the 106-Mile Site (Shaded)
(Adapted from Warsh, 1975b)
Occasionally, warm-core rings of water (eddies), break off from the Gulf
Stream and migrate through the Site, entraining other water or Gulf Stream
water. The latter is of higher temperature and salinity than Slope Water.
Although such eddies do not pass through the Site on a seasonal basis, they
have been observed to touch or completely occupy the Site for about 70 days a
year (Bisagni, 1976).
3-3
-------
As the surface waters of the Site warm in late spring, a phenomenon occurs
which causes the water to stratify within 10 to 50 meters of the surface,
forming layers of water with different temperature, salinity, and density.
The stratification persists until mid-fall or late fall, when cooling and
storm activity destroy it. From fall through winter and into early spring,
the temperature of the water column is the same from the surface to a depth of
approximately 200 meters. At 200 meters, however, a permanent stratification
level exists. Below that level, the water is uniformly lower in temperature.
These physical characteristics are important because they greatly influence
the ultimate fate of aqueous wastes dumped at the site.
Although few current measurements exist for the Site, the literature indicates
that water at all depths in this area tends to flow southwest, generally
following the boundary of the Continental Shelf and Continental Slope (Warsh,
1975b). Occasionally, the water flow may change direction, especially when
Gulf Stream eddies pass through the area, and this effect has even been
observed in the deep water of the Site.
Physical and chemical characteristics make the Site biologically complex
because each water mass possesses unique associations of plants and animals.
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
The Continental Slope within the disposal area has a gentle (4 percent) grade,
which levels off (one percent) outside the Site, in the region of the upper
Continental Rise. Sediments within the Site are principally sand and silt,
with silts predominating (Pearce et al, 1975). Sediment composition is a
major factor determining the amounts and kinds of animals capable of
colonizing the bottom of the Site. Generally, greater diversity and abundance
of fauna is associated with finer sediments (such as silt), although unusual
physical conditions will alter this. Also, particularly fine-grained
sediments are likely to contain higher concentrations of heavy metals. Sand,
gravel, and rocky bottoms rarely contain these elements in high concen-
trations .
3-4
-------
Continental Slope sediments in various parts of the site are subject to
different dynamic forces. The Upper Continental Rise is an area of tranquil
deposition, and the Lower Continental Rise is an area of shifting deposition.
Erosional areas (caused by currents) lie between these two provinces. These
different processes would largely determine the ultimate fate of any waste
products that reached bottom (which are anticipated to be quite small). In
areas swept by currents, waste products would be carried by currents out of
the disposal gite, and would be greatly diluted. In erosional areas and areas
of shifting deposition, the same situation ^would exist, although the waste
material could be temporarily motionless before moved. In areas of tranquil
or slow deposition, waste products would be slowly buried.
CHEMICAL CONDITIONS
The amount of oxygen dissolved in seawater is a general indicator of the
life-supporting capability of the waters. Dissolved oxygen levels below 4
mg/1 stress animals. Dissolved oxygen concentrations at the 106-Mile Site are
higher than 4 mg/1 in surface water, and experience vertical gradients similar
to the temperature gradients mentioned above. Thus, the permanent strati-
fication level at 200 meters divides the water column into an upper and lower
regime. The different water densities of these regimes (caused by the
differences in temperatures) prevent the two layers from mixing. Unless
storms or other conditions cause vertical mixing, neither layer will invade
the other and influence the dissolved oxygen concentrations.
Dissolved oxygen levels are at a minimum at depths of 200 m to 300 m, and
slowly increase with distance in either direction (vertically) from the
stratification line. Summer and winter dissolved oxygen gradients at the Site
are similar, with the main difference being the higher surface concentrations
during winter. Any waste material which undergoes oxidation in seawater will
consume oxygen, thus lowering the quantity of dissolved oxygen present in
seawater.
Chemical baseline surveys and monitoring surveys at the 106-Mile Site have
examined trace metal levels* in the sediments, water, and selected organisms.
3-5
-------
Metals in the sediments and water represent contaminants potentially available
to Site organisms, and could possibly be assimilated (bioaccumulated) and
concentrated by them in toxic quantities.
Since numerous metals are naturally present in seawater, only concentrations
of metals which exceed natural background levels, and approach known or
suspected toxicity levels, would be expected to pose a threat to marine
organisms and man. The most recent studies of trace metal levels in the water
of the 106-Mile Site found background levels typical of other uncontaminated
Shelf-Slope regions (Kester et al., 1977; Hausknecht and Kester, 1976a,
1976b) .
Trace metals in sediments all along the Continental Slope and Continental Rise
(including the Site area) are elevated in comparison to Continental Shelf
values (Greig et al., 1976; Pearce et al., 1975). However, because these
values are so widespread, they cannot be attributed to waste disposal
activities at the Site.
Analysis of trace metal concentrations in food chain organisms at the Site
revealed high cadmium levels in three swordfish livers, mercury levels above
the Food and Drug Administration action level ("unfit for human consumption")
in most fish muscle samples, and low to moderate copper and manganese
concentrations, similar to those in New York Bight finfish (Greig and
Wenzloff, 1977; Greig et al., 1976). However, ocean waste disposal at the
Site was not linked by investigators to the metal concentrations found in any
of the analyzed benthic (bottom) and pelagic (open ocean) organisms because
these organisms were transients (Pearce et al., 1975).
BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Plankton are microscopic plants and animals which passively drift with the
current or swim weakly. Plankton are divided into plants—the phytoplankton,
and animals—the zooplankton. Since the plankton are the primary source of
all food in the ocean, their health and ability to reproduce is of crucial
importance to all life in the ocean, including fish and shellfish of
commercial importance.
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Plankton at the 106-Mile Site are highly diverse due to the influence of the
Shelf, Slope, and Gulf Stream water masses, as discussed in the section on
Physical Conditions, above. The high-nutrient Shelf waters primarily
contribute diatoms to the Site while the low-nutrient Slope waters contribute
coccolithophorids, diatoms, dinoflagellates, and other mixed flagellates
(Hulbert and Jones, 1977). Mixed assemblages of zooplankters, common to the
different water masses, have been found to occupy the Site during winter,
spring, and summer (Sherman et al., 1977; Austin, 1975).
Fish have been surveyed at various depths within the Site. The diversity and
abundance of those fish found only in surface waters, are relatively the same
inside and outside the disposal site (Haedrich, 1977). The fauna, found
primarily at , mid-depths (mesopelagic fish), are predominated by Slope water
species with Gulf Stream anticyclonic (clockwise) eddies contributing some
north Sargasso Sea species (Krueger et al., 1975 , 1977 ; Haedrich, 1977). For
some depths, particularly in the lower water column, the density of
mesopelagic fish may be lower at the Site compared to non-disposal site areas
(Krueger et al., 1977). Several migratory oceanic fish, usually associated
with the Gulf Stream, can often be found in midwater regions of the Site.
Benthic (bottom) fish in the site area are similar to assemblages in other
Slope areas (Musick et al., 1975; Cohen and Pawson, 1977).
Abundance and diversity of invertebrates at the 106-Mile Site are similar to
those in most other Slope localities of the Mid-Atlantic Bight. As in similar
areas, the invertebrates situated on the bottom (the epifauna) of the 106-Mile
Site are dominated by echinoderms (such as starfish), while segmented worms
(polychaetes) are the dominant burrowing organism.
Although no mammal sightings have been reported at the Site, it is located
within the distribution range of several species of whales and turtles, some
of which are rare or endangered. However, disposal activities at the 106-Mile
Site would not obstruct their migrations or harm them in any other forseeable
way since they would only be in the Site a few hours, at most, and would tend
to avoid dump vessels.
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WASTE DISPOSAL AT THE SITE
Waste disposal at the 106-Mile Site is discussed in detail in Appendix B.
CONCURRENT AND FUTURE STUDIES
The NOAA Ocean Pulse Program plans to continue monitoring the 106-Mile Site.
In addition, all permittees are required to monitor their waste discharges.
Current permittees have contracted with a private company to conduct on-going
monitoring.
OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE SITE VICINITY
Few activities are occurring in the Site vicinity other than waste disposal
operations at the Site itself. A large area immediately south of the Site has
been proposed for ocean incineration. However, there are no other ocean
disposal sites in the vicinity. Oil and gas lease tracts are located west and
north of the Site, along the outer Continental Shelf (Figure 3-3). While the
Hudson Canyon Navigational Lane crosses the Continental Slope north of the
Site, no major shipping lanes approach 106-Mile Site boundaries.
Limited fisheries resources occur at the 106-Mile Site and vicinity. Due to
the abyssal depths in and around the Site, none of the shellfish species
commonly fished on the adjacent and shallower shelf/slope areas are found in
the bottom life of the Site. Lobsters, which represent the most valuable
resource in the New York Bight fisheries, are confined to areas shallower than
500 meters. The red crab (a potential fishery resource) is most abundant at
depths between 310 and 91A meters; its maximum reported depth is 1,829 meters.
Even if the red crab were abundant at the Site and immediate vicinity, present
harvesting methods for such deep water areas would support, at best, an
inefficient fishery of marginal value.
Present marine animal population data show that most commercially important
species of finfishes in the. New York Bight vicinity prefer to live and spawn
3-8
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Figure 3-3. Oil and Gas Leases in the New York Bight
(Adapted from EPA, 1978)
3-9
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in shelf areas and along the crest of the Continental Shelf-Slope break
(NOAA-MESA, 1975; BLM, 1978; Chenoweth, 1976a). Consequently, most foreign
and domestic fish trawling is conducted at depths shallower than 1,000
meters—much shallower than the 106-Mile Site. Waters near the Site have been
used for the commercial longline fishing of marlin, swordfish, and tuna (Casey
and Hoenig, 1977). However, only 1,041 fish of these species were caught
between 1973 and 1974 in a very large ocean area of which the 106-Mile Site is
only a small part (Casey and Hoenig, 1977). In general, catch statistics for
Continental Slope areas are incomplete because fishing vessels wander from
Shelf to Slope areas, mixing their catch of Slope species with Shelf species;
landing records also fail to separate Shelf species from Slope species.
ALTERNATIVE SITES IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT
Three New York Bight Sites (Figure 3-1) — the existing New York Bight Acid
Wastes Site, and the proposed alternative Northern and Southern Areas—were
evaluated as alternative locations for the disposal of chemical wastes.
Overall conditions for the New York Bight are described below, and conditions
unique to the three sites are highlighted.
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
The physical characteristics of the New York Bight are very complex. Seasonal
patterns of temperature, salinity, insolation, and river runoff are compl-
icated by strong meteorological events and intrusions of Slope Water (Bowman
and Wunderlich, 1977).
The hydrography of the New York Bight exhibits clear seasonal cycles in the
temperature, salinity, and density structures. Two distinct oceanographic
regimes, with short transition periods in between, prevail during an annual
cycle. Early winter storm mixing and rapid cooling at the surface create a
well-mixed, unstratified water column. A moderate stratification develops in
the early spring, which intensifies during the summer (Charnell and Hansen,
1974). The rapid formation of the seasonal thermocline divides the water
3-10
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column into an upper and lower layer. Bottom waters retain their charac-
teristics with little modification until storms break up the thermocline in
the late fall.
Conditions at the New York Bight Acid Wastes Site are more extreme than at the
offshore areas because it is close to shore and is affected by the fresh water
outflow from New York Harbor. The Site has a greater influx of fresh water
and suspended particulate matter (discussed below) tlian Shelf areas farther
offshore, due to its proximity to Hudson River drainage. The area also has
colder winter water temperatures, since it lacks the tempering effect of deep
waters and receives substantial cold-water runoff during the winter season.
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
The Continental Shelf surface of the New York Bight is a vast sandy plain,
underlain with clay (Emery and Schlee, 1963; Milliman et al., 1972). While
sand is the most abundant textural component on the Shelf, significant
deposits of gravel and mud are also present. Surface sediments of both the
Acid Site and the Northern Area contain small percentages of mud, while the
latter also contains some gravel. Surface sediments of the Southern Area are
mostly sand. The most prominent feature of the bottom sediment in this area
is a band of coarse, gravelly sand near the northeast rim of the site,
parallel to the Hudson Shelf Valley.
Suspended particulate matter includes fine material from natural and man-made
sources, which is suspended in seawater for long periods. It may be
transported for some distance by waves and currents before sinking to the
bottom. After reaching the bottom, the material may be resuspended by bottom
currents or wave action and transported to other areas. A number of potential
environmental effects have been attributed to suspended particulate matter.
Higher levels of this material can decrease the depth to which light
penetrates water, thereby significantly limiting the depth at which plants can
photosynthesize and the amount of new life formed in the ocean. Suspended
particulates can have toxic effects, or can bind or adsorb toxic materials,
3-11
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which are eventually carried to bottom life. While suspended in water, or
lying on the bottom, the toxic material can be consumed by marine organisms,
or taken up by absorption.
The highest concentrations of suspended particulate matter in New York Bight
waters occur near shore. The New York Bight Acid Wastes Site, in particular,
has higher suspended particulate matter levels due to its closeness to the
coast and Hudson River runoff, a major source of this material. Lower levels
of suspended particulates are transported to and from the Northern and
Southern Areas by means of currents moving to replace water which has moved
out of the area.
CHEMICAL CONDITIONS
The coastal metropolitan area is the primary source of heavy metals entering
the New York Bight (Benninger et al., 1975; Carmody et al. , 1973). The
concentrations of dissolved heavy metals in the water of the New York Bight
vary seasonally; background (natural) concentrations, however, are generally
higher than those reported for the open ocean (Brewer, 1975). Heavy metal
concentrations in bottom sediments are not uniformly distributed throughout
the New York Bight, but vary according to sediment grain size, quality of
organic material present, mineral composition, and proximity to the metro-
politan area. In general, concentrations of dissolved heavy metals are
highest in the Bight Apex, where man's influence is greatest.
Concentrations of heavy metals in sediments and water of the Northern and
Southern Areas are low compared to those found in the Bight Apex, but all
other chemical parameters are typical of the New York Bight. Higher levels of
heavy metals have only occasionally been found in the water of the New York
Bight Acid Wastes Site (Segar and Cantillo, 1976), and metal concentrations in
the sediments of the Site are generally only half as high as those in the
Hudson Submarine Canyon. Normally, waste material dumped at the Site is
confined to the water column; however an iron flocculent, which forms as the
acid-iron waste reacts with seawater, has contributed to high sediment-iron
concentrations in the Site vicinity.
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Surface waters of the New York Bight are saturated or nearly saturated with
oxygen. Dissolved oxygen levels in bottom waters begin to decline in spring
as the the surface mixing layer (thermocline) develops; by late summer, the
oxygen levels have reached their lowest value. Oxygen saturation increases in
the fall, following breakup of the surface mixed layer, and continues to
increase as greater mixing occurs (Segar et al., 1975). Dissolved oxygen
concentrations in surface, mid-depth, and bottom waters in the Northern and
Southern Areas are moderately to highly saturated under winter, spring, and
critical summer conditions. The saturation value for oxygen at these sampling
depths probably does not fall below 50 percent at any time of year, and is
usually much higher (75 to 110 percent).
Organic carbon, which may act as a trap (sink) and transport agent for toxic
susbtances, is found at its highest levels near areas of wastewater discharge
(outfalls) and sewage sludge, dredged material, and cellar dirt disposal
sites. All three disposal sites have low levels of total organic carbon. No
comprehensive studies of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the New York Bight have
been made, but dredged material and sewage sludge disposal are probably the
major sources of these materials to the Bight (EPA, 1975; Raytheon, 1975a,
1975b). Chemical waste generally contains low levels of chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
During most of the year, the ranges of daily phytoplankton production for
inshore and offshore areas of the New York Bight do not differ significantly
from one another (Ryther and Yentsch, 1958; Yentsch, 1963). Total annual
production, however, is higher in coastal waters. In broad terms, phyto-
plankton populations are dominated by diatoms (cold months) and chlorophytes
(warm months) in the Hudson River estuary and Apex, and by diatoms in the
outer Bight. Zooplankton populations are dominated by copepods and larvae of
vertebrates and invertebrates (summer only) in the estuary, and by copepods in
the outer Bight.
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The fish population of the New York Bight includes nonmigrating species,
transitory species during migrations, and transitory species residing
seasonally (NYOSL, 1973). Many species of coastal fishes use the New York
Bight as a spawning ground, although no specific site is used exclusively or
consistently by any one species. The benthic fauna show a subtle progression,
in an offshore direction, from sand fauna to silty-sand fauna to silty-clay
fauna as the sediments become more fine-grained (Figure 3-4).
At present, 21 species of finfish and 15 species of shellfish are commonly
harvested from the New York Bight, and several other species are potentially
important to future fishing. Because fish exhibit unrestricted movement,
locations where specific finfish are caught vary considerably from year to
year. This, plus the understandable lack of a requirement for fishermen to
report their fishing grounds, makes mapping of finfisheries nearly impossible.
Locations of specific shellfishing grounds in the mid-Atlantic are also
unknown. However, since shellfish movement is restricted, assessment surveys
by NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) are useful for locating
areas inhabited by shellfish in marketable quantities, although whether or not
these locations are fished is unknown. Large densities of two of the most
heavily utilized Bight shellfish resources—the surf clam and sea scallop—are
shown in Figure 3-5. The ocean quahog, although more a potential future
resource than a present-day one, is also mapped. The assessment surveys which
provided these data were conducted in the 1974 and 1975; actual locations and
densities of these resources may have changed since that time. In addition,
EPA (1978) reports that ocean quahogs are numerous around the Northern Area.
The Northern Area was not sampled in the NMFS assessment surveys.
Commercial fishing activities are minor around the New York Bight Acid Wastes
Site. A seasonal whiting fishery exists along the edge of the Hudson Shelf
Valley near the Site during the winter, and lobster are taken inshore from the
Site. Most of the Bight Apex is closed to shellfishing because of contami-
nation from the sewage sludge and dredged material sites and the numerous
effluent outfalls along the Long Island and New Jersey shore.
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NEW JERSEY
Figure 3-4. Benthic Faunsl Types in cue Mid-Atlantic Bight
(Adapted from Pratt, 1973)
3-15
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Figure 3-5.. Distribution of Surf Clama, Ocean Quahogs, and
Sea Scallops in the Mid-Atlantic (NOAA-NMFS, 1974, 1975)
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Surf clams, sea' scallops, and ocean quahogs inhabit the Northern and Southern
Areas on a nonexclusive basis for most or all of their life cycles. Surf
clams are more prevalent in the Southern Area and scallops are more prevalent
in the Northern Area. However, neither area is known to be an active fishing
area at this time.
WASTE DISPOSAL AT THE NEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES SITE
The New York Bight Acid Wastes Site was established in 1948 for the disposal
of waste generated from industries in the New Jersey and New York areas. The
Site location was chosen specifically to avoid conflict with fisheries. The
present Site, established by EPA in 1973, is bounded by latitude 40°16'N to
40°201N and 73°36'W to 73°36'W.
RECENT DISPOSAL PRACTICES
Three permittees were using the New York Bight Acid Wastes Site when it came
under EPA regulation in April 1973. In 1974, DuPont-Grasselli moved its waste
disposal operation out to the 106-Mile Site. Two permittees—NL Industries,
Inc., and Allied Chemical Corporation—are currently using the Acid Wastes
Site. The volume of waste discharged at the Site decreased 65 percent between
1973 and 1978 (Table 3-1), due to three factors:
(1) DuPont-Grasselli abandoned the site in late 1974. They accounted
for 5 percent of the total quantity disposed in 1973 and 1974.
(2) Allied Chemical shut down certain manufacturing processes, and their
waste volume decreased 74 percent between 1973 and 1978.
(3) NL Industries (the primary waste discharger) was either shut down or
operating at a reduced capacity (due to a strike) for an extended
period of time from 1976 to 1977. Normally, they contribute over 90
percent of the waste volume.
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TABLE 3-1. DISPOSAL VOLUMES AT THE NEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES DISPOSAL SITE
(Metric Tons/Year)
Permittee
Year /
1973
1974
1975
1976/
1977
1978
Total
NL Industries
2,300,000
1 ,987,000
1,842,000
1,234,000
605,000
849,000
8,822,000
Allied ChemicAl
59,000
56,000
48,000
47,000
29,000
15,000
254,000
DuPont-Grasselli
142,000
78,000
—
220,000
TOTAL
2,505,000
2,121,000
1,890,000
1,281,000
634,000
864,000
9,295,000
NL Industries
NL Industries, located in Sayreville, New Jersey, disposes of wastes produced
from the manufacture of titanium dioxide, an inert, nontoxic white pigment,
prepared in various grades for use in the paint, paper, plastic, drug, and
ceramic industries. The waste material consists of approximately 8.5 percent
(by volume) sulfuric acid (^SO^) and 10 /percent (by volume) ferrous sulfate
(FeSO^) dissolved in fresh water. When the waste is dumped, the ferrous
sulfate colors the water a light green. The barge's wake turns brown as the
ferrous iron is oxidized to form ferric .hydroxide (rust). Insoluble
materials, such as silica and unrecovered titanium dioxide, are also present
in the waste. NL Industries' waste represented 97 percent of the total
material dumped at the Acid Site between 1975 and 1978.
Allied Chemical Corporation
Allied Chemical, located in Elizabeth, New Jersey, discharges wastes from the
manufacture of fluorocarbons. The waste material consists of approximately 30
percent hydrochloric acid (HC1), 2 percent hydrofluoric acid (HF) (both by
volume), and trace constituents in aqueous solution. The principal trace
metals are chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc. The Allied Chemical
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wastes represented 3 percent of the total material disposed of at the Acid
Wastes Site between 1975 and 1978.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WASTE
The specific gravity of the waste is an important physical characteristic for
dispersion prediction. The following ranges of specific gravity have been
reported: >
WASTE
Specific Gravity (Range)
NL Industries
1.082
to
1.174
Allied Chemical
1.116
to
1.172
Typical site seawater
1.025
Dispersion studies have been periodically conducted on NL Industries' wastes
since waste disposal began in 1948. A summary of the dispersion studies for
both NL Industries and Allied Chemical wastes is presented in Table 3-2, which
shows that wastes rapidly dilute after discharge. Redfield and Walford (1951)
reported that the maximum volume of water having an acid reaction was 162,000
cubic meters (640 meters long, 23 meters wide, and 11 meters deep); the acid
was neutralized within 3-1/2 minutes after discharge. Recent EG&G studies
(1977a, 1977b) also reported that the wastes did not penetrate the summer
thermocline at 10 meters, and initial mixing was rapid. A detailed descrip-
tion of the barging operation can be found in Redfield and Walford (1951) and
Peschiera and Freiberr (1968).
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WASTE
Trace Metals
The quantities of eight trace metals released at the Acid Wastes Site during
the years 1973 to 1978 are summarized in Table 3-3. Only chromium, vanadium,
and zinc are present in large quantities, and if the total contaminant inputs
to the Bight are considered, these inputs from acid wastes are insignificant.
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TABLE 3-2. REPORTED DILUTION VALUES FOR WASTES DUMPED AT THE ACID SITE
CO
I
ho
O
Dilution
Seconds
Dilution
Minutes
Dilution
Hours
Permittee/
Reference
15
30
1
2
3
4
5
12
22
30
39
55
66
180-
200
4
18
Industries:
Refs:
Redfield and
Walford 1951
250
Ketchum and
Ford, 1952
700
1,200
1,500
1,200
3,000
3,900
5,600
2,700
Vaccaro
et al., 1972*
EG&G Inc.
1977a
9,400
40,000
82,000
90,000
116,000
Allied Chemical
Corporation
Ref:
tG&G Inc.
1977b
2,700
6,500
1,500
23,000
83,000
143,000
* Reported that the highest particulate Iron concentration observed was
equivalent to a dilution of 39,000. The time after discharge was
unknown but the acid plume was still visible.
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TABLE 3-3. ESTIMATED VOLUMES OF TRACE METALS RELEASED ANNUALLY
AT THE NEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES DISPOSAL SITE
(Metric Tons/Year)
Metal
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
Total
Average
Cadmium
0.9
0.9
0.10
0.3
0.10
0.15
2.4
0.4
Chromium
30.7
25.5
19.2
5.4
58.3
8.2
147.3
24.5
Copper
15.3
6.5
8.8
2.1
2.2
3.1
38
6.3
Lead
5.7
2.6
2.5
3.0
0.9
1.3
16.0
2.7
Mercury
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.005
0.003
0.004
0.1
0.1
Nickel
13.3
14.3
9.6
3.8
3.4
4.8
49.2
8.2
Vanadium
215.5
127.7
112.5
•k
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Zinc
52.7
42.5
33.5
13.6
10.9
15.2
168.4
28.1
*
Not analyzed
The total mass loads of several trace metals released into the New York Bight
from various sources are listed in Table 3-4. Wastes discharged at the Acid
Site contribute significant amounts of vanadium and, possibly, nickel to the
Bight. Iron, not reported by Mueller et al. (1976), is a significant input as
well. Redfield and Walford (1951) reported that the amount of iron barged to
sea was about equal to the amount discharged in the Hudson River outflow.
Recent work (NOAA-MESA, 1975) indicated that the Hudson estuary discharge is
the major source of both dissolved and suspended particulate trace metals,
particularly iron and manganese. Overall, the Acid Wastes Site ranks fourth
or fifth among the five possible sources of these metals; ocean dumping at
other sites (principally dredged material and sewage sludge) and outflow from
New York Harbor are the dominant sources of these contaminants.
Acid
The acid in NL Industries' wastes is neutralized within a maximum of 40
minutes after discharge (EG&G, 1977a). Redfield and Walford (1951) calculated
that at discharge, the sulfuric acid would be immediately diluted to 2 parts
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TABLE 3-4. MASS LOADS OF TRACE METALS ENTERING THE NEW YORK BIGHT
1960-1974* (Metric Tons)
Metal
Ocean ^
Dumping
Atmosphere
Transect
Zonet
New Jersey/
Long Island
Coastal Zone
Acid
Waste
Total
Cadmium
30
20
13
5
1
769
Chromium
880
27
803
81
31
1,822
Copper
2,573
146
2,263
54
15
5,051
Lead
1,993
2,154
2,117
32
6
6,302
Mercury
10
NR
94
7
0.01
111
Nickel
NR
NR
NR
NR
13
NR
Vanadium
NR
NR
NR
NR
216
NR
* Adapted from Mueller et al. (1976)
** Dredge Material and Sewage Sludge Sites
t Outflow from New York Harbor
NR - Not reported
in 10,000 and the seawater pH would not fall below 4.5. The actual pH
depression observed two minutes after discharge was 6.9. The pH returned to
normal levels (8.2) within seven minutes. The EG&G (1977a) study found only
two stations where the pH was depressed more than 0.1 units for 40 minutes
following the disposal of NL Industries' waste.
In Allied Chemical waste dispersion studies, EG&G (1977b) reported a minimum
pH of 5.95 four minutes after disposal began. The pH increased (6.6 at 22
minutes; 7.3 at 37 minutes) and had returned to ambient levels within one to
three hours.
EFFECT ON ORGANISMS
Prior to the regulation of ocean dumping by the EPA, numerous toxicity
studies, both laboratory and field, had been performed on the wastes dumped at
the Acid Site. Observations of relatively slight effects have been reported
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by Redfield and Walford (1951); PHSSEC (1960); Ketchum et al. (1958b, 1958c);
Vaccaro et al. (1972); Wiebe et al. (1973); Grice et al. (1973); and Gibson
(1973). In contrast, NOAA-NMFS (1972) reported severe effects due to acid
waste disposal. However, the NMFS method and conclusions have been criticized
(Buzas et al., 1972) .
A variety of phytoplankters and zooplankters collected in the wake of an acid
waste discharge have been analyzed. Animals may be immobilized immediately
after disposal but recover quickly when the waste is diluted with an equal
volume of seawater. Several investigators reported that the gastrointestinal
tracts of copepods and ctenophores collected at the Site after a discharge
were full of iron particles from the waste, but the animals did not exhibit
any ill effects .
Laboratory work indicates that phytoplankton are unaffected by a concentration
of acid waste four times higher than concentrations observed in the field.
Zooplankton are chronically affected by concentrations of one part waste in
10,000 parts seawater, causing impaired reproduction and slowed development.
However, this concentration of waste only persists for a few minutes after
disposal, and is a strictly local phenomenon. Investigations of the effects
of the pH change have shown that the pH change causes the adverse effects,
rather than toxic elements in the waste. Neutralized acid waste is not toxic
to the test organisms.
When the Site was first established, there was controversy over possible
adverse effects on the migratory fish in the New York Bight. Westman has
periodically surveyed the Site and other fishing areas in the Bight (Westman,
1958, 1967 1969; Westman et al., 1961), and concludes that bluefish and
yellowfin tuna are attracted to the Site, and an active pelagic fishery occurs
in the area. He did not observe adverse effects caused by the waste disposal.
The acid waste does not appear to be toxic to the bottom-dwelling animals.
The Site supports a typical sand-bottom community, with the biomass and
species diversity comparable to a control area (Vaccaro et al., 1972) although
the number of animals is significantly less. Other investigators (Westman,
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1967, 1969; NOAA-NMFS, 1972) have also reported anomalous benthic conditions
at the Site. Recent samples (Pearce et al., 1976a, 1976b, 1977b) show that
there was a wide natural variation at stations in and around the Site, and
that such variability is common for a sandy bottom assemblage of animals.
CONCURRENT AND FUTURE STUDIES
Currently, several organizations are conducting research and survey activities
in the New'York Bight. The MESA-New York Bight Project is sponsoring work by
a variety of Federal and academic investigators. This phase of the project is.
scheduled to end in 1981. A less intensive monitoring program will be
developed and will continue under NOAA sponsorship.
The NOAA-National Marine Fisheries Service Laboratory at Sandy Hook, New
Jersey, is periodically sampling and evaluating the Bight as part of their
Ocean Pulse Program, designed to monitor and assess the health of the ocean's
living resources on the Continental Shelf of the Northwest Atlantic Ocean.
This program includes, as one of its objectives, the study of the effects of
pollutants on important marine species.
EPA requires Acid Site permittees to perform waste dispersion studies and site
monitoring surveys as a permit condition.
OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE SITE VICINITY
COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
Extensive finfish and shellfish activities occur in the New York Bight. Most
finfish fishing grounds lie in the inner Continental Shelf or near the edge of
the Shelf. Most species of shellfish are located throughout the Bight, while
certain species, such as lobster, are most abundant in Hudson Canyon or
Continental Slope Areas.
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Domestic
Table 3-5 shows the total yield and dollar value in 1974 for the five major
species of commercial finfish in the New York Bight. Although the stock of
most commercial species is still substantial, there has been an overall
decrease in annual yields of finfish over the last two decades (Figure 3-7),
with commercial landings of certain over-fished species (e.g. menhaden)
declining. The yield of the domestic shellfishery has greatly increased since
1960 (Figure 3-6). While the once-important surf clam is becoming
increasingly scarce, other shellfish species have only recently begun to be
exploited (e.g. red crab), and potential resources (such as ocean quahog)
still exist. Table 3-6 shows the total annual values in 1974 and 1976 for the
more important shellfish species. The American lobster is the most important
species fished along the Continental Shelf/Slope break, and is quickly
becoming the most important fishery resource of the New York Bight (Chenoweth,
1976a).
TABLE 3-5. TOTAL LANDINGS IN 1974 OF FIVE MAJOR COMMERCIAL
FINFISHES IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT
(Adapted from NOAA-NMFS, 1977)
Species
New York
New Jersey
Total
000 Lb
$000
000 Lb
$000
000 Lb
$000
Fluke
2,487
846
3,499
1,153
5,986
1,999
Menhaden
576
18
107,307
2,735
107,883
2,753
Sc up
3,635
832
6,040
880
9,675
1,712
Striped
Bass
1,409
533
714
177
2,123
710
Whiting
1,955
250
7,022
587
8,977
837 .
3-25
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TABLE 3-6. TOTAL COMMERCIAL LANDINGS IN 1974 AND 1976
OF IMPORTANT SHELLFISH SPECIES IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT
(NEW YORK-NEW JERSEY) NOAA-NMFS, 1977a, 1977b
Species
1974
1976
000 Lb
$000
000 Lb
$000
American Lobster
1,922
3,312
1,117
2,368
Hard Clams
9,769
15,164
10,072
19,396
Surf Clams
26,608
3,667
9,493
3,299
Oysters
2,563
4,778
2,256
5,642
Sea Scallops
1,228
1,689
1,953
3,170
Blue Crab
2,864
725
407
123
1»
I
i
* n
),
/Y-"\
Tool wwi 8urf Cia«n
1880 1890 1B00 WO I WO 1830 1M0 1950 1980 1Q70
Figure 3-6. Total Commercial Landings of Marine Fishes and Shellfishes
in the New York Bight Area, 1880-1975 (McHugh, 1978)
3-26
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Figure 3-7. Total Landings of Commercial Marine Food Finfishes
in the New York Bight Area, 1880-1975 (McHugh, 1978)
Foreign
Nearly all foreign fishing in the north and mid-Atlantic region of the United
States is located on the Continental Shelf, with the majority of foreign
vessels trawling in the outer Shelf region (Figure 3-8). Peak foreign fishing
activity in the New York Bight occurs during spring and early summer, when the
fleet moves south from its winter fishing grounds on the Georges Bank. The
foreign fleet greatly increases in size during this period in order to harvest
the greater numbers of fish which congregate at spawning grounds.
An average of 1,000 foreign vessels fish along the mid-Atlantic coast annually
(Ginter, 1978). Foreign fishing in the New York Bight is dominated by the
Soviet Union, followed by East Germany, Spain, and Japan. Major foreign
fisheries are the herring, silver and red hake, and mackerel. The seasonal
migrations of these species account for the north-to-south movement of the
3-27
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foreign fleet throughout the year. Recently, new fishing efforts have
developed for squid, butterfish, tuna, and saury; this has moderated the
strict north-south movement of foreign vessels.
Foreign vessels, while prohibited from fishing such exclusive United States
fishery resources as lobster, are not required to report the magnitude of
their annual harvest from United States waters. Consequently, no compre-
hensive foreign catch statistics are available.
RECREATIONAL FISHERIES
Most recreational fishing in the New York Bight vicinity is confined to the
inner Continental Shelf waters, since this area is the most accessible to the
public, and most sport species are found there (Chenoweth, 1976a). The
important species are striped bass, weakfish, bluefish, and mackerel. The
sport catch often equals or surpasses the commercial landings of certain
species (e.g. striped bass), and has contributed significantly to the
economics of several coastal areas. In 1970, 1.7 million anglers caught 2.7
million pounds of fish from the North Atlantic coast. Recreational species
fished further offshore are limited primarily to bluefin tuna, marlin, and
swordfish. There are no accurate catch statistics for these species.
SAND AND GRAVEL MINING
Sanko (1975) states that "sand deposits in the Lower Bay of New York Harbor
have been the largest single source of commercial sand for the New York City
metropolitan area since 1963." Although this is the only area in the New York
Bight where sand is presently mined, recent geological surveys show that sand
could be mined nearly anywhere in the New York Bight, with current technology
limiting the outer boundary to the 50 m (165 ft) isobath. There is an
2 .
estimated area of over 2,680 km suitable for sand mining between the 50-meter
isobath and the Long Island shoreline (Schlee, 1975). Most of this sand is of
a uniform grain-size, and contains a low percentage of fine particles. Gravel
deposits in the New York Bight have a much more limited distribution than
sand. Potential mining areas for gravel are fewer and are located principally
off the northern coast of New Jersey (Figure 3-9).
3-28
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Figure 3-8.' Location of Foreign Fishing off the U.S. East Coast
(Adapted from Ginter, 1978)
3-29
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OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT
There are no present or future oil and gas lease tracts located in any ocean
disposal site (Figure 3-3). The U.S. Department of the Interior's Bureau of
Land Management (BLM) completed its first sale of oil and gas leases on the
Mid-Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf in August 1976 (Outer Continental Shelf
[OCS] Sale No. 40). Exploratory drilling at six of the ninety-three tracts
leased in OCS Sale No. 40 began in the spring and summer of 1978. On May 19,
1978, BLM published a draft EIS on the proposed ' OCS Sale No. 49, which
includes 136 tracts totalling 313,344 hectares (774,273 acres). Sale No. 49
is tentatively scheduled for spring of 1979 . A third sale (No. 59) is under
consideration and is tentatively scheduled for August 1981 (BLM, 1978).
SHIPPING
The major trade routes charted by NOAA to serve the New York-New Jersey area
coincide with three major shipping lanes, as designated by the USCG: the
Nantucket, Hudson Canyon and Barnegat Navigational Lanes (Figure 3-10).
Hudson Canyon Lane lies across the New York Bight Acid Wastes Site, and the
other lanes straddle the Northern and Southern Areas. The trade routes which
lie within the Navigational Lanes are usually the safest routes for shipping
traffic, and the Coast Guard recommends that they be used by all major
shipping traffic.
OCEAN WASTE DISPOSAL
The EPA currently permits ocean disposal at six locations in the New York
Bight (Figure 3-11). The Acid Wastes Site is considered in this EIS as a
possible alternative site for the chemical wastes presently released at the
106-Mile Site.
3-30
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Figure' 3-9. Gravel Distribution in the New York Bight
(Schlee, 1975)
3-31
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12-Mile Sevage Sludge Site
There are. 13 permittees currently disposing of sewage sludge at this site,
with the City of New York discharging far more than any other permittee. The
total volume of sewage sludge to be disposed of by the 13 permittees in 1979
3 . 3
is estimated as 7 ,772 m , and is expected to reach 9,895 m by 1981. The
sludge is composed of municipal sewage wastes from primary and secondary
treatment.
New York Bight Dredged Material Site
Several locations have been used historically as sites for the disposal of
material dredged from navigable waterways in the New York-New Jersey
metropolitan area. The present Site was designated in 1940 as the exclusive
disposal site for this material. Until 1973, ash residues from fossil-fueled
power plants were also permitted to be disposed of at the Site.
Each year, the volume of dredged material disposed of at this site exceeds
that of any waste disposed of at any other disposal site. The average annual
volume of dredged material dumped at the Site from 1960 to 1977 was approxi-
3 ...
mately 6 million m . The annual volume is estimated to increase by 46,000 to
3
54,000 m . The dredged material is composed of particulate solids which,
because of the proximity of the dredging sites to large metropolitan areas,
contain higher levels of metals than any other waste material disposed of in
the Bight.
New York Bight Cellar Dirt Site
The history of this Site is similar to the history of the Dredged Material
Site. The Cellar Dirt Disposal Site has been relocated several times to
prevent excessive build-up of material at the Site, and has occupied its
present location since 1940. Relatively inert materials from land-based
construction projects (demolition wastes) are disposed of at the Site,
3-32
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Figure 3-10. Navigational Lanes in the Mid-Atlantic
3-33
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Figure 3-11. Ocean Disposal Sites in the New York Bight Apex
(Boundary Shown by Dark Line)
3-34
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including excavated earth, broken concrete, rock, and other non-floatable
material. The average annual volume of cellar dirt disposed of at the Site
3
from 1960 to 1977 was 450,000 m . The average annual volume will continue to
fluctuate from year to year according to the activity of the construction
industry.
Wreck Site
The Wreck Site has been designated by the EPA for derelict and wrecked
vessels. The Site has been used infrequently for the past 17 years, and was
moved to a new location outside of major navigational lanes in 1977.
Wood Incineration Site
The EPA has designated this site for burning scrap wood from decaying
structures and construction sites. The Site is used as needed, and only the
combustion products reach the ocean; the remaining ash is landfilled.
MARINE RECREATION
The New York Bight possesses many Federal and State beaches and wild life
refuges, located on the coast and on offshore islands. Activities in these
areas include swimming, hiking, and fishing.
DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE DISPOSAL SITE
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
Like the New York Bight, the physical environment offshore from Delaware Bay
experiences marked changes with season. Warming of surface waters in late
spring creates a strong thermocline which becomes more pronounced as summer
progresses. Spring also causes a large flow of fresh water out of Delaware
Bay, which lowers the salinity of the Site water. In late autumn and winter,
temperature and salinity values stabilize throughout the water column from
surface to bottom. The net current flow at the Site is to the southwest.
Occasionally strong summer winds reverse the surface flow.
3-35
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GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
The Continental Shelf off the Delaware coast is a gently sloping, relatively
smooth plain superimposed with low elevation sand ridges and swales. Other
small-scale relief is superimposed on the ridges, possibly due to the
cumulative effects of seasonal storms or the effects of a particular storm.
The sediments are composed of fine- and coarse-grained sands.
CHEMICAL CONDITIONS
Despite temporary, localized fluctuations, dissolved oxygen levels of waters
offshore of Delaware Bay show seasonal patterns and values typical of the
continental shelf. Values near peak saturation (10.5 mg/1) are found
throughout the water column during winter, while the summer thermocline
separates the saturated surface layer from a relatively depleted (usually less
than 4 mg/1) bottom layer.
Discussions of sediment and water column trace metal chemistry for the site
appear in Chapter 4.
BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Like the New York Bight, the phytoplankton communities offshore of Delaware
Bay are dominated by dinoflagellates in the summer and by diatoms in the
winter (Smith, 1973, 1974). Zooplankton communities off of Delaware Bay are
also characteristic of the Bight (Falk et al., 1974; Forns, 1973). Copepods
are the most diverse and abundant taxon with abundance peaking in summer and
fall.
The benthic macrofauna in this area are characteristic of the firm sand-shell-
gravel community found elsewhere in the mid-Atlantic (Pratt, 1973, Falk et
al., 1974; Lear et al., 1974). Annelid worms dominate in abundance and
numbers of species. The offshore area probably serves as an incidental
spawning ground for several commercially important species of fish generally
3-36
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found throughout the mid-Atlantic; however, the Site supports no known
finfishery at this time. Sea scallops have been harvested near the Site and
the ocean quahog, a species of potential commercial importance, is abundant
throughout the area.
WASTE DISPOSAL AT THE SITE
HISTORY
The E.I. duPont de Nemours plant, located in Edge Moor, Delaware, was the only
permittee using the so-called DuPont Disposal Site after implementation of the
ocean dumping permit program in 1973. DuPont-Edge Moor began discharging acid
wastes at sea on a temporary basis in September 1968, in an area centered
about 19 km (10 nmi) southeast of the more recently used Site. This
alternative site was used until July 1969, pending completion of the pre-
disposal surveys in the primary area. Surveys were conducted in May and June
of 1969, and barging began in the designated area in July 1969.
RECENT WASTE DISPOSAL PRACTICES
The volume of aqueous waste released at the Delaware Bay Acid Site decreased
92 percent, from 867,000 metric tons in 1973, to 69,000 metric tons in the
first quarter of 1976. The actual volumes discharged by DuPont from 1973 to
1976 are shown in Table 3-7. The waste disposal operation was relocated to
the 106-Mile Chemical Waste Disposal Site in March 1977.
TABLE 3-7. DUMPING VOLUMES AT THE
DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE DISPOSAL SITE
Year
Volume
(Thousand of metric tons)
1973
867
1974
614
1975
365
1976
430
1977
69
3-37
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In 1973, DuPont waste consisted of an aqueous solution of iron and miscel-
laneous chlorides, sulfates, and sulfuric and hydrochloric acid. It was 17 to
23 percent sulfuric acid, and 4 to 10 percent ferrous sulfate. The waste was
generated from the production of titanium dioxide (TiC^) by the chloride,
sulfate, and color pigment processses. The waste was modified as manu-
facturing changed from a sulfide process to a chloride process. By 1976, the
waste consisted of an aqueous solution of iron, miscellaneous chlorides, and
hydrochloric acid. The material at that time was 30 percent hydrochloric
acid, formed from the chlorine used in the manufacturing process. The process
modification resulted in a decrease of waste production from 1,300 to 3,000
metric tons per day to 1,500 to 2,000 metric tons per day.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WASTE
Specific gravity is an important physical characteristic for waste dispersion
prediction. Analyses of barge loads dumped from 1973 to 1976 indicated a
range of specific gravity for DuPont waste of 1.043 to 1.204, as compared to
seawater, with a typical specific gravity of 1.025.
The in situ behavior of the DuPont ferrous sulfate waste was investigated at
the Site from spring 1969 to spring 1971 by Falk et al (1974). The waste did
not penetrate below the thermocline during summer, spring, and fall, but
during the winter a portion of the waste did reach the sea floor under barging
procedures used at that time. The water column pH was depressed following
discharge, but returned to normal within four hours. Iron was used to trace
the waste up to 18.5 km from the discharge point.
Falk and Phillips (1977) reported on a waste dispersion study conducted at the
Site in September 1976 by EG&G. Dispersion of the ferric chloride waste was
similar to that of the ferrous sulfate waste previously tested.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WASTE
Heavy metals were the most significant waste constituents, both in terms of
amounts present and potential toxicity. From 1973 to 1977, the individual
3-38
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proportions of metals discharged to the total volume of discharged material,
remained relatively constant, both from quarter-to-quarter and from
year-to-year (Table 3-8). The total mass loading of each metal decreased in a
range from 28 to 76 percent. For 1973 to 1977, the most prevalent heavy
metals in the waste, in order of decreasing mass load, were chromium, zinc,
lead, nickel, copper, cadmium, and mercury.
EFFECT ON ORGANISMS
Routine bioassays and special tests investigated the toxic effects of DuPont's
waste on diatoms, opossum shrimp, grass shrimp, brine shrimp, copepods,
sheepshead minnows, and hard clams. The waste concentrations which caused
significant mortality, or other effects, were much higher than the concen-
trations that occurred at the Site after initial dilution. Long-term tests
produced reduced growth and decreased hatching success in minnows and shrimp.
However, these effects were thought to result from the presence of a waste
flocculate in the test water that impeded feeding, rather than from toxic
chemical constituents in the waste (Falk and Phillips, 1977).
TABLE 3-8. ESTIMATED QUANTITIES OF TRACE METALS DUMPED ANNUALLY
AT THE DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE DISPOSAL SITE
(Metric Tons)
Metal
Year
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
Cadm ium
0.1
0.3
0.001
0.001
0.001
Chromium
54.4
44.0
38.6
81.4
9.8
Copper
5.8
2.2
1.6
2.0
0.3
Lead
10.6
6.8
7.5
10.4
3.3
Mercury
0.035
0.01
0.001
0.001
0.001
Nickel
8.0
5.1
2.8
121.2
0.7
Zinc
34.2
21.4
15.6
83.7
4.0
3-39
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Field studies at the Site did not detect any effect of the waste on water
column organisms or benthic communities. However, elevated vanadium values
were observed in scallops collected in the Site and southwest of the site
(Pesch et al., 1977). In addition, an iron floe was observed overlying
sediments in the vicinity, although the floe did not appear to harm organisms.
CONCURRENT AND FUTURE STUDIES
Although intensive monitoring work at the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site ceased
upon cessation of dumping, EPA Region III, with NOAA's help, still samples
historical stations in the site as part of their study program at the nearby
Philadelphia Sewage Sludge Disposal Site.
