National Conference on
Enhancing the States' Lake
Management Programs
integrating stormzvater and local nonpoint source issues
Blackstone Hotel • Chicago, Illinois
May 17 & 18, 1990
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m lop
Proceedings of a
National Conference on
Enhancing the States' Lake
Management Programs
Blackstone Hotel • Chicago, Illinois
May 17 & 18, 1990
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Clean Lakes Program
Office of Water Enforcement and Permits
Washington, DC • Chicago, IL
North American Lake Management Society
Washington, DC
Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission
Chicago, IL
sO
January 1991
I
I
U.S. EPA LIBRARY REGION 10 MATERIALS
III IIII
111
111
RXOD
HDD
A3
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Sponsors
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Clean Lakes Program
Office of Water Enforcement and Permits
Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission
North American Lake Management Society
Conference Planning Committee
Robert Kirschner, Conference Coordinator
Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission, Natural Resources Department, 400 W. Madison
Street, Room 200, Chicago, Illinois 60606; 312/454-0400
Thomas Davenport, Project Officer
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Region V, Water Division - Water Quality Branch,
230 S. Dearborn Street, (WQS-TUB-08), Chicago, Illinois 60604; 312/886-0209
Judith Taggart, Conference Proceedings Editor
North American Lake Management Society, 1000 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 300,
Washington, D.C. 20036; 2J02/466-8550
Points of view expressed in this proceedings do not necessarily reflect the view or policies of
the conference sponsors nor of any of the contributors to its publication. Mention of trade
names and commercial products does not constitute endorsement of their use.
Editing by Gretchen Flock, JT&A, Inc.
Typesetting and production by Lura Taggart Svestka, JT&A, Inc.
Cover photo by Neil Hutchinson, Ontario, Canada
Copies of this proceedings may be ordered from
Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission
400 W. Madison St., Room 200
Chicago, IL 60606
(312) 454-0400
ii
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Contents
Agenda v
Moderators and Presenters ix
Lessons Learned from Local Nonpoint Source Watershed Planning in Puget Sound 1
Nana/ Richardson Hansen
Enhancing Effectiveness of Local Nonpoint Source Pollution Ordinances through
Conservation District Involvement in Plan Review and Site Inspection 5
Elizabeth Scott
The Evolution of Washington State's Lake Restoration Program 11
Allen W. Moore
The Illinois Lake Management Program Act: Developing A Comprehensive State
Approach 15
Gregg Good and Jeff Mitzelfelt
Opportunities and Challenges for Lake Management in Indiana 19
William W. Jones
Mitigating the Adverse Impacts of Urbanization on Streams: A Comprehensive Strategy
for Local Government 25
Thomas R. Schueler
Making On-site Treatment Work for Local Lake Protection: Bringing All the Tools to Bear .... 37
Alfred E. Krause
Lawn Care Chemical Programs for Phosphorus: Information,, Education, and Regulation .... 43
Curtis J. Sparks
Poplar Tree Roots for Water Quality Improvement 55
Louis A. Licht
Applying Aerial Photography and Remote Sensing to Lake Management in Idaho 63
Mike A. Beckwith
The P8 Urban Catchment Model for Evaluating Nonpoint Source Controls at the Local
Level 67
Nancy Palmstrom and William Walker, Jr.
Assessing Impacts of Motorized Watercraft on Lakes: Issues and Perceptions 77
Kenneth J. Wagner
Stormwater and Urban Runoff Discharge Permits for the County of Los Angeles 95
Catherine Tyrrell and Xavier Swamikannu
iii
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Agenda
Thursday, May 17
Registration
Crystal Ballroom Foyer
Lake Quality Modeling and Data Management: Software Exchange
and Demonstration
Crystal Ballroom Foyer
James Vennie, Bureau of Water Resources, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources-, and
Bruce Wilson, Division of Water Quality, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, St. Paul, Minnesota
Eleanor S. Rostron, Commissioner, Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission, Chicago, Illinois
James D. Giattina, Chief, Planning and Standards Section, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Chicago, Illinois
William K. Norris, President, North American Lake Management Society, Earlysville, Virginia
Dov Weitman, Acting Chief, Nonpoint Source Control Branch, US. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Michael K. Mitchell, Office of Water Enforcement and Permits, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
SESSION I: Protecting Lakes Through Local Nonpoint Source
Planning Crystal Ballroom
Moderator: Nancy Sullivan, Water Quality Division, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency-Region I, Boston, Massachusetts
¦ Local Implementation Strategies for Controlling Phosphorus Export in Developing
Watersheds, Jeffrey Dennis, Maine Department of Environmental Protection
¦ Lessons Learned from Local Nonpoint Source Watershed Planning in Puget Sound,
Nancy R. Hansen, Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, Seattle, Washington
¦ Enhancing Local Nonpoint Source Control Ordinances through Conservation District
Involvement in Plan Review and Site Inspection, Elizabeth A. Scott, Rhode Island
Department of Environmental Management, Providence, Rhode Island
WELCOMES AND OPENING REMARKS
Crystal Ballroom
LUNCHEON
The Outlook for Lakes Under the New Farm Bill and USDA's Water Quality
Initiatives, Walter E Rittall, Assistant Director, Land Treatment Division,
U.S. Department of Agriculture-Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C.
Art Hall
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SESSION II: State Lake Programs Crystal Ballroom
Moderator: Virginia A. Garrison, Water Quality Division, Vermont Department af
Environmental Conservation, Waterbury, Vermont
¦ The Evolution of Washington State's Lake Restoration Program, Allen W. Moore, Water
Quality Financial Assistance Program, Washington State Department of Ecology, Olympia,
Washington
m The Illinois Lake Management Program Act: Developing a Comprehensive State
Approach, Gregg Good, Division of Water Pollution Control, Illinois Environmental
Protection Agency, Springfield, Illinois
¦ Opportunities and Challenges for Lake Management in Indiana, William W. Jones,
School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Blotmungton, Indiana
SESSION HI: Lake Monitoring for State Programs Crystal Ballroom
Moderator: Daniel J. Mazur, Water Pollution Control Program, Missouri Department of Natural
Resources, Jefferson City, Missouri
¦ Criteria for State Lake Monitoring Programs: A Walk through the Monitoring
Supplement to "The Lake and Reservoir Restoration Guidance Manual", Douglas R.
Knauer, Bureau of Research, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Fitchburg,
Wisconsin
¦ Increasing the Reliability of Lake Monitoring Data Collected by Sub-State
Organizations: A Case Study of the Wisconsin Lake Planning Grants Program,
Richard Wedepohl, Bureau of Water Resources, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,
Madison, Wisconsin
Friday, May 18
SESSION IV: Urban Impacts on Lakes Crystal Ballroom
¦ An Overview: The Effects of Urbanization on Lakes and Streams—and Alternatives for
Mitigation, Thomas R. Schueler, Department of Environmental Programs, Metropolitan
Washington Council of Governments, Washington, D.C.
SESSION V: Options for Local Implementation Crystal Ballroom
Moderator: Jay H. Sauber, North Carolina Division of Environmental Management,
Raleigh, North Carolina
¦ Making On-Site Treatment Systems Work for Local Lake Protection, Alfred E. Krause,
Facilities Planning Unit, US. Environmental Protection Agency-Region V, Chicago, Illinois
¦ Lawn Care Chemical Management Programs for Phosphorus: Information, Education,
and Regulation, Curtis J. Sparks, P.E, Division of Water Quality, Minnesota Pollution
Control Agency, St. Paul, Minnesota
¦ Poplar Tree Buffer Strips Grown in Riparian Zones for Nonpoint Source Control,
Louis A. Licht, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa,
Iowa City, Iowa
vi
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LUNCHEON: Regional Discussion Group Tables
Art Hall
SESSION VI: Nonpoint Source Assessment Methods
Crystal Ballroom
Moderator: C. Edward Carney, Bureau of Environmental Quality, Kansas Department of Health
and Environment, Topeka, Kansas
¦ Applying Aerial Photography and Remote Sensing to Lake Management in Idaho,
Mike A. Beckwith, Idaho Division of Water Quality, Coeur d'Alene, Idaho
¦ The "P8" Urban Catchment Model for Evaluating Nonpoint Source Controls at the
Local Level, Nancy Palmstrom, IEP, Inc., Northborough, Massachusetts', and William W.
Walker, Jr., Consultant, Concord, Massachusetts
¦ Assessing the Impacts of Motorized Watercraft on Lakes: Issues and Perceptions,
Kenneth J. Wagner, Baystate Environmental Consultants, East Longmeadow, Massachusetts
SESSION VII: Lake Enhancement through Wetland and Stormwater
Management Crystal Ballroom
Moderator: Bruce Kirschner, International Joint Commission, Windsor, Ontario
¦ The Value of Wetlands for Nonpoint Source Control—Literature Summary,
Eric W. Strecker, Gary E. Palhegyi, and Eugene D. Driscoll, Woodward-Clyde Consultants,
Seattle, Washington; Oakland, California; Oakland, New Jersey
¦ The Value of Wetlands for Nonpoint Source Control—Case Studies, R. Fred Crabill,
Environmental Resources, Gurr and Associates, Plantation, Florida
¦ Developing an NPDES Permit for Stormwater Management in Los Angeles County,
California, Catherine Tyrrell, Santa Monica Bay Restoration Project, California Regional
Water Quality Control Board-Los Angeles Region, Monterey Park, California
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Thomas E. Davenport, Chief, Watershed Management Unit, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency-Region V, Chicago, Illinois
Crystal Ballroom
vii
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Moderators and Presenters
Mike A. Beckwith
Idaho DMslon of Environmental QuaMy
2110 Iron wood Parkway
Coeur d'Alene, ID 83814
208/687-3624
C. Edward Carney
Bureau of Environmental QuaMy
Kansas Department of Health and
Environment
Building 740, Forbes Field
Topeka, KS 88620
913/296-5575
R. Fred Crablll
Environmental Reeourcee
Qurr and Associates
800 N. Pine Island Rd. - Suite 150
Plantation, PL33324
305/370-7222
Thomas E. Davenport
Watershed Management Unit
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency-Region V (WQS-TUB-08)
230 S. Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 80606
312/886-0209
Jeffrey Dennla
Maine Department of Environmental
Protection
8tate House Station #17
Augusta, ME 04333
207/289-3901
James D. Qiattlna
Planning and Standards Section
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency-Region V
230 S. Dearborn 8treet
Chicago, IL 60606
Gregg Good
DMalon of Water Pollution Control
lllnole Environmental Protection Agency
2200 ChurchM Road
P.O. Box 19276
Springfield, IL 62794-9276
217/782-3362
Virginia A. Garrison
Water Quality DMslon
Varmont Department of Environmental
Conservation
103 8. Main Street
Watsrbury.VT06676
802/244-5838
Nancy R. Hansen
Puget 8ound Water QuaMy Authority
217Plne8treet-8uNe 1100
8eattle,WA98l0l
206/464-7320
William W. Jonea
8chool of Public and Environmental Affairs
Room 347
Indiana University
Bloomlngton, IN 47406
812/856-4556
Bruce Klrschner
International Joint Commission
Great Lakes Regional Office
1000ue»eteAve.
Windsor, Ontario CANADA
N9A6T3
313/226-2170
Douglaa R. Knauer
Bureau of Research
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
3911 Fish Hatchery Road
Fltchburg.WI 53711
608/275-3215
Alfred E. Krauae
Facilities Planning Unit (5WFP-TUB-09)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency -
Region V
230 S. Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
312/886-0246
LoulsA.Ucht
DepL of OvD & Environmental Engineering
University of Iowa
Iowa City, IA52242
319/335-5646
Daniel J. Mazur
Water Polutlon Control Program
Missouri Department of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 176
Jefferson City, MO 65102
314/751-7225
Michael K. Mitchell
Office of Water Enforcement and Permits
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EN-336)
401M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20480
202/475-7057
Allen W.Moore
Water QuaSty Financial Assistance Program
Washington State Department of Ecology
Mai 8top PV-11
Otympia,WA98504
206/459-6063
William K. Norria
North American Lake Management Society
1000 Connecticut Awe., N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
804/973-7311
Nancy Palmstrom
IEP, Inc.
6 Maple Street - P.O. Box 780
North borough, MA 01532
508/393-8558
Walter F.RIttall
Assistant Director
Land Treatment Division
USDA- Sol Conservation Service
P.O. Box 2890
Washington, D.C. 20013
202/382-8520
EleanorS. Rostron
Commissioner
Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission
400 W. Madison Street-Room 200
Chicago, IL 60606
312/454-0400
JayH. Sauber
North Carolina DMslon of Environmental
Management
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687
919/733-6510
Thomaa R. Schueler
Department of Environmental Programs
Metropolitan Washington Council of
Governments
777 North Capitol Street-Suite 300
Washington, D.C. 20002-4201
202/962-3343
Elizabeth A. Scott
Rhode Island Department of Environmental
Management
83 Park Street
Providence, Rl 02908
401/277-3434
Curtis J. Sparfca
Division of Water Quality
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
520 Lafayette Road
St. Paul, MN 55155
612/297-1831
EricW.Strecker
Woodward-Clyde Consultants
900 4th Avenue-Suite 3440
Seattle, WA 98164
206/343-7933
Nancy Sullivan
Water Quality Division (WQP-2109)
U.8. Environmental Protection
Agency-Region I
JFK Building
Boston, MA02203
617/566-3546
ix
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Catharine Tyrrell
Santa Monica Bay Restoration Project
California Regional Water Quality Control
Board-toe Angalaa Region
101 Centre Plaza Drive
Monterey Park. CA 81754-2156
213/206-7515
James Vannle
Buraau of Water Reeowcee
Wleconeln Department of Natural Raaourcaa
P.O. Box 7921
Madbon, Wl 53707-7921
806/266-2212
Kannath J. Wagner
Baystata Environmental Consultants
296 N. Main Street
East longmeadow, MA 01028
413/525-3822
Richard Wedepohl
Bureau of Water Raaourcaa
Wlaconaln Department of Natural Raaourcaa
P.O. Box 7921
Madlaon. Wl 53707-7921
608/267-7513
DovWeitman
Chief, Nonpoint Source Control Branch
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(WH-553)
401M Street, S.W.
Washington. D.C. 20480
202/382-7100
Bruce Wilson
DMston of Water Quatty
Minnesota PoNutlon Control Agency
520 Lafayette Road
St. Paul, MN 55155
612/298-9210
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 1-4
Lessons Learned from Local Nonpoint
Source Watershed Planning in
Puget Sound
Nancy Richardson Hansen
Environmental Planner
Puget Sound Water Quality Authority
Seattle, Washington
ABSTRACT
In 1967, the Puget Sound Water Quality Authority launched an innovative program designed to
control nonpoint source pollution systematically throughout the Puget Sound basin. Each
county was asked to rank its watersheds draining into Puget Sound and then to begin
developing watershed action plans in priority order. Each plan is developed by a watershed
management committee, which is a mix of governmental and nongovernmental interests within
the watershed. Twelve pilot watershed planning projects were started under this program in
October 1967 that represented a variety of geographic settings and nonpoint concerns. After
more than two years of experience, many lessons have been learned about achieving success in a
bottom-up approach to nonpoint pollution control These include adequate attention to
education and public involvement, use of an effective decisionmaking process, recognition of
the political nature of long-term nonpoint source control, and the need to allow flexibility and
ownership at the local level
Introduction
Puget Sound is a large, deep body of water that is
located within the state of Washington. A fjord-like
estuary whose deepest point reaches over 900 feet,
the Sound drains an area of 16,000 square miles, in-
cluding 12 counties and 9 major river systems, and
provides high quality recreation, a productive
fishery, and valuable wildlife habitat. The area
around Puget Sound is home to over 3 million
people.
In 1985 the Puget Sound Water Quality
Authority was directed by the Washington State
legislature to develop a comprehensive water
quality plan for the Sound. The Puget Sound Water
Quality Management Plan, first issued in 1987, con-
tains several programs that address pollution con-
cerns facing Puget Sound. The vast majority of
these programs are carried out through the ac-
tivities of other state agencies and local govern-
ments, rather than the Authority. One program ad-
dresses nonpoint pollution.
* Ms. Hansen h now the senior managment assistant at the city of Befevue's storm and surface water utility.
1
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NJL HANSEN
Nonpoint Pollution
A major concern is bacterial contamination, the
cause of the increasing closures of commercial
shellfish beds. In rural areas, nonpoint pollution
problems stem from poor agricultural practices
and improper on-site sewage disposal systems. In
more densely populated areas, stormwater runoff
and combined sewer overflows cany pollutants to
the Sound. Forestry operations can affect water
quality in watersheds and, in sheltered bays and
inlets, discharge of untreated sewage from boats
can threaten recreational activities and safe
shellfish harvest
Watershed Program Overview
In developing a program to address nonpoint pol-
lution, the Authority considered and rejected the
notion of a top-down mandatory approach in favor
of a locally based planning process, with the water-
shed as the planning unit. The program was
designed to be comprehensive—addressing all, not
just some, of the sources in each watershed. It was
also designed to be a partnership among state,
local, tribal, private sector, and federal participants.
Watershed action plans to control nonpoint
source pollution are developed locally. Each coun-
ty in the Puget Sound basin has identified and
ranked its watersheds in priority order for the fu-
ture development of action plans, which are being
generated in the order in which they appear on
each county's ranked list Completed plans are ap-
proved by the state; implementation takes place on
an ongoing basis.
Prior to this process, the Authority had decided
to fund development of watershed plans in 13
"early action" watersheds that were selected for
funding before the initiation of the ranking pro-
gram in the counties. These watersheds were the
pioneers of the program, with plans underway
even before the regulation described in the next
section was completed.
The development of watershed plans is funded
through grants from the Centennial Clean Water
Fund, an account that funds local water quality
projects from a tax on tobacco products. Both the
funding and the plan development process are ad-
ministered by the Washington State Department of
Ecology.
Highlights of fee Nonppint Rule
The watershed planning program is governed by a
regulation prepared by the Authority called Local
Planning and Management of Nonpoint Source
Pollution (Chapter 400-12 in the Washington Ad-
ministrative Code). Referred to as the "nonpoint
rule," it gives specific attention to process—how
watershed action plans should be developed—and
leaves the design of specific approaches for control-
ling nonpoint sources up to the local participants.
Some important features of the rule include:
¦ Watershed Management Committees. Each
plan is developed by a watershed manage-
ment committee—a mix of governmental and
non-governmental representatives from the
watershed area. These committees are
designed to intentionally involve "affected
parties," defined as "both those whose benefi-
cial use of water is being impaired, or poten-
tially impaired, by nonpoint pollution and
those groups associated with the nonpoint
sources of pollution [in the watershed]."
However, the ultimate responsibility for over-
seeing development of the plan rests with a
county or lead government agency that has
entered into a funding contract with
Washington's Department of Ecology.
¦ Source Control. The plans must address all
major nonpoint sources in the watershed;
committees cannot choose to leave out a
legitimate concern. Nonpoint sources can in-
clude agricultural and forestry practices, on-
site sewage treatment systems, stormwater,
marinas and boats, and others such as
landfills, septage, or mining operations. Plans
must also provide an assessment of the benefi-
cial uses that are currently or potentially im-
paired. The committees can choose from a
range of approaches—from voluntary to
regulatory—to help control the various non-
point sources in the watershed.
The nonpoint rule provides a basic recom-
mended approach for each major source. For
agricultural sources, the rule calls for primary
reliance on farm plans and the use of ap-
propriate best management practices (BMPs)
for agricultural operations (coupled with com-
pliance with existing federal, state, and local
water quality tows and regulations). The ap-
proach for on-site sewage disposal is to comp-
ly with existing laws and regulations and
improve education, corrective, and main-
tenance programs. For stormwater, the rule
calls for an evaluation of existing programs
and necessary improvements to comply with
a more detailed stormwater regulation being
developed by the state.
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS. 1990: 14
¦ Consensus Decisionmaking. Watershed
committees are encouraged to use consensus
decisionmaking as opposed to the traditional
method of voting. Consensus is a method of
reaching group decisions that all members can
support through a process of collecting infor-
mation and airing viewpoints, group discus-
sion, and analysis. Usually the consensus
process produces outcomes that are more crea-
tive and binding.
¦ Statements of Concurrence. Each plan must
be implemented through the independent ac-
tions of several entities. Organizations who
may have a role in implementing the plan
must provide a statement of concurrence, in-
dicating their willingness to follow though on
specified steps that provide the basis for the
action items in the final plan.
¦ Technical Assistance. Technical assistance on
plan development from a number of state and
federal agencies is provided through an inter-
agency technical assistance team. Team mem-
bers provide assistance in characterizing
watersheds, developing source control stra-
tegies, reviewing plans, and providing agency
support to carry out plans.
Lessons Learned
Watershed plans for the 13 early action watersheds
were developed under the terms of die nonpoint
rule during 1988 and 1989. Since this was a com-
pletely new program to both state and local par-
ticipants, several lessons were learned along the
way.
¦ The Importance of Education. First, we
learned that up-front education of participants
both on the planning process as well as on the
more technical topic of nonpoint pollution is
essential. The sooner people understand what
they are being asked to do and why, the better.
Anger and confusion were the result in cases
where individuals were ignorant on both
these points.
