Mobilizing To Ban Lead From Drinking Water, Conference Held November 17, 1988, Denver, Colorado



Mobilizing
To Ban Lead From
Drinking Water
November 17, 1988
Denver, Colorado
Co-Sponsored By:
Drinking Water Branch
Water Management Division
Region VIII
Environmental Protection Agency
UA Plumbers and Gas Fitters
Local Union Number 3
Regional Inspectors Association
(Colorado Chapter of International
Association of Plumbing and
Mechanical Officials)
Contract Administration Fund/Colorado
Representing MCA/Colorado and
Colorado Association PHCC
UA Pipefitters
Local Union Number 208
Center for Public-Private
Sector Cooperation
Graduate School of Public Affairs
University of Colorado at Denver

-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
YELLOW GROUP
Mr. Gordon L. Aleshire
Ms. Trudie Lay
Mr. Leroy Aragon
Mr. Charles Madison
Mr. Willard R. Chappell
Mr. Dannie McMillan
Mr. Scott Daniels
Mr. Rick Norberg
Mr. Max H. Dodson
Mr. Len Pardee
Mr. Ralph Dubnar
Mr. William R. Roberts
Mr. Paul E. Emrick
Mr. Tim Schleer
Mr. Larry Fay
Mr. James M. Simpson
Mr. Robert Grossman
Mr. James S> Sparks
Mr. Nathan Guinn
Mr. Marty Swickard
Mr. J. Eric Holgerson
Mr. George Talbott
Mr. Don Johnson
Mr. Elmer Walston
Mr. Lonnie K. Kruise
Mr. Peter Ware

Mr. Bruce L. Wilson
WHERE TO BE, WHEN:
12:45 - 1:35	Discussion: What if Lead use Continues
—In the Lecture Room
1:40 - 2:30	Demonstration: Use of Lead Free Materials
—In the Laboratory
2:35 - 3:25	Discussion: Problems and Solutions
—In the "MEE" Room

-------
£.?
2%7
£%
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION VIII
999 18th STREET - SUITE^OO
DENVER, COLORADO 80202-
u
hf o
November 17. 1988
Ref: 8WM-DW
Open Letter to Attenders of the Conference on MOBILIZING TO BAN
LEAD FROM DRINKING WATER.
Welcome to today's conference. The sponsors believe you
will both learn and contribute to the topics discussed here
today. We hope all of you will express your questions and
concerns fully. We are here to listen and learn.
Lead toxicity and exposure are very complex subjects,. It
will take the cooperative effort of many different groups to
effectively reduce exposure to this commonly used material.
Health researchers are learning more about lead even as we
meet. And, unfortunately, most of what they learn is not ,good.
Lead affects our kidneys, central nervous system, cardiovascular
system, and circulatory system. As we learn more, it seems that
these effects are felt even at relatively low levels of expo.sur.e.
Only a few years ago, leaded paints and lead in the
environment from the burning of leaded gasolines were by far the
biggest problem. Now, as we have progressed with reducing these
sources, the contribution from drinking water has become very
significant. EPA estimates that 20% of all exposure to lead
comes from drinking water; and, the percentage rises to as much
as 30% for the highest risk group - our children.
For the most part, our public water suppliers are not the
source of the problem. There are approximately 79,000 public
water supplies in the United States that are used regularly -by
the same group of people. Of the 54,000 which EPA estimates to
have unacceptable lead levels at the user's tap?.880 -have
elevated lead levels in their source water. The rest comes-from
corrosion of piping materials - generally in the house plumbing.
Congress has directed.EPA and the States to take a two-
pronged approach to this problem. EPA has proposed its.most
substantial drinking water regulation to date in order to cope
with reducing levels of lead in drinking water drawn at the
user's tap. At the same time, EPA and the States are
implementing Congress' ban on the use of lead pipes, solders and
fluxes.
Today's conference focuses on the lead;ban. Many people see
the ban as the long-term solution to the lead-^n drinking water
problem. Almost all see it also as an important ¦ fir^st step in

-------
reducing exposure. Those of you here today can have a major
impact as we work together to "GET THE LEAD OUT".
All of our sponsors wish you the best with your future, and
thank you for taking time from your busy schedule to attend this
conference. You will notice from the agenda that there will be
time for discussion. We hope you will share your experiences and
questions with us. If we work together, closely, we really can
make life better for ourselves, our children, and future
generations.
Sincerely,
.-n
/
L
-------
PAT CROTTY OUTLINE
WELCOME
I. Why Are We Having the Meeting?
o Topics addressing exposure to lead and resulting
harmful health impacts are complex.
o Actions addressing the risks require cooperative
efforts of many groups who are represented here today.
o Today's meeting is opportunity for all groups
affected by lead ban to exchange information and
perspectives.
II. What Are the Harmful Health Impacts of Lead?
o Lead has harmful effects on kidneys, and central
nervous, cardiovascular, and circulatory systems.
o Lead is particularly harmful to pregnant women and
children.
o Very recent scientific discoveries are demonstrating
that lead is harmful in much smaller quantities than
thought previously.
III. Why Is Drinking Water A Significant Source of Lead?
o Paint and lead in the environment from burned
gasoline were the biggest sources of lead exposure.
o Now, the relative contribution of lead from drinking
water has increased, because exposure from these other
sources have moderated due to environmental programs of
the past few years.
o Drinking water is estimated to contribute an average
of 20 % to average lead exposure, and 30 % for
children.
IV. How Does Lead Get Into Drinking Water?
o Potentially harmful quantities of lead are estimated
to occur at the user's tap in 54,000 of 79,000 public
water systems nationally.
o Corrosion of lead from plumbing materials in housing
and other buildings is the source of lead in all but
880 of the 54,000 systems.
1
-------
V. What Are the Programs Mandated By U.S. Congress for
Eliminating Lead In Drinking Water?
o Regulation requiring water suppliers to lower
corrosivity.
o Ban on use of plumbing materials containing lead—
today's focus.
VI. Who Are the Co-Sponsors and Individuals You Can Talk With
Today?
o Thank participants for coming,
o Co-sponsors.
o Introduce individuals available for personally taking
comments and questions.
2
-------
o
o
m
33
m
z
o
m
>
o
m
z
o
>
-------
REGISTRATION
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
AGENDA
MORNING SESSION: MEETING HALL
WELCOME
Patrick Crotty, Chief, Drinking Water
Branch, EPA Region VIII
HEALTH IMPACTS OF LEAD—WHY IS LEAD BAN NEEDED?
Ellen Mangione, Colorado Department of Health
HOW LEAD GETS INTO DRINKING WATER--PART I
* WHY HAS LEAD BEEN USED?
Jim Olsztynski, Editor, Plumbing and
Mechanical
BREAK
HOW LEAD GETS INTO DRINKING WATER—PART II
* HOW DOES LEAD GET INTO THE WATER?
William Coffey, Manager, Copper
Development Association
THE EPA'S RESPONSE - LEAD IN DRINKING WATER PROGRAM
Marc Alston, Chief, Public Water Section
EPA Region VIII
LUNCH
8:15-9:00
9:00-9:20
9:20-10:00
10:00-10:40
10:40-11:00
11:00-11:40
11:40-12:00
12:00-12:45
AFTERNOON SESSION: ROTATING ROOMS
DEMONSTRATION: USE OF LEAD-FREE MATERIALS
--IN THE LABORATORY
William Coffey, Manager Copper Development
Associates
12:45-1:35—RED GROUP
1:40-2:30 YELLOW GROUP
2:35-3:25—BLUE GROUP
-------
DISCUSSION: WHAT COULD HAPPEN IF LEAD USE CONTINUES?
~ IN THE LECTURE ROOM
Speaker: Stephanie Pollack, Director of Lead
Poisoning Project, Conservation Law
Foundation
Facilitator: Lloyd Burton, Associate Professor,
Graduate School of Public Affairs,
University of Colorado at Denver
12:45-1:35—YELLOW GROUP
1:40-2:30—BLUE GROUP
2:35-3:25 RED GROUP
DISCUSSION: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: STATE AND LOCAL EXPERIENCE
— IN THE "MEE" ROOM
Panelists: Dave Williams, Plumbing Inspector,
Aurora, Colorado
Perry C. Tyree, President, Tyree
Associates
Glenn Bodnar, Colorado Department
of Health
George K. Waterhouse, Colorado Examining
Board of Plumbers
Facilitator: George Weber, Lead Conference
Coordinator, EPA Region VIII
12:45-1:35—BLUE GROUP
1:40-2:30 RED GROUP
2:35-3:25—YELLOW GROUP
BREAK 3:25-3:45
CLOSING SESSION: MEETING HALL
WHAT NEXT? MOBILIZING A PARTNERSHIP 3:45-4:45
Carl Norbeck, Center for Public-Private Sector
Cooperation, Graduate School of Public Affairs,
University of Colorado at Denver
ADJOURNMENT
4:45
-------
o
o
2
33
m
z
o
rn
5
X
H
O
5
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
PARTICIPANTS
Mr. Gordon L. Aleshire
Supervisor of Plan Review
City of Lakewood
445 South Allison Parkway
Lakewood, CO 80226
(w) (303) 987-7568
Mr. Leroy Aragon
Senior Meter Service Worker
City of Thornton
9500 Civic Center Drive
Thornton, CO 80229
(w) (303) 538-7411
Mr. Bob Benson
Toxicologist
EPA Region VIII
Drinking Water Branch
999 18th Street, Suite
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(w) (303) 293-1425,
(h) (303)670-1151
Ms. Sharon Bernia
Chemist
City of Westminster
Semper Water Treatment Plant
6777 W. 88th Ave.
Westminster, CO 80030
(w) (303) 430-2400 ext. 2462
500 (8WM-DW)
Mr. Terry Armbruster
Engineering Technician
.S. Forest Service
iil7 7 West 8th Avenue
Lakewood, CO 80225
(w) (303) 236-9450
Ms. Judy Buehrer
Associate Editor
Mainstream Newspapers
American Water Works Association
6666 West Quincy Avenue
Denver, CO 80235
(w) (303) 794-7711
Mr. Gerry Backhaus
Director of Public Works
City of Evans
3700 Golden Street
Evans, CO 80620
(w) (303) 339-3476,
(h) (303) 678-5548
Mr. Dale Camblin
Business Manager
Pipefitters Local 208
6350 Broadway
Denver, CO 80216
(w) (303) 428-4721
Mr. Raymond Beierle
Senior Building Inspector
Adams County Building Section
4955 E. 74th Ave.
Commerce City, CO 80022-1535
(w) (303) 287-5249
Mr. Garold G. Carlson
Water Resources Technician
Town of Castle Rock
413 Wilcox Street
Castle Rock, CO 80104
(w) (303) 688-9785,
(h) (303) 988-8336
-------
Mr. Richard Casebier
Plumbing Inspector
Examining Board of Plumbers
1390 Logan Street, Suite 400
Denver, CO 8020 3
w) (303) 894-2300,
(h) (719) 593-7789
Mr. Willard R. Chappell
Professor
University of Colorado at Denver
Campus Box 136, 1200 Larimer Street
Denver, CO 80204-5300
(w) (303) 556-3460,
(h) (303) 494-5168
Mr. Prank D. Conner
Chief Plumbing and Fire Protection
Inspector
Denver Building Department
3480 York St., Section "H"
Denver, CO 80205
(w) (303) 575-2447,
(h) (303) 937-0555
Mr. Steve Crow
Acting Water Distribution Supervisor
City of Thornton
500 Civic Center Drive
hornton, CO 80229
(w) (303) 538-7411
Mr. Scott Daniels
Utility Analyst
City of Arvada, Utilities Division
8101 Ralston Road
Arvada, CO 80002
(w) (303) 431-3035,
(h) (303) 733-1115
Mr. Max H. Dodson
Director
Water Management Division
U.S. EPA Region VIII
999 18th Street, Suite 500
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(w) (303) 293-1542,
(h) (303) 232-2615
Mr. Robert Doerges
Continental Water Systems, Inc.
11771 West 49th Avenue
Wheat Ridge, CO 800 3 3
(w) (303) 423-1096
Mr. Ralph Dunbar
Instructor
Plumbers & Pipefitters
Boulder County (CO)
211 East Simpson, P.O. Box 426
Lafayette, CO 80026
(w) (303) 665-9736
Mr. Eugene S. Eatham
Chief Plumbing Inspector
Pikes Peak Regional Building
Department
101 West Costilla St.
Colorado Springs, CO 80903
(w) (719) 578-6816,
(h) (719) 570-9045
Mr. Jim Eatmon
Business Manager
Plumbers & Pipefitters
Boulder County (CO)
211 East Simpson, P.O. Box 426
Lafayette, CO 80026
(w) (303) 665-9736
Mr. Paul E. Emrick
Business Manager
Plumbers Local Union No. 3
360 Acoma Street, Room 316
Denver, CO 8022 3
(w) (303) 722-2333,
(h) (303) 979-5817
Mr. Larry Fay
Director
Park County Environmental Health
P.O. Box 244
Fairplay, CO 80440
(719) 836-2771 ext. 239
-------
Mr. Clarence Gertner
City of Sterling Water Department
Centennial Square
Sterling, CO 80751
(w) (303) 522-4305,
(h) (303) 522-0687
Mr. Charles L. Gillett
Director of Building & Zoning
Arapahoe County
53 34 South Prince Street
Littleton, CO 80166
(w) (303) 795-4470,
(h) (303) 797-1622
Mr. James M. Gindelberger
Water Quality Supervisor
City of Thornton
Water Quality Division
9500 Civic Center
Thornton, CO 80229
(w) (303) 428-8818 or 429-9474,
(h) (303) 287-9332
Mr. Jim Goodwin
County Environmentalist
Teller County Health Services
"•.0. Box 118, 540 Manor Court
-------
Mr. Don Johnson
City of Sterling Water
Centennial Square
Sterling, CO 80751
'w) (303) 522-4305,
h) (303) 522-0687
Department
Mr. Don Leonardo
Superintendent
City of Arvada
8101 Ralston Rd.
Arvada, CO 80004
(w) (303) 279-5746
(h) (303) 674-1277
Ms. Elizabeth Kawczynski
Project Officer
Awwa Research Foundation
6666 W. Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80235
(w) (303) 794-7711
Mr. Emerson Lomaquahu
Environmental Protection Specialist
U.S.E.P.A., Region VIII
999 18th St., Suite 500
Denver, CO 8020 2
(w) (303) 293-1566
Mr. Robert Kohrman
Eagle County Community Development
Building Division
550 Broadway
Eagle, CO 81631
(w) (303) 328-7311, ext. 281
Mr. Lonnie K. Kruise
Water and Wastewater Superintendent
Town of Johnstown
08 Charlotte Street
.0. Box 306
Johnstown, CO 80534
(w) (303) 587-4664
Mr. David C. London
Code Enforcement Officer/Building
Inspector
Teller County
P.O. Box 1886, 540 Manor Court
Woodland Park, CO 80866
(w) (719) 687-3048,
(h) (719) 684-9858
Mr. Charles M. Madison
Plumbing & Mechanical Contractors
Association
450 Decatur Street, Suite 200
Denver, CO 80204
(w) (303) 629-1935
Mr. Peter Lassovszky Ms. Wendy Marshall
Environmental Engineer Environmental Scientist
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency EPA - Region 10
401 N. Street SW 1200 Sixth Avenue, WD-132
Washington, DC 20460 Seattle, Washington 98101
(w) (202) 475-8499 (w) (206) 442-1890,
(h) (206) 527-1876
Ms. Trudie Lay
Small Systems
AWWA
6666 W. Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80235
(w) (303) 794-7711,
(h) (303) 443-1345
Mr. Dannie McMillan
Water/Sewer Supervisor
City of Lamar
P.O. Box 270
104 East Parmenter
Lamar, CO 81502
(w) (719) 336-4376, ext. 18
-------
Ms. Hester (Tess) McNulty
Water Chair
LWV of Colorado
1070 Miami Way
Moulder, CO 80 30 3
,w) (303) 494-0852,
(h) (303) 494-0852
Mr. Peter J. Miller
Chief Plant Operator
Town of Morrison
P.O. Box 95
Morrison, CO 80465
(w) (303) 697-5319,
(h) (303) 838-7311
Mr. Michael S. Mizenko
Secretary
Great Falls Pipe Trades
Joint Apprenticeship Council
P.O.Box 1703
Great Falls, Montana 59403
(w) (406) 452-1973,
(h) (406) 452-0190
Mr. Jim Musslewhite
Sanitarian
Larimer County Environmental Health
'63 Jefferson St.
ort Collins, CO 80524
(w) (303) 221-7497,
(h) (303) 221-2961
Mr. Rick Norberg
General Building Inspector
City of Westminster (CO)
4800 W. 92nd Avenue
Westminster, CO 80030
(W) (303) 430-2400, ext. 2075
Mr. Paul Overdier
General Building Inspector
City of Westminster
4 800 W. 92nd Avenue
Westminster, CO 80030
(w) (303) 430-2400, ext. 2075
Mr. Len Pardee
Program Manager
EPA Region 6
1445 Ross Ave. (6W-SP)
Dallas, Texas 75202
(w) (214) 655-7155,
(h) (817) 468-2527
Mr. Robert K. Tucker, Ph.D.
Director, New Jersey Department of
Evironmental Protection
Div. of Science and Research
401 East State Street, 7th Floor
Trenton, New Jersey 08625
(w) (609) 984-6070,
(h) (201) 329-3429
Mr. Nelson Renouf
Superintendent of Water & Waste
Water
City of Ft. Lupton (CO)
13 30 S. McKinley
Ft. Lupton, CO 80621
(w) (303) 893-5404,
(h) (303) 857-4560
Mr. William R. Roberts
Building Inspector
weld County
915-10th Street, Room 342
Greeley, CO 806 31
(w)( 303) 356-4000, ext. 4425
Mr. Joe Sarcone
Environmental Scientist
U.S. Department Protection Agency,
Region VIII
999 18th Street, Suite 500
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(W) (303) 293-1420,
(h) (303) 830-668
Mr. David Schaller
News Officer
EPA Region VIII
999 18th St.
Denver, CO 80202
(w) (303) 293-1696,
(h) (303) 756-8573
-------
Mr. Tim Schleer
Plant Mechanic
City of Thornton
Water Treatment Maintenance
1651 E. 86th Avenue
Thornton, CO 80229
(w) (303) 538-7420,
(h) (303) 431-8103
David Schmidt
Chief Plant Operator
Town of Dillon
P.O. Box 8
Dillon, CO 80435
(w) (303) 468-2403,
(h) (303) 468-9408
Mr. Harold Scofield
Director of Public Works
City of La Junta
P.O. Box 489
La Junta, CO 81050
(w) (719) 384-7358,
(h) (719) 384-4968
Mr. James M. Simpson
PHA
nept. of Health and Human Services
snters for Disease Control
.1.600 Clifton Road, Koger Ctr. ,
MS: F28
Atlanta, GA 30 3 33
(w) (404) 488-4780
Mr. John Slavik
Building Official
City of Loveland
500 East Third
Loveland, CO 80537
(w) (303) 667-6130, ext. 509
(h) (303) 223-4088
Mr. James S. Sparks, Training
Coordinator, Denver Plumbers Joint
Apprenticeship
and Journeyman Committee
5765 Logan Street, Room #205
Denver, CO 80216
(W) (303) 295-1907,
(h) (303) 429-0719
Mr. Mike Sposit
Rural Utility Management Specialist
Midwest Assistance Program Inc.
590 Easy Street
Green River, WY 829935
(w) (307) 875-4200,
(h) (307) 875-5645
Mr. Marty Swickard
Environmental Scientist
US EPA Region VIII
999 18th St., Suite 500, 8WM-DW
Denver, CO 80202
(w) (303) 293-1413
Mr. Jim Thelen
Building Inspector
City of Littleton
Building Division
2255 West Berry Avenue
Littleton, CO 80165
(W) (303) 795-3751
Mr. Steve Thomas
City of Glendale
950 South Birch
Glendale, CO 80222
(w) (303) 759-1513,
(h) (303) 690-6513
Mr. Bill Thrailkill
Public Works Director
City of Lamar
P.O. Box 270
104 East Parmenter
Lamar, CO 81502
(w) (719) 336-4376, ext. 18
Mr. George Torp
President
Purity Systems, inc.
3116 Old Pond Road
Missoula, MT 59802
(W) (406) 543-4228
-------
Mr. Vern Tregoning
Water and Wastewater Assistant
Town of Johnstown
10 8 Charlotte Street
"ohnstown, CO 80534
vw) (303) 587-4664
Mr. Mike Woika
Utilities Manager
City of Englewood
3400 S. Elati
Englewood, CO 80110
(w) (303) 761-1140, ext. 514
Mr. Elmer Walston
Plumbing Inspector
City of Fort Collins
300 La Porte Ave., P.O. Box 580
Fort Collins, CO 80524
(w) (303) 221-6760,
(h) (303) 669-4518
Mr. Herman R. Wooten
Program Manager
Colorado Rural Water Association
1397 South Aspen Road
Pueblo, CO 81006
(w) (719) 545-6748,
(h) (719) 948-3803
Mr. Peter Ware
Public Work Director
Town of Carbondale
76 S. Second St.
Carbondale, CO 81623
(w) (303) 963-1307,
(h) (303) 963-3299
Mr. George K. Waterhouse
Program Administrator
Examining Board of Plumbers
390 Logan Street, Suite 400
jenver, CO 8020 3
(W) (303) 894-2300,
(h) (719) 599-4442
Mr. Bill White
Plumbing & Mechanical inspector
City of Greenwood Village
6060 South Quebec St.
Greenwood Village, CO 80111-4591
(w) (303) 773-0252
Mr. Bruce L. Wilson
Chief Building Official
City of Greenwood Village
6060 South Quebec St.
Greenwood Village, CO 80111-4591
(w) (303) 773-0252
-------
o
o
2
X
m
z
o
m
CO
-o
m
>
7s
m
x
c/>
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
SPEAKERS
MARC ALSTON
Marc Alston is Chief of the Public Water Supply Program Section
at EPA Region VIII in Denver. He received his B.S. in Civil
Engineering from Purdue University in 1971, and his M.S. in
Environmental Engineering for the University of North Carolina in
1976. Mr. Alston is a commissioned officer in the U.S. Public
Health Service. He previously worked for the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health. Originally from Cedarburg,
Wisconsin, he lived in Indiana, California, Louisiana and North
Carolina prior to moving to Denver in 1977.
GLENN BODNAR
Glenn Bodnar has been a Public Health Engineer in the Drinking
Water Unit of the Colorado Department of Health for four years.
He has a B.S. in Civil Engineering. He is the founder of and a
current member of the Colorado State Cross Connection Control
Committee. He also represents the state of Colorado on the Well
Drillers Board.
LLOYD BURTON
Lloyd Burton is an assistant professor in the Graduate School of
Public Affairs, University of Colorado at Denver and a noted
expert on Conflict Management. He is certified as a mediator and
arbitrator by the American Arbitration Association. He is co-
director of the Conflict Resolution Consortium for the CU-Denver
campus.
Before moving to Denver, Mr. Burton taught at the University of
California at Berkeley. He received his Ph.D. in Jurisprudence
and Social Policy from Berkeley's School of Law and an MA in
Geography from San Francisco State University. He has served as
a policy consultant for the American Indian Lawyer Training
Program, the American Cancer Society, and Stanford Research
Institute.
WILLIAM E. COFFEY
William E. Coffey is Manager for the Copper Development
Association Incorporated. He is a native of South Dakota and a
graduate of the University of California at Berkeley, where he
received a B.S. degree in Architectural Engineering in 1942. Mr.
Coffey opened his own office in Minnesota in 1948, specializing
-------
WILLIAM E. COFFEY (cont.)
in industrial, commercial and institutional design and
construction. He also spent 15 months in Africa on a "Point Four
Program of Development" for the Portuguese Government. In 1957
he was employed by the City of Greeley, Colorado as City Engineer
and Chief Building Official. He was employed in 196 3 by Copper
Development Association with responsibilities in applications of
Copper and Copper Alloys.
Mr. Coffey is a registered Professional Engineer in five
states,and a professional member of International Conference of
Building Officials. He is also a holding member of the
International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials,
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, American Society of
Sanitary Engineering, American Society of Plumbing Engineers, and
an active member of the United Association of Plumbers and
Pipefitters of the United States and Canada.
PATRICK CROTTY
Patrick Crotty entered the U.S. Air Force from his home state of
Massachusetts, and has served on active duty in North Dakota,
Texas, and Michigan. While with the Air Force, he broadened his
public health background by completing a semester of study in
industrial hygiene at the Brooks School of Aerospace Medicine.
He transferred his commission to the U. S. Public Health Service
in 1972 and was assigned to the Indian Health Services' Program
for sanitation facilities construction on reservations in
Arizona. He was awarded with his professional engineer
registration while in Arizona. In 1976, he was assigned to the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in Denver where he has
worked with surface and ground water protection programs and the
drinking water program. He currently serves as Chief of the
Drinking Water Branch. Mr. Crotty holds degrees in Civil and
Environmental Engineering. He is a member of the American Water
Works Association and the Society for Risk Analysis.
ELLEN MANGIONE, M.D., M.P.H.
Dr. Ellen Mangione has a Bachelor's degree in chemistry from
Smith College and an M.D. from the College of Physicians and
Surgeons, Columbia University. She completed a residency in
Internal Medicine at Boston University Hospital. Following her
residency she joined the Epidemic Intelligence Service, Centers
for Disease Control, U.S. Public Health Service where she
completed the Preventive Medicine Residency Program. She has a
M.P.H. from the University of California, Berkeley. She holds
board certification in Internal Medicine and Preventive Medicine
and is licensed to practice in Massachusetts, California, and
Colorado. Dr. Mangione is currently the Director of the Division
-------
ELLEN MANGIONE, M.D., M.P.H. (cont.)
of Disease Control and Environmental Epidemiology, Colorado
Department of Health.
CARL NORBECK
Carl Norbeck is Associate Director of the Center for Public-
Private Sector Cooperation. The Center promotes understanding
and cooperation between business, government, and community
groups to resolve society's increasingly complex issues. From
1980 to 1985 Mr. Norbeck was Executive Director of Thorne
Ecological Institute, and award-winning, nationally recognized
Institute focusing on natural resource and urban lands issues.
He has managed major projects involving wildlife management,
wetlands, outdoor recreation, facility sitting, environmental
impact statements, park master planning, development
compatibility criteria, reclamation, and technology transfer.
Because both Thorne and the Center are primarily concerned with
balancing public and private sector interest, Mr. Norbeck has
developed a reputation for objectivity and innovation in working
for a variety of clients. Prior to these activities Carl worked
as an exploration geologist for Amoco, a land use analyst in
Canada, and as a communications officer in the United States
Navy.
JIM OLSZTYNSKI
Jim Olsztynski (pronounced Ol-stin-ski) has been Editor of
Plumbing & Mechanical (PM) since its inception in March 1984.
Circulated to more than 3 3,000 plumbing and mechanical
contracting personnel nationwide, the monthly magazine has become
the leading publication in its field. Prior to starting PM, he
served six and a half years as associate editor of Supply House
Times. In his 11 years as a journalist covering the plumbing,
heating, cooling, and piping industry, he has written hundreds of
articles chronicling the affairs and personalities at all levels
of the industry.
Like most of his readers, Mr. Olsztynski hails from a working
class background. Born and raised in Chicago, he spent several
years working in a factory before becoming the first member of
his family to attend college. He attended the University of
Illinois in Chicago, where he acquired B.A. and M.A. degrees in
English literature.
-------
STEPHANIE POLLACK
Stephanie Pollack is Director of Lead Poisoning Project,
Conservation Law Foundation. Ms. Pollack has Mechanical
Engineering and Public Policy degrees from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and is a graduate of Harvard Law School.
She is a member of the National Institute of Building Sciences'
Committee on Lead Paint Abatement and has co-authored a study on
the medical and educational costs of lead poisoning and edited
the proceedings of a conference on lead and learning
disabilities.
PERRY C. TYREE
Perry C. (Pete) Tyree is president and administrative officer for
Tyree Associates, a building and fire code consulting firm which
offers building department administrative services to
construction impacted communities, professionals in design
fields, and developers in the construction industry. He
previously worked as a regional building official, a consulting
structural engineer, and a design engineer.
Mr. Tyree, who has a degree in civil engineering from Colorado
College, is a member of the International Association of Plumbing
and Mechanical Officials, the Construction specifications
Institute, and the American Consulting Engineers Council. He is
a past president of the International Conference of Building
Officials.
GEORGE WATERHOUSE
George Waterhouse has been the Program Administrator for the
Colorado State Plumbing and Electrical Boards for 11 years. He
is responsible for inspecting the plumbing of all public schools
and for 12 counties in Colorado. He is also responsible for
inspecting 80% of the state of Colorado for the Electrical Board.
He is a member of the Electrical Council for Underwriters
Laboratories and the Panel of the National Fire Protection
Association for Code 70-B. Previous to taking his present
position, Mr. Waterhouse served as business manager for an
electrical union.
GEORGE WEBER
George Weber has served as a policy analyst, planner, and
management consultant in Colorado for the past fourteen years.
He is on temporary assignment with the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency conducting outreach and evaluation activities
related to "Lead In Drinking Water Program" implementation. He
is a principal partner of the Geographic Applications and
Research Group (Boulder, Colorado). Previous service includes
-------
GEORGE WEBER (cont.)
project management for the University of Colorado's Center for
Community Development and Design, National Conference of State
Legislatures, and Colorado state government. Mr. Weber has a BA
and MA in Geography, is completing a Ph.D. in Public
Administration at the University of Colorado, and is a member of
the American Society of Public Administrators.
DAVID WILLIAMS
David Williams has 24 years of experience in the plumbing and
mechanical contracting industry; from Apprentice and Journeyman
Plumber between 1964 and 1978, to his present position as a
Plumbing Inspector II for the City of Aurora Building Inspection
Division. He is now responsible for plan review, on-site
inspections, work assignments and training of other inspectors.
He is a member of the International Association of Plumbing and
Mechanical Officials and International Conference of Building
Officials, and is also serving on the 1978-1988 IAPMO Code
Changes Committee.
-------
MOBILIIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
SPEAKERS
Marc Alston
Chief
Public Water Supply Section
Region VIII U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency 8WM-DW
999 18th Street, Suite 500
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(w) (303) 293-1424
Patrick Crotty
Chief
Drinking Water Branch
Region VIII U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 8WM-DW
999 18th Street, Suite 500
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(w) (303) 293-1408
Glenn Bodnar
Public Health Engineer
Drinking Water Program
CO Department of Health
4210 E. llth Avenue
Denver, CO 80220
(w) (303) 331-4858
Ellen Mangione, M.D., Director
Division for Disease Control
and Environmental
Epidemiology
Colorado Department of Health
4210 East llth Avenue
Denver, CO 80220
(w) (303) 331-8330
Lloyd Burton
Assistant Professor
Graduate School of Public
Affairs
1200 Larimer, Campus Box 142
Denver, CO 80201
(w) (303) 556-2825
Carl Norbeck
Associate Director
Center for Public-Private
Sector Cooperation
University of CO at Denver
1200 Larimer Street
Campus Box 133
Denver, CO 80202
(w) (303) 556-2279
William E. Coffey
Regional Manager
Copper Development Association,
Inc.
P.O. Box 1122
Longmont, CO 80501
(w) (303) 651-2995
Jim Olsztynski
Editor
Plumbing and Mechanical
7 57 4 North Lincoln Avenue
Skokie, IL 60077
(w) (312) 677-2707
-------
Stephanie Pollack
Director
Lead Poisoning Project
Conservation Law Foundation
3 Joy Street
Boston, MA 02108
(w) (617) 742-2540
Perry C. Tyree
President
Tyree Associates
2527 West Colorado Avenue,
Suite 202
Colorado Springs, CO 80904
(w) (303) 742-2540
Mr. George K. Waterhouse
Program Administrator
Examining Board of Plumbers
1390 Logan Street, Suite 400
Denver, CO 80203
(w) (303) 894-2300
George Weber
Consultant, Lead Ban Project
Protection Agency 8WM-DW
999 18th Street, Suite 500
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(w) (303) 293-1410
David Williams
Plumbing Inspector II
City of Aurora
2240 S. Nome Ct.
Aurora, CO 80014
(w) (303) 695-7420
-------
o
o
2
~n
m
ID
m
z
o
m
o
O
in
"0
O
2
in
o
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
CO-SPONSORS
Drinking Water Branch, Water Management Division, Region VIII,
Environmental Protection Agency
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was
established by the Congress in 1970 and reports directly to the
President. The agency mission has evolved from direct
implementation of environmental programs to oversight of state
and local program development and implementation, as well as
those addressing environmental issues with national and global
significance. The agency has grown to more than 14,000 employees
located in Washington D.C. headquarters, ten regional offices,
and numerous laboratories and field offices nationally.
Recently, consideration has been given to reorganizing the EPA as
a cabinet level department.
Contract Administration Fund/Colorado
The Contract Administration Fund is a construction trade
association .representing mechanical/plumbing, heating, and
cooling contractors. Over 100 contractors in Colorado belong to
the Fund which was established in 1956.
UA Plumbers and Gas Fitters Local union Number 3
The UA Plumbers and Gas Fitters Union was founded on July 1st,
1977. They received their charter from the United Association on
January 2nd, 1990., Local Number 3 was one of the founding locals
which set up the International Association. Local Number 3 has
700 members. Their motto is "protect the health of the nation."
UA Pipefitters Local Union Number 208
UA Pipefitters Local 208 was chartered by the United Association
on April 26, 1902. The Local now has 1300 members. They have
been in their present location since January of 1972. Members
install and service processed piping, heating and cooling,
pneumatic controls, and refrigeration.
Regional Inspectors Association
The Regional Inspectors Association is a group of 40 members who
are interested in professional education and training in the area
of applying building codes. The group is comprised primarily of
Denver Metropolitan-area building inspectors, manufacturers, and
contractors. They are particularly interested in helping
individuals confront problems associated with new products.
-------
The Center for Public-Private Sector Cooperation
The Center for Public-Private Sector Cooperation specializes in
bringing together people from the private, public, and non-profit
sectors in cooperative efforts to address problems in such areas
as pollution, social services, and economic development. It
serves as a catalyst for forging bonds between leaders with
common interests, but different constituencies. The Center and
it's sister, the Center for the Improvement of Public Management
are under the auspices of the Graduate School of Public Affairs
at the University of Colorado at Denver.
-------
X
m
>
5
o
H
CO
o
T|
5
o
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
TITLE OF SESSION: Health Impacts of Lead—Why is a Lead Ban
Needed?
SPEAKER: Ellen Mangione, Colorado Department of Health
In this session, Ms. Mangione will discuss the health impacts of
lead and why a lead ban is necessary to limit those impacts.
In her presentation, Ms. Mangione will:
o Trace the history of lead use and lead toxicity,
o Describe how people are exposed to the different sources of
lead,
o Explain the relationship between the level of exposure to
lead and the level of lead in blood,
o Explain how certainty with which lead effects occur,
o Discuss specific health effects of given blood levels, and
o Trace government regulations of lead exposure,
The reading material in the notebook will reinforce Ms.
Mangione's main points.
"You will see by it, that the opinion of this
michievious effect from lead is at least 60 years old;
and you will observe with concern how long a useful
truth may be known and exist, before it is generally
received and practis'd on."
-Benjamin Franklin (17 86)
-------
p1umb*er (plum'ar) n. '1. A worker who installs and repairs
pipes and plumbing. 2. Slang. A person who investigates
ana tries to plug leaks of sensitive information: "The plumb-
ers pushed the departments to investigate with interviews and
polygraph tests" (Richard M. Nixon). [ME plumnxer < OFr.
plommier < LLai. plumbarius. lead worker < Lai. plumbum.
lead.J
-------
History of Lead Toxicity
200
B.C.
Nikander: Anemia, Colic, Renal Disease
100
B.C.
Dioscorides: "Lead makes the mind give way.
50
B.C.
Horace: Infertility
1639
A.D.
Citois: Colic of Poitou
1745 A.D.
Franklin: Day Gripes
1849
A.D
Turner: Childhood Lead Poisoning
1914
A.D.
Blackfan: Lead Meningitis
1943
A.D.
Byers: Longterm Complications
-------
Interventions Aimed at Decreasing Lead Exposure
100 A.D. Pliny: Use animal bladders as face masks to protect
workers.
802 A.D. Charlemange: (Xitlawed adulteration of wine with lead.
1000 A.D. Avicenna: warned "Of such waters, those which are conveyed
by leaden pipes are more harmful because they acquire
certain properties of the lead..."
1723 A.D. Massachusetts Bay Colony passed a law entitled
"An Act for Preventing Abuses in Distilling Rum and
Other Strong Liquors with Lead Heads of Pipes."
-------
SOURCES OF LEAD IN A CHILD'S ENVIRONMENT
(Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children, 1985)
6
-------
MEASURE OF INTERNAL EXPOSURE
Blood Levels
'Microgram/deciliter
(ug/dl)
-------
EXTERNAL EXPOSURE
Source
Pathway
Receptor
-------
INTERNAL EXPOSURE
Central &
Peripheral
Nervous
System
SOURCE
Pathway