OTHER ACTIVITIES IN THE SITE VICINITY
COMMERCIAL AND RECREATIONAL FISHERIES
The area of the north and middle Atlantic, from Georges Banks to Cape
Hatteras, represents "one large... fish-producing unit"; few species of fish
migrate into or out of this area (McHugh, 1978). Consequently, most of the
finfish harvested in the New York Bight are also pursued in the vicinity of
the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Disposal Site, although smaller domestic harvests
are reported for the latter (Table 3-9).
TABLE 3-9. COMMERCIAL LANDINGS OF THREE MAJOR SPECIES OF FINFISH
FOR DELAWARE REGION, 1974 (McHugh, 1978)
Species
000 Lb
$000
Menhaden
Striped Bass
Whiting
13
212
8
0.5
65
1
The narrowness of the Continental Shelf in this region enables more recrea-
tional fishermen to reach the rich Shelf/Slope fishing grounds than in areas
farther north. Although fishermen in the Delaware region are known to travel
great distances offshore in order to fish large game fish, no recreational
3-40
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fishing has been reported at the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site. In 1976, 1.8
million anglers landed over 246 million pounds of fish in the mid-Atlantic
(Chenoweth, 1976a).
OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Figure 3-12 shows the offshore oil and gas leases granted by OCS Sale No. 49.
SHIPPING
Delaware Bay is a major seaport, receiving nearly as much traffic as New York
Harbor. Figure 3-10 shows the two major shipping lanes into Delaware Bay.
The axes of these lanes are directed well to the north and south of the
Delaware Bay Acid Waste Disposal Site, and neither shipping lane extends
offshore as far as the vicinity of the Site. The Barnegat Navigational Lane
passes to the east of the Site. Traffic travelling north or south along the
mid-Atlantic coast utilizes the Barnegat Navigational Lane, or a corresponding
southern lane, to either of the access routes into Delaware Bay, and does not
normally enter the waters of the Acid Site. Only a limited amount of ship
traffic crossing the Continental Shelf is likely to enter the Site's waters.
OCEAN WASTE DISPOSAL
The Philadelphia Sewage Sludge Disposal Site is located to the southeast of
the Acid Waste Site and is the only other disposal site in its vicinity. The
Sewage Sludge Site received an average annual volume of 604,000 metric tons of
anaerobically digested sewage sludge from 1973 to 1977.
3-41
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1. NEW YORK BIGHT ACID
WASTES DISPOSAL SITE
2. NORTHERN AREA
3. SOUTHERN AREA
4. DELAWARE BAY ACID
WASTES DISPOSAL SIT
5. 106-MILE CHEMICAL
WASTES DISPOSAL SITE
NEW JERSEY
DELAWARE
BAY
75°
I
NAUTICAL MILES
T 1 1
I I
Figure 3-12. Oil and Gas Leases Near Delaware Bay (BLM, 1978)
3-42
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Chapter 4
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
This Chapter forms the scientific and analytic basis comparison for evaluating
alternatives in Chapter 2. The discussion includes the environmental impacts
of the various alternative sites considered in Chapter 2, together with any
adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided should the proposed
action be implemented; the relationship between short-term uses of the
environment and the maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity; and
any irreversible or irretrievable commitments of resources which would be
involved in the proposal, should it be implemented.
The chapter first addresses the effects on public health, specifically through
commercial or recteational fisheries and navigational hazards. Next, the
environmental consequences of chemical.waste disposal at each alternative site
are assessed. This assessment includes effects on the biota, effects on water
and sediment chemistry of the Site, and effects of short dumping in
non-designated areas.
The projected environmental consequences of dumping aqueous
industrial wastes at the 106-Mile Site are minimal. Wastes
released at the Site are diluted and dispersed quickly, £^d
the natural biological productivity of the Site area is
slight in comparison to the productivity on the Continental
Shelf. A slight threat to local marine organisms (and
possibly to public health) could result from additional waste
loading at the New York Bight or Delaware Bay Acid Waste
Sites, since they have received significant waste loadings in
the past. The Northern and Southern Areas, although never
before used for waste disposal, could sustain slight damage
to benthic organisms if waste operations were moved there,
since the sites are located in relatively shallow waters.
A large body of data was examined to
chemical waste disposal at these sites,
area are:
evaluate the potential effects of
The principal data sources for each
0 106-Mile Site: NOAA surveys, starting in 1974. Waste dispersion
studies and monitoring of short-term disposal effects sponsored by
4-1
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the permittees. Public hearings concerning relocation of sewage
sludge disposal sites and issuing of new permits.
• New York Bight Acid Waste Site: NOAA-MESA studies beginning in
1973 . NMFS/Sandy Hook Laboratory study from 1968 to 1972.
Site-specific studies sponsored by NL Industries, Inc. beginning in
1948. Routine monitoring surveys sponsored by the permittees.
9 Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site: EPA surveys beginning in 1973.
Studies sponsored by DuPont beginning in 1968.
• Southern Area: NOAA survey in 1975. Public hearings concerning the
disposal of sewage sludge in the New York Bight.
o Northern Area: NOAA and Raytheon surveys in 1975. Hearings
concerning the disposal of sewage sludge in the New York Bight.
Data from these and other sources were collected and compiled into an
extensive data base dedicated to ocean environment data management and
evaluation. The following discussion is based on an evaluation of the
available data.
EFFECTS ON PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY
A primary concern in ocean waste disposal is the possible direct or indirect
link between contaminants in the waste and man. A direct link may affect
man's health and safety. An indirect link may cause changes in the ecosystem
whichj although they do not appear to affect man, could lead to decreased
quality of the human environment.
COMMERCIAL AND RECREATIONAL FISH AND SHELLFISH
The most direct link between man and waste contaminants released into the
marine environment is through the consumption of contaminated seafood.
Shell fishing, for example, is automatically prohibited by the Food and Drug
Administration around sewage sludge disposal sites or other areas where wastes
4-2
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are dumped which may contain disease-producing (pathogenic) microorganisms.
In this way the consumption of uncooked shellfish which may be contaminated
with pathogens is eliminated or minimized. Harmful effects caused by eating
fish containing high levels of mercury, lead, or persistent organohalogen
pesticides have been documented (Subcommittee on the Toxicology of Metals,
1976). Certain compounds, such as oil, have been shown to make the flesh of
fish and shellfish not only unhealthy, but unpalatable as well. Therefore,
ocean disposal of wastes containing heavy metals, organohalogens, oil, or
pathogens, must be carefully evaluated with respect to the possible
contamination of commercially or recreationally exploitable marine animals.
Although a foreign long-line fishery exists on the Continental Slope, most
U.S. fishing in the mid-Atlantic is restricted to waters over the Continental
Shelf. Commercial and sportfishing on the shelf is wide-ranging and diverse;
both finfish and shellfish (mollusks and crustaceans) are taken. The New York
Bight is currently one of the most productive coastal areas in the North
Atlantic and the region may be capable of even greater production as new
fisheries develop.
Important spawning grounds and nursery areas lie within the Bight, but
critical assessments of the effects of man-induced contamination on fish and
shellfish populations are lacking. Many factors complicate the collection and
assessment of these data. For example, normal short-term and long-term
population cycles are not well understood, catch data may not be adequate, and
the complete life cycle and distribution of the stock may be unknown. Natural
population fluctuations, overfishing, and unusual natural phenomena may have a
greater influence on the health and extent of the fisheries resource than does
man-induced contamination. Therefore, assessing the effects of ocean disposal
involves uncertainty due to the weaknesses of existing fisheries information.
106-MILE SITE
Waste disposal at this site will not directly endanger human health. This
site is not located in a commercially or recreationally important fishing or
shell fishing area 1 Although the NOAA resource assessment surveys do not
extend beyond the Shelf, the density of fish eggs and larvae is low. Foreign
4-3
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fishermen are near the Site in the late winter, but usually catch highly
migratory fish. The probability of these fish accumulating toxic levels of
contaminants from the waste is extremely remote.
A small fishery for the deep sea red crab (Geryon quinquedens) exists near the
Shelf-Slope break in the mid-Atlantic. Immediately north of the .106-Mile
Site, crabs are found in moderate abundance (33 per half hour otter trawl),
but the water depth is much shallower than at the Site (311 to 732 meters).
At a station 130 kilometers northeast of the Site, at a comparable depth, no
crabs are taken (Wigley et al., 1975). Although the Site is within the range
of smaller crabs, none of commercial size are taken deeper than 914 meters.
As with finfish, the probability of the wastes affecting a benthic animal is
extremely low. Therefore, disposal at this site does not directly endanger
human health by contaminating edible organisms.
Lobsters are taken in water depths less than 500 m all along the mid-Atlantic
Continental Shelf/Slope break. Aqueous chemical wastes released at the
106-Mile Site will not contaminate lobsters since the Site is located some
distance from the eddge of the Shelf, and wastes will not reach the sediments
where these animals live.
NEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES SITE
There is a real, albeit relatively low, potential for endangering public
health from additional chemical waste disposal at this site. The Site
location was chosen 30 years ago because it had no history as a point of
concentration for fish or fishing and because the sediments at the Site are
seldom associated with productive fishing (Westman, 1958). Ironically, the
Si-:e has become a sport fishing area because the discoloration of the water
caused by acid-iron waste disposal attracts fish to the area, including
bluefish, a prized sport fish.
During the winter a commercial whiting fishery exists near the Acid Site.
Since the Site will also continue to be utilized by recreational fishermen,
there is a potential health problem if additional wastes are released.
Increased waste disposal at the Site could lead to accumulation of materials
4-4
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in toxic concentrations within the tissues and organs of these fish, and
subsequent consumption of contaminated fish could pose a threat to the public
health. No health problems associated with sport fish caught at the Site have
been reported. Although adverse effects have been observed in fish eggs
exposed to moderately high concentrations of acid waste (Longwell, 1976),
tainting or harmful accumulations of waste components in the flesh of fish
taken from the area have not been reported.
Lobsters are the only shellfish which can be exploited near the Site. Waste
constituents could reach bottom in this shallow site and be incorporated by
the animals, but other sources of contamination are probably more significant.
(The New York Bight Sewage Sludge Site is only 5 km from the Acid Site.)
Overall, there is a real, but low, probability of chemical wastes directly
endangering public health.
DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE SITE
A potential exists for endangering public health from chemical waste disposal
at this site. Although the Site and vicinity do not support a finfishery, a
!
potentially valuable ocean quahog resource exists to the southwest. As a
result of the decline in the surf clam (Spisula solidissima) fishery, the
National Marine Fisheries Service has encouraged development of a market for
the ocean quahog (Arctica islandica), another clam which is abundant in the
coastal area containing the disposal site (Breidenbach, 1977). In addition;
sea scallops (Placopecten magellanicus) are harvested. However, the extent
of past fishing from the immediate vicinity of the disposal site is unknown.
The Site is presently closed to fishing by the FDA.
Preliminary work indicates that past waste disposal at the Site caused
elevated vanadium levels in scallops from the area (Pesch et al., 1977), but
no correlation between the reported values and potential health problems has
been made. Use of the Site for future waste disposal is not prudent in light
of nearby fishing, and the potential for contaminating future commercial
resources.
4-5
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SOUTHERN AREA
There, is a moderate potential for endangering public health from .chemical
waste disposal at this site. Although the Southern Area is situated where
surf clams, ocean quahogs, and scallops are abundant, most commercial
shell fishing presently occurs well to the west, near the New Jersey coast.
However, declining harvests may cause the Southern Area to be exploited in the
future (EPA, 1978). Recreational fishing is unlikely at this site due to its
distance from shore and the competition provided by equally attractive
sportfishing areas located closer to shore. If this area were used as a
disposal site for wastes similar to those presently being disposed of at the
106-Mile Site, the potential for an accumulation of waste constituents in the
:
flesh of shellfish could occur.
NORTHERN AREA
Disposal of aqueous chemical wastes in this area would probably not directly
endanger public health. This site is not located in a known commercially or
recreationally important fishing or shellfishing area. Shellfish are not
present in commercially exploitable numbers in the Area. Since the area
supports no commercially or recreationally abundant finfish or shellfish, the
health hazard from eating animals contaminated by waste materials is slight.
NAVIGATIONAL HAZARDS
Navigational hazards may be separated into two components: (1) hazards
resulting from the movement of transport barges/vessels to and from a site,
and (2) hazards resulting from the barge's maneuvering within the site.
If an accident resulted in chemical wastes being released, the effects from
the dumped waste would probably be equivalent to a short dump. The effects
from the other ship would depend on the cargo and could be severe if the barge
collided with an oil or liquified natural gas (LNG) tanker, for instance.
There is the possibility of loss if life in any collision.
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The following discussion concentrates on the barging operations from New York
Harbor since most traffic to the 106-Mile Site originates in New York and New
Jersey. DuPont-Edge Moor is the only permittee transporting wastes from
elsewhere. The most serious hazard from any ocean dumping activity exists in
the potential for an accident occurring close to shore where ship traffic is
concentrated and the ramifications of a spill from a waste barge or tanker are
most serious. This hazard is one that is associated with all ocean dumping,
no matter where the disposal site is located, since all trips to an ocean
disposal site begin in a coastal port. Accordingly, this section discusses
only the relative risks associated with transporting'wastes beyond the coastal
ports out to each of the alternative disposal sites, and discusses the risks
associated with on-site disposal operations.
Considering the alternative sites, the hazards associated with increased usage
of the New York Bight Acid Waste Site are the most severe, due to the heavy
shipping traffic associated with New York Harbor. Hazards could increase in
the Southern Area as mineral development proceeded in that area. The 106-Mile
Site is the preferred choice of the remaining three sites because if an
accident occurred at the Site, wastes would not be released into coastal
waters, possibly threatening fishing or other activities, but much farther
offshore where such activity is limited.
106-MILE SITE
Barges in transit to the 106-Mile Site from New York Harbor use the Ambrose-
Hudson Canyon traffic lane for most of the journey. Because of the long
distance travelled there may be a slightly greater risk of collision during
the round-trip transit to the 106-Mile Site than there would be if a site
closer to shore were utilized.
Hazards resulting from maneuvers within the Site are negligible. The Site is
extremely large, and permittees are required to use different quadrants of the
Site. The frequency of all barging is low, averaging only 2 to 3 times per
week. A moderate increase in frequency of dumping at the Site would not
significantly affect navigation difficulties.
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NEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES SITE
i
The New York Bight Acid Wastes Site is situated across one of the outbound
traffic lanes from New York Harbor, but the current barging operations within
the Site are designed to minimize interference with traffic. In 1976, an
accident occurred southwest of the Acid Site involving a waste barge in
transit to the 106-Mile Site.
The permittees currently using the Site barge wastes an average of once or
twice a day. Increased usage of the Site would increase the possibility of
collisions between barges or the heavy shipping traffic into and from New York
Harbor since the Site is rather small. There is a risk that any accidents
which did occur could be closer to New Jersey or Long Island beaches.
DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE SITE
Use of the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site would not be expected to pose
significant navigational hazards, aside from accidents that might occur during
round-trip transit from New York Harbor. Any accidents which did occur,
however, would release wastes in the coastal waters off New Jersey where
fishing and swimming are prevalent.
SOUTHERN AREA
The Southern Area lies outside of the traffic lanes for New York Harbor, so
use of this site would pose few navigational hazards for shipping. However,
increased ship traffic resulting from offshore oil and gas development would
increase the hazard. The degree and extent to which such hazards became
apparent would depend on the speed and magnitude of oil and gas development in
the area. Any accidents would take place in the heavily fished coastal waters
off New Jersey.
NORTHERN AREA
The Northern Area also lies outside the traffic lanes for New York Harbor so
use of this site poses few navigational hazards. Mineral resources are not
4-8
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located in the area, so there is no probability of increased hazards from
future resource development. Any accidents would be near coastal waters off
Long Island.
EFFECTS ON THE ECOSYSTEM
The adverse effects of ocean disposal on the ecosystem (the interacting living
and non-living components of the environment) can be subtle, and may not
exhibit obvious direct effects on the quality of the human environment.
However, these subtle adverse impacts can accumulate and combine with
consequences which, over the long-term, are as serious as any readily observed
direct impacts. For example, an organism may accumulate waste constituents in
its tissues at concentrations that do not cause its death immediately but,
instead, act at the sublethal or chronic level. Such adverse sublethal
effects may reduce reproduction, reduce health of eggs and larvae, slow
development of juveniles, or affect other facets of the life cycles of
individual organisms and may ultimately result in adverse changes in the
entire population of this organism. The population may eventually be
eliminated from an area, not because it was immediately killed by a single
waste discharge but because of the accumulation of sublethal effects over
time. If that population were a major human food source or a food source for
an organism that was commercially exploited, man would lose the resource.
This "scenario" is vastly simplified, and is not a projection of what is
currently resulting from industrial waste disposal in the ocean; however, it
does illustrate that man, as an integral part of a complex ecosystem, may
ultimately feel the results of adverse impacts on other parts of the
ecosystem.
The magnitude of the effects of waste disposal on the marine ecosystem depends
on several factors: (1) the type of waste constituents; (2) the concentration
of toxic waste materials in the water and sediments; (3) the length of time
that high concentrations are maintained in the water or the sediments; and (4)
the length of time that marine organisms are exposed to high concentrations of
these materials. Current disposal techniques for aqueous chemical wastes
maximize the dilution and dispersion of the wastes, minimizing the chances for
wastes to remain in the water column or reach the bottom in high concen-
trations .
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PLANKTON
The plankton consists of plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) that
spend all or part of their lives floating or weakly swimming in the water
column. Since aqueous wastes primarily affect the water column, plankton
represent the first level of the ecosystem where the effects of waste disposal
could be observed. Accordingly, numerous studies of the effects of wastes on
planktonic organisms have been conducted.
106-MILE SITE
Numerous field and laboratory studies have investigated the effects of wastes
dumped i at the 106-Mile Site on plankton. Field studies of populations have
shown that they are highly variable, primarily because of the presence of
several water masses, each with different species (Austin, 1975; Sherman et
al., 1977; Hulburt and Jones, 1977).
Plankton undergo large natural variations with changing water
type and for this reason, assessment of the plankton of the
region was difficult. Coastal waters are characterized by
high nutrient concentrations and populations with wide
seasonal variations in abundance and diversity. Oceanic
waters have reduced nutrient levels and population densities,
but photosynthetic processes extend to much greater depths.'
Mixing water types will produce a complex combination of
these conditions (NOAA, 1977).
Since the plankton data from the Site demonstrate high natural variability in
populations, variability in species composition, abundance, and distribution
as a result of waste disposal may never be demonstrated. Variations induced
by waste disposal are probably obscured by variability created by natural
events.
Some field work at the Site has concentrated on particular plankton population
components rather than looking at whole populations or assemblages. Pre-
liminary studies on the development of fish eggs and embryos collected from
the Site when sewage sludge and acid waste were present showed "...severe
cytotoxic-like effects on the chromosome and mitotic apparatus of the dividing
4-10
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embryos" and malformations in the more developed embryos (Longwell, 1977).
The field sampling routine did not, however, result in the collection of a
sample large enough to permit statistically valid conclusions to be reached.
Therefore these laboratory data must be applied with caution to any assessment
of the effects of waste disposal at this site.
Both field and laboratory studies have assessed the effects of waste on the
native bacteria populations from the Site (Vaccaro and Dennett, 1977). These
investigators tested the hypothesis that bacterial species at the Site would
be more tolerant of environmental changes. Field collections showed no
tolerance differences in bacteria taken from inside and outside the disposal
site; however, laboratory "exposure of mixed bacterial populations
to...Cyanamid waste resulted in...pure cultures showing an increase in waste
tolerance." Both DuPont-Grasselli and American Cyanamid waste inhibited
assimilation of organic carbon by bacteria. Additional work with DuPont-Edge
Moor and DuPont-Grasselli waste indicates that "the principle toxic components
of Edge Moor waste are trace metals, whereas organic species appear to
dominate with regard to Grasselli waste" (Vaccaro and Dennett, 1978). The
investigators did not attempt to correlate the laboratory work with actual
conditons at the Site.
Preliminary laboratory results on the effects of DuPont-Grasselli waste on
copepods (Capuzzo, 1978) confirmed that acute toxic effects were minimal, but
indicated that sublethal effects (lowered feeding rates) require further
investigation. Capuzzo (1978) also summarized the results of zooplankton
responses to other liquid chemical wastes. In general, other investigators
reported these wastes to be less toxic than DuPontGrasselli.
Continued use of the 106-Mile Site for disposal of wastes similar to those
previously permitted, should not result in effects significantly different
from those revealed by field and laboratory studies. The results of these
studies demonstrate that much is unknown about the interaction of plankton and
chemical wastes in marine waters. Furthermore, the application of controlled
laboratory experiment to the situation existing at the disposal site during
waste release is unclear. Finally, the mitigating effects of the rapid
dilution and dispersion of the waste are not well understood. Therefore, it
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is difficult to predict the long-term consequences of waste discharge on
plankton at this site; however, the short-term consequences are generally
known and are limited to within the disposal site.
NEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES SITE
The effects of waste disposal on plankton at the New York Bight Acid Waste
Site have also been extensively studied. Field studies during waste discharges
have shown that acid-iron waste does not harm zooplankton populations (Wiebe
et al., 1973; Redfield and Walford, 1951). Evidence of chromosomal damage in
mackerel eggs collected in the vicinity of the Site has been reported
(Longwell, 1976), but the cause of the damage cannot be definitely linked to
the disposal of acid wastes. Interpretation of field results from this site
is difficult; changes in plankton populations resulting from acid waste
disposal at the New York Acid Waste Site cannot be reliably distinguished from
changes caused by pollutants introduced from other sources within the New York
Bight.
Laboratory studies show that the acid wastes released at this site can cause
chronic effects in zooplankton only after prolonged exposure to waste
concentrations that are much greater than those encountered under field
conditions (Grice et al. , 1973). Sublethal effects, such as failure to
reproduce and extended developmental times, have been demonstrated in the
laboratory after 21 days of exposure to waste concentrations that persist for
only minutes after actual discharge of wastes at the Site (Vaccaro et al.,
1972).
Additional release of chemical wastes similar to those disposed of at the New
York Bight Acid Waste Site would not be expected to cause effects different
from those presently seen at the Acid Site. However, dumping wastes with
characteristics different from wastes disposed of previously at the Acid Site
could have unanticipated effects.
DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE SITE
No long-term effects of acid waste disposal on plankton at the Delaware Bay
Acid Site have been demonstrated. Elevated concentrations of certain trace
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metals (nickel, mercury, and manganese) were observed in zooplankton collected
in the area (Lear et al., 1974), but the values were extremely variable. Like
other alternative sites, future chemical waste disposal at this site should
not have any demonstrable long-term effects on plankton species composition,
distribution, or abundance. The likelihood and magnitude of effects on other
plankton parameters would depend on the disposal volumes and frequencies.
SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN AREAS
Use of either the Southern or Northern Areas for chemical waste disposal would
not be expected to have significant long-term effects on plankton. These
areas are located outside the highly stressed New York Bight Apex so their
biota are unlikely to have had the opportunity to adapt to man-induced
environmental factors. Specific effects would depend on the nature and volume
of the waste and on the frequency of disposal. Based on the existing wastes
and volumes, any effects would be difficult to demonstrate since plankton
populations are so variable.
NEKTON
The nekton include animals, such as fish and mammals, capable of swimming and
migrating considerable distances.
106-MILE SITE
Continued disposal of chemical wastes at this site should not significantly
affect nekton other than causing them to temporarily avoid the area. The
results of field investigations of effects of dumping on fish at the 106-Mile
Site have been inconclusive because the field work has been conducted
primarily during the infrequent presence of Gulf Stream eddies, so normal
conditions have not been studied. NOAA (1977) reported:
Total fish catches within and without the dumpsite were not
significantly different, although midwater fish were most
abundant outside the dumpsite. The highest rate of fishless
tows occurred the night after a dump, but whether the tows
were sti'll in water affected by the dumped material is not
known.
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Investigations of histopathology in fish collected from the disposal site area
(NOAA Pathobiology Division, 1978) have been inconclusive. Although lesions
were observed in some fish, the sample size was too small to (permit
statistically valid conclusions. High cadmium levels were found in the livers
of three sword fish from the site area, and high mercury levels were observed
in muscle of almost all fish that were analyzed (Greig and Wenzloff, 1977).
However, the elevated concentrations were not attributed to disposal
operations at the 106-Mile Site because of the low amounts of these metals
added to the area by disposal and the migratory nature -of the large swordfish.
ALTERNATIVE SITES
None of the numerous studies on nekton at the New York Bight Acid Waste Site
have detected long-term effects that are attributable to acid waste disposal.
As a result of the many other contaminant inputs to the Bight Apex in addition
to those at the Acid Site, it is unlikely that any deterioration of fish
health or populations could ever be demonstrated to be solely the result of
acid waste disposal. Therefore, the effects on fish populations of additional
chemical waste disposal at this site are difficult to predict based on
information obtained as a result of the present disposal operations. However,
considering: (1) the dilution and dispersions of wastes presently released,
(2) the absence of dead fish in the wake of disposal barges, and (3) the
ability of fish to move away from temporarily stressed areas, it is unlikely
that disposal of other chemical wastes (which comply with the impact criteria)
at the1 New York Bight Acid Waste Site would have any demonstrably adverse
consequences. This same conclusion also applies to the other alternative
sites. The risks associated with the consumption of sportfish taken from the
New York Bight Acid Waste Site were discussed earlier in Chapter 4 (page 4).
BENTHOS
The benthos consists of animals living on (epifauna) and in (infauna) the
sediments. Epifauna are dominated by larger echinoderms and crustaceans while
the infauna primarily include small annelid worms and mollusks. Benthic
organisms are important as indicators of waste-related impacts because they
are sedentary, thus incapable of leaving a stressed environment. They are
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also important because many are commercially valuable (e.g., shellfish), or
are food sources (e.g. worms) for valuable species.
106-MILE SITE
No effects of chemical waste disposal have been observed in the benthos at the
106-Mile Site. The species composition and diversity at the Site ire similar
to those observed in nearby Continental Slope areas (Pearce et al., 1975; Rowe
et al., 1977). Analyses of trace metal content in benthic invertebrates have
shown values that are within the range of background values (Pearce et al. ,
1975). These results are not surprising since it is unlikely that the low
density liquid waste could reach bottom in measurable concentrations. There
is tremendous dilution due to the depth and movement of water at the Site.
Therefore, continued disposal of low density aqueous wastes which are readily
dispersed should not affect benthic organisms at, or in the vicinity, of the
Site.
NEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES SITE
The New York Bight benthos shows a natural temporal and spatial variability
substantially greater than any changes resulting from the disposal of acid
wastes (Pearce et al. , 1976a, 1976b). In addition, any effects arising from
acid waste disposal are probably be overshadowed by effects from the numerous
other contaminants introduced to the New York Bight, particularly from the
Sewage Sludge and Dredged Material Sites and water flowing into the Bight from
New York Harbor. As a result of this complex interplay between natural
variability and contaminants introduced by other sources, it is extremely
difficult to isolate and quantify effects at the Site which are due solely to
the disposal of acid waste. Consequently it is difficult to predict the
consequences of releasing wastes from the 106-Mile Site at the New York Bight
Acid Waste Site. Since the ecosystem of the Bight Apex is already highly
stressed, the major risk is that the disposal of additional materials may
significantly increase that stress and cause serious environmental conse-
quences .
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DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE SITE
Disposal of acid wastes at the Delaware Bay Acid Site resulted in a measurable
accumulation of vanadium in the tissues of sea scallops (Pesch et al., 1977).
Although vanadium is not known to be toxic to humans and probably does not
have an effect on the sea scallops, this does show the possibility of
accumulating other, more toxic, waste constituents. This would be an adverse,
long-term impact resulting from the disposal of aqueous chemical waste. These
effects are observable because of: (1) the relative shallowness of the Site
(45 m) , permitting solid waste fractions to reach 'bottom; (2) the lack of
other contaminants inputs to obscure the effects of waste disposal; (3) the
presence of the shellfish; and (4) the ability of the scallops to concentrate
some metals in their tissues at levels much higher than the levels in the
surrounding water or sediment. Future disposal of wastes at this site could
possibly cause other effects in addition to those which have already been
observed.
SOUTHERN AREA
The Southern Area benthos is similar to that observed at the Delaware Bay Acid
Waste Site (see Chapter 3, p. 3-25). Since the sites are similar, especially
the shallow water depth, similar effects are anticipated to occur at the
Southern Area if industrial waste disposal is initiated there. Accordingly,
use of the Southern Area for disposal of liquid chemical wastes, carries the
risk of contaminating commercially valuable shellfish populations or otherwise
changing the benthic community structure.
NORTHERN AREA
Chemical waste disposal at this site may have the same effects as at the
Delaware Bay or Southern Area Sites because the Northern Area is located in
similar water depths with virtually the same associated fauna.
WATER AND SEDIMENT QUALITY
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106-MILE SITE
Recent investigations of water column levels of dissolved oxygen, pH, organic
carbon, and trace metals after waste disposal at the 106-Mile Site have shown
that within four hours after dumping the values are within the range of normal
values reported from this site and similar oceanic regions (Hydroscience,
1978a-h, 1979 a-d).
NOAA (1977 ) summarized the results of 1974 and 1976 investigations on trace
metals at the 106-Mile Site and at similiar, non-disposal areas:
Results of the May 1974 cruise indicate that some metals were
significantly elevated compared to normal ambient concentra-
tions [Brezenski, 1975]. However, normal concentrations are
only a very few parts per billion, and great care must be
taken to avoid errors in measured values. A variety of fac-
tors can lead to misleading results, among them sample con-
tamination during collection, storage, or analysis. More
recent observations support the conclusion that heavy metal
concentrations in the...[site]...water column are typical of
shelf-slope regions [Kester et al., 1977; Hausknecht and
Kester, 1976a,b]. Moreover, calculations show that the total
amount of metals added in dumping contributes less than 1
percent to the total normal amount pf metals in the water at
the dumpsite region [Hausknecht, 1977]. None of the
observations occurred near the time of or in the immediate
vicinity of dumping, so that ambient concentrations would be
expected to be typical of the background for the region.
Therefore, investigations by NOAA and Hydroscience of impacts of waste
disposal on the water chemistry of the Site have not detected concentrations
elevated above ambient conditions after the initial mixing period.
Table 4-1 presents an estimate of the potential effects of disposal-related
metal input on the total metal concentrations in the water at the 106-Mile
Site. This estimate is based on "worst - case" conditions consisting of a
stable, nondispersing physical environment caused by the hypothetical presence
of a Gulf Stream eddy. For the five metals examined, the possible percentage
increase in metal concentrations as a result of waste disposal is less than
1.3 percent. Thus, even in a hypothetical worst-case conditions, the total
input of metals from waste disposal is negligible compared to the concen-
tration of metals occurring naturally.
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TABLE 4-1. WORST-CASE CONTRIBUTION OF WASTE METAL INPUT TO THE
TOTAL METAL LOADING AT THE 106-MILE SITE
Cadmium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Zinc
Background Concentration
(ug/1)*
0.37
0.9
2.9
0.72
' 8.0
Total Amount (g) in^#
3.1 x 10 13 liters
1
.1 x 107
2.8 x 108
9.0 x 107
1.6 x 107
2.5 x 108
Estimated Input from
1978 Dumping of
Industrial Wastes and
1
.7 x 105
1.9 x 106
1.3 x 107
11.0 x 103
5.3 x 107
Estimated Input in
22 Days (g)t
1
.0 x 104
1.1 x 105
00
X
H
o
Ui
6.6 x 102
3.2 x 106
Percent of Loading due
to Dumping during
22 Days
0.09
0.04
0.9
0.004
1.3
* From Hausknecht (1977)
** The total volume of the
106-Mile
Site to 15
meters depth
t The maximum length of
time of Gulf Stream
eddy has been observed at the
Site. Taken to be the
upper limit for residence time of any one water
parcel at the site.
Metal concentrations in sediments of the 106-Mile Site were measured in 1974
by Pearce et al. (1975), and in 1976 by Greig and Wenzloff (1977). The metal
concentrations reported for 1976 are consistent with those for 1974. Sediment
metal concentrations varied little in samples from depths greater than 180
meters. Although the heavy metal content of sediments taken beyond the
Continental Shelf appears to be elevated relative to sediments on the
Shelf/Slope break, the elevated metal concentrations can not be attributed to
present disposal practices at the 106-Mile Site, since they are not unique to
the Site vicinity. Therefore, there is no evidence that the wastes released
at the Site have affected the sediments (Pearce et al., 1975).
Continued use of the Site for industrial waste disposal will probably produce
similar results fo* measurements of.the water and sediments. As NOAA (1977)
stated, background values of elements at the Site, like trace metals, are in
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the parts per billion range. Sample collection, storage, treatment, and
analytic procedures can introduce contamination, which affects the values
resulting from analysis. Consequently, values slightly above background
levels resulting from disposal may be masked by the contamination introduced
from sample handling. Projections of disposal effects on the water column and
sediments must be based on the present technology, realizing its inherent
weaknesses. This also applies to trace metal chemistry work at the other
disposal sites.
NEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES SITE
Although investigations of the effects of waste disposal at the New York Bight
Acid Wastes Site have been ongoing for over 30 years, no changes in the water
or sediment chemistry have been clearly linked to acid waste disposal. The
New York Bight Apex is a difficult region in which to assess impacts because
of the variety of contaminant sources and the existing high levels of most
parameters as a result of the population density and the heavy industriali-
zation of the region.
Most of the water column measurements at the Acid Site are within the range of
values found within the Bight Apex. Reduced surface salinity at the Site,
compared to a .control area, has been reported (Vaccaro et al., 1972).
Turbidity is greater at the Site because of the iron-floc which forms when
acid-iron waste reacts with seawater (NOAA-MESA, 1975).
Most studies of trace metals (e.g. mercury, copper, lead, cadmium, zinc) have
examined sediment levels. High sediment metal concentrations in the Bight
Apex occur in the area of the nearby Dredged Material and Sewage Sludge Sites
(Ali et al., 1975). Values at the Acid Site are much lower compared to other
disposal sites. Some workers have reported concentrations of trace metals in
Acid Site sediments that were elevated compared to sediments from supposedly
uncontaminated areas (Vaccaro et al., 1972; EG&G, 1978). However, these
values have generally been within the range of values from other locations in
the Bight (NOAA-NMFS, 1972).
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Potential effects of disposal-related metal input on the concentrations at the
Acid Site have been estimated (Table 4-2). Sludge digester cleanout residue
has not, been included in this evaluation because it is assumed that this
material will continue to be barged to the 106-Mile Site until ocean disposal
of harmful sewage sludge ceases. Even in hypothetical worst conditions, the
total input of metals to the Acid Site from 106-Mile Site wastes is negligible
compared to the metal loading from river outflow and wastes at other disposal
sites.
The effects of moving chemical wastes from the 106-Mile Site to the New York
Bight Acid Waste Site are difficult to predict. Some wastes presently
released at the 106-Mile Site would be new contaminants into the Bight.
Therefore, no background information exists on which to base an estimate of
the effects of dumping these materials. On the other hand, DuPont-Grasselli
used the Acid Site for part of its wastes from (1973 to 1975) with no known
adverse effects. In addition to new materials, 106-Mile Site wastes would
introduce significant amounts of materials that are presently input to the
Bight Apex by other sources. Since the New York Bight Apex is already a
stressed environment, the amount of stress (i.e. contaminant levels) should be
reduced, not increased. The environment's ability to assimilate contaminants
is unknown, and increasing the waste load may produce severe degradation of
the ecosystem.
DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE SITE
Most values of water chemistry parameters measured at this site during past
survey work are similar to values measured in similar areas within the
mid-Atlantic region (Falk et al., 1974). All metals except iron have been
present at ambient seawater concentrations, with little seasonal or depth
variation. When acid-iron waste was released at the Site, iron levels were
initially very high. In summer, when the seasonal thermocline slowed vertical
dispersion of the waste, iron levels remained elevated up to 20 hours after
disposal. In winter, with the thermocline absent, values returned to ambient
levels within four,hours or less.
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TABLE 4-2. WORST-CASE CONTRIBUTION OF WASTE METAL INPUT TO THE
TOTAL METAL LOADING AT THE NEW YORK BIGHT ACID WASTES SITE
Cadmium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Zinc
Background +
Concentration (ug/1)
Total amount (g) in
7.7 x 1011 liters**
Estimated Input from
1978 106-Mile Site
Dumping of Industrial
Wastes
Estimated Input in
1 Day (g)"1"
Percent of Loading
due to Dumping During
1 day
3.1
2.4 x 10
8.0
6.2 x 10
140
1.1 x 10
0.04
3.0 x 10
11.0
6.5 x 10
1.7 x 10'
4.7 x 10
0.02
1.9 x 10
5.2 x 10"
0.01
1.3 x 10
3.6 x 10
0.03
7
11.0 x 10"
3.0 x 10
0.01
5.2 x 10'
1.4 x 10'
1.6
* From Klein et al., 1974
** The total volume of the Site to 10 meters depth
t The estimated flushing rate for the Site based on measurements by Red field
and Walford (1951).
Potential effects of disposal-related industrial metal input on the
concentrations in water at the Site have been estimated (Table 4-3). The
metal input appears high enough that the water column concentrations will be
measureably affected, particularly by lead. The sewage sludge released at the
nearby Philadelphia Sewage Sludge Site, however, contains about 101 metric
tons of lead per year, which is seven times the probable input from chemical
waste. Consequently, any effects from chemical waste constituents would be
difficult to distinguish from effects caused by sewage sludge.
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Concentrations of several metals have been reported from sediments at the Site
and its vicinity (Johnson and Lear, 1974; Lear and Pesch, 1975; Lear, 1976;
Lear et al., 1977). Although the range of natural variation in metal
concentrations for this area is still undetermined, high concentrations have
been observed at several stations in and near the Site (Lear, 1976; Lear et
al., 1977). Sea scallops showed high concentrations of vanadium (Pesch et
al., 1977). Thus, it appears that past acid waste disposal at this site has
affected the sediments and benthos by raising metal concentrations.
Deleterious effects due to acid waste disposal have not been demonstrated and,
except for mercury and cadmium, the ecological effect of accumulating other
trace metals is generally unknown.
Moving industrial waste dumping from the 106-Mile Site to the presently
inactive Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site could cause additional accumulations of
metals in the sediments and organisms, since one of the permittees using at
the 106-Mile Site previously used the Acid Site. In addition, other effects
could occur after such a move because some of the 106-Mile Site wastes have
never been released into a nearshore marine environment.
SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN AREAS
The Northern and Southern Areas, which have never been utilized for waste
disposal, share a number of environmental features in common with the Delaware
Bay Acid Waste Site—depth being the principal one. While disposal of
chemical wastes at these sites will probably have little effect on water
chemistry, effects on the benthos similar to those observed at the Acid Site
may occur. These effects would be more adverse from man's point of view in
the Southern Area since exploitable shellfish populations exist near the Site.
If a new site was established for chemical waste disposal, the environmental
consequences of disposing the wastes would be much less at the Northern Area.
Potential effects of disposal-related industrial metal input on the
concentrations in water at these sites have been estimated (Tables 4-4 and
4-5). Since the near surface currents in these areas are relatively strong
(16-20' cm/sec), and the water's residence time is short, it appears that
aqueous chemical waste disposal would not measurably raise the ambient
concentrations of these metals.
4-22
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TABLE 4-3. WORST-CASE CONTRIBUTION OF WASTE METAL INPUT TO THE
TOTAL METAL LOADING AT THE DELAWARE BAY ACID WASTE SITE
Cadmium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Zinc
Background ^
Concentration (ug/1)
0.05
0.3
0.03
0.05
5.0
Total amount (g) in
2-1 x 10^, liters**
1.0 x 105
6.2 x 105
6.0 x 104
1.0 x 105
1.1 x 107
Estimated Input from
1978 106-Mile Site
Dumping of Industrial
Wastes (g)
1.7 x 105
1.9 x 106
1.3 x 107
11.0 x 103
5.2 x 107
Estimated Input in
5 Days (g)*
2.3 x 103
2.6 x 104
1.7 x 105
CM
O
H
X
«
7.1 x 105
Percent of Loading
due to Dumping During
5 days
2.3
4.2
280
0.2
6.5
* From EG&G (1975)
** The total volume of
the Site to 15 meters depth
t Based on the lowest
observed current velocity at the Site
4-23
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TABLE 4-4. WORST-CASE CONTRIBUTION OF WASTE METAL INPUT TO THE
TOTAL METAL LOADING AT THE SOUTHERN AREA
Cadmium .
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Zinc
Background ^
Concentration (ug/1)
1.6
7.0
2.7**
0.08**
18.3
Total amount (g) in
2.1 x 1012 liters
3.3 X 106
1.4 x 107
5.6 x 106
2.0 x 105
3.8 x 107
Estimated Input from
1978 106-Mile Site
Dumping of Industrial
Wastes (g)
1.7 x 105
1.9 x 106
1.3 x 107
11.0 x 103
5.2 x 107
Estimated Input in
2 Days (g)t
9.3 x 102
1.0 x 104
7.1 x 104
6.0 x 101
2.8 x 105
Percent of Loading
due to Dumping during
2 days
0.03
0.07
1.3
0.03
0.7
* From NOAA-MESA (1976)
** From EPA (1976)
t Based on the lowest observed current velocity at the Site
TABLE 4-5. WORST-CASE CONTRIBUTION OF WASTE METAL INPUT TO THE
TOTAL METAL LOADING AT THE NORTHERN AREA
Cadmium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Zinc
Background ^
Concentration (ug/1)
3.3
4.4
**
2.7
0.082
33.3
Total amount (g) in
2.1 x 10l2 liters
6.8 x 106
9.1 x 106
5.6 x 106
2.0 x 105
6.9 x 107
Estimated Input from
1978 106-Mile Site
Dumping of Chemical
Wastes (g)
1.7 x 105
1.9 x 106
1.3 x 107
11.0 x 103
5.2 x 107
Estimated Input in
2 Days (g)^
9.3 x 102
1.0 x 104
7.1 x 104
6.0 x 102
2.8 x 105
Percent of Loading
due to Dumping During
2' days
0.01
0.1
1.3
0.03
0.4
* From NOAA-MESA (1976)
** From EPA (1976)
t Based on the lowest observed current velocity at the Site
T
4-24
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SHORT DUMPING
The Ocean Dumping Regulations specify that, in emergency situations, the
master of a transport vessel may discharge its waste load in any location and
in any manner so as to safeguard life at sea. Such emergency situations may
result from the severe weather conditions that are typical for the North
Atlantic in late fall, winter, and early spring, from vessel breakdowns,
equipment failure, or collisions with other vessels or stationary objects.
The potential for illegal short dumping exists. The USCG ocean disposal
surveillance program is designed to discourage such illegal activities through
a system of shipriders, patrol vessels, aircraft overflights, and checking of
vessel logs. Twelve violations of permit regulations sufficient to cause
follow-up actions were reported to EPA Region II between 1973 and 1977 by the
Coast Guard (EPA, 1978). Seven of these were for disposal outside of an
authorized disposal site (this includes all disposal sites administered by
Region II). Two other referrals to EPA Region II (from NASA and the Army
Corps of Engineers) were also for dumping outside of the authorized site. Of
these nine charges, one was upheld and a civil penalty assessed, two were
pending in late 1978, and six had the charges withdrawn.
The probability of an emergency situation occurring rises as the round-trip
transit time increases. (See Table 4-6 for estimated transit times.) Thus,
the decision to locate a site far from shore carries with it the increased
risk of emergencies resulting in short dumping. The effects of a short dump
of toxic waste materials would depend on the' location of the dump, and in
particular, the water depth. Since chemical wastes are liquid and rapidly
diluted upon discharge, a single pulse of waste input to an area might cause,
local immediate acute effects, but should not cause any long-term adverse
effects. Effects of emergency dumping during inclement weather would be
mitigated by the rapid dilution caused by storm activity.
Use of any of the alternative sites involves the possibility of legal or
illegal short dumping. Based on distance of a site from port, the probability
of a short dump i6 highest for the 106-Mile Site or the Delaware Bay Acid
Waste Site and lowest for the New York Bight Acid Waste Site. Except for the
Bight Acid Site, however, the effects of a short dump should be short term and
4-25
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the ecosystem would rapidly recover. Short dumping at the New York Bight Acid
Wastes Site or the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site would cause more concern
because of close proximity to shore and the possibility of waste constituents
reaching' the New Jersey or the Long Island shoreline.
TABLE 4-6. TRANSIT TIMES TO ALTERNATIVE SITES (ROUND TRIP)*
Site
New York Harbor
Delaware Bay
9 km/hr
(5 kn)
13 km/hr
(7 kn)
9 km/hr
(5 kn)
13 km/hr
(7 kn)
106-Mile Site
46
32
48
18
NYB Acid Wastes Site
7
3
45
17
Delaware Bay Acid
48
36
14
5
Waste Site
Southern Area
22
16
36
14
Northern Area
21
16
51
19
* Does not include time in transit from the loading dock to the Rockaway-Sandy
Hook transect (New York Harbor) or from ports in Delaware Bay to the Cape
May-Cape Henlopen transect (Mouth of Delaware Bay).
UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS AND MITIGATING MEASURES
Some unavoidable adverse environmental effects of disposal of aqueous chemical
wastes will occur in whatever site is designated for use. These effects occur
immediately upon release of the wastes and are mitigated by the rapid dilution
of the wastes after release. Based on field and laboratory observations, the
most important short-term impacts of waste disposal at the 106-Mile Site are:
e Acute mortality in plankton
e Rise in the concentrations of waste constituents in the water column
© Changes in pH
© Possible avoidance of the area by fish
4-26
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The most important potential long-term impacts are:
e Possible inhibition of carbon uptake by bacteria
e Possible accumulation of waste constituents in the benthos at
shallow sites
e Sublethal effects on zooplankton and fish. These have been observed
only in the laboratory at higher waste concentrations than occur at
the Site.
The volumes and rates of waste discharge, which are specified in the disposal
permit, have been established to limit any impact at the disposal site and to
reduce the possibility of short-term effects persisting more than four hours.
The on-going monitoring program, both by the permittees and by the Federal
Government, has been established to determine if short-term or long-term
effects are occurring.
None of the effects described in this section apparently persist for more than
a few hours after the waste is discharged; consequently, none of these impacts
are irreversible.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERM USE OF THE SITE AND LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY
Use of the 106-Mile Site should not produce conflicts between short-term use
and long-term productivity. The Site is located outside of the range of
commercial and recreational fishing and significant mineral resource
development. After several years of studies, there is no evidence that the
long-term biological productivity of the area has been adversely affected by
the wastes.
4-27
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IRREVERSIBLE OR IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES
Several resources will be irreversibly or irretrievably commited upon
implementation of the proposed action:
e Loss of energy in the form of fuel required in transporting barges
to and from the Site. Transport to distant sites requires more fuel
than transport to nearshore sites.
o Loss of valuable constituents in the waste, such as metals, some of
which are available only in short supply. However, present
technology is not adequate to permit their recovery.