One of the common mistakes made with
watershed committee* was assuming at the
outset that the members, especially those rep-
resenting affected parties, were educated
about nonpoint pollution. Terms such as
"nonpoint," "fecal coliform," and "best
management practices" may be readily under-
stood by water quality professionals, but they
can be totally foreign to the uninitiated.
To provide adequate orientation, water-
shed committee staffs used a variety of techni-
ques to educate and inform participants,
including special events such as an open
house or information fair; watershed tours,
guest speakers on various topics, and interac-
tive meetings. Local staff found that it is im-
portant to use a variety of educational
methods—written, visual, experiential—be-
cause people have different styles of learning
and to repeat information or provide it in a
variety of contexts.
¦ Nonpoint Planning as a Political Process. The
eariy action watershed experience showed
that it is important to view the nonpoint plan-
ning process as a political as much as a techni-
cal process. Given the long-term goal of
nonpoint pollution control that involves
changing some very basic individual and in-
stitutional behaviors, it is important to make
sure that affected parties are involved at the
outset of the process for two reasons. First;
the affected parties can marshal political op-
position to the watershed planning process if
they are not involved constructively. Second,
because of their potential opposition, affected
parties are the very people that must be in-
volved in implementating the plan to make it
effective. i
The early action experience also confirmed
that people unfamiliar with or antagonistic to
nonpoint planning will engage in a couple of
typical responses. They will tend to "point
fingers," showing how the problem is the
other guy, not them. They will also deny that
a water quality problem exists and demand
proof that there is a problem and that the
group or individual in question is the cause. It
is important to anticipate these reactions and
have ready answers.
¦ Effective Use of Consensus Decisionmaking.
Puget Sound's watershed planning program
recommended the use of consensus decision-
making as one way to deal with nonpoint
politics. The use of consensus by Puget Sound
watersheds led to some important caveats on
its effective use. First, it must be understood.
Some committees felt that they needed to use
consensus for every single decision—ewi
mundane administrative matters- rather than
for significant policy issues relating to the
plan.
Seoond, consensus is most effective if com-
mittee members want to use it and are willing
3
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N JR. HANSEN
to seek solutions that are good for the group
as a whole. Finally, consensus is most effec-
tive if both staff and committee members are
adequately trained in the process.
The use of consensus is an ideal way to allow
for flexible and creative solutions to be developed.
There is no one template for an effective watershed
action plan. As illustrated in the following section,
those committees that took the time to tailor their
plans to the unique needs of the community
generated the most effective solutions.
A Watershed Success Story
This story provides a useful example of the benefi-
cial effects of persistence, involvement, and crea-
tive thinking.
A farmer in a particular watershed was known
to pollute one of the creeks. Water quality
problems had been traced to his form for some
time, and the local agricultural agencies had unsuc-
cessfully attempted to encourage him to take cor-
rective measures. He was even visited by the direc-
tor of the state dairy association—one of his
peers—but with no luck.
When a watershed committee was established
in the farmer's area, a picture of his farm was run
in the local paper as an illustration of nonpoint
problems that needed to be addressed in the water-
shed. At the same time, he was asked to participate
on the local watershed management committee.
The staff director of the committee asked the
farmer what it would take to get him to cooperate
with the watershed planning process and adopt
necessary BMPs. The farmer replied that he didn't
want to see any more pictures of his farm in the
paper. They struck a deal: as long as the farmer
participated in the watershed planning process, the
staff director would make sure that there were no
pictures of his form in the paper. But this commit-
tee staff person went a bit further—she appointed
the farmer chair of the subcommittee set up to
develop the agricultural practices section of the
plan!
In a short while, the farmer had taken several
steps to mitigate the water quality impacts of his
operation. This took place after the watershed staff
person had had several visits with the former's
wife, during which some of the underlying reasons
behind his farmer's longstanding objections to
BMPs were revealed. For example, stueam fencing
would have hidden the workers from the house, so
he opposed it As the result of this and other
revelations, local agencies were able to work with
the farmer to redirect the course of the stream to its
natural channel on part of his property, install fenc-
ing along other parts of the stream, and construct a
manure lagoon. Lata; because of these actions and
his obvious turnaround on protecting water
quality, the former was voted county environmen-
talist of the year.
Results After Two Years
While the watershed planning program is still in its
infancy, several accomplishments can be noted
after two years. Although it is premature to expect
any clear turnarounds in water quality, such as the
opening of a closed shellfish bed, soqne important
progress has been made.
Most of the 13 early action watershed plans are
completed and in various stages of implementa-
tion. In addition, watershed action plans are being
developed for 14 of the next highest ranked water-
sheds in most counties. This is a dramatic increase
in the amount of watershed-based nonpoint plan-
ning in Puget Sound.
The development of watershed plans in almost
all of the Puget Sound counties has also led to
widespread education about nonpoint pollution
and its control. Since most watershed projects are
directed by staff employed by the county, educa-
tion efforts geared toward the committees tend to
have a spillover effect. Similarly, entities involved
in implementing plans, such as conservation dis-
tricts, health departments, and private individuals
or groups, all have educational programs that af-
fect areas outside of the immediate watershed and
will also serve as a foundation of support for
watershed planning over the long term.
The design of the watershed planning pro-
gram—preparing action plans for watersheds in
ranked order—has also served to target scarce
resources toward the highest priority areas. Both
financial resources from state grants and local
revenues as well as technical assistance from local,
state, and federal agency personnel are part of this
process.
Finally, it is the expectation of all program par-
ticipants that the watershed planning taking place
will lead to long-term water quality improvements
both in Puget Sound drainage areas and in the
Sound.
4
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 5-9
Enhancing Effectiveness of Local
Nonpoint Source Pollution
Ordinances through Conservation
District Involvement in Plan Review
and Site Inspection
Elizabeth Scott
Senior Environmental Scientist
Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management
Providence, Rhode Island
ABSTRACT
With the heightened awareness of the potential impacts of urban land uses on the quality of
lakes and ponds, local government is becoming increasingly involved in the regulation of
nonpoint source pollution. For many local jurisdictions, however the lack of technical expertise
continues to hinder program adoption and effective enforcement. Conservation districts in
many states are moving to fill this void by successfully transferring technical abilities in
controlling soil erosion and stormwater runoff on farms to uiban settings. Involvement by
conservation districts in regulating these urban pollution sources varies between states and is
largely dependent upon state legislation. The range of conservation districts' responsibilities is
well illustrated by the erosion and sediment control programs in New Jersey, Virginia, and
Rhode Island. New Jersey's conservation districts oversee implementation of the state's Soil
Erosion and Sediment Control Act, which requires that a sediment control plan be prepared for
any construction activity disturbing more than 5,000 square feet. Other states, such as Rhode
Island, place primary responsibility for erosion and sediment control at the municipal level.
Rhode Island's conservation districts have recently initiated a statewide program to offer
technical assistance to municipalities in reviewing development site plans and inspecting
construction sites for compliance with these plans. Expected benefits from this program indude
enhanced effectiveness of existing ordinances and an increase in the number of municipalities
adopting the erosion and sediment control ordinance.
5
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E. SCOTT
Introduction
The days of laissez-faire government at the local
level are fast receding in the wake of the unprece-
dented development boom of the late 1980s. Many
cities and towns, unprepared to respond to the
number and technical sophistication of develop-
ment proposals before them, now face problems
caused by uncontrolled urban growth. The water
quality impacts associated with urban develop-
ment are an emerging area of concern. For many
localities, firsthand observations of degraded lake
and pond water quality have served to increase
awareness of these issues.
A common response to the concerns raised
during this period of vigorous economic develop-
ment has been a strengthening of local regulations
to minimize the impacts of urban development on
water quality. For many municipalities, however,
the lack of technical expertise continues to hinder
the adoption and effective enforcement of local
regulations.
With new initiatives by federal, state, and
regional agencies to control nonpoint sources of
pollution to surface and ground waters, much at-
tention has been given to local land use decisions.
Increasingly, state and regional agencies are step-
ping forward to provide technical assistance to
cities and towns in enhancing their water quality
protection efforts.
Conservation districts have traditionally
worked with landowners in addressing rural and
agricultural soil and water conservation problems.
However, in several of the more urban states, con-
servation districts have successfully transferred
this experience to the utban setting and are actively
involved in programs to control urban soil erosion
and stormwater runoff. Soil erosion and sediment
control projects in New Jersey, Virginia, and Rhode
Island exemplify the range of responsibilities held
by conservation districts in administering urban
nonpoint source pollution programs. State soil
erosion and sediment control legislation have sig-
nificantly shaped the conservation districts' role
and the resulting programs' potential for effective-
ly controlling urban erosion and sedimentation.
For purposes of this discussion, prograg^'effective-
ness will be measured by whether local Adoption of
the program is mandatory; the regulations are
broadly applicable to land-distuibing activities
posing an erosion threat; comprehensive standards
are established and consistently applied; and an
adequate number of technically trained staff and
resources are available for program administration.
The discussion of Rhode Island's program also
describes the ongoing cooperative effort between
the state's three conservation districts and the
Rhode Island Department of Environmental
Management's Nonpoint Source Pollution Man-
agement Program in establishing a pilot Regional
Site Plan Review and Inspection Program.
New Jersey
Legislative Background
New Jersey's Soil Erosion and Sediment Control
Act, adopted in 1975, governs any construction ac-
tivity that disturbs more than 5,000 square feet of
soil, including state construction projects. The
statute charged the State Conservation Committee
with developing and promulgating the standards
and specifications to be used in controlling soil
erosion and sedimentation, including criteria, tech-
niques, and methods.
Overall responsibility for program administra-
tion was placed with the state's conservation dis-
tricts. Under the statute, however, townships were
given the option to exercise home rule and thus
maintain control over the soil erosion and sedimen-
tation program in their municipality. To do so,
townships were required to adopt a state commit-
tee-approved erosion control ordinance within 12
months of the standards' promulgation.
Program Implementation
Approximately 15 percent of New Jersey's
townships have opted to maintain authority over
their erosion and sediment control programs (Race,
1990). However, of these 78 municipalities, more
than half have entered into agreements with the
conservation districts to implement their pro-
grams.
In total districts have full program administra-
tion, including plan review,-site inspection, report
issuance, and enforcement, in 90 percent of New
Jersey's munidpalites. With the exception of ad-
ministrative expenses, the basic program is funded
by user fees (Race, 1990). State grants requiring a
local match, typically provided by New Jersey's
counties, have supplemented the user fees, the
conservation districts have followed strict financial
management practices to ensure proper use of user
fees, including not permitting district employees in
the Urban Erosion Control Program to work on
other district activities such as traditional conser-
vation assistance (Apogee Res., Inc. 1990).
6
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 5-9
Virginia
Legislative Background
The Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control Law,
adopted in 1973 and revised in 1968, shares many
provisions in common with die New Jersey statute.
The law directs the Virginia Soil and Water Board
to promulgate regulations for the effective control
of soil erosion, sediment deposition, and non-
agricultural runoff. Further, it requires that each
conservation district establish a soil erosion and
sediment control program except in those locations
where a county, dty, or town government has al-
ready adopted its own program. In either case, the
soil erosion and sediment control programs must
be consistent with the regulations promulgated by
the Board (Virginia, 1990).
Activities exempted from the regulations in-
clude those disturbing less than 10,000 square feet
of land, single family residences separately built
agricultural activities, and surface and deep mining
operations. It is interesting to note that the statute
authorizes the districts and county, dty, or town
government to establish more stringent criteria
pertaining to the areal extent of land-disturbing ac-
tivities governed by the soil erosion control regula-
tions — enabling them to regulate activities dis-
turbing less than 10,000 square feet
The statute also stipulates that state agencies
undertaking land-disturbing activities must either
file general specifications annually or submit in-
dividual conservation plans for each project with
the Virginia Department of Conservation and
Recreation for review and written comments,
which are binding on the state agency (Virginia,
1990).
The primary enforcement mechanism is the re-
quirement that all regulated land-disturbing ac-
tivities have an approved erosion and sediment
control plan prior to the issuance of grading or
building permits.
Program Implementation
In Virginia, the conservation districts' involvement
in administering erosion and sediment control
programs runs the gamut of possibilities. Their
primary role is to provide assistance to localities in
reviewing soil erosion and sediment control plans;
however; some districts also perform site inspec-
tions (Carter; 1990). At the extremes are one district
that has full responsibility for program administra-
tion including review, inspection, and enforcement
and another district that has no involvement in the
urban erosion and sediment control program. The
Virginia statute authorizes the plan-approving en-
tity to collect a reasonable fee to defray the cost of
the program. However; since only one district is
responsible for complete program administration,
fees are not a significant source of funding. More
significant to the support of conservation district
activities are state grants that pay salaries, and, like
New Jersey, Virginia's grants require a local match.
Employees funded by the state grants work
primarily on soil erosion and sediment control
programs but can also participate in agriculturally
related projects (Carter; 1990).
Rhode Island
Legislative Background
The Rhode Island Soil Erosion and Sediment Con-
trol Act approved in 1962 enables—but does not
mandate—municipalities to adopt soil erosion and
sediment control ordinances. Included in the
statute is a model soil erosion and sediment control
ordinance, the provisions of which are to be incor-
porated into local erosion control ordinances.
Municipalities may further specify standards or ad-
ditional definitions that are consistent with the
statute (Rhode Island, 1982).
The statute's model ordinance sets forth prin-
ciples to be met in the soil erosion and sediment
control plan and refers to the Rhode Island Soil
Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook prepared
by the State Conservation Committee for guidance
in determining the suitability and adequacy of
plans.
Land-disturbing activities that require a build-
ing permit or subdivision plan approval are regu-
lated under the soil erosion and sediment control
model ordinance. A number of land-disturbing ac-
tivities are exempt, including agricultural activities
and land-disturbing activities affecting less than
one-half acre (21,780 square feet) or construction of
single and two-family structures, in either case
provided the work takes place more than 100 feet
from any watercourse and has no slopes greater
than 10 percent. State-sponsored projects are not
explicitly included under the model ordinance.
The model ordinance stipulates that the city or
town building official shall be responsible for ad-
ministering the program, including the issuance of
sofl erosion and sediment control permits.
Unlike the New Jersey and Virginia statutes, the
Rhode Island law does not charge the conservation
districts with program administration respon-
7
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E. SCOTT
sibilities, but it does refer to the districts as a source
of technical assistance to municipalities.
Lastly, the statute authorizes municipalities to
upwardly adjust building permit fees to include all
improvements required by the soil erosion and
sediment control ordinance.
Program Implementation
To date, only 14 of Rhode Island's 39 municipalities
have adopted the soil erosion and sediment control
ordinance (Domingoes, 1990); however, several
others have incorporated portions of the model or-
dinance into their zoning ordinances.
While many municipalities believe adoption of
the ordinance would be beneficial, the statute's
provision that the building official act as ad-
ministrator and the lack of technically trained staff
at the local level appear to be two major impedi-
ments. In many cities and towns, the building
official's administrative ability is limited by insuffi-
cient time to devote to the program and lack of ex-
pertise about soil erosion control and drainage.
Regional Site Plan Review and
Inspection Program
To address the need for technical expertise at the
local level, the Rhode Island Department of En-
vironmental Management's Nonpoint Source Pol-
lution Management Program, in cooperation with
the state's three conservation districts, has initiated
a pilot Regional Site Plan Review and InspiSton
Program. This program, funded with a section 319
grant, expands upon the technical services present-
ly offered to municipalities by the conservation dis-
tricts. The districts will hire engineers to assist
aties and towns in reviewing soil erosion and sedi-
ment control plans and drainage calculations and
in inspecting sites for compliance with approved
plans. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Soil
Conservation Service provides backup technical
support to district staff, where necessary.
Under the Regional Site Plan Review and In-
spection Program, municipalities receive and
process applications, then forward soil englon and
sediment control plans to the conservation district
for review and/or site inspection. Upon comple-
tion of the review and/or inspection, the conserva-
tion districts submit written recommendations to
the city or town. All regulatory decisions and en-
forcement actions are taken by the municipality
not the conservation districts.
As part of the pilot project, the districts will be
required to develop a proposed permit fee sche-
dule to be presented to participating munici-
palities as a way of securing continued funding for
these services. As proposed, all or part of the soil
erosion and sediment control permit fees collected
by the municipalities would be transferred to the
conservation districts to cover the costs of their
technical services.
Discussion and Summaxy
Conservation District Involvement
This brief review of the soil erosion and sediment
control programs in New Jersey, Virginia, and
Rhode Island illustrates the varying role of conser-
vation districts in administering these programs
and the significance of the respective states' legisla-
tion in determining their involvement. The New
Jersey statute's mandate that conservation districts
oversee administration of the soil erosion and sedi-
ment control program has clearly established a
leadership role for them.
The Virginia statute authorizes- conservation
districts to establish soil erosion and sediment con-
trol programs; however, as evidenced by their in-
volvement in the program, the districts do not ap-
pear to occupy a pivotal position. The primacy of
local soil erosion and sediment control programs
would appear to be a significant factor in shaping
the districts' role as one of providing technical as-
sistance to localities as opposed to having respon-
sibility for full program administration.
The Rhode Island statute's recognition of the
districts as a source of technical assistance is weak
in comparison to laws in the two other states; how-
ever, it does provide a formal avenue for conserva-
tion district involvement in the process.
Overall Program Effectiveness
One of the conservation districts' strengths in ad-
ministering local programs is the technical exper-
tise they have gained through addressing agricul-
tural erosion problems and their strong affiliation
with the USDA Soil Conservation Service. How-
ever, at least four other factors influence the effec-
tiveness of local programs.
For the purposes of this discussion, the
measures of program effectiveness have been
simplified to whether (1) local adoption of the pro-
gram is mandatoiy, (2) the regulations are broadly
applicable to land-disturbing activities posing an
erosion threat, (3) comprehensive standards are es-
tablished and consistently applied, and (4) an ade-
8
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 5-9
quate number of technically trained staff and
resources are available for program administration.
Using these four factors as measures of program
effectiveness, the New Jersey and VLiginia statutes
appear to have established the legislative
framework for successful soil erosion and sediment
control programs. Both states have mandated the
adoption of soil erosion and sediment control
programs, broadly applied the program require-
ments to land-disturbing activities (including state-
sponsored projects) and established comprehensive
standards for use in the control of soil erosion and
sedimentation.
Lacking the availability of management studies
to assess the adequacy of program staff and re-
sources, funding sources and levels are evaluated
here as an indication of the degree of available pro-
gram support. New Jersey's soil erosion and sedi-
ment control program relies heavily upon user fees.
A survey of Hunterdon County's soil erosion and
sediment control program by Apogee Research,
Inc. (1990) suggests that user fees were adequate to
support the program's technical staff.
Virginia's statute authorizes the plan-approving
authorities to collect user fees to defray costs,
whereas the conservation districts' involvement is
supported primarily through state grants with a
matching contribution from local government. The
author was not able to determine if these funding
sources were adequate to support program staff.
Rhode Island's statute stands in contrast to the
two previously described. Using the measures of
program effectiveness outlined earlier, the soil
erosion and sediment control program established
by Rhode Island's statute appears to be weak in
several areas. A significant deficiency is that cities
and towns are not required to adopt the model soil
erosion and sediment control ordinance nor does
the statute create incentives to do so. Another
weakness is the statute's exemption of several
potentially significant land-disturbing activities,
including state-sponsored projects. Finally, pre-
vious discussion of the Rhode Island program
highlighted staffing shortages that stem, in part,
from the lack of clarity in the statute's provision for
the collection of fees. Neither the intent nor lan-
guage of the statute's provision allowing
municipalities to upwardly adjust the building per-
mit fee is dearly stated.
Several recent initiatives including proposed
legislative revisions and the pilot Regional Site
Plan Review and Inspection Program are intended
to strengthen Rhode Island's local programs. The
latter makes available technically trained conserva-
tion district staff to review soil erosion and sedi-
ment control plans and establish a systematic com-
pliance inspection program. Through the site plan
review and inspection process, program effective-
ness is enhanced and local officials and developers
are educated on proper soil erosion and sediment
control planning, installation, and maintenance.
Beyond the program benefits to be gained,
Rhode Island's Regional Site Plan Review and In-
spection Program also provides a unique oppor-
tunity to demonstrate the evolving role of conser-
vation districts in controlling urban nonpoint
source pollution.
References
Apogee Research, Inc. 1990. Benefidaiy-based financing for
local enforcement of toil erosion, sedimentation control, and
atonnwater management regulation*. Draft Prep, for U.S.
Environ. Plot Agency, Off. Mar. Estu. Prot. and Narragan-
settBayProj.
Carte*, K. 1990. Personal communication. U.S. Dep. Agile Soil
Conaerv. Serv., Richmond, VA.
Dotningoes, J. Personal communication. Rhode Island State
Conserv. Comm.
Race, S. 1990. Personal communication. New Jersey State Con-
serv. Comm.
Rhode Island. 1982. Rhode Island Soil Erosion and Sediment
Control Act General Laws Sect 45-46-1 -45-46-6.
Virginia. 1990. Virginia Erosion and Sediment Control Law and
General Criteria. Richmond.