REC
EPTOR
Uptake

BLOOD LEAD LEVEL
Bone
-> Excreted
Other
Organs
-------
Causation Criteria
'Biological Plausibility
'Dose Response Relationships
' Strength of Association
•Consistency of Associations
-------
HEMOGLOBIN SYNTHESIS
Fe
+2
+ GLOBIN
PROTOPORPHYRIN
-------
LEAD POISONING OF HEMOGLOBIN SYNTHESIS
FE +2
+ GLOBIN
Zn
Protoporphyrin
Protoporphyrin
Zinc
Protoporphyrin
-------
Effects of Lead
Levels Effect
(ug/100 ml)
40 Anemia Children
40-50 Peripheral Neuropathy Adults
50 Anemia Adults
60-70 Encephalopathy Children
>80 Lead colic Adults
Encephalopathy
Kidney Toxicity
-------
Effects of Lsad
Levels
(ug/100 ml)
10-15
15-20
<25
30
Effect
Deficits in neurobehavioral development;
electrophysiological changes
Impaired hearing
Reduced gestational age and birth weight;
Reduced size up to age 7-8 years;
Elevated blood pressure
EP elevation
(impaired heme synthesis)
Lcwer IQ, slcwer reaction time
Slewed nerve conduction velocity
Children
Adults
Children
Children
Adults
Children
-------
120
I
S
k.
i
uj
116
112
Qi
5
1
108
104
6 12 18 24
AGE AT TESTING (months)
Figure 1. Mean Mental Development Index Scores at Four Ages
in Infants According to the Lead Level in Umbilical-Cord Blood.
Scores are least-squares means obtained by regressing Mental
Development Index scores on the cord-blood lead group and 12
variables considered to be potential confounders. Error bars rep-
resent 1 SD. For clarity, bars extend only in one direction.
(Bellinger, 1987)
-------
Occupational Regulations for Lead
Prior to:
1923
1945
1971
1978
1979
U.S. had no federal regulations for lead. Great Britain
had extensive regulations.
Recommendation of 0.15ug/m3 from a FHS study conducted
in 1928 generally adopted in U.S.; a legal standard.
NIOSH recommended air level of 0.15 ug/m3, medical
monitoring, reporting and improved hygeine.
NIOSH revised recommendations to 0.1 ug/m3.
Current OSHA standard 0.05 ug/m3, medical mandating at
exposure of 0.03ug/m3.
-------
Non Occupational Recommendations
1973 CDC: Recommended guidelines for childhood screening;
40 ug/dl blood lead.
1978 CDC: Guidelines for childhood screening was 30 ug/dl
blood lead and FEP of 35 ug/dl.
1979 WHO: Females of reproductive age not exceed 30 ug/dl.
1985 CDC: Guideline for childhood screening 25 ug/dl blood
lead and FEP of 35 mg/dl.
1986 WHO: Blood lead level of concern is 20 ug/dl.
EPA's Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee:
Levels of 10-15 ug/dl associated with adverse
health effects.
1988 ATSDR: As above.
-------
Other Lead Regulations
1972 FDA: Prohibited lead solder cans for infant forumla.
1975 EPA: Required that new cars be equipped with catalytic
converters and use unleaded gasoline.
1977 Consumer Product Safety Commission: Limits lead content
of newly applied residential paint to 0.06%.
1979 FDA: Decreased use of lead soldered cans.
1986 Safe Drinking Water Act Ammendments: Restruct use of lead
solder and flux.
1988 EPA: Proposes decrease in MCL from 50 ppm.
1988 Lead Contamination and Control Act: Restructs lead levels
in drinking water coolers and in school water and provides
funds for lead screening.
-------
:>
I
<
m
>
0
1
>
Hi
CO
m
m
c
CO
m
o
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
TITLE OF SESSION: How Lead Gets Into Drinking Water—Why Has
Lead Been Used?
SPEAKER: Jim Olsztynski, Editor,Plumbing and
Mechanical
Mr. Olsztynski will:
o Discuss the properties of lead,
o Trace the applications of lead throughout history,
o Discuss what we now know about lead, and
o Suggest how plumbers should address the problems of lead
with consumers.
Two articles from Mr. Olsztynski's magazine are included in the
notebook. He is co-author of one.
-------
THE HISIORYOI'"
-¦ he first epidemic of a waterborne disease
I i probably was caused by an infected caveman
L relieving himself in waters upstream of his
neighbors. Perhaps the entire clan was decimated,
or maybe the panicky survivors packed up their
gourds and fled from the "evil spirits" inhabiting
their camp to some other place.
As long as people lived in small groups, isolated
from each other, such incidents were sporadic. But
as civilization progressed, people began clustering
into cities. They shared communal water, handled
unwashed food, stepped in excrement from casual
discharge or spread as
manure, used urjne for
dyes, bleaches, and even
as an antiseptic.
As cities became
crowded, they also be-
came the nesting places
of waterborne. insect-
borne. and skin-to-skin
infectious diseases that
spurted out unchecked
and seemingly at will. Typhus was most common,
reported Thomas Sydenham, England's first great
physician, who lived" in the 17th century' and studied
early history. Next came typhoid and relapsing fever,
plague and other pestilential fevers, smallpox and
dysenteries — the latter a generic class of disease
that includes what's known as dysentery, as well as
cholera.
The ancients had no inkling as to the true cause of
their misery. People believed divine retribution
caused plagues and epidemics, or else bad air. or
conjunction of the planets and stars, any and all of
these things.
Ignorance Ain't Blicc! How else to explain healthy
people suddenly falling dead within hours and sol-
diers struck down with no signs of wounds? What
else would cause such excruciating deaths, accom-
panied by delirium or hallucination, the body
wracked by yellow or green or black vomit or excreta:
or covered with obscene black boils, terrible red
rashes or ghastly blue pallor? Why else would such
sickness remain for months, then
leave suddenly and not reappear
till years later? Or perhaps it was
replaced by a plague more deadly.
It wasn't until the 19th Century
that medical sleuths finally
caught on to the fact that the
plumber and sanitary engineer
were very important people.
by Csr®l Pomersntz
& Jim Olsztynski
Hippocrates, the "Father of Medicine" who lived
around 350 B.C.. recommended boiling water to fil-
ter out impurities — those particles that pollute its
sweet taste, mar its clarity or poison the palate.
He was onto something, but his advice pertained
only to what the observer could taste, touch, smell or
see with the naked eve. The "what you see is what
you get" approach was about the extent of scientific
water analysis until the late 1800s.
That invisible organisms also thrive and swim
around in a water}' environment was beyond imagi-
nation until a few centuries ago. and their connec-
tion with disease wasn't
established till a scant
100 years ago. Although
the microscope was in-
vented in 1674. it took
200 years more for scien-
tists to discover its use
in isolating and identify-
ing specific microbes of
particular disease. Only
then could public health
campaigns and sanitary engineering join forces in
eradicating ancient and recurring enteric diseases,
at least in developed countries of the world.
Cleaning Up: From archeology we leam that var-
ious ancient civilizations began to develop rudimen-
tary plumbing. Evidence has turned up of a primi-
tive flushing water closet used by the fabled King
Minos of Crete back around 1700 B.C. The Sea
Kings of Crete were renowned for their extravagant
bath rooms, running hot and cold water systems,
and fountains constructed with fabulous jewels and
workings of gold and silver.
Just a few months ago. a colorful public latrine
dating to the 4th Century B.C. was unearthed on the
Aegean island of Amorgos. The 7' x 5' structure re-
sembles a little Greek temple. Topped with a stone
roof, the interior walls decorated in red. yellow and
green plaster, it served a gymnasium a short dis-
tance away. The building accommodated four people
seated on two marble benches. Running water
flushed the wastes away, probably along an open
• - • ~~1 ditch at the users' feet.
Ancient water supply and sew-
erage systems — along with var-
ious finds of luxury plumbing for
An
DlnmKJnrt 1 QQQ
-------
the nobility — also have been discovered in early cen-
ters of civilization such as Carthage, Athens and Je-
rusalem as well. But it was the Roman Empire of
biblical times that reigns supreme, by historical
standards, in cleanliness, sanitation and water sup-
ply.
The Romans built huge aqueducts conveying mil-
lions of gallons of water daily, magnificent public
baths and remarkable sewer systems — one of
which, the Cloaca Maxima, is still in use. Rome
spread its plumbing technology throughout many of
its far-flung territories as well.
Yet, while we may rightfully marvel at the Roman
legacy in plumbing, it should be noted that they
were motivated primarily by concerns of esthetics,
comfort and convenience. They understood very well
that bringing fresh water to the masses and dispos-
ing of waste made for a more pleasant way of life, but
there is little evidence they understood the connec-
tion with disease control.
Bursting Rome's Bubble: In fact, the magnifi-
cence of the great city-state diminishes quite a bit
when its plumbing systems come under closer scru-
tiny.
Rome sprang up in haphazard
fashion, a town of crooked, nar-
row streets and squalid houses.
In its heyday, Rome had a popula-
This 14th Century woodcut depicts the
sorrow of medieval people as they begin
burying their dead.
tion of over one million, and waste disposal was a
definite problem.
The water supply of Rome was obtained from
ground water and rain wrater, and in many cases
mixed together. The lowlands of the countryside
were swampy marshes which developed into malar-
ial wastelands. The Romans developed underground
channels to drain the natural swamps and secure
water for irrigation and drinking. Nonetheless, a
particular region known as the Pontine Marshes
were all but uninhabitable during the summertime,
until drained during the regime of Benito Mussolini.
(Some 40,000 Italians died in a 16th century malar-
ia epidemic.)
A luxury toilet in the private houses of the well-to-
do was a small, oblong hole in the floor, without a
seat — similar to toilets that prevail in the Far East
and other sections of the world even today. A vertical
drain connected the toilet to a cesspool below.
The great Roman spas accommodated hundreds
and even thousands of bathers at a time. But with-
out filtration or circulation systems, the bathers
basked in germ-ridden water and the huge pools had
to be emptied and refilled daily.
jn public latrines, a communal
bucket of salt water stood close by
in which rested a long stick with a
sponge tied to one end. The user
Plumbing & Mechanical, July 1988
43
-------
PLAGUES & EPIDEMICS
health. Rome employed administrators known as
aediles to oversee various public works, including
coliseum games and the police. They also were in
charge of seeing that streets got swept of garbage
and streams cleared of visible pollution and debris.
Decline & Fall: Though the Roman Empire would
last until the 6th Century A.D., its fall was preceded
by centuries of gradual decay, conflict and unrest.
Ironically, some historians suggest that the Ro-
man plumberi (plumbers) may have played a signifi-
cant role in the downfall due to their extensive use of
lead.
So prized was the craftsmanship of these plum-
beri that in lieu of present-day status symbols like a
Rolls Royce or Porsche, our Roman ancestors boast-
ed of lead pipes in their houses, especially those im-
HISTAKING CAUSE FOR E7FE:T.
" I say, Tommy, I'm blow'd if there isn't a Max a turning on
the Cholera."