® Loss of economic resource because of the costs associated with ocean
disposal at a site that is far from land. These ocean disposal
costs, however, may be lower than the costs of land-based disposal
methods.
4-28
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Chapter 5
SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL AT THE 106-MILE SITE
While -it is acknowledged that the only reasonable long-term
solution for disposal of harmful sewage sludge is through
land-based processes, adverse conditions at the existing New
York Bight Sewage Sludge Site could require moving the
disposal operation to another site.
Use of the 106-Mile Site for sewage sludge disposal would be
technically feasible, but economically unrealistic for
large-scale disposal. However, under suitable conditions,
the 106-Mile Site could provide an alternative location for
short-term disposal of sewage sludge.
Disposal of sewage sludge, a product of wastewater treatment, is accomplished
by two broad classes of methods: (1) land-based treatment and disposal and (2)
ocean disposal from barge or outfall. Barged ocean disposal of sewage sludge
in the New York Bight has occurred since 1924. While it is acknowledged that
the only reasonable solution for long-term disposal of environmentally harmful
sludge is through land-based processes (addressed in a previous EIS [EPA
1978])there is an immediate need for ocean disposal while land-based
alternatives are being developed. This need will last at least until December
31, 1981, when ocean disposal of sewage sludge that does not comply with EPA'8
environmental impact criteria will cease as mandated by laws.
The question of where to dispose of sewage sludge (either on land or in the
ocean) in the New York metropolitan area pending implementation of land-based
alternatives, has received much attention at scientific meetings, court
hearings, Congressional committee meetings, and in the press. One EIS (EPA,
1978) has been prepared on the subject and has resulted in designation (F.R.,
May 18 1979) of an area 111 kilometers (60 nmi) from New York Harbor as an
alternate sludge disposal site for use only if environmental conditions at the
12--Mile Site are sufficiently adverse to require movement of the disposal
operation to another locality (Figure 5-1). EPA (1978) also addresses the
> Site as an alternate sludge disposal site.
5-1
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Although the 106-Mile Site would be used primarily for disposing of industrial
chemical wastes in the foreseeable future, it is conceivable that severely
degraded environmental conditions in the Bight or threats to public health
could require sewage sludge disposal at an alternate site beyond the
Continental Shelf. Since the 106-Mile Site is the only off-Shelf location in
the mid-Atlantic historically used to dispose of sewage sludge, it would be
the logical choice as an alternate location. Table 5-1 summarizes the history
of the proposal to relocate sludge disposal from the New York Bight to the
106-Mile Site.
The 106-Mile Site has been used in the past for limited disposal of the City
of Camden's sewage sludge under both Interim and Emergency dumping permits.
In addition, small amounts of sludge digester cleanout residues from treatment
plants in the New York City area have been disposed of at the Site since 1973.
No adverse effects of this sludge disposal have been demonstrated; however,
studies of effects of sludge dumping at the Site have been sparse.
"Sewage sludge" is a generic term for the dark, humus-like waste material
produced by municipal wastewater treatment processes which treat wastes from
domestic and industrial sources. It is a mixture of sewage and settled solids
that are removed from raw wastewater during treatment. Sludge dumped at the
present New York Bight Sewage Sludge Disposal Site is primarily a combination
of digested products of primary and secondary wastewater treatment. The
degree of treatment that the material receives determines its ultimate
composition. Primary treatment removes 50 to 60 percent of the suspended
solids from raw wastewater. Secondary treatment removes approximately 85
percent of the suspended solids. Sludges produced by primary or secondary
treatment can be subjected to anaerobic digestion to decompose the organic
materials.
5-2
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Figure 5-1, Alternative Sewage Sludge Disposal Sites
5-3
-------
TABLE 5-1. HISTORY OF THE PROPOSAL TO RELOCATE
SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL TO THE 106-MILE SITE
February 1976: The draft EIS on the ocean disposal of sewage sludge in the
New York Bight was released for public review and comment.
July, August 1976: Long Island beaches bordering the New York Bight were
contaminated with sewage-related material and other wastes propelled onshore
by unusual summer winds. In addition, waters off the New Jersey coast experi-
enced a massive algal bloom and depletion of oxygen in bottom waters which
severely affected benthic marine organisms, especially surf clams. Blame for
these events was levied at sewage sludge disposal operations in the New York
Bight Apex, although later investigations revealed that sewage sludge was not
the cause of the incidents. Nonetheless, consideration of moving sludge
disposal operations farther offshore was fueled by adverse public comment
directed at the nearshore disposal site.
May, June 1977: EPA Headquarters held a public hearing in Toms River, New
Jersey, to consider the possibility of relocating sewage sludge disposal
operations from the existing disposal site in the New York Bight Apex and the
existing disposal site off the coast of Maryland (the Philadelphia Sewage
Sludge Disposal Site) to a site farther offshore, possibly the 106-Mile Site.
Many government, public, and academic critics and supporters of the prop-
osition presented arguments, data, and opinions (EPA, 1976).
July 1977: EPA Headquarters awarded a 3-year contract to Interstate
Electronics Corporation to perform environmental assessments and prepare EIS's
on the designation of ocean disposal sites for different types of wastes. The
106-Mile Site EIS was assigned high priority.
September 197 7: The hearing officer for the Toms River public hearing issued
his report, recommending that neither the New York area nor the Philadelphia
sewage sludge disposal operations be moved from the existing disposal sites.
Regarding the 106-Mile Site, the hearing officer stated that "sludge dumping
at the 106-Mile Site is not feasible because of the unknown but potentially
adverse environmental consequences and the inability to monitor the site
effectively." However, the same report recommended that "Preparation of an
environmental impact statement on the issue of relocating the sludge...to the
106-Mile Site should begin immediately" (Breidenbach, 1977).
November 1977: Congress amended the MPRSA to require that ocean disposal of
harmful sewage sludge be phased out by December 31, 1981 (PL 95-153).
March 1978: EPA Headquarters issued its decision on the Toms River public
hearing, stating that both the New York Bight and Philadelphia Sewage Sludge
Disposal Sites should continue in use, pending the phase-out of harmful sewage
sludge disposal in 1981. The decision also directed that an assessment of
sewage sludge disposal be included in the EIS on the 106-Mile Site (Jorling,
1978) .
5-4
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TABLE 5-1. (continued)
September 1978: EPA issued the final draft of the EIS (EPA, 1978) on ocean
disposal of sewage sludge in the New York Bight including an assessment of the
feasibility of using the 106-Mile Site. The Site was not judged favorable for
sludge disposal based on an evaluation of several factors. The major
limitations cited in the use of the 106-Mile Site were the unknown environ-
mental effects of disposal there and the large associated costs of using the
Site as compared to other sites. The EIS recommended the designation of a
site farther offshore on the Shelf for use if conditions at the existing site
require it. This EIS drew heavily on the material presented at the Toms River
public hearing. No new data on sludge disposal effects at the 106-Mile Site
were presented.
May 1979: EPA published notice of the final designation of the existing New
York Bight Sewage Sludge Disposal Site and the Alternate Sewage Sludge
Disposal Site for use in the event that the existing Site cannot safely
accommodate any more sewage sludge.
By 1981, most of the waste treatment plants which currently practice ocean
disposal and serve the New York metropolitan area are expected to provide
secondary treatment. New Jersey plants will provide primary treatment. Thus,
the character of dumped sewage sludge will gradually change over the next few
years as present wastewater treatment plants are upgraded and new facilities
are constructed to provide secondary treatment. Table 5-2 compares the
physical and chemical characteristics of present New York metropolitan area
sewage sludge with the industrial chemical wastes presently dumped at the
106-Mile Site.
AMOUNTS OF SLUDGE DUMPED
From 1960 to 1978, the amount of sewage sludge dumped annually in the Bight
ranged between 2.5 million metric tons and 6.4 million metric tons. By 1981,
the amount of sludge dumped in the Bight is expected to be about 10 million
metric tons, one and a half times greater than the 1978 amount. Table 5-3
presents the estimated volumes of the individual waste generators that will be
dumping sludge in the Bight during the period from 1979 to 1981. Projections
of the effects of 6ludge disposal at the 106-Mile Site are based on
anticipated 1981 sludge volumes.
5-5
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TABLE 5-2. COMPARISON OF TYPICAL PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND TOXICOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE SLUDGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE
DUMPED AT THE 106-MILE SITE
Characteristic
New York City
Sludge
American
Cyanamid
DuPont
Edge Moor
DuFont
Grasselli
Merck
Specific gravity
1.009
1.028
1.135
(1.085 - 1.218)
1.109
(1.036 - 1.222)
1.28
pH
ND
2.7 - 8.3
0.1 - 1.0
12.4 - 13.6
5-7
Suspended Solids (mg/1)
25,000
300
(60 - 21,000)
2,000
800
(5 - 15,090)
1,000
Oil and Grease (mg/1)
4,900
900
(10 - 6,214)
4
(1 - 24)
17
(0.8 - 108)
80
Arsenic (ug/1)
1 ,000
600
(20 - 2,600)
ND
ND
200
Cadmium (ug/1)
2,700
4
(1 - 50)
300
(20 - 900)
200
(3 - 700)
50
Chromium (ug/1)
59,000
600
(45 - 4,900)
270,000
(52,600 - 900,000)
300
(10 - 3,500)
500
Copper (ug/1)
82,000
400
(1 - 4,100)
3,000
3,000
(25 - 154,700)
400
Iron (mg/1)
ND
ND
33,000
(14,500 - 54,800)
ND
ND
Lead (ug/1)
66,000
100
41,000
(2,700 - 76,000)
900
(10 4,900)
1,500
Mercury (ug/1)
800
30
(1 - 200)
30
(1 - 200)
7
(1 - 20)
50
Nickel (ug/1)
17,000
1,000
(145 - 6,400)
29,000
(200 - 65,000)
700
(30 - 2,000)
2,600
Vanadium (ug/1)
2,000
ND
120,000
(80 - 250)
ND
1,000
Zinc (ug/1)
160,000
600
(7 - 5,160)
101,000
500
(30 - 2,700)
400
96-hr LC50
Atlantic silversides
(M. Menidia) (mg/kg)
Diatom
(S. costatum) (mg/kg)
7,200 - 16,000
39 - 1,000
0.24 - 2,900
10 - 1,900
5,000*
712 - 3,450
l.B - 6,950*
29 - 8,600
650
65
- 100,000*
- 12,000
* Data fram Mueller et fi
t Aerated
1., 1976.
5-6
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TABLE 5-3. ESTIMATED AMOUNTS OF SEWAGE SLUDGE TO BE DUMPED
IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT 1979 TO 1981
Waste
Amount
in Thousands of Metric Tons
Generator
(Thousands of Tons)
1979
1980
1981
Middletown Sewerage Authority
36
(40)
42
(46)
48
(53)
Passaic Valley Sewerage
Commissioners
767
(844)
1,007
(1,108)
1,007
(1,108)
City of Long Beach
9
(10)
9
(10)
9
(10)
Middlesex County Sewerage
Authority
767
(844)
915
(1,007)
926
(1 ,019)
City of New York
4,364
(4,800)
4,634
(5,097)
5,904
(6,494)
Modern Transportation Co.
108
(119)
Bergen County Utilities
Authority
230
(253)
234
(257)
239
(263)
Linden-Roselle & Rahway
252
(277 )
261
(287)
270
(297)
Valley Sewerage Authorities
Joint Meeting of Essex and
Union Counties
334
(367)
334
(367)
334
(367)
Nassau County
418
(460)
435
(479)
453
(498)
Westchester County
533
(586)
683
(751)
703
(773)
City of Glen Cove
13
(14)
13
(14)
13
(14)
General Marine Transport Corp
11
(12)
TOTAL
7,842
(8,626)
8,567
(9,423)
9,906
(10,896)
ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY
Camden's relatively brief use of the 106-Mile Site provided little chance to
study the impacts of sewage sludge disposal there. In lieu of adequate
experimental data from the Site, projections of the effects of potential
future sludge disposal there must be based on data from studies of other
wastes at the Site and on data obtained from studies at other sewage sludge
ocean disposal sites.
Use of an off-Shelf site for sludge disposal can have several environmental
advantages over disposal at a Shelf site: (1) Except in an area of upwelling,
biological productivity is much lower in off-Shelf waters than in Shelf waters
because of colder temperatures and the reduced supply of nutrients. (2) Irt a
site located far from shore, wastes are diluted before they can impact coastal
5-7
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fisheries or shorelines. (3) Bottom impacts are less likely at a site located
in sufficiently deep water because sinking particles undergo rapid horizontal
dispersion as they slowly descend, ensuring that very little material reaches
the bottom. (4) Any material that does eventually reach bottom, will be so
widely dispersed that a substantial build-up of elevated concentrations is
highly unlikely.
Several concerns with the potential effects of 106-Mile Site sludge disposal
were voiced at the Toms River Hearing:
« Accumulation of materials which could ultimately float up undecayed
to contaminate seas and beaches,
e Development of deep-sea anaerobic environments.
o Damage to organisms that are adapted to the stable conditions of the
deep ocean environment.
« Long-range adverse effects on marine biota that are undetectible
until irreversible,
e Persistence of pathogens for long periods of time.
These issues and others are addressed in this section. Based on the present
knowledge of the physical characteristics of the 106-Mile Site, and the
characteristics of the sludge proposed for disposal at the Site, no
significant adverse impacts are anticipated.
FATE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE
The fate of dumped sludge in the water column at the Site is important for
understanding of the chemical and biological effects of sludge disposal.
DILUTION AND DISPERSION
The nature of impact from a dumped material is determined in large part by the
waste's life history in the water mass. The material may sink directly to the
bottom, as does dense, course construction material or dredged materials or it
may remain in the water mass for long times, dispersing slowly or rapidly
throughout all or a portion of the water column. Shallow water makes the
5-8
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likelihood of bottom contact in a relatively short time more probable. Deep
water offers a lower probability of bottom deposition due, in part, to complex
changes in the environmental conditions through the vertical water column.
The 106-Mile Site is a dynamically complex region not amenable to assumptions
of stationarity or steady state. This natural complexity limits the
predictability of events that may ensue from waste disposal.
The focus of attention must be the interaction of the environment and the
dumped sludge. The best evidence of the mechanical settling and dispersion is
from direct observation of the sludge after it is released from a barge. Orr
(1977b) had the opportunity to track the early stages of a Camden sludge dump
via acoustic means. From his observations, the points most cogent to the
influence of environment on the dumped material are the movement of material
to only about 60 meters depth and the evidence of a strong vertical shear at
about 28 meters that rapidly spread the upper and lower portions of the dumped
material over large horizontal areas. It should be noted that Camden's sludge
received only primary treatment, so particles were heavier than those in
sludge from secondary treatment. Thus, secondary sludge would be even more
rapidly dispersed.
Sixty meters is about the depth of the seasonal pycnocline in the offshore
area, forming a density surface that acts as a restriction to settling of near
neutrally buoyant material such as sludge. The depth and intensity of this
pycnocline varies with season and with storm activity, but is quite pervasive,
extending over the several water masses (although perhaps not well developed
in Gulf Stream eddies). A permanent pycnocline, found to start at 250 meters
(on average), will act as another barrier to settling material. While neither
density surface is impenetrable, the retardation of settling will act to keep
the dumped material in the upper surface waters for longer periods of time.
The dynamic activity of surface waves, internal waves, shears, and small-scale
turbulence enhance this suspended state. Where a variety of water masses
interact, fronts "and shear lines are commonplace and represent regions of
spatially varying speeds and increased turbulence. These conditions act to
5-9
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increase dispersion of the material in both the vertical and horizontal, again
reducing the rate of settling. This could be viewed as an anisotropic
dispersion (Ichiye, 1965), where horizontal dispersion rates exceed those of
the vertical by as much as two orders of magnitude.
With increased residence time in the surface waters, the material is subject
to transport by near-surface currents which normally sustain higher speeds
than currents at greater depths. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
records of currents measured at Site D, about 110 nautical miles east-
northeast of the Site, furnish a proximal description of conditions at the
Site. Two hundred and sixty-one days of record in the surface waters to
depths of 150 meters shows an average vector of movement to the west and north
of 6 to 11 cm/sec. On a larger scale, this means an average of about 5 to 10
km (3 to 5 nmi miles) per day of translational movement with brief periods of
faster and slower speeds. Warsh (1975) suggests the currents follow the
bathymetry, and move to the south and west at the 106-Mile Site.
A typical sludge settling rate in oceanic conditions may be taken from
Calloway et al. (1976) who monitored dispersion of sludge dumped in the shoal
waters of the New York Bight Apex. Nonflocculated particles which comprised
most of the dumped material had settling velocities of 0.01 to 0.30 cm/sec or
less. If the material is dispersed throughout the upper 60 meters of the
water column, this settling rate provides a mean time to the 60-meter density
interface of 10,000 to 300,000 seconds (or 4 hours to 7 days) in which time it
could be transported a maximum of 56 to 93 km (30 to 50 nmi). In that time,
this waste fraction, is assuqed to have reached the density interface at 60
meters where it may accumulate for some unknown time. It should eventually
pass through, settling to the next interface at 250 meters (or thereabouts).
Assuming a linear descent to that interface, the range of time is about 8
hours to 72 days. In the longer time frame, at the mean speed of 5 to 10 km
(3 to 5 nmi) per day, the finer fractions could have traveled a total of about
740 km (400 nmi) from the Site.
Values used here for the purpose of discussion may vary significantly without
detracting from the observation that the waste material will spend long times
in the water column undergoing dispersion and transport and degradation by
5-10
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chemical and biological processes. Orr (1977b) is presently analyzing data on
the horizontal dispersion acting on the sludge during a 32-hour experiment in
which the sludge had, at the end of the experiment, dispersed along several
density interfaces within 45 meters of the surface but did not penetrate the
60-meter depth. This experiment adds credibility to the use of a time
interval greater than three days for settling to 60 meters and to a long
residency in surface waters.
A worst-case estimate for areas of the bottom where, particles may fall is
based on approximation techniques of Callaway et al. (1976). Assuming a point
source dump (with no associated turbulent diffusion as from a discharge in the
wake of a moving barge), a 6 cm/sec horizontal current (U) , and a particle
settling velocity (W ) of 0.1 cm/sec the size of the settling area at the
106-Mile Site will be proportional to the depth change of the existing
disposal site (depth = H = 22 m) to the 106-Mile Site. Particles will settle
over the length L = UH/W . The 106-Mile Site has an average depth of about
8
2,000 meters. Solving the equation for L yields 120 km. If a circular
settling patch is assumed, the 106-Mile Site yields 45,216 sq km. Assuming an
even distribution of solids within the computed area, the accompanying
decrease in solids per unit area relative to the New York Bight Sludge Site is
by a factor of 3,000, resulting in a bottom accumulation of 0.6 microns based
on current sludge volumes—an infinitessimal amount. Therefore, disallowing
horizontal and vertical dispersion, density gradients, or degradative
processes normal to the 106-Mile Site, and assuming an unrestricted fall of
sludge particles from surface to bottom, shows • that insignificant amounts of
sludge would be deposited on the bottom under the worst conditions.
EFFECTS ON WATER CHEMISTRY
Sewage sludge produced by secondary treatment contains low concentrations of
organic materials. Anaerobic digestion reduces these concentrations even
further. The only organic materials that resist these treatment processes are
recalcitrant and not easily degraded, consisting primarily of proteins, amino
acids, lipids, and cellulose. These materials will be rapidly dispersed in
the surface layer above the thermocline and will not accumulate at the Site.
They will eventually be degraded by organisms in the water column such as
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proteolytic, lipolytic, and cellulytic bacteria. Based on the low sludge
concentrations of organic material requiring degradation and the highly
dispersive environment at the 106-Mile Site previously discussed, accumu-
lations of large amounts of undecayed matter at the disposal site are likely.
Formation of deep-sea anaerobic environments will also be avoided since
insignificant amounts of material requiring oxygen for degradation will sink
to depths where oxygen is limited.
Sludge disposal at the 106-Mile Site will introduce' heavy metals, inorganic
nutrients, suspended solids, and chlorinated hydrocarbons to the water column.
However, since the waste will be introduced in the barge wake, rapid initial
dilution will occur, and further dilution and dispersion will result as
material sinks and the water mass acts on the material.
The following discussion is based in part on the projections made by Raytheon
(1976) on the effects of sludge disposal at the Alternate Sewage Sludge Site
in the New York Bight. The potential effects on water chemistry at the
106-Mile Site and the Alternate Sludge Site are comparable. Bottom chemistry
effects are not discussed since, as indicated earlier, the sludge is not
expected to reach the bottom in significant proportions.
Most of the heavy metals introduced by sludge will occur in the particulate
fraction. In Table 5-4 the present metal content of sewage sludge has been
applied to a worst-case model of nondispersive, nondiluting physical
conditions at the Site with sludge dumped in the water column contained within
an areal quadrant to a depth of 15 meters over 22 days. In such strict
conditions, the concentrations of some metals will almost double over the low
background levels. However, in observed typical conditions, with the
thermocline located near 60 meters and water flushing through the quadrant in
3 days at the rate of 11 cm/sec, the percent metal loading within the quadrant
that is due to sludge dumping is a small fraction of the worst-case value.
This suggests tlrat any future sludge disposal at the Site should occur under
the most dispersive conditions to avoid elevated concentrations in the water
column. In addition, amounts of sludge dumped can be regulated to permit
adequate dilution and dispersion so that concentrations with the Site not
remain elevated.
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TABLE 5-4. WORST-CASE PROJECTIONS OF METAL LOADING DUE TO SEWAGE SLUDGE
DISPOSAL IN A QUADRANT OF THE 106-MILE SITE
Metal Load
Cadmium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Zinc
Average background
metal Concentration
(ug/1)
Total amount of
metal (g) in
12
7.7 x 10 1
Estimated metal
input (g)
in 1981
Estimated input
in 22 daya^
% Total metal
due to sludge
during 22 days
0.37
2.8 x 10
3 x 10'
1.8 x 10
64
0.9
6.9 x 10
8.9 x 10u
5.4 x 10'
78
2.9
2.2 x 10
6.6 x 10
4.0 x 10
182
0.72
5.5 x 10
8 x 10
4.8 x 10
8.0
6.2 x 10
1.6 x 10'
9.6 x 10
155
* From Hausknecht, 1977
t Volume based on " one-fourth of the total area of the Site and a minimum seasonal
thennocline of 15 meters
** Based on sludge metal concentrations from Mueller et al., (1976) and EPA (1978) volume
estimates
tt The maximum length of time an Gulf Stream eddy has been observed at the Site.
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Chlorinated hydrocarbons, PCBs, and other toxic organics in sludge will be
introduced to the Site in association with particulates in the sludge.
However, the concentrations of these materials in the sludge are relatively
low and are, therefore, not expected to significantly increase levels at the
Site as long as their inputs to the sludge are controlled.
Nutrients in the form of inorganic nitrogen (NO^ , NO^ , and NH^+) and
inorganic phosphorus (PO^ ) would be introduced to the Site by sludge
disposal. Table 5-5 presents an evaluation of worst-case conditions. Only
phosphate is added in significant proportions. Since most primary production
in the ocean is limited by the amount of inorganic nitrogen in the water, and
even in the worst case, sludge would introduce insignificant amounts of
nitrate, dumping sludge at the Site would not significantly increase
productivity or support plankton blooms like those that occur in coastal
waters .
TABLE 5-5. WORST-CASE PROJECTIONS OF INORGANIC NUTRIENT
LOADING IN A QUADRANT OF THE 106-MILE SITE
DUE TO SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL
Nitrite and Nitrate
Phosphate
Background ^
Concentration (ug/1)
19.2
114
Total amount^n
7.7 x 10 1 (g)
1/5 x 108
9 x 108
Estimated input during
1981 (g)
4.0 x 107
4.0 x 109
Estimated input in
22 days (g)
2.3 x 106
2.4 x 108
% total nutrient load
due to sludge
2.0
30
* From Peterson (1975).
** Volume of a quadrant
Concentrations at 15 meters,
of the Site to 15 meters.
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The heavier particles in the suspended solid fraction are fairly inert,
consisting of silt and sand that wash into the sewage treatment plants. These
particles would be expected to act as sites for biological growth and will
sink fairly rapidly. Finer particles, such as clays, will remain in the water
column for long periods of time providing charged sites for bonding with ionic
species (like heavy metals) in solution and for bacterial growth, which can
also remove ionic species from solution.
INTERACTIONS WITH INDUSTRIAL WASTE
Whenever chemically diverse materials are mixed, a potential for interaction
exists. For example, combining sludge with strong acids can cause heavy
metals to deaasorb from sludge particles. Conversely, the particles in sludge
can provide a nucleus for adsorption of contaminants in chemical wastes.
The potential for interaction of chemical wastes and sludge dumped at the
106-Mile Site is slight. EPA imposes simultaneous disposal in separate
2
quadrants of the Site, each quadrant large enough (150 nmi ) to significantly
dilute the material within its boundaries. So sludge and chemical wastes at
the Site would be separated by a sufficient distance to prevent the materials
from mixing. Sludge at the New York Bight Sludge Site is presently dumped
only 5 km from the New York Bight Acid Site. No interactions between these
materials have ever been recorded.
EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS
Many components of sewage sludge can have an adverse effect on organisms.
Some of these constituents, like nutrients and heavy metals, are necessary to
sustain marine life, but are toxic at the high concentrations found in
undiluted sludge. However, rapid dilution and dispersion of the sludge will
mitigate all but short-term, acute effects on organisms inhabiting the upper
water column at the Site. Because of the extreme vertical dilution of waste
through the water column, benthic organisms in the vicinity should not be
affected.
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NOAA's studies to date at the 106-Mile Site have demonstrated no impact on
populations of water column organisms at the Site from disposal of industrial
wastes. Although sewage sludge shares few chemical, physical, or biological
characteristics with the present chemical wastes dumped at the site, bioassays
indicate that sludge is less toxic to the Atlantic silversides (Menidia
tnenidia) than the industrial wastes and about as toxic to diatoms (Skeletonema
costatum). Therefore, sludge is not expected to affect the site organisms to
any greater degree than the present industrial wastes if discharged at
compatible rates. Since no adverse effects of industrial waste dumping have
been demonstrated at the site, no demonstrable adverse effects are anticipated
from sludge disposal assuming the limiting permissible concentration is met.
Only one biological study (Longwell, 1977) has been conducted during a sludge
disposal operation at the 106-Mile Site. Fish eggs were collected from inside
and outside of the sewage sludge plume for the study of effects on developing
fish embryos. The fish embryos were examined for cell and chromosome damage.
Although too few fish eggs were collected to permit quantitative comparisons,
sewage sludge appears to be toxic to fish eggs in the early developmental
stages as evidenced by adverse effects on the chromosome and mitotic apparatus
of embryos undergoing cell division. No effects of any waste, either
industrial or municipal, have been demonstrated on fish populations because of
the high natural variability of these populations. In addition, most
populations of fish that are taken commercially in the Mid-Atlantic spawn over
the Continental Shelf, rather than in Off-Shelf water such as that at the
106-Mile Site. Therefore, although sewage sludge may cause short-term effects
on early stages of fish embryos, measurable long-term effects on fish
populations are unlikely.
SURVIVAL OF PATHOGENS
Sewage sludge contains many pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms. These may
be classified into four groups: bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths
(parasitic worms). Secondary treatment removes or inactivates many of these
organisms but die-off is highly variable (Akin et al, 1977). Anaerobic
digestion further reduces the pathogens in sludge, but some persistent viruses
and parasite eggs can survive. However, the ocean possesses bactericidal
5-16
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properties that can effectively deactivate sludge microorganisms through two
basic mechanisms: (1) toxic properties of seawater, and (2) biological
predation.
There is little information on the survival of sludge pathogens at the
106-Mile Site. One study conducted during a Camden sludge disposal operation,
collected surface and subsurface water samples from a stationary ship for
total and fecal coliform bacteria analysis (Vaccaro and Dennett, 1977). In
the first hour of sampling within the waste plume, surface samples yielded
positive results for both total and fecal coliforms. No positive results from
either test were obtained from any of the subsurface samples.
Sewage microorganisms normally tend to die off quickly in the water column;
whereas pathogens that are sequestered in bottom sediments can live con-
siderably longer. Since accumulations of sludge particles on the bottom are
unlikely at the 106-Mile Site pathogenic contamination of sediments is not a
real issue from sludge disposal at this Site. Numerous investigators have
reported conflicting observations on the effects of seawater, sunlight,
pressure, or exposure on the survival of sewage microorganisms in the water.
However, most agree that the survival of sludge organisms dumped at an oceanic
site far from shore are relatively unknown. If the 106-Mile Site is used for
future sewage sludge disposal, the monitoring program accompanying the
disposal must address these unknowns.
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
The feasibility of monitoring for impacts of sewage sludge disposal at the
106-Mile Site was addressed in the Toms River Hearing. Although opinions
expressed at the hearing varied on monitoring feasibility, all agreed that
monitoring the 106-Mile Site, so as to detect and control short and long-.iange
impacts of sludge dumping, would be most difficult (some felt it would be
impossible). NOAA stated that such a program would be technically possible,
but also very expensive:
The techniques required for a monitoring program are
available. It is, however, more time-consuming and thus more
expensive to monitor a site which is 100 miles from shore and
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2,000 meters deep than one which is nearshore and shallow.
An effective monitoring program would be built upon our
existing knowledge. Initial work directed specifically at
sewage sludge would be to define the volume of water through
which the sludge settles, the area of the bottom accepting
the waste, the rate of water renewal, and rates of deep-sea
sludge oxidation. The effects of sludge on deep-sea biota
would be addressed through field sampling and by application
of specialized techniques for observation at low temperature
and high pressure. It is estimated that such a program would
require about $2.5 million for each of its first two years
and, thereafter, about $1.0 million per annum (Martineau,
1977). [All of the New York Bight monitoring currently costs
about $1 million.]
Considering the dispersion data from the Site, which indicate that the major
potential effects of sludge dumping there would occur in the water column
above the thermoclines (seasonal or permanent), monitoring could be simpler
than originally thought because extremely deep sampling would be unnecessary.
However, because of the wider dispersion of materials in the upper water
column, monitoring over a larger area would be necessary.
SURVEILLANCE
Although a site far from land requires additional surveillance effort compared
to a nearshore site, surveillance of sludge disposal operations at the '
106-Mile Site is clearly feasible based on testimony at the Toms River Hearing
(Mullen, 1977).
ECONOMICS
EPA (1978) presents a thorough overview of the economic issues imposed by
using the 106-Mile Site for sewage sludge disposal. The salient points of
that discussion are presented herein.
The most severe economic drawback to transferring all sludge disposal
operations from the existing New York Bight Sludge Site to the 106-Mile Site
lies in the size of the existing fleet of sludge dump vessels. The increased
cost of using the 106-Mile Site rather than a nearshore site lies in two
areas: (1) transport to the 106-Mile Site takes so much longer that
5-18
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additional vessels are necessary to carry the same amount of material; and (2)
the time required for discharge will increase because the rate will be based
on the LPC rather than the uniform rate of 5 hours currently imposed by USCG
on dumpers at the New York Bight Sludge Site for safety. Because of the
increased transit time to the 106-Mile Site over the existing site, the 12
vessels which now comprise the fleet would be inadequate to handle the sludge
volumes, therefore, additional vessels would be necessary.
With equal discharge rates, the cost of using the 106-"Mile Site would be about
twice the cost of using the Alternate Sewage Sludge Site and six to eight
times the cost of continuing to use the existing New York Bight Sludge Site.
By 1981, the estimated cost to municipal permittees for transporting sludge to
the 106-Mile Site is estimated to be within a range of $124 million to $154
million. Many present at the Toms River Hearing felt that such a prohibitive
expense to the municipal dumpers would divert funds for implementing
land-based disposal alternatives into ocean disposal, thus perpetuating this
means of disposal (NOAA, 1977; Forsythe, 1977; Kamlet, 1977).
The projected cost of monitoring sludge disposal was discussed in a previous
section. Since a portion of the monitoring cost would be passed on to the
permittees, their economic burden would increase even further. In addition,
the cost to federal agencies monitoring the Site would be substantial.
Surveillance costs would also be high if this site were utilized for sludge
disposal. The USCG monitors sludge disposal operations at the New York Bight
Sludge Site with helicopters and patrol vessels. Since the 106-Mile Site is
far outside of the range of this equipment, shipriders would be required, at
an additional expense to the USCG.
LOGISTICS
Use of the 106-Mile Site for sludge disposal would be logistically feasible
although initial delays of several months primarily for obtaining suitable
vessels, would probably be necessary for implementation. Increased traffic at
the site would present additional navigational hazards; however, dumping in
quadrants of the site would tend to mitigate many of the hazards.
5-19
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SUMMARY
Use of the 106-Mile Site for sewage sludge disposal would be environmentally
acceptable under carefully controlled conditions, and accompanied by a
comprehensive monitoring program. However, substitution of this Site for the
existing New York Sewage Sludge Site or the Alternate Site would impose severe
economic burden, surveillance and monitoring difficulties, and logistical
problems. 'Therefore, the following recommendations are made.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recoiimended that use of the Site for sewage sludge disposal be decided
by EPA case-by-case, on the basis of severity of need. Any permit issued
should include provisions for adequate monitoring and surveillance to ensure
against significant adverse impacts resulting from disposal. Sludge disposal
should be allowed at the Site only under the following conditions:
« The existing New York Bight Sewage Sludge Site cannot safely
accommodate more sludge disposal without endangering public health,
severely degrading the marine environment, or degrading coastal
water quality,
• Independent surveillance by the U.S. Coast Guard or USCG Auxiliary
(the latter at the permittee's expense) be conducted.
^ Monitoring for short- and long-term impacts be accomplished by
federal agencies and environmental contractors (the latter at the
permittee's expense). This monitoring must include studies of the
fate of solids and sludge microorganisms, both inside and outside
of the Site, in addition to a comprehensive analysis of environ-
mental effects.
© Vessels discharge the sludge into the wake so that maximum turbulent
dispersion occurs.
e Vessels discharging sludge be separated from vessels discharging ,
chemical wastes so that the two types of wastes do not mix.
® Key constituents of the sludge be routinely analyzed in barge
samples at a frequency to be determined by EPA on a case-by-case
basis, but sufficient to accurately evaluate mass loading at the
Site.
e Routine bioassays be performed on sludge samples using appropriate
sensitive marine organisms.
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Chapter 6
LIST OF PREPARERS
Preparation of this EIS was a joint effort employing many members of the
Interstate Electronics Corporation scientific and technical staff and EPA
Region II. This chapter summarizes the background and qualifications of the
primary preparers of the document .
KATHLEEN M. KING
Ms. King is the principal author of the EIS. She is a marine biologist and
Manager of the Biological Sciences Branch within the contractor's Oceanic
Engineering Division. She possesses a B.S. in Biological Sciences from the
University of California and an M.A. in Biology (with emphasis on marine
biology) from California State University, Long Beach.
Ms. King has been working in the area of ocean disposal impact assessment for
several years. Her initial work on this subject was done under a grant from
EPA to develop standard cultures of polychaetes to be used for bioassays
testing waste toxicity. She later worked under a contract from EPA Region III,
dealing with the effects of waste disposal at the Delaware Bay (DuPont) Acid
and Philadelphia Sewage Sludge Disposal Sites.
For the past two years, she has been involved in planning, organizing, and
managing the production of ocean disposal site designation EIS's being
prepared under contract to EPA Headquarters. In addition, she has
participated extensively in the planning of disposal site surveys for impact
assessment and site characterization.
Ms. King prepared Chapters 1, 2, 4, and 5 of this EIS. As the Coordinator of
the entire document, she directed writing efforts on other sections of the
EIS, edited all chapters, and maintained liaison with EPA Headquarters and
Region II.
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JOHN R. DONAT
Mr. Donat received his B.S. in Chemical Oceanography from Humboldt State
University in 1978 and is presently continuing study in preparation for an
advanced degree in chemical oceanography. He has three years experience in
instrumental and wet chemical analysis of seawater in addition to other
aspects of oceanography, including the planning of and participation in
numerous oceanographic surveys off Northern California aboard the R/V
CATALYST, the collection and processing of physical and chemical oceanographic
data, and sedimentological analyses.
Mr. Donat's work as an Associate Oceanographer at Interstate Electronics has
included extraction and assessment of oceanographic data for the evaluation of
the environmental impacts of ocean waste disposal, preparation of disposal
site characterizations, and determination of necessary parameters for impact
detection at dredged material disposal sites. He is presently responsible for
characterizing wastes dumped at various East Coast sewage sludge and
industrial chemical waste disposal sites, and co-authoring an EIS on dredged
material disposal in Hawaii.
Mr. Donat authored Appendix B and several sections in Appendix A of the
106-Mile Site EIS.
WILLIAM DUNSTAN
Dr. Dunstan is a biologist with 13 years of experience in biological
oceanography. He holds a B.S. in Engineering from Yale University, an M.S. in
Marine Biology from Florida State University, and a Ph.D. in Biology from
Florida State. For ten years he has conducted research on effects of sewage
effluent trace metals and nutrients on marine organisms.
At Interstate Electronics Corporation, Dr. Dunstan is the Deputy Program
Manager for the EPA program on ocean disposal site designation. In addition
to maintaining liaison between the Program Office in Anaheim and the Project
Office at EPA Headquarters, he maintains contact with other Federal groups and
the scientific community involved in assessments of ocean disposal impacts.
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Dr. Dunstan prepared Appendix C and conducted extensive initial editing of the
other Chapters and Appendices.
MARSHALL HOLSTROM
Mr. Holstrom received his B.A. and M.A. in Biology from Stanford University.
In addition, he has completed several years of graduate work in Marine Biology
at the University of Southern California. At Interstate Electronics
Corporation, Mr. Holstrom has participated in projects with EPA Region III,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, EPA Headquarters, and BLM. He has been
extensively involved in assessments of environmental impacts of ocean waste
disposal and is one of the principal staff EIS coordinators, with several
EIS's in preparation.
Mr. Holstrom authored sections Ln Chapters 2 and 4 of the EIS.
RANDY McGLADE
Mr. McGlade received his B.S. and M.A. in Marine Biology from California State
University, Long Beach. He has five years experience in marine environmental
surveying, taxonomic consulting, and bioassay work. He was Assistant Director
of the University of Southern California's Harbor Research Laboratory where he
designed, managed, and reported results of various studies of the effects of
industrial/municipal wastes and dredged materials on the Los Angeles Harbor
marine environment. He is presently an Associate Oceanographer at Interstate
Electronics Corporation, involved in writing Environmental Impact Statements
on several sites.
Mr. McGlade prepared Chapters 3 and 6 of this EIS, and participated in the
preparation of Appendix A.
6-3
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STEPHEN M. SULLIVAN
Mr. Sullivan, a Biological Oceanographer at Interstate Electronics, obtained
his B.S. in Oceanography from Humboldt State University in 1977 and has since
completed graduate courses at Scripps Institute of Oceanography and California
State University, Fullerton. As a participant on numerous oceanographic
cruises off the Northern California Coast, he obtained experience in
oceanographic data collection and survey design.
His work at Interstate Electronics has included descriptions of the plankton
ecology of potential sites for Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) power
plants, and assessments of the ecological impacts of impingement, entrainment,
and toxic substance release associated with plant operations. In addition, he
has participated in data collection and report-writing for the ocean disposal
EIS program.
Mr. Sullivan prepared the biology sections of Appendix A.
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Chapter 7
GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES
GLOSSARY
Abundance
Abyssal
Acute Effect
Adsorb
Aesthetics
Ambient
Amphipods
Anaerobic digestion
Anthropogenic
Anticyclonic
Anticyclonic eddies
Apex
Appropriate sensitive
benthic marine
organisms
Relative degree of plentifulness
Pertaining to the great depths of the
ocean beyond the limits of the
Continental Shelf, generally below 1,000
meters.
The death or incapacitation of an
organism caused by a substance within a
short time (normally 96 hours).
To adhere in an extremely thin layer of
molecules to the surface of solid
bod ies.
Pertaining to the natural beauty or
attractiveness of an object or location.
Pertaining to the undisturbed or
unaffected conditions of the surrounding
environment.
A large group of usually marine
crustaceans, ranging from minute,
planktonic forms to benthic, tube-
dwelling forms, which have a laterally
compressed body.
Digestion of organic matter by
bacterical action in the absence of
oxygen.
Relating to the effects or impacts of
man on nature.
Clockwise rotation around a high
pressure zone (winds) or around a cold
core (ocean currents) in the northern
hemisphere.
Mesoscale (50 to 100 km) features of
oceanic circulation in which water flows
in a circular (clockwise) pattern around
cold core waters.
See New York Bight Apex.
At least one species each representing
filter-feeding, deposit-feeding, and
burrowing species chosen from among the
most sensitive species accepted by EPA
7-1
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as being reliable test organisms to
determine the anticipated impact on the
site.
Appropriate sensitive
marine organisms
Aqueous
Assemblage
Background level
Baseline data
Baseline surveys
Benthos
Bight
Bioaccumulate
Bioassay
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD)
At least one species each representative
of phytoplankton or zooplankton,
crustacean or mollusk, and fish species
chosen from among the most sensitive
species documented in the scientific
literature or accepted by EPA as being
reliable test organisms to determine the
anticipated impact of the wastes on the
ecosystem at the disposal site.
Similar to, containing, or dissolved in
water.
A group of organisms sharing a common
habitat.
The naturally occuring level of a
substance within an environment.
Data collected prior to beginning
actions which have potential of altering
an existing environment.
Surveys conducted to collect information
prior to beginning an action which has
the potential of altering an existing
environment.
All marine organisms (plant or animal)
living on or in the bottom; also, the
floor or deepest part of the ocean.
A slight indentation in the shore line
of an open coast or of a bay, usually
crescent shaped.
The uptake and assimilation of
materials, such as heavy metals, leading
to an elevated concentration of the
substance within an organism's tissue,
blood, or body fluid.
Determination of the strength (potency)
of a substance by its effect (on growth
or survival) on an organism—plant or
animal.
The amount of oxygen required to oxidize
a substance or waste.
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Biomass
Biota
Biotic groups
BLM
Bloom
Boreal
°C
C/N
Carcinogen
CE
Cephalopoda
CFR
Chaetognaths
Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll a
Chronic effect
cm
cm/sec
The amount (weight) of living organisms
expressed in terms of an area or volume
of the habitat.
Collectively, plants and animals of a
region.
Organisms which are ecologically,
structurally, or taxonomically grouped.
Bureau of Land Management
An enormous concentration of plankton in
an area resulting from their rapid
growth and reproduction.
Pertaining to the higher northern
latitudes, as opposed to tropical.
Degrees Celsius
Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio
A substance or agent producing cancer.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Squid, octopus, or cuttlefish. Members
of the phylum Mollusca.
Code of Federal Regulations
A phylum of small, elongate, trans-
parent, wormlike invertebrates, also
known as arrow-worms, which are
important carnivores in the zooplankton
community.
A group of green plant pigments which
receive the light energy used in photo-
synthesis.
A specific green plant pigment used in
photosynthesis and used to measure
phytoplankton biomass.
A sublethal effect of a substance on an
organism which reduces the survivorship
of that organism over a long period of
time.
Centimeter(s)
Centimeters per second
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Coccolithophorid
Coelenterate
Compensation depth
Continental Margin
Continental Rise
Continental Shelf
Continental Slope
Contour line
Copepod
Coriolis effect
Crustaceans
Ctenophores
Ultra-microscopic planktonic algae, the
cells of which are surrounded by an
envelope of small calcareous discs.
A animal phylum which includes hydroids,
sea anemones, jellyfish, and corals.
The depth at which photosynthetic oxygen
production equals oxygen consumed by
plant respiration during a 24-hour
period,
The zone between the shoreline and the
deep ocean floor; generally consists of
the continental shelf, continental
slope, and the continental rise.
A transitional portion between the
Continental Slope and the ocean floor
which is less steeply sloped than the
Continental Slope.
The Continental Margin extending seaward
from the coast to a variable depth,
generally 200 meters.
The steeply descending slope lying
between the Continental Shelf and the
Continental Rise.
A chart line connecting points of equal
elevation above or below a reference
plane, such as sea level.
A large group of usually small
crustaceans; they are an important link
in the oceanic food chain.
An apparent force acting on moving
particles resulting from the earth's
rotation. In the northern hemisphere
moving particles are deflected to the
right.
Animals with jointed appendages and a
segmented external skeleton composed of
a hard shell (chitin). The group
includes barnacles, crabs, shrimps, and
lobsters.
An animal phylum superficially
resembling jellyfish, ranging from less
than 2 cm to about 1 m in length. These
7-4
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Current meter
Current shear
Decapod
Demersal
Density
Diatom
Diffusion
Dinoflagellate
Discharge plume-
Dispersion
Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved solids
planktonic organisms are commonly
referred to as comb jellies or sea
walnuts.
Any device for measuring and indicating
speed or direction (often both) of
flowing water.
The measure of the spatial rate of
change_yf_jurrent velocity with units of
cm-sec m
The largest order of crustaceans in
which the animals have five sets of
locomotory appendages, each joined to a
segment of the thorax. Includes crabs,
lobsters, and shrimp.
Living at or near the bottom of the sea.
The mass per unit volume of a substance.
A microscopic, planktonic plant with a
cell wall of silica. Abundant world
wide.
The process whereby particles in a
liquid intermingle spontaneously; net
motion is from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
Marine, planktonic organisms with
flagella, which are an important part of
marine food chains.
The region of fluid affected by a
discharge of waste which can be
distinguished from the surrounding
water.
The movement of discharged material over
large areas by the natural processes of
turbulence and currents.
The quantity of oxygen dissolved in a
unit volume of water; usually expressed
in ml/liter.
The dissipation of solid matter in
solution, such as salt dissolved in
water.
7-5
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Diversity A measure that usually takes into
account the number of species and the
relative abundance of individuals in an
area.
Dominance A species or group of species which
largely control the energy flow and
strongly effect the environment within a
community.
Dry weight The weight of a sample of organisms
after all water has been removed; a
measure of biomass.
EC^q In bioassay studies, the concentration
of a substance which causes a 50 percent
reduction in the growth rpte of the test
organisms (usually phytoplankton) during
a unit time (usually 96 hours).
Echinoderms A phylum of benthic marine animals
having calcareous plates and spines
forming a rigid articulated skeleton or
plates with spines embedded in the skin.
This group includes starfish, sea
urchins, sea lillies and sea-cucumbers.
The oceanic area within 200 nautical
miles from shore in which the adjacent
coastal state possesses exclusive rights
to the living and non-living marine
resources.
Economic resource
zone
EcoBystem
Eddy
EIS
Endemic
EPA
EPA Headquarters
EPA Region II
A functional system which includes the
organisms of a natural community or
assemblage together with their physical
environment.
A water current moving contrary to the
direction of the main current,
especially in a circular motion.
Environmental impact statement
Restricted or peculiar to a locality or
region.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Headquarters, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Region II, New York, N.Y.
7-6
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Epifauna
Epipelagic
Estuary
Euphausiids
°F
Fauna
FDA
Flocculate
Flora
FWPCA
, 3
g/cm
Gastropoda
Geostrophic current
Gulf Stream
Heavy metals or
elements
Animals which live on the surface of the
sea bottom.