9
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 11-14
The Evolution of Washington State's
Lake Restoration Program
Allen W. Moore
Project Manager, Water Quality Financial Assistance Program
Washington State Department of Ecology
Olympia, Washington
ABSTRACT
The Washington State Department of Ecology has been involved in lake restoration on an
increasing scale since the mid-1960s because of die involvement of an informed public and
legislature. The dramatic improvement in Lake Washington's water quality was an example of
the benefits from diverting sewage treatment outfalls. Strong public support was shown in 1972
and 1960 with the passages of Bond Issues 26 and 39, respectively. Each of these bond issues
provided a substantial amount of money for lake restoration projects. As the bond funds were
running out in 1986, the legislature enacted a tax on tobacco products that provides a minimum
of $1.8 million annually (through 2021) for lake restoration activities. It has been this kind of
financial stability that has kept Washington State's Lake Restoration Program on a steady
course. The state's universities have continued to increase their expertise in lake diagnostic and
feasibility studies, watershed management plans, and in-lake and watershed implementation.
Introduction
Washington State's first major lake restoration
project was not traditionally funded. In the 1960s
Lake Washington, a 22,000-acre lake within the
Seattle metropolitan area, was an aesthetic embar-
rassment and a lost recreational resource because of
contamination from direct and combined sewage
outfalls. The solution was to pour huge amounts of
money into sewage treatment construction that
removed all sewage from the lake, with dramatic
results. Almost immediately, clarity improved, the
water was reclassified oligotrophia and swimming
beaches, formerly closed because of bacterial con-
tamination, were reopened.
The people of Washington State had learned a
valuable lesson. While they were responsible for
the deteriorating quality of the lakes around them,
they could do something about it (see Table 1 for a
history of state funding). In 197% Referendum 26, a
$225 million pollution control bond issue, was ap-
proved by a statewide vote. Although this money
was earmarked for municipal sewage treatment
construction, the newly formed Department of
Ecology wrote policy that enabled the use of these
funds for lake restoration.
11
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A. W. MOORE
Table 1.—Washington State lake restoration fund sources administered by Department of Ecology water quality
financial assistance program.
total lake restoration start end
FUNOtNO SOURCE FUNDS FUNDS DATE P*TC
Referendum 26 $225 Million $10 Million 1972 1980
Referendum 39 $450 Million $35 Million 1980 1990
Centennial Clean Water Fund $1.56 Billion $62.4 Million 1987 2021
In 1976, the first lake restoration grants were
written. They generally were funded with a mix of
federal Clean Lakes funds and Referendum 26
funds. For consistency, the federal Clean Lakes
guidelines were used for all lake restoration
projects even if the grant did not include federal
funds.
Early on, restoration emphasis was generally on
in-lake techniques rather than upstream or water-
shed restorations or improvements. Because of this
early focus, at least one lake restoration grant was
denied because the suspected source of nutrients
was from failing septic system drain fields in the
watershed.
Early lake restoration projects involved dredg-
ing, alum treatments, dilution, hypolimnetic
withdrawal, stormwater diversion — techniques
that brought quick results. In some cases, especially
where alum treatment and dredging were done, as-
sessments of the watersheds showed that the real
problems were nonpoint nutrient sources. The
Department of Ecology became much more
adamant in requiring watershed management
plans. Local lake restoration consultants were re-
quired to focus their talents on the impacts and
controls of nonpoint sources. In a few cases, the
consultants discovered that the development of an
acceptable watershed management plan could cut
heavily into their anticipated profits.
Referendum 39
Other hopeful lake restoration sponsors realized
that the nearsighted in-lake approach was no
longer acceptable. The Department even began en-
couraging sponsors to apply for funds to protect
their lakes even though deteriorating conditions
had not yet been documented. In 1980, when funds
from Referendum 26 were scheduled Jd run out,
the voters passed Referendum 39, abond issue
scheduled to end in the 1990s that set. aside $35 mil-
lion for lake restoration projects. With this enor-
mous bank account, the Department felt that it
could encourage proactive or preventive projects
where water quality had not yet suffered from
human activities.
One example is Lake Whatcom, a deep,
glaciated wateibody in northwestern Washington
that is the focus of a Phase II project concentrating
on protecting a huge, undeveloped, forested water-
shed. The watershed management plan requires
that strict development standards be-adopted by
the jurisdictions around the lake. Local public sen-
timent fostered by a strong, ongoing public educa-
tion-information program has been enhanced by an
environmentally involved group of scientists at
Huxley College of Western Washington State
University in Bellingham. The community has
developed a keen interest in making sure that
preventive water quality measures are enacted and
adhered to.
Centennial Clean Water
Fund
The security of the lake restoration program sud-
denly was jeopardized in 1985 when $20 million of
the $35 million Referendum 39 fund allocation was
diverted to the huge Puget Sound cleanup effort. In
1986, the state legislature came to the rescue and
enacted the Centennial Clean Water Fund. Taxes
from tobacco products sold in Washington and any
needed funds from state general revenues now en-
sure $45 million for pollution control grants an-
nually through the year 2021. Of this, lake restora-
tion projects are guaranteed a minimum of $1.8
million annually, which means that over $60 mil-
lion can be granted to lake restoration projects
through 2021. Grants for 14 projects funded within
the lake restoration category have already been
written and another eight projects have been
awarded for 1990.
An encouraging aspect of the Centennial Clean
Water Fund is the guidelines that allow the con-
tinuation of preventive lake restoration projects as
long as water quality can be shown to be in jeopar-
dy. A preventive project just awarded is the Beaver
Lake Phase I Diagnostic/Feasibility Study, which
will develop a baseline of water quality along with
nutrient and hydraulic budgets. Anticipated to be
high on the list of restoration techniques will be
recommendations for watershed protection
12
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 11-14
measures. Presently, there is almost no develop-
ment except along the shoreline. However,
development proposals have been presented to
King County for the remainder of the lake's water-
shed, and it will be just a matter of time before this
area becomes another bedroom community for the
burgeoning Seattle metropolitan area.
As the Department was assisting homeowners
in preparing the application for the study, plans
were being presented for the building of a feeder
freeway to handle the anticipated traffic.
With a real sense of urgency, the homeowners
were able to convince the county to sponsor this
project. With the county's involvement, there is a
much better chance that Beaver Lake's water
quality may be protected through such measures as
strict development standards, including strong
stormwater management planning.
Nonpoint Control Measures
Another part of Washington's lake restoration pro-
gram is watershed nonpoint control measures, in-
cluding the ability to fund installation of best
management practices (BMPs). Can the State of
Washington pay for the installation of BMPs on
private property? There has been much debate on
this subject because the state constitution prohibits
Washington from giving or lending state credit to
private persons.
Recently, however, in an informal opinion, a
State Senior Assistant Attorney General declared
that Washington can spend state money for
projects on private property that will demonstrably
reduce water pollution or conserve a limited
resource, especially where the purpose of the
project is not to primarily aid the property owner
but to achieve some public purpose downstream,
upstream, or otherwise affecting interests of other
citizens. Recently, the Department has funded such
riparian control measures as streamside fencing,
cattle barriers, and bridges to keep livestock out of
streams, and because it has encouraged stream
fencing, it has also funded offstream watering
facilities.
A policy has just been adopted that will allow
the funding of such BMPs as concrete slabs in and
around livestock loading areas, gutters to channel
wastes, roof gutters to keep rain runoff out of live-
stock areas, livestock buildings, diystack sheds for
manure, and the purchase of "honeywagons" and
other manure collection and distribution facilities.
Total costs per individual landowner have a ceiling
of $40,000.
While evaluating restoration measures for hy-
pereutrophic Lacamas Lake, the Department dis-
covered in the diagnostic phase that over 85 per-
cent of the phosphorus entering the lake through
Lacamas Creek had to be removed. Nearly all of
this phosphorus was of nonpoint origin, coming
from dairy and livestock operations located on
poorly drained clay soils. An exhaustive inventory
listed the farms, what the problems were, what im-
provements had to be done, and how much each
improvement would cost per farm. Armed with
this information, the next step will be to sell res-
toration of Lacamas Lake to each farmer, convinc-
ing them to raise the money to pay their 25 percent
of the project costs for work done on their property.
To some of us, it seems reasonable to fund those
BMPs that show a downstream water quality
benefit. However, should we be paying polluters
not to pollute?
Hypolimnetic Aeration
Another point of evolution in Washington's lake
restoration program is hypolimnetic aeration. In
November 1989, Ray Soltero, a professor in the lim-
nology program at Eastern Washington University,
presented a paper at the North American Lake
Management Society's (NALMS) annual meeting
in Austin, Texas. Dr. Soltero has been the limnologi-
cal consultant for the Medical Lake Restoration
Project. A hypolimnetic aerator was installed
several years ago, and even though the oxygena-
tion rate was not as high as predicted, the resulting
10-fold decrease in phosphorus was very reward-
ing. However, some of the aerator material tore,
and the aerator was shut down.
Because of such problems, the Department has
stepped back and attempted to assess the assump-
tions that are made about hypolimnetic aeration.
Anticipating the installation of a hypolimnetic
aeration unit in Newman Lake near Spokane, the
Department and the local sponsor sought consult-
ants with hands-on lake aeration experience. Ken
Ashley, a limnologist with a professional engineer-
ing license who works for the British Columbia
Ministry of Environment and has been installing
hypolimnetic aeration units in Canadian lakes, was
hired to develop his system for Newman Lake.
Ashley determined that, even though Newman
Lake was only 30 feet deep, there was a better than
even chance that hypolimnetic aeration would
work. When designing his type of full lift system,
Ashley realized that 8 to 12 surface units were
needed, that there would be high monthly electri-
13
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A. W. MOORE
OXYGEN GENERATOR
NEWMAN
OUTLET
Figure 1.—Down How Bubbt* Contact Awrator.
cal costs for the air compressors, and that many
surface units could have an aesthetic impact on
Newman Lake. Waterslding is popular on New-
man Lake and up to 12 ten-by-twenty-foot floating
units could be a red hazard to fast-moving boats
and skiers. Also, the surface units would have to be
sunk each fall so they would not freeze into the ice
and become damaged.
After considering die shortcomings of his
design, Ashley recommended a U-Tube technology.
The developer Richard Speece of Vanderbilt
University, was hired to design a U-Tube system
for Newman Lake. He, in turn, recommended a dif-
ferent system he had developed that uses pure
pure oxygen bubbled into an enclosed cone that
would be positioned on the lake bottom (Fig. 1).
The oxygenated water is then forced out
throughout the hypolimnion. The advantages of
this system are low setup and operation costs, easy
verification of the actual oxygen transfer rates, and
no surface units. With state approval of an en-
gineering report that includes final designs and
oxygen exchange rate calculations, the project will
go out to bid. The plan is to install die unit before
iceover this winter.
Monitoring
The next step in Washington's Lake Restoration
Program will be to institute five-year post-con-
struction monitoring to give an ongoing assess-
ment of the successes and failures of the projects.
The information gathered with a comprehensive
post-restoration assessment will strengthen the
program.
14
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS. 1990: 15-18
The Illinois Lake Management
Program Act: Developing A
Comprehensive State Approach
Gregg Good
Supervisor, Lake and Watershed Unit
Jeff Mitzelfelt
Environmental Protection Specialist
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency
Springfield, Illinois
ABSTRACT
On November 1,1989, the Illinois Lake Management Program Act was passed into law by the Illinois General
Assembly, thereby providing the foundation for development of an expanded, comprehensive lake
mmigwiunt pwigim- The Act requires the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency to work cooperatively
with the Illinois Departments of Agriculture, Conservation, Transportation, and Energy and Natural
Reeouroestodevelopan Administrative Framework Plan, which will act as a blueprint for the administration
of enhanced state programs in public education, technical assistance, monitoring and research, and financial
incentives and implementation, all of which address comprehensive lake management The Act also requires
the development of a plan that presents the financial resources necessary to implement the above programs
for five years. As mandated by the legislation, both plans aie scheduled for completion by November 1,1990.
Thlf PTT Hi* rwpriiwntnll ni lllliiilh I jltf Management IVngram Kr*s png— imH. In
by the State Interagency Committee, the typical pollution problems and use impairments associated with
Illinois lakes, and some common barriers that limit implementation of in-lake restoration measures at the
local level An understanding of such factors is essential to ensure development of an enhanced,
state-supported lake management program that meets the needs of lake managers, lake users, and the
general citizenry.
Introduction
Passage of the Illinois Lake Management Program
Act has provided the foundation for development
of an expanded comprehensive lake management
program. The Act requires the Illinois Environ-
mental Protection Agency (IEPA) to work coopera-
tively with other state agencies to develop an Ad-
ministrative Framework Plan, which will act as a
blueprint for the administration of enhanced
education, technical assistance, monitoring and re-
search, and financial incentive programs, all of
which address comprehensive lake management
The plan is scheduled for completion by November
1990.
15
-------
G. GOOD md /. MITZELFELT
Illinois Lake Resources
Illinois has approximately 2,900 lakes greater than
six acres and 82,000 ponds that provide for various
uses such as water supply, fishing, swimming,
boating, flood control, wildlife habitat, property
value enhancement, and tourism.
Since 1972, stream resources in Illinois have im-
proved tremendously (Fig. 1), primarily through
point source control programs initiated by the
Federal Clean Water Act. Unfortunately, lake water
quality conditions have deteriorated since 1972
(Figs. 2 and 3); this can be attributed primarily to a
wide range of nonpoint source pollution sources.
Analysis of use support ratings and trend analyses
confirm this general decline in Illinois lake condi-
tions. However, based on IEPA assessments, fish-
able and swimmable goals of the federal Clean
Water Act have been met on more than 90 percent
of lakes.
Sources and Causes
of Pollution
Of Illinois' 36 million acres, 71 percent are used as
cropland. Illinois annually ranks as one of the
country s top two states in total com and soybean
production. Therefore, it is no surprise that the
greatest source of pollution to Illinois lakes and
reservoirs comes from agriculture. Hydrologic and
habitat modifications or stream channelization for
the sake of convenient farming have also con-
1972
C000(34.7%)
Figure 1. — StrMm water quality condttlons.
tributed tremendously to deteriorated steam and
lake conditions (see Fig. 4). In-place contaminants,
resource extraction, and waterfowl ate other major
sources that contribute to impaired lake acreage
(HI. Environ. Prot. Agency, 1990).
Major causes ot lake use impairment include sil-
tation, suspended solids, nutrients, and organic en-
richment and dissolved oxygen depletion, each im-
pacting over 80 percent of assessed lake acreage.
Noxious aquatic plants and taste and odor
problems are other commonly identified results of
pollution (Dl. Environ. Prot. Agency, 1990).
Ongoing Lake Programs
Since 1977, lEPA's Lakes Program has emphasized
an integrated, multidisdplinary approach to lake
use enhancement involving watershed protection
and in-lake management activities. The agency has
participated in administering 13 federal Clean
Lakes Program projects over the past decade, and it
applies for Phase L Q, and HI funding assistance
annually.
Conducting ambient and volunteer lake
monitoring programs continues to be the primary
function of the agency's lake program. Water
quality data are collected to support problem diag-
nosis and evaluation, trend analysis, Clean Lakes
Program monitoring needs, 305(b) assessment, and
educational initiatives. Implementation of the
agency's Section 319 Nonpoint Source Manage-
ment Program and intergovernmental coordination
1990
16
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 15-18
1972 1990
GOOO(17.8X)
FAIR(48.5%) .
FAIR(54.4X)
GOOO(11.3X)
i>OOR(27.8X)
103,464 acres
Assessed
Figure 2. — Inland water quality condition*.
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
fluctuating declining improving stable
Figure 3. — Trends In lake water quality, 1972-1990.
agriculture
hydro modification*
In-piace contaminants
resource extraction
waterfowl
municipal point source
forest, gresslend, parkland
6 20 40 60 80 100
H percent of impaired lake acreage
POOR(40.2X)
209,035 acres
Assessed
of watershed and in-lake management with other
state agencies and organizations are activities that
currently support the enhancement of Illinois lake
Figure 4. — Major sources of pollution to Illinois lakes.
resources.
The Illinois Lake
Management Program Act
The Illinois Lake Management Program Act,
enacted on November 1, 1989, will provide for the
establishment of an enlarged lake management
program in support of ongoing activities. Desig-
nated as the lead agency, IEPA will work coopera-
tively with the Illinois Departments of Agriculture,
Conservation, Transportation (Division of Water
Resources), and Energy and Natural Resources to
develop an Administrative Framework Plan that
addresses all four major comprehensive lake
management program components: public educa-
tion, technical assistance, monitoring and research,
and financial incentives. An Interagency Commit-
tee made up of agency representatives from these
organizations has been established with the Illinois
Lake Management Association represented in an
advisory capacity.
The Administrative Framework Plan, scheduled
for completion by November 1990, will include:
• Procedures for conducting education,
technical assistance, and monitoring and
research programs;
• Prioritization criteria for review of proposed
studies, projects, and programs;
17
-------
G. GOOD and J. MITZELFELT
• A division of responsibility among state
agencies; and
* A five-year financial needs plan that outlines
the financial resources necessary to cariy out
an enhanced lake management program.
Prioritization criteria are being established for
the financial incentives portion of the plan, which
will propose a five-yean state-funded Clean Lakes
Program. As with the federal Clean Lakes Pro-
gram, lake owners will have the opportunity to
apply for assistance in carrying out diagnostic and
feasibility studies (Phase I) and long-term restora-
tion and preservation projects (Phase II). Water
quality maintenance program (short-term restora-
tion) project applications will also be accepted, ap-
propriately prioritized, and funded. Cost-share
rates will be similar to those currently established
by the federal program.
Implementation of the state Clean Lakes Pro-
gram and other programs as proposed in the Ad-
ministrative Framework Plan will be subject to
available state appropriations.
Needs Assessment and
Questionnaire
The Interagency Committee decided that two pre-
requisites should be met before the plan could be
developed: the completion of a lake restoration
needs assessment outlining lake management
programs and financial resources necessary to re-
store Illinois lakes, and input from the public. Such
information would be presented to the Illinois
General Assembly to provide them with a better
understanding of the problem.
A contractor has been hired by the agency to
develop a protocol for lake restoration needs.
Statistics generated from individual assessments
will be compiled and extrapolated to indicate
statewide lake restoration needs. The assessments
were completed in October 1990.
Next, a 14-question needs questionnaire was
developed and mailed to 650 citizens including
members of the Illinois Lake Management Associa-
tions, Soil and Water Conservation District chairs,
Illinois Department of Conservation fisheries
biologists, and operators of public water supplies
that use lakes. Questions on the survey generally
sought public perception of lake use impairments,
causes and sources of use impairments, and lake
management practices required to solve use
problems. The questionnaire also asked which of
the four lake management program components
should be emphasized and prioritized during
development of the Administrative Framework
Plan.
Over 51 percent of all mailed questionnaires
were returned. In general, the public perception of
use impairments and causes and sources of those
impairments were very similar to IEPA 305(b)
water quality-based assessments. The question-
naire confirmed the Interagency Committee's as-
sumption that the financial incentives component
of the Act should be emphasized in development of
the plan and that the priorities of the Interagency
Committee members represented the priorities of
the general public.
Conclusion
The IEPA and the Interagency Committee charged
with development of the Administrative Frame-
work Plan have been busy since the passage of the
Illinois Lake Management Program Act. The com-
mittee is dedicated to producing a quality plan for
submission to the governor and the Illinois General
Assembly that will
* Meet the needs of the public,
* Be amenable to funding, and
* Ultimately benefit the lake resources of
Illinois.
Reference
niinoU Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Illinois Water
Quality Report 1968-1909. Springfield.
18
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS. 1990: 19-24
Opportunities and Challenges for
Lake Management in Indiana
William W. Jones
Director of Environmental Systems Application Center
School of Public and Environmental Affairs
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
ABSTRACT
During the past two years, there has been a furious demand for and increase in lake management activities in
Indiana. Two new programs were established in response: the Lake Enhancement Program and Indiana
dean Lakes. The Lake Enhancement Program is part of the T by 2000" strategy within the Indiana
Department of Natural Resources, Division of Soil Conservation. In two year*, $600,000 has been awarded to
i/y«i entities for programs to control the loading of eroded soil and associated nutrients to public i«K' new
funding of up to $2 million per year has since been added to the program's budget. The Indiana Clean Lakes
Program, which represents an expansion of water activities within the Indiana Department of Environmental
Management, emphasizes lake monitoring, information, and education programs and technical assistance
and serves as the contact agency for the U.S. EPA Clean Lakes Program. Funding has not been authorized by
the legislature but rather has been provided through assistance and program grants from EPA. Therefore,
securing state funding for this program is an important and necessary goal. Cooperation among the
legislature and Indiana's Departments of Natural Resources and Environmental Management will be critical
to effectively channel interest and resources to meet future lake management needs.
Introduction
Lake management is an integrated science that in-
cludes varied disciplines and, as such, requires lake
manager* to consider diverse and essential factors
such as lake basin morphometry, land use, and
toxicology. However, perhaps equally important
for effective lake management is people manage-
ment, which entails additional expertise in educa-
tion, recreation, finance, and sociology. Assembling
staff knowledgeable in all these areas is a tremen-
dous challenge, but once this is accomplished,
there are many opportunities for success for local
or statewide lake management programs.
In a recent paper, Born and Rumery (1989) listed
seven institutional factors that affect successful
lake management:
1. Overlapping jurisdiction among
governmental units;
2. Fragmented functional program
responsibilities;
3. Ineffective coordination;
4. Limited authority;
5. Financial constraints;
6. Overlooked private sector roles; and
7. Inadequate public awareness and consensus.
19
-------
W.W. JONES
Until 1987 this formidable list could have
described the status of lake management in In-
diana. However, two statewide lake management
programs, the Lake Enhancement Program and In-
diana Clean Lakes, have begun to remedy this
situation.