Above. The fear that cholera can ba
maliciously "uncorked" in a streat
water hydrant.
Left, No 19th Century home would
bs complete v/ithout a lavatory sat
for personal grooming and hygiana.
would cleanse his person with the spongy end and
return the stick to the water for the next one to use.
The stick later evolved into the shape of a hockey
stick, and the source for the expression "getting hold
of the wrong end of the stick." It also provided an ex-
cellent medium for passing along bacteria and the
assorted diseases they engendered.
Running water for the latrine either was supplied
by stone water tanks or else by an aqueduct pat-
terned after the graceful, curved arches made fam-
ous by the Roman engineers. Those water experts
knew that covering water keeps it cool from the sun
and helps prevent the spread of algae.
Imperfect though their plumbing knowledge may
have been, the Roman Empire still did an admirable
job assuring public cleanliness and, inadvertently.
printed with the plumber's name (usually female, by
the way), and that of the building owner.
Lead poisoning is at least a plausible explanation
for the dementia of Roman emperors such as Caligu-
la and Nero, and for a general weakening and demor-
alization of the populace at-large. However, the case
for massive lead poisoning is far from proven, and
water piping was hardly the only source of lead con-
tamination. The widespread use of lead cooking
utensils and drinking goblets probably was more
harmful than its use in plumbing.
Whatever the causes, over time there was a notice-
able deterioration in the moral values, dignity and
physical character of Roman society. Symbolic of
44
Pliimbin? & Mechanical. Julv 1988
-------
this general decline, by the time of Augustus Caesar
in 14 A.D. the once-authoritative aediles collected
the waste only at state-sponsored events.
During the final century of Roman domination,
there was a succession of earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and disease epidemics. Soon afterwards,
rampaging Vandals and other barbaric tribes com-
pleted the breakdown of Western civilization, as they
systematically leveled and defiled the great Roman
cities and their water systems.
Then came a thousand years of medieval squalor.
A thousand years of sicknesses and plagues of un-
bridled virulence, fanned by fleas and mosquitoes,
excrement and filth, stagnant and contaminated
water of even- description.
Age Of Disease: The typical peasant family of the
aptly-named Dark Ages lived in a one-room, dirt-
floor hovel, with a hole in the thatched roof to let out
the smoke of the central fire. The floor was strewn
with hay or rushes, easy havens for lice and vermin.
Garbage accumulated within. If they were lucky, the
family had a chamber pot. though more likely they
relieved themselves in the corner of the hovel or in
the mire and muck outside.
Water was too precious to use for anything except
drinking and cooking, so people rarely bathed. Heck,
they barely changed clothes from one season to an-
other, wearing the same set even- day. perhaps pil-
5 n
5T .
0 V
P |
Q t'
£ I
1 i
i
3 *
If
o I
:¦! IF p ^5
v! 1 vWftfflw? J ' i t S A is ;• » . F V *

:•••; :!'-. i~\-y i N IT:.-
1 *vr JI | £$£*¦& l p.-
SifSSTW;-r | .
O.
i1 j"I
W-

> t
-------
Plagues & Epidemics
ing on more rags for warmth.
These are the conditions which spawned the infa-
mous Black Plague, killing an estimated one-third of
the European population. Although not directly re-
lated to bad plumbing, the plague serves as the most
striking example of misery caused by poor sanita-
tion in general, and the ignorance of people in con-
trolling the outbreak.
The first of several waves hit England in 1348.
caused by flea bites spread by insects that dwelled on
host black rats. They, in turn, fed on the garbage
and excrement of the masses. London became large-
Right, Riots frequently broke out
as friends and relatives railed
against the forced isolation of new
arrivals by ship or steamboat.
Below, The casual supply of wafer
in barrels and buckets was easy
prey to a waterborne bacteria.
46
PliimHincf Ar .Tnlv 1 QQQ
-------
jser mm#
tn
m
33
LEAD FREE ¦Tl
mil SOLOED
SOLDER AND FLUX COMBINATION PASTE
USER FRiERIDLW
£j BECAUSE IT...
m
2
E3
Lis
CS
biJ
LH
d
tn
m
53
=71
UTILITY MANUFACTURING CO., INC S3
700 WAIN STREET. WESTBURY. NEW fOPK 11590 USA r>^_
(5*> 997-6300 <*X (516) 997-6345 *»
TELEX 230199 SWIFT UR (DESIGNATE U
• DOESN'T - SPLATTER - DRYOUT
- HARDEN - SEPARATE
- NEED TO BE MIXED OR THINNED
• MAKES SWEATING JOINTS EASY
• SAFE FOR USE ON POTABLE WATER AND
ALL OTHER SOLDERING APPLICATIONS
ONE OF THE POWERFUL PALS FOR PLUMBERS FROM:
1 1 \ I JM($*> 997-6300 *AX (516) 997-6345 L*"*
—^ izif TELEX 230199 SWIFT UR (DESIGNATE UMQ
HEmm him
Circle No. 103 on card.
Ted Seed
Thermel, One.
One Liberty Lane
W. Kingston, Rl 02892
Call: 401-789-9388
OTHER
TED REED THERMAL
PRODUCTS:
• Commercial Fin Tube
• Cabinet Unit Heaters
• Horizontal Unit Heaters
• Vertical Unit Heaters
• "Dyna-Jet" Type
Convectors
YOUR SINGLE-SOURCE
HYDROPIC MANUFACTURER
iz it
CALL US FOR THE NAME OF YOUR LOCAL REP
Plagues & Epidemic

Circle No. 104 on card.
ly deserted. The King and Queen and other rich peo-
ple fled to the countryside. The poor were the ureal
est sufferers. '
Panic, death and despair followed the abandon-
ment of farms and towns. Wrote William of Dene, a
monk of Rochester in Kent, England, "Men and
women carried their own children on their shoul-
ders to the church and threw them into a common
pit. From these pits such an appalling stench was
given off that scarcely anyone dared to walk beside
the cemeteries, so marked a deficiency of labors and
workmen that more than a third of the land in the
whole realm was left to."
So bad was the "Black Death." the Great Fire of
London in 1666 can be viewed as a blessing in dis-
guise. Though it killed thousands of people, the ho-
locaust also consumed garbage, muck and black
rats, effectively ending the plague.
Camp Killers: Bad plumbing was merely one of
many sanitation factors that gave rise to the Black
Death. Other scourges are more directly related to
human waste. Dysentery is one that has left an in-
delible mark on history.
Characterized by painful diarrhea, dysentery is of-
ten called an army's "fifth column." Identified as far
back as the time of Hippocrates and before, it comes
in various forms of infectious disorders and is said
to have contributed to the defeat of the Crusaders.
Wrote the eminent English historian. Charles
Creighton: "The Crusaders of the 11th-13th centurj
ies were not defeated so much by the scimitars of the
Saracens as by the hostile bacteria of dysentery and
other epidemics."
The summer of the first Crusade in 1099 was ex-
traordinarily hot as the ill-prepared and rag-tag
"army" of men and camp followers went to war with
little more than the clothes on their back — confi-
dent that the Lord would provide for their needs in
such a holy cause. They denuded the land of trees
and bushes in their quest for nourishment. Ham-
pered by lack of fresh water and contaminated con-
tainers, they trudged along to their destiny, relieving
themselves along the wayside or the fields.
Dysentery hit the women and children first, and
then the troops. More than 100.000 died, plus al-
most 2.500 German reinforcements whose bodies
remained unburied.
Typhus fever is another disease born of bad sani-
tation. It has come under many headings, including
"jail fever" or "ship fever." because it is so common
among men in pent-up, putrid surroundings.
Transmitted by a lice that dwells in human feces, the
disease is highly contagious.
Napoleon lost thousands of his men to typhus in
Russia — as did the Russians who caught it from
the enemy. Many historians believe that Xapoleon
would have won were it not for the might of his oppo- a
nents "General Winter, General Famine and General!
Typhus."
French ships were notorious for their filthy and fe-
ver-ridden sailors. One such French squadron left
its soiled clothing and blankets behind near Halifax.
Nova Scotia, when they returned to Europe in 1746,
48
Plumbinf & Mprhaniral .Tnlv 1 9SS
-------
This Moen faucet
has a lifetime
warranty
behind it. ^
> •* 'yS ,
V
Closer to home. typhoid raged on in colonial New-
York and Massachusetts. It reappeared for the last
time in epidemic form in America in the early 1900s.
compliments of the celebrated Typhoid Man-.
Man,- Mallon was a cook for the moneyed set of New-
York State: her specially was homemade ice cream.
Officially, she infected 53 people with three deaths
before she was tracked down. Unofficially, she is
blamed for some 1.400 that occurred in 1903 in
Ithaca, where she worked for several families. Never
sick herself, it took a lot of persuasion by authorities
to convince her that she was a carrier of the disease.
Health authorities quarantined her once, let her go.
then quarantined her for the rest of her life when an-
other outbreak occurred.
The Cholera Story: The bad news is that another
waterborne disease, cholera, has proven one of his-
tory's most virulent killers. The good news is that it
was through cholera epidemics that epidemiologists
finally discovered the link between sanitation and
public health, which provided the impetus for mod-
ern water and sewage systems.
With 20th century smugness, we know cholera is
caused by ingesting water, food or any other materi-
al contaminated bv the feces of a cholera victim. Ca-
sual contact with a contaminated chamber pot.
soiled clothing or bedding, etc., might be all that's
required.
The disease is stunning in its rapidity. The onset
of extreme diarrhea, sharp muscular cramps, vomit-
ing and fever, and then death, all can transpire with-
in 12-48 hours.
In the 19th Century, cholera became the world's
first truly global disease in a series of epidemics that
llCi'w
. O
f • — ¦ , —,
V#*u Va7 W La (• W* u

U . w
thinking they could dispel their own plague. Their
infected blankets wiped out a nation of Indians.
Typhoid fever, a slightly different ailment than ty-
phus, involves a Salmonella bacillus that is found in
the feces and urine of man. The symptoms are so
similar to typhus that the two were not differentiat-
ed until 1837.
Prince Albert died from typhoid in 1861. His wife.
Queen Victoria, had built immunity because of a
previous siege. Good thing, because she is said to
have prostrated herself in grief across the dead body
of her beloved husband.
Ten years later, Victoria's son. Edward, almost
died from the disease. A plumber traced the con-
tamination to the lines of a newly-installed water
closet and fixed the problem. Edward, the Prince of
Wales, was very grateful to the plumber. Word spread
of this episode and is thought to have hastened the
acceptance of the indoor water closet in England.
By the time of the Boer War in 1899-1901. anti-ty-
phoid inoculation was available. By then, typhoid fe-
ver was recognized as a waterborne disease, and that
the germ could be killed by filtering and boiling wa-
ter. Far from home in South Africa, the undisci-
plined British troops succumbed to the hot climate
and drank straight from the rivers. Of 400,000
troops, 43,000 contracted typhoid.
Because it has this
Moen cartridge r
inside it.
Moen faucets are made to last a
lifetime. So we back them with our
Lifetime Limited Warranty.
The patented Moen cartridge makes it
possible. Its exclusive washerless design
ensures years of troublefree service.
In fact, if any Legend' or Chateau'
faucet ever leaks or drips, we'll provide
the parts to fix it. free.
Our Lifetime Limited Warranty means
you can install with confidence.
After all. a satisfied customer is the
difference between a callback. And
a call back.
Ask your Moen Territory Manager
about our exclusive Lifetime Limited
Warranty. Or call 1-800-321-88 09.
ext. 2151.

Moen. Faucets bra lifetime. 53'
Circle No. 94 on card.
50
Plumbing & Mechanical, July 19S8
-------
TANK TREADS?
That's what some people call them. Call them
whatever you like. But there's nothing like
them when it comes to sealing the gap
between a pipe and:
walls
tanks
vaults
pipeline casings
Just tighten the bolts to make a watertight
seal. They're fast, efficient and re-useable.
Call or write for color brochure.
CALPICO, INC.
185 HARBOR WAY
SOUTH SAN FRANCISCO, CA 94080
Tel. (415) 588-2241
.Fax: (415) 873-6952
Circle No. 106 on card.