Ocean zone extending from the surface to
200 meters in depth.
A semienclosed coastal body of water,
which has a free connection to the sea
and within which the sea water is
measurably diluted with fresh water.
Shrimp-like, planktonic crustaceans
which are widely distributed in oceanic
waters. These organisms, also known as
krill, may grow to 8 cm in length and
are a very important link in the oceanic
food chain.
Degrees Fahrenheit
The animal life of a particular
location, region, or period.
Food and Drug Administration
The process of aggregating a number of
small, suspended particles into small
masses.
The plant life of a particular location,
region, or period.
Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Grams per cubic centimeter
Mollusks that possess a distinct head
(generally with eyes and tentacles) and
a broad, flat foot, and which usually
have a spiral shell.
A current resulting from the balance
between gravitational forces and the
Coriolis effect.
A relatively warm, swift, northward
flowing ocean current which flows
through the Carribbean, Gulf of Mexico
and up the North American East Coast.
Elements which posses a specific gravity
of 5.0 or greater.
7-7
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High-level radioactive
waste
Histopathology
Hydrography
Ichthyoplankton
IEC
Indigenous
Infauna
In situ
Insolation
Invertebrates
ISC
Isobath
kg
kg/day
km
LC^q (Lethal
concentration 50)
Limiting permissible
concentration (LPC)
LORAN C
m
The aqueous or solid waste resulting
from the reprocessing of irradiated fuel
from nuclear power reactors.
The study of tissue changes associated
with disease.
The measurement and description of the
physical features of bodies of water.
Fish eggs and weakly motile fish larvae.
Interstate Electronics Corporation
Having originated in and being produced,
grown, or naturally occurring in a
particular region or environment.
Animals who live buried in soft
substrata.
(Latin) in the original or natural
setting.
Solar radiation received at the earth's
surface.
Animals without backbones.
Interstate Sanitation Commission
A line on a marine chart joining points
of equal depth below sea level.
Kilogram(s)
Kilograms per day
Kilometer(s)
In bioassay studies, the concentration
of a substance which causes 50 percent
mortality in the population of the test
organisms during a unit time (usually 96
hours).
A concentration of a waste substance
which after intial mixing, does not
exceed marine water quality criteria or
cause acute or chronic toxicity.
Long Range Aid to Navigation
Meter(s)
7-8
-------
3
m
m/sec
u
ug/kg
ug/1
Macrozboplankton
Marine
Mesopelagic
mg
mg/1
mi
Microorganisma
Mid-Atlantic Bight
Mixed layer
ml
ml/m^/hr
fniH
Monitoring
mpta
MPRSA
Mutagen
Cubic meters
Meters per second
Micron(s)
Micrograms per kilogram, or millionth
gram per kilogram.
Milligrams per liter, or millionth gram
per liter
Planktonic animals which can be
recognized by the unaided eye.
Pertaining to the sea.
Relating to depths of 200 to 1,000
meters below the ocean surface.
Milligram(s) , or thousandth gram
Milligrams per liter
Mile(s)
Microscopic organisms including
bacteria, protozoans, and some algae.
The continental shelf extending from
Cape Cod, MA. to Cape Hatteras, NC.
The upper layer of the ocean which is
well mixed by wind and wave activity.
Milliliter(s) , or thousandth liter
Milliliters per square meter per hour
Millimeter(s), or thousandth meter
As used here, to observe environmental
effects of disposal operations through
biological and chemical data collection
and analyses.
Miles per hour
Marine Protection, Research, and
Sanctuaries Act
A substance which increases the
frequency or extent of mutations.
7-9
-------
Myctophids
Nannoplankton
NAS
NASA
Nekton
NEPA
Neritic
Neuston
New York Bight
New York Bight Apex
NJDEP
n mi
NOAA
NOAA-MESA
A group of small mesopelagic fish which
posses light emitting organs and undergo
large-scale vertical (deep to
near-surface) migrations daily.
Minute planktonic plants and animals
which are 50 microns or less in size.
Individuals of this size will pass
through most plankton nets and are
therefore usually collected by
centrifuging water samples.
National Academy of Science
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
Free swimming animals which move
independent of water currents.
National Environmental Policy Act of
1969
Pertaining to the region of shallow
water adjoining the seacoast and
extending from low-tide mark to 200
meters depth.
A community of planktonic organisms
which are associated with the surface
film of water; mainly composed of
certain copepods and the eggs and larvae
of fish.
The continental shelf which extends from
Montauk Point, Long Island to Cape May,
New Jersey.
A portion of the New York Bight bounded
at the south by latitude 40°10' and at
the east by longitude 73°30'.
New Jersey Department of Environmental
Protection
Nautical mile(s)
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini-
stration
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini-
stration-Marine Ecosystems Analysis
7-10
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NOAA-NMFS
NSF
Nuisance species
Nutrient
OCS
ODSS
Organophosphate
Pesticides
Ortho-phosphate
Oxygen minimum layer
Parameters
Particulates
Parts per thousand
(ppt; o/oofc)
Pathogen
PCB
Pelagic
Perturbation
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini-
stration-National Marine Fisheries
Service
National Science Foundation
Organisms which have no commercial value
yet out compete or harm commercially
important species.
Any substance which promotes growth or
provides energy for biological
processes.
Outer Continental Shelf
Ocean Dumping Surveillance System
A phosphorus-containing organic
pesticide, such parathion or malathion.
One of the possible salts of ortho-
phosphoric acid; an essential nutrient
for marine plant growth.
The depth in the water column where the
lowest concentration of dissolved oxygen
naturally occurs.
Any of a set of physical properties
whose values determine the character-
istics or behavior of something; a
characteristic element.
Fine solid particles which are
individually dispersed in water.
A unit of concentration of a mixture
indicating the number of parts of a
constituent contained per thousand parts
of the'entire mixture.
Producing or capable of producing
disease.
Polychlorinated bi-phenols
Pertaining to water of the open ocean
beyond the shore and above the abyssal
zone.
A disturbance of a natural or regular
system.
7-11
-------
pH A term used to describe the hydrogen ion
activity; 0-7 is acid, 7 is neutral,
7-14 is alkaline.
Photic Zone The layer in the ocean from the surface
to the depth where light is reduced to
one percent of its surface value.
Phytoplankton Planktonic plants; the base of most
oceanic food chains.
Plankton Organisms whose movements are determined
by the currents and not by their own
locomotive abilities.
Polychaetea
PPb
ppm
ppt
Precipitate
Predator
The largest class of the phylum Annelida
(segmented worms) distinguished by
paired, lateral, fleshy appendages
provided with setae on most segments.
Parts per billion
Parts per million
Parts per thousand
A solid separating from a solution or
suspension by chemical or physical
change.
An animal which uses other animals as a
source of food.
Primary Production
The amount of organic matter synthesized
by plants from inorganic substances per
unit time per unit area or volume. The
plant's respiration may (net produc-
tivity) or may not (gross productivity)
be subtracted.
Protozoan
Microscopic, single-celled organisms
which have ve^y diverse characteristics.
Quantitative
Pertaining to the numerical measurement
of a parameter.
Recruitment
Addition to a population of organisms by
reproduction or immigration of new
individuals.
Release zone An area 100 meters on either side of the
disposal vessel extending from the first
waste release point to the end of the
release.
7-12
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Runoff
The portion of the precipitation on the
land that ultimately reaches streams or
the ocean.
Salinity
Sea state
The amount of dissolved salts in
seawater measured in parts per thousand.
The numerical or written description of
ocean roughness. Often used to include
both sea and swell.
sec
Shelf water
Second(s)
Water which originates or can be traced
to the Continental Shelf. It has
special temperature and salinity
characteristics which permit its
identification.
Shellfish Any aquatic invertebrate having a shell
or exoskeleton, especially any edible
mollusk or crustacean.
Shiprider An onboard observer assigned by the
Coast Guard to assure that ocean
disposal operations are conducted
according to the permit specifications.
Short dumping
The discharge of waste from a vessel
prior to reaching a designated disposal
site. This may occur legally under
emergency circumstances, or illegally if
done to avoid hauling to a designated
site.
Significant wave
height
Slope water
The average height of the one-third
highest waves
in a given wave group.
Water which originates from, occurs at,
or can be traced to the Continental
Slope. It h&s special temperature and
salinity characteristics which permit
identification.
Sludge A precipitated solid matter produced by
sewage and chemical waste treatment
processes.
Species A group of individuals which closely
resemble each other structurally and
physiologically and interbreed in
nature, producing fertile offspring.
7-13
-------
Specific Gravity
SPM
sq
SS
Standing Stock
Stressed
Surfactants
Surveillance
Suspended Solids
Synergism
Taxon (pi. Taxa)
TCH
Temporal distribution
Teratogen
Terrigenous sediments
The ratio of the density of a substance
relative to the density of pure water at
4°C.
Suspended particulate matter
Square
Suspended solids
The biomass or abundance of living
material per unit volume or area of
water.
A stimulus or series of stimuli which
disrupt the normal ecological
functioning of an area.
An agent which lowers surface tension,
as soap, bile and certain detergents.
Systematic observation of an area by
visual, electronic, photographic, or
other means for the purpose of ensuring
compliance with applicable laws,
regulations and permits.
Finely divided particles of a solid
temporarily suspended in a liquid, such
as soil particles in water.
The interaction between two or more
agents which produces a total effect
greater than the sum of the independent
effects.
A taxonomic group or entity sufficiently
distinct to be distinguished by name and
to be ranked in a definite category.
Total carbohydrate content
The distribution of a parameter over
time.
A chemical agent which causes
developmental malformations and
monstrosities.
Shallow marine sedimentary deposits
composed of eroded terrestrial material.
7-14
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Thermocline
TKN
TOC
Trace metal or
element
Trend Assessment
Surveys
Trophic level
Turbidity.
Turnover rate
U.S.
USCG
Water mass
Water type
Wet weight
yd3
Zooplankton
A sharp temperature gradient which
separates a warmer surface water layer
from a cooler subsurface layer and is
most pronounced during summer months.
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
Total organic carbon
An element found in the environment in
extremely
small quantities.
Surveys conducted non-seasonal over
long time periods to detect shifts in
environmental conditions within a region
A feeding level in the food chain of an
ecosystem through which the passage of
energy proceeds.
A reduction in transparency which, in
seawater, maybe caused by suspended
sediments or plankton growth.
The time necessary to replace the entire
standing stock of a population;
generation time.
United States of America
U.S. Coast Guard
A body of water usually identified by
its temperature, salinity and chemical
content and containing a mixture of
water types.
Water defined by a narrow range of
temperature and salinity.
The weight of organisms before drying
them to remove the internal water.
Cubic yard(s)
Usually small, weakly swimming animals
which are unable to resist water current
movements.
7-15
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UNITS OF MEASURE (ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS OF METRIC UNITS)
Metric
English
centimeter (cm)
meter (m)
kilometer (km)
square meter Uq n; m )
2
square kilometer ( sq km; km )
0.4 inches (in)
1.1 yards (yds)
0.6 statute miles (mi)
0.54 nautical miles (n mi)
3
1.2 • square yards (sq yd; yd )
o
0.29 square nautical miles (sq nmi; n mi )
gram (g)
kilogram (kg)
metric ton
0.035 ounces (oz)
2.2 pounds (lb)
1.1 short tons (2,000 lbs)
liter (1)
3
cubic meter (cu m; m )
0.26 gallons (gal)
3
1.3 cubic yards (cu yd; yd )
centimeters/second (cm/sec)
kilometers/hour (km/hr)
0.39 inches/second (in/sec)
0.54 knots (kt), nautical miles/hour
Celsius (°C)
9/5 °C + 32 Fahrenheit (°F)
7-16
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7-18
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7-37
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APPENDIX A
CONTENTS
ILLUSTRATIONS
Number Title Page
A-l NOAA National Environmental Satellite Service Observations
of Shelf, Slope, and Gulf Stream Waters Surrounding the
106-Mile Site in May 1974 A-8
A-2 Stylized Section from the Continental Shelf through the Dumpsite
Eddy, Showing Surface Water Categories and Deeper Water Masses . . A-10
A-3 Marsden Square 116; Subsquares 81, 82, and 91; and the
106-Mile Site (Diagonal Lines in Subsquare 82) A-15
A-4 Average Monthly Sea-Surface Temperatures for
Subsquares 81, 82, and 91 in Marsden Square 116 A-16
A-5 Temperature Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 81 A-18
A-6 Temperature Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 82 A-19
A-7 Temperature Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 91 A-20
A-8 Average Monthly Sea-Surface Salinities for
Subsquares 81, 82, and 91 in Marsden Square 116 A-21
A-9 Salinity Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 81 A-22
A-10 Salinity Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 82 A-23
A-ll Salinity Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 91 A-24
A-12 Bathymetry in the Vicinity of the 106-Mile Site A-26
A-J3 Monthly Averages of Oxygen Concentration Versus Depth
at the 106-Mile Site A-28
A-14 Station Locations of Major Phytoplankton Studies
in the Northeastern Atlantic A-46
A-15 Vertical Distribution of Chlorophyll a.. A-48
A-16A Summary of the Average Chlorophyll "a Content at Inshore
(less than 50 meters) and Offshore (greater than 1,000 meters)
Sites in the Mid-Atlantic Bight . ' A-48
A-16B Summary of Mean Daily Primary Production per Square Meter of Sea
Surface at Inshore (less than 50 meters), Intermediate
(100 to 200 meters), and Offshore (greater than 1,000 meters)
Sites in the Mid-Atlantic Bight A-49
A-17 Comparison of Gross and Net Photosynthesis Between Inshore
and Offshore Stations A-50
A-18 Station Locations of Major Zooplankton Studies in the
Northeastern Atlantic A-55
A-19 Biomass and Density of Zooplankton from Transects Across
the Northeast Atlantic A-61
A-20 Vertical Distribution of Zooplankton in Slope Water A-62
A-i
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APPENDIX A CONTENTS (continued)
TABLES
Number Title Page
A-l Air Temperature and Wind Data for the 106-Mile
Chemical Waste Disposal Site A-3
A-2 Return' Period of Maximum Sustained Winds at the 106-Mile
Chemical Waste Site A-4
A-3 Monthly Wave Height Frequency for the 106-Mile Site A-13
A-4 Return Periods for High Waves at the 106-Mile Site A-14
A-5 Average Surface Temperature Ranges and Months of Minimum
and Maximum Temperatures for Subsquares 81, 82,
and 91 in Marsden Square 116 A-16
A-6 Average Temperature Ranges Between 100 and 500 M for
Subsquares 81, 82, and 91 in Marsden Square 116 A-16
A-7 Average Surface Salinity Ranges and Month of Minimum and Maximum
Salinity for Subsquares 81, 82, and 91 in Marsden Square 116 . . . A-17
A-8 Average Concentrations of Five Trace Metals in Waters
of the Northeast Atlantic Ocean A-33
A-9 Average Concentrations (mg/1) of Nutrients at Various Depths
in the 106-Mile Site A-35
A-10 Average Concentrations (PPM, Dry Weight) of Six Trace Metals
in the Top 4 CM of Sediments A-40
A-ll Dominant Zooplankton Species in the Vicinity of the 106-Mile Site
(Number of Samplles in Which the Species Comprised
50 Percent or more of the Individuals of that
Group/Number of Stations Sampled) A-52
A-12 Dominant Neuston Species in the Vicinity of the 106-Mile Site
(Number of Samples in Which the Species Comprised 50 Percent or
More of the Individuals of that Group/Number of Stations Sampled) . A-54
A-13 Zooplankton Biomass in the Mid-Atlantic Bight A-60
A-14 Species Summary of Cetaceans A-68
A-15 Threatened and Endangered Turtles Found in the Slope Waters
of the Mid-Atlantic Bight A-70
A-16 Average Number and Weight Per Tow of Demersal
Fish Taken At Shelf Edge and Slope During Fall
and Spring Trawl Surveys, 1969 - 1974 A-72
A-ii
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Appendix A
ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
106-MILE CHEMICAL WASTES DISPOSAL SITE
METEOROLOGY
The New York Bight receives air from several regions, but air from the
tropical Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico predominates during most of the year. The
Bight often receives storms which are pushed eastward by the "prevailing
westerlies" from midwest areas where polar and tropical air masses meet.
However, due to the influence of several physical factors, the Bight possesses
a more uniform climate than continental areas in the same latitude.
The seasonal location of the Bermuda high is a primary determinant of general
weather conditions in the Bight. When the Bermuda high is centered over the
eastern seaboard, as in summer and early autumn, the Bight experiences its
longest periods of stable weather conditions. During winter, spring, and late
autumn the absence of this high pressure zone allows storms from northeastern
and southern regions to move into the Bight, causing extreme weather
conditions. However, even in the presence of the Bermuda high, tropical
storms and hurricanes move northward through the Bight during late summer and
early autumn.
Warm air from the Gulf Stream region is advected toward coastal regions
throughout the year. In the Bight, the air is quickly cooled by Shelf Water,
which results in muggy summer conditions and persistent fog during both warm
and cold months.
A-l
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AIR TEMPERATURE
Marine surface air temperatures in the area of the Bight are buffered
throughout the year by the influence of the underlying Atlantic waters.
Summer temperatures are lower and winter temperatures are higher in the Bight
than on adjacent coastal land masses.
At the 106-Mile Site, air temperature data from 1949 to 1973 (Brower, 1977)
show that the mean maximum temperature ranged betwe'en 16.2°C in February to
29.9°C in July (Table A-l). The annual mean maximum temperature was 22.6°C.
The mean minimum temperatures for the same period ranged between -4.0°C in
February to 18.6°C in August. The annual mean minimum temperature was 5.7°C.
WINDS AND STORMS
Northwesterly winds prevail over the 106-Mile Site from October to March, with
average speeds approaching 19 knots. From April to September the prevailing
winds are southwesterly and reach an average speed of 11 knots. The
percentage of winds greater than 33 knots increases seaward beyond the
frictional influence of the land throughout the year. At the dumpsite, there
is a maximum frequency greater than 5 percent from November through April,
with a peak of 8.5 percent in February; it is less than 1 percent from May
through August, with a minimum of 0.2 percent in June. These infrequent
summer wind speeds are due to disturbances by tropical cyclones and severe
thunderstorms. Return values of maximum sustained winds are presented in
Table A-2.
The storms sweeping over the New York Bight and the 106-Mile Site are of two
general classifications: extratropical cyclones, which form outside of the
tropic regions in marine or continental areas, and tropical cyclones, which
form in tropical waters such as the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.
A-2
-------
TABLE A-l. AIR TEMPERATURE AND HIND DATA FOR THE 106-MILE
CHEMICAL WASTE DISPOSAL SITE
(Adapted from Brower, 1977)
PARAMETER
JAN
FEB
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
NOVEMBER
DECEMBER
AIR TEMPERATURE
No. of observations
436
308
403
516
426
520
410
421
526
427
529
438
Maximum Temp (°C)
17.3
16.2
16.6
20.1
21.9
26.8
29.9
29.4
27.9
25.8
21.6
18.2
Minimum Temp (°C)
-3.5
-4.0
-1.6
3.3
7.2
12.2
18.2
18.6
14.7
10.1
3.7
-0.3
Mean Temp (°C)
7.0
6.4
7.5
10.5
14.1
19.6
23.5
24.0
21.6
18.3
13.5
9.2
SURFACE WINDS
No. of observations
440
309
409
514
427
521
410
423
528
430
529
444
Percent Frequency
10 Knots
23.5
22.3
25.7
34.3
50.6
54.9
54.1
51.3
46.4
39.4
28.8
26.1
Percent Frequency
34 Knots
7.9
8.5
5.0
4.3
0.9
0.2
0.5
1.2
2.0
2.9
5.9
6.5
Mean Wind Speed
(Knots) From All
Directions
18.3
18.9
18.0
14.6
12.0
11.2
10.9
11.2
12.4
14.7
16.9
17.8
Prevailing Direction
NW
NW
NW
SW
SW
SW
SW
SW
NE
NW
NW
NW
Mean Wind Speed
(knots) From
Prevailing Direction
20.9
21.7
19.2
13.0
12.5
12.2
12.6
12.4
15.7
17.1
19.5
20.1
-------
TABLE A-2. RETURN PERIOD OF MAXIMUM SUSTAINED WINDS
AT THE 106-MILE CHEMICAL WASTE SITE
(Brower, 1977)
Return Period
(Years)
Maximum Sustained
Winds (Knots)
5
72
10
79
25
90
50
99
100
111
*Period of Record: 1949-1973
Prevailing winds and weather in the area of the New York Bight are quickly
altered by invading extratropical cyclones. "Strong winds, sometimes of
hurricane force, accompany the storms and many bring heavy rain or snow"
(Brower, 1977). Exceptionally cold northwesterly winds are also character-
istic of these storms. Nearly 600 such storms were observed within the Bight
region from May 1965 to April 1974.
"Tropical cyclones are infrequent in comparison with extratropical cyclones,
but they have a record of destruction for exceeding that of any other type of
storm" (Brower, 1977). Wind speeds of tropical cyclones range from less than
34 knots to greater than 63 knots. From 1871 to 1976, 114 tropical cyclones
entered the New York Bight, although the force of several of these storms had
been reduced to the level of an extratropical storm by the time they reached
the Bight. The greatest frequency of tropical cyclones in the New York Bight
occurs during late summer and early autumn. "There has been an average of one
tropical cyclone per year within the Bight area over the past 106 years"
(Brower, 1977).
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
WATER MASSES
A water mass may be defined as a seawater parcel having unique properties
(temperature, salinity, oxygen content) or a unique relationship between these
A-4
-------
properties. Each water mass thus defined is given a name which qualitatively
describes its location or place of origin. Water masses are produced in their
source areas by either or both of two methods: (1) alteration of their
temperature and/or salinity through air-sea interchange, and (2) mixing of two
or more water types. After formation, the water masses spread at a depth
determined by their density relative to the vertical density gradient of the
surrounding water.
Since a water mass possesses unique properties, physical oceanographers have
found it possible to represent a water mass by plotting data with two of above
parameters as coordinates. In most cases, a temperature-salinity (T-S)
diagram is sufficient for the identification of a water mass. To construct
such a diagram, water samples are generally taken from several depths at an
oceanographic station, and the temperature and salinity values for each sample
are determined. These values are plotted and a smooth curve is drawn through
each point, in order of depth. The water mass may appear as the entire curve
or as an area of the T-S diagram. In cases of exceptionally homogeneous
water, a single point on the plot identifies the parcel, which is then termed
a "water type".
NOAA has characterized the physical oceanographic environment at the 106-Mile
Site as being extremely complex and variable in all but near-bottom water
(NOAA, 1977). Normally, the surface layer of the site is slope water, which
lies between fresher shelf water to the west and more saline Gulf Stream water
to the east. However, conditions often change, periodically allowing shelf
water to enter the site from the west or permitting Gulf Stream water, in the
form of southward moving Gulf Stream eddies, to be present about 20 percent of
the time. Below is a description of the water masses and water types commonly
encountered at the 106-Mile Site.
Shelf Waters
The waters lying over the Continental Shelf of the Mid-Atlantic Bight are of
three general types: Hudson River plume water, surface Shelf water, and bottom
Shelf water (Hollman, 1971; Bowman and Wunderlich, 1977). Hudson River plume
A-5
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water results from the combined discharge of the Hudson, Raritan, and various
other rivers into the northwest corner of the Bight Apex. This low-density
water floats over the Shelf waters as it moves into the Bight. During
episodes of high runoff, the plume may spread over large areas of the Bight
producing large vertical and horizontal gradients of salinity. This water
type persists throughout the year, but its extent and depth are highly
dependent on flow rates of the Hudson and Raritan Rivers (McLaughlin et al.,
1975). Generally, the plume flows southward between the New Jersey coastline
and the axis of the Hudson Shelf Valley. Bowman and Wunderlich (1976) have
found that the plume direction is sensitive to wind stress and reversals in
the residual flow. Consequently, the plume may flow eastward between the New
Jersey Coastline and the axis of the Hudson Shelf Valley, or may occasionally
split and flow both eastward and southward.
With the onset of heavy river discharge in the spring, surface salinities in
the Bight decrease, and, initially, a moderate, haline-maintained (i.e.,
maintained by salinity differences) stratification occurs, separating the
coastal waters into an upper and lower layer. These two layers are the
surface Shelf water and the bottom Shelf water. Decreasing winds and
increasing insolation solar radiation increase the strength of the stratifi-
cation and cause it to undergo a rapid transition (usually within a month)
from a haline-maintained to a thermal-maintained (i.e., maintained by
temperature differences) condition (Charnell and Hansen, 1974). This
two-layer system becomes fully developed and reaches maximum strength by
August.
Surface Shelf water is characterized by moderate salinity and high tempera-
ture. During the winter the water column is essentially vertically homogenous
over most of the Bight Shelf. With the rapid formation of the surface Shelf
water layer during the spring, the bottom waters become isolated until
sufficient mixing takes place the next winter. Bigelow (1933) found that the
"cool cell" (having temperature typically less than 10°C) of the bottom Shelf
water layer extended from south of Long Island to the opening of Chesapeake
Bay and seaward, nearly to the shelf edge. This cold water persists even
after the surface layers have reached the summer temperature maximum. Bigelow
(1933) also found that this "cool cell" was surrounded on all sides by warmer
water.
A-6
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The upper layer of this bottom Shelf water is usually found between 30 and 100
meters depth during the summer (Bowman and Wunderlich, 1977). Seaward, near
the Shelf edge, strong temperature, salinity, and density gradients occur
which limit large-scale mixing between the Shelf waters and the waters found
over the Continental Slope. The mechanism by which bottom Shelf water is
replenished is currently under study.
Slope Waters
The Slope water mass is a highly complex, dynamic body of water which
represents an area of mixing between Shelf waters, which bound it on the north
and west, and the Gulf Stream, which forms its southern boundary (Figure A-l).
These boundaries (frontal zones) are not stationary but migrate seaward and
landward.
The Gulf Stream frequently migrates in such a way that anticyclonic
(clockwise) loops of current are formed. Occasionally, these loops detach and
form separate entities known as eddies. The eddies are rings of Gulf Stream
water surrounding a core of warm Sargasso Sea Water which originates to the
east of the Gulf Stream. Large amounts of this water may be advected to
depths as great as 800 to 1000 meters (NOAA, 1977). After detachment, these
eddies may migrate into the slope water region, usually in a southwesterly
direction. The eddies may, in addition, interact with Shelf water causing
considerable disturbance in the water column within the 106-Mile Site (Figure
A-l). While there appears to be no seasonal pattern in the occurence of these
eddies, Bisagni (1976) found that, based on the trajectories of 13 eddies
between 1975 and 1976, the 106-Mile Site was wholly or partially occupied 20
percent of th§ time by these eddies. The eddies either dissipate or are
reabsorbed by the Gulf Stream, usually in the region of Cape Hatteras.
Periodically, a seaward migration of the Shelf/Slope water boundary brings
highly variable Shelf water into the upper waters of the disposal site,
thereby producing £ very complex vertical structure consisting of thin layers
of cool, low-salinity Shelf water interspersed with warm, high-salinity Slope
water.
A-7
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— 43*
Figure A-l. NOAA National Environmental Satellite Service Observations
of Shelf, Slope, and Gulf Stream Waters Surrounding the 106-Mile Site
in May 1974 (Warsh, 1975a)
Marcus (1973) found the Shelf/Slope front to be located over the200-meter
isobath during summer, and north and west of this isobath during fall. The
winter and spring positions of this front have been reported by Warsh (1975b)
as ranging from the Shelf break to 130 km south and east of the Shelf break.
The surface waters' of the Shelf are cooler than those of the Slope except
during the summer months when the well-defined thermal front disappears.
Fisher (1972) has observed Shelf water overlying Slope water as far as 100 km
A-8
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seaward of the 200-meter isobath. He and others (Boicourt, 1973; Boicourt and
Hacker, 1976) suggest that wind driven advection may be responsible for these
migrations. The onshore movement at lower depths of more saline Slope water
is frequently associated with the offshore movement of low-salinity Shelf
water.
The combined effects of mixing, boundary migration, and the usual seasonal
distribution of river runoff and rain produce a multitude of different water
types resulting in a confused, interlayered water column. Figure A-2 displays
a stylized representation of this complex arrangement'.
Like many deep water sites, the water column of the Slope water mass can be
divided into three general layers: the upper or surface layer where
variability is great, the thermocline region where temperature changes rapidly
with depth, and the deep water where seasonal variability is small.
For Slope water in general, stratification forms in the upper water column
early in May and persists until mid or late fall when cooling and storm
activity destroy it. The permanent thermocline is located at a depth of 100
to 200 meters. During the period when the surface layers are stratified, a
seasonal thermocline forme which reduces the mixed-layer depth to between the
surface and 30 to 40 meters. From fall through early spring, the water column
is isothermal to between 100 to 200 meters depth. At this time, inversions
are observed where low-salinity, cool Shelf water flowB under warmer,
high-salinity Slope water.
The upper layer of the Slope water mass is termed surface Slope water. It
extends from the sea surface to a depth of about 200 meters. Because the
t
Shelf water extends seaward to the 200-meter isobath, its vertical extent at
the Shelf/Slope interface is the same as that of the surface Slope water mass.
Consequently, the seaward boundary of the Shelf water mass borders only the
surface Slope water mass; direct mixing between Shelf water and the waters of
the permanent thermocline, which are located below the surface Slope water
mass, does not usually occur. However, mixing of waters across the Shelf
water/Slope water front may be caused by the strong circulation of eddies or
meanders from the Gulf Stream (NOAA, 1977).
A-9
-------
Figure A-2. Stylized Section from the Continental Shelf through the
Dumpsite Eddy, Showing Surface Water Categories and Deeper Hater Masses
(Goulet and Hausknecht, 1977)
A-10
-------
The spillage of cooler Shelf water into the relatively warm surface Slope
water has been documented by numerous researchers (Bowman and Weyl, 1972;
Wright, 1976b; Bigelow, 1933). Wright (1976a) suggests that significant
interchange of Shelf and Slope water may ccur via this mechanism. Beardsley
et al. (1975) report that this process of cool water spillage or "calving" may
be related to the occurrence of anticyclonic Gulf Stream eddies and their
subsequent migration along the Shelf edge. Based on an aerial survey of the
formation and subsequent behavior of an anticyclonic eddy, Saunders (1971)
found that bottom Shelf water may have been pulled off the Shelf and displaced
at least 150 km southward to the eastern edge of the eddy. The amount of
Shelf/Slope water mixing promoted by this process and the frequency of
occurrence of this type of induced mixing is unknown (Beardsley et al., 1975).
3 3
However, estimates range from 300 km /year to 8,000 km /year (Stommel, 1960;
Fisher, 1972; Beardsley et al, 1975).
CURRENT REGIMES
Surface
There are no major, well-defined circulation patterns in the surface layers of
the Slope water region (Wright, 1976a). Few long-term current records and
large natural variability limit the usefulness of any estimates of the mean
current for this region. The westward-flowing Labrador Current loses its
distinctness somewhere west of the Grand Banks. Current measurements have
been made by several researchers using neutrally buoyant floats, parachute
drogues, and moored current meters in the region of the Shelf break and Slope
south of New England (Webster, 1969; Voorhis et al., 1976; Beardsley and
Flagg, 1976). The mean currents in this area are generally on the order of 10
to 20 cm/sec westward, following the bottom contours. This direction is
similar to the direction taken by currents over the Continental Shelf.
Wright (1976a) indicates that along the northern boundary, Slope waters flow
slowly to the southwest, following the bathmetry to Cape Hatteras, where they
turn and flow seaward into the Gulf Stream. Evidence of a slow northeastward
flow along the Gulf Stream, in the southern part of the Slope water region,
A-ll
-------
was also found. Wright ( 1976a) suggests that the Gulf Stream and the Shelf
water form a cul-de-sac near Cape Hatteras, and, while some interchange of
water occurs across these boundaries, most of the water entering the Slope
water region from the east probably exists along the same path.
Beardsley et al. (1975) have studied the kinetic energy spectrum from several
sites located over the Continental Shelf and Continental Slope. They found
that the considerable variance of kinetic energy in the Slope water currents
was due to inertial periods of motion. This fraction of the variance in the
kinetic energy increased significantly as one moved onto the Shelf. From the
long term records obtained at a site 204 km northeast (39°20'N, 70°W) of the
dumpsite, Beardsley et al. (1975) found that at 100 meters depth much of the
observed variance in kinetic energy is due to motions recurring at 30-day
intervals.
The Oceanographer of the Navy (1972) reported a mean surface current speed of
about 25 cm/sec for a region near the 106-Mile Site. The direction of the
flow was either east-northeast or south-southwest. No other current estimates
for the 106-Mile Site have been reported in the literature.
WAVES
Brower (1977) has compiled wave data for the New York Bight coastal region,
the disposal site, and adjacent waters. The data are taken from the MESA New
York Bight Atlas Monograph 7, Marine Climatology (December 1976) and from
published and unpublished data for the New York and Middle Atlantic Bights.
Reported observations for the period 1949 to 1974 are discussed below.
Wave heights increase with distance from shore throughout the year and the
differences in height are smaller during summer. The average frequency of
observations reporting hazardous waves (wave heights greater than or equal to
3.5 meters) is 5 percent to 6 percent from December through March. While the
frequency of hazardous waves at two light stations near the New Jersey coast
varies from less than 0.5 percent in summer to approximately 1 percent to 2
A-12
-------
percent in winter, the frequency seaward at the dumpsite area varies from
about 1 percent in summer to more than 10 percent from November through March,
with a peak of 13 percent in January and February (Table A-3). The frequency
tends to increase northwest to southeast across the Bight throughout the year.
TABLE A-3. MONTHLY WAVE HEIGHT FREQUENCY FOR THE 106-MILE SITE (Brower, 1977)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
WAVE HT
No. Ob s
355
243
329
392
314
382
274
290
401
337
409
377
WH <1.5
m
33.5
36.2
38.8
48.7
68.2
75.9
78.6
66.3
60.0
50.2
39.8
38.5
WH < 2. 5
m
70.7
68.1
75.3
82.7
90.1
95.3
95.0
97.6
89.5
80.2
79.2
78.5
WH >3.5
m
12.7
13.1
11.0
6.6
1.9
1.0
0.9
0.7
3.5
5.3
10.1
10.3
WAVE HT
NO. OBS
Number of observations
WH <1.5
M
Percent frequency of
wave
height <1
.5 m
WH <2.5
M
Percent frequency of
wave
height < 2
5 m
WH >3.5
M
Percent frequency of
wave
height >3
.5 m
Mean return periods (recurrence intervals) for maximum significant and
extreme waves; i.e., the wave value is that height which will be equalled or
exceeded, on the average at least once during the period.
The frequency of waves less than 1.5 meters in height follows the same
pattern. Near shore, the frequency ranges from 70 percent in winter to 90
percent in summer. Offshore, at the dumpsite, the frequency of occurrence
ranges from 35 percent to 40 percent in winter to nearly 80 percent in early
summer.
Table A-4 lists the mean return periods (recurence intervals) for maximum
significant wave height and the extreme wave height in the disposal site. The
maximum significant wave height is the average height of the highest one-third
of the waves in a given wave group. Thus, Table A-4 shows that, for example,
there will be a maximum significant wave height of 69 feet within the Site
area at least once¦in every 100 years. Similarly, an extreme wave height of
124 feet will occur at the Site at least once every 100 years.
A-13
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TABLE A-4. RETURN PERIODS FOR HIGH WAVES AT THE 106-MILE SITE
(Brower, 1977)
Return Period
(Years)
Maximum Significant
Wave (Feet)
Extreme Wave
(Feet)
5
41
74
10
47
84
25
55
98
50
62
111
100
69
124
TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE
The waters in and around the 106-Mile Site are subject to the sudden changes
in temperature that may occur between Shelf and Slope water. Shelf water is
always much colder than Slope water during the winter months, but during the
warmer months of the year, peak surface temperatures of Shelf water exceed
those of Slope water. The horizontal temperature gradient between the two
water masses becomes less marked only during periods of warming and cooling.
The water masses are then best distinguished by salinity differences (Warsh,
1975b).
Warsh (1975a) summarized hydrographic data collected by the USCG and the NOAA
Marine Resources Monitoring, Assessment, and Prediction (MARMAP) program.
These data were taken during all seasons over an area encompassing the
Mid-Atlantic Bight and the Continental Slope, including the disposal site
region. Monthly summaries from Marsden Square 116, subsquares 81, 82, and 91
(Figure A-3) are discussed below. Table A-5 gives the ranges of temperatures
for each subsquare. These areas, while differing in the month of minimum
temperature, had the same month of maximum temperature. Surface temperatures
ranged between 5.1°C (February-subsquare 82) and 25.0°C (August-subsquare 82).
Figure A-4 illustrates the average monthly sea surface temperatures for each
subsquare.
A-14
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In the upper 50 meters of the water column, a seasonal thermocline develops in
late spring (May) and is usually present through mid-autumn (October).
However, remnants of the thermocline may be present as late as November. By
December, the water is essentially isothermal to a depth of 100 meters, but
temperature inversions have been observed near 30 meters. These inversions
may persist through April or May. The permanent thermocline is usually found
between 100 and 500 meters. The temperature ranges between 100 and 500 meters
for each subsquare are listed in Table A-6.
75°
m
35°
3$®
ivXyXv
i'i'iy'vi:iYi
80°
75°
70°
40°
35°N
70°W
Figure A-3. Marsden Square 116; Subsquares 81, 82, and 91;
and the 106-Mile Site (Diagonal Lines in Subsquare 82)
(Warsta, 1975b)
A-15
-------
o
o_
ill
QC
D
5
-------
From 500 to 1,000 meters the temperature range decreases to between 4°C and
6°C. Below 1,000 meters, the temperature ranges from 2°C to 4°C. Figures
A-5, A-6 and A-7 display the monthly temperature profiles for each subsquare.
SALINITY STRUCTURE
The waters in and surrounding the 106-Mile Site are subject to the sudden
changes in salinity that may occur between Shelf and Slope waters. Shelf
water is always fresher than Slope water during the winter months. During the
warmer months of the year, the two water masses are best distinguished by
temperature differences. During periods of warming and cooling, the water
masses are best distinguished by salinity differences (Warsh, 1975b).
Table A-7 gives the ranges of salinity for each subsquare. The range of
surface salinity was quite variable, and was dependent on the water mass
present (Shelf, Slope, or Gulf Stream) within each square. The values ranged
from 32.70 ppt (parts per thousand) in June (subsquare 82) to 35.75 ppt in
April (subsquare 81). Figure A-8 illustrates the average monthly sea-surface
salinities for each area.
TABLE A-7. AVERAGE SURFACE SALINITY RANGES AND MONTH OF MINIMUM
AND MAXIMUM SALINITY FOR SUBSQUARES 81, 82, AND 91 IN MARSDEN SQUARE 116
(WARSH, 1975b)
Subsquare
Month of
Minimum
Salinity
Average Surface
Salinity Range
(ppt)
Month of
Maximum
Salinity
81
January
33.05 - 35.75
April
8,2
June
32.70 - 35.45
November
91
May
32.85 - 34.90
November
Salinity generally increased to depths of 100 to 150 meters, where the maximum
salinities are encountered. Values at these depths average approximately
35.75 ppt. Salinity then decreases with depth to about 400 meters where the
minimum average salinity of 34.95 ppt exists. Below 400 meters, the water
column is nearly isohaline, and salinity values may range between 34.90 ppt
and 35.05 ppt. Figures A-9, A-10, and A-ll display the monthly salinity
profiles for each subsquare.
A-17
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TEMPERATURE (°C)
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
TEMPERATURE (°C)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
' 1 !!' ! 'A-Vaprj
JAN-| IfebI / /^-JUN_
MAr4A j h~/^~ MAY .
Figure A-5. Temperature Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 81 (Warsh, 1975b)
A-18
-------
TEMPERATURE (°C)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
TTT
TEMPERATURE (°C)
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Figure A-6. Temperature Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 82 (Warsh, 1975b)
A-19
-------
TEMPERATURE <°C)
10 12 14 16
18 20 22
TEMPERATURE (°C)
16 18 20 22 24 26
Figure A-7. Temperature Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 91 (tfarsh, 1975b)
A-20
-------
36
I 35
34
< 33
w
32
J L
J L
M
M
I
0 N
Figure A-8. Average Monthly Sea-Surface Salinities for
Subsquares 81, 82, and 91 in Marsden Square 116.
(Uarsh, 1975b)
GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The 106-Mile Site covers portions of the Continental Slope and Continental
Rise (Figure A-12). Water depths within the Site range from 1,500 meters in
the northwest corner to approximately 2,725 meters in the Southeast corner.
The Continental Slope portion of the Site experiences a 4 percent grade,
whereas the grade of the Continental Rise portion is 1 percent (Bisagni,
1977a).
Four submarine canyons incise the Continental Slope within the Site: Mey,
Hendrickson, Toms, and Toms Middle Canyon. In addition, numerous smaller
canyons exist in the Slope region west of the Site. Sixty kilometers north of
the Site is the massive Hudson Canyon system, which extends from the New York
Bight Apex to the edge of the Continental Siope.
Although the Middle Atlantic Bight is one of the best studied continental
margins in the world, few studies have concentrated on the Continental Slope
region of the Bight. Emery and Uchupi (1972) suggest that marine geologists
may have found the numerous submarine canyons which incise the Slope to be
geologically more interesting than the more featureless region of the Slope.
A-21
-------
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
g 100
fE 200
a.
HI
Q 300
400
500
SALINITY (°/00)
! 33 34 35
Tl FEB
33
TF
• • >
APR -j-*|
JAN-*) MAR-\X^\
« • • •
MAY-A \
nAA
JUN
JAN — JUN
o
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
£ 100
H 200
CL
LLI
Q 300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
2000
3000
SALINITY (°/oo)
34 35 36
aug^\IV-jul'
* ^ w • • •• • m,
W-EP
iK0CT"
JUL — DEC f
Figure A-9. Salinity Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 81 (Warsh, 1975b)
A-22
-------
SALINITY (°/oo) SALINITY (°/oo)
Figure A-10. Salinity Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 82 (Uarsh, 1975b)
A-23
-------
SALINITY (°/oo)
33 34 35
SALINITY (°/oo)
34 35 se
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
-p 100
£
200 h
% 300
400 -
500 -
600-
700-
800-
900-
1000-
/V
2000T-
3000 -
jul4A1
ssp^i
AUG
JUL - DEC
Figure A-ll. Salinity Versus Depth, Monthly Averages for
Marsden Square 116, Subsquare 91 (Warsh, 1975b)
A-24
-------
Based on interpretation of bottom photographs, seismic reflection profiling,
and data from the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Heezen (1975) concluded that the
upper Continental Rise is a tranquil area of nearly uniform sedimentation that
has existed for at least 1,000 years. The sediments are characterized as a
wedge of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediment, up to 13 km thick near the Baltimore
Canyon (Shenton, 1976).
A narrow transition zone of recent high erosion separates the upper Conti-
nental Rise from the lower Slope area. Sediment cores and seismic reflection
profiling in this area of the Continental Slope .have shown that "recent
sediments along with Pliocene or Holocene deposits were totally absent in the
area," apparently removed by current action since 1975 (Bisagni, 1977a).
Prior to that time, photographs showed that the bottom was covered by a soft
sediment of hemipelagic ooze and that significant currents were absent
(Heezen, 1975) .
The lower Slope and Rise, which lies below 3,500 meters depth, exhibits
numerous current-induced bed forms, formed by the southwestward-flowing Western
Atlantic Undercurrent (Heezen, 1975). The lower Slope and Rise may be thick
prisms of deep sea turbidites, clays, and slump deposits (Drake et al., 1968).
The recent sediments deposited on the Continental Slope and Rise are primarily
silt and clay (Milliman, 1973). Most of the sand in this region is biogenic
in origin, although patches of terrigenous sand occur in the axes of some
canyons (Hathaway, 1971; Keller et al, 1973). The sediments on the Slope tend
to be olive or brown in color (Milliman, 1973), which may be a function of the
high oxygen content of the Slope water and iron staining. Calcium carbonate
is a major component of Slope sediments, making up as much as 75 percent of
the sediments in some areas. The carbonate grains are chiefly the tests of
planktonic foraminifera, benthonic foraminifera, and echinoid plates.
Coccoliths are often common components, but are seldom abundant (Milliman,
1973).
A-25
-------
72*00'W
39'30'N
38*30'N-
38'30'N
72*50'W
72®00'W
Figure A-12. Bathymetry in the Vicinity of the 106-Mile Site
(Bisagni, 1977a)
A-26
-------
Heavy minerals in the sand-sized fraction average less than two percent in the
slope sediments. Amphiboles represent 31 to 45 percent of the heavy mineral
fraction; epidote represents less than 10 percent (Milliman, 1973). The light
minerals are mostly quartz, feldspar and glauconite. The clay minerals, which
are more prevalent on the Slope than across the Shelf, are chiefly illite and
montmorillonite (Emery and Uchupi, 1972). Milliman (1973) reports illite
fractions which range from 30 to 40 percent, chlorite fractions of 10 to 20
percent, and kaolinite fractions ranging from 20 to 30 percent.
CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY
WATER COLUMN CHEMISTRY
Dissolved Oxygen
Oxygen is a fundamental requirement for marine life. It is produced by
photosynthesis in the photic (i.e., sunlit) zone usually less than 100 meters
in depth) and is used by animals in respiration and in the decomposition of
organic matter.
The contrasting processes of photosynthesis and respiration are the main
causes of in situ changes in the concentrations of dissolved oxygen. In the
pjiotic zone, photosynthesis by phytoplankton may predominate and lead to the
liberation of oxygen. Under optimum conditions, this will lead to the
development of an "oxygen maximum layer" in the surface waters. Below this
layer, respiration and decomposition predominate and oxygen values diminish
steadily with depth. Another layer, where dissolved oxygen concentrations are
at a minimum,,will form at depths varying between 150 and 1,000 meters.
The ability of a water parcel to maintain certain minimal concentrations of
oxygen determines the survival of life in that parcel. The saturation level
(i.e., maximum solubility) of dissolved oxygen in seawater is dependent on the
temperature, salinity, and pressure. In general, the solubility of oxygen in
seawater decreases as the temperature and salinity increase. Within the
normal range of oceanic salinity (30 to 40 ppt), temperature is the dominant
factor determining oxygen solubility.
A-27
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At all depths, seawater is saturated with atmospheric gases with the exception
of those, such as oxygen, that are involved in life processes. Values of
oxygen below the saturation level suggest that bacterial activity is removing
oxygen faster than it is being replenished by mixing or other processes.
n 300
3
T
OXYGEN (ml/L)
4 5 6 7
NOV>^ V-DEC'_
SEp\!S/s
-------
Dissolved oxygen concentrations are generally higher during the winter months
because of increased mixing in the water column. Increased plankton
populations during the spring result in a high fallout of dead organisms, and,
consequently, a higher oxygen demand in deeper water, due to microbial
decomposition of organic matter. As a result, bottom waters tend to have
lower dissolved oxygen levels at this time of year.