Lake Enhancement Program
Indiana's Lake Enhancement Program is one part
of "T by 2000/ a comprehensive, state-funded pro-
gram to reduce soil erosion and resulting sedimen-
tation. The Governor's Soil Resources Study Com-
mission (1985) found that over 120 million tons of
soil erode each year from Indiana's lands. Eroded
soil and associated nutrients that wash into water-
bodies are causing serious cultural eutrophication
problems in many of Indiana's lakes.
With this in mind, the state legislature
authorized and funded the Department of Natural
Resources' Division of Soil Conservation to estab-
lish a program as part of T by 2000" to ensure the
continued viability of Indiana's public-access lakes.
The Lake Enhancement Program's goal is to curb
inflows of sediment and associated nutrients by
combining efforts to coordinate upstream land
treatment with in-lake sediment and nutrient con-
trol.
To accomplish this, the Division of Soil Conser-
vation provides technical and financial assistance
for qualifying projects (Table 1) that might involve
the lake proper, its inflowing streams, or both.
Projects must also consider the surrounding water-
shed, including significant sediment and nutrient
sources, and how they could be controlled. The
Lake Enhancement Program works closely with the
local community or lake association, the local Soil
and Water Conservation Districts, the Soil Conser-
vation Service, and appropriate state agencies.
Cooperation among all of these agencies is critical
to the success of the program.
Project Status
To date, 41 lake enhancement projects have been
approved by Indiana's Soil Conservation Board. Of
these, 33 are feasibility studies, 5 are design plans, 2
are construction actions, and 1 was a special
project. Eight projects are completed and have been
approved by the board, and 16 project reports or
plans are under review.
Constructed wetlands to treat nonpoint source
pollution are an early emphasis in approved design
plans. Typically, these plans include an in-stream
Table 1.—Assistance available from the Lake En-
hancement Program.
I. Technical Assistance
• Program staff
• Review teams
II. Financial Assistance
A. Feasibility Studies
• Characterize the lake and watershed
• Identify problems
• Present alternative solutions
• Recommend the most appropriate solution(s)
• 10 percent local match recommended
B. Design Plans
• Develop recommendations from the feasibility study
• 10 percent local match recommended
C. Construction Actions
• Implement design plan
> 25 percent local match required
sedimentation basin followed by a constructed
wetland to trap sediments and filter nutrients from
streams before they drain into the project lake.
Three such systems are in place or under construc-
tion on inlets to Lake Maxinkuckee in Marshall
County, Indiana.
Indiana Clean Lakes
Program
In 1988, the Indiana Department of Environmental
Management (IDEM) greatly expanded its existing
lake programs into the Indiana Clean Lakes Pro-
gram, to create a comprehensive statewide lake
management program that is implemented
through a contract with Indiana University's
School of Public and Environmental Affairs. This
partnership allows IDEM access to the consider-
able technical, publishing, and administrative
resources available within the university.
Indiana's Clean Lake Program incorporates fea-
tures of other successful lake programs, such as
those in Wisconsin and Illinois (Rumery et al. 1986;
II. Environ. Prot. Agency, undated), along with
those of the federal Clean Lakes Program. The Pro-
gram stresses an interdisciplinary approach to lake
management that integrates both watershed and
in-lake management. Local involvement and sup-
port are essential to successful and effective
management of available funds. The program con-
sists of five major elements:
* Information and education;
* Technical assistance;
* Volunteer lake monitoring;
20
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 19-24
• Water quality assessment monitoring; and
• Coordination with other programs.
Information and Education
A strong information and education component is
critical to overcoming the institutional constraints
listed by Born and Rumery (1989). Since an edu-
cated public is a tremendous asset in the battle to
effectively manage Indiana's lake resources, its
Clean Lakes Program publishes a quarterly news-
letter, Water Column, which has a circulation of
over 1,000, and technical information brochures on
specific lake management issues, and hosts an an-
nual lake management conference.
Technical Assistance
Program staff from IDEM and Indiana University's
School of Public and Environmental Affairs also
provide specific guidance on interpreting water
quality data, identifying feasible lake management
techniques, delineating watershed boundaries, and
initiating lake monitoring programs to com-
munities and lake associations upon request.
Volunteer Lake Monitoring
Program
The purpose of this program element is to gather
water quality data while at the same time educat-
ing the public about their lakes. Through this effort,
which is patterned after Wisconsin's Self-Help
Monitoring Program (Wise. Dep. Nat. Resour.
1987), the volunteers learn how lakes function and,
as a result, become better stewards. Volunteers are
provided with Secchi disks, a manual, and training
on how to measure Secchi disk transparency. An-
nual summary reports are prepared for each lake
and distributed to the volunteers and other inter-
ested parties.
During 1989, the first year of this program, 45
volunteers monitored 53 Indiana lakes. Average
transparencies during July and August ranged
from a high of 19.5 feet at Sweetwater Lake (Brown
County) to a low of 1 foot at both Cedar Lake (Lake
County) and Kokomo Reservoir (Howard County).
Nearly 67 percent of the lakes had poor or very
poor transparencies during July and August, while
just 33 percent had transparencies in the good to
very good class (Fig. 1). As additional years of data
become available, staff will use them to detect long-
term trends in water transparency. Lakes with sig-
nificant changes in transparency can then be
monitored more closely for other water quality
paramenters to identify the causes for the change.
Water Quality Assessment
Monitoring
During 1989, water quality characteristics of 95
lakes were monitored under an EPA Lake Water
Quality Assessment Grant, and an additional 100
lakes will be monitored during 1990. Many had not
been monitored by the state since the mid-1970s.
Data will be used in the IDEM Trophic State Index
to detect water quality changes and to update the
Indiana Lake Classification System and Manage-
ment Plan (Ind. Dep. Environ. Manage. 1986).
The Trophic State Index, developed in the
1970s, assigns eutrophy points for various levels of
total phosphorus, soluble phosphorus, organic
nitrogen, nitrate, ammonia, dissolved oxygen, light
transmission, Secchi disk transparency, and plank-
ton. Index totals can range from 0 (oligotrophic) to
75 (hypereutrophic). Within this range, lakes are
grouped into four broad trophic classes: Class I
Very Good > 13 ft. (4.8%)
Good 6.5-13 ft. (28.6%)
Poor 3-6.5 ft. (47.6%)
Figure 1.—Distribution ot average Secchi disk transparencies for lakes Included In the 1989 Volunteer Lake Monitoring
Program (July-August averages).
21
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W. W. JONES
(highest quality), Class II (intermediate), Class III
(lowest quality), and Class IV (remnant lakes).
Of the 95 lakes monitored in 1989, 21 percent
improved to a higher trophic class, 24 percent
declined, and 55 percent remained in their trophic
class as compared to the mid-1970s (Fig. 2). How-
ever, most of the gains came from the Class III
lakes, while the declines occurred in the Class I
lakes. As a result, the number of lakes in both Class
I and Class III declined (Fig. 3). This suggests that
while Indiana has been successful in improving the
condition of the poorest quality lakes, it may have,
at the same time, neglected those of highest quality.
This is a common dilemma for lake management
programs where priorities are often problem-
oriented. Obvious lake pollution gets attention, but
little effort may be directed at protecting and main-
taining lakes without apparent problems.
(55.0%)
Trophic Class Improved
(21.0%)
j
(24.0%)
Trophic Class Declined
No Change In
In Trophic Class
Figure 2.—Trophic class changes for 95 Indiana lakes between the mid-1970s to 1989.
100%/"
~
CLASS II
CLASS
1970'S
1989
Figure 3.—Comparison of trophic class distribution for 95 Indiana lakes monitored In the 1970s and In 1989.
22
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 19-24
Coordination with Other Programs
Coordination of lake and watershed management
efforts is critical to make the best use of limited
financial and personnel resources and for effective
project implementation. Representatives from the
Clean Lakes Program, the Lake Enhancement Pro-
gram, the Department of Natural Resources'
Fisheries Division, and Indiana University's School
of Public and Environmental Affirs meet regularly
to discuss policy, formulate strategies, review ap-
plications for assistance, and explore new ways to
accomplish program goals. The program is also the
lead state agency for coordinating EPA's Clean
Lakes Program in Indiana.
Program Funding
Funding sources and levels are quite varied for the
two Indiana lake management programs (Table 1).
The biggest factor affecting funding is related to the
authorization of each program. The Lake Enhance-
ment Program was legislatively authorized and
receives funding from state budget lines. Initial
funds were provided by a one-half of one cent tax
on each pack of cigarettes sold in Indiana, 10 per-
cent of which—approximately $300,000 annually—
goes into the Lake Enhancement Program. Begin-
ning in 1990, $5 of a new fee on every boat
registered in the state will go to the program; this is
expected to generate up to $1.2 million annually.
In contrast, the Indiana Clean Lakes Program
was agency originated, and as such, is not a
separate line item in the state budget. While IDEM
receives program funds from the state budget, the
operating funds for this program have come from
various federal assistance programs (Table 1) at
levels considerably less than those available for the
Lake Enhancement Program. The uncertainty sur-
rounding the availability and amount of funding
for the Indiana Clean Lakes Program has con-
strained long-term program planning.
During its 1989 session, the Indiana legislature
demonstrated support for lake management in In-
diana by approving special legislation for three
projects. The largest project was enhancement of
Shipshewana Lake in Lagrange County, which
received $2.4 million. The source of monies for
these special projects is the Build Indiana Fund
(state lottery).
While there is no question that Shipshewana
Lake is in desperate need of renovation, it might be
more prudent for the legislature to put funds into
existing programs and use the administrative
structure already in place to implement special
projects. In this way, program goals can be main-
tained, and administrative efficiencies will be en-
hanced.
It is interesting to note that the sources of state
funding for lake management in Indiana are large-
ly from what are referred to as sumptuary or "sin
taxes." As long as Hoosiers keep smoking, gam-
bling, and boating, they will generate revenue for
the programs; however, funding—particularly lot-
tery revenues — will vary from year to year. This
fiscal uncertainty may pose a greater challenge for
program administrators than if the source of lake
management funds were from the general tax
revenues.
Future Directions
Indiana now has two different, but complementary,
lake management programs; however, both the soil
conservation and land management strengths of
the Lake Enhancement Program and the water
quality and public education strengths of the In-
diana Clean Lakes Program are essential for effec-
tive statewide control of water quality. Close
cooperation between the two programs is critical
and experience to date suggests that the two coor-
dinating agencies can work together to maximize
program benefits. Cooperation with other state and
federal agencies, local governments, and the
university provides the broad base of expertise
needed to effectively manage lakes.
Both programs are relatively young when com-
pared to established lake management programs in
Wisconsin or Minnesota. Their elements must con-
tinue to be strengthened to meet expanding
needs—more of a challenge for the Indiana Clean
Lakes Program because it lades state funding.
Therefore, the Indiana Department of Environmen-
tal Management must aggressively seek state fund-
ing if the Clean Lakes Program is to succeed.
Recent data from Indiana's lakes suggest that both
state lake management programs will be needed to
reverse the trend in deteriorating lake water
quality.
References
Bom, S. M. and C Rumery. 1989. Institutional aspects of lake
management. Environ. Manage. 13(1); 1-13.
Governor's Soil Resources Study Commission. 1985. T by 3000:
An Accelerated Program to Reduce Soil Erosion and
Sedimentation in Indiana. Governor's Office, Indianapolis.
23
-------
W.W. JONES
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. Undated. Lakes Pro-
gram Summary, 0063g/68-71. Springfield.
Indiana Department of Environmental Management 1986. In-
diana Lake Classification System and Management Plan. In-
dianapolis.
Rumeiy, C., S.M. Bom, and R.E. WedepohL 1986. New direction
for lake management in Wisconsin. Lake Reserv. Manage.
2239-43.
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. 1987. Wisconsin
Self-Help Monitoring Program Data Summary foe 1986.
PUBL-WR-156 87. Madison.
24
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS. 1990: 25-35
Mitigating the Adverse Impacts of
Urbanization on Streams:
A Comprehensive Strategy for Local Government*
Thomas R. Schueler
Chief, Water Resources
Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments
Washington, D.C.
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews the major impacts to streams associated with urban land development. The
key role of watershed imperviousness in determining the severity of impacts to stream
hydrology, morphology, water quality, and ecology are noted. Next the paper outlines a
comprehensive stream protection strategy for local governments to mitigate the adverse impacts
of development, drawing from lessons learned over two decades of experience in die
Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. Components include watershed master planning,
development restrictions, environmental site planning, construction sediment controls, urban
stormwater runoff management and stream restoration programs. The paper identifies critical
features that should be incorporated into the stream protection strategy.
Introduction
Urban streams are arguably the most extensively
degraded and disturbed aquatic systems in North
America. In general, stream systems tend to reflect
the character of the watershed in which they drain.
Given the massive physical conversion in a water-
shed that accompanies urbanization, the degraded
nature of uiban streams is not surprising.
Over the last two decades, substantial evidence
has accumulated regarding the pervasive impacts
of urbanization on stream hydrology, geomorphol-
ogy, water quality, habitat, and ecology (Table 1).
In response, local governments within the rapidly
growing Washington metropolitan area have deve-
loped an increasing number of stringent measures
to mitigate the impact of new development on
streams. The effectiveness of these measures has
varied considerably, in large part because they
have not been applied in a coordinated and com-
prehensive manner.
This paper outlines a watershed approach for
urban stream protection that incorporates the most
useful and effective planning and engineering tech-
*EDITORIAL NOTE: Although the title of this manuscript suggests that the approaches described are applcabto only to streams, the
author belevM that the principle* apply to lake environments as welL
25
-------
T. R. SCHUELER
Table 1.—Major stream impacts caused by
urbanization.
Change* In urban stream hydrology
Increase in magnitude and frequency of severe floods
Increased frequency of erosive bankfull floods
Increase in annual volume of surface runoff
More rapid stream velocities
Decrease in dry weather baseflow on stream
Changes in urban stream morphology
Stream channel widening and downcutting
Increased streambank erosion
Shifting bars of coarse-grained sediments
Elimination of pool/riffle structure
Imbedding of stream sediments
Stream relocation/enclosure or channelization
Stream crossings form fish barriers
Changes In urban stream water quality
Massive pulse of sediment during construction stage
Increased washoff of pollutants
Nutrient enrichment leads to benthic algal growth
Bacterial contamination during dry and wet weather
Increase in organic carbon loads
Higher levels of toxics, trace metals, and hydrocarbons
Trash/debris jams
Changes In stream habit and ecology
Shift from external to internal stream production
Reduction in diversity of aquatic insects
Reduction in diversity and abundance of fish
Destruction of wetlands, riparian buffers, and springs
niques that have evolved in the Washington
metropolitan area. The stream protection strategy
is based on comprehensive and continuous regula-
tion of the development process from the master
planning stage until it is ultimately realized.
The Impacts of
Urbanization of Streams
Urbanization has a profound influence on stream
quality. The extent of this influence is obvious
when an urban stream is compared to another in a
rural or natural watershed.
Impacts in urban streams can be loosely
grouped into four categories: changes to stream
hydrology, geomorphology, water quality, and
aquatic ecology. The intensity of the impacts is
typically a function of the intensity of urbanization.
A convenient measure of development intensity is
the percentage of watershed area devoted to imper-
vious surfaces, such as roads, pt#(ting lots, -roof-
tops, sidewalks, and compacted ftt. Operationally,
watershed imperviousness can be simply defined
as the fraction of watershed area that is un-
vegetated.
Changes in Stream Hydrology
The hydrology of urban streams changes immedi-
ately in response to site clearing. The natural runoff
storage capacity is quickly lost with the removal of
the protective canopy of trees, the grading of
natural depressions, and the elimination of spongy
topsoil and wetland areas. As the soil is further
compacted and resurfaced by impervious mate-
rials, rainfall can no longer percolate into it and is
rapidly and effectively converted into surface
runoff. Thus, the net effect of development is to
dramatically change the hydrologic regime of the
urban streams such that
¦ The magnitude and frequency of severe flood events
increases. In extremely developed watersheds
(impervious >50 percent), the post-develop-
ment peak discharge rate may increase by a
factor of five from the pre-development rate.
These more severe floods reshape the dimen-
sions of the stream channel and its associated
floodplain.
In addition, watershed development in-
creases the frequency of bank-full and sub-
bankfull flooding events. Bank-full floods are
defined as floods that completely fill the
stream channel to the top of its banks, but do
not spill over into the floodplain. Schueler
(1987) estimates that the number of bank-full
floods increases from one every other year
(prior to development) to over five each year
(for a 50 percent impervious watershed). In
practical terms, this means that a short but in-
tense summer thunderstorm that had scarcely
raised water levels prior to development may
turn an uiban stream into a raging torrent.
The greater number of bank-full floods sub-
ject the stream channel to continual distur-
bance by channel scour and erosion.
¦ More of the stream's annual flow is delivered as
surface storm runoff rather than baseflow or inter-
flow. In natural (undeveloped) watersheds,
anywhere from 5 percent to 15 percent of the
annual stream flow is delivered during storm
events, depending on watershed vegetative
cover, soils, and geology. By contrast, the
majority of annual stream flow in developed
watersheds occurs as surface runoff. As a
general rule, the amount of storm runoff in-
creases in direct proportion to the amount of
watershed imperviousness. For example, sur-
face runoff typically comprises half the annual
stream flow in a watershed that is 50 percent
impervious (Schueler, 1987).
26
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 25-35
Consequently, the amount of baseflow and
interflow available to support stream flow
during extended periods of dry weather is
greatly reduced. In smaller headwater
streams, the reduction in dry weather flow
can cause a perennial stream to become
seasonally dry. In larger urban streams, the
reduced dry weather flow can significantly
restrict the wetted perimeter of the stream
that is available for aquatic habitat.
¦ The velocity of flow during storms becomes more
rapid. This change in velocity is a result of the
combined effect of greater discharge, rapid
time of concentration, and smoother hydraulic
surfaces. In a 50 percent impervious water-
shed, post-development runoff velocities ex-
ceed thresholds for erosivity, requiring
channel protection measures or even stream
enclosure. In addition, stream flow becomes
extremely flashy, with sudden and sharp in-
creases in discharge followed by an equally
abrupt return to pie-storm discharge levels.
Changes in Urban Stream
Morphology
Stream channels in urban areas must respond and
adjust to the altered hydiologic regime that accom-
panies urbanization. The severity and extent of
stream adjustment is a function of the degree of
watershed imperviousness and can be summarized
as follows:
¦ The primary adjustment to the increased stormflow
is channel widening and, to a lesser extent, down-
cutting. Stream channels in moderately
developed watersheds may become four times
wider than immediately after development
(Schueler, 1987). The channel widening
process is primarily accomplished by lateral
cutting of the stream banks. As a consequence,
the riparian zone adjacent to the channel is
severely disturbed by undercutting, treefall,
and slumping.
¦ Sediment loads to the stream increase sharply as a
result of streambank erosion and upland construc-
tion site runoff. The coarser grained sediments
are deposited in the new wider channels and
may reside there for years until the stream can
export them from the watershed. Much of the
sediment remains in temporary storage, in the
form of constantly shifting sandbars and silt
deposits. The shifting bars often accelerate the
streambank erosion process by deflecting
runoff into sensitive bank areas.
¦ Together, the massive sediment load and channel
widening produce a major change in the morphol-
ogy of urban streams. The series of pools and rif-
fles so characteristic of natural streams is
eliminated as the gradient of the stream ad-
justs to accommodate the frequent floods. In
addition, the depth of flow in the channel be-
comes shallower and more uniform during
dry weather periods. The loss of pool and rif-
fle structure in urban streams greatly reduces
the availability and diversity of habitat for the
aquatic community.
¦ The nature of the streambed is also
modified by the urbanization process. Typi-
cally, the grain size of the channel sediments
shifts from coarse-grained particles toward a
mixture of fine- and coarse-grained particles.
This results in a phenomenon known as
"imbedding," whereby sand, silt, and even
clay fill up the interstitial voids between
larger cobbles and gravels. Imbedding
reduces the circulation of water, organic
matter, and oxygen to the filter-feeding
aquatic insects that live among and under
the bed sediments. These insects are the
basic foundation of the stream food chain.
In addition, imbedding of the stream
sharply limits the quality and availability
of fish spawning areas, particularly for
trout.
¦ In intensively urbanized areas, many streams are
totally modified by humans to 'improve" drainage
and reduce flooding risks. Headwater streams
tend to suffer disproportionately from enclo-
sure. Quite simply, the headwater stream is
entirely destroyed and replaced by an under-
ground network of storm drain pipes. In the
past, larger urban streams have been en-
gineered and channelized to more efficiently
and safely convey floodwaters. Although
large-scale stream channelization is now dis-
couraged, some form of future channel "im-
provement" is inevitable if development is
allowed within the post-development flood-
plain.
¦ Other inevitable consequences of urbanization are
stream crossings by wads and pipelines. These
structures must be heavily armored to
withstand the down-cutting power of storm-
water. Many engineering techniques used for
this purpose (drop structures, gabion mats,
culverts) create barriers to die migration of
both resident and anadromous fish. Even a
six-inch drop can block the upstream move-
27
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T.R. SCHUELER
ment of many fish species, making recoloniza-
tion of up-stream areas impossible after a dis-
turbance.