WWW
Circle No. 107 on card.
Plagues & Epidemics
proved to be a watershed for the history of plumbing
Festering along the Ganges River in India for centur-
ies. the disease broke out of Calcutta in 1817 witlj
grand-scale results.
India's traditional, great Kumbh festival at Hard-
war in the Upper Ganges triggered the outbreak.
The festival lasts three months, drawing pilgrims
from all over the country. Those from the Lower Ben-
gal brought the disease with them as they shared the
polluted water of the Ganges and the open crowded
camps on its banks. When the festival was over, they
carried cholera back to their homes in other parts of
India.
There is no reliable evidence of how many Indians
perished during that epidemic, but the Britisli army
counted 10,000 fatalities among its imperial troops.
Based on those numbers, it's almost certain that at
least hundreds of thousands of natives must have
fallen victim across that vast land.
When the festival ended, cholera raged along the
trade routes to Iran, Baku and Astrakhan and up
the Volga into Russia, where merchants gathered for
the great autumn fair in Nijni-Novgorod. When the
merchants went back to their homes in inner Russia
and Europe, the disease went along with them.
Cholera sailed from port to port, the germ making
headway in contaminated kegs of water or in the ex-
crement of infected victims, and transmitted by trav-
elers. The world was getting smaller thanks to
steam-powered trains and ships, but living condi-<
tions were slow to improve. By 1S27 cholera had be^
come the most feared disease of the century.
The Laughter Died: It struck so suddenly a man
could be in good health at daybreak and be buried at
nightfall. A New Yorker in 1832 described himself
pitching forward in the street "as if knocked down
with an axe, I had no premonition at all."
The ailment seemed capable of penetrating any
quarantine of harbor or city. It chose its victims er-
ratically, with terrifying suddenness, and with gross
and grotesque results.
Acute dehydration turns victims into wizened
caricatures of their former selves. The skin becomes
black and blue, the hands and feet drawn and puck-
ered. The German poet Heinrich Heine described an
outbreak in Paris in a letter to a friend:
"A masked ball in progress. . .suddenly the gayest
of the harlequins collapsed, cold in the limbs, and
underneath his mask, violet blue in the face. Laugh-
ter died out. dancing ceased and in a short while car-
riage loads of people hurried from the dance to the
Hotel Dieu to die, and to prevent a panic among the
patients were thrust into rude graves in their domi-
noes (long hooded capes worn with a half-mask).
Soon the public halls were filled with dead bodies,
sewed in sacks for want of coffins . . . Long lines of
hearses stood in queue ..."
The worldwide cholera epidemic was aided by thej
Industrial Revolution and the accompanying growth
of urban tenements and slums. There was little or no
provision at all for cesspools or fresh water supplies.
Tenements rose several stories high, but cesspools
were only on the ground floor with no clear access to
52
Plumbing & Mechanical, July 1988
• Isolate catnodically protected lines.
• Effectively seal a flange as a gasket.
Gasket Materials: Phenolic - Neoprene-faced
phenolic - High-Temperature materials.
Insulating Sleeve Materials: Polyethylene - Mylar -
High-Temperature materials.
WATER. GAS. PETROLEUM; OTHER PIPE LINES.
Send for literature and pricing. Sizes 'i thru 96-inch.
Our service is so good >ve stamp it on our pack-.og lists. Sure, not every ship-
ment 9ces out me same day, bur tf you request St. we'll do it, or leU you why
not. Give us a try Youilfnd that our prices are compet tive, too.
1S5 Harbor Way • South San Francisco, CA 94030 • 415/58S-2241 .
Your order was shipped
the day we got it.
-------
sewers or indoor running water. It didn't make
much difference, because until the 1840s a sewer
was simply an elongated cesspool with an overflow at
one end. "Night men" had to climb into the morass
and shovel the filth and mire out by hand. In most
cases, barrels filled with excrement were discharged
outside, or contents of chamber pots flung from
open windows — if there were any — to the streets
below.
Water hydrants or street pumps provided the only
source of water, but they opened infrequently and
not always as scheduled. They ran only a few min
utes a day in some of the poor districts. A near riot
ensued in Westminster one Sunday when a water
pipe that supplied 16 packed houses was turned on
for only five minutes that week.
In Edinburgh, Scotland, tenements sprang up so
close together that a person could step from the win-
dow of one house into that of his neighbor. With no
sewers or drains or even privies in most places, the
refuse, garbage and excrement of at a least 50,000
people were thrown out into the street gutters every
night.
Cholera first hit England through the town of
Sunderland, on October 26, 1831. One William
Sproat died that day from the disease, though no-
body wanted to admit it. Merchants and officials
found plenty of reasons to rationalize away a pro-
spective 40-day maritime quarantine of the ports.
England was reaping the profits of the Industrial
Revolution, and a quarantine of ships would be cata-
strophic for the textile industry. At any rate, the
medical profession held that cholera wasn't conta-
gious. Public health administration was in its infan-
cy. and so disorganized that the leading doctor
didn't know there were two infected houses only a
short distance away from each other. He learned" of
the "coincidence" three months later.
The American Experience: American hygiene and
sanitation were not much better. Cholera spread
through immigrants from the infected countries.
Ireland in particular, whose masses were fleeing the
poverty and despair of the potato famine. Those who
could scrape together three pounds for passage left
for North America.
Life aboard an immigrant ship was appalling as
ship owners crowded 500 passengers in space in-
tended for 150. Infected passengers shared slop
buckets and rancid water.
The contagion spread as soon as the immigrants
landed. In one month, 1.220 new arrivals were dead
in Montreal. Another 2.200 died in Quebec over the
summer of 1832.
Detroit became another focal point of cholera. In-
stead of drawing fresh water from the Detroit River,
most people used well water. The land was low and it
was much more convenient. But outhouses placed
at odd locations soon contaminated those wells, and
cholera spread quickly.
Cholera entered New York through infected ships.
City people started clogging the roads in an exit to
the countryside. On June 29. 1832, the governor or-
dered a day of fasting and prayers — the traditional
response bv government to treating the disease.
After July 4, there was a daily cholera report.
Quarantine regulations which sought to contain
UuHI Ga£GC3@P®
Self-Adhesive, Peel and Siick
10,000 Legends Available
BCOW OPF WATER
BOilER peeo
0OiLE« EED WATER
BRINE
CAB0ON O'OXiCE
CAUSTIC
Chicled water
chilled water re'o«
Chilled WA'ER
CHLORINE
CIRCULATING A1 atca
CTV jAS
CiTV WATER
COLD WATER
CCLC water = = -„RN
COLD WATER S'JP°Ly
COVPRESSc^ i R
CCMOOESSED a,p
CONDENSATE
CONDENSATE RETURN
CONCSNSATE SwPRL'
CONDENSER WATER
COOl'NG watcq
Popular sizes: V2" x 2V*", 2V*" x 8 2 V x
12" Many others. Left A sampling of styles,
legends (A thru C. only) and marker colors
The continuation goes through W. Y-yellow.
black letters; 8-blue, white letters; GW-
green. white letters.
•>
Calpico also makes brass, plastic and aluminum
valve tags and many variations of marking tapes.
SFlWSCE
Your order was shipped
the day we got it.
Our service is so good we stamp it on our packing lists. Sure, not every ship-
ment goes out the same day Out if you request it, we'll do it. or tei! you why
not. Give us a try. You'll find that our prices are comoetitive, too.
185 Harbor Way • South San Francisco. CA 94080 • 415/588-2241
CALPICO Z3AS3 VALVS TAGS
' ¦ , * , 'v ¦
•: • -w
-------
When you buy a faucet from Comco, you are
buying reliability and dependability. Isn't it
time you got turned onto a Comco!
Circle No. 110 on card.
A 7Z ^ iFR i
0
' Cost comparison on request.
ft 4.;, ^ V
—TJ ; V,. ¦JPmJitGr ' I
Link-Seal stands
the test of time.
Nothing matches the durability of a Link-
Seal5 pipe through w all sealing system,
not caulking, lead oakum or Hashing. If you
want your penetration seals to stand the test
of time, specify Link-Seal. A pre-engineered
mechanical seal that's the same price or less"'
as other methods.
Free Catalog Available Call Toll Free
1-800-288-0404
S am to 5 pm EST
ThuncSerline
Corporation
8707 Samuel Barton Drive
P.O. Box 338
Belleville, Ml 48111
Circle No. 111 on card.
Plagues & Epidemics
towns and cities in upper New York. Vermont ant
along the Erie Canal met with little success. Immj
grants leaped from halted canal boats and passel
through locks on foot, despite the efforts by con-
tingents of armed militia to stop them.
Some doctors flatly declared that cholera was in-
deed epidemic in New York, but more people sided
with banker John Pintard that this "officious re-
port" was an "impertinent interference" with the
Board of Health. The banker incredulously asked if
the physicians had any idea what such an an-
nouncement would do to the city's business?
Visitors were struck by the silence of New York's
streets, with their unaccustomed cleanliness and
strewn with chloride of lime (the usual remedy for
foul-smelling garbage). Even on Broadway, pass-
ers-by were so few that a man on horseback was a
curiosity. One young woman recalled seeing tufts
of grass growing in the little used thoroughfares.
Big news was unfolding in England then, but no
one realized the significance.
Steadfast Ignorance: The eminent Dr. John
Snow demonstrated how cases of cholera that
broke out in a district of central London could all
be traced to a single source of contaminated drink-
ing water. Sixteen years later Snow would win a
30,000 franc prize by the Institute of France for his
theory that cholera was waterborne and taken into
the system by mouth.
But Snow's original work received little attention
from the medical profession. He was attacked at
the weakest point, that he could not identify the
nature of the "poison" in the water.
By the end of the first cholera epidemic, the rela-
tionship between disease and dirty, ill-drained
parts of town was rather well established. This
should have spurred sanitary reform. But little ac-
tion followed.
An out-of-sight, out-of-mind syndrome devel-
oped when the first epidemic ended. The learned
"Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal" at one
point declared they would review no more books on
the subject "because of the multitude of books
which have recently issued from the press on the
subject of cholera, and our determination to no
longer try the patience of our readers."
When the second cholera epidemic hit England
in 1854, Snow described it as "the most terrible
outbreak of cholera which ever occurred in this
kingdom." At least it provided him with an oppor-
tunity to test his theory.
By charting the incidence of the disease, he
showed that over 500 cases occurred within 10
days over a radius of some 250 yards centered on
London's Broad Street. He looked for some poison
which he believed came from the excreta of cholera
patients and swallowed by the new victims. A com-
mon factor was their use of water that had been
polluted with sewage. Snow had traced the pipe-
lines of various water companies and showed that
one was infected by cholera.
By the methodical process of elimination, he
proved his point: A workhouse in that area had its
54
Plumbing & Mechanical, July 1988
-------
DESIGNED FOR THE CONTRACTOR THAT
KNOWS NOTHING ABOUT COMPUTERS
TOU FKEE 1-800-426-7130 OUTSIDE MICHIGAN
ii
E-Z HEATLOSS"^
• COMPUTES HEATGAIN
• COMPUTES HEAT LOSS FOR:
FORCED AIR. HYDRONIC. ELECTRIC & HEAT PUMPS
• FUEL COST COMPARISONS
• OPERATES ON DESK TOP OR PORTABLE COMPUTERS
RESIDENTIAL
"E-Z HEATLOSS"
Version 3.2:1986. 1987, 1988
Thomas t Associates
P.O. Bo* 406 Bella ire. Ml 49615
616/533-8472
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT
REQUIREMENTS
• Any IBM • PC. XT. AT or
Compatible Computer
• MS-DOS or PC-DOS Version
2.0 or later
e At least one floppy drive
e MOK H AM availd!
LIST PRICE
With Heat/Gain 1300.00
Heat/Loaa Only SZiO.OO
Demo Program Available
!*er.fv formal 5i* or Disk
o ry
Circle No. 132 on card.
Circle No. 109 on card.
Plagues & Epidemics
own private well, and there were only 5 deaths
among its 535 inmates. A brewery on Broad Street
likewise never used the water from the Broad Street
pump, and it had no cases among its 70 workers.
The actual discovery of the comma-shaped bacil-
lus of cholera was made by the German Dr. Robert
Koch in 1876. Through microscopic examination,
he ascertained that "excrement may contain cholera
bacteria a good while after the actual attack of the
disease."
Final Obstacles: Cholera was always the worst
where poor drainage and human contact came to-
gether. This of course was apt to be in crowded
slums.
So at first, those on top of the social heap could re-
assure themselves that pestilence attacked only the
filthy, the hungry and the ignorant. When the chol-
era epidemic first hit Paris, there were so few deaths
outside of the lower classes, that the poor regarded
the cholera epidemic as a poison plot hatched bv the
aristocracy and executed by the doctors. In Milwau-
kee, efforts to apply basic health measures were
thwarted by rag-pickers and "swill children" who
saw the removal of offal and garbage from the streets
as a threat to their livelihoods. As one newspaper
editorialized. "It is a great pity if our stomachs must
suffer to save the noses of the rich."
The immunity enjoyed by the wealthy was short-
lived, however, the open sewers of the poor sections
eventually leached into the ground and seeped into
wells, or ran along channels into the rivers that sup-
plied drinking water for whole towns and cities.
Once the rich and the movers and shakers of society
began to get sick, government reform began.
Thus it happened that most municipal water
mains and sewer systems got built in the late 19th
Century in America. Public health agencies got
formed and funded. Building codes and ordinances
got passed and enforced.
The superstitions of the ages had finally run their
course. Mankind began to understand that the evil
spirits causing its woes were microscopic creatures
that could be defeated by plumbers and sanitary en-
gineers.
Plumbers finally got to show their stuff in a way
that had not been seen since the days of the Roman
Empire. — pm
Bibliography
Bechtel. Clarence. R , "Plumbing Through the Centuries."
Plumbing Engineer. July-August. 1975. pp. 11-13.
Biswas. Asit K.. History of Hydrology. North-Holland Publish-
ing Co.: Amsterdam. London. 1970.
Cartwright. Frederick F. (in collaboration with Michael D. Bid-
diss). Disease and History. Thomas Y. Crowell Co.: New
York. 1972.
Clark. John W.. Warren Viessman Jr. & Mark J. Hammer, Wa-
ter Supply & Pollution Control. International Textbook Co.:
Scranton. 1971.
Cosgrove. J.J.. History of Sanitation. Standard Sanitary Mfg.
Co.: Pittsburgh, PA 1909.
Duffy. John. Epidemics in Colonial America. Louisiana State
University Press: Baton Rouge, 1979.
Ghalioungui. Paul Dr., Magic and Medical Science in Ancient
Egypt. Barnes & Noble: New York. 1965.
Gordon, Richard Dr., Great Medical Disasters. Stein and Dav:
New York. 1983.
Hoeling. A.A.. The Great Epidemic. Little Brown & Company:
New York. 1961.
Knight, John, "Backflow Prevention In the States, "Plumbing.
Spring. 1987. 14-16.
Lovitt. Judith Walzer, The Healthiest City. Princeton Univer-
sity Press: Princeton. NJ 1982.
McLaughlin. Terence, Dirt. Stein and Day: New York. 1971.
McNeill. William H., Plagues and Peoples. Anchor Press
Doubleday: Garden City. NY, 1976.
Manoog, Russell, Chm., American Sanitary Plumbing Muse-
um, Worcester. MA.
"Managing Urban Waste." Waste Management Inc., edited by
Chicago Tribune Advertising Department. April 29. 1987.
Marks. Geoffrey and William K. Beattv, Epidemics. Charles
Scribner's Sons: New York 1976.
Morris, R.J., Cholera. 1832. Holmes & Meier: New York. 1976.
Roseburv. Theodor, Life On Man. The Viking Press: New York.
1969."
Rosenberg. Charles E., The Cholera Years. University of Chi-
cago Press: Chicago, 1962.
Winslow, Charles Edward Amory, The Conquest of Epidemic
Disease. Hafner Publishing Co.: New York. 1967.
Zinsser, Hans, Rats. Lice and History. Little. Brown and Com-
pany: Boston. 1934.
56
Plumbing & Mechanical. July 1988
-------
ji
Omens, moral falling, bad
air, evil eye, conjunction of
the stars and planets —
3 you name it. These were the causes
| of disease well until the end of the
I 19th century. "Cholera's coming,"
I one diarist wrote in 1831. "The
Jj Sun Rised and Set Red. . .and two
!i Black Spots could be discovered
distinct in the Sun."
If corruption of the air was to
blame, then correct it. Hippocra-
tes, the Father of Medicine, pre-
scribed lighting great fires in the
streets to control epidemics. But
noise had its place too. In India
and China, they drove out cholera
with drums and timbrells. In medi-
eval cities, brass bands paraded
the streets each night, some said
to cheer up people. But others said
they played cholera out of town.
Unswayed by advice of physi-
cians in 1831, commonfolk insist-
ed cholera must be contagious. In
Chester, Pa., several persons with
cholera reportedly were -murdered
along with the man who had shel-
tered them.
The physician recommended
various cures. French brandy and
port were held in particularly high
esteem for their bracing qualities.
Doctors also prescribed calomel,
a chalk}' mercury compound used
as a purgative. Quantities of the
drug which a generation before
had been thought "fit for a horse"
now were prescribed for children.
Others relied on massive doses of
laudanum, or blet ling. Some pa-
tients got the works—laudanum,
calomel and bleeding. (Everything
except cleanliness.)
In 1831, the president of the
New York State Medical Society
suggested that the rectum be
plugged with beeswax or oilcloth to
check the diarrhea. The newer
remedies were sulphur pills and
camphor "segars."
Last Resort: A cholera hospital
was like an almshouse, a place for
people who could afford no better,
evidence of a life misspent. In these
unheated, ill-ventilated "slaughter-
houses" with no ready water sup-
ply, the poor were certain they
would become the helpless sub-
THE
S0B?sY STAYS 07
L1SD3CAL SCIENCE
All set to make a house call, this
17th Century Italian physician
wears protective gear against a
virulent epidemic.
ilu . ¦ ramrCT—iw i ltt»
jects of young physicians eager for
bodies for dissection and experi-
ments. And they were right.
Milwaukee built a "limited use"
hospital in 1876. There was no wa-
ter or sewer connection and inad-
equate heating. No matter. The
hospital rarely admitted patients.
In 1890. the hospital was up-
graded by adding a disinfecting
chamber, water lines and sewers.
The improved heating system al-
lowed Its occupation even during
the winter. When the hospital
opened once more in 1893, still no-
body came—willingly.
Before the days of the germ the-
ory of disease, surgeons operated
in blood-stiffened frock coats, the
stiffer the coat the prouder the
busy surgeon. He was compelled to
work without anesthetics and had
no inkling of the value of cleanli-
ness. He went direct from the dis-
section laboratory to examining a
patient without even washing his
hands.
Before Florence Nightingale, a
nurse was lower in status than the
maid who emptied the slop buck-
ets. But during the Crimean War,
she set a new standard in patient
administration as she nursed the
British remnants of the Charge of
the Light Brigade. She even docu-
mented diseases. Diarrhea and
dysentery appeared on all her lists.
She insisted on sanitizing the
halls, and directing the swabbing
of wards and emptying the over-
flowing latrine tubs. The drains
yielded up two dead horses, 24 as-
sorted animals, and 556 hand-
carts of rubbish.
Days Of Dung And Glory: Final-
ly gone are those days of magic po-
tions of urine of man and feces of
donkeys, or the use of intestinal
worms to harbor out disease, such
as the ancient Egyptians used.
But in those middle years of the
19th Century, there still remained
an unholy alliance between igno-
rance and the stinking holes that
people lived in. New York tene-
ments typically sprang up tall'and
narrow, five stories high. Privies
were less than six feet from the
house, not connected to a sewer
and in the worst possible state.
According to a report by the New
York Metropolitan Board of Health
in 1866, even where drains had
been constructed, they were in
many cases simply surface gutters
in which house slop, not infre-
quently mixed with urine and fecal
matter, was thrown onto the
sidewalks and into the street. Pri-
vies were mere wells, extending
from the upper floors to the cellars,
each floor provided with an open-
ing and seat, but with no provision
for water.
Pasteur, Lister and Koch had
ushered in the great period of
medical knowledge of cause, treat-
ment, and cure of disease. But
their accomplishments would have
been for naught without preven-
tion by a technology of sewers and
water pipes.
by Carol Pomera.vtz
Plumbing & Mechanical, July 1988
47
-------
A PM SPECIAL REPORT
If the old saying 'bad publicity is bet-
ter than no publicity' is true, then
the last 12 months have been heady
times for the plumbing industry.
Plumbing is news — from the front
pages of newspapers to reports on the
nightly newscasts. Articles and anchor-
men talk of the dangers of lead in the
water people drink. Official advertise-
ments provided by state agencies warn
consumers that it could be dangerous to
drink water stored in pipes overnight;
that the lead content could be high
enough to damage the brains and ner-
vous systems of fetuses and children.
It is publicity. If s not good news.
However, the problem inherent in all
publicity is separating fact from fiction.
That's never easy; when the subject is
lead, it's nearly impossible. Few are
without an opinion on the subject, in-
formed or otherwise. Most are simply
afraid. Consumers want reassurance
that the water from their faucet won't
harm them or their children. They are
looking for a definite answer on a sub-
ject for which the evidence is still being
collected.
There are a few theses that everyone
accepts as fact: lead is dangerous; it
doesn't occur naturally in water; water
is not leaving the treatment plant with
excessive quantities of lead; where high
lead levels exist, the water has become
contaminated on the way to the tap,
usually in the home.
After those basic points all agreement
ends, and even those four points are
open to discussion. Much of the debate
has focused on the plumbing industry
and its products. Three product groups
have attracted the most attention:
1) Lead solder, the most popular ma-
terial used to join copper pipe.
2) Lead service pipe that connects in-
dividual piping systems with the water
BY HEATHER MCCUNE
30
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
-------
According to the Latin term
plumbum, for lead, a plumber is a
maker of lead. For many years
plumbing craftsmen did what the
word indicates — they crafted lead
to form the pipes to distribute water
and remove waste.
-------
r
main in the city.
3) Faucets, because lead is an ingredi-
ent in brass. However, little scientific
evidence exists to support this charge.
What we will try to do in this report is
answer some basic questions regarding
lead and plumbing systems:
1) What is the history surrounding
the lead controversy?
2) How dangerous is lead?
3) Where does the lead in water come
from?
4) How much lead is legally allowed?
5) What can be done to minimize the
danger in systems where lead is pres-
ent?
6) What does this mean for the
plumbing industry?
Some of these questions have no final
answers yet. In these instances, it is up
to the plumbing industry to work with
the various federal and state regulatory
agencies to find answers and develop
solutions. The problem of lead in drink-
ing water isn't one that can be ignored,
nor should it be. It is a chance for the
contractor to live up to his own publicity
that bills him as "the protector of the
health and safety of the nation."
What Is the History Surrounding
the Lead Controversy?
The very origins of the plumbing craft
are rooted in the word that today causes
concern and confusion. A plumber is a
maker of lead, according to the Latin
term plumbum, for lead. For many years
plumbing craftsmen did just what the
word indicates — they crafted lead to
form the pipes to distribute water and
remove waste. Their skills saved mil-
lions from certain death by preventing
the plagues and epidemics that were
borne in contaminated stagnant water.
But the very development of potable
water systems may have provided a
new, more insidious hazard — lead con-
tamination. Lead that is dissolved in
water cannot be seen, tasted or smelled.
Lead was one of the first metals
known and used by man. The ancient
Romans found the malleable metal an
easy substance to fashion into pipes to
carry water, goblets to hold wine, and
utensils to cook food. However, there
were hints even then that the lead that
was so important to daily life also was
harmful. In 4th Century B.C., Hippoc-
rates, the father of medicine, wrote of
the adverse health effects on miners and
metallurgists who were exposed to lead.
In recent years the theory has been
put forth that rampant lead poisoning
contributed to the downfall of the Ro-
man Empire. If it did play a part — and
there is no surviving medical evidence
to indicate that this is true — the likely
source of lead wasn't the water, but
rather the wine so common to the Ro-
mans. Records show that lead acetate,
used to stop fermentation, was a major
ingredient in their wine.
In the United States, the subject of
lead as a conduit of water was debated
in 1883 at the first annual convention of
the Association of Master Plumbers, the
forerunner of the National Association
of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contrac-
tors. Joseph P. Gallagher of St. Louis
presented a paper titled "Is Lead As a
Conduit for Water Detrimental To
Health?"
Gallagher explained in his address
that the concern about the safety of lead
pipes dated to the mid-1800s when
plumbing systems were new to the
country. Different diseases developed
and "as the water supply was a new
thing, and lead pipes were exclusively
used as a conduit, it was taken for grant-
ed by many of the physicians that the
use of water conducted through lead
pipes and used for culinary and drink-
ing purposes was the cause of these
mysterious maladies. Time, however,
soon developed that bad drainage, or
no drainage at all, was the culprit.
"We are prepared to state right here
and now that we do not believe that wa-
ter passing through tin pipe, or any oth-
er metallic pipe, even if it were possible