Warsh (1975b) summarized historical data for the water column within and
adjacent to the 106-Mile Site. Within the Site, monthly average oxygen values
at the surface range from 4.9 mg/1 (approximately 104 percent saturation) in
August to 7.5 mg/1 (approximately 113 percent saturation) in April (Figure
A-13). The oxygen minimum zone is between 200 and 300 meters and the oxygen
values there range between 2.8 mg/1 (approximately 43 percent saturation in
February) and 3.5 mg/1 (approximately 57 percent saturation) in September.
The historical data for the site show the development of a subsurface oxygen
maximum zone during several months. Values varied from 7.0 mg/1 at 30 meters
during August to 8.2 mg/1 at 10 meters during February.
Monthly average oxygen values for surface waters adjacent to the 106-Mile Site
range from 4.5 mg/1 (approximately 92 percent saturation) in October to 7.5
mg/1 (approximately 106 percent saturation) in March. The oxygen minimum zone
in waters adjacent to the Site occurs between 200 and 300 meters. Oxygen
values in this zone show approximately the same range as the waters within the
106-Mile Site.
A baseline investigation of the 106-Mile Site during May, 1974 (NOAA, 1975)
found concentrations of dissolved oxygen at the surface ranging from 4.36 mg/1
to 6.94 mg/1. The highest values occurred in areas over the Continental Shelf
and generally decreased seaward. An oxygen minimum layer occurred between 200
and 400 meters. Most of the values recorded for this layer were about 3.2
mg/1. The lowest value recorded for the minimum layer was 3.12 mg/1 at
approximately 300 meters. At depths below the oxygen minimum layer, values
increased to slightly above 6 mg/1. From 1200 meters to the bottom, the
amount of dissolved oxygen fluctuated between 6.2 and 5.3 mg/1. Hausknecht
and Kester (1976a) reported oxygen values at the 106-Mile Site taken during
A-29
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July 1976. Surface values averaged 5.3 mg/1 while concentrations at the
oxygen minimum layer (300 meters) averaged approximately 3.5 mg/1.
pH and Alkalinity
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH scale
ranges from 1 to 14, with a neutral solution having a pH of 7.0. Acidic
solutions have pH values lower than 7, whereas alkaline solutions have ph
values higher than 7. Seawater pH ranges from 7.8 to 8.4 with an average of
8.2. This narrow range is maintained by buffering from chemical systems such
as the carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate complex. The buffering capacity
or alkalinity of seawater results from the presence of acid-neutralizing
2-
bicarbonate ) and carbonate (CO^ ) ions. Alkalinity is important for
fish and other aquatic life because it buffers pH changes that occur naturally
as a result of photosynthetic activity. Components of alkalinity (carbonate
and bicarbonate) have been shown to complex some toxic heavy metals and reduce
their toxicity markedly. Alkalinity is increased by the dissolution of
calcium carbonate already present in seawater and that which enters by runoff.
Decomposition of organic matter in seawater consumes oxygen and produces
carbon dioxide which, in turn, reacts with water to form carbonic acid and
lowers the pH. Thus, pH and oxygen profiles in the sea generally parallel one
another since the pH is lowered as the oxygen concentrations decrease.
Hausknecht and Kester (1976a, 1976b) reported pH values for samples taken
during the summer at the 106-Mile Site. At the surface, the average pH was
7.9, while below 300 meters, the pH decreased to an average of 7.6.
Trace Metals
¦— i l
Trace metals are present in seawater in minute quantities. The significance
of a trace metal introduced by ocean disposal depends on its relationship to
the biota; that is, the concentration of the metal, the form in which it
exists, and how these two factors affect an organism. It is common practice
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to use the term "heavy metal" and "light metal" when discussing trace metals.
Both terms originated from systems used to subclassify the known metals.
Heavy metals have densities greater than 5 grams per cubic centimeter—5 times
the density of water. Metals with densities less than 5 are properly
classified light metals.
The heavy metals (vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, copper, etc.) are
usually incorporated into proteins, some of which serve as enzymes, or
biological catalysts. The light metals (sodium, maganesium, potassium, and
calcium) readily form ions in solution, and, in this form, help maintain the
electrical neutrality of body fluids and cells. They also help maintain the
proper liquid volume of the blood and other fluid systems (Stoker and Segar,
1976).
The environmental persistence of metals is a serious problem. Unlike organic
compounds, metals, being elements, cannot be degraded biologically or
chemically in nature. The toxicity of metal-containing compounds can be
altered by chemical reaction and/or complexation with other compounds, but the
undesirable metals are still present. In some cases, such reactions result in
more toxic forms of the metal. The stability of metals also allows them to be
transported for considerable distances in the ocean.
One of the most serious results of metal persistence is the potential for
biomagnification of metal concentrations in the food chains. Biomagnification
of metals occurs as small organisms containing metals in their tissues are
eaten by larger organisms which in turn are eaten by still larger animals. As
a result of this process, the metals in the higher levels of the food chain
can reach concentrations many times higher than those found in air or water.
Thus, biomagnification can cause some fish and shellfish to become health
hazards when used as food.
Metal pollution is complicated by the fact that some toxic metals are needed
in trace amounts- by all plants and animals and a balance must be reached
between too little and too much of these essential metals. However, in
seawater, insufficient amounts of these micronutrients is not normally a
problem. In addition, certain trace metals (such as arsenic, beryllium,
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cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium,
silver, vanadium, zinc) are important because of their potential toxicity
and/or carcinogenic properties. The chemical behavior and the toxicity of a
metal in the aquatic environment depends on the form (complexed, absorbed, or
ionized) in which it exists, and whether the metal is present in solution or
>
in colloidal or particulate phases. For example, the toxicity of copper to
some marine organisms is controlled by the formation of copper organic
complexes. Mercury, which is toxic in sufficient amounts of any of its forms
(except the metallic), is especially toxic when methylated by organisms.
Hausknecht (1977) reported metal concentrations from studies conducted at the
106-Mile Site during May 1974 and February and August 1976. The average metal
concentrations for all samples taken during these cruises are presented in
Table A-8. For comparison, average metal concentrations for the New York
Bight Apex and Northwest Atlantic Ocean are also included.
The cadmium concentrations in samples taken during May 1974 and February, 1976
cruises were relatively unchanged; however, these cadmium values are an order
of magnitude greater than those found during the August 1976 cruise and the
cadmium values listed for the Shelf, Slope, and open waters of the Northwest
Atlantic. In comparison to the New York Bight Apex values for summer, the
106-Mile Site values for cadmium are as much as two orders of magnitude lower.
The copper values for the three studies at the disposal site show a small
range, and all fall within the same order of magnitude. These values are
comparable to the values found by Bewers et al. (1975) for the Northwest
Atlantic. The 106-Mile Site copper concentrations are one or two orders of
magnitude less than those given for the New York Bight Apex.
Lead concentrations at the site show a range of as much as two orders of
magnitude for the 1974 and 1976 values. As with cadmium and copper, lead
values at the Site are much lower than the concentrations found in the New
York Bight Apex. Mercury concentrations at the Site varied slightly between
1974 and 1976 and*are significantly higher than mercury values listed for the
Slope and open waters of the Northwest Atlantic. Concentrations of the metal
are, however, comparable to those reported for the Continental Shelf.
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Zinc concentrations for the 106-Mile Site showed remarkable consistency
between 1974 and 1976. The values are higher than the Northwest Atlantic
values but an order of magnitude less than zinc concentrations in the New York
Bight Apex.
TABLE A-8. AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF FIVE TRACE METALS IN WATERS
OF THE NORTHEAST ATLANTIC OCEAN
AREA
CADMIUM
(mg/1)
COPPER
(mg/1)
LEAD
(mg/1)
MERCURY
(mg/1)
ZINC
(mg/1)
106-Mile Site:
May 1974*
February 1976*
August 1976*
0.30
0.46
0.035
0.70
0.40
0.23
3.10
0.70
0.07
0.63
0.17
6.8
6.9
New York Bight Apex:
Summer**
Fallt
3.1
0.1
80.0
5.6
140.0
3.0
0.008
11.0
19.0
Open Oceantt
0.044
0.39
-
0.008
T.07
Continental Slopett
0.034
0.24
-
0.041
0.72
Continental Shelftt
0.036
0.56
-
0.122
1.11
* Hausknecht (1977)
** Klein et al. (1974)
t Alexander et al. (1974)
tt Bewers et al. (1975)
Nutrients
In addition to the conservative elements (which are not involved in biological
processes—sodium, chlorine, bromine, strontium, fluorine, etc.) and the trace
metals, nutrients in seawater are important for the growth of marine phyto-
plankton. The major nutrients are inorganic phosphate, nitrate, nitrite,
ammonium, and hydrated silicate. Nutrients are consumed by phytoplankton only
in the upper layers of the ocean where light conditions permit photosynthesis
and growth. Inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen are generated primarily by
bacterial decomposition of organic debris and soluble organics. Silicate is
generated by the dissolution of the siliceous shells of diatoms, radiolaria,
and silicoflagellates.
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Nitrogen exists in the sea in combination with other elements: in ammonia
(NH^) and as oxides of nitrogen in the nitrite ion (NOj ) and nitrate ion
(NOj ). Nitrogen enters into the composition of all living things and is one
of the nutrients used by plants to form the complex protein molecules from
which animals derive nitrogen. However, because not all forms of nitrogen can
be used by plants, the complex nitrogenous compounds found in both plants and
animals must be decomposed to chemically simpler compounds after the organism
dies. Bacteria are mainly responsible for this decomposition.
Phosphorus also has a biologically-activated cycle• involving alternation of
organic and inorganic phases. This cycle is similar to that of nitrogen,
except that only one inorganic form, phosphate, is known to occur. Phosphorus
can be found in organisms, in particulate and dissolved organic compounds, and
as phosphate. Phosphate is probably the only form utilized by plants.
The nitrogen-phosphorus ratio in the sea is approximately 15:1. Nitrogen and
phosphorus are extracted from seawater by phytoplankton but phosphorus is
regenerated more rapidly than nitrogen, causing nitrogen to be the nutrient
which limits phytoplankton growth. A phytoplankton population will cease
growing when nitrogen is depleted. However, in coastal waters, land run-off
and sewage effluents may provide excess nitrogen to the system. When this
situation occurs, phosphate becomes the growth-limiting factor. Silicate is
used by some phytoplankton and zooplankton in building shells and skeletons,
but it is never a growth-limiting nutrient in the marine environment.
The phosphate and nitrate content of Continental Shelf and Slope waters of the
Mid-Atlantic Bight varies seasonally. The Shelf and Slope waters are
vertically mixed during the winter. Consequently, phosphate and nitrate
concentrations are fairly uniform from the surface to the bottom. In spring,
mixing is reduced and the water column stratifies. Phosphate and nitrate
concentrations decrease in the surface layers due to increased biological
activity and lack of replenishment by mixing with nutrient-rich deeper layers.
By the end of summer, nitrate in the upper waters is depleted and phosphate is
present in very low concentrations. Vertical mixing of the water column
begins in the fall and nutrients are transferred from subsurface to the
surface layer (Kester and Courant, 1973).
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Peterson (1975) reported vertical profiles for phosphate, nitrate, silicate,
and ammonia compiled for samples taken during May 1974 at the 106-Mile Site
(Table A-9). Average concentrations of phosphate generally increased with
depth ranging from 0.1 mg/1 in the upper 15 meters to 0.2 mg/1 at 500 meters
depth. Average nitrate concentrations also increased with depth, ranging from
0.01 mg/1 in the upper 15 meters to 1.22 mg/1 at 500 meters depth. Silicate
was observed to follow the same profile as phosphate and nitrate. Concen-
trations ranged from 0.09 mg/1 at the surface to 1.28 mg/1 at 500 meters
depth. Ammonia concentrations were quite uniform throughout the water column,
ranging only from 0.0071 mg/1 at the surface to 0.0068 mg/1 at 500 meters
depth.
TABLE A-9. AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS (mg/1) OF NUTRIENTS AT VARIOUS DEPTHS
IN THE 106-MILE SITE (Adapted from Peterson, 1975).
Depth
(meters)
Phosphate
Nitrate
Silicate
Ammonia
Upper 15
0.10
0.01
0.09
0.0071
100
0.13
0.60
0.39
0.0066
500
0.20
1.22
1.28
0.0063
Below 1,000
0.19
1.09
1.28
0.0070
Organic Compounds
Organic compounds are numerous and diverse with varying physical, chemical,
and toxological properties. Organic compounds occur naturally in the marine
t
environment, resulting either from chemical/biological processes or oil seeps.
However, anthropogenic sources such as oil spills, urban run-off, or disposal
operations provide the major oceanic inputs of organic compounds. Field work
and laboratory experiments have demonstrated both acutely lethal and chronic
«
(sublethal) effects of organic compounds on marine organisms.
One of the largest groups of organic compounds is the hydrocarbons, or those
which contain only the elements hydrogen and carbon. Tens of thousands of
such compounds are known to exist. They are found in all 3 physical states
(gas, liquid, solid) at room temperatures. The physical state characteristic
of each is related to the molecular structure and particularly to the number
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of carbon atoms making up the molecule. In general, the tendency to exist as
a solid increases with increasing number of carbon atoms. Hydrocarbons may be
classified as "aliphatic" or "aromatic" on the basis of their molecular
structures. An aromatic hydrocarbon contains, as a structural unit, one or
more 6-membered carbon rings. Aliphatic hydrocarbons lack this characteristic
ring structure.
Crude petroleum is a complex mixture containing hundreds of different
compounds, most of which are aliphatic hydrocarbons. The estimated total
direct petroleum hydrocarbon losses to the marine environment, including ocean
disposal, is 3,245,000 tons per year (Stoker and Segar, 1976). Waste oil and
grease from industrial and automotive sources make a significant contribution
of 25 percent (825,000 tons) to the annual total. Another 24 percent (805,000
tons) results from normal oil tanker operations (ballasting, tank cleaning).
The normal operation of ships other than oil tankers amounts to 22 percent
(705,000 tons) of yearly volume. Discharges from oil refineries and
petrochemical plants account for 14 percent (450,000 tons) annually.
Accidental spills may amount to as much as 9 percent (300,000 tons) and the
routine procedures associated with offshore oil production constitute
approximately 5 percent (160,000 tons).
Oil pollution may be viewed as having short-term (acute) and long-term
(.subacute or chronic) effects. Short-term effects fall into two categories:
those caused by coating and asphyxiation, and those resulting from the
toxicity of oil. The long-term effects of oil components on living systems
are not as apparent as short-term effects. Some of the possible areas now
being studied are:
• The effects of increased concentrations of organic compounds on
certain life processes which depend on the concentrations of organic
chemical messengers in the sea.
• The possibililty of biomagnification of stable organic compounds.
• The possibility that oil may serve as a concentration medium for
fat-soluble poisons such as organohalogens.
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Smith et al. (1977) reported levels of dissolved and particulate aliphatic
hydrocarbons in the waters of the outer Mid-Atlantic Bight just northwest of
the 106-Mile Site. Mean concentrations during winter were the highest with a
value of 7.6 ug/1, while in summer, the mean hydrocarbon concentration was at
a low of 0.22 ug/1. The mean concentration reported for spring was 0.53 ug/1.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons are basically composed of carbon-hydrogen skeletons
to which chlorine atoms are attached. The polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's)
are one type of chlorinated hydrocarbon compound and have properties similar
to chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. Theoretically, 210 different PCB
compounds can be formed by varying the number and position of the chlorine
constituents. Some of the compounds are more common than others. Commerical
mixtures, which generally contain many types of PCB's are usually in the form
of liquids or resins.
The PCB's are stable at high temperatures (up to 800°C) , resistant to acids,
bases, and oxidation, and are only slightly soluble in water. These
properties make them quite adaptable to various uses, such as (1) heat
transfer fluids in industrial heat exchangers, (2) insulators in large
capacitors and transformers required by electrical power companies, (3)
hydraulic fluids, and (4) plasticizers in polymer films. They have also been
used as a constituent of brake linings, paints, gasket sealers, adhesives,
carbonless carbon paper, and fluorescent lamp ballasts.
PCB's were first identified in 1881, and have been used widely since the
1930's. The first environmental contamination was found in 1966, when PCB
residues were identified in fish. It is now apparent that PCB's are
distributed throughout the environment.
Most PCB's are introduced into the environment accidentally. Available
evidence indicates that the physiological effects of the PCB's are similar t6
those of DDT. As with DDT, long-term chronic effects appear to be more of a
problem than acute toxicity. The PCB's appear to be more effective enzyme
inhibitors than DDT. It is now believed that some eggshell thinning
previously blamed on DDT may be caused by PCB's or synergistic PCB-DDT
combinations.
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Harvey et al. (1974) measured PCB's in North Atlantic waters over the Contin-
ental Shelf and Slope off the northeastern United States. Their data show a
widespread distribution in the North Atlantic, with an average PCB concen-
tration of 35 parts per trillion in the surface waters and 10 parts per
trillion at 200 meters. A wide range of concentrations (1 to 150 parts per
trillion) was found, with extreme concentrations occurring only several
kilometers apart. No apparent relationship between PCB concentrations and the
proximity to land was observed, and it was suggested that the high variation
may be due to localized slicks, rainfall, or ship discharge.
SEDIMENT CHEMISTRY
Most of the geological data collected at the Site are derived from photographs
and a few grab samples (Pearce et al. , 1975). Sediments within the disposal
site are mainly sand and silt, with silt predominating. Heezen (1977) reported
that the Continental Slope around the 106-Mile Site may have a transitory
blanket of hemipelagic ooze which, depending on the strength of the bottom
current, is either deposited or swept away.
The grade of the Continental Slope within the Site is approximately four
percent, while the grade of the upper continental rise is less than one
percent (Bisagni, 1977). The upper Rise is an area of tranquil deposition and
the lower Rise an area of shifting deposition. Erosional areas exist between
these two provinces (Heezen, 1975).
Trace Metals
Trace metals are conservative elements in sediments. Their distribution and
t ,
accumulation in the sediments is thought to delineate the benthic area that is
affected by the disposal of waste. Recommendations have been made to use
either the individual metal concentration or the metal-to-metal concentration
ratios to trace a particular type of waste and separate it from other wasted
disposed nearby.
Pearce et al. (1975) noted that the heavy metal content of sediment samples
taken in the vicinity of the 106-Mile Site appeared elevated relative to
A-38
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uncontaminated Shelf sediments. Since the stations at which these elevated
levels occurred are located near the Hudson Canyon outfall, the investigators
suggested that materials having an elevated heavy metal content and origin-
ating inshore were tranported seaward via the Shelf valley and canyon.
Greig and Wenzloff (1977) reported that heavy metal values in deepwater
sediments collected in 1976 in and near the 106-Mile Site were generally
similar (Table A-10) to those reported for collections made in 1974 (Pearce et
al., 1975). Greig and Pearce (1975) reported concentrations for cadmium,
chromium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc in waters of the outer Mid-Atlantic
Bight. Cadmium, chromium, and copper were rarely detectable in sediments;
nickel and zinc were usually measurable, but were present in very small
amounts relative to their abundance in Bight Apex sediments. Lead varied
somewhat but was often not detectable. The values obtained were generally
less than those previously reported for sediments collected from the New York
Bight Apex (Carmody et al., 1973; Greig et al., 1974). The concentrations
found by Greig and Pearce were also somewhat less than those reported for
stations near the 106-Mile Site.
Harris et al. (1977) analyzed sediment samples from the mid-Atlantic
Continental Shelf for barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, nickel, lead,
vanadium, and zinc. They found that concentrations of iron, zinc, nickel and
lead, total organic carbon content, and the percent silt-clay generally
increased seaward across the Shelf. These increases correlated with a
decrease in the average particle size of sediment grains across the Shelf.
Metal concentrations, percent silt-clay, and total organic carbon showed a
general consistency from season to season.
Organics
Hydrocarbon concentrations in and near the 106-Mile Site were found to
be similar to those of Continental Shelf sediments from the Northern and
Southern Areas assumed to be uncontaminated (Greig and Wenzloff, 1977). The
amounts (approximately 20 ppm) of hydrocarbons in sediments from the area
near the 106-Mile Site were much less than those found in sediments at other
A-39
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disposal sites located in relatively shallow coastal water: 6,530 ppm at the
Dredged Material Site and 1,568 to 3,588 ppm at the 12-Mile Sewage Sludge
Disposal Site in the New York Bight Apex.
TABLE A-10. AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS (PPM, DRY WEIGHT) OF SIX TRACE METALS
IN THE TOP 4 CM OF SEDIMENTS
Metal
Date
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Nickel
Lead
Zinc
May 1974
Pearce et al.
(1975)
-
25.90
27.60
' 25.23
28.67
60.17
February 1976
Greig & Wenzloff
(1977)
1.38
25.82
27.02
31.46
13.20
50.46
Smith et al. (1977) reported levels of both total aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons in sediments of the mid-Atlantic Continental Shelf to be
generally less than 1 ug/g (1 ppm). These concentrations strongly correlated
with the amount of silt-clay in sediments. This suggests that, whether their
inputs are general or localized, hydrocarbons accumulate primarily in
locations where fine-grained sediments are deposited.
BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
General observations on trace metal concentrations in phytoplankton can be
made despite the lack of specific data. The uptake of contaminants and their
incorporation into the phytoplankton may have no apparent effect on the
organisms or on primary production; however, as the phytoplankton are
consumed, the contaminants are transferred to and concentrated in consumers at
the next higher trophic level (biomagnification). The end result of this
accumulation through the food chain is that higher trophic levels (and,
eventually, man) may exhibit concentrations of contaminants far in excess of
ambient levels in the environment. This is considered to be a far less
A-40
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important problem in the deep ocean than in nearshore waters since the
dispersed distribution and wide-ranging horizontal migrations of the
epipelagic nekton tend to retard the accumulation of contaminants in oceanic
nekton populations (Pequegnat and Smith, 1977). In addition, other existing
evidence suggests that, aside from mercury and cadmium, few, if any, of the
trace metals are irreversibly accumulated by nektonic species.
Windom et al. (1973a), reporting on zooplankton samples collected between Cape
Cod and Cape Hatteras, found nearshore samples to be higher in mercury than
offshore samples. Species composition of these samples varied considerably,
although a general copepod dominance was maintained. However, the high
mercury concentrations measured did not seem as strongly correlated with
species composition as with sampling distance from shore.
Windom et al. (1973b) provide information on the cadmium, copper, and zinc
content (expressed as ppm dry weight) of various organs in 35 species of fish
obtained from waters of the North Atlantic. Cadmium concentrations in liver
tissue were generally less than 1.7 ppm, although one sample contained 5 ppm
cadmium. Cadmium levels in other organs and whole fish were usually less than
1 ppm; however, some species had values as high as 2.6 ppm. Copper levels in
the fish tissues sampled were, in most cases, less than 10 ppm. Zinc levels
were reported to be in the range of 10 to 80 ppm; however, a zinc level of 397
ppm was obtained for the bay anchovy (Anchoa mitchilli).
Pearce et al. (1975) reported that the levels of silver, cadmium, and chromium
did not vary greatly in most of the finfish and invertebrates collected in and
adjacent to the 106-Mile Site. Their results did show, however, that copper,
zinc, and lead varied significantly, with lead showing the greatest variation
of all the metals. Liver tissues from the deep-sea slickhead (Alepocephalus
agassizi) had the highest levels of silver, cadmium, copper, and zinc. The
values for these metals were several orders of magnitude greater than the
metal concentrations found in windowpane flounder (Scopthalmus aquosus) taken
from the sewage sludge and dredged material disposal sites in the New York
Bight Apex. The levels of the metals (as wet weight) in liver tissues from
A-41
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the slickhead were: cadmium, 13.9 ppm; copper, 28.6 pm; silver, 1.2 ppm; and
zinc, 271.0 ppm. The copper concentrations in other species of fish, obtained
were similar to the copper levels in fish examined by Windom et al. (1973b).
Greig and Wenzloff (1977) found uniform metal concentrations in three species
of mid-water fish (Gonostoma elongatum, Hygophum hygomi, and Monaconthus
[=Stephanolepis] hispidus) during spring 1974, 1975, and 1976 studies near the
106-Mile Site; however, copper concentrations were highest in fish taken in
1976. In Apex predators, such as sharks, cadmium concentrations were
generally less than 0.12 ppm in muscle tissue, but levels in the liver were
consistently higher, ranging from 0.28 to 7.2 ppm. Lancetfish, oilfish, and
dusky shark had similar cadmium concentrations.
Copper and manganese concentrations were low in the muscle of the sharks and
other fishes examined; levels were mostly below 1.5 ppm for copper and below
0.5 ppm for manganese. With the exception of lancetfish, almost all samples
of fish muscle examined had concentrations of mercury that exceeded the 0.5
ppm action level set by the Food and Drug Administration. Mercury levels in
lancetfish were most often below 9.23 ppm. Lead concentrations were below the
detection limit (about 0.6 to 0.8 ppm) of the method employed for both the
muscle and liver of the fishes examined. Zinc concentrations in the muscles
of fishes examined were several orders of magnitude greater than the cadmium,
popper, manganese, and lead levels. Zinc levels ranged from 1.0 to 6.9 ppm
and were about the same magnitude as those found in the muscle of several
finfish obtained from the New York Bight.
In another study, Greig et al. (1976) determined the concentration of' nine
metals in foijr demersal fish species and three epipelagic fish species from
the Outer Bight in water depths of 1550 to 2750 meters. They found that
mercury concentrations in deepvater fish muscle averaged three times higher
than muscle concentrations reported by Greig et al. (1975) from offshore
Continental Shelf finfish.
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BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
WATER COLUMN
The biota at the 106-Mile Site exhibit complex diurnal, seasonal, and longer
term cycles of species composition and abundance. Several factors contribute
to these cycles: the influence of various water masses, each with its
characteristic biota; the location of the site relative to the boreal fauna
found to the north and the temperate to subtropical fauna found to the south;
and the effects of unusual or non-periodic physical conditions.
The Mid-Atlantic Bight is biologically heterogeneous; this section, however,
discusses only the environmental aspects of the region which are directly
relevant to the specific conditions at the 106-Mile Site. The water column is
described first, then the benthic biota are characterized. For the benthos,
the discussion is confined to organisms characteristic of a fine silt and clay
bottom at abyssal depths. A discussion of the biota typical of other sediment
types and other depths in the mid-Atlantic is not pertinent to this EIS.
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton are free-floating algae which produce some of the organic matter
upon which the rest of the marine food chain is built. Phytoplankton consists
of autotrophic algae that have representatives from six taxonomic groups:
Bacillariophyta, Pyrrophyta, Cyanophyta, Coccolithophorida, Chlorophyta, and
Euglenophyta. The algal cells are commonly found in combinations of single,
filamentous, or colonial units of varying size in the euphotic zone (upper 100
meters) and require sunlight, nutrients, and certain conditions of temperature
and salinity in order to synthesize organic matter. The various combinations
of these factors in the euphotic zone dictate the floral characteristics of
the waters at any particular time or place.
Very few phytoplankton investigations have been performed at the 106-Mile
Site, and the available data indicate summer as the only season in which
sampling was performed. Hulburt and Jones (1977) found the phytoplankton
A-43
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abundance at the 106-Mile Site to vary with depth from 100 to 100,000
cells/liter, with the phytoplankton much more abundant in the upper 20 meters
than at 25 to 50 meters. Abundance was greatly reduced at greater depths.
The dominant species of phytoplankton was a group of unidentifiable naked
cells. Phytoplankton populations at the 106-Mile Site were found to be
composed of a mixture of coastal and oceanic species, due to the Site's
location in a transitional area between coastal and oceanic waters and in the
path of meandering Gulf Stream eddies.
Data from Hopkins et al. (1973) indicate the summer chlorophyll values at the
106-Mile Site are highest at or near the surface, decrease to very low levels
at 100 meters, and then slowly rise to a second maximum (much smaller than the
first) at depths greater than 1,000 meters. Steele and Yentsch (1960) observed
these chlorophyll concentrations at great depths and attributed these higher
concentrations to the sinking of hytoplankton until their density equals that
of the surrounding water. The subsurface Accumulation of chlorophyll occurs
at depths where water density, which is inversely related to temperature, is
increasing most rapidly. This phenomenon becomes more apparent as the summer
progresses and is most distinct in slope waters. This midwater accumulation
of chlorophyll disappears with the destruction of stratification of the water
column in fall.
More data exist on phytoplankton in mid-Atlantic Continental Shelf and
Continental Slope waters than exist for the 106-Mile Site. The locations of
the stations from which phytoplankton samples have been taken are shown in
Figure A-14. The available information indicates that the phytoplankton
population in the mid-Atlantic is comprised mainly of diatoms during most of
the year. ljulburt (1963, 1966, 1970) described 33 abundant phytoplankton
species, of which 27 were diatoms, 4 were dinoflagellates, and 2 were
nannoflagellates. Hulburt (1963, 1966, 1970) and Hulburt and Rodman (1963)
found that Rhizosolena alata dominates during summer, and Thalassionema
nitzschioides, Skeletonema costatum, Asterionella japonica, and Chaetoceros
socialis dominate* during winter. Spring dominants include Chaetoceros spp.
and Nitzschia seriata. Thalassionema nitzschioides dominates in fall.
A-44
-------
In several studies, phytoplankton densities ranged between 10 and 10
cells/liter, generally decreasing with distance from land (Hulburt, 1963,
1966, 1970). Major pulses in phytoplankton abundance were due to four neritic
diatom species: Skeletonema costatum, Asterionella japonica, Chaetoceros
socialis, and Leptocylindrus danicus (Hulburt, 1963, 1966, 1970; Malone,
1977). Uniform distributions were exhibited by Rhizosolena alata in summer
and Thalassionema nitzschioides in winter. The flagellates Chilomonas marina,
C. gracilis, Ceratium lineatum, Katodinium rotundatum, Oxytoxum variabile, and
Prorocentrum micans were locally abundant, but rarely dominant during summer.
Maximum cell densities were observed in December, and minimum densities in
July (Malone, 1977).
Major changes in species composition occur inshore to offshore. Dominant
coastal species are primarily chain-forming centric diatoms (Smayda, 1973),
which require relatively high nutrients to sustain high bloom populations and
are subject to wide seasonal variations in abundance and diversity. Of
secondary importance in coastal waters are the dinoflagellates and other
flagellated groups. In contract, oceanic waters under some influence of the
Gulf Stream carry a phytoplankton community characterized by dominance of
coccolilthophorids, diatoms, dinoflagellates, and other mixed flagellates
(Hulburt et al., 1960; Hulburt, 1963), all of which require somewhat lower
nutrients and are subject to reduced or dampened seasonal variations in
abundance.
Riley (1939) showed the vertical distribution of phytoplankton from a Slope
water station adjacent to the Continental Shelf and a station near the outer
boundary (Figure A-15). The inner station is characteristic of Shelf waters
3
having higher surface abundance (2.5 ug chlorophyll a per m ) with the
phytoplankton disappearing at about 100 meters. The outer Slope station has
3
relatively fewer surface phytoplankton (0.9 ug chlorophyll a per m ) but cells
are found at a greater depth (200 meters). This illustrates the transition,
in terms of vertical abundance, between coastal and open ocean characteristics
within the Slope water (Chenoweth, 1976b).
A-45
-------
70* 60°
Figure A-14. Station Locations of Major Phytoplankton
Studies in the Northeastern Atlantic (Chenoweth, 1976b)
Seasonality - Mid-Atlantic Bight waters are well mixed during winter and
strongly stratified during summer. This sharp seasonal distinction is
reflected in the seasonal changes in phytoplankton abundance. During summer,
A-46
-------
diversity is high, while at other times, when growth conditions are more
favorable, diversity is lowered. In Slope waters, the seasonal cycle is
characterized by two equally intense pulses of chlorophyll—the spring and
fall blooms (Yentsch, 1977). In Shelf waters, the fall bloom is the most
intense feature of the seasonal cycle. Chlorophyll concentrations vary
regionally and seasonally from less than 0.5 mg/1 to about 6 mg/1 (Smayda,
1973). The seasonal variations in mean chlorophyll content for the inshore
(less than 50 meters) and offshore (greater than 1,000 meters) stations are
given in Figure A-16A. The annual range in primary production (Figure A-16B)
2
does not differ appreciably between inshore (0.20 to 0.85 gC/m /day) offshore
2
(0.10 to 1.10 gC/m /day) (Ryther and Yentsch, 1958). However, the total
annual production differs over the Shelf and Slope, with an annual production
2
of 160 gC/m at the inshore stations (less than 50 meters) decreasing
2
progressively seaward to 135 gC/m at the intermediate locations (100 to 200
2
meters), and 100 gC/m at the offshore stations (greater than 1,000 meters).
Ketchum et al. (1958a) indicated that the nutrient-impoverished offshore areas
(Slope water) result in physiological differences between inshore and offshore
phytoplankton. Results of their light and dark bottle experiments (Figure
A-17) show differences in the ratio of net to gross photosynthesis; high
ratios in September and February indicated healthy, growing populations while
lower ratios in December and March indicated less healthy populations.
Geographically, the low ratio of offshore populations indicated poorer
physiological conditons. Ketchum et al. (1958a) suggested that this variation
of net gross photosynthesis ratios may be the result of nutrient deficiencies,
particularly in the offshore waters.
A-47
-------
Chlorophyll £ In ng/m
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7
7 1 r
¦—
1— ! i-A
r
(/)
oJ 100
4->
-------
1 o rINSHORE
'* r <50 M
>-
c
Q
O
CO
OC
<
<_>
U>
0.5
0
] 0rINTERMEDIATE
' 100-200 M
0.5
0
1 0r OFFSHORE
>1000 M
0.5'
0
L C
H
2
SEP DEC FEB MAR APR JUL
Figure A-16B. Summary of Mean Daily Primary Production per Square Meter of
Sea Surface at Inshore (less than 50 meters), Intermediate (100 to 200
meters), and Offshore (greater than 1,000 meters)
Sites in the Mid-Atlantic Bight
(Ryther and Yentsch, 1958; Yentsch, 1963).
The critical depth, the depth to which plants can be mixed and at which the
total photosynthesis for the water column is equal to the total respiration
(of primary producers), accounts for the low total annual production in the
offshore waters. Although compensation depth and the critical depth for
Mid-Atlantic Bight waters are not precisely known, Yentsch (1977) estimates
them to be between 25 and 40 meters and at 150 meters, respectively. If this
estimate is at all accurate, it means that critical depths are not encountered
on the Shelf, since the average water depth is about 50 meters. Beginning in
fall, extensive vertical mixing occurs with the cooling of surface waters and
an increase i?n wind velocity. Since Shelf waters are mixed to the bottom
during fall and winter, the average plant cell within the water column
receives adequate light for production. In addition, the plants have access
to the nutrients dissolved within the entire water column, and, since
production is limited by light only, production can proceed at a moderately
high level.
A-49
-------
SEP
DEC
AX| I OFFSHORE (0.44)
GROSS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
OFFSHORE (0.60) |
INSHORE (0.96) v—'
NET RESPIRATION
INSHORE (0.50) T
"J OFFSHORE (0.60)
—I ""SHORE (0.90)
s\\W
~| OFFSHORE (0.35)
N1
INSHORE (0.40)
I I I I
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Figure A-17. Comparison of Gross and Net Photosynthesis Between Inshore
and Offshore Stations (Chenoweth, 1976b)
Concentrations of chlorophyll decrease during fall and winter, moving from the
shelf to the slope (Yentsch, 1977). As winter conditions intensify, Slope
chlorophyll concentrations become much lower than Shelf water concentrations.
This is due to Slope waters being deep enough for critical depth conditions to
occur, since these waters are mixed to a depth of 200 meters or more.
Therefore, although daily photosynthesis may equal or exceed that of Shelf
waters (Ryther and Yentsch, 1958), the average plant cell within the Slope
water column does not receive sufficient light to grow and production proceeds
at a low level.
In the spring, vertical mixing is impaired first in shallow waters and then
progessively seaward into deeper waters (Yentsch, 1977). Following the
development of the thermocline, there is a brief period of high production,
since the average cell above the thermocline is now exposed to much greater
radiation. Therefore, the spring bloom begins, and then is impaired, first on
the shelf and then progressively seaward to the Slope. The spring bloom.is of
greater magnitude in Slope waters than in Shelf waters, since the nutrients
A-50
-------
have not been depleted by growth during the winter. Oligotrophic conditions
prevail in Shelf and Slope waters during the summer until the cooling and
mixing processes of fall destroy the thermocline. The fall bloom occurs
during the transition from a stratified to a mixed water column.
Zooplankton
Zooplankton are the passively swimming animals of the water column and contain
members of nearly every phylum. Zooplankton represent the second trophic
level of the food chain, since the group is dominated by herbivorous Crustacea
(copepods, euphausiids, amphipods, and decapods) that graze on the phyto-
plankton. The zooplankton studies performed at the 106-Mile Site (Austin,
1975; Sherman et al., 1977; Harbison et al., 1977) have confirmed the variable
and transient nature of water masses in the area of the Site. The composition
of the zooplankton population was found to be the result of mixing of the
Shelf, Slope, and Gulf Stream water masses. Even within areas for which the
water mass could be identified, Sherman et al. (1977) could not differentiate
species characteristic for the area. However, the contour of diversity
indices was such that a differentiation could be made between Shelf and Slope
water (Chenoweth, 1976c). Copepod populations in Shelf waters were dominated
by boreal assemblages characterized by high abundance and few species, while
the Slope waters contained a mixture of subtropical and boreal assemblages
that resulted in lower abundance of individuals and a greater number of
species.
3
The seasonal zooplankton biomass range was 7.7 to 1780 ml/1000 m in summer
3
and 5.5 to 550 ml/1000 m in winter. The displacement volumes are comparable
with literatijre values for shelf and slope waters. The dominant zooplankton
species found at or near the 106-Mile Site during various seasons of the year
are listed in Table A-ll. The most common copepod genera were Centropages,
Calanus, Oithona, Euaugaptilus, Rhinea1anus, and Pleuromamma. Centropages and
Calanus predominated in the shelf and also in areas where Shelf water
intrusions occurred in the Slope water. Calanus was least abundant in the
offshore areas where water column stability suggested an oceanic origin.
Mixing of waters was demonstrated by the presence of Gulf Stream water in the
A-51
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TABLE A-ll. DOMINANT ZOOPLANKTON SPECIES IN THE VICINITY OF THE 106-MILE SITE
(NUMBER OF SAMPLES IN WHICH THE SPECIES COMPRISED 50 PERCENT
OR MORE OF THE INDIVIDUALS OF THAT GROUP/NUMBER OF STATIONS SAMPLED)
(Austin, 1975)
Summer
Winter
Spring
Winter
GROUP
SPECIES
1972
1973
1974
1976
Copepods
Centropages spp.
3/22
C. typicus
3/18
2/22
Clausocalanus arcuicornis
2/18
Oithona similis
-
1/22
0. spinirostris
4/18
Pleuromamma borealis
1/22
P. gracilis
5/18
4/16
10/22
Pseudocalanus minutus
5/16
1/22
Rhincalanus cornutus
1/22
Temora longicornis
1/18
Guphausiids
Euphausia americana
2/21
Meganyctiphanes norvegica
1/16
Nyctiphane couchii
7/21
Stylocheiron elongatum
4/21
Thysanoessa gregaria
2/21
Chaetognaths
Sagitta enflata
4/16
S. serratodentata
1/17
S. s pp.
2/16
2/21
Pteropods
Limacina helicina
1/21
3/21
L. retroversa
3/21
L. trochiformis
4/17
L. sp. (Juveniles)
1/16
4/17
center of the disposal site study area as evidenced by the abundance of Rhin-
calanus, Euaugaptilus, Oithona, and Pleuromamma. A copepod common to deep
waters of the northwestern Atlantic, Euchirella rostrata, was also found at
all the stations..
The chaetognaths were dominated by Sagitta species and were most abundant over
3
the Shelf (greater then 23/m ) and least abundant beyond the Shelf break (less
A-52
-------
then 10/m ). The euphausiids found at the 106-Mile Site were a mixture of
boreal-arctic and subtropical species which were dominated by Nyctiphanes
couchii, a cold-water form. Warm water species of the Euphausia and
Stylocheiron genera were also dominant. Pteropods were dominated by species
of Limacina.
Neuston organisms associated with the air-sea interface were sampled at the
disposal site during various seasons. The results are summarized in Table
A-12.
The zooplankton from Cape Cod to Hatteras have been studied more or less
continuously for the past 50 years and the station locations of these studies
are shown in Figure A-18. However, many of these studies do not compare well
with one another due to the use of different techniques for sampling and the
varied ways of expressing such parameters as abundance and biomass. Jeffries
and Johnson (1973) point out that most of the studies were, at best, of only a
few years' duration. Therefore, since few of them overlapped, the literature
is spotty. The data clearly show, however, that fluctuations occur not only
in the total mass of zooplankton, but also in the abundance of some of the
more common species.
The most striking feature of the Mid-Atlantic Bight zooplankton is the near-
complete dominance of calanoid copepods, both numerically and volumetrically
(Grice and Hart, 1962; Falk et al., 1974). Copepods also tend to show greater
diversity than any of the other zooplankton groups (Falk et al., 1974). Nine
species of copepods have been found to dominate the zooplankton at various
times. These include Centropages typicus, Metridia lucens, Paracalanus
parvus, Pseudocalanus minutus, Oithona similis, Acartia tonsa, Temora
longicornis, Clausocalanus furcatus, and Calanus finmarchicus. In addition,
the ctenophore Pleurobrachia pileus and the pelagic tunicate Salpa fusiformis
occasionally dominate.
A-53
-------
TABLE A-12. DOMINANT NEUSTON SPECIES IN THE VICINITY OF THE 106-MILE SITE
(NUMBER OF SAMPLES IN WHICH THE SPECIES COMPRISED 50 PERCENT OR MORE
OF THE INDIVUDALS OF THAT GROUP/NUMBER OF STATIONS SAMPLED).
(Austin, 1975)
Summer
Winter
Spring
Winter
GROUP
SPECIES
1972
1973
1974
1976
Copepods
Anomalocera patersoni
3/18
3/15
Calanus firunarchicus
3/15
Candacia armata
1/18
Centropages typicus
5/18
1/18
Clausocalanus arcuicornis
1/18
1/18
Labidocera acutifrons
4/18
Metridia lucens
1/15
Oithona similis
1/15
Pleuromamma gracilis
2/15
12/18
P. robusta
1/18
Rhincalanus nasutus
1/15
Euphausiids
Eukrohnia hamata
1/14
Euphausia brevis
1/13
E. krohnii
1/15
E. spp.
1/14
Meganyctiphanes norvegica
2/14
Nematoscelis megalops
1/15
Nyctiphanes couchii
4/12
Stylocheiron robustum
5/12
Chaetognaths
Sagitta enflata
7/13
1
S. serratodentata
1/13
1/15
2/14
S. spp.
1/13
1/15
3/14
Pteropods
Cavolina uncinata
1/12
Creseis virgula conica
1/12
Limacina helicina
2/15
L. retroversa
1/15
L. sp. (Juveniles)
1/13
4/15
A-54
-------
70° 60°
Figure A-18. Station Locations of Major Zooplankton Studies in the
Northeastern Atlantic (Chenoweth, 1976c)
A-55
-------
The following information on the less abundant members of the zooplankton was
reported by Chenoweth (1976c):
Chaetognaths were the second most abundant numerically and
volumetrically in Grice and Hart's (1962) transect study. In
the four regions studied (shelf, slope, Gulf Stream, Sargasso
Sea), chaetognath concentrations were highest in the shelf
waters and lowest in the slope waters. The twelve species of
chaetognaths found in the slope water were of three
distributional types: shelf species, Gulf Stream-Sargasso
Sea species, and endemic slope water species. Sagitta
elegans was the most abundant form in both the slope and
shelf water. The two species endemic to the slope water
(Sagitta maxima and Eukrohnia hamata) were found at a number
of stations, mostly in March. They were cold-water forms
that have been reported at a number of cold, (approximately
7.4°C) deepwater slope areas along the East Coast. Grice and
Hart (1962) concluded that these species were indicative of
cold waters in general and slope waters in particular.
The foraminifera are more closely associated with the
hydrographic characteristics of water masses than any other
zooplankton group and therefore, are often used as indicators
of water mass mixing. The faunal composition of foraminifera
included twenty recognizable species. The shelf and inner
slope was characteristically temperate throughout the year
and was dominated by species of Globigerina. Important
species were Globigerina bulloides, G. pachyderma incompta,
G. inflata, and G. aff. quinqueloba. Towards the Gulf
Stream, the temperate fauna was gradually replaced by a
diverse southern group dominated by Globigerinoides ruber, G.
triloba, Globigerine11a aequilateral is, GloborotalTa
truncatuli, and Pulleniatina obliquiloculata. The slope
water yielded the highest abundance of foraminifera all year
with the seasonal peak in the fall and the spring. The
poorest concentration was found in the summer.
Euphausiids were not an important part of the total
zooplankton collection of Grice and Hart, ranking fifth in
mean .displacement volume. However, they were a relatively
important component in the slope waters (8.3 percent of the
zooplankton volume with an average numerical abundance of
2.2/m ). A succession of species indicated seasonal changes
in the euphausiid population. September and December
collections were characterized by a large number of diverse
forms. Of the eleven species recorded, 6 were most typical
of warmer Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea water and indicated a
mixing of these warmer waters in the slope area (Euphausia
tenera, Stylocheiron abbreviatum, S. affine, S. carinatum, S.
submii, and Nematoscelis micropsXT" Two species were from
neritic wateri(Meganyctiphanes norvegica and Thysanoessa
gregaria). Three species were practically endemic to the
A-56
-------
slope area (Nematoscelis megalops, Euphausia krohnii, and
Euphausia pseudogibba). N. megalops was found to be breeding
at most of the stations during March. The March and July
samples produced few species and lower abundance. In March,
the colder waters probably prevented the 6 warm-water species
from occurring, and in July, large collections of salps may
have affected euphausiid abundance.
Grice and Hart (1962) show that although the amphipods
represented relatively low volumes and numbers, they were
second only to the copepods in the number of species present.
The number of species increased seaward with 8 recorded for
the shelf, 15 for the slope water, 26 for the Gulf Stream,
and 46 for Sargasso Sea. They were, however, relatively more
abundant in the shelf waters than offshore. The most
frequently occurring shelf and slope species were Para-
themisto gaudichaudii and £. gracilipes. These were
seasonally augmented by the occurrence of Gulf Stream and
Sargasso Sea species.
Siphonophores were found to have more representation
offshore than inshore. Of the 30 species recorded by Grice
and Hart (1962), 17 were found in slope waters and only 4 in
shelf waters. Volumetrically, they were more important in
the Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea. The molluscs are
represented pelagically by the pteropods and heteropods.
Grice and Hart (1962) reported 10 heteropod and 19 pteropod
species from their transect, with very few found in the
neritic environment. Of the cephalopoda, squid larvae were a
widely-distributed group of the oceanic component. However,
their abundance never exceeded 6.2 per 1000 m .