Changes In Stream Water Quality
During the initial phase of development, an urban
stream receives a massive pulse of sediment eroded
from upland construction sites. Unless erosion and
sediment controls are used, sediment loads and
turbidity levels increase by two to three orders of
magnitude from predevelopment levels. Sediment
levels often decline once upland development sta-
bilizes but never return to pre-development levels
because of increased streambank erosion.
Once construction is complete, the dominant
pathway of pollutants to a stream is the washoff of
accumulated deposits from impervious areas
during storms (Metro. Wash. Counc. Gov. 1983).
Substantial quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus,
carbon, solids, and trace metals are deposited on
urban surfaces as both dry and wet atmospheric
deposition and are rapidly and directly conveyed
to the stream by storm drains. Other non-atmos-
pheric sources of pollutant accumulation are also
important, such as pet droppings, leaf litter, vehicle
leakage, and deterioration of urban surfaces.
In general, the pollutant levels in urban streams
are one to two orders of magnitude greater than
those reported in forested watersheds. The degree
of pollutant loading has been shown to be a direct
function of the percentage of watershed imper-
viousness (Schueta; 1987). In urban streams, the
higher pollutant loadings translate into water
quality problems, such as:
¦ Nutrient Enrichment Nitrogen and phos-
phorus concentrations in urban runoff stimu-
late excessive algal growth, particularly in
shallow, unshaded stream reaches. Most of
algal growth is benthic in nature, attaching oft
rocks or growing within the dime coating that
surrounds rock surfaces in urban streams.
¦ Bacterial Contamination. Bacterial levels in
urban streams routinely exceed U.S. Public
Health standards during both wet and dry
weather, rendering them unsuitable for water
contact recreation. The sources of bacterial
contamination are complex, but include the
washoff of pet feces and leakage from sanitary
sewer lines.
¦ Organic Matter Loads. Loads of organic mat-
ter delivered during storm events are equiv-
alent in strength to primary wastewater efflu-
ent. When the organic matter eventually set-
tles out in slower-moving lakes and estuaries,
the oxygen demand exerted during their
decomposition depletes oxygen from the
water column.
¦ Toxic Compounds. A large number of poten-
tially toxic compounds are routinely detected
in urban stormwater. These include trace me-
tals (lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, and zinc),
pesticides, and hydrocarbons (derived from
oil/ grease and gasoline runoff), among others.
While the duration of exposure to these toxic
chemicals is limited during storms, they tend
to accumulate in ben thai sediments of urban
streams, lakes, and estuaries. Not much is
known about the individual or collective
toxicity of these compounds to the stream
community. However, some degree of impact
is likely, given the consistently poor aquatic
diversity noted in these ecosystems.
¦ Temperature Enhancement Impervious areas
act as heat collectors. Heat is then imparted to
stormwater runoff as it passes over the imper-
viousness. Recent data indicate that intensive
urbanization can increase stream water
temperatures by as much as 5 to 10 degrees
Celsius during storms (Galli, 1990). A similar
temperature increase may occur during dry
weather periods if a stream's protective
riparian forest canopy has been eliminated or
if ponds and lakes are created upstream.
The thermal loading severely disrupts
aquatic organisms that have finely timed
temperature limits. Cold water organisms
such as trout and stoneflies are particularly
sensitive and often become locally extinct in
intensively developed streams.
¦ Trash/Debris. A conspicuous and diagnostic
feature of urban streams is the presence of
large debris jams in the stream and floodplain
composed of litter, leaves, and trash that has
washed through the storm drain system. The
debris jams greatly, detract front the scenic ap-
pearance of the stream.
Changes in Stream Habitat and
Ecology
The ecology of urban streams is shaped and
molded by the extreme shifts in hydrology, mor-
phology, and water quality that accompany the
development process. The stresses on the aquatic
community of urban streams are both subtle and
28
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 25-35
profound and are often manifested in the following
ways:
¦ Shift from external to internal stream production.
In natural streams, the primary energy source
driving the entire aquatic community is the
import and decomposition of terrestrial
detritus, namely leaf litter and woody debris.
In many urban streams, however^ internal
benthic algal production becomes a major
energy source supporting the aquatic com-
munity because of the combined effect of in-
creased light penetration and nutrients (and
the rapid washout of terrestrial detritus
through the stream system). This shift is often
manifested in changes in the mix of species
found in the stream community. For example,
environmental conditions are more favorable
for species that graze algae from rocks (for ex-
ample, snails) than for species that shred
leaves or filter coarse-grained detritus (cad-
disflies, stoneflies).
¦ Reduction in diversity in the stream community.
The cumulative impact of the loss of habitat
structure (pools/riffles), the imbedding of the
streambed, greater flooding frequency, higher
water temperatures, extreme tuibidity, lower
dry weather flows, eutrophication, and toxic
pollutants conspire to greatly reduce the
diversity and richness of the urban stream
community. In intensively developed areas,
streams support only a fraction of the fish and
macroinvertebrates that exist in natural refer-
ence streams.
¦ Destruction of freshwater wetlands, riparian buf-
fers, and springs. In the past decade, it has been
necessary to abandon the notion that a stream
ecosystem is defined solely by its channels. It
is now understood that a stream ecosystem ex-
tends to include the extensive freshwater wet-
lands, floodplains, riparian buffers, seeps,
springs, and ephemeral channels that are
linked to the stream. These areas contribute, in
varying ways, many of the ecological func-
tions and processes upon which the stream
community depends. Unfortunately, these
areas are frequently destroyed or altered by in-
discriminate clearing and grading during the
construction phase of development.
Comprehensive Urban
Stream Protection Strategy
For the past two decades, governments in the
Washington metropolitan area have attempted to
deal with the complex impacts of urban growth on
streams by creating an equally complex series of
regulations, programs, and controls on the urban
development process. The success of these mea-
sures in mitigating the impacts on streams, how-
ever, has been less than anticipated. The primary
reason has been that individual measures are
developed in response to a single impact that oc-
curs during a unique phase of the development
cycle. Until recently, little effort has been made to
craft a comprehensive stream protection strategy
throughout the entire development cycle, from
development of watershed master plans to the ul-
timate realization of that development.
The following is an attempt to outline the ele-
ments of an effective local, stream protection strate-
gy that can minimize the impacts of growth on
urban streams. It is hoped that this strategy can be
further refined and adjusted to help local govern-
ments develop effective programs to maintain
stream quality.
The comprehensive stream protection strategy
(see Table 2) has six primary components that
roughly relate to various stages of the development
cycle. They are:
1. Watershed master planning,
2. General development restrictions,
3. Environmental site-planning techniques,
4. Sediment and erosion control during
construction,
5. Urban stormwater best management
practices, and
6. Community stream restoration programs.
Watershed Master Planning
The future quality of an urban stream is fundamen-
tally determined by the broad land use decisions
made by a community. It is therefore essential that
the impact of future development on streams be as-
sessed during the master planning process. The ap-
propriate planning unit for this assessment is the
watershed. The location and intensity of future
29
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T.R. SCHUELER
Table 2.—Sbt element* of a comprehensive stream
protection etrteqy.
1. Watershed master planning
Evaluation and mapping of stream resources
Designating stream quality dosses
Zoning to protect unique and servstove stream systems
Evaluation of adequacy of current stream protection
programs
Regional stormwater management planning
2. Adoption of general development restrictions
Variable-width stream buffer requirements
Ftoodpteun development restrictions
Steep slope restrictions
Non-Mai wetland protection
Protection of environmentally sensitive areas
Upland and riparian tree cover preservation requirements
Waterway disturbance limitations
Community open space requirements.
3. Environmental site planning technique*
Cluster development
Transferase development rights
Planned unit developments
Flexible road width requirements
Fingerprinting of site layout
4. Sediment and erosion control during construction
Limit area and time of construction disturbance
Immediate vegetative stabilization of disturbed areas
Use of super-basins for sediment control
Frequent inspection of erosion and sediment controls
strong civil enforcement authority for violations
5. Urban stormwater beet management practices
BMP performance and maintenance criteria
first flush treatment requirements
Uae of extended detention wet pond marsh systems
Uae of Infiltration systems wWh pretiea&ment
BMP landscaping, safety, and appearance guidelines
Careful environmental review of urban BMPs
Strong local BMP plan review and inspection
Public BMP maintenance responsibility and financing
6. Community Mm restoration program*
Long-term stream trends monitoring
Watershed assessment of restoration opportunities
Retrofitting of older urban BMPs
Construction of new urban BMPs
Riparian and upland reforestation programs
Instream fish habitat improvements
VMbwtttMwvA tecftortffion creation
Removal of fish barriers
Urban stream stewardship
development within the watershed should be care-
fully examined from the following perspectives:
¦ Evaluating Stream Resources. The first step
in the planning process is to survey the stream
resources within a jurisdiction to obtain basic
information on their use, quality and value. It
is also useful to survey and delineate
floodplains, wetlands, and other environmen-
tally sensitive areas during this stage.
¦ Designating Stream Quality Classes. The
next step is to rank and prioritize the stream
systems within a locality, based on the stream
resource surveys. Stream use classes are desig-
nated to set forth the appropriate targets for
stream quality that will be maintained during
the development process. Unique areas, such
as coldwater trout streams, warmer water
stream fisheries, scenic reaches, and extensive
stream, wetland, and floodplain complexes
should be targeted for special protection. The
upland watersheds draining to these unique
areas can be protected only through a com-
bination of low density zoning, open space
preservation, and stream valley park acquisi-
tion, as well as strict subdivision, sediment,
and stormwater controls during the low den-
sity development process. Based on ex-
perience in the Washington area, it is almost
impossible to maintain the quality of these
unique systems if upland watershed imper-
viousness exceeds 10 to 15 percent.
¦ Evaluating the Adequacy of Stream Protec-
tion Programs, The watershed master plan-
ning stage provides an excellent opportunity
for a community to critically review the ade-
quacy of its stream protection measures before
development begins. This requires a thorough
analysis review of whether the community
has the authority, criteria, review staff, and en-
forcement capability to maintain its stream
protection programs in the areas of environ-
mental subdivision review, construction of
sediment controls, stormwater management,
and stream restoration- If a community is un-
willing to commit the financial and staff
resources to stream protection programs,
watershed master planning becomes a mean-
ingless exercise.
¦ Regional Stormwater Management Plan-
ning. An important component of watershed
master planning is the use of hydrologic and
hydraulic simulation models to project a
stream's future hydrologic regime. Models are
a useful (but not sufficient) means of evaluat-
ing the impact of future development
scenarios on stream quality. The models can
also be used to identify the most effective loca-
tions in the watershed to construct regional
stormwater management facilities, thereby
enabling a community to acquire the sites to
construct regional facilities before develop-
ment begins.
30
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 25-35
Development Restrictions
The second phase in a community stream protec-
tion plan is the adoption of a comprehensive and
integrated set of environmental restrictions to
govern the development process. The greatest level
of stream protection is afforded when a single
development ordinance is adopted by a com-
munity and administered by a single planning
authority. In short, the ordinance mandates a mini-
mum level of environmental site planning during
development and includes, but is not limited to, the
following items, which reference several innova-
tive local regulations from the Washington
metropolitan area.
¦ Stream Buffer Requirement. Development is
not allowed within a variable width buffer
strip on each side of ephemeral and perennial
stream channels. The minimum width of the
buffer strip is 50 feet for low-order headwater
streams but expands to as much as 200 feet in
larger streams (Baltimore County Dep. En-
viron. Prot. 1989). The stream buffer further
expands to include floodplains, steep slopes,
wetlands, and open spaces to form a con-
tiguous system, according to prescribed rules.
¦ Floodplain Restrictions. No development is
allowed within the boundaries of the post-
development 100-year floodplain, as desig-
nated in the watershed master plan. This
eliminates the need for future flood protection
measures for these properties and forms an es-
sential component of the stream buffer sys-
tem.
¦ Steep Slope Restriction. No clearing and
grading is permitted on slopes in excess of 25
percent (Montgomery County Plann. Board,
1983) These areas may be tied into the stream
buffer system or may exist as isolated open
space reserves.
¦ Non-tidal Wetland Protection. No develop-
ment is permitted within non-tidal wetland
areas and a perimeter buffer area (25 to 50
feet). In many cases, the establishment of the
stream buffer system will have already
protected these important areas (Md. Dep.
Nat Res. 1989).
¦ Protection of Environmentally Sensitive
Areas. Development is not allowed within
unique habitat areas and plant communities
and protective perimeter buffers, as identified
in the watershed master planning study (Md.
Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Comm. 1987). It
is critically important to provide corridors
from upland environmentally sensitive areas
to the stream buffer system.
¦ Upland and Riparian Tfcee Cover Require-
ments. An allotted percentage of upland pre-
development tree cover must be maintained
after site development (Prince Georges Coun-
ty Dep. Environ. Res. 1989). In addition, the
riparian tree cover (which should be entirely
contained within the stream buffer system)
must also be retained or reforested (if no tree
cover currently exists). Where possible, tree-
save areas should be lumped into large blocks
tied into the buffer system rather than small
and isolated stands. Numerous studies have
confirmed that local wildlife diversity cannot
be maintained in small islands of trees sur-
rounded by urbanization (Hench et al. 1987).
¦ Waterway Disturbance Permits. Certain
forms of development such as roads and util-
tilies must, by their very nature, cross through
the stream buffer system and thereby reduce
its effectiveness. Linear developments must be
closely scrutinized to locate them in the nar-
rowest portions of the buffer system and en-
sure that they do not form barriers to either
fish or riparian migration. In addition, the
time "window" when the stream and buffer
system can be distuibed by construction ac-
tivity should be limited to exclude critical fish
spawning seasons.
¦ Community Open Space Requirements.
Once the stream buffer system has been
delineated, the developer is still required to
preserve an additional percentage of open
space at the site to accommodate the residents'
future requirements for parks, playgrounds,
ball fields, and other community needs. If an
acceptable amount of commmunity open
space is not reserved for this purpose, it is ex-
tremely difficult to maintain the integrity of
the stream buffer.
Environmental Planning at
the Site Level
There are still significant opportunities to protect
streams during the site-planning stage. The major
objective is to minimize the total amount of site im-
perviousness and cluster development into central
areas where stormwater can be effectively treated.
31
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T.R. SCHUELER
The best tools at this stage are incentive methods
such as transferable development rights, cluster
zoning, site "fingerprinting," planned unit develop-
ment, and flexible site and road width layout. An
excellent review of how these site planning
methods can be applied to protect streams is con-
tained in Yaro et al (1988).
Erosion and Sediment
Control During
Construction
The fourth component of an effective stream
protection strategy is to reduce the massive pulse
of sediment that inevitably occurs during the con-
struction stage of development. To accomplish this
goal, it is necessary to both minimize the degree of
erosion within the construction site and to remove
sediments borne in construction site runoff as they
leave the site. An excellent design manual of state-
of-the-art erosion and sediment control techniques
is the forthcoming Maryland Standards and Specifica-
tions (Md. Dep. Environ. 1990).
Several strategies have been shown to effective-
ly reduce downstream sediment concentrations
during the construction phase, including the fol-
lowing:
¦ Reduce the area and length of time that a site is
cleared and graded. The potential for erosion
can be reduced by prohibiting clearing and
grading from all post-development buffer
zones at the site; configuring the site-plan to
retain as much undisturbed open space as
possible (for example, by cluster zoning and
the environmental site-planning techniques
noted earlier); and phasing construction se-
quencing to limit the amount of disturbed
area exposed at any given time.
¦ Immediate vegetative stabilization of disturbed
areas. Recent studies in the Washington
metropolitan area indicate that the rapid es-
tablishment of a grass or mulch cover on
cleared and graded construction sites can
result in a sixfold reduction in downstream
suspended sediment levels (Schileler and Lug-
bill, 1990).
¦ Use of "super" sediment control basins. Super-
basins have wet and dry storage equivalent to
one inch of sediment per acre of upland water-
shed area. If properly designed and main-
tained, super-basins can provide reliably high
rates of sediment removal for most of the
storms during the year (Schueler and Lugbill,
1990). Smaller, conventionally designed sedi-
ment basins and traps exhibit highly variable
sediment removal rates and are often over-
whelmed during larger storms.
¦ Frequent on-site inspection of erosion and sedi-
ment controls. The landscape at a construction
site often changes dramatically from week to
week. Consequently, it is critically important
that sediment inspectors visit the site at least
every two weeks to ensure that the sediment
control plan is working and that all control
measures are being property initiated and
maintained. In particular, inspections should
be concentrated during the latter stages of
construction, when the sediment delivery
potential from the site is at its highest.
¦ Provide sediment control inspectors with strong
enforcement authority. This authority is needed
to allow inspectors to direct contractors to
promptly correct violations of the sediment
control plan in the field. The best success has
been enjoyed in communities where inspec-
tors are empowered to issue automatic and
costly civil fines for sediment control viola-
tions. These strong enforcement tools are criti-
cal in forcing construction contractors to make
erosion and sediment control a part of their
daily operations.
Urban Best Management Practices
and Stormwater Control
The fifth component of an effective stream protec-
tion strategy is local requirements to install urban
stormwater best management practices (BMPs) to
control post-development stormwater runoff.
Urban BMPs try to replicate the natural, pre-
development hydrologic regime of a stream by in-
filtrating, retaining, or detaining the increased
quantity of urban stormwater produced by
development. In addition, urban BMPs may par-
tially reduce the increased load of pollutants
generated from developed areas.
In recent years, major advances have been made
in urban BMP planning and design. While a
thorough discussion of current urban BMP tech-
niques is outside the scope of this paper, several
reviews are available on the subject (Schueler, 1987;
Md. Dep. Environ. 1983). In addition, area local
governments have prepared model ordinances to
implement effective urban stormwater programs
32
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 25-35
(see, for example, Montgomery County Dep. En-
viron. Prot 1985 and subsequent revisions).
Several important points should be kept in
mind about urban BMPs. First, urban BMPs can
never fully mitigate the wide spectrum of
hydrologic and water quality impacts that accom-
pany urbanization. That is, they can never compen-
sate for poor watershed master planning, an inade-
quate stream buffer network, or sloppy site
planning. Second, urban BMPs are a simple tech-
nological solution to a complex problem and, in
some cases, may create as many environmental
problems as they eliminate. For example, pond
BMPS have been shown to increase water tempera-
tures and stress cold water organisms (Galli, 1990),
to be a significant cause of destruction of fresh-
water wetlands, and to represent a local interrup-
tion to the stream continuum. Similarly, infiltration
BMPs may increase the risk of groundwater con-
tamination and have a high rate of failure
(Schueler, 1987).
Lastly, urban BMPs are a significant feature of
the community and can become a locally unwanted
land use if careful attention is not paid to concerns
such as landscaping, appearance, safety, stagna-
tion, and maintenance. Finally, urban BMPs must
be maintained if they are to continue to protect
streams in the future. Communities must recog-
nize, accept, and finance the maintenance burden
from stormwater management.
Stream Restoration Techniques
The final element of an effective stream protection
strategy is a community stream restoration pro-
gram. The primary purpose of stream restoration is
to enhance the aquatic habitat and ecological func-
tions of urban streams that have been lost or
degraded during urbanization. In a sense, stream
restoration programs are an attempt to fix the mis-
takes made during the development process. The
best way to identify these mistakes is to look at the
post-development stream from the perspective of a
fish. That is, what are the dominant changes in the
post-development stream that have contributed
most to the decline of a healthy stream com-
munity?
¦ Long-term Stream Ttends Monitoring.
The first step is to conduct systematic
biological surveys throughout the stream
system every 5 to 10 years to identify
reaches where the aquatic community has
shown the greatest decline. These reaches
will indicate that some aspect of the stream
protection effort has failed and become the
first candidates for stream restoration.
¦ Watershed Assessment of Restoration Op-
portunities. The second step is to walk the
stream and its upland watershed to determine
the dominant impacts that have degraded the
aquatic community and identify feasible op-
portunties for restoring stream habitat or
water quality. Stream assessments are best
done on l-to-10-square-mile sub-watersheds,
where a team of aquatic biologists and en-
gineers can identify possible restoration op-
portunities within urban BMPs, the stream
buffer network, and the stream itself.
¦ Retrofitting of Urban BMPs. The best restora-
tion opportunities often involve the improve-
ment of existing urban BMPs. Unfortunately,
many urban BMPs never achieve in the field
what was hoped for at the drafting table. In
addition, since urban BMP design is constant-
ly changing and improving, most older urban
BMPs do not have the pollutant removal
capability of current designs (for example, the
dry stormwater management pond).
These older urban BMPs offer great oppor-
tunities for retrofitting at relatively modest in-
vestment. Pond retrofitting has been the
primary focus of restoration efforts in the
Washington metropolitan area (Herson, 1989)
and has typically involved converting older
dry stormwater ponds into extended wet
pond marsh systems.
¦ Construction of Additional Urban BMPs. In
watersheds where development has occurred
prior to the implementation of a community
stream protection strategy, it is often necessary
to retrofit new urban BMPs into the urban
landscape. This is not an easy task, given the
limited amount of space available. However,
surveys have shown that acceptable sites can
be found in a developed watershed and that
public land agencies will participate in a
retrofit program, particularly if it is demon-
strated that the proposed urban BMPs will im-
prove the amenity value on those public lands
(Galli and Herson, 1988, 1989). Innovative
retrofit techniques are currently being
developed for these areas, including the peat-
sand filter (Galli, 1989), oil grit separator in-
lets, and extended detention lake/wetland
systems (Schueler and Helfrich, 1988).