to use silver or gold, would be a particle
more pure than water passing through a
lead pipe," Gallagher continued. "We
would not, however, recommend the
use of water that had laid dead in any
kind of pipe for any length of time . . .
We would advise emptying and cleans-
ing the pipes by letting water run long
enough to wash out all dead substances
before using the water for culinary or
drinking purposes."
Gallagher based his conclusions on
"thirty-five years of practical and experi-
mental experience as a master plumb-
er." Many in the industry believe today
just as Mr. Gallagher did in the 1800s —
that lead water pipe is no more danger-
ous than any other material that might
take its place.
How Dangerous Is Lead?
Others dispute the claim made by
Gallagher and like believers today, and
medical evidence is on their side. It is
32
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
-------
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
33
-------
clear that lead is dangerous to humans.
It is a toxin that has no known useful
function in the human body. It accumu-
lates in body tissue and the blood-
stream, and is very slowly removed,
making even low level ingestion of lead
a hazard over time.
The medical community recognized
the dangers of lead long ago. An article
published in a medical journal in 1839
discussed the neurotoxilogical effects of
lead. Another in 1862 linked elevated
blood lead levels with impaired kidnev
functions. In 1860 the ill effects of lead
on the reproductive systems of men and
women was discovered. Lead's compli-
cating relationship to anemia was de-
tailed early in 1930.
Today lead is known to damage the
nervous system and the gastrointestinal
system. It interferes with the blood-
forming process, aggravates hyperten-
sion, and causes irritability, loss of ap-
petite, fatigue, clumsiness and
abdominal pain at lower levels, accord-
ing to reports in medical journals and in
data collected by the Centers for Disease
Control (CDC).
Currently the CDC has two guide-
lines defining lead concentrations. An
"elevated blood lead level" is a con-
firmed concentration of lead in whole
blood of 25 micrograms of lead per deci-
liter (ug/dl) or greater and indicates an
excessive absorption of lead. Lead toxic-
ity, or lead poisoning, is an elevated
blood level of 35 ug/dl or greater. For
children, the CDC considers 25 ug/dl
the highest acceptable level of concen-
tration, while 10 ug'dl is considered the
break point for lead-related illnesses in
children. In adults, most symptoms are
not thought to occur below 15 ug'dl.
Moreover, there is a growing body of
research that suggests there may be no
safe level of lead ingestion. The April 23,
1987, edition of The New England Journal
of Medicine published an article on the
results of a recent study on the effects of
lead. Study results indicate that a fetus
HOW MUCH CAH YOU DRINK DEFORE YOU GET SICK?
The EPA talks of parts per billion. The Centers for Dis-
ease Control give us data in micrograms per deciliter.
Yeah, but how much lead-ridden water would some-
one have to drink before he got sick?
PM editors get as stumped as anyone else in applying eso-
teric scientific data to "real world" living conditions. So lefs
see if we can bring it down to earth by computing, say, how
many glasses of lead-contaminated water a normal adult
could drink before he/she begins to show symptoms of lead
poisoning.
The Math Problem: The current EPA standard for maxi-
mum acceptable lead content in potable water is 50 parts per
billion (ppb). The Atlanta Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
advise that no symptoms of lead poisoning in adults are
known to occur at lead levels in the blood below 15 micro-
grams (ug) per deciliter (dl). We'll use these two criteria to
construct our math problem.
Keep in mind that a microgram is one-millionth of a gram,
an extremely tiny measure. A deciliter is one-tenth of a liter.
EPA literature states that one ppb is equal to 1.0 microgram
per liter. Its 50 ppb lead standard therefore permits 50 ug/1,
which is the equivalent of 5 ug/dl.
The average 160-lb. adult body contains 4.7 liters of blood,
or 47 deciliters. Since lead is known to accumulate in the
body, the CDC studies suggest that this average human could
tolerate 47 dl x 15 ug/dl or 705 accumulated micrograms of
lead without showing any ill effects.
An 8-oz. drinking glass is the most common household
size. One fluidounce converts to 29.573 milliliters, or .29573
deciliters. Since an 8-oz drinking glass would almost never be
filled to the brim, let's multiply by 7.5 oz. So .29573 x 7.5
equals 2.218 dl (rounded off).
Now we multiply 2.218 dl times the EPA standard of 5 ug/dl
to find that the maximum allowable amount of lead in a single
8-oz. glass of water (filled to 7.5 oz. capacity) would be 11.09
ug. (Boy, I sure wish electronic calculators were around when
I was a schoolkid!)
We've already determined that the normal adult should be
able to tolerate an accumulation of 705 ug. Dividing that by
11.09 gives us a total of 63.57, which we'll round off to 63.6.
This represents the number of glasses of water containing
enough lead to reach maximum human tolerance.
However, our Special Report notes that adult bodies only
absorb about 8-10% of the lead they are exposed to. Let's as-
sume 10% and multiply 63.6 x 10 to come up with our magic
number of 636. This is the number of glasses of water an indi-
vidual would have to drink before he/she exhibits symptoms
of lead poisoning, based on our hypothetical assumptions.
What It Means: There are far too many variables and uncer-
tainties in our rough calculations to make any pretense of sci-
entific validity. But we feel the exercise is useful in lending
greater perspective to the potential hazard of lead in plumb-
ing systems.
The final total of 636 glasses of water is quite low. The aver-
age adult probably consumes that much, or the equivalent,
from household faucets in just a few months. "Equivalent" in-
cludes water used in cooking, to make ice cubes, for brewing
coffee and tea, etc.
Even if our calculations are off by a factor of 10, they still
suggest that a plumbing system with a high degree of lead
contamination could theoretically cause lead poisoning in
adults within just a few years of continuous exposure. More-
over, this measures lead ingestion from only that source.
(Continued on page 46)
34
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
-------
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
35
-------
may be harmed at blood lead concentra-
tions well below 25 ug/dl. Infants with
blood lead levels at 25 ug/dl did poorly
on the Mental Development Index dur-
ing the first two years of life when com-
pared with other infants whose blood
lead levels were under 10 ug/dl.
Lead presents the greatest danger for
young children and unborn babies. Ex-
cessive exposure to lead is especially
damning for this group because chil-
dren absorb more of the lead they ingest
than adults — a 50% absorption rate for
children, compared with a rate of 8% to
10% for adults. Children's developing
bodies also handle lead differently,
making them more vulnerable to its tox-
ic effects. It is estimated that 17% of
preschool-age children already have
blood lead levels exceeding 15 ug/dl,
and though this is below the CDC stan-
dard for children, health and cognitive
development problems are associated at
this concentration. The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that
lead in drinking water contributes be-
tween 10% and 20% of total lead expo-
sure in young children.
In an editorial in the same edition of
The New England Journal of Medicine, Ni-
cholas D. Ashford, Ph.D., J.D. of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
%
WATER COOLERS: ARE THEY FOUNTAINS OF LEAD?
The current controversy over lead in water coolers flows
from a study conducted at Navy facility offices in Wash-
ington, D.C. An analysis of water samples drawn from
the fountains suggested that electric water coolers add-
ed unsafe concentrations of lead to the drinking water. Water
samples from the coolers registered lead levels that were 40
times higher than the Environmental Protection Agency's rec-
ommended standard for lead in drinking water.
Since this data was publicized late in 1987, an army of oppo-
sition has developed. Lining up against the report based on
the Navy findings, which was prepared by the U.S. Public
Health Service, are all water cooler manufacturers as well as
some EPA officials. All contend that the publicized test results
only tell half the story.
What wasn't released, they say, was the fact that water
samples drawn from several faucets in the Navy buildings
also showed extremely high levels of lead, meaning the likely
source of contamination may be the plumbing system in the
building, and not just the water coolers.
Test Results: Not all the water coolers tested by the Navy
had problems, but among 40 first-draw samples, the average
lead level was 125 parts per billion (ppb), with a high of 570
ppb. In the 119 samples taken after the water ran for a minute
or two, the average lead levels were still above normal, rough-
ly 64 ppb with a high of 830 ppb. (The fact that lead levels re-
mained high even after running the water may support the
theory that the buildir.gs' plumbing systems — and not just
the electric coolers — contributed lead to the water.) The low-
est level in both samples was five ppb. Currently, the EPA
standard is 50 ppb.
The results of the Navy tests prompted Rep. Henry Wax-
man (D-Calif.), chairman of the House Energy and Commerce
Committee's health suocommittee to conduct a national in-
quiry in the manufacturing process of electric water coolers.
The preliminary test report, released by Waxman's subcom-
mittee in December 1987, stirred up much of the public alarm
over water fountains.
For example, in California, several schools shut off refriger-
ated water fountains. The Los Angeles school board ordered
testing of all its drinking water sources. Some companies, in-
cluding IBM and Ford Corp., called the EPA out of concern
over their own water fountains.
According to the Public Health Service, which analyzed the
test data, the problem water stemmed from lead-lined water
tanks or lead soldering in the coils in the refrigerated foun-
tains.
The Navy tests found high lead concentrations in water
samples from five brand-name coolers and from some coolers
that carried no name. Companies identified in the test include
Halsey Taylor Co., Elkay Mfg., Sunroc Corp., General Electric
Co., which no longer makes water coolers, and Cordley, a
trade name produced by Eaton Corp. until it was sold to El-
kay.
One of the water coolers, manufactured by Halsey Taylor,
had a lead coating in the water tank and lead solder, accord-
ing to an EPA spokesperson. The age of the water cooler
wasn't known.
In a press release Halsey Taylor president Robert Hoagland
said that "a lead-based coating for the exterior surface of the
water tank was used for nine months and discontinued in
March 1979, after finding that a process malfunction could re-
sult in a small percentage of tanks with small quantities of
coating on the internal surface. Working with the Consumer
Products Safety Commission, we developed a program for
testing and replacement of known potential problem units."
Hoagland said that Halsey Taylor is "committed to total
product safety with our products and believe we are and have
been in full compliance with all health and safety regula-
tions." He also said that in 1987 the company phased out the
use of lead-based solder for joining copper pipe in contact
with drinking water.
In data provided voluntarily to the subcommittee, the larg-
est water cooler manufacturers reported that the units they
make are now lead-free. With the exception of Elkay Mfg.,
which reported never using any lead component, all other
manufacturers said the use of lead solder had been eliminated
in any part of the unit that comes in contact with drinking
water.
The Value of Hindsight: The hysteria surrounding the
original findings has died down. In most cases it has been re-
placed with facts or a promise of more complete information
(Continued on page 46)
36
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
-------
-------
Lead
said that the study results "confirm the
suspicion that very low levels of toxins
are capable of causing serious health ef-
fects." He also said that this "should
quiet the insistence that governmental
efforts to control these hazards are ex-
cessive and irrational responses . . . The
study suggests it may be wise for the
Environmental Protection Agency to re-
view the standards for lead exposure,
both from the ambient air and drinking
water, in the general population."
The EPA is currently reviewing the
standards for lead exposure.
Where Does the Lead in Water
Come From?
In its natural state, there is rarely any
lead in water. Neither does water leave
the treatment plant with excessive
quantities of lead. It must undergo sev-
eral treatment processes and testing
procedures that guarantee its purity be-
fore it reaches the faucet. The water
treatment process includes eight steps:
1) Water is moved from surface and
ground-water sources to storage areas.
Sometimes copper sulfate is added at
this stage to control algae growth.
2) Water is strained to remove debris.
3) Chemicals such as chlorine, lime,
and alum are added to coagulate parti-
cles, disinfect, and where necessarv, to
soften the water.
4) Water is allowed to sit in sedimen-
tation basins while solid particles sink to
the bottom.
5) Water flows through beds of gravel
and sand for final filtering.
6) Chlorine and other disinfectants
are added as a final treatment to kill bac-
teria.
7) Water is then tested for purity to
ensure that it does not contain any
quantities of pollutants in excess of the
EPA's maximum contaminant levels.
8) Treated water goes to reservoirs or
holding tanks, or in some cases, directly
into the water supply system.
It's from this stage forward that water
comes in contact with materials which,
theoretically, undo some of what the
treatment process has done. Where
high lead levels do exist the water has
become contaminated on the way to the
tap. Typically, lead is a by-product of
corrosion, a reaction between the water
and the materials used in the distribu-
tion and individual plumbing systems.
There are several likely sources of lead
within a plumbing system:
1) Lead service lines which carry pota-
ble water from the public main to a
building or residence. According to Jean
Briskin, spokesperson for the EPA's Of-
fice of Drinking Water, there are about
4.4 million lead service lines in the Unit-
ed States. Older, industrial areas — Bos-
ton, Chicago, New York — have lead
pipe almost exclusively, while newer
cities in the South and West have none.
A federal law was passed in July 1986
prohibiting the installation of lead pipe
for service connections.
2) Lead solder on copper pipes in a
plumbing system that is less than five
vears old, or in a very old svstem where
corrosion is evident. Scientific data indi-
cates that the newer the home the great-
er the risk of lead contamination. Lead
levels decrease as a building ages be-
cause mineral deposits form a coating
on the inside of the pipes as time passes
(if the water isn't too corrosive). This
coating insulates the water from the
lead. Therefore, during the first five
years — before the coating forms — wa-
ter is in direct contact with the lead.
3) Lead in a plumbing system in an
area that has corrosive water. According
to the EPA, any water is corrosive if it
has a pH of less than 7 or an alkalinitv of
less than 30 milligrams per liter. In addi-
tion, water temperature in excess of
20°C will generally increase corrosive-
ness. This type of water is also known
as soft water. Unlike hard water, it
doesn't release the minerals that form
the coating between the water and the
lead-bearing parts of the plumbing sys-
tem. Therefore, corrosion is much great-
er in these water systems.
Of the 80,000 U.S. water utilities, the
Also—
Solder Safe
and 95/5
MAKE DRINKING WATER
MORE THAN JUST SAFE...
MAKE IT PLUM SAFE.
The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1986
mandates that ail solders used on
potable water systems be lead-free.
New Plum Safe™* lead-free solder
from Willard Industries meets this
requirement. What's more, Plum Safe
offers many of the excellent performance
characteristics of 50/50 and works easier,
faster with less dripping and waste than 95/5.
A premium, silver-bearing alloy, Plum Safe has an extremely
low melting point and wide melting range (4240-455° F.)
assuring exceptional penetration and flow. For more information,
Patent Pending
WILLARD
Since 1938
call this toll-free number..
1-800-438-5052
(In North Carolina call 1-800-532-0318)
WILLARD
INDUSTRIES, INC.
101 New Bern Street, P O. Box 11815
Charlotte, NC 28220
38
Circle No. 95 on card.
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
-------
Lead
EPA's Briskin estimates that 47,000 have
corrosive water. A U.S. Geological Sur-
vey completed in the early 1960s identi-
fied the Northeast, Southeast, and
Northwest sections of the country as
having the softest and most corrosive
water. There are inexpensive treatment
steps that a water company can take to
counteract the problem by raising the
pH and increasing the hardness of the
water. Boston and Seattle have success-
fully done this for an annual cost of less
than one dollar per person.
Lead contamination from faucets also
is of concern to regulators because of the
use of lead in the brass machining pro-
cess. The legal limit for lead in faucets is
8%. Most faucet manufacturers use 7%
lead in the brass-casting process. There
is no known way to machine brass with-
out using lead.
This charge by regulators has generat-
ed controversy, and domestic faucet
manufacturers have armed themselves
with data to prove that faucets do not
give up significant quantities of lead to
the water supply. Through the Plumb-
ing Manufacturers Institute (PMI), fau-
cet manufacturers have met with offi-
cials of the EPA and the National
Sanitation Foundation and presented
them with information to support this
position. Included in this presentation
are test results collected by Walter
Schlotman, vice president of research
and development for Stanadvne, Inc.
(Elyria, Ohio).
According to Schlotman's research,
the piping system in a four-bedroom
house holds roughly three gallons of
water. At the end-point of the system,
the kitchen faucet holds roughly 90 mil-
liliters of water. Assuming a flow rate of
2.75 gallons per minute (the rate re-
quired by code), a kitchen faucet emp-
ties in Vio of a second; and a bathroom
lavatory faucet even faster because it's
smaller. Therefore, the standing water
is eliminated from the faucet after Yw of
a second, at which time water is drawn
from the home piping system. After
three minutes or less, the faucet pulls
water from the public system beyond
the main.
"The interior surface area of the fau-
cet is too small and the flow rate too fast
for significant leaching to occur," said
Schlotman at a meeting of PMI. He sup-
ported this position with evidence col-
lected by Moen in laboratory and field
tests of its faucets.
Despite all the bad publicity, water is
hardly the only source of lead in daily
life. Other common sources include air,
dust, dirt, and contaminated food. Car
engines that bum leaded fuel spew the
deadly toxin in the air. It eventually set-
tles and is trapped in dirt and dust.
Lead solder also is used on tin food
cans, though efforts are underway to
prohibit this practice. The food remains
safe while the can is sealed, but once
opened, lead from the solder can leach
into the food if the can is used for stor-
age. The danger is especially great with
acidic substances like tomato products
and citrus juices. According to the Food
and Drug Administration, on average
about one-third of all lead ingested by
people comes from lead solder used in
food cans.
Another major source of elevated
blood lead levels, especially among chil-
dren, is lead-based paint. Though the
Childhood Lead-Based Paint Poisoning
Prevention Program began in 1973, re-
sults from a National Health and Nutri-
tion Examination Survey conducted be-
tween 1976 and 1980 showed that
675,000 children, age six months to five
years, had blood lead concentrations
greater than the accepted normal range.
Increased lead absorption was highest
among low-income urban black children
and lowest among rural white children.
Study results indicate that deteriorated,
lead-painted housing remains as the pri-
mary source of lead for young children
in the United States, according to the
National Institute of Building Science.
How Much Lead Is
Legally Allowed?
As measuring techniques improved,
the amount of lead tolerated in the envi-
ronment — from the air we breathe to
the water we drink — has dropped. The
most recent evidence of this is the Safe
Drinking Water Act Amendments
signed into law on June 19, 1986. The
amendments, now Section 1417 of the
Act, took effect June 19, 1988. It has five
major provisions:
1) Banning the use of solder or flux ex-
ceeding 0.2% lead content, or pipes and
fittings exceeding 8% lead in new instal-
lations and repairs of public water sup-
ply systems, or in any plumbing in resi-
dential or nonresidential facilities
providing water for human consump-
tion. Experts agree that this solder is the
major source of lead in potable water.
2) A public notice requirement which
mandates that public water suppliers
notify consumers who may be affected
bv lead contamination of their drinking
water due to the materials in the distri-
bution system or the corrosiveness of
the water. These notices must explain
the potential sources of lead; the possi-
ble adverse health effects; methods of
mitigating known or potential lead con-
tent in water; steps the supplier is taking
to eliminate lead; and the necessity for
seeking alternative water supplies, if
any.
3) Penalties for any state that fails to
enforce prohibition and notification re-
quirements. Noncompliance could re-
sult in a loss of up to 5% of that state's
public water system supervision pro-
gram grant.
4) Housing and Urban Development
and Veterans Administration compli-
ance provisions which state that neither
agency may provide mortgage insur-
ance or other assistance for new resi-
dential property if the plumbing system
contains lead in excess of the limits.
5) A warning label requirement for
solders with a lead content exceeding
0.2%. The label must state that its use in
making joints or fittings in any private
or public potable water supply is pro-
hibited.
The amendments also provide direc-
tives for the EPA in its role as regulator
and enforcer of water quality. Under the
amendments the EPA is required to set
maximum levels for 83 new contami-
nants. Currently the EPA has set the
maximum contaminant level (MCL) for
lead at 50 ppb in potable water, but the
agency is proposing a dramatic lower-
ing of that MCL to 20 ppb or less by the
end of the year. This limit would be en-
forceable at the consumer's tap.
At press time, the EPA proposed two
programs aimed at reducing lead in
drinking water. One would educate the
public on how to lower its lead intake,
and would reduce drinking water acid-
ity so that less corrodes from pipe and
solder. The other is a proposed 90%
reduction, to five ppb, of allowable
lead in drinking water. The new ceil-
ing on lead is to be applied at water
treatment plants, not at the consumer's
tap.
In an earlier interview with Plumbing
& Mechanical, EPA drinking water
spokesperson Jean Briskin outlined
some of the other measures currently
under consideration at the agency:
1) In areas where lead contaminates
the well water or source water, the EPA
is planning to propose an MCL of 5 ppb.
2) Where lead occurs as a by-product
of corrosion, the EPA is planning to im-
pose a treatment technique on water
suppliers, who would be required to
take samples from taps in consumers'
homes. If the lead level of the water
samples exceeds 10 ppb, or if the pH of
the water is less than 8, or if the alkalin-
ity of the water is less than 30 milligrams
per liter — if any one of these things is
true — then the supplier would be re-
quired to treat the water at the plant to
minimize its corrosiveness.
According to Briskin in some cases
the water supplier will be able to bring
the lead levels below 10 ppb, and will be
required to do so. In other situations, it
may not be possible because of the
plumbing the water must pass through
before it reaches the tap. In that case, if
more than 5% of the samples were
greater than 20 ppb, the water supplier
would be required to conduct a public
education campaign.
In this latter program, suppliers
40
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
-------
Lead
"would have to explain to the consumer
that they have done what they can to
lower the water lead levels, but in some
cases they are still too high," said Bris-
kin. "They also must tell the consumer
what they can do to protect them-
selves "
The EPA also is taking comment on
an alternative plan of action to the pub-
lic education campaign. In addition to
the corrosion control treatment required
if the average lead content in the sam-
ples is higher than 10 ppb, under the al-
ternative the water supplier would re-
place lead service lines that are
contributing significant amounts of
lead. Onlv after this has been done
would the public education program be
mandated.
Either of the programs Briskin out-
lined marks a change in practice, if not
policy, for the EPA. Traditionally, EPA
authority covers only water in the mu-
nicipal system, and does not address
the issue of water quality at the tap. It is
unclear who or what agency would po-
lice water at the consumer level, but the
EPA likely will hold the water supplier
responsible.
Effluent and sewage pumps
Now, from little Giant's long tradition In submersible pumps,
comes a line of effluent and sewage pumps and accessories...
designed to last, designed to handle tough Jobs. Permanently
lubricated motor and bearings. Thermally protected. Auto-
matic and manual models. Stainless steel screws, bolts, handle
and seal assembly. Epoxy coated cast Iron housings. AI1119 v.
models ui Listed. Automatic models CSA Listed.
Effluent Pumps. Range from 1/3 hp. models with 21 ft.
shut-off - to 1/2 hp. units with a 26 ft. maximum head. Handle
solids up to 3/4 in. diameter
Sewage Pumps. For larger solids, up to 2 in. diameter, these
range from 4/10 hp. with a 19 ft. shut-off, to larger models
rated at 1/2 hp., with a 22 ft. head. Capacities range from 80
to 110 GPM with 5 ft. lift.
Accessories, series includes basin
kits, 18 x 30 and 24 x 36 in. basins,
covers, check valves, adaptors,
hubs and more
Eliminate waste solutions and elim-
inate problems with The Elimina-
tors from Little Giant, write or call
for more information.
581 ON. TUIsa / Oklahoma city, OK 73112 /(4091947-2311 / TWm74831S