Early investigators found that certain species of zooplankton were indicative
of the continental region from which the samples were collected (Bigelow and
Sears, 1939; Clarke, 1940). Grant (1977), utilizing cluster analysis,
examined these "indicator" species and found that 3 distinct communities are
present throughout much of the year: a coastal community, a central Shelf
community, andt a Slope boundary (oceanic) community. Grant found that the
coastal community is identified in all seasons except spring by the great
abundance of the copepod, Acartia tonsa. During spring, the coastal community
is characterized by the simultaneous occurrence of Centropages hamatus and '
Tortanus discaudatus. Typical inhabitants of the central Shelf community
include Centropag'es typicus , Calanus finmarchicus , Sagitta elegans, S.
tasmanica, Nannocalanus minor, and Parathemisto gaudichaudii. C. typicus is
the dominant organism, and, along with C. finmarchicus and S. elegans, is an
A-57
-------
indicator of this central Shelf community. A distinct faunal boundry exists
at the Shelf break (200-meter contour), with the organisms occurring offshore
of this boundary being oceanic in nature. Useful indicators of this offshore
water type include Metridia lucens, Pleuromamma gracilis, Euphausia krohnii,
Meganyctiphanes norvegica, and Sagitta hexaptera. M. lucens has an extended
distribution over the Shelf during winter and spring, as does M. norvegica in
spring (Grant 1977); however, other oceanic species are seldom found more than
16 to 24 km inside the 200-meter contour (Sear6 and Clarke, 1940). Occasion-
ally, Shelf waters become temporarily "overridden", with an oceanic species
(i.e., Salpa fusiformis) which reproduces rapidly, but this is due to local
propagation and is not an indication of an unusually large mixture of Slope
water with Shelf water, since other oceanic species occur only as traces
(Sears and Clarke, 1940).
Although information is lacking, a preliminary description of the zooplankton
seasonal cycle can be given. Grice and Hart (1962) noted that maximum dis-
3
placement volume occurred in July (0.76 ml per m ) and a minimum displacement
3
in December (0.04 ml per m ), a twenty-fold difference. Clarke (1940)
reported a ten-fold seasonal difference; however, Grice and Hart (1962)
considered their December values low because of a missing station and felt
3
that it should be closer to 10 mi per m , which would be comparable to
Clarke's value. The Shelf water exhibited a much greater seasonal fluctuation
(20- to 40-fold) while the Sargasso Sea volumes showed little seasonal
variation. Likewise, the numerical abundance of zooplankton varied seasonally
in the Slope water but with lesser magnitude, than neritic areas. Maximum
3
average values (571. per m ) occurred in September and minimum values (36 per
3 3
m ) in July. The March average (504 per m ) was similar to that of the shelf
3
waters (585 peT m ).
The available biomass data for the Mid-Atlantic Bight is summarized in Table
A-13. Grice and Hart (1962) determined that the mean zooplankton standing
crop in the Shelf waters was about three times greater than in the Slope
waters, and in the Slope water, it was three to four times greater than that
of Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea areas. If salps were included in the
measurements, the Slope zooplankton were four times less abundant than those
A-58
-------
of the Shelf and nine to ten times more abundant than the zooplankton of the
oceanic areas. This compares with Clarke's (1940) estimates (salps included)
of the Slope water zooplankton: four times less abundant than the Shelf
zooplankton and four times more than oceanic areas. Examination of the
numerical abundance as well as the displacement volumes of each taxonomic
group indicates that this difference between Shelf and Slope waters is not due
to the disappearance or decline of any one group of organisms but apparently
to the general reduction of zooplankton in Slope waters (Grice and Hart,
1962) .
Several authors have noted that the most productive area for zooplankton seems
to be near the edge of the Continental Shelf. Grice and Hart's (1962) data
show the most consistent peaks of either biomass or numbers to be at the outer
Shelf or inner Slope stations (Figure A-19). During March, quantities for the
inner Slope exceeded (in biomass and abundance) that of any other area. Riley
et al. (1949) also noted from their summary of existing data that the water at
the edge of the shelf was unusually rich in zooplankton.
The published biomass and abundance relationships from coastal to oceanic
areas apply only to the surface zone since most surveys had a maximum sampling
depth of less than 275 meters. Examination of the vertical distribution and
diurnal migration of zooplankton in the Slope waters indicates that a
significant number of organisms reside below the surface zone (Leavitt, 1935,
1938; Waterman et al. , 1939). Leavitt's data (Figure A-20) show a series of
peaks down to 2,000 meters—the largest occurring at 600 to 800 meters. He
determined that between 40 and 9(0 percent of the animals were in depths less
i
than 800 meters; however, only one-half to one-fifth of the total volume
occurred abovp 200 meters. Waterman et al. (1939) determined that the
malacostracan crustacea of the Slope water migrated 200 to 600 meters
vertically in response to light stimulus. This implies that there is a large
number of zooplankton unacounted for by the surface surveys. Leavitt (1938)
concluded that the deep water zooplankton maximum was not due to the
occurrence of a veil-developed bathypelagic fauna, but was comprised of
species such as Calanus finmarchicus and Metridia longa that are abundant in
boreal surface waters. He suggested that the deepest maximum resulted from
the intrusion of water masses that originated in shallow waters of higher
latitudes.
A-59
-------
TABLE A-13. ZOOPLANKTON BIOMASS IN THE MID-ATLANTIC BIGHT
Region
Displ. Vol.
ml/1000m3
Wet vt.
, 3
mg/m
Net Mesh
mm
Depth Range
m
Reference
Western North Atlantic
Coastal
8100
0.158
0-25
Riley (1939)
Slope Water
(spring)
4300
0.158
0-50
Riley (1939)
Slope Water
(sumner)
430-1600
0.158
0-400
Riley & Gorgy (1948)
Coastal
(yearly mean)
540
10 strands/cm
0-85
Clarke (1940)
Offshore
(yearly mean)
400
10 strands/cm
0-85
Clarke (1940)
Cape Cod-Chesapeake
Bay
Coastal
(summer)
(winter)
700-800
400
Variable
Variable
Bigelow & Sears (1939)
Bigelow & Sears (1939)
Continental Slope
38°-41° N (fall)
328
0.170
0-200
Yashnov (1961)
New York-Bermuda
or less
Coastal Water
(yearly mean6)
1070
0.230
0-200
Grice & Hart (1962)
Slope Water
(yearly mean)
270
0.230
0-200
Grice 6 Hart (1962)
A-60
-------
0 i
tc
E
• 0
B
TO
1
• 0
5
90
X
40
i
90
5
to
'0 •
0 .
9 ' c ' r
SMFlf
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LONGITUDE
Figure A-19. Biomass and Density of Zooplankton
from Transects Across the Northeast Atlantic
(Grice and Hart, 1962)
A-61
-------
Figure A-20. Vertical Distribution of Zooplankton in Slope Water
(Leavitt, 1938)
The neuston (organisms associated with the air-sea interface) of the mid-
Atlantic compose a unique faunal assemblage quite different from subsurface
populations. The neuston is dominated during the day by the early life stages
of fish, which are joined at night by the zoea and megalopae stages of decapod
Crustacea, primarily Cancer sp., that vertically migrate into the neuston
(Grant, 1977). The euneuston (organisms that spend their entire life cycle in
the surface layer) is usually less abundant than the "facultative" neuston
(organisms that spend only part of their life cycle in the surface layer),
The euneuston is dominated by pontellid copepods and the isopod Idotea
metallica.
A-62
-------
Nekton
Nekton are marine organisms such as fish, cephalopods, and marine mammals that
have sufficient swimming abilities to maintain their position and move against
local currents. Nekton can be subdivided into 3 groups: micronekton,
demersal nekton, and pelagic nekton. Micronekton consist of weakly-swimming
nekton, such as mesopelagic fish and squid, that are commonly collected in an
Isaac-Kidd Midwater Trawl. Demersal nekton are the extremely motile members
of the nekton that are associated with the bottom, while pelagic nekton
inhabit the overlying waters. Since nekton schools are highly mobile, migrate
over long distances, and have unknown depth ranges, information on these
organisms is limited and qualitative.
Investigations of midwater nekton at the 106-Mile Site by Krueger et al.
(1975, 1977) have shown the community to be dominated by micronekton,
gonostomatid, and myctophid fishes. During the day, most fishes are found at
considerable depths (greater than 200 meters), while at night, large numbers
of the population migrate to the upper layers of the water column. During the
day, between 50 percent and 80 percent of the catch in the upper 800 meters
was composed of Cyclothone species (family Gonostomatidae), while lanternfish
(family Myctophidae) made up 14 percent to 35 percent. Cyclothone species
remain at depths greater than 200 meters both day and night, while lanternfish
migrate upward at night, at which time they account for 95 percent of the
catch in the upper 200 meters. Above 800 meters at night, the proportion of
the population made up of Cyclothone species decreases with a concomitant
increase in the lanternfish portion, probably as a result of lanternfish
migrating from below 800 meters and becoming more catchable at night. An
estimated 20 percent of the population of lanternfish migrate from below 400
meters during the day to the upper 200 meters at night; one-third to
two-thirds of these reach the upper 100 meters (Krueger et al., 1977).
Most of the Cycl.othone catch at the 106-Mile Site was attributable to C.
microdon and C. braueri, the first and third most abundant species for all
areas and seasons. C. microdon is most abundant below 500 meters, while C.
braueri predominates above 600 meters. Both species appear to occur generally
A-63
-------
shallower in winter than in summer. Of the fifty species of lanternfish
captured, only four were abundant. Krueger et al. (1977) reported Cerato-
scopelus maderensis as the second most abundant species overall, but only by
virtue of a single extremely large sample. Otherwise, this species was only
moderately abundant during winter, and rare or absent during summer. Hygophum
hygomi and Lobianchia dofleini were moderately abundant during summer but were
virtually absent during winter. Adult Benthosema glaciale were abundant
during winter, but during summer, the species was only moderately abundant and
composed primarily of juveniles. Cyclothone and. lanternfish contributed
between 25 percent and 70 percent of the total biomass in the upper 800 meters
depending upon area and diel period. Therefore, small numbers of larger
species contribute greatly to the total fish biomass. Krueger et al., (1977)
found that the larger fish inhabit depths greater than 300 meters and
speculated that these fish concentrate toxic materials as a result of feeding
on smaller fishes and larger zooplankton. Only five species, Benthosema
glaciale, Lepidophanes guentheri, Cyclothone pallida, C. braueri, and C.
microdon were taken in all areas and seasons.
Krueger et al. (1977) concluded that the 106-Mile Site, both in summer and
winter, was characterized by a Slope water fish fauna, upon which a Northern
Sargasso Sea fauna, presumably tranepor ed to the disposal site by warm-core
eddies, was superimposed. The Sargasso Sea species that were present in
summer were less abundant in winter, suggesting that their presence and
abundance are dependent upon eddy size, age, and/or core temperature.
The most common pelagic nekton in the 106-Mile Site include the tunas, bluefin
(Thunnus thynnus), yellowfin (T. albacores), big eye (T. obesus), and albacore
(T. alalungj) as well as the swordfish (Xiphias gladius) , lancetfish
(Alepisaurus spp.), blue shark (Prionace glauca), mako shark (Isurus
oxyrinchus), and dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus). All of these species
are seasonal migrants north of Cape Hatteras and feed on a variety of prey
organisms (Casey and Hoenig, 1977). Approximately 50 percent and 30 percent
of the tuna's diet consist of fish and cephalopods, respectively. Crustaceans
and miscellaneous organisms comprise the remainder of their diet. Swordfish
feed on surface fish, such as menhaden, mackerel, and herring, as well as a
A-64
-------
variety of deepwater fish and cephalopods. Lancet fish feed on small fish and
zooplankton. The blue and mako sharks feed mostly on small fish and
cephalopods, while other sharks feed mainly on teleosts.
A considerable amount of information is available for nekton in the Mid-
Atlantic Bight. The dominant micronekton groups are the (1) mesopelagic fish:
myctophids, gonostomatids, sternoptychids; (2) crustaceans: penaeid and
caridean shrimps, euphausiids, mysids; (3) cephalopods; and (4) coelenterates:
medusae and siphonophores. These organisms form one of the major links in the'
pelagic food chain, since they provide forage for the animals of higher
trophic levels. The mesopelagic fish occur in large schools that are
continually changing depths. Characteristically, these fish are in the
surface layers at night and at great depths (1,200 meters) during the day.
The general faunal composition of mesopelagic fishes in the Western North
Atlantic consist of a few abundant and many rare species (Backus, 1970).
Dominant, in terms of numbers of species and individuals, are the fishes from
the families Myctophidae and Gonostomatidae.
The long-finned squid (Loligo pealei) and the short-finned squid (Illex
illecebrosus) are two of the most abundant cephalopod species found in the
MidAtlantic Bight. The former belongs to the family Loliginidae, which are
primarily continental shelf species, while the latter is a member of the
family, Ommastrephidae, which are oceanic squids. The long-finned squid
migrates into shallow water in April to spawn. In October and November, as
temperatures decrease in inshore areas, the long-finned squid moves offshore
to the edge of the Continental Shelf. The short-finned squid spends January
through April in rather dense aggregations along the outer Continental Shelf
and Slope where the water temperatures are relatively warm. In the spring
(April to May), when Shelf waters begin warming, short-finned squid migrate
shoreward. During the summer, fall, and early winter, they are widespread
throughout the entire Mid-Atlantic Continental Shelf. In November and
December, they begin moving to deeper, warmer, offshore waters. Short-finned
squid range throughout the water column to depths of at least 700 meters.
A-65
-------
The pelagic nekton include the large, oceanic fishes which are representatives
of the family Scombridae (mackerels and tunas), Xiphiidae (swordfish), and
Istiophoridae (marlins and sailfishes). The bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus,
and the white marlin, Tetrapterus albidus, are the dominant species in the
Slope waters of the Mid-Atlantic Bight (Chenoweth et al., 1976). Other common
species include the swordfish, Xiphias gladius, albacore, Thynnus alalunga,
and the skipjack tuna, Euthynnus pelamis.
The bluefin tuna is a highly migratory species that utilizes the waters of the
New York Bight during critical periods of its life cycle. Giant bluefin (over
125 kg) annually pass northward through the Straits of Florida in May and June
during or just after spawning. They follow the Gulf Stream northward and
usually appear in the Mid-Atlantic Bight in June and July. Medium sizes (35
to 125 kg), which are believed to have spawned in the Mid-Atlantic Bight,
normally move inshore in June. All sizes have historically left these inshore
feeding areas with the coming of autumn storms. In winter, the species has
generally been taken only by long-line fisheries over wide areas of the North
Atlantic.
The movement of the white marlin follows a pattern similar to that of tunas,
in that they move up the Florida current and Gulf Stream and into the
mid-Atlantic Shelf and Slope waters in the summer, then return to the Lesser
Antilles through the open ocean in the fall. The greatest summer abundance is
off the New Jersey to Maryland Coast to about 1800 meters (Chenoweth et al.,
1976). These fish enter the area from the south about June and July,
concentrate in the area during August, and then move directly offshore in
September and October, The concentration of white marlin in summer is
probably related to feeding, since spawning occurs in the Caribbean.
Swordfish range along the Shelf and Slope waters of the middle Atlantic coast
during the summer months. In winter, the fish are confined to the waters of
the Gulf Stream where surface temperatures exceed 15°C. In warmer months,
they range over a much wider area as a result of following the northern
movement of the 15°C isotherm. There is a relationship between temperature
and several components of the swordfish population. Females and larger, older
A-66
-------
individuals seem better able to tolerate cooler waters than males or small
individuals. Swordfish populations at the edge of the Continental Shelf are,
therefore, likely to consist primarily of large females.
The cetaceans (whales and dolphins) are wide-ranging marine mammals which
utilize the slope waters of the Mid-Atlantic Bight. There is, however, very
little data on what species are found in the slope water and the role this
region plays in their life history. The species of cetaceans found in the
mid-Atlantic, along with their range, distribution and estimated abundance are
summarized in Table A-14. From the data available on cetaceans in offshore
waters, it appears that the Slope waters serve as a migratory route between
northern summering grounds and southern wintering grounds (Chenoweth et al.,
1976). The proximity of rich feeding grounds along a north-south migration
route would make the Slope waters an extremely attractive region to the
cetaceans. The 200-meter isobath appears to be the inshore boundary for the
distribution of some of the larger species.
Five species of sea turtles are known to be associated with coastal and Slope
waters in the Mid-Atlantic Bight (Table A-15). Three of the species
(hawksbill, leatherback, and Atlantic ridley) are endangered, and the
remaining two (green and loggerhead) are expected to be classified as
endangered soon. Leatherbacks (Dermo chelvy coriacea), loggerheads (Caretta
caretta), ridleys (Lepidochelys kempi), and green turtles (Chelonia mydas) are
regular migrants in East Coast waters, usually most numerous from July through
October, at which time, the turtles follow their primary food (jellyfish)
inshore. The exact migration route used by these organisms in not known.
The main comp6nents of the demersal nekton are flatfish (flounders, halibut,
plaice, and sole), cartilaginous fishes (skates, rays, and torpedoes), and
"roundfish" (cod, haddock, hake, and cusk). The diet of these groups consists
mainly of bottom-dwelling animals such as crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms,
and worms, although a number of the "roundfish" are predaceous on other fish
and shrimp. Spawning activity generally occurs near the bottom, but in some
cases the eggs, and in many instances the larvae, are pelagic.
A-67
-------
TARTJt A-14. SPECIES SUMMARY OF CETACEANS (From Chenoweth et al^ LSI6)
Family
Conmon
Name(s)
Species Name
Western Atlantic
Ranae and
flistribution
Habi tat
Estimated
Abundance in
Western North
Atlantic
Balaenidae*
Right
whale
Eubalaena
alacialis
New Enqland to Gulf
of St. Lawrence;
Possibly found as
far south as Flori-
da
Pelapic and
coastal; not
normally in-
shore
200-1000
£
Balaenopteridae
Blue
Balaenoptera
Gulf of St. Lawrence
Pelagic,
Generally not
whale
musculus
to Davis Strait:
deep ocean;
common; some
routinely sighted
on banks fringing
outer Gulf of Maine;
Population much
reduced from origi-
nal number of about
1,100 in western N.
Atlantic
however oc-
casional ly
approaches
land in deep
water regions,
e.g. the
Laurentian
Channel of the
St. Lawrence
River
sightings ex-
pected in off-
shore regions;
no estimates.
Balaenopteridae*
Se1
Balaenoptera
New England to
Pelagic,
1 ,570 off Nova
whale
borea1i s
Arctic Ocean
does not
Scotia
usually
approach
coast
Balaenopteridae
Finback
Balaenoptera
Population centered
Pelagic
7,200
whale
physalus
between 41°21'N and
but enter
57°00'N and from
coast to 2000 m con-
tour
bays and
inshore
waters in
late sum-
mer
Balaenopteridae
f'inke
Balaenoptera
Chesapeake Bay to
Pelaoic, but
No estimates
whale
acutorostra-
Baffin Island in
may stay
ta
suroier, eastern Gulf
of Mexico, north-
east Florida and
Bahamas in winter
nearer to
shore than
other rorquals
(except hump-
back)
Balaenopteridae*
Humpback
Meaaptera
Coimion near land
Approaches
800 - 1,500
whale
novaeanaliae
but can be founct
land more
in deep ocean
closely and
coimonly than
other large
whales; also
found in deep
ocean
Delphinidae
Killer
Orcinus
Tropics to Green-
Mainly pela-
No estimates ap-
whale
orca
land, Spitzbergen
Baffin Bay
gic and
oceanic, how-
ever they do
conmon ly
approach
coast
parently not seen
as commonly as in
more northerly
areas
A-68
-------
TABLE A-14. (continued)
Fami ly
Common
Name
Species Name
Western Atlantic
Range and
Distribution
Habitat
Estimated
Abundance in
Western North
Atlantic
Delphinidae
Delphinidae
Delphinidae
Delphinidae
Physeteridae
Physeteridae
Ziphiidae
Ziphiidae
Ziphiidae
Saddleback
dolphin
Atlantic
Pilot
whale
Bottle-
nosed
dolphin
Grampus;
Grey
grampus,
Risso's
dolphin
Sperm
whale
Pygmy
sperm
whale
Bottle-
nosed
whale
True1s
beaked
whale
Dense-
beaked
whale
Delphinis
del phis
Globicephala
melaena
Tursiops
truncatus
Grampus
nriseus
Ph.yseter
catadon
Konia
breviceps
Hyperoodon
ampullatus
Hesoplodon
mirus
Hesoplodon
densirostris
Caribbean Sea to
Newfoundland; very
wide ranging; may be
most widespread and
abundant delphinid
in world
New York to Green-
land; Especially
common in Newfound-
land
Argentina to Green-
land, but most
comon from Florida,
West Indies, &
Caribbean to New
England
Ranges south from
Massachusetts
Equator to 50°N
(females & juve-
niles) or Davis
Strait (males).
Tropics to Nova
Scotia
Rhode Island to
Davis Strait
Northern Florida to
Nova Scotia
Tropics to Nova
Scotia
Seldom found
inside 100 m
contour, but
doe.s frequent
seamounts.
esearpments,
and other off
shore features
Pelagic
(winter) &
coastal
(sunnier)
Usually
close to
shore &
near
islands;
enters bays
lagoons,
rivers
Coastal
waters; ha-
bitat poor-
ly known
Pelagic,
deep
ocean
Pelagic in
warm ocean
waters
Pelagic;
cold tem-
perate and
subarcti c
waters
Nothing
is known
Probably
pelagic in
tropical and
warm waters
Poorly known; pro-
bably more common
than available re-
cordi indicate1,:
may be more
coitmon in Mass-
achusetts Bay
no estimates
No estimates;
Most cormion
whale seen in
Cape Cod Bay;
Schools of up
to 300 on
Georges Bank
Rare, especially
in inshore re-
gions; no esti-
mates
Uncommon, but
possibly not rare;
no estimates
Estimated 22,000
inhabit North
Atlantic Ocean
Very rare; only
one record
Poorly known; be-
tween 260-700
taken annually in
North Atlantic
Ocean, 1968-70
Extremely rare;
poorly known
Extremely rare:
stray visitor
~ Endangered Species
A-69
-------
TABLE A-15. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED TURTLES FOUND IN THE SLOPE HATERS
OF THE MID-ATLANTIC BIGHT (Chenoweth et al., 1976)
Corranon Name
Species Name
Geoqraphic-Bathymetric Ranae
Habitat
Reason for Decline
+Hawksbi11
turtle
Eretmochelys
imbri cata
tropica! waters, rare ,-n New
Engl ana waters, nests cn
Carribean shores and along
Atlantic coast to Brazil on
undisturbed beaches.
deep ocean
heavily exploited
for shell
~Leatherback
turtle
Dermochelvv
coriacea
New England waters summer-
autumn. Closely associated
with slope waters during
migration
highly
pelagic,
feeds on
pelaai c
jel lyfish
some slaughter by
fishermen, eggs
collection on
breeding grounds
~loggerhead
turtle
Caretta
caretta
New England waters summer-
autumn. Migrate Atlantic
coast to/from Sargasso
Sea
frequently
signtea in
coastal waters,
more littoral
than leather-
back or hawks-
bill
predation by
racoons and
people, egg
destruction of
breeding beaches
due to coastal
deve!ODment
*Grecn
turtle
Chelonia
my das
occasionally seen in New
England waters in suirener.
Tropical oceans. Rare
north of Cape Cod.
deep slope
waters between
Gulf Stream
and littoral
feeding grounds
reduction of
breeding grounds
and commercial
exploitation
+Atlantic
rldley
Lepldochelys
kempi
New England waters during
summer months, breeds on
more tropical beaches
more littoral
than leather-
back or hawks-
bill
eggs plundered on
breeding beaches
^proposed threatened status +endangfred species
-------
Markle and Musick (1974) found 29 species and 17 families of benthic fishes in
the Slope waters of the region between Nantucket and Cape Hatteras. They also
reported the dominant demersal fish in the Mid-Atlantic Bight to be the
synaphobranchid eel (Synaphobranchus kaupi), the macrourids (Mezumia spp.),
the long-finned hake (Phycis chesteri), and the flatfish (Glyptocephalus
cynoglossus). Schroeder (1955) found that numbers and weights of fish caught
increased between 400 and 1,000 meters. Slope levels below 1,000 meters were
regions of reduced abundance, biomass, and diversity, with the 1,000 meter
isobath being the point at which a significant change occurs. The most
significant species of demersal fish found in Slope waters, along with their
average abundance, are listed in Table A-16. Generally, the deeper water
forms, such as the macrourids (grenadiers), offshore hakes, batfish, and
stomiatoids are found in low quantities scattered throughout the area. These
species are probably never as abundant as the shallower water forms that are
found in the upper Slope levels.
The Mid-Atlantic Continental Shelf contains very few permanent residents. It
is composed primarily of continuously shifting populations that move north,
many into the Gulf of Maine, during the warm months, and revtreat south during
the cold months (Larsen and Chenoweth, 1976). During the spring, along the
Shelf edge and upper Slope, the weight and numbers of fishes are far greater
than they are in the fall. This is particularly true of highly migratory
forms such as silver hake (Merluccius bilinearis), spiny dogfish (Squalus
acanthias), and red hake (Urophycis tenuis). The overall average of numbers
of fish caught and their weight in the spring were 684 and 819 kg, respect-
ively, as opposed to 374 and 140 kg in the fall.
BENTHOS
The benthos of the 106-Mile Site lies at abyssal depths on the lower
mid-Atlantic Continental Slope and Continental Rise. Research on the faunal
assemblages of the Continental)Slope was begun only recently, and has centered
around the contributions of comparitively few people. This accounts for the
sparse amount of data concerning Continental Slope benthic populations,
particularly at the 106-Mile Site. There is substantial evidence, however,
A-71
-------
TABLE A-16. AVERAGE NUMBER AND WEIGHT PER TOW OF DEMERSAL FISH TAKEN
AT SHELF EDGE AND SLOPE DURING FALL AND SPRING TRAWL SURVEYS, 1969 - 1974
(Larsen and Chenoweth, 1976)
¦r
N5
Shelf Break
Slope
Fall
Spring
Fall
Spring
Common Name
Species Name
Av. No.
Av . Wt. (kg)
Av. No.
Av. Wt. (kg)
Av. No.
Av. Wt. (kg)
Av. No.
Av. Wt. (kg)
Silver Hake
Merluccius bilinearis
12.75
3
30.33
25
8.11
5
75.89
66
Offshore Hake
M. albidus
0.09
1
0.06
1
2.97
3
5.60
8
Red Hake
Urophycis chuss
1.73
2
7.20
9
0.98
1
36.45
32
White Hake
U. tenuis
0.18
1
0.40
1
0.65
2
2.33
16
Spiny Dogfish
Squaluo acanthias
0.85
1
69.00
350
0.04
1
79.50
468
Mackerel
Scomber scombrus
0.62
1
98.98
158
0.07
1
4.84
8
Butterfish
Poronotus triacanthus
262.62
67
129.87
57
14.03
3
57.46
18
American Goosefish
Lophiufi americanus
1.70
3
0.55
12
2.14
14
1.99
44
Witch Flounder
Clyptocephalue cynoglossus
0.06
1
0.14
1
0.44
1
3.08
3
Black Bellied Redfish
Hclicolenus dactylopterus
2.45
1
0.80
1
13.01
3
13.42
3
Northern Sea Robin
Prionotus carolinus
Striped Sea Robin
P. evolans
0.33
1
169.01
67
0.60
1
1.78
1
Armored Sea Robin
Peristedion miniatua
Batfioh
Otocephalus vespertilio
Pearl aides
Maurolicus spp.
186.69
1
2.62
1
24.37
1
7.38
1
Greeneye
Chloropthalmus agaasizii
-------
that the major components of faunal assemblages at various Slope depths do not
change significantly throughout the Mid-Atlantic and neighboring areas (Larsen
and Chenoweth, 1976; Rowe et al., 1977; Pearce et al., 1977a). It is
possible, then, to use faunal data from adjacent areas in order to enhance the
data and interpretations associated with the disposal site fauna.
Variation in sediment type is generally recognized as the primary factor
influencing benthic faunal distributions on the mid-Atlantic Shelf. This
factor, however, is of doubtful importance in influencing benthic faunal
distributions in the 106-Mile Site Slope area, due. to only slight sediment
variations within similar areas (Rowe and Menzies, 1969). Temperature can be
discounted as being an important factor as no seasonal changes or variations
with depth occur below 1,000 meters (Larsen and Chenoweth, 1976; Rowe and
Menzies, 1969). It has not been determined to what extent species interaction
within the Site determines the faunal composition and zonation, but
competitive exclusion may be a critical factor (Sanders and Hessler, 1969).
Deep sea nutrition is probably the most important factor influencing benthic
faunal distributions in the Site vicinity. Larsen and Chenoweth (1976)
believe that the lower levels of available organic carbon at greater depths
are a key factor determining faunal biomass and density in the deep benthos.
The importance of competitive exclusion, mentioned above, relates directly to
the abundance and distribution of nutrients.
The food materials utilized by the benthic fauna of the 106-Mile Site and the
associated food sources and transport mechanisms are incompletely known.
Several dominant species of fish in the Site are known to feed strictly on the
epibenthic and infaunal invertebrates, while other fish feed primarily on
pelagic items'(Cohen and Pawson, 1977; Musick et al. , 1975). Most of these
pelagic items were diurnal migrants which correlated with the views of Sanders
and Hessler (1969) regarding the importance of these migrants in efficient
transport of food from the euphotic zone to deeper layers. The majority of
fish at the Site are probably generalized feeders, since this is character-
istic of the fish of deeper depths (Haedrich et al., 1975) and many gener-
alized feeding fish have been found at the Site (Musick et al., 1975).
A-73
-------
The dominant epibenthic and infaunal invertebrates of the Site are deposit
feeders whose abundance and distribution would depend upon the availability of
detrital food items (Jones and Haedrich, 1977; Pearce, 1974). It is generally
recognized that the food supply of the benthos originates from shallower
areas, particularly the euphotic zone (Sanders and Hessler, 1969), but the
primary mechanism by which the food is transported to the deeper layers is
uncertain. The most important mechanism transporting detritus to the benthos
of the site is probably the passive sinking of potential food items.
Turbidity currents may also play some part but their role has been discounted
(Sanders and Hessler, 1969).
Many authors have recognized distinct quantitative and qualitative zones of
distribution for the benthic fauna of Continental Slope areas of the
Mid-Atlantic. The number and demarcation of zones may vary between authors
but they all center their zones on an axis horizontal or vertical to the
Slope. Cohen and Pawson (1977) mention a horizontal distribution pattern of
benthic fish and invertebrates in the Site. They observed great variance in
the abundance of the four most commonly seen epibenthic invertebrates from one
site area to the next but were hesitant to label this distribution as patchy.
Vertical distributions are more commonly recognized in the Site, the general
trend being one of decreasing numbers of taxa and individuals with increasing
depth (Cohen and Pawson, 1977; Pearce et al., 1977; Musick et al., 1975).
This trend is typical for Slope and deep sea areas (Haedrick et al., 1975;
Rowe and Menzies, 1969; MacDonald, 1975). Musick et al. (1975) recognize the
shelf-slope break above the Site as an area of increased diversity, species
richness and biomass of benthic fish populations. This pattern remained
% ....
stable down to the 2,200-meter depth of the site, where it rapidly declined.
Haedrich et al. (1975) also recognized these two zones in an area northeast of
the Site.
Surveys of the benthos in the Site have found no species of present commercial
importance and only a few of potential importance. The shellfish commonly
harvested on the adjacent shelf, including the surf clam, sea scallop, and
southern quahog, do not extend their range onto the Continental Slope. The
A-74
-------
lobster, presently fished in canyon and shelf areas above the Site, is not
found in the site (Pratt, 1973). The red crab, Geryon quinquidens, is a
potential commercial species of the mid-Atlantic but is found only in Slope
areas shallower then the Site (Musick et al., 1975; Pratt, 1973).
No demersal fishes of commercial importance are presently being harvested from
the Site vicinity and only a few potential species have been found there. Two
dominant Site species, Coryphaenoides cupestris and Alepocephalus agassizii,
have been experimentally harvested by the Russian and British fishing
industries from areas outside the Site. The Site also serves as a nursing
ground for Glyptocephalus cynoglossus, the adults of which support a fishery
elsewhere (Musick et al., 1975).
Epibenthos
Musick et al. (1975) reported 48 species of demersal fishes from 12 trawl
stations in and around the 106-Mile Site. They described the diversity of the
fish community as being higher than that of estuarine and Shelf communities.
The dominant species of fishes was different at each deeper station within the
site: Synaphobranchus kaupi at shallower depths; Nezumia bairdii and Antimora
rostrata at mid-depths; predominantly Coryphaenoides armatus at the deepest
stations. At increasing depths, the smaller species decreased in number while
the larger species increased in number. This resulted in the steady level of
biomass observed throughout the Site, as mentioned above, but with an
increasingly smaller number of fish making up the biomass at each depth.
Cohen and Pawson (1977) observed 55 species of fishes during 9 dives in the
deep sea research vessel (DSRV) ALVIN. They described the overall distribu-
tion as patchy and noted that most of the species were rarely encountered.
The six most common fishes included two of the dominant species in the above
study: the eel, Synaphobranchus kaupi, and the morid, Antimora rostrata. The
other four species were the rattails, Nematonurus armatus and Lionurus
carapinus, the halosaur, Halosauropsis macrochir, and the lizard fish,
Bathysaurus ferox. Densities of fishes in two depth zones were estimated by
counting fish along six transects. There was a relative abundance of fish,
A-75
-------
showing patchy distribution, from 1720 to 1819 meters. The range of densities
2
for this depth zone was 5.7 to 32.8 fishes per 1000 m . The density from 2417
2
to 2545 meters was lower, ranging from 1.83 fishes per 1000 m , and the fishes
were distributed more evenly. The dominant species listed above are common
dominants of the Mid-Atlantic Bight (Larsen and Chenoweth, 1976).
The epibenthic invertebrates of the 106-Mile Site have been described in two
studies by Cohen and Pawson (1977) and Rowe et al. (1977), both of which are
based on visual and photographic observations from the DSRV ALVIN. These
studies were limited by the observers' abilities in detecting in situ
epibenthic invertebrates from the vantage point of the ALVIN'S viewports and
in photographs. Animals which avoid submersibles will be consistently missed
by both methods. This is assumably what caused the "selectivity" of the
former study; Cohen and Pawson do not indicate if other detectable inverte-
brates were selectively omitted from the report. Although it is unknown how
many species may be missing, the authors' results most likely include all the
dominant species and major contributors to the total biomass of epibenthic
invertebrates in the site.
According to Cohen and Pawson (1977), the four most abundant invertebrates, in
2
decreasing order and their peak densities per 1000 m were, Ophiomusium
(brittle star), 2445; Cerianthus sp. (tube anemone), 813; Echinus affinus (sea
urchin) 259; and Euphronides (holothurian), 101. Rowe et al. (1977) reported
identical results for numerical dominance with the exception of the
substitution of Phormosoma placenta (sea urchin) for Euphronides. The average
2 2
number of species was 2.36 per m within a range of 0.25 to 5.15 per m . In
studies of similar areas to the north of the Site (Jones and Haedrich, 1977;
Haedrich et al., 1975), Ophiomusium was consistently found to be the most
numerically abundant species, with Echinus affinus as a major contributor.
Also, the major contributor to the biomass in each study was always one of the
numerically dominant species common to each site.
A-76
-------
It may be concluded, therefore, that there is little difference between the
major epibenthic invertebrate faunal components of the site and those of other
mid-Atlantic Continental Slope areas of similar depth (Jones and Haedrich,
1977; Haedrich et al., 1975). In general, echinoderms are always the most
important faunal component of these areas.
Infauna
The infaunal assemblage of the 106-Mile Site is typical for the mid-Atlantic
Slope (Pearce et al., 1977a). Diversity and density decrease with increasing
depth, and polychaetes are the dominant species, followed by bivalves,
nematodes, and peracarida. Pearce et al. (1977a) reported a range of
densities for 22 stations in the site vicinity of 0 to 119 organisms per 0.1
2 2
m . The number of taxa ranged from 0 to 34 per 0.1 m . The peak valves for
these ranges are higher than in a previous study by the author (Pearce, 1974).
A-77
-------
APPENDIX B
CONTENTS
ILLUSTRATIONS
Number Title Page
B-l Historical and Projected Dumping Activity at 106-Mile Site .... B-2
TABLES
B-l Dumping Volumes at the 106-Mile Site from 1973 to 1978 B-3
B-2 Projected Volumes, 1979-1980, at the 106-Mile Site B-5
B-3 Annual Estimated Mass Loading for Suspended Solids,
Petroleum Hydrocarbons, and Oil and Grease at the
106-Mile Site, 1973-1978 B-7
B-4 Concentrations of Suspended Solids, Petroleum Hydrocarbons,
and Oil and Grease in Industrial Waste Dumped
at the 106-Mile Site B-8
B-5 Suspended Solids, Petroleum Hydrocarbons, and Oil and
Grease Released at the 106-Mile Site, 1973-1978 B-9
B-6 Estimated Annual Industrial Trace Metal Mass Loading B-10
B-7 Average Metal Concentrations for Wastes at 106-Mile Site B-ll
B-8 pH, Specific Gravity, and Percent Solids in Industrial
Waste Dumped at the 106-Mile Site B-12
B-9 Characteristics of Typical Sewage Sludge
Digester Cleanout Residue B-12
B-10 Non-Persistent Organphosphorus Insecticides Released by
American Cyanamid, 1973-1978, at the 106-Mile Site B-20
B-i
-------
Appendix B
CONTAMINANT INPUTS TO THE
106-MILE CHEMICAL WASTE SITE
HISTORICAL USAGE (1973-1978)
The 106-Mile Chemical Waste Disposal Site was proposed for use in 1965 by the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as an alternative to the inland discharge of
industrial chemical wastes that might contaminate potable water supplies.
However, some chemical wastes were disposed at the Site during 1961, 1962, and
1963. From 1961 to 1978, approximately 5.1 million metric tons of chemical
wastes, 102 metric tons of sewage sludge, and 287,000 metric tons of sewage
sludge digester cleanout residue were dumped at this site.
When ocean waste disposal came under EPA regulation in 1973, there were 66
permittees at the Site. Since 1973, the number of permittees has steadily
declined until, as of mid-February 1979, only four permittees remained:
American Cyanamid (Linden, N.J.), E.I. duPont de Nemours and Co., Inc. Edge
Moor Plant (Edge Moor, Del.) and Grasselli Plant (Linden, N.J.), and Merck &
Co. (Rahway, N.J.). Despite the decline in the number of permittees, the
volume of waste increased 134 percent from 341,000 metric tons in 1973 to
79.7,000 metric tons in 1978. The increase in volume was primarily the result
of the relocation of industrial waste generators from the New York Bight
S'ewage "Sludgei Site' in 1974, DuPont-Grasselli from the New York Bight Acid
Wastes Site in 1974, and DuPont-Edge Moor from the Delaware Bay Acid Waste
"Site in 1977. This latter DuPont plant alone discharged 380,000 metric tons
or 50 percent of total waste released in 1977, as compared to the previous
year's total volume of 375,000 metric tons for all permittees. In addition,
the., City of Camden, New .Jersey, was relocated by court action to the Site in
B-l
-------
the same year. However, Camden contributed only six percent of the annual
total or 48,000 metric tons. In 1978, the volume of dumped waste totalled
797,000 metric tons representing a four percent decrease from the high volume
in 1977. Overall, approximately 75 percent of the waste discharged from 1973
to 1978 was from three industrial sources: American Cyanamid, DuPont-Edge
Moor, and DuPont-Grasselli.
Figure B-l illustrates the dumping trends at the 106-Hile Site from 1973 to
1978. The actual dumping volumes and percent contribution of each permittee
appear in Table B-l.
B-2
-------
TABLE B-l. DUMPING VOLUMES AT THE 106-MILE SITE FROM 1973 TO 1978*
(THOUSANDS OF METRIC TONS)
Permittee
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
Totals
American Cyanamid Co.
118 (35)
137 (31)
116 (26)
119 (32)
130 (17)
111 (14)
731
(22)
Camden, N.J.
—
—
—
~
48 (6)
54 (7)
102
(3)
Chevron Oil Co.
25 (7)
26 (6)
22 (5)
~
~
—
73
(2)
DuPon't-Edge Moor
—
—
—
—
380 (50)
372 (47)
752
(23)
DuPont-Grasselli
116 (34)
155 (35)
264 (59)
164 (44)
107 (14)
172 (22)
978
(30)
Hes8 Oil Co.
7 (2)
—
—
—
—
--
7
(0.2)
**
Mixed Industries
34 (10)
35 (8)
78 (17)
67 (18)
85 (11)
72 (9)
371
(11)
Mixed Municipalities^
41 (12)
93 (21)
96 (22)
25 (7)
16 (2)
16 (2)
287
(9)
Totals
341
446
576
375
766
797
3,301
* Permittee's percentage of annual
** Crompton and Knowles, Merck and
t Permittees using New York Bight
total appears in parentheses.
Co., and Reheis Chemical Co.
Sewage Sludge Site (sewage sludge digester cleanout
residue).
-------
Over the years, DuPont-Grasselli has been the largest contributor of waste to
the Site, releasing 978,000 metric tons or approximately 30 percent of the
total volume for 1973 to 1978. The volumes ranged from 107,000 metric tons in
1977 to 264,000 metric tons in 1975, averaging 163,000 metric tons annually.
DuPont-Grasselli disposes of its waste seven to nine times per month.
DuPont-Edge Moor, the second major waste contributor, moved its dumping
operation from the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Disposal Site to the 106-Mile Site
in March 1977. Although DuPont-Edge Moor has been dumping at the site Eor
only 2 years, they have released approximately 752,000 metric tons or 23
percent of the total volume of waste dumped between 1973 and 1978. DuPont-Edge
Moor barges its waste to the Site an average of seven times per month.
From 1973 to 1978, American Cyanamid disposed of approximately 731,000 metric
tons of chemical waste, averaging 122,000 metric tons per year. American
Cyanamid's volume constituted approximately 22 percent of the waste which was
dumped at the Site during that period. The volumes ranged from 111,000 metric
tons in 1978 to 137,000 metric tons in 1974. American Cyanamid has its waste
barged out to the Site an average of seven times per month.
The mixed waste of a number of industries has been barged to the Site. In
1973, 61 industrial permittees (besides the three already discussed) were
dumping at the Site, but now only Merck and Co remains. From 1973 to 1978,
approximately 371,000 metric tons of mixed industrial wastes were dumped,
comprising 11 percent of the total volume released during that period. The
mixed input ranged from 34,000 metric tons in 1973 to 85,000 metric tons in
1977, averaging 62,000 metric tons per year. Depending on the barge used and
the volume of waste, Merck's waste is dumped once or twice per month.
In addition to industrial waste, sewage sludge has been dumped at the Site.
The City of Camden relocated its municipal sewage sludge disposal operation to
the Site in 1977. Camden discharged 102,000 metric tons or seven percent of
the waste dumped during 1977 and 1978. Camden's waste volume represented
three percent of the total waste dumped at the Site from 1973 to 1978. Camden
ceased ocean dumping on June 15, 1978;
B-4
-------
Sewage sludge digester cleanout residue from many New York/New Jersey area
municipal wastewater treatment plants was also released at the Site from 1973
to 1978. Approximately 287,000 metric tons were dumped, comprising nine
percent of the total dumped during this period.
PROJECTED INPUTS
Table B-2 summarizes the projected dumping volumes and scheduled phaseout
dates for the current permittees at the 106-Mile Site.
TABLE B-2. PROJECTED VOLUMES, 1979-1980, AT THE 106-MILE SITE
(Thousands of Metric Tons)
Permittee
Scheduled Phaseout Date
Year
1979
1980
1981
American Cyanamid
April 1981
123
123
30
DuPont-Edge Moor
May 1980
299
136
0
DuPont-Grasselli
—
295
295
295
Merck
April 1981
36
36
10
Yearly Totals
753
590
335
DuPont-Grasselli has investigated several land-based alternatives, two in
detail: biological treatment and incineration. These alternatives do not
comply with state and/or Federal environmental regulations and, therefore,
have been rejected in favor of ocean disposal. Although the waste has been
demonstrated to meet EPA's marine environmental impact criteria, both EPA and
the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) have recommended
further detailed investigations of alternatives by DuPont. DuPont-Grasselli
has projected that its annual waste volumes will not exceed 295,000 metric
B-5
-------
tons. DuPont-Grasselli's current permit expires January 14, 1981. It will be
eligible for renewal at that time, assuming that DuPont continues to
demonstrate compliance with EPA's need and environmental impact criteria.
DuPont-Edge Moor is currently complying with an EPA-imposed schedule to cease
ocean dumping by May 1980 in favor of other alternatives. The iron chloride
in the waste will be converted to ferric chloride and marketed as a water
treatment chemical. In addition, the company is constructing facilities which
will allow DuPont to recycle hydrochloric acid, a major component of the
waste. The concept has been tested in the laboratory and at a pilot plant and
is expected to be fully operational in 1980 (Kane, 1977).
American Cyanamid will continue to ocean dump according to its compliance
schedule until April 1981, when the land-based alternative is operational.
The land-based alternative waste disposal method selected by Cyanamid
basically consists of on-site carbon treatment and off-site thermal oxidation
of the balance of the wastes. Whether or not these alternative treatment
technologies can meet environmental regulations has not been determined at
present.
Merck has determined that two feasible modifications of present ocean disposal
methods can be implemented: (1) on-site pre-treatment of existing wastes
followed by discharge to a municipal treatment plant, and (2) manufacturing
process changes that would produce wastes which could be discharged directly
to a municipal treatment plant. Merck is complying with an EPA-imposed
schedule to cease dumping by April 1981.
WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
The characteristics of wastes dumped at the Site since 1973 are summarized in
Tables B-3 through B-9. The future waste characteristics of the four
remaining permittees are expected to follow historical trends. Merck waste,
previously undifferentiated from the mixed industrial waste analyses., is
characterized separately as data permit.
B-6
-------
TABLE B-3. ANNUAL ESTIMATED MASS LOADING FOR SUSPENDED SOLIDS, PETROLEUM
HYDROCARBONS, AND OIL AND GREASE AT THE 106-MILE SITE, 1973-1978
(Metric Tons)
'—Year
Constituent
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
Suspended Solids
1,182
397
2,340
10,372
2,467
4,2.98
Petroleum Hydrocarbons
5
27
642
29
202
47
Oil and Grease
217
210
141
174
745
115
DUPOlfr-GRASSELLI
The principal process generating the DuPont-Grasselli waste is the production
of DMHA (N,0-dimethylhydroxylamine) and Anisole. The Grasselli plant is
authorized to dispose of approximately 295,000 metric tons annually (Table
B-2) . Disposal is accomplished by subsurface release of the waste at a rate
not exceeding 196,820 liters (52,000 gallons) per nautical mile. This rate
permits complete offloading of an average barge load of 1.5 million liters in
approximately 70 minutes (assuming a barge speed of 6 knots), over a linear
distance of approximately 7.4 nautical miles.