¦ Riparian Reforestation Programs. A common
problem encountered in urban streams is that
the riparian stream buffer zone has been
cleared. Fortunately, the buffer zone can be
gradually reforested within a matter of years
33
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T.R. SCHUELER
at relatively low cost through cooperative
community tree planting programs. These
volunteer programs have become extremely
popular in the Washington area and are most
effective when local governments arrange the
logistics, assemble the sites, and secure the
plant stock according to a long-term water-
shed plan.
¦ Upland Reforestation Programs. A useful
method for reducing the adverse impact of
watershed imperviousness on urban streams
is to reforest upland areas. Quite simply, im-
pervious areas are converted into pervious,
forested areas. Again, a community reforesta-
tion program that combines native tree species
and citizen volunteers is a useful tool. These
programs have the additional benefits of in-
creasing citizen awareness about environmen-
tal stewardship and improving the appear-
ance of the urban landscape.
¦ In-stream Fish Habitat Improvement- From
the perspective of a fish, the dominant impact
associated with urbanization is probably the
degradation of stream habitat structure, most
notably the loss of pools, riffles, and clean
spawning areas. These habitat features can be
recreated within urban streams by adapting
habitat improvement techniques developed
by stream biologists to increase fish produc-
tion in more natural stream systems. These
techniques include the use of boulder and log
deflectors, log drop structures, brush bundles,
willow wattles, boulder placement, and imbri-
cated rip-rap. These stream restoration tech-
niques are being applied in several highly
degraded stream reaches of the urban Anacos-
tia watershed to test the hypothesis that an
improvement in stream habitat can improve
local fish diversity and abundance in urban
streams (Galli and Schueler, 1989).
¦ Uiban Wetland Creation and Restoration.
Despite recent regulatory protections, it is
likely that most watersheds have lost, and will
continue to lose, large areas of freshwater and
tidal wetlands to the development process.
This is because urban stormwater runoff ex-
erts the same series of pervasive and adverse
impacts to urban wetlands as it does to urban
streams. It is therefore critical |o actively re-
store and manage urban wetlands, rather .then
merely conserve them. Otherwise, the ecologi-
cal value and functions of urban wetlands will
gradually diminish over time. It is equally
critical to create new urban stormwater wet-
land areas that partially substitute for the lost
ecological functions of the destroyed or
degraded wetland system.
A series of urban wetland restoration and
creation projects are currently underway in
the Anacostia River basin (Kumble, 1990). At
present, the goal of these programs is to aug-
ment the total acreage and environmental
function of urban wetlands at the scale of the
sub-watershed.
¦ Identification and Removal of Fish Barriers.
The urban stream network should be peri-
odically surveyed to detect possible barriers to
anadromous and resident fish migration. Fish
barriers can be detected through systematic
upstream/downstream fish collections at
suspected structures during spring runs
(Cummins, 1988), or in some cases, by visual
surveys. In many cases, urban fish barriers are
created by relatively low-drop structures that
can be rather easily modified to allow migra-
tion. In the Anacostia, simple and low cost
modifications to two-drop structures are
planned that are expected to open up several
miles of spawning habitat to anadromous fish
(Cummins, 1989).
¦ Stream Stewardship. The foundation of effec-
tive community stream restoration programs
lies in citizens who take an active and per-
sonal interest in maintaining urban stream
quality. Local governments should recognize
these individuals and encourage them to
adopt a stream and participate in stream-
walks, tree plantings, and other volunteer
programs. These urban stream stewards can
also be of great value in reporting oil spills,
sediment control violations, pollution
problems, and sewer overflows. Most of all,
stewards can act as effective advocates for
urban streams, which is critical in maintaining
any public program.
Concluding Remarks
Protecting urban streams from development is ob-
viously a difficult task The six-step strategy out-
lined in this paper requires an extensive commit-
ment of knowledge, resources, and staff on the part
of a community. To be successful, a community
must be willing to place the protection of urban
streams on the same par with economic growth
and the creation of urban infrastructure. If these
conditions can be met, it is possible to mitigate the
impact of development and to maintain a quality
34
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 25-35
stream system for the future generations that will
live and work within it.
References
Baltimore County Department of Environmental Protection and
Resource Management 1969. Regulation* for the Protection
of Water Quality, Streams, Wetlands And Floodplains. Tow-
son, MD.
Cummira, J. 1988. Maryland Anacostia Basin Fisheries Study.
Phase L Interstate Comm. on the Potomac River Basin.
RockviUe.
.1989. Maryland Anacostia Basin Fisheries Study. Phase
n. Interstate Comm. on the Potomac River Basin. RockviUe.
fliffi, F. ). 1989. Peat Sand Fitters: A Proposed Storm water
Management Practice for Urbanized Areas. Dep. Environ.
Program*. Metro. Washington Counc. Gov., DC.
A Study of Thermal Impacts Associated YWth Urbaniza-
tion and Storm water Management. Final Rep. Prep.
Maryland Dep. Environ., Dep. Environ. Program*.
r..in f. J. and L. Herson. 1988. Montgomery County Storm-
water Retrofit Inventory. Piep. for Montgomery County
Dep. Environ. Prat, prep, by Metro. Washington Counc.
Gov., DC
. 1969. Ptince George's County Storm water Retrofit In-
ventory. Prep. Prince George's County Dep. Environ. Res.,
prep. by Metro. Washington Counc. of Gov., DC
n.m p J. and T. Schueler. 1989. A Stream Restoration Plan for
the Wheaton Branch of SUgo Creek. Prep, for Maryland
Dep. Environ, and Maryland Natl. Capital Park, Plann.
Comm., Silver Spring.
Hench, J. E, K. Van Ness, and R. Gibbs. 1987. Development of a
nature] resources plan and management process. Pages 25-
29 in L.W. Adams and D.L. Leedy, eds. Integrating Man and
Nature in the Metropolitan Environment Proc. Natl Symp.
on Urban WildL, Chevy Chase, MD.
Henon, L. 1989. Hie State of the Anacostia: 1988 Status Rep.
Metro. Washington Counc. Gov., DC
lf.tmhu, p. 1990. The State of the Anacostia: 1969 Status Rep.
Metro. Washington Counc of Gov., DC
Maryland Chesapeake Bay Critical Areas Commission. 1966.
Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Criteria for Local Critical
Area Program Development. Maryland Reg. Code
(COMAR) Title 14, Subtitle 15. Annapolis.
Maryland Department of the Environment. 1983. Standards and
Specifications for Infiltration Practices. Sediment
Storm water Admin., Baltimore.
. 1990. Revised Standards and Specification* for Erosion
and Sediment Control. Sediment Stormwater Admin., Bal-
timore.
Maryland Department of Natural Resources. 1969. Draft Non-
tidal Wetland Protection Regulation*. Non-tidal Wetlands
Div., Annapolis.
Metropolitan Washington Counc. of Governments. 1963. Urban
Runoff tat the Washington Metropolitan Area: Final Rep.
Washington Nationwide Urban Runoff Proj, Washington,
DC
Montgomery County Department of Environmental Protection.
1985. Stormwater Management Regulations 93-84 (and sub-
sequent amendments). RockviUe, MD.
Montgomery County Planning Board. 1983. Guidelines for the
Protection of Slopes and Stream Valleys. Environ. Plann.
Div., Maryland Natl. Capital Park, and Plann. Comm., Sil-
ver Spring.
Prince Georges County, Department of Environmental Resour-
ces. 1969. The Cover Ordinance and Handbook. Upper
Marlboro, MD.
Schueler, T. R. 1987. Controlling Urban Runoff: A Practical
Manual for Planning and Designing Urban Best Manage-
ment Practices. Metro. Washington Counc. Govv DC.
Schueler T. R. and M. Hetfrich. 1968. Design of extended deten-
tion wet pond systems. la Design of Urban Runoff Controls.
L. Roessner and B. Urbonas, eds. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., NY.
Schueler T. R. and J. LugbUL 1990. Performance of Current Sedi-
ment Control Measures at Maryland Construction Sites.
Prep, for Maryland Dep. Environ, by Metro. Washington
Counc. Gov., DC
Yaro, R-D„ R.G. Arendt, H.L. Dodson, and EA. Brabec. 1968.
Dealing with Change in die Connecticut River Valley: A
Design Manual for Conservation and Development. Lincoln
Inst Land Policy, Bridgeport CT.
35
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 37-il
Making On-site Treatment Work for
Local Lake Protection: Bringing All
the Tools to Bear
Alfred E. Krause
Small System Coordinator
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region V
Chicago, Illinois
ABSTRACT
Individual on-site treatment system are the most common form of wastewater treatment found in nual
areas. They also are the least expensive form of treatment, the one most easily upgraded, and (rightly or
wrongly) the most commonly blamed source of lake water quality problems. A broad range of new tools
exists to document their impact, improve their operation, and turn what has long been considered a problem
into a major resource for lake water quality. Many of the new tools are concerned with needs documentation:
determining the conditions of existing on-site systems and their role in lake water quality. Other new tools
are concerned with treatment technology or design. Still other tools involve innovative management
approaches. The environmental and economic impact from proper integration of the tools can be quite
overwhelming; reduction or elimination of water quality and public health problems—at a cost 60 to 90
percent lower than a conventional sewered response. Very few states, however; use more than a few of these
tools at once. There is a notable fragmentation, even within states, of allowable technologies and
management policies aie a great need for interstate sharing of information and training programs. Meeting
this need is one of the major purposes of US. EPA's SCORE (Small Community Outreach and Education)
initiative, which is already funding sample small community programs, and the National Small Flows
Clearinghouse, which offers a toll-free information hotline and computer bulletin board system on small
community wastewater treatment.
Introduction
Individual on-site systems are the most common
form of wastewater treatment found in rural lake
areas. They are also the least expensive form of
treatment, the one most easily upgraded, and
(rightly or wrongly) the most commonly blamed
source of lake water quality problems. However, a
wide new range of tools exists to document their
impact, improve their operation, and turn what has
long been considered a problem into a major
resource for lake water quality.
The following documents contain an extended
discussion of the comparative role of on-site treat-
ment in lake water quality:
¦ Final Environmental Impact Statement: Waste-
water Management in Rural Lake Areas (287 pp.)
prepared by the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Region V Water Division, in
January 1983.
37
-------
A. E. KRAUSE
m Rural Lakes Project Handbook (41 pp.), publish-
ed by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Region V Water Division, in March
1983.
The findings of these documents are based
upon a series of environmental impact statements
for rural lake projects completed from 1979-83. In
general, on-site treatment systems were found to
contribute only a small fraction of the overall lake
nutrient load (2 to 10 percent of total phosphorus).
They were much more likely to produce very local-
ized "hot spots" of nutrients or pathogens.
These publications are available at no charge
from:
¦ Alfred E. Krause
(312) 886-0246
Small Systems Coordinator 5WCP-TUB-09
U.S. EPA Region V
230 South Dearborn St.
Chicago, IL 60604
Determining Needs
Many of the new tools are concerned with needs
documentation: determining the conditions of ex-
isting on-site systems and their role in maintaining
lake water quality. Major sensing and survey tools
coming into use include aerial infrared photog-
raphy to detect surface ponding; fluorescence and
conductance monitoring to detect septic tank ef-
fluent plumes moving through groundwater; a
wide variety of groundwater flow and soil per-
meability meters; more accurate and efficient ap-
proaches to house-by-house sanitary surveys; and
satellite imagery that allows much more reliable
water quality modelling.
¦ The septic leachate detector is a sensing instru-
ment that simultaneously monitors and compares
ultraviolet fluorescence (360-390 nm) and conduc-
tivity. It is carried in a boat at roughly a walking
pace. In mild weather, the detector allows the user
to discern the actual entry points for septic tank ef-
fluent that may be moving through groundwater to
enter a lake. It is a "bird-dog" instrument that does
not produce direct readouts of pollution but allows
the user to take water quality samples from the
center point of emerging effluent plumes.
Septic leachate detectors are manufactured by.
ENDECO, Inc.
13 Atlantis Drive
Marion, MA 02738
(508)748-0366
Price: $13,900 (on special order)
¦ K-V Associates
P.O. Box 574
Falmouth, MA 02540
(508) 540-0561
Price: $4,150
Septic leachate detectors were used extensively
for the Region V rural lake environmental impact
statements. The ENDECO instrument is consider-
ably more complex but produces continuous
records of both signals and their relationship.
Documented major independent tests include the
following:
¦ Evaluation cf the Septic Leachate Detector (14
pp.), published by the Engineering Section,
Division of Environmental Health, Lake
County Department of Public Health in
Waukegan, IL, June 1985.
¦ Verification of Shoreline Sewage Leachate in
Flathead Lake, Montana (40 pp.) by Jon H.
Jourdonnais and Jack A. Stanford, Flathead
Lake Biological Station, University of Mon-
tana, East Shore, Big Fork, MT 59911; (406)
982-3301; February 27, 1985. This was an
independent test of the underlying prin-
ciples, with monitoring of conductance
and fluorescence by two separate instru-
ments.
¦ "Septic leachate detector research." March
1983. Pages II-D-1 to II-E-3 in Technical Ref-
erence Documents Supporting the Generic En-
vironmental Impact Statement for Wastewater
Management In Rural Lake Areas. U.S. EPA
Region V. (Out-of-print, photocopy avail-
able upon request to Alfred E. Krause.)
The Environmental Protection Agency, Region
V, has a septic leachate detector that is available for
loan; however, a loan requires completion of a
revokable licensing agreement, a process that nor-
mally takes several months. For further informa-
tion contact Alfred E. Krause.
¦ A groundwater flow meter uses heat pulses to
provide rapid (two to five minutes) monitoring of
groundwater flow and direction. Several models
are available, some of which can be lowered down
a two-inch borehole to depths of 200 feet. This
meter can be a useful tool for tracking lake effluent
plumes back to their source or determining if flow
in a given segment is toward or away from a lake.
Multiple samples are required for validity in cob-
blestone areas.
38
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 3741
Groundwater flow meters are sold by:
¦ K-V Associates
P.O. Box 574
Falmouth, MA 02540
(508) 540-0561
Price: $7,400 and up
¦ Near infrared aerial photography is useful for
surveying; large areas for conventional surface
ponding of wastewater. It works best where surface
ponding and runoff are major problems and where
tree cover is not excessive. In a suitable area, aerial
photographs produce remarkable amounts of in-
formation, including diagnosis of specific system
malfunctions. They do require an experienced
photointerpreter.
For further information contact Alfred E.
Krause. U.S. EPA's Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory (EMSL) in Las Vegas will per-
form infrared aerial surveys for a moderate charge
that depends upon coordination with other
photographic activities.
¦ The velocity penneameter is a sensing device
to test both vertical and horizontal permeability of
soils. Unlike the traditional percolation test, it ap-
parently produces replicable results to allow more
reliable site assessment and system sizing. The in-
strument is now being produced commercially and
is being field-tested by a number of state and local
regulatory agencies.
For a basic discussion of the technology, see:
¦ The Velocity Permeameter as Applied to the Inspec-
tion of Septic Disposal Sites by George E. Merva
and Kevin J. Rose, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, MI, January 1989, or contact Dr.
George Merva at (517) 353-0884.
¦ Improved sanitary survey formats are con-
tained in the Final Environmental Impact State-
ment: Wastewater Management in Rural Lake
Areas, published by U.S. EPA, Region V.
Treatment Technologies
Other new tools are concerned with treatment tech-
nology or design. Among these are highly efficient
plumbing fixtures to drastically reduce hydraulic
loading, well-designed mound systems for difficult
sites, improved outlet tees to reduce drainfield
solids loading, and simple technology selection
and system design software for personal com-
puters.
¦ Efficient plumbing fixtures include high
quality toilets of 1.6 gallons per flush, showeiheads
of 1.5 gallons per minute, and front-loading
washers using 25-30 gallons per cycle. They can cut
the volume of domestic wastewater by 50 to 65 per-
cent without any changes in user lifestyle. In actual
field tests, this decrease has often been sufficient to
eliminate surface ponding, runoff, or backup of
malfunctioning drainfields or mounds. About 35
percent of all Americans live in states or
municipalities that require efficient fixtures on all
new construction. Comparative tests by consumer
reports and new ANSI performance standards
allow selection of products with performance com-
parable or superior to conventional fixtures.
A basic package of tests and technical papers is
available upon request from the author. Major
sources of information include:
¦ Garbage (magazine), January/February 1990,
pp. 16-19. Contains an excellent tabulated
summary of all efficient toilets sold in the
United States.
¦ Consumer Reports, July 1985, March 1989, and
July 1990. Comparative tests of efficient
showerheads, washing machines, and toilets.
¦ "Restoration of failing on-lot sewage disposal
systems." 1984. Pages 17-36 in U.S. EPA publi-
cation EPA-600/2-84 062 by D.D. Fritton, W.D.
Sharpe, A.R. Jarret, C.A. Cole, and G.W. Peter-
son. Cincinnati, OH.
¦ "Effects of extreme water conservation on the
characteristics and treatability of septic tank
effluent" by A.R. Rubin and C.G. Cogger in
1982 Proceedings of the Third National Sym-
posium on Individual and Small Community
Sewage Systems, published by the American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, St Joseph,
MI.
¦ The mound or sand mound drainfield has
proven extremely useful and effective when
properly designed and installed. More than 10,000
are in use in Wisconsin and more than 97 percent of
them (some more than 16 years old) are working
well. The mound system can be adapted to some
very difficult soil and site conditions. A large
amount of information on successful mound
design and installation is available from the
Universities of Wisconsin and Minnesota. The most
useful contacts include:
39
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A. E. KRAUSE
¦ University of Wisconsin
Small Scale Waste Management Project
Room 240 Agriculture Hall
Madison, WI53706
(608) 262-6969
¦ University of Minnesota Extension Service
405 Coffey Hall
1420 Eckles Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55108
(612)625-2722
¦ The University of Wisconsin offers an out-
standing catalog of technical papers about on-site
wastewater treatment, including a standard pack-
age on mound design. Drs. Jim Converse and Jerry
Tyler have many research and field-testing projects
under way. The University of Minnesota offers out-
standing three-day training courses in on-site treat-
ment for installers and sanitarians at a dozen sites
throughout Minnesota, for a registration fee of only
$45. The 300-page looseleaf Onsite Sewage Treatment
Manual from this course is excellent and is avail-
able separately for $25.
¦ Septic solids retainers are very inexpensive
add-on devices that improve the removal of
suspended solids in septic tanks. They fit over the
outlet tee, preventing solids from being washed
directly out without otherwise obstructing flow.
When tested over a six-month period by the Na-
tional Sanitation Foundation, they were found to
reduce suspended solids in septic tank effluent by
an average of 30 percent over a wide variety of
operating regimes.
One manufacturer of septic solids retainers is:
¦ General Engineering Company
55-59 South Carroll Street
P.O. Box 609
Frederick, MD 21701
(301)663-9282
Price $25 (less in quantity)
¦ Upflow anaerobic filters resemble a medium-
sized septic tank. They are placed in series with a
normal tank, entered by a relatively deep inlet tee,
exited by a shallow outlet tee, and loaded with
quarter to half-inch gravel. They produce an ef-
fluent of about 85 mg/L BOD and 40 mg/L
suspended solids, with a high degree of removal of
insoluble BOD. This is good performance for an in-
expensive ($600), passive, gravityioaded device,
but it also allows a drastic increase in the loading
rate of sand filters—an increase from 15 gallons to
between 9 and 15 gallons per square foot per day.
Potentially, this could mean normal sand filter per-
formance from tabletop-sized units costing $3,000
or less. A community-scale test installation is under
way in Wakeman, Ohio.
For further information contact:
¦ Dr. Dee Mitchell
Civil Engineering Department
University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, AR 72701
(501) 575-4808
¦ On-site treatment design and instructional
software has been developed by Purdue University
and U5. EPA, Region V, for use on IBM or com-
patible PCs. The design software assesses lot condi-
tions (size, slope, surface and subsurface soil
texture, depth to groundwater, hydraulic load),
makes a preliminary technology selection, and
designs a conventional or mounded drainfield by
calculating the amount of gravel and backfill
needed. The instruction program uses more than 77
high-resolution color graphics screens and some
animation to explain the principles of on-site treat-
ment Both are available at no charge (send one
DSDD and two HD disks) from the author at EPA,
Region V.
For further information contact the author or
¦ Dr. Don Jones
Agricultural Engineering Department
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN 42704
(317)494-1178
Management and Administration
Still other tools involve innovative management
approaches. They include organized utility-type
management to ensure proper operation and main-
tenance, continuing inexpensive technical training
programs for system installers, short courses in
system principles and management for local offi-
cials, and cooperative planning workshops to ob-
tain high quality assessments of needs and tech-
nologies for a particular lake or community.
¦ The best one-volume guide to utility-type
management of on-site wastewater treatment is
EPA's publication Septic Systems and Groundwater
Protection: A Program Manager's Guide and Reference
Book (GPO Document No. 055-000-00256-8). This
publication contains descriptions and sample legis-
lation from dozens of such programs, including the
California and Illinois enabling laws. If this publi-
cation is out of print, photocopies are available
from the author.
40
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 37-41
¦ Outstanding training programs for on-site
treatment design and installation include those
for about $60 of the University of Minnesota. The
University of Wisconsin offers a course of com-
parable quality at a much higher cost (about $450).