5§.
Mt
LittlKjiant
mt
PUMP y ^COMPANY
K
SUBSIDIARY

TICUMSiM PRODUCTS COMPANY
What Can Be Done To Minimize
The Lead Danger In Systems?
As Briskin explains, the easiest course
of action is to reduce water's corrosive-
ness at the treatment level by treating it
with lime or soda ash. By raising the pH
and increasing its hardness, the water
doesn't react as much with the lead in
the plumbing system. Where this isn't
an option, or lead levels remain high,
the following precautions are suggest-
ed.
2) Anytime water in a particular fau-
cet has not been used for six hours or
longer, flush the cold-water pipes by
running the water until it becomes as
cold as it will get. This must be done for
each faucet. The flushing procedure
could take as little as five to 30 seconds if
there has been recent heavy water use,
such as showering or toilet flushing.
Normally, it will take two minutes or
longer. The more time water has spent
in the pipes, the more lead it may con-
tain.
2) Use only water from the cold-water
tap for drinking and cooking. Hot water
is likely to contain higher levels of lead.
3J Before moving into a new house,
all faucet strainers should be removed
and the system flushed for 15 minutes.
This will remove any loose solder or flux
debris from the plumbing. Occasional-
ly, the faucet strainers should be
cleaned to remove any accumulation of
loose lead.
None of these actions is totally effec-
tive, and all are probably useless to
apartment dwellers. High-rise plumb-
ing systems may have large diameter
supplv pipes that are joined with lead
solder, making it nearly impossible for
an apartment dweller to clear the sys-
tem.
There are wavs to reduce the amount
of lead in tap water, short of removing
any source of leachable lead in the sys-
tem, though this seems to be the only
long-term effective approach. Point-of-
use treatment instruments, such as re-
verse osmosis devices and distillation
units, are available. However, both can
be expensive, their effectiveness varies,
and they must be well-maintained. In
addition, since these devices also soften
water, they should only be installed at
the faucet.
Since lead dissolved in water cannot
be seen, tasted or smelled, the only way
to determine the true lead content of tap
water is to have it tested. Local health
departments and water utilities, if they
don't do the tests themselves, can sug-
gest reputable laboratories that are ap-
proved to analyze drinking water for
lead contamination. Testing procedures
vary from lab to lab. Some will send a
technician to the home to take water
samples, but most simply will provide
sample containers and instructions on
how to draw tap water samples. Labs
Circle No. 96 on card.
42
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
-------
- Lead-Free .
Taramet Sterling
Your response
has been
terrific. And
we thank you for all the letters praising the
workability and strength of Taramet Sterling
premium lead-free solder. Some of you actually
prefer it to 50/50.
If you haven't tried Taramet Sterling yet. you'll
be pleasantly surprised at its low melting point,
wide workable range and silver-smooth flow. Find
out firsthand what plumbers are raving about. For
\ a free sample, literature
/}., or more information

*
%
just give us
a call.
f B /
Taracorp
Winston Salem, NC
Imaco Plant
1 (8001 334-5266
Atlanta. GA
Evans Plant
1 (800) 241-4590
Granite City. IL
1 (800) 851-3300
Circle No. 97 on card.
Lead
usually require two water samples; a
first draw, taken after at least six hours
of no water use from the tap tested; and
a fully-flushed draw, taken after the wa-
ter has run from the faucet for at least
three minutes. This second sample will
indicate the effectiveness of flushing the
tap before using the water. Costs for
these tests range anywhere from 520 to
5100.
There are visual clues that tell how
much lead was used in the plumbing
system, but not how much leaches into
the water. Lead pipe is a dull-gray metal
that is soft and can oe easily scratched.
After a few days lead solder turns a dull
gray at the joint, while the non-lead
bearing materials stay bright and shiny.
Public water suppliers can provide in-
formation on where lead service con-
nections exist.
In addition to regulation of the mate-
rials used in the construction and repair
of plumbing systems, the EPA is trying
to encourage public water suppliers to
replace lead service lines at the earliest
possible date. 'We don't want them to
replace a lead service pipe only when it
breaks," explains Briskin. "If for some
reason they must dig up the street, take
out the pipe then. Don't wait until it
breaks. Removing lead pipe must be a
priority."
What Does This Mean For The
Plumbing Industry?
Few pieces of legislation have impact-
ed the industry as much as the Safe Wa-
ter Drinking Act Amendments. The
most recognized and immediate impact
is the ban on lead solders, long a staple
for most plumbing contractors. In this
respect the industry has adapted well.
Instead of protesting the legislation, in-
dustry manufacturers joined together to
say they would do whatever it takes to
remove lead from drinking water. Man-
ufacturers developed new lead-free sol-
ders specifically for potable water appli-
cations.
The industry also worked to educate
itself. The NAPHCC Educational Foun-
dation published a research report,
"The Lead Solder Ban: Its Effect on the
Plumbing Industry," and mailed it to
every member. The Copper Develop-
ment Association convened an all-in-
dustry round-table meeting in 1985 to
discuss the lead issue. Forty-five people
from 32 different associations attended
the meeting. One major topic of discus-
sion was public reaction to all the media
attention surrounding the legislation.
Those in attendance concluded that
"while there is no significant public
alarm or loss of sales to date, those pos-
sibilities exist unless the industry under-
takes an effective communications pro-
gram ... to minimize problems and
confusions caused by the lead bans."
No one in the industry is in a better
position to handle this assignment than
the plumbing contractor. Through daily
contact, the contractor can educate his
customer about lead, and together they
can decide what is the best way to pro-
ceed on a case by case basis. A lot of
people are afraid because thev can't find
answers to their questions. This is a
chance to sell the knowledge years in
the trade have produced by replacing
hysteria with information supported by
facts.
The lack of accurate information avail-
able to the public will only increase in
the year ahead. As required by the Safe
Drinking Water Act Amendments, the
EPA is setting new MCLs for 83 contam-
inants, including lead. As of early Au-
gust, the agency has developed final
rules for nine, proposed rules for seven,
and within the next six months pro-
posed rules will be published for an ad-
ditional 40. What effect these rules will
have on the plumbing industry is un-
clear. The water supplier must meet
these standards, but as noted, the stan-
dards are expected to be enforced at the
tap, not at the treatment plant.
The media attention devoted to the
plumbing industry will continue as
more people become increasingly con-
cerned about the water they drink. It
will be publicity; it is up to the industry
to make sure it's not bad news. — PM
44
Plumbing & Mechanical, September 1988
-------
m
>
D
O
q
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
TITLE OF SESSION: How Lead Gets Into Drinking Water—How Does
Lead Get Into the Water?
SPEAKER: Bill Coffey, Manager, Copper Development
Association
In this session, Mr. Coffey will discuss how lead contamination
of potable water supplies occurs.
In his presentation, Mr. Coffey will:
o Outline the possible sources of lead that come from common
plumbing products,
o Discuss studies conducted by the copper industry prior to
the concern about lead contamination of water, and
o Make a slide presentation.
Two informational brochures produced by Copper Development
Association are included in the notebook.
-------
Contains lead as shown by
yellow lead chromate
precipitate.
Contains no lead as shown
by clear yellow solution.
After the test has been completed, rinse the dropper pipette,
test tube and cap in running tap water, using the brush
provided, if necessary.
The CDA Lead Solder Test Kit is available from:
Training Division
Copper Development Association Inc.
Greenwich Office Park 2
P.O. Box 1840
Greenwich, CT 06836
203/625-8210
NOTICE: This test kit has been developed for professionals in the plumbing industry
such as plumbing inspectors, contractors and engineers. It is important that the
directions be carefully followed and the hazardous substances warnings be read. When|
properly used, Copper Development Association Inc. believes that the test kit is
normally capable of identifying the presence of lead in traditional plumbing solders at
concentrations as low as 5%. However, Copper Development Association Inc. assumes
no responsibility or liability and makes no representations or warranties o1 any kind in
connection with the use of this test kit or its use by any person or organization.
406/6R
CDA
LEAD SOLDER
TEST KIT
The Safe Drinking Water Act Amend-
ments of 1986 require the use of lead-
free pipe, solder and flux in plumbing
systems that provide water for human
consumption. The COA Lead Solder
Test Kit was developed to provide an
on-site means for health officials,
plumbing inspectors, contractors and
engineers to assure that traditional
plumbing solders (per ASTM B32-87)
containing substantial amounts of lead
were not used in the installation of
copper potable water systems.
-------
RELIABLE, QUICK, ON-SITE TESTING
The CDA test kit provides an effective and inexpensive
test method for the identification of lead in completed
soldered joints of copper plumbing systems. The test
will sort out lead-free solders (0.2% maximum) from
standard lead-containing plumbing solders covered by
ASTM B32-87. Test results from non-standard plumbing
solders containing less than 5% lead may be erratic. The
test cannot detect trace levels of lead in potable water.
With the CDA kit, on-site testing for traditional lead-
containing solders can be done in slightly over five
minutes without the need to return the sample to the
laboratory for analysis. The kit consists of acids to dissolve
solder fragments and a chromate compound which, on
contact with lead in solution, forms the characteristic
insoluble yellow lead chromate precipitate. The test results
are highly reliable. However, the kit is not a substitution
for laboratory testing which will provide the quantitative g
results sometimes required. f
Add 10 drops of fluoboric
acid (Solution #4) to the
test tube.
Then using a dropper pipette,
add 2 drops of nitric acid
(Solution #1).
CPA LEAD SOLDER TEST KIT
COMPONENTS
Cap the test tube and agitate the mixture by gently
tapping. Allow the mixture to react with the solder
fragments for at least 5 minutes.
4 ea. —Test Tubes, 8 ml with caps
2 ea. — Dropper Pipettes
1 ea.-Test Tube Brush
1 ea. —Solution #1 Nitric Acid 1:1 (60 ml)
1 ea.-Solution #2 Deionized Water (60 ml)
1 ea.-Solution #3 Chromate Indicator (22 ml)
(5% Potassium Chromate)
1 ea. —Solution #4 Fluoboric Acid 48%, (60 ml)
Add 20 drops of deionized water (Solution #2) to the test
tube and agitate. If the mixture is other than clear, i.e.,
turbid or cloudy, discard the mixture and repeat using a
smaller solder sample.
' ¦ i: ¦ . :M , , • , I
Add 2 or 3 drops of the chromate
indicator (Solution #3) directly to
the mixture in the test tube.
The presence of lead is con-
firmed by the immediate forma-
tion of the insoluble yellow lead
chromate precipitate. The
absence of lead is identified by a
clear yellow solution.
Scrape 4 or 5 fragments of solder from a joint on to a
folded paper and transfer into a test tube. Do not include
copper particles.
-------
¦ In the past few years several states and
municipalities, and one model plumbing
code, have banned solders that contain
lead from use in drinking water plumbing
systems. More recently Congress passed,
and the President signed into law, the
Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of
1986 which will effectively ban the use
of lead-containing solders in potable
water systems nationwide. The major issue
is solder containing 50% tin and 50% lead
(50-50), up to now the most widely used
solder for drinking water systems.
The banning of such solders need cause
no problems. Lead-base solders can be
replaced easily by commercially available
tin-antimony or tin-silver solders. The
main differences between these solders
and 50-50 are that they are stronger and
require somewhat higher working temper-
atures. Many plumbers in the United
Alloy
50-50 Tin-Lead
95-5 Tin-Antimony
94-6 Tin-Silver
95-5 Tin-Silver
96.5-3.5 Tin-Silver
350 400 450 500 550
Melting Range, F
Figure 1: Melting Characteristics of Alternative Lead-Free Solders Compared to 50-50.
States have used them in copper plumbing
systems for decades.
Reasons For The Ban
The basis for the public health concern
is the maximum contaminant level (MCL)
for lead in drinking water established by
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). EPA has set this MCL at 50 parts
per billion for drinking water. This is a
very tiny amount of contamination by lead
-.000005%. The practical result of this
extremely low limit is that some drinking
waters which are soft, acidic and have low
alkalinity can pick up (leach out) this much
lead from any solder which is exposed
to the water inside the plumbing system.
Studies by EPA and others have shown that
in the rare instances where conditions are
such that lead pick-up occurs, it generally
450
4301
4301
4301430
1464
473
1535
APPLICATION
DATASHEET
COPPER • BRASS • BRONZE
lead-free solders
for drinking water
plumbing systems
tapers off to a low level quickly after a new
plumbing system is put into use, and also
that it is almost always associated with
long periods of stagnation of the soft,
acidic water inside the plumbing system.
The Water Treatment Option
Lead pick-up can be avoided by treating
a soft, acidic, low alkalinity water to make
it non-aggressive. MCL's are enforceable
at the consumer's water faucet. EPA's
position is that the water supplier is
responsible for the lead content at that
point, even though the lead is picked up
from the plumbing system within the home
or other building. EPA believes that the
water supplier should provide water that
is nonaggressive with respect to plumbing
systems. In some communities (e.g.,
Seattle, Washington), this obligation has
been recognized and public water supplies
are treated with lime or soda ash to control
pH and alkalinity and insure against lead
pick-up in the system.
Solder Selection
Solder selection is normally based on
three main considerations: ease of use,
service conditions and cost.
Fifty-fifty tin-lead solder is the most
familiar to the plumbing trade and the
easiest to use. It provides the installer
with the opportunity to solder at low tem-
perature and, because of its wide melting
range, it fills capillary spaces easily.
However, alternative solders are com-
mercially available and can be applied
with equal success using the same
equipment used for 50-50 and without
any need for retraining. In fact, those
installers who are already familiar with
these materials find them as easy to use
as 50-50. The melting characteristics of
the four main alternative lead-free solders
are compared with 50-50 in Figure 1.
WW COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION INC.
QL PO BOX 1840 GREENWICH. CONN 06836
-------
These lead-free solders are applied
using the same fluxes, heating equipment
and joining techniques as for lead-base
solders. Because of their compositions,
they are more fluid and less sluggish
through their melting ranges than 50-50.
Within the standard tolerance range for
tube and fittings, which normally provides
a capillary soldering space of .002 to
.006 in., joints can be made with the same
ease with the alternative solders as with
the familiar, more pasty 50-50 composition.
For very large diameter tube, where there
is more possibility of capillary spaces
being greater than .006 in., brazing may
be the best alternative.
Strength Properties
One major advantage of the tin-antimony
and tin-silver solders is that joints made
with them are considerably stronger than
joints made with 50-50 tin-lead This
superiority is the main reason that tin-
antimony and tin-silver solders have long
been specified for high-rise installations,
for high-temperature service, for com-
mercial refrigeration and air conditioning
hook-ups and for soldered copper fire
sprinkler systems.
Because soldered joints made with tin-
antimony and tin-silver are stronger,
plumbing systems installed using them
can withstand higher pressures and tem-
peratures than systems made with 50-50
tin-lead solder. This can be seen in Table 1
which shows the rated internal working
pressures for soldered copper tube joints
Note that these are not the pressures at
which the joints would fail, which are
much higher. These pressure ratings
incorporate a considerable margin of
safety They represent the best engineering
judgment as to the pressure which the
joints will withstand indefinitely without
probability of failure, based on the results
of long-time testing of soldered joints.
Long-time joint strength test results are
not so readily available for tin-silver solders
as for tin-antimony. To rectify this, Copper
Development Association has long-time
tests underway on two tin-silver composi-
tions along with the standard 95-5 tin-
antimony and a modified tin-antimony
(pewter) composition.
Cost Considerations
The alternative solders cost somewhat
more per pound than 50-50. Offsetting this
higher material cost is the fact that 20
to 25% more joints can be made per
pound of tin-antimony and tin-silver
solders because they are lighter in weight
(lower density) than 50-50. While the cost
of tin-antimony solders is almost twice that
of 50-50, and tin-silver solders are about
four times as expensive, it should be
appreciated that the average dwelling unit
requires only one or two pounds of solder
to install its potable water system. The
increased cost of the alternative solder is
thus completely insignificant in the cost
of a home-and the joints made with it
are stronger, safer at elevated temperature
and assuredly lead-free.
This publication, based on available data, has
been prepared lor the information and use
of engineers, contractors and tradesmen in the
plumbing business. CDA assumes no respon-
sibility or liability of any kind in connection
with this publication, and make no warranties
of any kind with respect to the information
contained herein
WW COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION INC
QL PO BOX 1840 GREENWICH CONN 06836
Table 1: Rated Internal Working Pressures (psig) for Soldered Copper Water Tube Joints.
Solder Used
for Joints
Service
Temperature, F