The major trace metals present in Grasselli waste, ranked in decreasing order
%
of input volume are: copper, lead, nickel, zinc, chromium, and mercury.
In addition to the broad categories or organic materials identified in Tables
B-3 and B-4, the organic phase of the Grasselli waste is composed of sodium
methyl sulfate (up to 50 percent of the organic phase), methanol (20 percent)
and N,O-dimethylhydroxylamine (DMHA) plus other amines (1 percent). The
remainder is in the form of phenols, Anisole, and other compounds.
B-7
-------
TABLE B-4. CONCENTRATIONS OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS, PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS, AND
OIL AND GREASE IN INDUSTRIAL WASTE DUMPED AT THE 106-MILE SITE
(mg/1)
Permittee
Suspended Solids
Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Oi1 and
Grease
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
American Cyanamid
312
2-2,375
314
5-5,270
872
10-6,214
Dupont-Edge Moor
2,192
60-21,000
<0.3
—
4
1-24 _
DuPont-Grasselli
760
5-15,090
16
1-108
17
1-108
Mixed Industries
81,000
12-771,000
1,361
1-57,600
1,088
6-4,850
DMHA has been monitored in the Grasselli waste since 1975. The concentrations
have ranged from 20 mg/1 t 364 mg/1, averaging approximately 115 mg/1. Annual
inputs average 17,320 kg annually, ranging from 10,170 kg in 1978 to 27,800 kg
in 1977. Since the first report of volumes of the compound in 1975,
DuPont-Grasselli has released 69,266 kg of DMHA at the 106-Mile Site.
Monitoring of Anisole also began in 1975 and the concentrations in the
Grasselli waste have ranged from 1 mg/1 to 14 mg/1, averaging approximately 5
mg/1. Annual volumes have ranged from 619 kg in 1978 to 1656 kg in 1975. The
average annual input is 918 kg. Since 1975, the Grasselli plant has released
3,052 kg of Arfisole at the 106-Mile Site. DuPont-Grasselli is the only known
source of Anisole at this site.
Phenols have been monitored in the Grasselli waste since 1973 and the
concentrations have shown a range from 0.2 mg/1 to 3,550 mg/1, averaging 209
mg/1. Yearly inputs have ranged from 245 kg in 1978 to 204,010 kg in 1975.
The average annual input of phenols by Grasselli is 45,182 kg. Since 1973,
DuPont-Grasselli has disposed of 225,572 kg of phenols at the 106-Mile Site.
B-8
-------
TABLE B-5. SUSPENDED SOLIDS, PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS, AND
OIL AND GREASE RELEASED AT THE 106-MILE SITE, 1973-1978
(Metric Tons)
Total Suspended Solids
Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Oil and Grease
Permittee and Year
Amount
Permittee1s
Amount
Permittee1s
Amount
Permittee's
Dumped
Percent of
Dumped
Percent of
Dumped
Percent of
Annual Total
Annual Total
Annual Total
Dumped
Dumped
Dumped
American Cyanamid
1978
97
2
34
73
75
65
1977
39
1
100
. 49
223
30
1976
27
1
15
51
74
43
1975
19
1
55
—
17
12
1974
60
15
18
—
97
46
1973
19
2
NR
—
NR
—
DuPont-Edge Moor
1978
1,100
25
0.1
<1
1.6
:
1977
68
3
0.1
1
0.9
l
DuPont-Grasselli
1978
53
1
0.6
1
2
2
1977
19
1
1
1
3
1
1976
45
1
2
6
2
1
1975
607
26
NR
—
6
4
1974
97
24
NR
—
2
1
1973
49
4
NR
—
NR
—
*
Mixed Industries
1978
3,048
72
12
26
36
31
1977
527
21
9
4
13
2
1976
10,300
99
12
43
98
56
1975
168
72
551
—
97
69
1974
226
57
7
—
108
51
1973
1,100
93
5
—
0.2
—
Camden, N.J.
1977
1,815
74
93
46
505
68
Chevron Oil Co.
1975
34
1
35
—
22
15
1974
14
4
2
—
3
1
1973
14
1
NR
—
2
—
Hess Oil Co.
1973
0.3
1
—
—
214
—
NR - Not reported
* Crompton and Knovles
, Merck and
Co., and Reheis
Chemical Co.
B-9
-------
TABLE B-6.
ESTIMATED ANNUAL INDUSTRIAL TRACE METAL MASS LOADING
Yaar/Volme
Trace Itetal/
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1976
Permittee
Vol A«
Total
Voliaa
Total
Voliae
Total
Voliae
Total
VollBC
Total
Vol me
Total
Duaped
Duaped
Dxaped
Duped
DunpCd
Dwped
Duaped
Duaped
Duaped
Oiaftd
Duap«d
Duap«d
U*>
(2)
U*>
(X)
(kit)
(2)
U8)
(I)
u«>
(X)
(kg)
(X)
Camilla
~K'erlcan Cytnod
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
3
2
DuPoat-Edge Hocr
--
--
—
—
—
—
—
185
23
107
64
ftiPont'Graaael 11
[2
6
29
1
72
1
33
15
8
<1
25
15
Hixed Industrie*
197
93
5,484
99
19,430
99
180
84
529
65
33
19
Chevron Oil
1
<1
3
<1
1
<1
—
—
--
—
—
—
Be»» Oil
<1
<1
—
—
—
"
"
""
~~
~
—
TOTAL
211
5,516
19.503
213
812
168
Cbroaiw
fwricn CyuniJ
156
23
46
7
58
8
50
23
56
<1
23
1
DcPoot-Edge Moor
—
—
—
--
—
—
--
—
69,208
94
98,982
99
DuPoet-Graaae) li
33
5
B7
13
89
13
19
9
64
21
1
Hixed Ioduatriea
483
71
552
79
557
79
146
68
3,909
5
934
I
Chevron Oil
1
<1
11
1
1
<1
—
—
—
—
—
—
Bete Oil
4
<1
—
"
"
_
"
"
—
"
TOTAL
611
696
705
215
73,845
99,960
Cupper
Aaencaa Cyaoaoid
11
I
5
1
5
<1
13
2
14
«1
156
8
DuPoot-Edge Hoor
--
--
--
-
-
-
-
-
827
22
1,221
65
DuPonc-Craaaalli
35
3
64
11
73
9
41
8
2,069
56
220
12
Hized Ioduttnea
954
94
509
64
733
89
481
90
87
2
266
15
Chevron Oil
B
I
25
4
15
2
"
-
-
-
-
~
Rett Oil
3
1
—
"
"
"
"
—
—
—
TOTAL
1.011
603
826
535
3,695
1,863
lud
taericu C^toAid
47
19
6
<1
13
1
2
<1
2
<1
8
<1
DuPent-Ug* Hcor
—
—
--
—
—
—
—-
—
13,663
89
12,573
97
DuPoot-Graaielli
54
22
115
12
366
36
104
]1
38
<1
229
2
Rued lodoatriei
14?
57
759
SI
674
62
822
89
96
<1
200
1
Cbevrm Oil
4
1
53
6
12
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
Beta Oil
4
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
TOTAL
251
933
1,085
928
15,336
13,010
llercary
toaricaa Cyumid
11
24
2
14
1
1
3
<1
1
10
3
27
i DuPont-Bdga MMt
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
4
40
6
55
| DuPoct-Craaaalli
1
2
2
14
2
1
1
<1
<1
5
1
9
Miitd loduitrici
22
49
9
64
1.672
98
960
99
<1
5
1
9
j Chevron Oil
9
20
1
8
1
1
E«(« Oil
2
5
—
~
—
—
~
—
~
—
—
—
TOTAL
45
14
1,626
964
10
11
lickel
""Werictn Cyaanid
217
52
S3
23
366
2!
129
23
138
2
40
DuPvot-Edge floor
—
7,315
91
11,119
96
! PoPent-Crtiitlli
83
20
114
32
199
25
110
19
59
1
133
Kuad ZorfaaCriea
100
Z*
142
40
418
33
3i2
M
*13
5
207
2
Qitrrn Oil
IB
4
16
4
2
1
Beta Oil
2
<1
—
—
—
"
—
_
~
—
~~
—
TOTAL
420
355
765
571
8.009
11.379
Zicc
istricn Cydaid
82
1
32
<1
18
<1
25
1
163
<1
77
<1
OoPTOt-Edje Moor
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
20,796
89
51.600
98
foPeat-Cracael!i
49
1
154
1
141
2
41
1
27
<1
83
«1
Hixad Iodnatriea
11,985
99
15.549
96
7,087
97
3,165
98
133
<1
580
1
Chevron Oil
4
1
64
<1
33
<1
Bata Oil
5
1
TOTAL
12.125
15,803
7,579
3,231
23.382
52.540
B-10
-------
TABLE B-7. AVERAGE METAL CONCENTRATIONS FOR WASTES AT 106-MILE SITE
(ug/1)
Metal
Seawater
Concentrat ion
Re ference
American Cyanamid
DuPont
-Edge Moor
DuPont-Grassel1i
Mixed Industries
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Arsenic
2-3
Kopp, 1969
620
20-2,600
140
5-525
7
1-30
30
1-130
Cadmium
0.15
Fleischer et al., 1974
4
1-150
320
20-900
170
3-700
3,200
20-15,600
Chromium
1
EPA, 1976
550
45-4,900
270,200
52,600-900,000
330
10-3,500
21,170
4-170,000
Copper
3.0
Mero, 1964
350
1-4,100
3,250
4-7,400
3,150
25-154,700
10,900
1-115,000
Lead
0.03
Home, 1969
120
1-1,000
40,540
2,700-76,000
900
10-4,900
8,840
8-62,000
Mercury
0.05-0.19
Roberf&on et al. , 1972
30
1-200
30
<1-500
7
< 1-20
300
21-3,830
Nickel
5-7
NAS, 1974
1,100
145-6,400
29,060
200-65,000
730
30-2,000
4,900
20-31,500
Zinc
10
EPA, 1976
560
7-5,150
100,960
110-530,000
540
30-2,700
163,800
15-1,400,000
-------
TABLE B-8. pH, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND PERCENT SOLIDS
IN INDUSTRIAL WASTE DUMPED AT THE 106-MILE SITE
Permittee
pH
Specific Gravity
Percent
Solids
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
American Cyanamid
5.0
2.7 - 8.3
1.028
1.015 - 1.055
0.03
DuPont-Edge Moor
0.6
0.1 - 1.0
1.135
1.085 - 1.218
0.16
DuPont-Grasselli
12.9
12.4 - 13.6
1.109
1.036 - 1.222
0.07
Merck
5-7
1.28
-
0.08
TABLE B-9. CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL
SEWAGE SLUDGE DIGESTER CLEANOUT RESIDUE*
Specific gravity
1.016
Total solids (mg/1)
52,400
Volatile solids (mg/1)
38,500
Petroleum hydrocarbons (mg/1)
16
Liquid cadmium (mg/1)
0.2
Solid cadmium (mg/kg)
45
Liquid mercury (mg/1)
0.002
Solid mercury (mg/kg)
0.39
* From Nassau County Department
of Public Works.
Dumped 10/26/78.
Toxicity
Results of bioassay tests, which were conducted between 1973 and 1977, show
that the toxicity of Grasselli waste to brine shrimp (Artemia salina) has
varied between 48-hour TL^g values of 3,250 to 100,000 ppm. This variation
may be due primarily to a change from non-aeration to aeration of the samples
rather than large changes in the toxicity of the material. Bioassays
conducted since 1977 with Atlantic silversides (Menidia menidia) yield 96-hour
TL^q values that range between 1.8 ppm and 6,950 ppm for aerated tests and
B-12
-------
between 1.65 ppm and 6,170 ppm for nonaerated tests. Bioassays on diatoms
(Skeletonema costatum) produce 96-hour EC^q values between 29 ppm and 8,600
ppm. Tests with copepods (Acartia tonsa) give 96-hour TL^q values ranging
between 57 ppm and 238 ppm. Notwithstanding the changes in required testing
procedures, some of the observed variation may be due to the differences in
the character of the individual barge loads, even though they come from the
same waste source.
In 1976, DuPont sponsored an extensive series of studies to describe the
in-situ dispersion characteristics and biological effects of ocean-disposed
waste waters from its Grasselli plant (Falk and Gibson, 1977). The study was
prompted by DuPont's desire to demonstrate to the EPA the validity of the
time-toxicity concept, i.e., determining the maximum length of time in which
wastes would remain at a sufficiently high concentration to cause acute toxic
effects by taking into consideration both wastewater dispersion and wastewater
toxicity as a function of time. The results of these studies show that:
(1) Under oceanographic conditions least likely to enhance
dispersion, the peak wastewater concentration in the
barge wake is, initially, about 450 ppm (v/v) one
minute after release.
(2) Wastewater concentrations decline to a peak of about 80
ppm within 4 hours after release, and to about 60 ppm
after 12 hours.
(3) In 178-day chronic toxicity tests, the no effect level
for opossum shrimp (Mysidopsis bahia) and sheepshead
minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) was found to be 750 ppm.
(4) The wastewaters are not selectively toxic to a
particular life stage of Cyprinodon or Mysidopsis.
(5) There is little difference in the toxicity of the
wastewater to several species of marine organisms.
These results supported the discharge of Grasselli waste into the Site over a
5-hour period, at a barge speed of 5 knots, without adverse impact.
B-13
-------
Dilution and Dispersion
Mixing of waste with seawater is a function of prevailing meteorological and
oceanographic conditions. Following discharge from the barge, initial mixing
(within the first 15 minutes) occurs primarily as a result of barge-generated
turbulence. After the initial mixing, wind, waves, currents, and density
stratification components dictate the rate and direction of dispersion and
dilution.
Bisagni (1977) studied the behavior of DuPont-Grasselli wasted dumped at the
106-Mile Site in June, 1976, using Rhodamine-WT dye mixed with the waste as a
tracer. Water column profiles showed the surface mixed layer extended down to
a depth of 20 meters. Below the surface mixed layer, a seasonal thermocline
was found between 20 and 50 meters. The permanent thermocline was located
between 200 and 350 meters. The waste remained in the upper 60 meters of the
water column.
The initial concentration of the undiluted waste within 15 minutes after
release was 19.3 ppm. Water samples collected within an hour of commencement
of dumping indicated that the dilution ranged from 18,000:1 to 4,600:1. After
70 hours, dilution was estimated to range from 210,000:1 to 45,000:1. During
a second dilution study performed in June, minimum factors of 54:1 to 100:1
occurred within 10 minutes after the dumping had begun. After 30 hours, a
dilution of about 110,000:1 was estimated.
Orr (1977a) tracked the precipitate formed by the Grasselli waste during June
and September, 1976, using a multifrequency acoustic backscattering system.
In June, a sharp density gradient in the water column was located at a depth
of 10 meters. The data indicated that the particulates separated into two
components: a lighter phase which is trapped in the upper 10 to 20 meters of
the water column, and a heavier phase which sinks to the base of the mixed
layer. These phases were observed to behave in two different ways: collecting
in a thin layer on an isopycnal surface (i.e. a plane surface of equal
density) or appearing as a diffuse cloud within patches of water which have
nearly constant density.
B-14
-------
The study conducted in September, 1976, by Orr (1977a) used an acoustic system
with improved sensitivity. In this study, both acoustic and dye measurements
were collected simultaneously. The waste was observed to spread over an area
of 13.7 square kilometers by both methods. The results from this study show
that the residence time of the suspended matter can exceed 24 hours. The
particulates were heavily concentrated in the upper 15 meters of the water
column. The waste settled from an initial uniform distribution to collections
of particles in dense layers. The particles that were trapped in the seasonal
thermocline outlined the associated isopycnal surfaces and were from 15 cm to
5 meters in thickness. In at least one instance, the particulates associated
with the seasonal thermocline were observed to have penetrated it and appeared
as a diffuse cloud extending down to a depth of nearly 80 meters. The data
also indicated that the particles which penetrated the seasonal thermocline
and were trapped at the base of the mixed layer spread horizontally much
facter than did the particles trapped by the seasonal thermocline.
Kohn and Rowe (1976) studied the dilution and dispersion of DuPont-Grasselli
waste during September, 1976, using Rhodamine-WT dye as a tracer. The
dispersion of the waste was monitored by means of two fluorometers, one
drawing water from a depth of 5 meters and the other drawing from a depth of
10 meters. Data were gathered for a period of 19 hours following the start of
discharge. The initial dilution of the waste was 4250:1 at 5 meters while
after 17 hours the dilution was 12,500:1. The waste plume movements following
the dump were estimated on the basis of the movements of "window shade"
current drogues and from fluorometer readings. In general, the plume moved in
a semicircular path, returning to the starting position after about 20 hours.
The DuPont waste was found to pass through the upper 5 meters of the water
column and stabilize between a 10 meter depth and the top of the thermocline.
Falk and Gibson (1977) described a dye dispersion study conducted by EG&G on
the Grasselli waste in September, 1976, during a time when ambient conditions
at the 106-Mile Site were least conducive to waste dispersion (i.e., calm
seas, light winds» strong thermocline present). The results of the survey
indicated that the waste material was limited to the surface mixed layer by
the strong thermocline. The horizontal extent of the waste ranged from 35
meters in width initially, to 300 meters after 2 hours, to 600 meters after 8
B-15
-------
hours, and to 1,000 meters after 11 hours. Minimum waste dilutions were
5,000:1 initially, 15,000:1 after 2 hours, and 15,000 to 30,000:1 after 11
hours. The average waste dilutions were 10,000:1 initially, 20,000 to
40,000:1 after 2 hours, and 30,000 to 80,000:1 after 11 hours.
Hydroscience (1978c, 1978d, and 1979d) monitored dumps of Grasselli waste in
May, July, and October 1978. In all surveys, the wastewater concentration
after 4 hours was well below the chronic no-effect level for appropriate
sensitive marine organisms of 750 ppm, a dilution of 1,300:1.
DUPONT-EDGE MOOR
DuPont-Edge Moor waste is generated by the manufacture of titanium dioxide
using the chloride process. The waste consists principally of an aqueous
solution of iron and miscellaneous chlorides, and hydrochloric acid.
DuPont-Edge Moor is authorized to dump approximately 299,000 metric tons
during 1979 and 136,000 metric tons during 1980 (Table B-2). Disposal of the
waste is accomplished by subsurface release at a rate not exceeding 140,045
liters (37,000 gallons) per nautical mile. This rate permits complete
offloading of an average barge load of 3.8 x 10^ liters of waste in approxi-
mately 4.5 hours (assuming a barge speed of 6 knots), over a linear distance
of approximately 27 nautical miles.
Ten trace metals are usually reported in the analyses of DuPont-Edge Moor
waste. These are, ranked by decreasing input volume: iron, titanium,
chromium, vanadium, zinc, lead, nickel, copper, cadmium, and mercury. The
organic components of Edge Moor waste (Table B-4) comprise a very slight
portion of the* waste constituents.
Toxicity
Bioassays conducted since 1977 with Atlantic silversides (Menidia menidia)
yield 96-hour TL values greater than 5,000 ppm for aerated tests and
between 5,000 ppm and 14,400 ppm for nonaerated tests. Bioassays on diatoms
(Skeletonema costatum) produce 96 hour values between 712 ppm and 3,450
ppm.
B-16
-------
In 1976, DuPont sponsored an extensive series of studies to describe the in
situ dispersion characteristics and biological effects of ocean disposed waste
waters from its Edge Moor plant (Falk and Phillips, 1977). The dispersion
studies were conducted at the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Disposal Site.
A series of laboratory toxicity experiments conducted with the DuPont-Edge
Moor wastes gave the following results:
1. In 200-day chronic toxicity tests, the no-effect level for opposum
shrimp (Mysidopsis bahia) and sheepshead minnow (Cyprinidon
variegatus) was found to be in the range of 25 to 50 ppm.
2. pH-adjusted waste (as will occur in seawater) produces mortalities
only at concentrations several orders of magnitude above the
unaltered waste.
3. Pulsed exposure of grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) to initial
wastewater concentrations of 250 ppm (v/v) Followed by dilution
slower than that observed in the barge wake produced no mortalities.
4. Maximum waste concentrations in the barge wake were calculated to be
approximately 150 ppm within 2 hours, and about 5 ppm within eight
hours. The two-hour calculated wake concentrations is well below
the acute LC^q value range of 240-320 ppm and the eight-hour wake
concentration is well below the calculated chronic no-effect level
of 25 to 50 ppm for unaltered waste.
Based on these results, Falk and Phillips (1977) reached the conclusion that
the Edge Moor wastewaters can be discharged into the marine environment over a
5-hour period, at a barge speed of 6 knots, without adverse impact, and
without violating the requirements of Section 227.8 of the EPA Ocean Dumping
regulations.
Dilution and Dispersion
In September 1976, EG&G conducted a dispersion study of Edge Moor wastewater
at the Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site (EG&G, 1977). A well-defined thermocline
was present at a depth of 20 meters, winds were blowing at 8 to 12 m/sec, and
waves were 1 to 2 meters. The waste concentration was monitored over 8 hours
using pH and iron concentrations. Minimum dilutions were 7,000:1 within 2
hours and 200,000:1 within 8 hours. The 2-hour concentration was well below
B-17
-------
acute values reported for the organisms tested, and the 8-hour
concentration was well below the chronic no-effect level of 25 to 50 ppm
(dilutions of 40,000:1 and 20,000:1, respectively).
In May 1978, Hydroscience, Inc. (1978a) studied the dilution and dispersion of
the DuPont-Edge Moor waste following its release at the Site. A weak
thermocline was present at a depth of 13 meters. Based upon a comparison1 of
undiluted and post-dumping (after 4 hours) seawater concentrations of
particulate iron, minimum dilutions were estimated at 75,000:1. Measurements
indicated that the DuPont-Edge Moor waste did not significantly penetrate the
seasonal thermocline and the waste was diluted and dispersed only within the
upper 13 meters of the water column. Surveys conducted during July and'
October did not yield dilution values; however, the waste was estimated, tot
have been diluted below the chronic no-effect level (Hydroscience, 1.978b,.
1979a) . These observations are compatible with observations made at the
Delaware Bay Acid Waste Site while Edge Moor was still dumping its waste
there. (Falk and Phillips, 1977).
AMERICAN CYANAMID
American Cyanamid produces industrial wastes which are generated by the
manufacture of approximately 30 different organic and inorganic compounds.
The broad categories that comprise the waste are approximately 25 percent
chemical, 35 percent equipment and floor wash, 25 percent vacuum jet
condensate and 15 percent from overhead and bottom distillate units. The
chemical products manufactured include rubber, mining, and paper chemicals,
nonpersistent organophosphorus insecticides, surfactants and. various
intermediates.
American Cyanamid is authorized to dispose of approximately 123,000' metric
tons annually (Table B-2). Disposal is accomplished by subsurface release of
waste through automatic and/or manual vent valves at a rate not exceeding
113,500 liters (30^000 gallons) per nautical mile.. This rate permits complete
offloading of an average barge load of 1.5 million liters of waste in
approximately 2 hours (assuming a towing speed of 6 knots), over a linear
distance of approximately 13.5 nautical miles.
B-18
-------
American Cyanamid waste is routinely analyzed for trace metals. In order of
decreasing input volume, they are: nickel, arsenic, chromium, zinc, lead,
copper, mercury, and cadmium.
Because of the complexity of the American- Cyanamid waste mixture, it is
extremely difficult to characterize all of the organic compounds present in
any industrial waste. Thus, the organic content of American Cyanamid waste is
known only in general terms. Table B-10 lists the various non-persistent
organophosphorus insecticides released by American Cyanamid since 1973.
Toxicity
Results of bioassays that have been conducted since 1977 show that the
toxicity of the waste to Atlantic silversides (Henidia menidia) has varied
between 96-hour TL^q values of 0.24 ppm to 2,900 ppm for aerated tests and
between 0.10 ppm to 2900 ppm for non-aerated tests. Bioassays conducted from
1973 to 1977 with brine shrimp (Artemia salina) yielded 48-hour values of
670 ppm to 21,000 ppm. Bioassays on diatoms (Skeletonema costatum) gave
96-hour EC^q results that varied between 10 ppm and to 1,900 ppm. Additional
tests with copepods (Acartia tonsa) gave 96-hour TL^q values that varied
between 19.5 ppm and 3,500 ppm. This variation may be due to the differences
in the toxicity of the individual barge loads, even those from the same waste
source. However, such variation is not outside the limits of variability that
can be applied to bioassay results of this type.
Dilution and Dispersion
In August, 1976, Kohn and Rowe (1976) studied the dilution and dispersion of
the American Cyanamid waste following its release at the Site. Enough
Rhodamine-WT fluorescent dye was added to the waste in a barge to yield an
undiluted dye concentration of 9.36 ppm. For 17 hours following the start of
the waste discharge from the barge, a continuous flow of water was pumped from
a depth of 5 meters into an onboard fluorometer. The initial dilution of the
American Cyanamid waste was 115:1 while the dilution after 17 hours was
2,500:1.
B-19
-------
TABLE B-10. NON-PERSISTENT ORGANPHOSPHORUS INSECTICIDES
RELEASED BY AMERICAN CYANAMID, 1973-1978, AT THE 106-MILE SITE
(Metric Tons)
Constituent
Description
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
Malathion
General Insecticide
188
183
13
39
117
10
Thimet®
Systemic Insecticide
92
133
12
34
73
11
Counter®
Soil Insecticide
0
0
2
37
28
3
Abate®
Manufacturing
0
0
0
0
14
0
Concentrate
Insecticide
Cytrolane®
Technical Systemic
15
9
0
18
3
3
Insecticide
Cygon®
Systemic Insecticide
73
54
12
0
2
0
Cyolane®
Technical Systemic
0
0
0
0
0
1
Insecticide
The waste plume movements following the dump were estimated from the movements
of "window shade" current drogues and from the fluorometer readings. In
general, the plume moved in a semicircular path, returning to the starting
position after about 20 hours. American Cyanamid waste remained in the upper
few meters of the water column.
Hydroscience, Inc. (1978e, 1978f, 1979c) studied the dilution of the American
Cyanamid waste in several seasonal surveys. Comparison of undiluted waste
concentratioAs and post-dump concentrations 4 hours following the dump
indicated minimum dilutions of approximately 25,000:1 in May, 14,000:1 in
July, and 9,200:1 in October. Hydroscience C1978f) also studied the
dispersion of the waste in July 1978, using Rhodamine WT dye. The maximum
distance that the plume traveled from the dump location was 675 meters within
4 hours. At this point, the concentration of the waste was near detection
limits.
B-20
-------
MERCK AND COMPANY
Merck's aqueous waste is generated in the manufacture of thiabendazole, a
pharmaceutical product. Previous discussion in this Appendix included Merck
among the mixed industrial wastes permittees.
Merck is authorized to dispose of approximately 36,288 metric tons annually.
Disposal is accomplished by subsurface release of the waste at a rate not
exceeding 378,000 liters (100,000 gallons) per nautical mile. This rate
permits complete offloading of an average barge load of 5.7 million liters in
approximately 6 hours (assuming a towing speed of 6 knots), over a linear
distance of approximately 38 nautical miles.
The six major trace metals present in the Merck waste are, in order of
decreasing input volume: nickel, lead, vanadium, beryllium, chromium and
cadmium.
Toxicity
Bioassay tests which have been conducted on mixed industrial wastes between
1973 and 1977 with brine shrimp (Artemia salina) yielded 48-hour TL^q values
of 1,525 ppm to 100,000 ppm. Bioassays conducted since 1977 with Atlantic
silversides (Menidia menidia) give 96-hour TL^q values that range between 650
ppm and 100,000 ppm for aerated tests, and between 150 ppm and 100,000 ppm for
non-aerated tests. Bioassays on diatoms (Skeletonema costatum) produce
96-hour EC^q values between 65 ppm and 12,000 ppm. Tests with copepods
(Acartia tonsa) yield 96-hour TL,.q bioassay values that vary between 29.7 ppm
and 5 ,300 ppm. Some of the observed variation may be due to the differences
in the character of the individual barge loads.
Dilution and Dispersion
Hydroscience, Inc. (1978g) performed the dilution study in May 1978 for the
mixed industrial waste generated by Merck and Reheis Chemical. Based on
comparisons between the concentrations of aluminum and carbon in the barge
wastes and the concentrations of these same parameters found in the seawater
B-21
-------
samples collected after 4 hours following the disposal, minimum dilution
factors of 20,000:1 and 52,000:1 were observed. A July 1978 survey yielded a
minimum dilution at 4 hours of 150,000:1; the plume was barely detectable at
1,000 m from the site of release. An October survey also yielded a minimum
dilution of 150,000:1 after 4 hours (Hydroscience, 1979d).
B-22
-------
APPENDIX C
CONTENTS
TABLES
Number Title Page
C-l Short-Term Monitoring Requirements C-4
C-i
-------
Apperadsx C
MONITORING
The Final EPA Ocean Dumping Regulations and Criteria (40 CFR 220 to 229)
discusses monitoring requirements (Section 228.9):
(a) The monitoring program, if deemed necessary by the
Regional Administrator or the District Engineer, as
appropriate, may include baseline or trend assessment
surveys by EPA, NOAA, other Federal agencies, or
contractors, special studies by permittees, and the
analysis and interpretation of data from remote or
automatic sampling and/or sensing devices. The primary
purpose of the monitoring program is to evaluate the
impact of disposal on the marine environment by
referencing the monitoring results to a set of baseline
conditions. When disposal sites are being used on a
continuing basis, such programs may consist of the
following components;
(1) Trend assessment surveys conducted at intervals
frequent enough to assess the extent and trends of
environmental impact. Until survey data or other
information are adequate to show that changes in
frequency or scope are necessary or desirable,
trend assessment and baseline surveys should
generally conform to the applicable requirements
of Section 228.13. These surveys shall be the
responsibility of the Federal government.
(2) Special studies conducted by the permittee to
identify immediate and short-term impacts of
disposal operations.
(b) These surveys may be supplemented, where feasible and
useful, by data collected from the use of automatic
sampling buoys, satellites or in situ platforms, and
from experimental programs.
(c) EPA will require the full participation of other
i Federal and State and local agencies in the development
and implementation of disposal site monitoring
programs. The monitoring and research programs
presently supported by permittees may be incorporated
into the overall monitoring program insofar as
feasible.
C—1
-------
Further in Section 228.10, the Ocean Dumping Regulations delineate specific
types of effects upon which monitoring programs must be built:
(a) Movement of materials into estuaries or marine
sanctuaries, or into oceanfront beaches, or shorelines;
(b) Movement of materials toward productive fishery or
shellfishery areas;
(c) Absence from the disposal site of pollution-sensitive
biota characteristic of the general area;
(d) Progressive, non-seasonal, changes in water quality or
sediment composition at the disposal site, when these
changes are attributable to materials disposed of at
the site;
(e) Progressive, non-seasonal, changes in composition or
numbers of pelagic, demersal, or benthic biota at or
near the disposal site, when these changes can be
attributed to the effects of materials disposed of at
the site;
(f) Accumulation of material constituents (including
without limitation, human pathogens) in marine biota at
or near the site.
Thus, the regulations identify two broad areas which must be taken into
account in monitoring:
(a) Short-term or acute effects immediately observable and
monitored at the time of disposal and before disposal
for the waste itself.
(b) Long-term or progressive effects measurable only over a
period of years and indicated by subtle changes in
selected characteristics over time.
SHORT-TERM MONITORING
The permit program administered by EPA Region II has provided the means for
monitoring inmediate effects of disposal. The program acts as an important
check on the variable chemical characteristics of the waste, the biological
influence as measured by bioassays and the cumulative totals of known
potential toxicants (See Appendix B, Tables B-5, B-6, and B-7.) This program
provides information about the environment at the time of disposal and the
dispersion and dilution of the wastes under varying oceanographic conditions.
Table D-l sutanarizee the parametero measured at sea far each permittee.
C-2
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In 1978, three seasonal surveys were made at the Site:
e May - no upper thermocline
« July - strong upper thermocline (28 m)
o October - weak upper thermocline (68 m)
A dye dispersion study was made for each waste type during the July survey
(see Appendix B, page B-13, for results). For each survey a drogue was set at
the thermocline, in the waste plume, where the wastes are expected to
accumulate. Samples were taken at 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-hour intervals at
various depths (Table C-l). Two stations were sampled immediately prior to
the waste release to establish the background levels. Samples from the barge
were also analyzed for the same parameters so that minimum dilution factors
could be calculated.
This program will be continued as one of the permit requirements. The
sampling program is the minimum design sufficient to detect changes resulting
from the disposal of these chemical wastes. The effects documented at the
Site are transitory (see Appendix B), and have not caused long-term measurable
damage to populations of organisms indigenous to the Site or adjacent areas.
This sampling program periodically confirms that the wastes are diluted well
below the chronic "no effect" concentrations (as determined by the monthly
bioassays) within the allowable short period of initial mixing.
The physical and chemical variables monitored were chosen based on the
composition of the wastes and the possible effects of waste discharge. Water
column sampling is adequate to detect unusual, adverse effects of disposal;
benthic samples are not required since the wastes apparently do not penetrate
the thermocline and would not reach the bottom in measurable amounts at this
deep site. Therefore, no changes to the existing permittee monitoring program
are recommended.
C-3
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TABLE C-l. SHORT-TERM MONITORING REQUIREMENTS
Permittee
Parameter to be Monitored
General
All Dumpers
Temperature
Dissolved oxygen to 100 m
Conductivity
PH
Chlorophyll a
Total mercury" 1, 15, 30 m
Total cadmium
Total organic carbon
Secchi disk to extinction point
Special
Merck
DuPont-Grasselli
DuPont-Edge Moor
American Cyanamid
Sulfonate
Phenol
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
Total iron
Total vanadium
Pesticides in the waste at the
time of the dump
LONG-TERM MONITORING
As discussed in Chapter 3 and Appendix B, an extensive research effort has
been directed at determining the fate of wastes released at the 106-Mile Site.
Yet, there are many aspects of waste disposal at this site which are poorly
understood and which must be refined before a meaningful trend assessment and
long-term monitoring program can be finalized. Studies must provide further
information on the following factors:
® The penetration of seasonal and permanent thermoclines by different
wastes.
e The fractionation of wastes in the water column and the association of
potentially toxic substances with different fractions.
C-4
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© The fate of wastes related to Gulf Stream eddies and general current
patterns.
• The refinement and selection as monitoring tools of acoustical
tracking, dye or trace metal dispersion data, and organic markers
(methyl sulfate).
Studies on these and other important aspects of monitoring at the 106-Mile
Site are part of a continuing effort of NOAA's Ocean Dumping Program (National
Ocean Survey), supplemented by permittee-supported work.
Further impetus to a formal monitoring program has been given by the passage
of PL 95-273, which calls for NOAA to develop a five-year plan for ocean
pollution resea ch and monitoring. On a broader scale of time and space, the
"Ocean Pulse" program of the National Marine Fisheries Service should also
provide valuable monitoring data. Thus, long range monitoring and trend
assessment of waste disposal in complex deep oceanic regions like the 106-Mile
Site are feasible only through the combined resources of several agencies
under the upcoming NOAA five-year plan.
C-5
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APPENDIX D
CONTENTS
Number Title Page
8 Coliforms in New Jersey Coastal Waters D-4
9 Coliforms in Long Island Coastal Waters D-5
D-i
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Appendix D
CHAPTER III, FINAL EIS ON OCEAN DUMPING OF
SEWAGE SLUDGE IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT
This Appendix is Chapter III of the Final Environmental Impact Statement on
sewage sludge dumping in the New York Bight (EPA, 1978).
It is reproduced here to document the earlier considerations of using the
106-Mile Site as an alternate sewage sludge site. Included are discussions on
land-based alternatives to ocean dumping of sewage sludge.
ALTERNATIVES TO THE PROPOSED ACTION
Alternatives to the proposed action considered in this EIS tall into two categories, other ocean-dumping
alternatives i«.h«>rt-temn and land-based sludge disposal alternatives (long-term).
Since implementation of land-based disposal methods in the metropolitan area is still some years off, a
suitable interim ocean dumping alternative is needed. In addition to the proposed action, the ocean-dumping
alternatives are.
— Continued use of the existing dump site (No Action or Phased Action),
— Use of an alternate dump site other than the Northern or Southern Area, including sites off the
continental shelf, and
— Modification of dumping methods to mitigate potential marine and shoreward impacts.
The land-based sludge disposal alternatives are:
— Direct land application,
— Incineration,
— Pyrolysis, and
— Use as a soil conditioner.
These land-based alternatives have been studied by the Interstate Sanitation Commission (ISC) under a grant
from EPA. The ISC sludge disposal management program was issued in October 1976. Since that time, EPA
has awarded grants to most of the ocean dumping permittees for specific studies of land-based sludge
management alternatives within their geographic areas. The EPA has also placed a condition on the ocean
dumping permits issued in August 1976, requiring that ocean dumping be phased out by December 31,
1981. This phase-out date was legislatively mandated in November 1977, by amendment to the Marine
Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972.
Alternatives to the proposed action are discussed in Chapter III.
D-l
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CHAPTER III
ALTERNATIVES TO THE PROPOSED ACTION
Generally, sewage sludge can be either dumped in the ocean or disposed of by land-based methods.
The latter constitute the only legitimate long-range solution to the New York-New Jersey metropolitan area's
sludge disposal problem, and they will have to be implemented as ocean dumping is phased out. The back-
ground studies for land-based sludge disposal management in the metropolitan area were completed by ISC
in 1976. The testing and implementation phases have begun. Current predictions are that land-based sludge
disposal methods can be implemented in time to meet the December 31, 1981 deadline for phasing out
ocean dumping of sewage sludge.
Until this full-scale, land-based sludge disposal program can be implemented, however, ocean dumping
will continue to be the only practical method of disposing of the volumes of sludge produced in the metro-
politan area. Within the ocean-dumping alternative, options are available with regard to where the sludge is
dumped and how it is dumped. The proposed action, immediate designation and use of an alternate dump
site in either the Northern or Southern Area is described in detail in Chapter IV. Chapter III discusses the
other ocean-dumping alternatives and summarizes the results of the ISC studies of land-based sludge disposal
methods.
OCEAN-DUMPING ALTERNATIVES
In addition to the proposed action, the ocean-dumping alternatives considered in this EIS are: 1*
continued use of the existing dump site (No Action and Phased Action), 2) use of an alternate dump site
other than the Northern or Southern Area, and 3) modification of dumping methods to mitigate potential ma-
rine and shoreward impacts. The phasing out of ocean dumping by the end of 1981 would not be compro-
mised under anv of these alternatives.
Continued Use of the Existing Dump Site
The No Action alternative involves continued use of the existing dump ^ite until land-based methods of
sludge disposal can be implemented. Under this alternative, the existing dump site would have to accommo-
date in 1981 more than one and a half times the volume of sludge dumped in 1977; moreover, the site
would have to accommodate the increased volume without endangering public health or the marine envi-
ronment. The primary argument for the No Action alternative is that it limits environmental impacts to the
existing site rather than spreading them to another area of the marine environment.
The original argument for moving the sewage sludge dump site was that greatly increased volumes ctf
sludge might impair the recreational quality of Long Island and New jersey's beaches. As discussed below,
current studies tend to show that this argument is largely invalid, lending support to the No Action alterna-
tive.
A variation on the No Action alternative is the Phased Action alternative, under which sewage sludge
would continue to be dumped at the existing site until a comprehensive monitoring program indicated an
impending hazard to public health or damage to recreational water quality. Under the phased alternative, an
alternate dump site would have to be designated and held in reserve for possible future use. Since this
alternative would maximize use of the existing dump site, adverse impacts on an alternate dump site would
be minimized, and sludge hauling costs would not be increased unnecessarily.
62
D-2
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This was the alternative recommended in the draft EIS. However, when the fish kill and beach closure
incidents discussed in Chapter II occurred, doubts were raised aboui the acceptability of continuing to use
the existing dump site. Studies of the fish kill and beach closure incidents found that sludge dumping was at
most a minor contributing factor. Those findings were reconfirmed at a public hearing held in Toms River,
New Jersey, on May 31 and June 1, 1977, to consider possible relocation of the New York and Philadelphia
sewage sludge dump sites. On the basis of the evidence presented, the hearing officer recommended that
neither dump site be moved.
With specific reference to sludge dumping in the New York-New Jersey metropolitan area, the hearing
officer also recommended. 1) strict enforcement of existing phase-out schedules and deadlines, 2) inclusion
in the sludge dumping EIS being prepared by EPA-Region II of specific criteria for determining the need for
relocation ot the dump site, 3) intensified monitoring of the existing dump site, and 4) immediate designation
or the alternate 60-mile site (this would be the site in the Northern Area recommended in the draft EIS). The
report of the Toms River hearing officer, which was issued on September-22, 1977, is presented in Appendix
C
On March 1, 1978, the EPA's Assistant Administrator for Water and Hazardous Materials issued his
decision on proposals to relocate the New York and Philadelphia sewage sludge dump sites. The decision
report is presented in Appendix D. In all important respects, the Assistant Administrator's decision is in
agreement with the findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the Toms River hearing officer:
It is my determination that sewage sludge dumping by these municipalities [in the New York-New Jersey
metropolitan area] should not be relocated at the present time; however, efforts should begin immedi-
ately to designate the 60-mile site for the disposal of New York/New Jersey sewage sludge in the event
such sludge cannot be dumped at the New York Bight site for public health reasons prior to December
31. 1981
In accordance with this decision, EPA intends to designate the existing site for continued use, as well as
the 60-mile site in the Northern Area for possible future use. An intensified monitoring program has already
been implemented; it is described in detail in the Monitoring and Surveillance section of Chapter XI. Criteria
that can be used to determine whether public health reasons require moving sludge dumping operations
from the existing to the alternate site at any time between now and December 31, 1981 have been drawn
up by EPA-Region II, and are presented in Appendix E. Finally, a Regional Enforcement Strategy, designed to
insure that ocean dumping of sewage sludge is replaced by environmentally acceptable land-based disposal
methods b> the legislatively mandated deadline of December 31, 1981, has been developed by EPA-Region
II, and is presented in Appendix F.
EPA Monitoring Studies. In April 1974, EPA initiated a program to investigate the quality of the water
and bottom sediments in the New York Bight and along the Long Island and New Jersey beaches (USEPA,
Julv 1974, April 1975) Data from the surf and near-shore waters indicate that water quality remains ex-
cellent in terms of total and fecal coliform density, and that it is acceptable for contact recreation (Figures 8
and 9) Although the data show a few random elevated coliform counts, no violation of state standards is
indicated nor does there appear to be any systematic degradation of water quality. Sediment data indicate
slightly elevated bacterial counts at certain near-shore sampling stations, but these can be attributed to inland
runoff or to wastewater outfalls.
Sampling is continuing along transects between the existing dump site and the following points: the
Long Island shore, the entrance to New York Harbor, and the New Jersey shore. Results to date indicate that
a clean water and sediment zone, about 10 to 11 km (5.5 to 6 n mi) wide, separates the area affected by
sludge from the Long Island coast. As a supplement to the sampling program, EPA has expanded the moni-
toring and review process to insure protection of public health and welfare and prevention of coastal water
quality degradation (see the Monitoring and Surveillance section of Chapter XI).
NOAA-MESA Studies. On the basis of two comprehensive reports prepared by NOAA-MESA (March
1975, February 1976), there seems to be no significant accumulation of sewage sludge at the existing dump
site, although some sludge particles may be mixing with natural fines in the Christiansen Basin, northwest of
63
D-3
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5 KMMtamgsfflm 45
k g 37
A 25
2 !5E^ 19
2 tsss 13
3 U&&32) 16
GEOMETRIC MEAN
NUMBERS
iaMKB^MKHMH 50
GEOMETRIC MEAN
NUMBERS
3 s saaasMM 22
3 GESi 11
3 E SS 11
2
3
5
$311
6 E
MMwroa 40
SAMPLING STATIONS
it c b™ 15
1 EJ 6
I is6
2^7
NEW JERSEY
STATE STANDARD
~T~
30
—r
AO 40
FECAL COLI FORM
(MPN/100 ML)
NO NEW JERSEY
STATE STANDARD
—1 1 1
30 40 60
TOTAL COL I FORM
(MPN/100 ML)
i k i t
C0LIF0RM3 IN NEW JERSEY COASTAL WATERS
10
10
20
10
t
KILOMETERS
10 20
SOURCE: USEPA, APRIL 1975-
10
t"
10
MILES (STATUTE),,
20
MILES NAUTICAL
D-4
FIGURE 8
-------
FECAL COL IF0RM(MPN/100ML) TOTAL COL IF0RM(MPN/100ML)
o
o
NEW YORK STATE
STANDARD
to
z
o
p
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r*
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Z
COLIFORMS IN LONG ISLAND
COASTAL WATERS
STATUTE MILES
20
NAUTICAC'MILES
SOURCE: USEPA, APRIL 1975-
D-5
FIGURE 9
-------
the site. Both reports also note that the general ecological ettVt is or sewjge sludge dumping .ire mdistmguish-
able from those associated with other sources of pollutants in the Bight Apex (the dumping of dredged
material and acid wastes, contaminants from the plume ot the Hudson estuary, shore-zone pollutant con-
tributions, and atmospheric fallout of contaminants).
However, sludge dumping does exert significant local effects. The catch of groundfish appears to be
reduced in areas with higK-carbon sediments, such as the area of the existing sludge dump site. Furthermore,
it is apparent that very few surf clams reach commercial size within the area now impacted by sludge
dumping. Although some fish in the Bight Apex are afflicted with fin rot, this disease is not thought to be
attributable solely or even primarily to sludge dumping.
The NOAA-MESA reports do not indicate anv shoreward movement of coliform contamination as a
result of sludge dumping at the existing site, but thev do note the apparent persistence of coliform bacteria in
the vicinity, especially in bottom sediments There is no evidence that under current FDA regulations the
cessation of sewage sludge dumping at the existing site would permit reopening of the immediate area to
shellfishing. The complete text of NOAA-MESA's conclusions and recommendations from the February 1976
report is presented in Appendix C.
At the Toms River hearing in 1977, NOAA concurred with EPA's recommendation of continued use of
the existing dump site based on the fact that there is no demonstrated need for relocation (5>ee Appendix C)
Related Studies. The most recent study of the area (Mueller et a!., 1976) indicates that sludge dumping
accounts for 0.04 to 11 percent, at most, of the total pollutant loading in the Bight Apex; pollutant loadings
from non-dumping sources iwastewater discharges, runoff, and atmospheric fallout) far outweigh those from
all current ocean-dumping sources (sewage sludge, dredged material, acid wastes, and cellar dirt).
A study bv the Town of Hempstead (1974) supports the conclusion that sewage sludge dumped at the
existing site does not significantly affect the quality of the waters or beaches or Long Island.