In Ohio, there is an annual on-site technology con-
ference with a daylong workshop on mound treat-
ment. Future activities are being coordinated by:
¦ Dr. Karen Mancl
Cooperative Extension Service
Ohio State University
590 Woody Hayes Drive
Columbus, OH 43210-1273
(614)292-6007
Dr. Mancl also offers an excellent short course,
"Wastewater Treatment Alternatives for Rural
Communities and Townships," for local elected of-
ficials and village managers. It requires 5 two-hour
evening sessions and is offered in several Ohio
counties each year. Dr. Mancl recently received a
grant from the Farmers Home Administration to
take the course on the road to several other states.
¦ The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency's
Brainerd office has developed a Community Assis-
tance Program that offers technical assistance and
advice to both sewered and unsewered com-
munities with wastewater treatment needs. There
is a citizens advisory committee of local elected of-
ficials and another one of system operators. In two
years of operation, the program has already
produced useful results for 52 communities.
For further information contact:
¦ Jim Hodgson
Central Regional Office
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
1601 Minnesota Street
Brainerd, MN 56401
(218)828-2492
¦ One new tool, the cooperative planning work-
shop, is equally applicable to the needs of sewered
and unsewered lake communities. In this
workshop, engineering consultants that intend to
bid on preparation of the plans and specifications
for a possible project gather together for a day to
assess need and brainstorm alternatives. The
workshop uses no more time than would normally
be taken in responding to a request for proposal
and makes the construction of a project (and thus
work for the winning consultant) much more like-
ly. On one sample project at Elkhart, Illinois, the
workshops produced a complete approval facilities
plan at an out-of-pocket cost to the community of
$2,000 and with savings of more than 50 percent on
project construction costs.
Copies of a brief report on the workshop are
available from the author. Copies of a 30-page
manual on planning and conducting the
workshops is available for $4 from:
¦ Stephen John
1329 West Macon
Decatur, IL 62522
(217)429-3290
Coordination and Outreach
The environmental and economic impact of proper
integration of tools can be quite overwhelming:
reduction or elimination of water quality and
public health problems at a cost 60 to 90 percent
lower than a conventional sewered response. Very
few states, however, use more than a few of these
tools at once. There is a notable fragmention, even
within states, of allowable technologies and
management policies; therefore, there is a great
need for interstate sharing of information and
training programs.
Meeting this need is one of the major purposes
of the U.S. EPA SCORE (Small Community Out-
reach and Education) initiative, which is already
funding sample small community programs and
the National Small Flows Clearinghouse, which of-
fers a toll-free information hotline and computer
bulletin board system on small community waste-
water treatment.
¦ The National Small Flows Clearinghouse at
the University of West Virginia is a major source of
information, publications, and technical assistance
on small community and on-site treatment It offers
a valuable quarterly magazine, Small Flows, at no
charge and operates a 24-hour, toll-free computer
bulletin board on all forms of treatment. It is now
in the process of updating EPA's Design Manual:
Onsite Wastewater Treatment from 1980 and conduct-
ing a wide variety of research and demonstration
on new treatment technologies, induding in-
dividual constructed wetlands. Contact the
Clearinghouse at the following address:
¦ EPA National Small Flows Clearinghouse
258 Stewart Street
Moigantown, WV 26505
(800)624-8301.
Call for subscription to Small Flows.
41
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 43-54
Lawn Care Chemical Programs for
Phosphorus: Information, Education,
and Regulation
Curtis J. Sparks
Chief, Program Development Section
Division of Water Quality
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
St. Paul, Minnesota
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on one aspect of lake management directed at individual landowners—lawn
care. Landowners can play an important part in reducing nutrient input to lakes and reservoirs.
Lawn care chemicals represent a significant source of phosphorus if not property managed. In
Minnesota, the Forest Lake Watershed Management Organization (FLVVMO) has instituted a
lawn care chemical management program consisting of testing, information, and regulation;
soils have been tested for fertilizer needs; the landowners in the watershed have been informed
through educational materials; and a fertilizer management ordinance has been enacted. The
ordinance requires licensing of lawn care chemical applicators, maximum concentration of
phosphate in fertilizers applied in die watershed, and other lawn care requirements. FLWMCs
goal is not only to reduce phosphorus inputs to the waters but also to instill a responsibility in
landowners for lake protection.
Introduction
The Forest Lake Watershed Management Organiza-
tion (FLVVMO) was formed under the authority of
the Surface Water Management Act of 1985, Min-
nesota Chapter 473.875 to 473.883. Through a joint
powers agreement between the city of Forest Lake
and the towns of Forest Lake and New Scandia, a
10-member board was created. The FLWMO board
was chaxged with the preparation of a watershed
management plan that outlines the roles and
responsibilities of the FLWMO and the local units
of government.
¦ Minnesota Stat §473.875 indicates the purpose
of the Surface Water Management Act as follows:
The purpose of the surface water management pro-
gram required by section 473.875 is to preserve and
use natural water storage and retention systems in
order to:
(a) reduce to the greatest practical extent the
public capital expenditures necessary to con-
trol excessive volumes and rates and runoff,
(b) improve water quality,
(c) prevent flooding and erosion from surface
flows,
43
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C.J. SPARKS
(d) promote groundwater recharge,
(e) protect and enhance fish and wildlife
habitat and water recreational facilities, and
(f) secure the other benefits associated with
proper management of surface water.
The Forest Lake watershed encompasses vary-
ing land uses, including:
• Urban developed land in the city of Forest
Lake where storm sewers discharge directly
to Forest Lake,
• Semi-uiban densities of one- to five-acre
developments,
* Row crop and pasture agricultural land uses,
and
* Vast wooded and wetland open space.
Forest Lake is completely sewered around its
perimeter. Two other important lakes in the water-
shed are Sylvan (Halfbreed) Lake and Bone Lake.
These lakes are unsewered and rely upon in-
dividual wells and on-site septic systems. The
Forest Lake watershed is approximately 164 square
miles (13,300 acres). Forest Lake is 2,251 acres, Bone
Lake is 210 acres, and Sylvan Lake is approximate-
ly 75 acres.
The population in the Forest Lake Watershed
was 4,600 in 1980,5,850 in 1990, and is projected to
grow to 6,900 in the year 2000. The homes are lo-
cated on or near the shores of area lakes with scat-
tered urban developments in the watershed. The
remaining homes are located on larger (five-acre
minimum) lots in the more rural locations. In-
creased urban development has raised concerns
regarding the need for phosphorus load prevention
and reduction, where possible.
The principal concern and focus of the FLWMO
has been to protect the special quality of life af-
forded by the area's lakes, wetlands, forest, and
open land. Therefore, FLWMO has dedicated sub-
stantial effort to protect area lakes by conserving
the land areas within the watershed that are critical
to maintaining water quality, including shorelines,
bluffs, and wetlands.
¦ Minnesota Stat §473.875, Surface Water
Management Program: Purposes
The Forest Lake Watershed Management Flan con-
tains seven major policies, for which there are a
number of objectives. Two important policies relate
to management of water quality and quantity
(Forest Lake Mange. Plan, 1988). The first (1) is for
water quantity management, and the major objec-
tives include:
(la) Each unit of government shall be respon-
sible for the correction of flooding and ex-
cessive flows and volumes with its own
funds.
(lb) All new platted developments shall require
no increase in the rate or volume of runoff
by providing additional storage on-site or
through construction of a retention area to
serve this and other areas to accomplish the
"no increase" policy.
(lc) No fill, drainage, construction or discharge
shall be allowed which would reduce or
eliminate the retention, storage or treatment
capability of a wetland contained in the
Water Resource Inventory of the FLWMO
without at least 100 percent compensation
through construction of retention, storage
and treatment systems.
(Id) Stormwater management improvements on
existing and new systems for developments
shall be designed on the critical storm event
for the drainage area, but shall not be less
than a once-in-50-year, 24-hour duration
(2.25 inches/24 hours) storm event.
(le) For any new development located adjacent
to lakes, ponds or wetlands with no natural
outlet or adjacent to a water course iden-
tified in the Forest Lake Watershed Resource
Inventory, the developer should determine
the 100-year flood elevation for those lakes,
ponds, wetlands or water courses.
The second major policy (2) relates to water
quality (Forest Lake Manage. Plan, 1988). The ob-
jectives include:
(2a) The FLWMO shall conduct a monitoring
program identified in the contract with
Wenck and Associates' diagnostic/feasi-
bility study contract dated March 1986, and
shall consider the recommendations of the
study to reduce sources of nutrient and sedi-
ment to the waters within the district.
(2b) The FLWMO shall seek to identify and shall
correct all sources of water pollution
through the application of best management
practices to be implemented through the
jurisdiction of the FLWMO or local units of
government, whichever is applicable.
(2c) The local units of government shall enact an
on-site septk system ordinance at least as
stringent as the Washington County or-
dinance and shall enact an inspection main-
tenance program for all on-site systems
within their jurisdiction. This applies to
local units of government within which on-
site systems ate used.
(2d) The local units of government shall install,
maintain and inspect sanitary sewer
44
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS. 1990: 43-54
facilities within their jurisdiction to reduce,
to the maximum extent, any discharge to the
surface or ground water of any untreated
sewage.
(2e) The FLWMO shall encourage the use of wet-
lands within the watershed for beneficial
purposes including the treatment of runoff
to reduce water quality impacts to area
lakes.
(2f) Where practicable, new and existing storm
sewers shall be routed to detention, storage,
treatment systems or wetlands before dis-
charging to lakes and streams.
(2g) The FLWMO shall act as the repository for
all water quality data and shall continue the
collection of data on water quality.
(2h) The FLWMO shall establish the levels of
quality, consistent with state rales and
regulations and where state rules are absent,
shall set quality goals or standards for res-
toration and protection of the protected
waters within the watershed.
(2i) The FLWMO shall protect the existing wet-
lands contained in the water resource inven-
tory and shall require mitigation and
compensation consistent with policy lc for
wetlands filled, drained or otherwise
destroyed.
The FLWMO proposes to implement the water
quantity and quality policies through several or-
dinances, including amendments to local zoning
ordinances; ordinances to protect sensitive areas
such as bluff land and shoreland; a no-net loss wet-
lands ordinance; erosion and sedimentation control
ordinance; septic tank maintenance ordinance; a
lawn care chemical ordinance; and an information
and education program. This paper focuses on the
FLWMO lawn care chemical ordinance and the in-
formation and education program related to lawn
care chemicals.
Lawn Care Chemicals
Lawn care chemicals were identified as a major
pollution source through water quality monitoring
done in the watershed area. Monitoring of the
watershed runoff indicated that the highest con-
centrations of phosphorus came from die urban
area and that the highest concentration and load-
ings came from golf courses (Table 1).
After discussions with golf course managers,
the Washington County Soil and Water Conserva-
tion District conducted soil sampling on behalf of
the FLWMO cm greens, tees, and fairways of two
golf courses within the watershed. Analysis wad
done by the University of Minnesota, an inde-
pendent laboratory, and a fertilizer company serv-
ing one of the golf courses. The results from the
University of Minnesota and the independent test-
ing laboratory indicated that no phosphorus was
needed for proper turf maintenance. In addition,
soil samples were collected from varying soil types
within the watershed to determine the phosphorus
concentrations needed for proper turf estab-
lishment and maintenance. In most cases, no phos-
phorus was needed for turf establishment and in
all cases, no phosphorus was needed for proper
turf maintenance.
A telephone survey of lawn care chemical com-
panies was taken to determine the phosphorus con-
tent used in lawn maintenance within the water-
shed. The survey indicated that high concen-
trations of phosphorus were used by most of the
lawn care chemical companies in conjunction with
frequent lawn chemical applications. In addition,
discussions among FLWMO board members about
their own lawn maintenance activities clearly indi-
cated that there was a lack of information on
proper lawn care maintenance in the watershed.
Lawn Care Chemical
Information Campaign
The first action of the FLWMO was to notify the
public by newsletter and press releases to the local
paper and radio station (Attachment 1). Following
the press release, the FLWMO received a consider-
able number of complaints about lawn care chemi-
cal companies, including spraying of ditches,
spraying near the lake, weekly applications of
chemicals, and improper use of pesticides. In addi-
tion, watershed residents began raising concerns
about their own activities' impact on the lake. It
was dear that an awareness was developing about
the connection between land uses and water
quality. The FLWMO continued in subsequent
newsletter articles to make the connection between
fertilizer, fertilizer application, algae in the lake and
potential fish kills, odors, and degraded water
quality.
Lawn Fertilizer and
Pesticide Application
Control Ordinance
In late 1968, the Forest Lake Watershed Manage-
ment Oiganization prepared a model lawn care
chemical ordinance, using ordinances from other
45
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C.J. SPARKS
Tabla 1.—Forest Lake Subwatershed phosphorus export In kg/ha/yr/.
3.1
3. •
2.9
2.8
2.7
2. 6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2. 1
2. t
1.9
1.8
1. 7
1. 6
1.5
1. 4
1. 3
1. 2
1. 1
1. 0
«. 9
0. 8
1. 7
a. 6
Golf Course and Average Rural and Urban Values.
i
mwim 1
:,
:
l||l
iff''
llillllllf
'MM
* . V
.•".v."./
,.ViV,
Br
—
Golf
Ruro I -Ave
Urban-Ave
Minnesota cities such as Shoreview, Minneapolis,
and Vadnais Heights (Attachment 2). The or-
dinance requires that all lawn care chemical com-
panies obtain a license from each local unit of
government within the watershed. The applicant
must supply a chemical analysis, post a perfor-
mance bond, submit to random testing, and pos-
sess the license when applying chemicals. Ap-
plicants are subject to misdemeanor penalty
provisions for any violation of the ordinance. In ad-
dition, there were general regulations that do not
allow the application of lawn care chemicals to
frozen ground or between November 15 and April
15. The fertilizer content can be no more than 1/2
percent phosphorus in a liquid or 3 percent in
granular form expressed as P2O5 (phosphoric acid).
No single application of greater than 0.05 pounds
per thousand square feet can be applied to turf
grass. No annual application greater than 0.1
pounds per thousand square feet is allowed.
In addition, the ordinance indicates that no ap-
plication of fertilizer can be made to impervious
services or drainageways, or within 10 feet of a
wetland or other water resource. Warning signs
must be posted following pesticide application.
The general provisions of the ordinance apply to
lawn care chemical companies as well as in-
dividual homeowners.
Implementation of the
Ordinance
The FLWMO intends to vigorously enforce the
license requirements and application requirements
for lawn care chemicals. General enforcement of
the ordinance will be difficult for noncommercial
applications. The first approach to obtain com-
pliance with the ordinance has been to establish an
information and education program outlining the
benefits of proper lawn care management.
The FLWMO prepared press releases and
newletter articles on the program. Letters were sent
to all of the known lawn care chemical companies
operating in the area, identifying the need for
licenses (Attachment 3). To assist the local units of
government in implementing the licensing pro-
gram, an application and a blank license were
prepared that contained the requirements (Attach-
ment 4). A person was designated for local units of
government to answer questions and provide con-
sistency in the application of the program.
46
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 43-54
Conclusion
A lawn care chemical management program can
successfully reduce the amount of phosphate fer-
tilizer placed on land within the watershed, which
lowers the potential for runoff containing high
levels of phosphate into area lakes. An important
benefit of our program was the education of the
public as to the relationship between their actions
and the effects on water quality. In the long run, the
development of this understanding may have the
greatest benefit in protecting the lakes within the
Forest Lake watershed.
References
Fore* Lake Wtfenhed Management Plan. 1968. VoL 1, pp 68,
70. Ml
47
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C.J. SPARKS
ATTACHMENT 1
Forest Lake
Watershed Management Organization
21350 Forest Boulevard North
Forest Lake, Minnesota 55025
Phone (612) 464-4348
November 1, 1989
Press Release: Contact Curtis Sparks (612) 297-1831 for further information.
Fertilizer Regulations Now in Effect
As springtime rolls around and the grass starts to turn green again, we begin to have thoughts of tuning up
the lawn mower, raking the leftovers from last winter, and fertilizing the lawn. Wait, remember the
information that the Forest Lake Watershed Management Organization had about lawn fertilizer? Wasn't
phosphorus a problem in our lakes? What should I do? Do I even need to fertilize?
Some of us don't need to fertilize; in fact, only newly established turf grass should need fertilizer that
contains phosphorus. Fertilizing your lawn is a personal preference. Feeding your lawn makes it grow faster
and sometimes greener. If that is what you want, fine, but new regulations in the city of Forest Lake and
the towns of Forest Lake and New Scandia prohibit the use of high phosphorus fertilizer. Why? Because it
is not needed and it is the main cause of excessive weed growth in our lakes.
Once phosphorus enters the lake, it is hard if not impossible to remove it. The lake ages or becomes what
lake managers call eutrophic. Eutrophic lakes have excessive weeds, green-colored algae blooms, sometimes
have odors and fish kills, all because too many nutrients (fertilizer) got into the i»w>.
The new regulations regulate lawn care companies so that they can use only low phosphorus fertilizers. And
you must also only use low phosphorus fertilizer. The way to tell what to buy is to look on the bag of
granular fertilizer for the chemical ingredients. There will be a series of three numbers which indicated the
nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium content. The middle number must be 3 or less to be considered low
phosphorus and in compliance with the new laws. For liquid fertilizer the content should be less than 1/2
percent phosphorus expressed as P205. Other provisions of the ordinance include a prohibition against the
application of fertilizer between November 15 and April 15 when the ground is usually frozen. You cannot
apply fertilizer to impervious surfaces or areas within drainage ditches or waterways or within 10 feet of a
lake or wetland. You cannot feed waterfowl within 50 feet of a wetland, pond, lake or water resource so they
do their dirty business on the land away from the water. You must maintain vegetative cover on i««
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 43-54
Hps to consider
- Fertilize only when you need to. A soil analysis done by other than a lawn chemical company,
the University of Minnesota for example, is a good idea.
- Use only low phosphorus fertilizer where the middle number on the bag is less than 3.
- Clean up fertilizer spillage, especially on sidewalks, streets and driveways.
- Don't dump leaves or grass clippings in the ponds, ditches or where they can contribute
nutrients to runoff waters.
- Leave a natural buffer zone between your lawn and the lake and don't fertilize to the lake
edge.
- Hire only a licensed commercial lawn care company and insist upon low phosphorus fertilizer.
- Be a steward of the environment and turn in polluters.
49
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C.J. SPARKS
ATTACHMENT 2
Ordinance no. 81
An ordinance relating to lawn fertilizer
and pesticide application control
1.1 PURPOSE.
The Town of Forest Lake and Forest Lake Watershed Management Organization have conducted studies and
have reviewed wrfating data to determine the current and projected water qualities of Forest Lake. The data
indicates that lake water quality of Forest Lake may be maintained and improved if the
Town is able to regulate the amount of lawn fertilizer and other chemicals entering the lake as a result of
storm water runoff or other causes. The purpose of this ordinance is to define regulations which will aid the
Town in maintaining and improving lake resources which are enjoyed by its residents and other users. The
purpose of this ordinance is further to protect the public health by regulating the application of pesticides
and herbicides and to provide for warnings indicating the use of same.
1.2 DEFINITIONS.
A. The term "pest" means an insect, rodent, nematode, fungus, weed, terrestrial aquatic plant, animal
life, virus, bacteria or other organism designated by rule as a pest, except a virus, bacteria or other
microorganism on or in living humans or other living animals.
B. The term "pesticide" means a substance or mixture of substances intended to prevent, destroy,
repel, or mitigate a pest, and a substance or mature of substances intended for use as a plan
regulator, defoliant or desiccate.
C. The term "plant regulator" means a substance or mixture of substances intended through
physiological action to accelerate or retard the rate of growth or rate of maturation of a plant, or
to otherwise alter the behavior of ornamental or crop plants or the produce of the plants. Plant
regulator does not include substances to the extent that they are intended as plant nutrients, trace
elements, nutritional chemicals, plant inoculants or soil amendments.
D. The term "commercial applicator" means a person who has a commercial applicator license issued
by the Minnesota Commissioner of Agriculture.
E. The term "noncommercial applicator" means a person with a noncommercial applicator license
issued by the Minnesota Commissioner of Agriculture.
13 REGULATIONS FOR COMMERCIAL LAW FERTILIZER APPLICATORS.
A. License Required. No person, firm, corporation or franchise shall engage in the business of
commercial lawn fertilizer application within the Town of Forest I -aye nnWc a license has been
obtained from the Town Administrator as provided herein.
B. License Application Procedure. Applications for a commercial lawn fertilizer applicator license
shall be submitted to the Town Administrator. The application shall consist of the following:
(1)Name, address and telephone number of applicant and any individuals authorized to represent
the applicant
(2) Description of lawn fertilizer formula proposed to be applied on lawns within the Town of
Forest Lake.
50
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 43-54
(3) A time schedule for application of lawn fertilizer and identification of weather conditions
acceptable for lawn fertilizer application.
(4) Fertilizer Sample. A sample of law fertilizer shall be submitted to the Town along with the
initial application for a license, and, thereafter, at least thirty (30) days before fertilizer
composition changes are implemented. A sample submittal can be replaced by a chemical
analysis certified by an independent testing laboratory.
(5) License Fee. The license fee shall be as designated, from time to time, by Town Board
resolution. The license shall expire on the 31st day of December. The license fee shall not be
prorated.