Tube Size, Types K, L and M, inches

1/4 tO 1
incl.
1 to 2
incl.
2-Vi to 4
incl
5 to 8 10 to 12
incl incl.
95-5
100
500
400
300
270
150
Tin-Antimony
150
400
350
275
250
150

200
300
250
200
180
140

250
200
175
150
135
110
95-5
100
525
330
235
_
_
Tin-Silver
150
365
245
235
-
—

200
275
170
170
—
—

250
200
120
120
-
-
50-50
100
200
175
150
130
100
Tin-Lead
150
150
125
100
90
70

200
100
90
75
70
50

250
85
75
50
45
40
NOTE: Ratings up to 8-inch are given in ASME B16.22 "Wrought Copper and Copper
Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings" and ASME B16.18 "Cast Alloy Solder Joint
Pressure Fittings!' Tin-silver values are from data in German Standard DIN2856,
"Fittings for Solder Joining!'
406/7
-------
5
C/>
DJ
m
to
T)
o
z
C/)
m
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
TITLE OF SESSION: The EPA's Response—"Lead In Drinking Water
Program"
SPEAKER: Marc Alston, Chief, Public Water Supply
Section, EPA Region VIII
Mr. Alston will use this session to inform participants about the
content of the Safe Drinking Water Amendments and discuss the
EPA's role in implementing those amendments.
Mr. Alston will:
o Discuss the Safe Drinking Water Act,
o Explain how lead is a non-traditional contaminant,
o Trace the EPA's involvement in lead,
o Describe the passage of the 1986 amendments by the U.S.
Congress,
o Outline the roles of the EPA and the states in implementing
the Lead Ban, and
o Highlight the keys to minimizing public health risks form
lead in drinking water.
The notebook includes an outline of Mr. Alston's presentation,
and a copy of the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments Section 1417
prohibiting lead pipes, solder, and flux.
-------
EPA's RESPONSE
LEAD IN DRINKING WATER PROGRAM
Marc R. Alston
EPA Region VIII
Denver, CO
I. SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT (SDWA)
Regulates public water systems (PWS)
- Requires PWS to test for contaminants and to meet
standards (MCLs)
Contaminants typically in source waters
II. LEAD OCCURS DIFFERENTLY
- Low source levels, mostly as corrosion by-product
- Corrosivity dependent on water quality, use of
lead and consumption patterns
- Lead levels and exposure dependent on system water
quality, but varies house-to-house
III. EPA'S APPROACH
Lead Regulation for PWS
Lead Public Notification
- Lead Ban
IV. LEAD REGULATIONS FOR PWS
- Proposed August, 1988
- Complex and controversial with many public
comments
- Source MCL 5 ppb
Corrosion by-products - if average lead levels
exceed 10 ppb of pH is less than 8.0 public water
system needs a treatment plan
-------
CONGRESS AND SDWA LEAD BAN
1986 Amendments Section 1417
Ban on lead products in contact with PWS effective
6/88
Public notification by each PWS (or Statewide) by
6/88
5% of State drinking water program grants can be
withheld
Labeling requirements
Veterans Administration/HUD home lending
restrictions
Continuing concern illustrated by Lead
Contamination Control Act of 1988
EPA AND STATE ROLES IN LEAD PN/BAN IMPLEMENTATION
Public notification largely accomplished
Ban effective 6/19/88
States expected to pass lead bans or adopt amended
plumbing codes
Colorado Pulimbing Code incroporated lead ban
effective January 1988.
EPA will be asking States to certify that lead ban
is being enforced and implemented as part of
decision whether to wihhold 5% of grant under 1417
SDWA.
State agencies expected to implement lead ban
program through inspections, enforcement and
education.
KEYS TO MINIMIZING PUBLIC HEALTH RISKS FROM LEAD IN
DRINKING WATER
Communicate with those using lead products
* Health effects are serious
* Use of lead solder results in lead in drinking
water
* There is a ban - it is illegal
* There are alternatives
* Encourage voluntary compliance
Communicate with public to maximize awareness
-------
PUBLIC LAW 99-339—JUNE 19, 1986
100 STAT. 651
Effective (UtM.
State and local
(ovtrnmmu.
42 USC 300j-2.
gEC. 109. LEAD FREE DRINKING WATER.
(a) Sat* Drinking Water Act Amendments.—
(1) In general.—Part B of the Safe Drinking Water Act is *2 use 300g ,t
amended by adding the following new section at the end thereof:
-SEC. 1417. PROHIBITION ON USE OF LEAD PIPES. SOLDER. AND FLIX.
"(a) In General—
"(1) Prohibition.—Any pipe, solder, or flux, which is used
after the enactment of the Safe Drinking Water Act Amend-
ments of 1986, in the installation or repair of—
"(A) any public water system, or
"(B) any plumbing in a residential or nonresidential facil-
ity providing water for human consumption which is con-
nected to a public water system,
shall be lead free (within the meaning of subsection (d)>. This
paragraph shall not apply to leaded joints necessary for the
repair of cast iron pipes.
(2) Public notice requirements.—
"(A) In ceneral.—Each public water system shall iden-
tify and provide notice to persons that may be affected by
lead contamination of their drinking water where such
contamination results from either or both of the following:
"(i) The lead content in the construction materials of
the public water distribution system.
"(li) Corrosivity of the water supply sufficient to
cause leaching of lead.
The notice shall be provided in such manner and form as
may fce reasonably reauired by the Administrator. Notice
under this paragraph snail be provided notwithstanding the
absence of a violation of any national drinking water
standard.
"(B) Contents or notice.—Notice under this paragraph
shall provide a clear and readily understandable expla-
nation of—
"(i) the potential sources of lead in the drinking
water,
"(ii) potential adverse health effects,
"(iii) reasonably available methods of mitigating
known or potential lead content in drinking water,
"(iv) any sterw the system is taking to mitigate lead
content in drinking water, and
"(v) the necessity for seeking alternative water sup-
plies, if any.
"(b) State enforcement.—
. "(1) Enforcement of prohibition.—The requirements of
subsection (aXl) shall be enforced in all States effective 24
months after the enactment of this section. States shall enforce
such requirements through State or local plumbing codes, or
such other means of enforcement as the State may determine to
be appropriate.
"(2) Enforcement of public notice requirements.—The
requirements of subsection (a)(2) shall apply in all States effec-
tive 24 months after the enactment of this section.
"(c) Penalties.—If the Administrator determines that a State is
not enforcing the requirements of subsection (a) as required pursu-
ant to subsection (b), the Administrator may withhold up to 5
percent of Federal funds available to that State for State program
grants under/section 1443(a).
-------
42 USC 300t~5
not*.
Ant*, p. 651.
42 USC 300g-5
note.
"(d) Definition of Lead Free.—For purposes of this section, the
term 'lead free'—
"(1) when used with respect to solders ana flux refers to
solders and flux containing not more than 0.2 percent lead, and
"(2) when used with respect to pipes and pipe fittings refers to
f)ipes and pipe fittings containing not more than 8.0 percent
ead.".
(b) Notification to States.—The Administrator of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency shall notify all States with respect to the
requirements of section 1417 of the Public Health Service Act within
90 days after the enactment of this Act.
(c) Ban on Lxad Water Pipes, Solder, and Flux in VA and HUD
Insured o* Assisted Property.—
(1) Prohibition.—The Secretary of Housing and Urban Devel-
opment and the Administrator of the Veterans' Administration
may not insure or guarantee a mortgage or furnish assistance
with respect to newly constructed residential property which
contains a potable water system unless such system uses only
lead free pipe, solder, and flux.
(2) Definition of lxad frei.—For purposes of paragraph (1)
the term "lead free"—
(A) when used with respect to solders and flux refers to
solders and ilux containing not more than 0.2 percent lead,
and
(B) when used with respect to pipes and pipe fittings
refers to pipes and pipe fittings containing not more than
8.0 percent lead.
(3) Effective date.—Paragraph (1) shall become effective 24
months after the enactment of this Act.
[d) Lead Solder as a Hazardous Substance.—
(1) In general.—Section 2(fXl) of the Federal Hazardous
Substances Act is amended by adding the following at the end is USC 1261
thereof:
"(E) Any solder which has a lead content in excess of 0.2
percent.".
(2) Labeling.—Section 4 of the Federal Hazardous Substances
Act is amended by adding the following at the end thereof:
"(k) The introduction or delivery for introduction into interstate
commerce of any lead solder which has a lead content in excess of
0.2 percent which does not prominently display a warning label
stating the lead content of the solder and warning that the use of
such solder in the making of joints or fittings in any private or
public potable water supply system is prohibited.".
(3) Effective date —The amendments made by this subsec-
tion shall become effective 24 months after the enactment of
this Act.
15 USC 126-1
Commerce and
trade
15 USC 1263
note
-------
c
0)
m
O
Tl
r-
m
>
a
"Tl
X
m
2
5
m
5
>
r-
cn
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
TITLE OF SESSION: Demonstration: Use of Lead Free Materials-
SPEAKER: Bill Coffey, Manager, Copper Development
Session
Mr. Coffey will demonstrate the relative ease of using the new
lead-free plumbing materials.
In his demonstration, Mr. Coffey will:
o Demonstrate correct procedures for making sound, lead-free
soldered joints in copper plumbing systems.
Mr. Coffey has provided information on common solders and
proprietary solders, a statement on soldering flures, and a list
of fluxes for use with copper tube and fittings.
-------
o>
CH
m r—1
cn D
oc
C/3
m
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
TITLE OF SESSION: Discussion: What Could Happen If Lead Use
Continues?
SPEAKER: Stephanie Pollack, Director of Lead Poisoning
Project, Conservation Law Foundation
MODERATOR: Lloyd Burton, Assistant Professor, Graduate
School of Public Affairs, University of
Colorado at Denver
In this session, Ms. Pollack will inform participants about the
consequences for plumbers and plumbing contractors, water
suppliers, state governments, and consumers if the lead ban is
not complied with and enforced. Dr. Burton will then moderate a
discussion between Ms. Pollack and the audience.
In her presentation, Ms. Pollack will:
o Outline health effects of continued lead use,
o Estimate economic costs of continued lead use,
o Discuss legal consequences and liabilities for plumbers who
continue to use lead materials,
o Describe the legal implications of the lead ban for water
suppliers, and
o Discuss the legal obligation of states in enforcing the ban.
The notebook includes an outline of Ms. Pollack's presentation,
the test of the Federal Register pertaining to the lead ban, and
an outline of the Region VIII states' regulations of lead.
-------
Outline of Presentation
WHAT COULD HAPPEN IF LEAD USE CONTINUES?
Stephanie Pollack
Conservation Law Foundation
I. Social and Economic Consequences
A. Millions of people, especially young children and
pregnant women, will continue to be exposed to
dangerous levels of lead in drinking water. Among the
consequences of this are
1. Increased costs for medical follow-up and remedial
education
2. The unquantifiable costs of damaging a very young
child's ability to concentrate and learn
B. To respond these public health concerns, persistently
high levels of lead in drinking water will have to be
addressed by
1. Implementation of more extensive and expensive
corrosion control programs by public water
suppliers
2. Extensive public education designed to promote
flushing of pipes, a process that could waste
millions of gallons of dwindling potable water
supplies
II. Legal and Liability Implications
A. Plumbers and plumbing contractors may be liable in
lawsuits brought by owners of properties in which lead
pipe or solder was used illegally. The plumber could
be required to re-do the work or pay the cost of hiring
another contractor to re-do the work. The plumber
would also be liable if a child became poisoned as a
result of lead from the solder or pipe.
B. Plumbers and plumbing contractors may be subject to
penalties by state authorities and/or plumbing boards.
C. State governments that fail to enforce the ban can lose
a portion of their federal funds for implementing the
Safe Drinking Water Act.
-------
Section 1417 of the Safe Drinking Water Act
United States Code, Title 42, § 300g-6
(Added by the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986)
(a) In general
(1) Prohibition
Any pipe, solder, or flux, which is used after June 19,
1986, in the installation or repair of —
(A) any public water system, or
(B) any plumbing in a residential or nonresidential
facility providing water for human consumption which is
connected to a public water system,
shall be lead free (within the meaning of subsection (d) of this
section). This paragraph shall not apply to leaded joints
necessary for the repair of cast iron pipes.
(b) State enforcement
(1) Enforcement of prohibition
The requirements of subsection (a)(1) of this section shall
be enforced in all States effective 24 months after June 19,
1986. States shall enforce such requirements through State or
local plumbing codes, or such other means of enforcement as the
State may determine to be appropriate.
(c) Penalties
If the Administrator determines that a State is not
enforcing the requirements of subsection (a) of this section, the
Administrator may withhold up to 5 percent of Federal funds
available to that State for State program grants under section
300j-2(a) of this title.
(d) Definition of lead free
For purposes of this section, the term "lead free" —
(1) when used with respect to solders and flux refers to
solders and flux containing not more than 0.2 percent lead,
and
(2) when used with respect to pipes and pipe fittings
refers to pipes and pipe fittings containing not more
than 8.0 percent lead.
-------
Excerpts from the Conference Committee Report on the Safe
Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986
House Report No. 99-575, May 5, 1986.
. . . The purpose of the amendment is to eliminate the
future use of lead in water supply distribution systems and to
notify persons that may be at risk from lead in existing systems.
The amendment establishes a Federal prohibition on the use of
lead (defined as solders and flux containing more than 0.2
percent lead, and pipes and pipe fittings containing more than
8.0 percent lead) in any pipe, solder, or flux, which is used
after the date of enactment in the installation or repair of any
public water system, or any plumbing in a residential or non-
residential facility, providing water for human consumption,
which is connected to a public water system.
The lead use prohibition is effective immediately. Because
enforcement will require States to modify their State or local
plumbing codes or apply other means, a period of 2 4 months is
provided before States are required to enforce the prohibition.
If the Administrator determines that a State is not
enforcing the prohibition, the Administrator may withhold up to 5
percent of Federal funds available to that State under section
1443(a) of the Act. The bill also provides that the Secretary of
Housing and- Urban Development and the Administrator of Veterans'
Affairs may not insure or guarantee a mortgage or furnish
assistance with respect to newly constructed residential
property, which contains a potable water system, unless it uses
only lead-free pipe, solder, and flux. The bill also amends the
Federal Hazardous Substances Act to require a warning on any lead
solder in excess of 0.2 percent lead.
-------
Environmental Protection Agency Lead Notification Requirements
Federal Register / Vol. 52, No. 208 / Wednesday, October 28. 1987 / Rules and Regulations 41549
§ 141.34 Public notice requirements
pertaining to lead.
(a) Applicability of public notice
requirement. (1) Except as provided in
paragraph (a)(2) of this section, by June
19,1988, the owner or operator of each
community water system and each non-
transient, non-community water system
shall issue notice to persons served by
the system that may be affected by lead
contamination of their drinking water.
The State may require subsequent
notices. The owner or operator shall
provide notice under this section even if
there is no violation of the national
primary drinking water regulation for
lead.
(2) Notice under paragraph (a)(1) of
this section is not required if the system
demonstrates to the State that the water
system, including the residential and
non-residential portions connected to
the water system, are lead free. For the
purposes of this paragraph, the term
"lead free" when used with respect to
solders and flux refers to solders and
flux containing not more than 0.2
percent lead, and when used with
respect to pipes and pipe fittings refers
to pipes and pipe fittings containing not
more than 8.0 percent lead.
(b) Manner of notice. Notice shall be
given to persons served by the system
either by (1) three newspaper notices
(one for each of three consecutive
months and the first no later than June
19,1988); or (2) once by mail notice with
the water bill or in a separate mailing by
June 19.1988; or (3) once by hand
delivery by June 19,1988. For non-
transient non-community water systems,
notice may be given by continuous
posting. If posting is used, the notice
shall be posted in a conspicuous place
in the area served by the system and
start no later than June 19,1988, and
continue for three months.
(c) General content of notice. (1)
Notices issued under this section shall
provide a clear and readily
understandable explanation of the
potential sources of lead in drinking
water, potential adverse health effects,
reasonably available methods of
mitigating known or potential lead
content in drinking water, any steps the
water system is taking to mitigate lead
content in drinking water, and the
necessity for seeking alternative water
supplies, if any. Use of the mandatory
language in paragraph (d) of this section
in the notice will be sufficient to explain
potential adverse health effects.
(2) Each notice shall also include
specific advice on how to determine if
materials containing lead have been
used in homes or the water distribution
system and how to minimize exposure
to water likely to contain high levels of
lead. Each notice shall be conspicuous
and shall not contain unduly technical
language, unduly small print, or similar
problems that frustrate the purpose of
the notice. Each notice shall contain the
telephone number of the owner,
operator, or designee of the public water
system as a source of additional
information regarding the notice. Where
appropriate, the notice shall be
multilingual.
(Note (Optional Information): Each notice
should advise persons served by the aystem
to use only the cold water faucet for drinking
and for use in cooking or preparing baby
formula, and to run the water until it gets as
cold as it is going to get before each use. If
there has recently been major water use in
the household, such as showering or bathing,
flushing toilets, or doing laundry with cold
water, flushing the pipes should take 5 to 30
seconds: if not. flushing the pipes could take
as long as several minutes. Each notice
should also advise persons served by the
system to check to see if lead pipes, solder, or
flux have been used in plumbing that
provides tap water and to ensure that new
plumbing and plumbing repairs use lead-free
materials.
The only way to be sure of the amount of
lead in the household water is to have the
water tested by a competent laboratory.
Testing is especially important to apartment
dwellers because flushing may not be
effective in high-rise buildings that have lead-
soldered central piping. As appropriate, the
notice should provide information on testing.]
(d) Mandatory health effects
information. When providing the
information in public notices required
under paragraph (c) of this section on
the potential adverse health effects of
lead in drinking water, the owner or
operator of the water system shall
include the following specific language
in the notice:
"The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) sets drinking water
standards and has determined that lead is a
health concern at certain levels of exposure.
There is currently a standard of 0.050 parts
per million (ppm). Based on new health
information, EPA is likely to lower this
standard significantly.
"Part of the purpose of this notice is to
inform you of the potential adverse health
effects of lead. This is being done even
though your water may not be in violation of
the current standard.
"EPA and others are concerned about lead
in drinking water. Too much lead in the
human body can cause serious damage to the
brain, kidneys, nervous system, and red
blood cells. The greatest risk, even with
short-term exposure, is to young children and
pregnant women.
"Lead levels in your drinking water are
likely to be highest:
* if your home or water system has lead
pipes, or
• if your home has copper pipes with lead
solder, and
—if the home is less than five years old. or
—if you have soft or acidic water, or
—if water sits in the pipes for several
hours."
(e) Notice by the State. The State may
give notice to the public required by this
section on behalf of the owner or
-operator of the water system if the State
meets the requirements of paragraph (b)
and the notice contains all the
information specified in paragraphs (c)
and (d) of this section. However, the
owner or operator of the water system
remains legally responsible for ensuring
that the requirements of this section are
met.
(f) Enforcement by the State. All
States shall enforce the requirements of
this section by June 19,1988, as required
by section 1417(b)(2) of the Act If the
Administrator determines that a State i>
not enforcing these requirements, the
Administrator may withhold up to five
percent of the State program grant fund
nnrfor aortaon 1AA1(a\ nt tka A
-------
Lead Bans in EPA Region VIII
COLORADO
Colorado Plumbing Code (Effective January 31, 1988)
Chapter 8 — Joints and Connections
Section 802-d Solder and Sweat Joints
Solders with a lead content which exceeds two-tenths of one
percent (.2%) are prohibited in piping systems used to covey
potable water.
Section 803-e Copper Water Tube
Solders with a lead content which exceeds two-tenths of one
percent (.2%) are prohibited in piping systems used to convey
potable water.
Section 804-a Copper Tubing to Screw Pipe Joints
Solders with a lead content which exceeds two-tenths of one
percent (.2%) are prohibited in piping systems used to convey
potable water.
Chapter 10 — Water Distribution
Section 1004 Materials
Solders with a lead content which exceeds two-tenths of one
percent (.2%) are prohibited in piping systems used to convey
potable water.
NOTE: A ban on lead pipe and fittings was already in the Code at
the time these solder bans were added.
MONTANA (Effective December 31, 1987)
Administrative Rules of Montana
Section 8.70.304(4) — Plumbing Permits
In accordance with sections 1417(a) and (b) of the Safe Drinking
Water Act amendments of 1986 (Public Law 99-339), effective
immediately, the use of solders and flux containing more than 0.2
percent lead and pipes and fittings containing more than 8
percent lead is prohibited in the installation and repair of
residential or nonresidential plumbing connected to a public
water supply system.
-------
NORTH DAKOTA (Effective January 1, 1988)
North Dakota Administrative Code (State Plumbing Board)
Section 62-03.1-08 — Potable Water Supply Systems
5. Limitation of lead content. Pipe and fittings used in the
potable water supply system may not contain more than eight
percent lead.
Section 62-03-04-02 — Types of Joints for Piping Materials
4. Soldered. . . . Joints for potable water used in copper,
brass, or wrought copper fittings must be made with a solder
containing not more than 0.2 percent lead.
SOUTH DAKOTA (Effective September 3, 1987)
South Dakota State Plumbing Code
Section 4.2.4
Joints for potable water used in copper, brass wrought copper
fittings shall be made with a solder containing not more than 0.2
percent lead.
Section 20;54:03:20
Pipe and fittings used in the potable water supply system shall
not contain more than 8 percent lead.
UTAH
Utah has not yet implemented the lead ban.
WYOMING
Wyoming has not yet implemented by lead ban. Wyoming has no
state plumbing code.
-------
C/)
H
m
>
o
o
>
r~
m
x
T)
m
x
D
m
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
TITLE OF SESSION:
PANELISTS:
Discussion: Problems and Solution: State and
Local Experience
Glenn Bodnar, Colorado Department of Health
George Waterhouse, Program Administrator,
Colorado Examining Board of Plumbers
Perry C. Tyree, President, Tyree Associates
Dave Williams, Plumbing inspector, Aurora,
Colorado
MODERATOR:
George Weber, Lead Conference Coordinator
EPA Region VIII Drinking Water Branch
This session will allow local and state government
representatives to share the problems they will face in
implementing the lead ban, and possible solutions to those
problems.
The objectives of this session are to:
o Identify specific problems challenging the various localand
state government players who are most directly involved with
the "lead ban",
o Identify and propose solutions to these problems, and
o Conduct a frank discussion and sharing of views and
experiences regarding the "lead ban", with respectful
listening, among panelists and conference participants.
The perspectives represented by panelists are
o State Drinking Water Program Perspective: Glen Bodnar
o Local Government Inspectors' Perspective: David Williams
o Local Government Administrators' Perspective: Perry C. Tyree
o State Plumbing Board Perspective: George Waterhouse
The notebook includes a summary of problems facing the
implementation of the Lead Ban, and possible solutions from each
of the panelists' perspectives. Bob Leingang also included the
"Introduction and Definitions" section from a National Rural
Water Association publication on Lead.
-------
GLENN BODNAR, COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FROM MY PERSPECTIVE
Problem
There are serious health effects associated with consuming
drinking water that contains high levels of lead.
Solution
Eliminate the lead in drinking water thus reducing the risk of
damage to the brain, kidneys and nervous system.
Problem
The highest source of lead in drinking water is from using lead
pipes and fixtures, lead solder and lead flux.
Solution
Remove lead contaminated water
has been sitting in the home's
drinking.
by flushing all the water which
pipes to bring in fresh water for
— But this wastes a precious resource.
Install treatment units in every tap and drinking fountain to
remove the lead.
— Much too expensive to consider and unreliable.
Ban the use of pipe and pipe fittings which contain more than 8%
lead, and lead solders and fluxes which contain more than 0.2%
lead.
— This was done in June of 1986 when President Reagan
signed the Amendment to the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Problem
The state's drinking water program must assure the EPA that the
lead ban has been adopted and enforced in Colorado. If we don't,
the EPA will penalize the program by withholding 5% of the annual
grant money. This cut will effect all public water systems and
individuals who call on us for assistance.
Solution
Request the cooperation of plumbing professionals to comply with
the materials ban.
-------
Request the State Plumbing Board to adopt the materials ban, via
1988 UPC, to seek legislation to make the UPC a state minimum
standard, and to implement enforcement.
Require all public water supplies in Colorado to inform their
customers of the lead problem.
Adopt a regulation to address sampling and corrosion control
techniques.
-------
BOB LEINGANG, NORTH DAKOTA STATE PLUMBING BOARD
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FROM MY PERSPECTIVE
NOTE: Bob Leingang, who had originally been scheduled to
present, could not at the last minute. George Waterhouse was
scheduled in his place. Mr. Waterhouse did not submit his
outline, and so we included Bob Leingang's for your interest.
Problems
50/50 lead solders are still on the market, and can be purchased
by the consumer public.
The cost of 50/50 lead solders is less than half the cost of lead
free solders (at least in my area)
Educating the consumer that lead in drinking water is harmful to
human health, especially to infants and young children will be
costly.
Not all states have a good licensing law, whereby people engaged
in the business of installing plumbing, shall not install
plumbing in connection with the dealing in the selling of
plumbing materials and supplies, unless such a person is
registered and licensed as a plumber.
Persons can do their own plumbing on premises they own and occupy
as a residence.
Too many city, county, and local government officials feel that
lead ban is just another way to keep the EPA working.
The public needs to know that only one percent of water on earth
is accessible for human use. People can survive without food for
two months or more, but no one can survive without water for more
than a few days.
Solutions
All lead solders, and flux containing more than 0.2% lead content
should be labeled - Warning: Use of this material for potable
drinking water can cause death. The same should apply to
materials containing more than 0.8% lead.
We must do a better job of educating the consumer of the danger
of lead in drinking water, by showing how harmful lead in
drinking water is. If inhaled or ingested, even small amounts
can caused brain, kidney or nerve damage, or even death.
All plumbing should be done by registered, qualifying and
licenced plumbers. These people are well educated on the lead
ban.
-------
All States should implement a good plumbing licensing law. The
state of North Dakota handles it this way:
"No person, firm, or corporation shall engage in the
business of installing plumbing, and shall not install
plumbing in connection with the dealing in and selling of
plumbing materials and supplies in any corporated City of
the State having a system of waterworks or sewerage, unless
at all times a registered and licensed master plumber, who
is responsible for the proper installation thereof, is in
charge of such work."
North Dakota also implements a licensing law for persons in the
water conditioning contracting, installing and repair business.
North Dakota has a Rural Water Association, who along with the
North Dakota State Plumbing Board and the North Dakota State
Health Districts, have held meetings throughout the State,
explaining the lead ban, and why is it harmful to the human
health.
-------
PERRY C. TYREE, TYREE ASSOCIATES
MY PERSPECTIVE
Basic research needs to be done to pinpoint the significant
areas of contribution of lead to the drinking water; i.e.
piping, connections, distribution systems, treatment, raw
source, or whatever. Without this information the solutions
are being created for someone's perception of a hazard
without substantiating data. Everything we do today is
dangerous to our health. We must establish the need for a
ban with scientific data, then regulation should follow
easily.
The EPA regulations (proposed in August, 1988) seem to
address the utility conveyor of water for the most part. It
consists of monitoring for Cu and Pb as supplied. This
addresses the water source from wells or runoff which,
failing the tests, would strain the communities about to
supply complying water. Most of our communities do not have
the luxury of multiple water sources and in fact most of us
in the west are looking all the time for new water sources.
I am lead to believe (no pun intended) that utility
companies do not ordinarily use lead at all in their
delivery system.
If we determine that all lead should be banned in the
delivery system all the way to the tap opening, we have a
monumental problem before us in eliminating its use "from
the street to the tap." There are 100,000,000 buildings out
there right now in the U.S. If the ban only applied to the
new construction, by the year 2000 only 20% of the buildings
would be "lead free." A retrofit program to eliminate lead
in all drinking water would cost at least the national debt.
-------
DAVE WILLIAMS, PLUMBING INSPECTOR, AURORA, COLORADO
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FROM MY PERSPECTIVE
Problem
Plumbers and inspectors lack credibility.
(a) The initial reaction to the lead ban is that very little
lead could infiltrate the potable water system from leaded
solder.
(b) Lead use in plumbing systems has a long history, and lead
working skills have been held in high esteem with plumbers.
Solution
Encourage educational seminars like this to raise awareness of
this issue and promote the use of new, easy to use materials,
without alienating people who view lead in a positive way.
Problem
Communication between plumbers is very limited.
(a) 1. Union - Non-union
2. Urban - Rural
3. Plumbers - Inspectors
4. Inspectors - Inspectors
(b) Is the written State Policy in final form?
Solution
When the 1988 UPC is adopted, Sec. 802(d) will require compliance
with lead limitations.
Encourage participation in the R.I.A. and I.A.P.M.O.
Problem
The current test kit technology may not be practical for field
testing of all buildings.
(a) Field operation could be hazardous to testers due to lack of
facilities.
(b) Local municipalities surveyed indicate some have test kits,
but few buildings are now being tested.
Solution
Develop a testing plan for the future to insure compliance.
-------
A simple, fast and safe test kit would make testing more
practical.
Lead ban note on plan review.
Include a memo with permits issued and license renewals.
-------
GEORGE WEBER, LEAD CONFERENCE COORDINATOR
A SUMMARY OP PROBLEMS AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
Problems
State drinking water programs are agencies vulnerable to
potential federal penalties when states do not comply with lead
ban, yet they have not direct authority over parties who do day-
to-day implementation.
Lack of credibility regarding lead in drinking water threat and
need for lead ban. (The "cry wolf", or "noting is good for us
anymore" attitude."
Plumbers take pride in ability to use lead materials.
Poor communication among plumbers (e.g., union/non-union,
urban/rural, etc.).
Local government inspectors are waiting for state government to
take the lead and clarify state and local responsibilities
regarding the lead ban.
Time required, safety concerns, and other features of using lead
test kits.
Lag time of up to several years in process between proposed
amendments in Uniform Plumbing Code and adoption of revised code
by state and local governments.
Lead ban does not reach "do-it-yourself" people buying off-the-
shelf solder and materials.
Solutions
Produce more convincing information that lead in drinking water
is indeed a serious problem.
Improve communications regarding state and local responsibilities
regarding the lead ban:
State government clarify state and local
responsibilities and communicate these to local
governments.
Contractors' associations communicate with union and
non-union, urban and rural membership regarding
potential dangers of lead and state/local
responsibilities.
State chapters of ICBO and IAPMO communicate with
membership in re dangers of lead and state/local
-------
responsibilities.
Conduct grassroots education effort following North
Dakota model.
Change material use habits of plumbers/contractors now
during economic recession.
Develop strategy not, during economic slowdown, for
inspections when economic recovery arrives.
Make people aware that when they adopt the 1988 revisions of
the Uniform plumbing Code they're responsible, and legally
liable, for using lead free materials.
STates and/or federal government inform local governments of
need to implement lead ban if 1988 revision of Uniform
Plumbing Code has not been adopted.
Identify and/or develop a more convenient lead test kit for
field inspectors.
Obtain cooperation of wholesalers/retailers of plumbing
material to limit and/or label supplies of lead based
materials.
Obtain state legislation requiring wholesalers/retailers of
plumbing material to limit and/or label supplies of lead
based materials.
-------
INTRODUCTION
AND
DEFINITIONS
Lead in drinking water is a complex topic to explain. This
booklet is designed to furnish the consumer with basic informa-
tion and steps to minimize the exposure to lead in drinking
water.
The definitions below are a vital part of understanding the
content of this booklet.
CORROSION: A dissolving and wearing away of
metal piping, in this case, caused by corrosive waters.
Soft waters and acidic waters arc the most corrosive.
SOFT WATER: Water that is low in mineral con-
tent. A soft water allows soap to lather and docs not
leave spots on dishes.
ACIDIC WATF.R: Water with a pH below 7.0,
which is neutral on the pH scale.
FLUSH: To open a water tap to clear out water which
may have been sitting for a long period of time.
NATIONAL RURAL WATER ASSOCIATION
LEAD—I
SERVICE LINE: The pipe that carries water from
the water main to a residence. Prior to 1930 these were
often made of lead.
SOLDER: A metallic compound used to seal pipe
joints in household plumbing. Some solder contains 50%
lead.
FLU5i: A substance applied during soldering. Flux
often contains lead and can be a source of con-
tamination.
PARTS PER BILLION: A standard unit of mea-
surement used in the water industry.
The National Rural Water Association and its state affiliates
are dedicated to providing quality training and technical assist-
ance for small municipalities and water districts in America.
In cooperation with the Environmental Protection Agency
and the state drinking water programs, this booklet is intended
to provide information about one segment of drinking water
— lead contamination.
Additional copies of this booklet are available from your
State Rural Water Association or the National Rural Water
Association Training Department at (405) 252-0629.
2—LEAD
NATIONAL RURAL WATER ASSOCIATION
-------
WHY IS LEAD A PROBLEM?
Lead is a toxic metal now known to be harmful to human
health if inhaled or ingested. Small amounts can cause brain,
kidney, or nerve damage, and anemia. High levels of lead
exposure can have toxic effects on people as well as cause
death. Recent federal controls on lead in gasoline, tin cans, and
paint have reduced people's exposure to lead by approximately
50%.
DOES LEAD AFFECT EVERYONE
EQUALLY?
No. Fetuses, infants and young children are especially
vulnerable to lead poisoning. Children under the age of three
are susceptible to lead in drinking water because most of their
diet consists of liquids. Growing children can absorb lead more
rapidly than adults and the growth process can be stunted by
exposure to lead.
A 1986 Environmental Protection Agency report estimates
that 38 million people are at risk from excess lead. The problem
may be causing neurological damage in over 140,000 children
and accounting for other serious effects such as hypertension,
stroke and pregnancy complications in adults.
The U.S. withdraws about 90 billion gallons of ground water
every day for all uses. This includes 12 billion gallons per day
for public water supplies.
NATIONAL ..JRAL water association
LEAD—:
HOW DOES LEAD GET INTO DRINKING
WATER?
In most cases lead in drinking water is caused bv an individ-
ual's household plumbing. The use of lead pipe and lead solder
in house construction creates the potential for lead exposure.
When piping comes in contact with corrosive water, the prob-
lem exists. Soft water and acidic water are the most corrosive,
but due to other factors, all kinds of water may have high lead
levels.
DOES THE AGE OF A HOME MAKE A
DIFFERENCE?
Yes. Houses that are very old — over 50 years — and those
that are new have the greatest potential for lead contamination.
Lead pipe was used in many areas prior to 1930, and now
copper pipe is used in most residential plumbing. The use of
lead solder with copper pipe is wide spread. Experts regard the
use of lead solder as the major cause of lead contamination of
household water today.
Data from the Environmental Protection Agency indicates
that the newer the home, the greater the risk of lead contamina-
tion. Water in buildings less than 5 years old is likely to have
high levels of lead contamination.
4—LEAD
NATIONAL RURAL WATER ASSOriATIO
-------
HOW CAN PEOPLE TELL IF THEIR
WATER CONTAINS TOO MUCH LEAD?
Testing is the only sure way of telling whether or not there
are harmful quantities of lead in drinking water. The tests are
easy to conduct and are affordable. Costs range from $30.00 to
$100.00.
HOW DO PEOPLE HAVE THEIR WATER
TESTED?
Customers should contact their water utility for information
and assistance. Utility personnel can refer customers to a quali-
fied laboratory. The lab should be approved by the state or
Environmental Protection Agency as being able to analyze
drinking water for lead contamination. The lab will provide
sample containers along with instructions on how to take the
samples. The sample instructions should be followed exactly.
The human body is mostly water: 55 to 65 percent water for
women, 65 to 75 percent water for men. People can survive
without food for two months or more, but no one can survive
without water for more than a few days.
NATIONAL RURAL WATER ASSOCIATION
LEAD—5
HOW MUCH LEAD IS TOO MUCH?
If tests show that the level of lead in household drinking
water is in the area of 20 parts per billion (ppb), it is advisable to
reduce the lead level as much as possible. This action is espe-
cially advisable in homes that have small children. The Envir-
onmental Protection Agency estimates that more than 40 mil-
lion residents use water that contains lead in excess of 20 ppb.
HOW CAN EXPOSURE BE REDUCED IF
LEAD IS SUSPECTED IN DRINKING
WATER?
Flush each cold water tap until the water turns cold before
using the water for consumption.
Do not consume or cook with water from the hot water tap-
Use only flushed cold water.
Each day, public water systems supply every person in the
United States with approximately 160 gallons of clean water.
6—LEAD
NATIONAL RURAL WATER ASSOCIATIOf
-------
OTHER STEPS:
If a home uses a personal well, there are devices such as
calcitc filters to lessen corrosiveness of the water. These devices
should be installed between the water source and any lead pipe
or lead soldered piping. These devices are only effective if they
are maintained regularly and properly.
Lead may be removed with point of use devices such as
reverse osmosis and distillation units. These devices are expen-
sive and their effectiveness may vary.
Bottled water may be purchased. Bottled water may or may
not be regulated by a state agency. The Environmental Protec-
tion Agency does not regulate bottled water.
If any plumbing work is done, it is advisable that the
plumber be instructed in writing to use only lead free material.
Remove strainers from faucets in newly built homes and
flush for 15 minutes. An occasional check of strainers to
remove any loose lead is recommended.
Ground water supplies over 100 million people — about 50
percent of all A mericans — with their drinking water.
Only one percent of the water on earth is fresli and accessible
for human use. The remaining 99 percent is cither unusable
brine or ice.
NATIONAL RURAL WATER ASSOCIATION
LEAD—
7
DO CARBON, SAND, AND CARTRIDGE
FILTERS REMOVE LEAD?
No. These filters do not remove lead and do not prevent
corrosive waters which leach lead from pipes. Water softeners
do not remove lead. Soft water may actually increase lead
contamination.
WHAT IS THE GOVERNMENT DOING
ABOUT LEAD IN DRINKING WATER?
The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986 require
only lead free pipe, solder and flux be used in any public water
system, or any plumbing in a residential or non-residential
facility connected to a public water supply system. State
governments have until June of 1988 to implement and enforce
these limitations. Products with less than .2% lead are consi-
dered "lead free".
IS THERE MORE INFORMATION AVAIL-
ABLE?
Yes. Your water system will be able to answer additional
questions about their water system and refer you to state health
agencies.
8
— LEAD
NATIONAL RURAL WATER ASSOCIATION
-------

SELECTED
CONTAMINANTS
PRINCIPAL HEALTH
EFFECTS
SOURCES OF
CONTAMINATION
Inorganics

Arsenic
dermal and nervous system
toxicity effects, possible cancer
geological sources, pesticides residues,
smelting operations, and industrial
waste
Asbestos
possible cancer
corroding asbestos-cement pipes in
distribution systems; production of
cement products, floor tiles, paper
products, paint, and caulking
Cadmium
kidney effects
geological sources; mining and
smelting
Lead
brain and nerve damage, kidney
effects; highly toxic to infants
and pregnant women
leaching from lead pipes and lead
soldered pipe joints; disposal of used
storage batteries and other products
Nitrate
methemoglobinemia ("blue baby
syndrome")
fertilizers, sewage, feedlots, geological
sources
-------
o
CD
a
>
5
D
3J
(fi
I
-------
MOBILIZING TO BAN LEAD
FROM DRINKING WATER
TITLE OF SESSION: What Next? Mobilizing A Partnership
SPEAKER: Carl Norbeck, Center for Public-Private
Sector Cooperation, University of Colorado at
Denver
Mr. Norbeck will summarize, the barriers to the implementation of
the lead ban and discuss opportunities for participating with
others in implementing the ban.
This session will:
o Summarize the afternoon sessions,
o Review the perceived problems hindering implementation
of the lead ban,
o Discuss shared goals of the lead ban program, and
o Develop a plan of action for implementing the lead ban.
In the notebook, Mr. Norbeck has included the Introduction from
an SRI publication entitled Redesigning Social and Economic
Problem Solving.(April,1985
-------
I Introduction
ver the past two decades, an array of nontraditional approaches to economic and
social problems have been emerging in the United States. These new initiatives
involve more purposeful use of public sector governance powers, a refocusing
private sector practices so they better meet both business and community needs,
and more effective use of self-help and mutual-support efforts. Arising largely from
the bottom up, these grass-roots initiatives are in many cases both more effective
than traditional governmental solutions to problems and more consistent with
(and better able to take advantage of) some of the important economic and social
trends in American society.
These grass-roots initiatives go far beyond Increasing the number of volunteer
efforts or establishing hastily conceived public-private partnerships to work
harder at what has failed before. They constitute efforts to redesign social problem-
solving processes. Although some of the individual initiatives look unsophisticated
and "just a matter of common sense." redesign itself is more sophisticated and
more difficult to implement than cutback measures or volunteer-type efforts. Table
1 illustrates the differences between the redesign perspective and more traditional
problem-solving approaches to community problems.
Interest in the approach that we are calling "redesign" is emerging now
because the ways in which we deal with social welfare and economic development
problems at state and local levels are under as much pressure to change as are
cultural, educational, and business practices. In every case, the emergence of new
economic and social forces is causing disruption in traditional forms of organiza-
tion. Currently, old forms of government problem-solving in the United States
(welfare programs, subsidies to minority businesses) are widely viewed as ineffec-
tive. At the same time, it is increasingly clear that new types of problem-solving
approaches have the potential for addressing a broad array of community problems
more effectively than reliance solely on traditional government-provided services
and programs.
If these efforts are to be anything more than widely scattered, sporadic initia-
tives, however, it is important to develop a coherent body of knowledge about such
redesign efforts. This entails identifying the context within which such efforts are
1
-------
Table 1
TWO APPROACHES TO SOCIAL PROBLEM-SOLVING
Health
Emphasis on Productivity
and Cutback Management
Cost sharing in private
health plans.
Emphasis on Redesign
of Systems
Promoting wellness.
New forms of reimbursement.
Education
Job Training
Housing
Infrastructure
Transportation
Municipal
Services
"Superintendent's Business
Advisory Committee."
"Adopt a School."
Elimination of public
service jobs.
Soliciting corporate giving
for community-based
training.
Reducing public subsidies.
Targeting low-interest
loans from banks to
low-income housing.
Deferring maintenance.
Developing user fees.
Intergovernmental
cooperation.
Volunteer drivers.
Contracting out.
Management improvements.
Education in the workplace.
Curriculum redesign.
Training in corporate
facilities.
Linking training with
economic development.
Home sharing/"granny flats."
Targeting pension fund
investment.
Neighborhood marketing.
Use of new production
technologies.
Private sector financing
alternatives (e.g.. „
saie-leaseback).
Deregulation of taxi systems.
Use of vouchers.
Neighborhood self-help.
Provider competition.
attempted, assessing the elements common to successful initiatives, and deriving
principles that can be used to avoid the waste inherent in continual reinvention or
"cut-and-try" methods. It is also important that we develop ways to promote the use
of emerging new approaches. The idea is not to develop a new centralized process or
national initiative, however. The aspect common to most successful redesign initia-
tives so far is that they are responses to localized problems that mobilize locally
available resources and have been devised primarily by local actors who have some
~>take in the solution of the problem. Any efforts to encourage such approaches
nust start from recognition of this fact.
2
-------

i^'