Use of an Alternate Dump Site Other Than the Northern or Southern Area
Besides the Northern and Southern Areas, possible locations for an alternate sewage sludge dump site
include: the other existing dump sites in the Bight Apex (the dredged material, acid wastes, cellar dirt, and
wreck sites); other areas in the New York Bight; and areas off the continental shelf, notably the chemical
wastes dump site. These locations are discussed below
Other Existing Dump Sites in the Bight Apex. Dumping sewage sludge at one ut" the
other existing sites in the Bight Apex (the dredged material, acid wastes, cellar dirt, or wreck site) would
violate the original concept of segregating wastes b\. dump site It would be extremelv difficult to isolate the
true cause of adverse environmental effects at a site where two or more types of wastes were dumped The
end result would probably be several seriously contaminated dump sites in the Bight Apex, instead of the
two that now exist (the sewage sludge and dredged material sites) Use of the existing dredged material site
for sludge dumping would be particularly ill-advised because the site is only about 9 km (5 n mil from the
New jersey shore; the existing sludge dump site is about 20 km (11 n mi) offshore.
Other Areas in the New York Bight. . Solely in terms of minimizing potential environmen-
tal impacts, a site located offshore, 148 to 158 km 180 to 85 n mi) from the Sandy Hook-Rockawav Point
transect, and within the depression of the Long Island Shelf Vallev, about 80 in '264 ft) deep, would be pref-
erable. In this area, the tendency is towards bottom transport off the continental shelf, which would mini-
mize the potential for sludge transport to adjacent biological resource areas, including the Hudson Shelf
Valley and near-shore shellfisheries. In addition, the greater depth would provide maximum dilution and
dispersion of the sludge, minimizing any adverse effects.
The one major drawback to use of this area is that it is beyond the maximum 120 km (65 n mi) range
of the existing barge fleet. It would be difficult to justify the greatly increased costs of transportation and
possible fleet capitalization in terms of concomitant benefits. Benefits to public health would not increase
proportionally with distance. Both the Northern and Southern Areas appear to be far enough from the Long
bb
D-6
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Island and New lersey coasts, and in deep enough waiei, to minimize potential impacts on public health and
marine life.
Areas Off the Continental Shelf, in the draft EIS, the alternative of dumping sewage sludge in areas
off the continental shelf, such as at the existing chemical wastes
-------
site's physical, biological, and chemical characteristics and its contaminant inputs, .ire presented in Appendix
H.
The chemical wastes site has been in use since 1965. Therefore, at the time of NOAA's first baseline
survey cruise, the site had been in use for about nine years, making it impossible for NOAA to obtain a pure
pre-dumping baseline. Most of the data gathered by NOAA c oncern chemical wastes dumping by American
Cyanamid and by DuPont's Grasselli Plant since these two companies accounted for 80 percent of the total
volume of material dumped at the chemical wastes site. The applicability of these data to an assessment of
sewage sludge dumping at the chemical wastes site is limited because particulate sewage sludge bears little
resemblance to dissolved chemical wastes.
After EPA authorized the dumping of sewage sludge from Camden, New lersey, at the chemical wastes
site in early 1977, NOAA began making plans to study the possible effects. That opportunity to study the
possible effects of sewage sludge dumping at the chemical wastes site ended on June 12, 1978, when Cam-
den terminated its ocean dumping operations, a few days short of the expiration of its permit. Camden now
disposes of its sludge through a composting process that is described later in this chapter (see the section on
Land-Based Alternatives).
While Camden was using the chemical wastes site, NOAA conducted a coliform test and a tracking
study. Although data collection and analysis are in a preliminary stage, some information on sludge dumping
at the chemical wastes site has been furnished by NOAA.
In June 1977, researchers from WHOI collected samples of seawater during,, and for some time after,
the release of primary sewage sludge from Camden, New Jersey. The samples were tested for the presence
of toial and fecal coliform bacteria:
Positive results were limited to the first hour of surface sampling from within the plume area.
Regarding total coliforms, 75 percent of the samples collected proved positive and gave a most proba-
ble number range of 1-240 total cells per 100 ml. Measurements on these same samples for fecal
coliforms were positive at the 25 percent level and provided a range of 1-120 cells per 100 ml.
No positive results from either test were obtained from any of the subsurface samples. Possibly
these results might have differed given the opportunity for continuous sampling over the entire plume.
However, the necessary gear was not available at this time and we had to rely on a stationary ship to
tequira water samples from beneath the surface.
There are strong indications that the bacterial population associated with sewage sludge is rapidly
aispersed by the turbulence and sinking associated with sludge release. Most of the bactenal load ap-
pears to remain associated with solid material which rapidly descends to the deeper portions of the
water column where a positive sampling becomes highly dubious (Vaccaro and Dennet, 1977).
In July 1977, sewage sludge released at the chemical wastes site was acoustically monitored to deter-
mine its qualitative dispersion characteristics. Preliminary results of the tracking study bhow a slow, wide
distribution of the waste material:
A sharp thermal gradient CI*C/m) existed between 10 and 24 m The waste field on either side of the
dump axis was observed to be distributed through the first 18 m of the water column. On the dump axis,
the waste was observed to penetrate to a depth of 60 m. The peeper penetration was of limited horizon-
tal extent, conical in shape (apex at the point of deepest penetration), and was distributed cqntinuously
from near the surface to the 60 m depth. The heaviest particle concentration appeared to be in the first
40 m of the water column. A shear with a velocity maximum between 15 and 20 m advected the waste
field in the honzontal. Thus, the waste was slowly distributed over an increasing area as material sank
from the mixed layer to the seasonal thermocline. During the 32 hr experimental period, the particle field
became distnbuted over the first 45 m of the water column. The distribution was not uniform. Heavy
concentrations of backscattenng, hence particles were found to be associated with one or two strong
thermal gradients [sic]. The thickness of the heavy scattering areas ranged from 5 to 10 m. The layers
were periodically displaced by as much as 15 m by the internal wave field. The horizontal distribution of
the waste field will be determined as our data reduction progresses. The column of material which pene-
trated to 60 m was observed several hours after the dump There appeared to be little change in its
depth of penetration or size. (Orr, unpub.).
68
D—8
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Although increased dilution and dispersion are gener.tih ionsideied to be positive aspects of dumping
in deeper waters, there are serious drawbacks as well. In testimony at the Toms River hearing in 1977, Dr.
Carol Litchfield, a marine microbiologist, cautioned that nun in^, the dump site to deeper waters would signif-
icantly increase the time required tor sludge decomposition:
The very factor which is appealing to many people in moving and relocation of the dump site in
the deeper waters is ttie very factor which is going to assure that there will be a longer residence time of
the sludge and a greater accumulation of the material that is dumped
Another concern, .is what happens tp the organisms that are introduced along with the sewage
sludge.
Unfortunately, there is very little information on the survival of coliforms in deeper waters.
It has been repeatedly shown, however, that decreased temperatures aid the survival of coliform
bactena in the increased salinities and slightly increased pressures that they would encounter at the
deeper dump site, therefore, automatically assuming that deeper waters will "take care of" potential
pathogens more efficiently than that which occurs at the present location, could lead to a very false
sense of secunty.
In summary, based solely upon the scientific data available through numerous other studies we
know that only about ten percent of the problem would be relieved by moving of the dump site.
This would probably have little positive effect on decreasing the survival of potentially pathogenic
micro-organisms, and would definitely result in slower decomposition, and hence, greater accumulation
of the dumped organic matters (in USEPA, June 1, 1977; see also Appendix C).
Another point that must be considered is the unknown consequences of dumping sewage sludge and
chemical wastes at the same site. As previously mentioned, combining different types of wastes at one dump
site makes it extremely difficult to isolate the true cause of any adverse environmental effects. This would be
an especially difficult problem at the chemical wastes site because the effects of chemical wastes dumping
alone are not yet well understood:
The chemical behavior of the substances discharged at DWD-106 [the chemical wastes site] and
their impact on the marine environment are unknown A research group consisting of investigators from
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, University of Rhode Island. National Marine Fisheries Service,
and the Smithsonian Institution have developed a multidisciplinary oceanographic study at DWD-106 to
consider the physical, biological, and chemical factors associated with dumping of chemical wastes The
primary chemical questions to be considered in this program are-
1. Does the discharge of wastes at DWD-106 produce elevated concentrations of potentially
toxic metals in the seawater?
2. What are the horizontal and vertical extents of chemical impact at the dumpsite?
3. What are the chemical forms of metals which may be toxic to marine organisms'
4. To what extent are the metals discharged at DWD-106 taken up by organisms, suspended
particles, and seafloor sediments?
Answers to these questions will provide a basis for evaluating the consequences of chemical
waste disposal at DWD-106 and for designing a future monitoring program to assure that this ocean
dumping does not materially degrade the quality of the marine environment. (Hausknecht and Kester.
December 1976).
Despite the limited information available on the chemical wastes site, it has been suggested as an alter-
nate sewage sludge dump site. The hope of avoiding a re< urrence of the ush kill and beach closure incidents
discussed in Chapter II is the reason most often cited for this suggested move. However, as reported in
Chapter II, results of the studies of the fish kill and beach closures have shown that both incidents were
basically the result of atypical atmospheric and hydrographic conditions, and that sludge dumping was at
most a minor contributing factor. Therefore, moving the sludge dumping operations to the chemical wastes
site would have no value as a preventive measure.
During its investigation of the fish kill and beach closures, EPA-Region II sought the opinion of other
federal and state agencies about the relationship of sludge dumping to these incidents. Specifically, EPA-
Region II asked NOAA, the USCG, FDA, ISC, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the New York State Department
69
D-9
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of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC), and NJDEP whether they thought sludge dumping was responsible
for the incidents and whether they would recommend relocation of the dump site:
In that during this past spring and summer, there have been several environmental episodes, mainly the
wash-up of floatables and trash on Long Island and New Jersey beaches, an extensive Kill of benthic
organisms m the New York Bight, and considerable press and political pressure to associate dumping
practices as a direct cause of these episodes, we would appreciate your comments regarding the fol-
lowing:
1. Does your Agency believe that dumping is the direct cause of these episodes? If so. do
you have any technical evidence to support this claim?
2. Do you maintain, as you have indicated in the past, the position that sludge dumping at the
existing site should be continued? If not, what would be your position on moving to either of the two sites
studied by NOAA and located roughly 60 miles offshore? What would be your opinion of moving the
dump site off the Continental Shelf to the present chemical wastes site? if you believe that the dump
site, on the basis of the recent incidents, should be relocated, what environmental factors do you con-
sider appropriate in that decision? (See Appendix I.)
In general, there was a lack of enthusiasm for any move from the existing dump site. Only one agency,
NJDEP, favored relocation; it recommended a gradual shift to the chemical wastes dump site, but only after
a thorough evaluation of the potential impacts in accordance with NEPA. Copies of the individual responses
can be found in Appendix I.
At the Toms River hearing in 1977, NJDEP restated its recommendation for a gradual shift to the chemi-
cal wastes site after a thorough environmental assessment of the consequences. At the same time, NOAA
slightly modified its position. In general, NOAA continues to strongly recommend against any move from the
existing dump site based on the fact that there is no demonstrated need for such a move. Nevertheless, if an
alternate site must be chosen, NOAA would prefer the chemical wastes site to a site in either the Northern
or Southern Area. However, NOAA's acceptance of the chemical wastes site as an alternate sludge dump
site is conditioned on the demonstration that "the net adverse environmental effects are (or are likely to be)
less as a result of dumping the material at DWD-106 [the chemical wastes site] than at the original dump
site." (in USEPA, May 31, 1977).
After reviewing all of the testimony submitted at the Toms River hearing in 1977, the hearing officer
briefly recounted the reasons why sludge dumping at the chemical wastes site would be environmentally
unacceptable:
The preponderance of informed scientific opinion urges extreme caution in dumping wastes in the
deep ocean, particularly wastes containing solid materials, because of the many unknowns about this
part of the environment. There is a strong feeling among marine scientists that it would be possible to
start long-range trends which would be undetectable until it was too late to take corrective measures
Specific concerns with the dumping of sewage sludge in the deep ocean are the possible persis-
tence of pathogens for long periods of time, the accumulation of biodegradable materials which could
ultimately float up undecayed to contaminate seas and beaches, the development of anaerobic deep
sea environments, and the damage to deep sea organisms which are used to extremely stable condi-
tions.
Based on this informed scientific opinion, it is concluded that dumping of sewage sludge at the
106-mile site (the chemical wastes site] has a potential for irreversible, long-range, and therefore unrea-
sonable degradation of the marine environment, and that the use of this site for this purpose would be
t^. to the intent of the Act [the MPRSA) and the Convention [the International Convention on the
Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter], (See Appendix C.)
Monitoring and Sunveilfance - Although precise information is not available, indications are that both
monitoring and surveillance of sewage sludge dumping at the chemical wastes site would be more difficult,
far more expensive, and perhaps less reliable than at the existing site. As NOAA observed in its baseline
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survey report on the chemical wastes site, monitoring is far more complicated at off-the-shelf sites:
The environmental effects of disposal in deeper waters are. .more difficult to measure and. hence, to
predict. This is due to factors such as greater depths of water and distances from shore and also to the
general paucity of environmental and biological information in off-the-shelf areas. In the case of DWD-
106 [the chemical wastes site] this situation is further complicated by the interactions of maior water
masses, Shelf Water, Slope Water, and Gulf Stream eddies. The DWD-106 is a complex oceanographic
area in which to assess natural environmental conditions and the impact of man's activities upon those
conditions (NOAA, June 1977; see Appendix H).
In testimony at the Toms River hearing, Kenneth Kamlet, representing the National Wildlife Federation,
expressed serious doubts about the feasibility of monitoring sludge dumping operations at the chemical
wastes site:
Relocation of sludge dumping to the 106-site [the chemical wastes site] would essentially deny
the opportunity to monitor the situation and render it vitually impossible to alter the course of events"
should corrective action be necessary.
This is a frequently cited concern. For example, at the EPA workshop on "Evaluation of Ocean
Dumping Criteria" convened at Airlie House, August 31 - September 1, 1973, a group chaired by Dr.
Edward D. Goldberg, and including among others, Drs. Dean F. Sumpus, Gilbert T. Rowe, and David
Menzel, concluded that, although off-Shelf dumpsite locations "would be amenable to mixing of liquids, it
is not possible to predict the effect and fate of solids at great depths and it would be difficult to monitor
their effects." Dr. Holger Jannasch has pointed out that "the feasibility of short-term studies (on deep-
sea biodegradation) is very limited," and that, for this and other reasons, "it will probably be difficult or
impossible "to show" — not because there will be no harm.. " (but because) (s)cientific evidence for or
against such an effect will be very difficult to obtain" (in USEPA, May 31, 1977).
In connection with the Toms River hearing, NOAA was asked by the hearing officer to provide informa-
tion on the feasibility of developing a program to monitor the effects of sludge dumping at the chemical
wastes site. In reply, NOAA stated that such a program would be possible but also very expensive:
The techniques required for a monitoring program are available. It is, however, more time-consuming
and thus more expensive to monitor a site which is 100 miles from shore and 2,000 meters deep than
one which is nearshore and shallow.
An effective monitoring program would be built upon our existing knowledge Initial work directed specifi-
cally at sewage sludge would be to define the volume of water through which the sludge settles, the
area of the bottom accepting the waste, the rate of water renewal, and rates of deep-sea sludge oxida-
tion The effects of sludge on deep-sea biota would be addressed through field sampling and by applica-
tion of specialized techniques for observation at low temperature and high pressure.
It is estimated that such a program would require about S2.5 million for each of its first two years and,
thereafter, about S1.0 million per annum (Martineau, October 11, 1977).
After evaluating all of the information presented at the Toms River hearing, the hearing Officer con-
cluded that it woul4 not be feasible to design an effective monitoring program for sewage sludge dumping at
the chemical wastes site (see Appendix C).
Similar problems arise in terms of surveillance at the chemical wastes site. As previously reported, the
U5CC has responsibility under the MPRSA for surveillance and other appropriate enforcement activity with
regard to ocean dumping, and the USCC - Third District is responsible for surveillance of ocean dumping in
the New York Bight.
At the Toms River hearing, Commander Mullen, representing the Third Coast Guard District, testified
about the difficulties of conducting a thorough surveillance program if sludge dumping is moved from the
existing site to either the 60-mile site or the chemical wastes site:
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Surveillance of sewage sludge disposal operations at the New York Bight Site (11-mile site) is
conducted by four Coast Guard vessels which are of the 82 foot and 95 foot classes. These are rela-
tively small vessels.
An average of four vessel patrols per week are conducted at this site. The patrols occur both
daytime and nighttime and are intended primarily to detect and to deter dumping outside of the dump-
sites, although other EPA requirements, affecting rate of discharge, discharge of floatables, and so forth
are also monitored.
In addition, a daily schedule of multi-mission helicopter patrols by Coast Guard Air Station Brook-
lyn is also conducted which in part, monitor the same activities. .. [The helicopters used in this program]
are of the type HH-52A, with an operational limitation of approximately 25 miles from shore.
Surveillance at the Industrial Waste Site [the chemical wastes site] is conducted by shipnder.
Currently, five petty officers at New York and two at Philadelphia are involved. It should be noted
at this point that the departure times of the vessels and barges are subject to substantial changes as a
result of mechanical failures or weather and tidal conditions.
As a result, shipriders are often tied up for considerable periods of time awaiting departure for a
particular disposal trip.
Considerable time is also involved in transporting the shipnder to the barge, which requires a
vehicle and an additional man.
Coast Guard National Policy is to provide 75% surveillance of toxic chemical dumps which are
disposed of at the Industrial Waste Site. With regard to surveillance of sewage sludge and other material
ocean dumped, Coast Guard policy is to provide 10% surveillance.
Now let us consider the feasibility of surveillance at each of the alternative sewage sludge dis-
posal sites.
As I mentioned earlier, surveillance at the 106-mile site [the chemical wastes site] is conducted
entirely by shipriders. Disposal of all the area's sewage sludge at the 106-mile site would cause a dra-
matic increase in the number of dumps occurring there.
In order to provide the 10% level of surveillance presently maintained over sewage sludge. Coast
Cmard shipriders > .ould have to be utilized for these additional missions.
This would require the allocation of new personnel at the Captain of the Port offices and exten-
sive use of reserve petty officers.
The use of reserve petty officers as shipriders is a concept that has recently been tested by the
Captain of the Port, Philadelphia. Some of the problems encountered included a lack of expertise with all
types of navigational equipment.
The reservists generally have to be provided with refresher training in the use of Loran A, Omega,
dead reckoning etc. Delays in vessel and barge departures due to weather and mechanical failure
causod the reservist to spend considerable time in stand-by status.
This tends to be a senous problem m terms of manpower utilization due to the short active duty
period of each reservist.
Helicopters would have the capacity to check vessels in transit to the 106-mile site, but surveil-
lance at the dump site is beyond the capabilities of the shore based HH052A [sic].
In the near future, we hope to implement an automated ocean dumping surveillance system.
This system is presently being field tested. Such a system would greatly facilitate our ability to
monitor dumps at any of the dump sites far offshore.
it is anticipated that regulations requiring installation of ODSS will be issued within six months.
Three modes of surveillance are being considered for the 60-mile site [in the Northern or South-
em Area], should sludge dumping be moved there. Shipriders could be utilized as at the Industrial Waste
Site and essentially the same problems would be encountered.
Although tthe time required to complete a mission would be less, the departure delays and time
required to transport the shiprider to and from the vessel would still exist.
In considering use of the 95 and 82 foot patrol boats for surveillance at the 60-mile site, new
problems arise that do not exist for surveillance at the present sludge dump.
The 82 and 95 foot class vessels are ill adapted to cruising during rough waters encountered on
the high seas.
Larger class vessels have been committed to offshore fisheries patrol and are fully utilized while
assionofj that program. While the possibility exists that the larger vessels used on fisheries patrol
could occasionally pass in the vicinity of the 60-mile dump site, it is unlikely that the frequency of this
happening could result in an effective surveillance program.
The proximity of the 11-mile site [the existing sewage sludge dump site] to Groups Sandy Hook
and Rockaway allows for easy access to the site and keeps the 82 and 95 foot patrol boats "close to
home" in an excellent position to respond to other missions most importantly search and rescue.
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It is important to note, that the 82 and 95 foot patrol boats are the primary SAR [search and
rescue] boats for Coast Guard Surveillance goal of 10% (sic].
As mentioned earlier, Coast Guard safety policy is to utilize the HH-52A helicopter up to 25 miles
from shore.
The proposed 60-mile site is 33 miles from Long Island, 8 miles beyond the aircraft's normal
range. In other words, the HH-52As could be used for occasional surveillance of barges and vessels in
transit to the 60-mile site, but actual surveillance of disposal operations at the site would by necessity be
limited
The Automated Ocean Dumping Surveillance System (ODSS) once available, would provide an
additional alternative to monitoring at the 60. mile site
In conclusion, the resulting surveillance programs for sewage sludge dumped at either the 60 mile
site or the 106 mile mile site would not be as effective as they are presently, unless suffice it lead time
were available to acquire additional shipriders, or unless implementation q1 the automated ocean dump-
ing surveillance system were to first take place.
In the intenm period, while attempts are being made to obtain additional resources, it is recom-
mended that a requirement be added to all permits issued for the 60 or 106 mile site for daytime and
nighttime that the master of the ocean dumping vessel prepare at the time of occurrence a navigational
overlay of the dumping vessel's trackline during the dumping operation, indicating the times and posi-
tions at entry and exit of dumpsite and beginning and end of dump.
It is our intention to make every effort to acquire the needed extra persons as soon as any
decision is made to move the sludge site, but the extent of lead time needed to actually obtain the
needed resources is not known at this time (in USEPA, May 31, 1977)
In summary, Commander Mullen's assessment was that there would be no insurmountable technologi-
cal problems associated with providing the standard 10 percent surveillance of sewage sludge dumping, at
the chemical wastes site. However, until the electronic surveillance device being tested by the USCC is
approved and installed on vessels engaged in ocean dumping, an effective surveillance program would be
economically and logistically burdensome, requiring substantial increases in equipment arid personnel as well
as the lead time to acquire the needed equipment and to adequately train Coast Guard reservists in its use.
In his report on the Toms River hearing, the hearing officer acknowledged the difficulties pointed out by
Commander Mullen, but concluded, "there is no indication that surveillance of dumping at the 106-mile site
[the chemical wastes site] would not be feasible" (see Appendix C).
Logistics and Economics - Even if there were enough data to determine the potential effects on the
marine environment of dumping sewage sludge at the chemical wastes site, and even if those effects were
found to be acceptable, the logistical and economic drawbacks associated with the distance to the chemical
wastes site would probably preclude this alternative At its closest point, the chemical wastes site is 210 km
(11 5 n mi) from the Sandy Hook-Rockaway Point transect. The limitations of the existing fleet are such that a
maximum distance of 120 km (65 n mi) was made one of the criteria for selecting an alternate sewage sludge
dump site. Transporting sludge to the chemical wastes site or to some other area off the continental shelf
would necessitate upgrading and expansion of the existing fleet.
As shown in Table 7, only twelve vessels are actually in use in the New York Bight, and one of those,
the barge Westco I, is not seaworthy for use beyond the existing sludge dump site. This reduces the total
fleet to eleven and'the total carrying capacity to 41,374 cu m (54,112 cu yd) or about 91 percent of the
carrying capacity of the full thirteen-vessel fleet.
At an average speed of 13 km/hr (7 knots), a tanker would take approximately 54 hours to make a
round trip to the chemical wastes site (see Table 29). At an average speed of 9 km/hr (5 knots), a barge
would take approximately 72 hours. These time estimates include 10 hours per trip for docking and loading
and 5 hours per trip for discharging the sludge. The 5-hour discharge limitation was imposed by the USCC
for safety reasons at the existing dump site. It is used here to facilitate time comparisons between the existing
dump site and the chemical wastes site. If the chemical wastes site were actually to be used, the time
required for discharge would be substantially greater because the USCG safety limit would not apply and,the
discharge rate would have to be established in accordance with section 227.8 of the current ocean dumping
regulations (see Appendix B). Thus, the round trip time to the chemical wastes site would be 54 hours plus
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for a tanker and 72.hours plus for a barge. A round trip to the existing sewage sludge dump site takes about
26 hours for a tanker and 30 hours for a barge.
Given the time constraints associated with the chemical wastes site and assuming that necessary over-
hauls would put each vessel out of service for about one month per year, the maximum number of annual
trips to the site would be 147 for each tanker and 111 for each barge. It is most unlikely that the maximum
number of trips could actually be made, however, because this would require that each vessel be in round-
the-clock service for the other eleven months of the year.
Even if optimum conditions prevailed, the total volume of sludge that could be transported to the
chemical wastes site by the available eleven-vessel fleet (six tankers and five barges) would be 5.0 million cu
m (6.6 million cu yd) per year. Almost 4.0 million cu m (5.3 million cu yd) of sludge were dumped at the
existing site in 1977, and over 6.0 million cu m (7.9 million cu yd) are projected to be dumped tn 1978 (see
Tables 6 and 9).
The situation could be improved somewhat by the addition of the Liquid Waste No. /, which is now in
use in Puerto Rico. This would bring the number of vessels to twelve (six tankers and six barges) and the total
hauling capacity to about 5.3 million cu m (7.0 million cu yd) per year. However, since this volume will
probably be surpassed in 1978, fleet augmentation cannot be avoided if a site off the continental shelf is
chosen for sludge dumping.
The sludge dumping fleet could be enlarged either by hiring or by constructing the needed vessels. Both
of these options would be prohibitively expensive, and the latter would also be infeasible considering the
time required to construct the needed vessels and the scheduled phase out of ocean dumping in 1981.
Expanding the fleet of dumping vessels and increasing the travel time for each vessel in order to make
use of the chemical wastes site would dramatically raise the cost of sludge dumping for those municipalities
that nor/ hold ocean imping permits (see Table 6):
Cost per Cost per Cost per
Dump Site Wet Ton cu m cu yd
Existing $1.25 $1.95 $1.47
Northern or
Southern Area 4.00 to 5.00 6.30 to 7.80 4.70 to 5.90
Chemical Wastes 8.00 to 10.00 12.50 to 15.60 9.40 to 11.80
Thus, the cost of using the chemical wastes site would be twice the cost of using a dump site in the Northern
or Southern Area, and six to eight times the cost of continuing to use the existing sewage sludge dump site.
Had the chemical wastes site been used for sludge dumping in 1977, it would have cost the municipal
permittees somewhere between $49.0 million and $61.0 million instead of the $7.6 million that it cost to use
the existing siig. By 1981, use of the chemical wastes site for sludge dumping would cost ,the municipal
permittees somewhere between $124.0 million and $154.0 million. The cost to New York City alone could
be as much as $64.0 million; currently, sewage sludge dumping at the existing site costs the city $2.2 million
per year (Samowitz, June 14, 1977).
Other costs would rise as well, including the cost of monitoring the dump site and the cost of the
USCC's surveillance operations. ,
Its dubious environmental acceptability and its extreme cost are the major but not the only drawbacks
to ou>. sewage sludge at the chemical wastes site. Greater navigation hazards would result from the
dumping vessels' increased travel time on the open ocean. Short dumping, including emergency dumping,
would almost certainly increase. Added to this is the fact that using the chemical wastes site for sludge
dumping would be of negligible benefit to the water quality of the Bight Apex. Of all of the pollutant sources
in the Bight Apex, sludge dumping is hardly the most significant, and its removal to the chemical wastes site
could not by itself effect a substantial change in water quality.
Effect of Using the Chemical Wastes Site on the Ability of Dumpers to Meet the December 31,
Dsjsitine - The prohibitive cost associated with using the chemical wastes site for sewage sludge
disposal wo'jW threaten the ultimate objective of terminating sludge dumping by December 31, 1981. The
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economic resources of the communities involved are finite, and if they are spent on transporting sludge to
the chemical wastes site, they will not be available for implementing land-based disposal methods. This
particular aspect of using the chemical wastes site is a matter of concern not only to the communities that
would have to bear the cost, but to federal agencies, to environmental groups, and to some of the Congress-
men who were instrumental in amending the MPRSA to specify the 1981 deadline (see Appendices C and
D)
Although NOAA would prefer that the chemical wastes sile rather than a site in the Northern or South-
ern Area be used in an emergency between .now and 1981, NOAA opposes summarily moving sludge
dumping from the existing site to the chemical wastes site:
NOAA is not in agreement with the proposal to move the sludge dump site which serves the New
York-New Jersey metropolitan area from the Apex to the deep water site at 106 miles [the chemical
wastes site].
Our position is that no need has been established to require moving the existing dump site, and
that all sewage sludge dumping should be halted by 1981
We are concerned that an open door policy of sewage sludge could ultimately lead to the situa-
tion in which most or substantial amounts of east coast municipal and industrial waste dumping is earned
out at that site.
Such a policy would seriously undermine efforts to encourage ocean dumpers to seek land based
alternatives to ocean dumping [emphasis added) (in USEPA, May 31, 1977).
A similar view was expressed by Kenneth Kamlet, representing the National Wildlife Federation, at the
Toms River hearing in 1977. In responding to the argument that the increased cost of using the chemical
wastes site would make land-based disposal more cost-competitive with ocean dumping and therefore more
attractive to the municipalities involved, Mr. Kamlet stated:
In the first place, any significant increment between now and the end of 1981 (the deadline for
completing the phase-out of sewage sludge ocean dumping) in the cost of sewage sludge disposal could
as easily discourage as encourage the expedited phase-out of sludge dumping, if it had the effect of
diverting into continued ocean dumping limited funds which would otherwise be available to implement a
dumping phase-out [emphasis added].
In the second place, if the cost increment for relocating the dumpsite were not substantial
enough to jeopardize the implementation of land based alternatives, chances are they would also not be
substantial enough to provide much if any incentive to accelerate a dumping phase-out (in USEPA, May
31, 1977).
Congressman Edwin Forsythe, the ranking minority member of the House Subcommittee on Oceanog-
raphy, also testified against moving sludge dumping to an alternate site, particularly the chemical wastes site:
A decision regarding the location of municipal sewage sludge dumping is a critical resource
management problem. Since the environmental and fiscal resources at stake are extremely valuable, our
decision-making must be based on rationality. Attempts to sensationalize the issue, and politically expe-
dient pressure to move the problem "out of sight", "out of mind", must be resisted.
The net effects at present of a dumpsite move would be the following: a new site would be
contaminated, with little recovery of existing dumpsites.
Municipalities will exhaust their financial resources on increased transportation costs and ocean
dumping barge construction while alternative treatment methods go unfunded [emphasis added]. The
government will investigate and monitor new dumpsites at the time when Congress has reaffirmed its
unequivocal intent to end ocean dumping of sewage sludge by 1981.
Finally, responsible parties seeking permanent solutions to the region's waste disposal problem
will have their efforts diffused if a quick-fix, "out-of-sight", "out-of-mind" non-solution is adopted.
I am particularly concerned about the possiblity of dumping sewage sludge at Deepwater dump-
site 106 [the chemical wastes site].
The sensitivity of biota, the likely impact on fisheries, the difficulty of policing, the high probability
of short dumps, and the impossible task of thoroughly monitoring adverse impacts at the site clearly
indicate that clumping at the 106-site could be an environmental nightmare (in USEPA, May 31, 1977)
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Congressman Forsythe and the Chairman of the House Subcommittee on Oceanography later reiterated
these same concerns during EPA's 1978 ocean dumping authorization hearings (see Appendix D).
The estimated cost to municipalities of using the chemical wastes site for sludge dumping is shown in-
Table 30. An increase of 641 to 800 percent over the cost of using the existing dump site between 1978 and
1981 is projected. This large an increase would almost certainly detract from the search for alternative land-
based disposal methods. As the hearing officer's report for the Toms River hearing concludes:
None of the municipalities stated that they could not meet the added costs, but they did point out
that there would be difficulties in funding, and that these costs might have to come from funds presently
allocated for implementing alternatives [emphasis added] (See Appendix C.)
Modification of Dumping Methods
Current sludge dumping procedures, as set forth in each ocean dumping permit, require that the sludge
be discharged within the designated dump site, at a uniform rate of 15,500 gallons per n mi (27,441 liters
per km) and a speed of at least 3 knots (5 km/hr). Vessel traverses must be at least 0.5 n mi (1 km) apart.
These requirements have been stipulated by the USCG for safety reasons in this heavily trafficked area. They
would not be applicable if sludge dumping were moved to a site outside the Bight Apex
Methods of sludge release considered in this EIS include simple overboard dumping, jet discharge, and
discharge in the vessel's wake (the present method).
Overboard Dumping. This method consists of simply releasing the sludge from the vessel; the material
descends by its own momentum. Since its vertical motion is affected by buoyancy, the initial distribution is
mainly within the surface water layers.
Set Discharge. This method involves pumping the sludge from the vessel through an opening
beneath the surface. It is effective in passing the material through the surface layers, but it results in a more
confined initial distribution, usually at the depth of neutral buoyancy of the sludge.
Discharge in the Vessel's Wake (Present Method). This method results in high initial mixing and
dilution, but the sludge's vertical motion is still dependent on density differences between it and the receiv-
ing waters.
Considering the 30 to 60 m (100 to 200 ft) depths and the flow patterns in the Northern and Southern
Areas, the present dispersive method of sludge dumping should be continued at an alternate dump site for
the following reasons:
— Sewage sludge dumped at or near the surface will settle over a wide area because of its low bulk
density, 1.01 g/cu cm.
— Differences in the thermohaline (temperature and salinity) density structure of the ocean would
probably slow the settling of sludge under stratified conditions and would negate the effective-
ness of a pimped subsurface discharge.
— Dispersion at either the Northern or Southern Area is primarily a function of sea state, depth, and
water mass movements. As such, it is not likely to be improved by altering the present dumping
technique.
— Given the volumes of dumped sludge projected through 1981 and the limitations of the present
fleet, use of sophisticated dumping techniques would probably be both technically impossible
and economically prohibitive. Moreover, such techniques would be of little value in improving
dispersion patterns.
— Monitoring of the dump site would be facilitated if dumping were limited to a specific surface
area.
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LAND-BASED ALTERNATIVES
although an immediate changeover to land-based disposal of sewage sludge m (he New "tork New
'er^es metropolitan area is not feasible, current predictions are that land-based methods can be implemented
in time to meet the December 31, 1981 deadline for phasing out ocean dumping of sewage sludge.
In |une 19/5 and'June 1976, ISC issued reports on Phases 1 and 2, respectively, of a three-phase
sludge management study funded by EPA In October 1976, the study was completed with the publication
of ISC's sludge disposal management plan for the New York-New lersey metropolitan area. The study's
purpose was to describe the feasible land-based alternatives for sludge disposal and method* of implement-
ing them As the studs progressed and more information was gathered, ISC modified its recommendations
accordingly, the final report, published in October 1976, sets forth ISC's current position on the question of
sludge management in the metropolitan area
ISC Phase 1 Report
The Phase 1 report was primarily concerned with the following land-based methods of sewage sludge
disposal direct land application, incineration, pyrolysis, and use as a soil conditioner or fertilizer.
Direct Land Application Sewage sludge in its liquid form can sometimes be applied to the land as a
soil conditioner or fertilizer. Those characteristics of sludge that affect its suitability for direct land application
include the organic matter content, the available nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and trace
elements), the quantities of heavy metals, and the toxic organics (especially chlorinated hydrocarbons). In
general, three tactors limit the immediate implementation of direct land application of metropolitan area
sludge.
First, the sludge generated by metropolitan wastewater treatment facilities contains high concentrations
of heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc) and significant quantities of
toxic organics (chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, lindane, and mirex). If these substances leached into
the soils underlying a land-application site, they would be harmful to adjacent streams and groundwater
aquifers.
Second, metropolitan area sludge is low in nutrients (as are most domestic sewage sludges) in compari-
son with commercial fertilizers,
Fmallv, land is not available in the metropolitan area for a large-scale land-application program The
cost ot transporting large quantities of sludge to suitable sites outside the metropolitan area appears to be
prohibitive.
Incineration Sewage sludge incineration results in waste gases, particulates, and a relatively small
quantity of sterile ash that retains most of the heavy metals originally present Air pollution controls, such as
wet scrubbers, are necessary to remove the particulates, odors, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile toxic
organics, and airborne heavy metals (cadmium, lead, and mercury). Multiple-hearth incineration has the least
potential tor air pollution; it can burn without auxiliary fuel (gas, oil, or coal), and it is compatible with a
phased change-over to pyrolysis. The ash, of course, which contains heavy metals, must ultimately be dis-
posed of in an environmentally acceptable manner
To burn without auxiliary fuel, sludge must generally be dewatered, that is, the liquid content must be
reduced from its usual range of 93 to 97 percent to less than 65 percent
Although the air pollution problems posed by this method of sludge disposal could be minimized by
incinerating the material on ships or offshore platforms, the costs cannot be justified since other, more eco-
nomical, methods ot sludge disposal are available
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Pyrolysis. Destructive distillation, or pyrolysis, is the process of breaking down organic matter, such as
sewage sludge, by heating it in the absence of oxygen. The resulting by-products are a number of gases, a
carbon/ash char, and a liquid waste containing a wide variety of organic compounds Pyrolvsis is generally
cheaper than incineration because it produces fewer particulates and thus requires less in the way of air
pollution controls. The by-products, char and gases, can be used as fuels. To date, however, no large-scale
pyrolysis tests have been conducted on sewage sludge alone, so prior to implementation of this alternative, a
pilot demonstration plant would have to be built and successfully operated.
Use as a Soil Conditioner. Problems with the use of sewage sludge as a soil conditioner or fertilizer
are much the same as those with direct land application: the high concentrations of heavy metals and toxic
organic compounds must be removed or reduced. In addition, the sludge must be dried to 5 or 10 percent
moisture content and fortified with nutrients before it can be used as a fertilizer. Finally, there is the problem
of promoting consumer acceptance.
Conclusions and Recommendations. The ISC Phase 1 report (1975) drew the following conclusions
regarding land-based sludge disposal methods for the metropolitan area and the eventual, phased implemen-
tation of those methods.
The most feasible alternative to ocean dumping would be pyrolysis (the sludge having been dewatered
with filter presses). This conclusion was based on considerations of environmental impact, economic feasibil-
ity, and energy recovery. Pyrolysis has the least potential for negative impacts on water, air, or land re-
sources. It could be implemented within ten years.
Multiple-hearth incineration could be implemented sooner than pyrolysis, and the incinerators could be
converted to pyrolysis units once that process was demonstrated to be successful. Incinerators, however,
would face more difficult siting problems because of their potential for air pollution and because of the
possibility of local corr-munity resistance. The incinerators needed to handle the volumes of sludge'projected
for the year 2000 would cost on the order of $400 to $500 million (in 1975 dollars).
Direct land application could be implemented only in fringe areas (outside the metropolitan area),
where population density is low and large tracts of land are available, and where agricultural enterprises
would provide a market for sludge-based fertilizers and soil conditioners.
A small-scale pilot study should be undertaken immediately with the aid of an equipment manufacturer
who is familiar with both pyrolysis technology and multiple-hearth furnace construction. The purpose would
be to identify and define the required engineering parameters prior to full-scale demonstration plant con-
struction.
The complete text of the Phase 1 report's conclusions and recommendations is presented as part of
Appendix J.
ISC Phase 2 Report
The object of the Phase 2 report (ISC, 1976a) was to develop and recommend a specific, coordinated
disposal program based on the technical findings of the Phase 1 report (ISC, 1975). In sum, the Phase 2
report recommends the construction of regional pyrolysis plants at six separate locations in the metropolitan
area and only limited hand application of sludge.
Incineration and Pyrolysis. To date, pyrolysis of sludge alone has been studied only in pilot-scale tests;
large-scale demonstrations have utilized solid wastes. The ISC's Phase 1 report indicated that multiple-hearth
furnaces could be built by 1981, initially operated as incinerators, and then converted to pyrolysis units as
that technology developed. Between the publication of the Phase 1 and Phase 2 reports, it was learned that
such furnaces could be designed and constructed as pyrolysis units directly during the same time span;
incineration was therefore not considered further.
The ISC evaluated the retention of anaerobic digestion capabilities at individual plants because a num-
ber of operating wastewater treatment plants have, or plan to construct, these digesters. It was found that
maintenance of existing anaerobic digesters was cost-effective, but that new digesters should not be built if
sludge was to be pyrolyzed.
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Land Application, Composting, and Landfilling. Land application and composting are feasible sludge
disposal alternatives for outlying plants in the metropolitan area. These plants could form regional groups for
direct land application or for sludge composting.
Landfilling of stabilized, dewatered sludge is cost-effective only for the smaller suburban wastewater
treatment facilities, and only if landfill sites are available. Landfilling, however, should be considered a short-
term solution, to be used while long-term direct land application or composting programs are instituted. In
addition, landfilling was found not to be feasible for sludges produced by treatment plants in highly urban-
ized portions of the metropolitan area because of the larger quantities of sludge produced and the limited
lifespans of available landfill sites.
Sludge Management. The plan recommended in ISC's Phase 2 report calls for pyrr'ysis of sludge
produced in urban treatment plants and land application or composting of sludge produced in outlying
plants. The recommended pyrolysis sites and areas to be served are:
1. Port Newark (New )ersey regional), serving Bergen, Hudson, and Union counties, and the Passaic
Valley Sewerage Commissioners.
2. Sayreville, serving the Middlesex County Sewerage Authority.
3. Cedar Creek, serving Nassau County.
4. Twenty-Sixth Ward, serving Coney Island, lamaica, Rockaway, and Twenty-Sixth Ward.
5. Hunts Point, serving Bowery Bay, Hunts Point, Tallmans Island, and Wards Island.
6. Fresh Kills (New York regional), serving Newtown Creek, North River, Owls Head, and Port
Richmond.
Conclusions and Recommendations. Pyrolysis is favored as a particularly promising means of dispos-
ing of the large volume of municipal sewage sludge expected to be produced by the year 2000. The ISC
Phase 2 report concludes that if future federal policies prohibit or significantly curtail the ocean dumping of
sludge, pyrolysis is the best alternative for its disposal The report also recommends the construction of six
regional pyrolysis facilities (listed above). Only limited amounts of sludge are seen as suitable for direct land
application.
The ISC concludes that direct land application of either treated or untreated sludge in quantities suffi-
cient to dispose of the expected volumes would be dangerous because of the large heavy metal and toxic
organic content, and the threat of surface and groundwater contamination. Pyrolysis is also preferred to
incineration because units could be more easily decentralized. While pyrolysis equipment capable of reduc-
ing sludge is not yet in commercial operation, recent technological advances make it appear that the method
could be in practical use by the early 1980s.
While the ISC acknowledges the urgent need for the cessation of ocean dumping, it considers EPA's
phase-out date of December 31, 1981 to be somewhat optimistic.
The complete text of the Phase 2 report's summary chapter is presented as part of Appendix ).
I
ISC Sludge Disposal Management Program
The latest ISC report (1976b) presents ISC's plan for sewage sludge management in the New York-New
jersey metropolitan area. It combines the Phase 1 and Phase 2 reports with an examination of legal-
institutional implementation problems.
In general, the sludge management plan currently recommended by ISC is very similar to the one
recommended in the Phase 2 report. The major difference, is that ISC now places a greater emphasis on
composting followed by land spreading. The sludges produced by several treatment plants in the metropoli-
tan area are now suitable for composting and land spreading. Other sludges are still unsuitable, primarily
because of their heavy metal and synthetic organics content However, pretreatment of industrial wastewa-
ters could resolve these problems.
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Relative to pyrolysis, the ISC recommends five facility sites rather than the six given in the Phase 2
report:
1. Port Newark (New jersey regional), serving Bergen, Hudson, and Union counties, and the Passaic
Valley Sewerage Commissioners.
2. Sayreville, serving the Middlesex County Sewerage Authority.
3. Cedar Creek, Serving Nassau Countv.
4. Twenty-Sixth Ward, serving Newtown Creek, Owls Head, Coney Island, lamaica, Rockawav,
and Twenty-Sixth Ward.
5. Hunts Point, serving Bowery Bay, Hunts Point, Tallmans Island, and Wards Island.
The ISC makes no recommendation relative to the North River or Red Hook treatment plants that are being
constructed in New York City; both plants are scheduled to go into operation in the mid-1980's.
The complete text of the summary chapter of the October 1976 report is presented as part of Appendix
J.
Testing and Implementation
As noted at the start of this chapter, the testing and implementation phases of the sludge disposal
management program have begun. Since no large-scale pyrolysis test had been conducted on sewage sludge
alone, ISC recommended, in its Phase 1 Report, that a pilot demonstration plant be built and successfully
operated, in 1976, EPA funded such a pilot test. Nichols Engineering and Research Corporation was con-
tracted to test sludge pyrolysis at its Belle Mead, New jersey, research facility. Sludges from several treat-
ment plants were chemically conditioned, dewatered, and pyrolyzed under various design conditions in a
Nichols Herreshoff Multiple Hearth Furnace. Nichols has reported that pyrolysis can be used as a commer-
cially feasible and cost effective thermal destruction method for sludge disposal without using fuel, including
afterburning at 759"C (MOOT) (ISC, 1978).
In December 1976, a sludge composting project in Camden, New lersey, was funded by EPA and
N|DEP This project uses a technique developed by the U S Department of Agriculture's experimental sludge
composting station in Beltsville, Maryland. During the process, which takes a total of thirty days, dewatered
sludge sr> mixed with a bulking agent, such as wood chips, corn cobs, or waste paper, and stacked in piles.
The piles are blanketed with an inert material, and air is drawn through the piles. Aerobic biological degrada-
tion increases temperatures within the piles to 82°C (180°F), thus destroying most pathogenic bacteria.
The Camden composting facility, which was dedicated in June 1978, established several major environ-
mental precedents. It is the largest composting operation of its type in the United States. It is also the first
such municipal undertaking in the New York-New jersey area. Most important, it is the first instance of
cessation of ocean dumping by a large municipal sewage treatment plant (58,118 cu m or 76,471 cu yd per
year).
All municipal permittees in EPA-Region II are required by permit condition to select and implement an
environmentally acceptable alternative to ocean dumping on or before December 31, 1981. Each permittee
ha? been given a final phase-out date based upon the individual permit implementation schedule Each of the
permittees is on a strict implementation schedule, and is closely monitored by EPA-Region II. All permittees
are afforded the opportunity to comply with this condition using federal funds available through the FWPCA
(the Clean Water Act), and most have chosen this path. Examples of the technologies being considered or
currently being implemented are:
Camden
Middletown Township
Northeast Monmouth Composting
bnden-Roselle
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Nassau County
Bergen County
Joint Meeting of
Essex and Union
Counties
Rahway Valley
Wayne Township
Lincoln Park
Pequannock Township
Pompton Plains
Oakland
Middlesex County
Glen Cove
New York City
Westchester County
Composting of sludge and use as landfill cover as an interim solution;
co-recovery with solid wastes as a long-term solution
Incineration
Multiple hearth incineration or starved air combustion
Co-incineration with solid wastes
Composting or landfilling of digested dewatered sludge as an interim
solution; utilization of other technology (pyrolysis, co-recovery, etc.) or
shipment out of the city area for composting as a long-term solution
Use of existing excess capacity in solid waste incinerators and com-
posting of remainder
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