Section-by-Section Analysis
of
H.R. 4939, the "Lead Contamination Control Act oi'-'l^HJS"
As Passed by the House and the Senate d;
1OCT 2 8 1988
SECTION 1.
SHORT TITLE.
The Act may be cited as the "Lead Contamination Control Act
Of 1988".
SECTION 2. LEAD IN DRINKING WATER COOLERS AND IN SCHOOL
DRINKING WATER.
This section amends the Safe Drinking Water Act by adding
a new part at the end entitled "Part F—Additional Requirements
to Regulate the Safety of Drinking Water". The new Part
contains the following new sections:
Sec. 1461. Definitions.
This section defines the terms "drinking water
cooler", "lead free", "local educational agency", "repair",
"replacement", "school", and "lead-lined tank".
Sec. 1462. Recall of Drinking Water Coolers with
Lead-Lined Tanks
For purposes of the Consumer Product Safety Act, all
drinking water coolers identified by EPA under section 1463
as having a lead-lined tank would be considered to be
"imminently hazardous consumer products". The CPSC would
have to issue an order requiring the manufacturers and
importers of such coolers to repair, replace, or recall and
provide a refund for the coolers within one year after
enactment.
Sec. 1463. Drinking Water Coolers Containing Lead.
EPA is required, after notice and opportunity for
public comment and within 100 days of enactment, to
publish, using the best information available to EPA, a
list identifying each brand and model of drinJcing water
cooler which is not lead free as well as each brand and
model of drinking water cooler which has a lead-lined tank.
Selling and Manufacturing Prohibition
This section prohibits any person from selling in
interstate commerce, or to manufacturing for sale in
interstate commerce, any drinking water cooler which is
listed under this section or any other cooler which is not
lead free, including a lead-lined water cooler.
-------
2
Penalties and Civil Action
The criminal penalty for knowing violation of the
prohibition could be imprisonment for up to 5 years or a
fine in accordance with title 18 of the U.S.C. EPA is
empowered to bring a civil action against a violator. The
district court may levy a civil penalty of up to $5000, or
up to $50,000 for repeat offenders.
Sec. 1464. Lead Contamination in School Drinking
Water
Within 100 days of enactment, EPA is required to
distribute to the States a list of each brand and model of
drinking water cooler identified and listed under the
previous section.
Within 100 days after enactment, EPA is required to
publish and distribute to the States a guidance document
and testing protocol to assist schools in determining the
source and degree of lead contamination in school drinking
water supplies and in remedying such contamination. The
guidance document must contain: guidelines for sample
preservation; guidance to assist States, schools, and the
public in ascertaining the levels of lead contamination in
drinking water coolers and in taking appropriate action -.o
reduce or eliminate such contamination; and, a testing
protocol for the identification of drinking water coolers
which contribute to lead contamination in drinking water.
States are required to disseminate the guidance
document, testing protocol, and EPA lists to local
education agencies, private nonprofit elementary cr
secondary schools and day care centers.
In addition, States, within 9 months of enactment ,
are required to establish a program to assist locii
education agencies in testing for, and remedying, !^vl
contamination in drinking water from coolers and t rom
other sources of lead contamination at schools. r:-.«
program would have to include measures for reduction -r
elimination of lead contamination from all listed ~r-»r
coolers containing lead-lined tanks located in school ry
ensuring that they are repaired, permanently remove'!, r
replaced within 15 months after enactment (except
the cooler is tested and found not to contribute any . • ¦ » i
to drinking water).
Sec. 1465. Federal Assistance for State Programs
Regarding Lead Contamination in Schoo1
Drinking Water.
-------
3
EPA is required to make grants to States to establish
and carry out the programs under section 1464 to assist
local education agencies in testing for, and remedying,
lead contamination in drinking water at schools. This new
section provides certain limitations on the use of such
grants. Authorizes appropriations of $30 million for each
of fiscal years 1989 through 1991.
SECTION 3. LEAD POISONING PREVENTION.
The Public Health Service Act is amended by adding a new
section after section 317:
Sec. 317A. Lead Poisoning Prevention.
This new section requires HHS, acting through the
Centers for Disease Control, to make grants to States and
local governments for the initiation and expansion of
programs to provide intensive community testing programs
designed to: (1) screen infants and children for elevated
blood levels; (2) assure referral for treatment of infants
and children with elevated blood lead levels, and (3)
provide education about childhood lead poisoning.
The section contains stipulations regarding the
disbursement of the grants. The section also contains
authorization of appropriations for this program of $20
million for FY 1989, $22 million for FY 1990, and $24
million for FY 1991.
SECTION 4. CERTIFICATION OF TESTING LABORATORIES.
EPA is required to assure that programs for the
certification of testing laboratories which test drinking water
supplies for lead contamination certify only those labs which
provide reliable accurate testing. EPA or the delegated State
must publish and make available upon request the list of
laboratories certified.
SECTION 5. CONFORMING AMENDMENT.
This section amends sec. 1445 of the SDWA .to make it clear
that EPA may use this records and inspection section for
purposes of this Act.
Prepared by: Tom Dickerson
Attorney-Advisor
Office of Legislative Analysis
October 17, 1988
-------
n
100th CONGRESS II n >1 AO A
2d Session H. K. 4^7017
IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES
October 5 Oegislative day, September 26), 1988
Received
October 6, 1988
Read twice and referred to the Committee on Environment and Public Works
AN ACT
To amend the Safe Drinking Water Act to control lead in
drinking water.
1 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa-
2 tives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,
3 SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE.
4 This Act may be cited as the "Lead Contamination
5 Control Act of 1988".
6 SEC. 2. LEAD IN DRINKING WATER COOLERS AND IN SCHOOL
7 DRINKING WATER.
8 (a) Additional Requirements to Regulate the
9 Safety of Drinking Watee.—The Safe Drinking Water
10 Act (title XIV of the Public Health Service Act; 42 U.S.C.
-------
2
1 300f and following) is. amended by adding the following new
2 part at the end thereof:
3 "Pabt F—Additional Requirements to Regulate
4 the Safety of Drinking Watee
5 "SEC. 1461. DEFINITIONS.
6 "As used in this part—
7 "(1) Drinking water cooler.—The term
8 'drinking water cooler' means any mechanical device
9 affixed to drinking water supply plumbing which ac-
10 tively cools water for human consumption.
11 "(2) Lead free.—The term 'lead free' means,
12 with respect to a drinking water cooler, that each part
13 or component of the cooler which may come in contact
14 with drinking water contains not more than 8 percent
15 lead, except that no drinking water cooler which con-
16 tains any solder, flux, or storage tank interior surface
17 which may come in contact with drinking water shall
18 be considered lead free if the solder, flux, or storage
19 tank interior surface contains more than 0.2 percent
20 lead. The Administrator may establish more stringent
21 requirements for treating any part or component of a
22 drinking water cooler as lead free for purposes of this
23 part whenever he determines that any such part mav
24 constitute an important source of lead in drinking
25 water.
HR 4939 RFS
-------
3
1 "(3) Local educational agency.—The term
2 'local educational agency' means—
3 "(A) any local educational agency as defined
4 in section 198 of the Elementary and Secondary
5 Education Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 3381),
6 "(B) the owner of any private, nonprofit ele-
7 mentary or secondary school building, and
8 "(C) the governing authority of any school
9 operating under the defense dependent's education
10 system provided for under the Defense Depend-
11 ent's Education Act of 1978 (20 U.S.C. 921 and
12 following).
13 "(4) Repair.—The term 'repair' means, with re-
14 spect to a drinking water cooler, to take such correc-
15 tive action as is necessarv to ensure that water cooler
*
16 is lead free.
17 "(5) Replacement.—The term 'replacement',
18 when used with respect to a drinking water cooler,
19 means the permanent removal of the water cooler and
20 the installation of a lead free water cooler.
21 "(6) School.—The term 'school' means any ele-
22 mentarv school or secondare school as defined in sec-
« w
23 tion 198 of the Elementary and Secondary Education
24 Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 2854) and any kindergarten or
25 day care facility.
HE 4939 RF.-
-------
4
1 "(7) Lead-lined tank.—The term 'lead-lined
2 tank' means a water reservoir container in a drinking
3 water cooler which container is constructed of lead or
4 which has an interior surface which is not lead-free.
5 "SEC. 1462. RECALL OF DRINKING WATER COOLERS WITH
6 LEAD-LINED TANKS.
7 "For purposes of the Consumer Product Safety Act, all
8 drinking water coolers identified by the Administrator on the
9 list under section 1463 as having a lead-lined tank shall be
10 considered to be imminently hazardous consumer products
11 within the meaning of section 12 of such Act (15 U.S.C.
12 2061). After notice and opportunity for comment, including a
13 public hearing, the Consumer Product Safety Commission
14 shall issue an order requiring the manufacturers and import-
15 ers of such coolers to repair, replace, or recall and provide a
16 refund for such coolers within 1 year after the enactment of
17 the Lead Contamination Control Act of 1988. For purposes
18 of enforcement, such order shall be treated as an order under
19 section 15(d) of that Act (15 U.S.C. 2064(d)).
20 "SEC. 1463. DRINKING WATER COOLERS CONTAIMX. LEAD.
21 "(a) Publication of Lists.—The Administrator
22 shall, after notice and opportunity for public comment, identi-
23 fy each brand and model of drinking water con!. - -.vriieh is
24 not lead free, including each brand and modei ni .irinking
25 water cooler which has a lead-lined tank. For purposes of
HR 4939 RFS
-------
5
1 identifying the brand and model of drinking water coolers
2 under this subsection, the Administrator shall use the best
3 information available to the Environmental Protection
4 Agency. Within 100 days after the enactment of this section,
5 the Administrator shall publish a list of each brand and model
6 of drinking water cooler identified under this subsection.
7 Such list shall separately identify each brand and model of
8 cooler which has a lead-lined tank. The Administrator shall
9 continue to gather information regarding lead in drinking
10 water coolers and shall revise and republish the list from time
11 to time as may be appropriate as new information or analysis
12 becomes available regarding lead contamination in drinking
13 water coolers.
14 "(b) Prohibition.—No person may sell in interstate
15 commerce, or manufacture for sale in interstate commerce,
16 any drinking water cooler listed under subsection (a) or any
17 other drinking water cooler which is not lead free, including a
18 lead-lined drinking water cooler.
19 "(c) Criminal Penalty.—Any person who knowingly
20 violates the prohibition contained in subsection (b) shall be
21 imprisoned Tor not more than 5 years, or fined in accordance
22 with title 18 of the United States Code, or both.
23 "(d) Civil Penalty.—The Administrator may bring a
24 civil action in the appropriate United States District Court
25 (as determined under the provisions of title 28 of the United
HR 4339 RFS
-------
6
1 States Code) to impose a civi] penalty on any person who
2 violates subsection (b). In any such action the court may
3 impose on such person a civil penalty of not more than
4 $5,000 ($50,000,in the case of a second or subsequent
5 violation).
6 "SEC. 1464. LEAD CONTAMINATION IN SCHOOL DRINKING
7 WATER.
8 "(a) Distribution of Dbiniong Wateb Coolee
9 List.—Within 100 days after the enactment of this section,
10 the Administrator shall distribute to the States a list of each
11 brand and model of drinking water cooler identified and listed
12 by the Administrator under section 1463(a).
13 "(b) Guidance Document and Testing Proto-
14 col.—The Administrator shall publish a guidance document
15 and a testing protocol to assist schools in determining the
16 source and degree of lead contamination in school drinking
17 water supplies and in remedying such contamination. The
18 guidance document shall include guidelines for sample preser-
19 vation. The guidance document shall also include guidance to
20 assist States, schools, and the general public in ascertaining
21 the levels of lead contamination in drinking water coolers and
22 in taking appropriate action to reduce or eliminate such con-
23 tamination. The guidance document shall contain a testing
24 protocol for the identification of drinking water coolers whicu
25 contribute to lead contamination in drinking water. Such doc-
HH -1939 RFS
-------
7
1 ument and protocol may be revised, republished and redistrib-
2 uted as the Administrator deems necessary. The Administra-
3 tor shall distribute the guidance document and testing proto-
4 col to the States within 100 days after the enactment of this
5 section.
6 "(c) Dissemination to Schools, Etc.—Each State
7 shall provide for the dissemination to local educational agen-
8 cies, private nonprofit elementary or secondary schools and
9 to day care centers of the guidance document and testing
10 protocol published under subsection (b), together with the list
11 of drinking water coolers published under section 1463(a).
12 "(d) Remedial Action Peogbam.—
13 "(1) Testing and remedying lead contami-
14 nation.—Within 9 months after the enactment of this
15 section, each State shall establish a program, consist-
16 ent with this section, to assist local educational agen-
17 cies in testing for, and remedying, lead contamination
18 in drinking water from coolers and from other sources
19 of lead contamination at schools under the jurisdiction
20 of such agencies.
21 "(2) Public availability.—A copy of the re-
22 suits of any testing under paragraph (1) shall be avail-
23 able in the administrative offices of the local education-
24 al agency for inspection by the public, including teach-
25 ers, other school personnel, and parents. The local edu-
HR 4939 RFS
-------
8
1 cational agency shall notify parent, teacher, and em-
2 plovee organizations of the availability of such testing
3 results.
4 "(3) Coolers.—In the case of drinking water
5 coolers, such program shall include measures for the
6 reduction or elimination of lead contamination from
7 those water coolers which are not lead free and which
8 are located in schools. Such measures shall be ade-
9 quate to ensure that within 15 months after the enact-
10 ment of this subsection all such water coolers in
11 schools under the jurisdiction of such agencies are re-
12 paired, replaced, permanently removed, or rendered in-
13 operable unless the cooler is tested and found (within
14 the limits of testing accuracy) not to contribute lead to
15 drinking water.
16 "SEC. 1465. FEDERAL ASSISTANCE FOR STATE PROGRAMS RE-
17 CARDING LEAD CONTAMINATION IN SCHOOL
18 DRINKING WATER.
19 "(a) School Drinking Water Programs.—The
20 Administrator shall make grants to States to establish and
21 carry out State programs under section 1464 to assist local
22 educational agencies in testing for, and remedying, lead con-
23 tamination in drinking water from drinking water coolers and
24 from other sources of lead contamination at schools under the
25 jurisdiction of such agencies. Such grants may be used by
H~R 41' Rf-
-------
9
1 States to reimburse local educational agencies for expenses
2 incurred after the enactment of this section for such testing
3 and remedial action.
4 "(b) Limits.—Each grant under this section shall be
5 used as by the State for testing water coolers in accordance
6 with section 1464, for testing for lead contamination in other
7 drinking water supplies under section 1464, or for remedial
8 action under State programs under section 1464. Not more
9 than 5 percent of the grant may be used for program adminis-
10 tration.
11 "(c) Authorization of Appbopriations.—There
12 are authorized to be appropriated to carry out this section not
13 more than $30,000,000 for fiscal year 1989, $30,000,000 for
14 fiscal year 1990, and $30,000,000 for fiscal year 1991.''
15 SEC. 3. LEAD POISONING PREVENTION PROGRAMS.
16 The Public Health Service Act is amended by adding
17 the following new section after section 317:
18 "SEC. 317A. LEAD POISONING PREVENTION.
19 "(a) Grants to States.—The Secretary, acting
20 through the Director of the Centers for Disease Control, may
21 make grants to States and agencies of units of local guvrrn-
22 ments for the initiation and expansion of community ;>ro-
23 grams designed to (1) screen infants and children for <-'v\.ucd
24 blood lead levels, (2) assure referral for treatment <>t. and
25 environmental intervention for, infants and children with ~'.rh
UK 4939 RFS
-------
10
1 blood lead levels, and (3) provide education about childhood
2 lead poisoning. In making grants under this paragraph, the
3 Secretary shall give priority to applications for programs
4 which will serve areas with a high incidence of elevated
5 blood lead levels in infants and children.
6 "(b) Grant Applications.—(1) No grant may be
7 made under subsection (a), unless an application therefor has
8 been submitted to, and approved by, the Secretary. Such an
9 application shall be in such form and shall be submitted in
10 such manner as the Secretary shall prescribe and shall in-
11 elude each of the following:
12 "(A) A complete description of the program which
13 is to be provided by or through the applicant.
14 "(B) Assurances satisfactory to the Secretary that
15 the program to be provided under the grant applied for
16 will include educational programs designed to commu-
17 nicate to parents, educators, and local health officials
18 the significance and prevalence of lead poisoning in in-
19 fants and children which the program is designed to
20 detect and prevent.
21 "(C) Assurances satisfactory to the Secretary that
22 the applicant will report on a quarterly basis the
23 number of infants and children screened for elevated
24 blood lead levels, the number of infants and children
25 who were found to have elevated blood lead levels, the
HTl 49:19 RFS
-------
11
1 number and type of medical referrals made for such in-
2 fants and children, the outcome of such referrals, and
3 other information to measure program effectiveness as
4 required under paragraph (2);
5 "(D) Assurances satisfactory to the Secretary that
6 the applicant will make such reports respecting the
7 program involved as the Secretary may require.
8 "(E) Such other information as the Secretary may
9 prescribe.
10 "(2) The Secretary shall prepare and submit a report to
11 the Committee on Energy and Commerce of the United
12 States House of Representatives and to the Committee on
13 Labor and Human Resources of the United States Senate not
14 later than one year after the enactment of this section, and
15 annually thereafter, on the effectiveness during the period re-
16 ported on of the programs assisted under grants under sub-
17 section (a).
18 "(c) Maintenance of Effort.—No grant may be
19 made under subsection (a) unless the Secretary determines
20 that there is satisfactory assurance that Federal funds made
21 available under such a grant for any period will be so used as
22 to supplement and, to the extent practical, increase the level
23 of State, local, and other non-Federal funds that would, in
24 the absence of such Federal funds, be made available for the
25 program for which the grant is to be made and will in no
HR 4939 RFS
-------
12
1 event supplant such State, local, and other non-Federal
2 funds.
3 "(d) Coordination.—No grant may be made under
4 subsection (a) unless the Secretary determines that there will
5 be coordination between the recipient of the grant and activi-
6 ties within the State in which the grantee is located under
7 titles V and XIX of the Social Security Act relating to lead
8 poisoning prevention.
9 "(e) Method and Amount of Payment.—The Sec-
10 retary shall determine the amount of a grant made under
11 subsection (a). Payments under such grants may be made in
12 advance on the basis of estimates or by way of reimbuxse-
13 ment, with necessary adjustments on account of underpay -
14 ments or overpayments, and in such installments and on such
15 terms and conditions as the Secretary finds necessary to
16 carry out the purposes of such grants. Not more than 10
17 percent of any grant may be obligated for administrative
18 costs.
19 "(0 Supplies, Equipment, and Employee
20 Detail.—The Secretary, at the request of a recipient of a
21 grant under subsection (a), may reduce the amount of such
22 grant by—
23 "(1) the fair market value of any supplies or
24 equipment furnished the grant recipient, and
HB 49:i9 RFS
-------
13
1 "(2) the amount of the pay, allowances, and
2 travel expenses of any officer or employee of the Gov-
3 erament when detailed to the grant recipient and the
4 amount of any other costs incurred in connection with
5 the detail of such officer or employee,
6 when the furnishing of such supplies or equipment or the
7 detail of such an officer or employee is for the convenience of
8 and at the request of such grant recipient and for the purpose
9 of carrying out a program with respect to which the grant
10 under subsection (a) is made. The amount by which any such
11 grant is so reduced shall be available for payment by the
12 Secretary of the costs incurred in furnishing the supplies or
13 equipment, or in detailing the personnel, on which the reduc-
14 tion of such grant is based, and such amount shall be deemed
15 as part of the grant and shall be deemed to have been paid to
16 the grant recipient.
17 "(g) Records.—Each recipient of a grant under sub-
18 section (a) shall keep such records as the Secretary shall pre-
19 scribe, including records which fully disclose the amount and
20 disposition by such recipient of the proceeds of such grant,
21 the total cost of the undertaking in connection with which
22 such grant was made, and the amount of that portion of the
23 cost of the undertaking supplied by other sources, and such
24 other records as will facilitate an effective audit.
HR 4939 RFS
-------
14
1 "(h) Audit and Examination of Records.—The
2 Secretary and the Comptroller General of the United States,
3 or any of their duly authorized representatives, shall have
4 access for the purpose of audit and examination to any books,
5 documents, papers, and records of the recipient of a grant
6 under subsection (a), that are pertinent to such grant.
7 "(i) Indian Teibes.—For purposes of this section, the
8 term 'units of local government' includes Indian tribes.
9 "(j) Authorization of Appropriations.—There
10 are authorized to be appropriated to carry out this section not
11 more than $20,000,000 for fiscal year 1989, $22,000,000 for
12 fiscal year 1990, and $24,000,000 for fiscal year 1991.".
13 SEC. 4. CERTIFICATION OF TESTING LABORATORIES.
14 The Administrator of the Environmental Protection
15 Agency shall assure that programs for the certification of
16 testing laboratories which test drinking water supplies for
17 lead contamination certify only those laboratories which pro-
18 vide reliable accurate testing. The Administrator (or the
19 State in the case of a State to which certification authority is
20 delegated under this subsection) shall publish and imir.r avail-
21 able to the public upon request the list of laboratories certi-
22 fied under this subsection.
HR 4!)SS RFS
-------
15
1 SEC. 5. CONFORMING AMENDMENT.
2 Section 1445 of the Safe Drinking Water Act (title XTV
3 of the Public Health Service Act) is amended by adding the
4 following new subsection at the end thereof:
5 "(f) Information Regarding Dbinking Watee
6 Coolees.—The Administrator may utilize the authorities of
7 this section for purposes of part F. Any person who manufac-
8 tures, imports, sells, or distributes drinking water coolers in
9 interstate commerce shall be treated as a supplier of water
10 for purposes of applying the provisions of this section in the
11 case of persons subject to part F.".
Passed the House of Representatives October 5, 1988.
Attest: DONNALD K. ANDERSON,
Clerk.
UR 4!t3!) RFS
-------