(6) Performance Bond. A bond in the amount of $1,000.00 shall be submitted with the application
form. The bond shall be conditioned upon compliance with the Town's regulations. Actions to
collect bond proceeds shall not prevent the Town from filing criminal complaints for ordinance
violations.
C Conditions of License. Commercial lawn fertilizer applicator license shall be issued subject to the
following conditions which shall be specified on the license form:
(1) Random Sampling. Commercial lawn fertilizer applicators shall permit the Town to sample any
commercial lawn fertilizer application to be applied within the Town at any time after issuance
of the initial license.
(2) Possession of License. The commercial lawn fertilizer application license or a copy thereof
shall be in the possession of any party employed by the commercial lawn fertilizer applicator
when making lawn fertilizer applications within the Town.
(3) State Regulations. Licensee shall comply with the provisions of the Minnesota Fertilizer and
Soil Conditioner Law as contained in Minnesota Statutes Section 17.711 through and including
17.729 and amendments thereto.
1.4 REGULATIONS FOR PROPERTY OWNERS.
A. Random Sampling. Upon the Town's request, the property owner shall provide the Town with
samples of lawn fertilizer to be applied by property owners. The quantity of the sample shall be
large enough to permit laboratory testing.
B. Use of Impervious Surfaces. Property owners shall not deposit leaves or other vegetative materials
on impervious surfaces or within storm water drainage systems or natural drainage ways.
C Unimproved Land Areas. Except for driveways, sidewalks, patios, areas occupied by structures, or
areas which have been improved by landscaping, all land areas shall be covered by plants or
vegetative growth.
US GENERAL REGULATIONS.
A. Time of Application. Lawn fertilizer applications shall not be applied when the ground is frozen
or between November 15 and April IS of the succeeding year.
B. Sample Analysis Cost. The cost of analyzing fertilizer samples taken from commercial applicators
or property owners shall be paid by the commercial applicators or property owners if the sample
analysis indicates that the phosphorus content exceeds the levels authorized herein.
51
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C.J. SPARKS
C Fertilizer Content No person, firm, corporation or franchise shall apply liquid fertilizer within the
Town of Forest Lake which contains more than 1/2 percent by weight of phosphate expressed as
P205, unless a single application is less than or equal to .05 pounds of phosphate expressed as
P205 per 1,000 square feet Annual application amounts shall not exceed .01 pounds of phosphate
expressed as P205 per 1,000 square feet of lawn area.
D. Impervious Surfaces. No person shall apply fertilizer to impervious surfaces, or to the areas within
drainage ditches or waterways.
E. Buffer Zone. Fertilizer applications shall not be made within ten (10) feet of any wetland or
water resource.
F. Warning Signs for Pesticide Application. All commercial or noncommercial applicators who apply
pesticides to turf areas must post or affix warning signs to the property where the pesticides are
applied. The warning signs shall comply with the following criteria and contain the following
information:
(1)The warning signs must project at least eighteen (18) inches above the top of the grass line.
The warning signs must be of material that is rain resistant for at least a 48 hour period and
must remain in place up to '48 hours from the time of initial application.
(2) The following information must be printed on the warning signs in contrasting colors and
capitalized letters measuring at least 1/2 inch, or in another format approved by the Minnesota
Commissioner of Agriculture. The signs must provide the following information:
(a) The name of the business, entity, or person applying the pesticide; and
(b) The following language: This area is chemically treated.Keep children and pets off until
(date of safe entry)" or a universally accepted symbol and test approved by the Minnesota
Commissioner of Agriculture as recognized as having the same meaning or intent as
specified in this subparagraph. The warning signs may include the name of the pesticide
used.
(3) The warning signs must be posted on a lawn or yard between two feet and five feet from the
sidewalk or street For parks, golf courses, athletic fields, playgrounds or other similar
recreational property, the warning signs must be posted immediately adjacent to areas within
the property where pesticides have been applied or at or near the entrances to the property.
1-6 EXEMPT. Newly established turf areas shall not be limited by this ordinance on the quantity of
phosphorus for the first growing season.
1.7 PENALTY PROVISION. Any person who shall do or commit any act that is forbidden by the
provisions of this thereof shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by
a fine not to exceed seven hundred dollars ($700.00) or to be imprisoned in the county jail for a period not
to exceed ninety (90) days, or both. Passed and adopted by the Town Board of Supervisors, Town of Forest
Lake, Minnesota, this 16th day of October, 1989.
52
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 43-54
ATTACHMENT 3
Forest Lake
Watershed Management Organization
21350 Forest Boulevard North
Forest Lake, Minnesota 55025
Phone (612) 464-4348
November 1, 1989
Dear Lawn Care Company:
The Forest Lake Watershed Management Organization (FLWMO) is informing lawn care chemical
companies of the need to obtain a license to operate in the City of Forest Lake, the Town of Forest
and New Scandia Township. Because of excessive levels of phosphorus in area lakes, there was a need to
establish an
ordinance to restrict the application of phosphate fertilizer to lawns.
Before you begin applications in the listed communities, you must submit a sample for analysis or otherwise
show proof that the chemicals used by your company do not contain more than 1/2 percent phosphate by
weight expressed as P205 or for granular fertilizer no more than 3 percent as P205. The local unit of
government may collect random samples to check phosphorus levels at any time
after issuance of a license.
I have attached a copy of the ordinance for the City of Forest Lake as an example. Please contact the local
unit of government for information on fees, posting of bond, etc.
Thank you for your cooperation in this matter.
Sincerely,
Curtis J. Sparks, P.E.
Chairman
FLWMO
CJS:jms
cc: Town of Forest Lake
City of Forest Lake
Town of New Scandia
53
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C.J. SPARKS
ATTACHMENT 4
COMMERCIAL LAWN FERTILIZER
APPLICATOR'S LICENSE
Issued by the Town of Forest Lake
21350 Forest Blvd. N., Forest Lake, Minnesota 55025
ISSUED TO:
DATE OF ISSUANCE;
DATE OF EXPIRATION:
CONDITIONS:
1. RANDOM SAMPLING. Commercial lawn fertilizer applicators shall permit the Town of Forest Lake to
sample any commercial lawn fertilizer application to be applied within the Town at any time after issuance of
the initial license.
2. POSSESSION OF LICENSE. The commercial lawn fertilizer application license or a copy thereof shall
be in the possession of any party employed by the commercial lawn fertilizer applicator when making lawn
fertilizer applications within the Town of Forest Lake.
3. STATE REGULATIONS. Licensee shall comply with the provisions of the Minnesota Fertilizer and Soil
Conditioner Law as contained in Minnesota Statutes Sections 17.711 through and including 17.729 and
amendments thereto.
Authorized signature:_
$100.00 application fee
Received:
54
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 55-61
Poplar Tree Roots for Water Quality
Improvement
Louis A. Licht
Post-doctoral Researcher
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Iowa, Iowa City
ABSTRACT
This research summary explains current testing of a prototype wooded buffer strip planted
between the creek and crop with roots grown intentionally deep enough to intersect the
near-surface water table, lids project demonstrates that poplar trees cultured by using this
technique can serve purposes that are both environmental and productive. Measured data
prove that nitrate is removed from near-surface groundwater and that the nitrogen uptake is
present as protein in the leaves and the woody stems. The tree's physiological attributes of fast
wood growth, cut-stem rooting, resprouting from a stump, and a high protein content in die
leaves contribute to a harvested value that can pay its way while achieving water quality goals.
In addition to removing fertilizer from groundwater the wooded riparian strip can serve as
wildlife habitat, wind shelter belt, and source of renewable fuel that cycles carbon. This idea is a
potential technique for managing nonpoint source pollutants created by modern farming
practices.
Theoretical Framework
Literature Basis
There is no specific reference in the literature to
deep-planted poplar buffer strips grown in agricul-
tural riparian zones for both biomass growth and
nonpoint source pollution control. This innovative
crop management scheme was based on five un-
derlying concepts summarized by the following
citations:
1. The impact of conventional row-crop
agriculture on the fate and movement of
nitrate-nitrogen and sediment has been
documented by Alberts et al. 1978; Baker,
1980; Baker and Johnson, 1976; Blackmer et
al. 1989; Burwell et al. 1977; Counc. Agric.
Sci. Technol. 1985; Kramer et al. 1989; Natl.
Res. Counc., 1978; and Hsdale, 1975.
2. Plant root uptake and metabolism of
nitrogen from the soil pore water solution
has been documented by Barber, 1984; Glass,
1989; Gregory, 1987; Haynes, 1986; and
Lewis, 1986.
3. Poplar reproduction, survival, and growth in
riparian or wetland conditions have been
documented by Bowmen 1981; Christ et al.
55
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LA. UCHT
1983; Dickman and Stuart, 1983; Ek et al.
1983; Isebrands et al. 1983; Kawase, 1981;
Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986; and Zavitkov-
shi, 1983.
4. Buffer strips and the use of riparian areas as
a filter for agricultural nonpoint source sedi-
ments and chemicals have been documented
by Cooper et al. 1986; Dillaha et al. 1989;
Jacobs and Gilliam, 1985; Lowrance et al.
1984, Schlosser and Karr, 1989; and U.S. Dep.
Agric. 1988.
5. Use of plants, specifically trees, to treat
municipal and industrial wastewater or
sludges has been documented by Crites and
Reed, 1986; Overcash and Pal, 1981; U.S. En-
viron. Prot. Agency, 1981; and Urie, 1987.
Prototype Concept and
Design
The placement of the prototype tree buffer is
schematically shown in Figure 1, as theorized in
the original concept proposal (Licht, 1990). This
project measures a fun-
damental idea: that roots
can remove nitrate-nitrogen
from near-surface ground-
water. It is difficult to cul-
turally control rooting
depth when planting a seed
or short tree cutting. Roots
from most terrestrial plant
species normally grow
within 50 centimeters (20
inches) of the soil's surface
to obtain nutrients and
water. This project tests the
innovative concept that
roots from selected tree
species can be intentionally
grown to depths that inter-
sect the near-surface water
table.
Populus spp. (poplar)
trees have preformed root
initials located beneath the
bark of stems and branches
that enable root sprouting
from the entire buried
length of the planted stem.
Tree roots have the
physiological ability to
place perennial roots
deeper in the soil profile. The planting technique
used to purposefully grow roots 150 centimeters (5
feet) deep in the soil profile is shown in Figure 2.
When the trees are cut, new stems grow from
the tree stump (coppiced sprouting), which makes
biomass harvesting possible while maintaining a
vigorous, deep, perennial root system. This tree
stem re grows from well-established roots without
replanting and offers a minimum shutdown in up-
take of nutrients. Because nitrate-nitrogen is an es-
sential nutrient for plant growth, this perennial
root system also assures minimum shutdown in
nonpoint pollutant removal.
The prototype buffer tree spacing was 30 cen-
timeters (1 foot) apart in the row and 1 meter (3.3
feet) apart between rows in a four-row buffer strip.
The prototype poplar tree buffer was planted so
that tractors, tillage tools, and harvest equipment
built for corn could be modified to mechanize the
culturing practices.
Culturing a crop planted in such a buffer strip
with sufficient value to pay its way is essential to
this idea's long-term viability. The land used is a
long corridor, thereby removing a relatively small
portion of the farmland from commodity crop
agriculture. Future harvesting of this buffer strip is
STREAM
RIPARIAN ZONE
,/ \ *±S||
IS# ' * % f k a w t *
. ^ jlj J ' ^ p V « t
hi
ATOHATED:
AQUITA./*D
FLOrr
STREAM
RIPARIAN ZONE
VAOOSC
cnouNDWATcn ruo*
aquitahd ~
Hflur# 1.—Top aehamatlc show* a conventionally row cropped riparian zona; lowar
achamatlc ahowatha propoaad daap-rootad riparian buff*.
56
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 55-61
PLANTING TECHNIQUE
5.5'CUTTING 5'DEEP TRENCH 5'DEEP ROOTING
11
V
/
s
y t
/ /
/
/ '
*
x/.
V,
/ / / /
SS.
te-
is.
5S*
V,
V
Y/.
< /
/
Figure 2.— Planting technique used to grow roots 150 cm (5 ft) deep
In the soil profile.
scheduled on a biennial or triennial schedule.
Though the harvested stem and leaf are the tree-
grown products that will be marketed, there are
also valuable intrinsic "products" (harvested
biomass, wildlife habitat, cleaner water, erosion
control, visual ambience) and extrinsic "products"
(a more diversified economy, increased energy self-
sufficiency, reduced dependency on unstable
foreign resource supplies, cycled greenhouse gases,
altered lifestyles based on ecosystem concepts).
Tree Plot Layout and Installation
The first buffer strip was installed
at the Amana Society Farms in
Amana, Iowa. The site contained a
perennial stream with rotated
crops farmed up to the creek bank
edge. The 1988 crop was oats, the
1989 crop, com. The total buffer
strip consisted of 10 adjoining
plots running parallel to the creek,
each measuring 3 by 12 meters (10
by 40 feet). A 5-meter (15-foot)
wide fallow strip, which was in-
cluded as a drive for equipment,
separated the trees from the creek.
The total tree buffer and fallow
was 0.095 hectares (0.24 acres).
One plot was planted with 172
cuttings each 1.65 meters (5.5 feet)
long and planted in 1.5-meter (5-foot)-
deep trenches dug parallel to the creek
using a Ditch Witch trencher. Other
plots were planted by hand at the same
population with 0.3 meter (1 foot) long
and planted 0.25 meters (10 inches)
deep. To increase the poplars' produc-
tive and environmental value, this buffer
strip was designed with a dense tree
population. In contrast to "normal"
hardwood tree spacing that allocates 3.9
to 9.3 square meters (40 to 100 square
feet) per tree, these poplars were spaced
30 centimeters (1 foot) apart in the row
and 100 centimeters (40 inches) between
rows for an area allocation of 0.3 square
meters (3.3 square feet) per tree in the
buffer strip. The initial planting density
is 33,500 trees per hectare (13,200 trees
per acre). The treed buffer strip was four
rows 3.6 meters (10 feet) wide; it was
separated from the creek by a fallow
strip 5 meters (16 feet) wide and bor-
dered conventionally planted corn
upgrade.
The field was tilled 15 centimeters (6 inches)
deep to break up the topsoil and remove all surface
vegetation. Weeding was done by tractor or hoe
tillage without using herbicides. No fertilizer was
added to the soil both in the buffer strip or on the
upgrade oat field during 1988. Corn was planted
upgrade by using conventional farming practices,
including an application of spring ammonia fer-
tilizer at 150 pounds of nitrogen per acre in 1989.
Figure 3 shows the final 3-by-120 meter (10-by-400-
foot) poplar tree buffer strip following tree plant-
ing.
Figure 3.— Riparian buffer plot following planting, May 17,1988.
57
-------
LA. L1CHT
Root Placement and
Growth
Results from the first two grow-
ing seasons have demonstrated
that Populus spp. cuttings rooted
their entire buried depth when
1.65-meter (5.5-foot) cuttings
were planted to depths of 1.5
meters (5 feet) in riparian
trenches. Roots grew from
preformed root initials located
below the stem's epidermis,
which emerged from the entire
buried depth.
The presence of the tree root
and the planting technique sig-
nificantly affect the soil profile.
Figure 4 shows excavated roots
developed from both 1-foot-long
cuttings planted 10 inches deep
and 5.5-foot-long cuttings
planted 5 feet deep in the plot
soil. For 1-foot cuttings, roots
grew primarily within the top 50
centimeters (20 inches) of soil,
though there were several thin roots that grew
down 6 feet into the soil. The 5.5-foot cuttings
produced a dense, viable root system their entire
buried length in the trench. Figure 5 shows the long
cuttings exposed in the excavated trench.
Plant Growth
Following the 1988 growing season, stems from 1-
foot cuttings were estimated to weigh an average
of 39 grams each compared to an estimated 138.6
grams for stems from 5.5-foot cuttings. The 1989
biomass growth rate was estimated using statisti-
cally selected whole trees periodically harvested
from interior buffer rows. The average growth
rates for the poplar plots are shown in Figure 6,
along with their linear least squares regression
equation. There is no statistically significant dif-
ference (p>.l) between the 1-foot and 5-foot cutting
growth rates for the second growing season. The
overall average growth rate during the growing
season is estimated to be 5.4 grams stem dry matter
per tree per day.
Figure 4.—Roots developed from 6-foot (left) and 1-foot (right) Populus spp.
cutting, October 1989.
Figure 5.—Exposed roots grown In excavated trench
from a 6-foot-long poplar cutting planted 5 feet deep.
58
-------
ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 55-61
1200
A
UJ
1100
UJ
DC
1000
j£ ci
9QQ
800
°B
TOO
cc <
<9 2
600
*>•
500
Ul Jr
400
m
2
o
2UU
V
100
13 OCT 1MB
5' GROWTH CURVE
y ~ 166.04 + SJ398x
RA2 - 0.992
1' GROWTH CURVE
y - 69.756 * S.2676X
R*2 = 0.997
200
percent of the nitrogen in the
1-foot and 5-foot cuttings,
respectively, after two grow-
ing seasons. The leaf to stem
ratio and the nitrogen content
in the stem and leaf provide
the basis when planning the
site's nitrogen and carbon
management strategy. The
strategy for nitrogen removal
from the poplar buffer strip
will require leaf management,
which could be accomplished
by removing the entire plant
or fallen leaves or by having
livestock graze on the leaves.
10 APRIL 1989
Figurs 6.—St# 1*1 dry matter growth cimvm tar Populus spp. tTM« using 1-foot and
5-foot-long cutting stock during the 1988 growing Mason.
Nitrogen Fate and
Movement
Nitrogen in Poplar Stem
and Leaves
As the 1989 growing season
progressed, the leaf nitrogen
concentration on a dry weight
basis started at 2.6 percent and
decreased to 1.97 percent. The
stem nitrogen concentration on
a dry mass basis fluctuated be-
tween 0.3 to 0.5 percent
throughout the sampling
period. There is no statistically
significant difference (p>.l) for
the stem and leaf nitrogen con-
tent between 1-foot and 5-foot
cuttings. During 1989, the leaf
to stem ratio measured from
whole-tree harvest averaged
0.25; thus for every pound of
stem grown in the second
growing season approximately
0.25 pounds of leaf was
produced.
The nitrogen measured in
the plant leaf and stem was
removed from the soil solution
nitrogen reserve. The leaves
represent 58 percent and 56
Nitrate in Soils
Corn was grown in the field upgrade from the buff-
er for the 1989 growing season. In March, an-
hydrous ammonia fertilizer was applied to the
cornfields at the rate of 168 kilograms of nitrogen
per hectare (150 pounds per acre). The means of the
nitrate nitrogen analyses for triplicate soil columns
sampled October 1989 are shown in Figure 7.
fALLC nt
CORN
111 <0 30
SOIL
DEPTH
Flgurs 7.—Avsrags nitrate concsntraUons In plot soils to 8 Mat In dspth, Octobsr
1989.
59
-------
la. uarr
The shape of the nitrate curve for the fallow plot
is characteristic of an agricultural soil growing
shallow-rooted plants. There is no significant dif-
ference (p>.l) in the nitrate-nitrogen concentration
profiles between the fallow and 1-foot cutting
plots.
The nitrogen concentrations below corn in the
soil profile show values ranging from 10 to 35 parts
per million in the top 4 feet. There is an anomaly in
the data for a low nitrate concentration average in
the three-foot-deep sample; there is no research
data explaining the overall concentrations in the
profile. There is a very significant difference
(p<.0005) between this corn nitrate profile and all
other plot treatments. This nitrate difference is at-
tributed to the addition of 150 pounds of ammonia-
nitrogen per acre of anhydrous ammonia fertilizer
to cropped soil in March 1989, followed by
microbial nitrification of ammonium to nitrate.
The nitrate-nitrogen samples for the Moot
deep-rooted trees were taken from soils inside the
back-filled trench. The nitrate-nitrogen concentra-
tion in the trench planted with the deep-rooted
poplar cuttings averages a constant 2 to 3 mil-
ligrams of nitrogen per kilograms dry soil. The
nitrate concentration profile for the 5-foot cutting
plot is significantly different (p<.0005) from all
other plots.
It is apparent that there was nitrate-nitrogen up-
take by the tree roots along the entire buried cut-
ting. This nitrate removal by the deep-rooted cut-
tings corroborates the nitrate concentrations in
piezometer samples.
Nitrate-nitrogen Concentrations in
Near-surface Groundwater
The decrease in buffer soil nitrate is reflected in
near-surface groundwater samples taken from
piezometers installed upgrade and in the middle of
the poplar plots physically spaced 5 meters (17
feet) apart. There was a severe lack of precipitation
on these fields from the May 1988 planting up to a
18-centimeter (7-inch) rainfall in early September
1989. Until this rain, the groundwater table was
below the bottom of the creek drainage channel
and no water table intersected the 5-foot-deep root,
trenches. Samples of near-surface groundwater
immediately following the ram averaged 91 mil-
ligrams nitrate per liter from, the well bordering the
cornfield contrasted to 2 milligrams nitrate per liter
for the well in the middle of the deep-rooted plot.
There is a significant difference (p <.0005) be-
tween these plot wells. With the low water tables,
it is assumed that there was little influence from
lateral horizontal base flow below the water table,
with the bulk water flowing to the piezometers by
infiltrating through the soil matrix and macro-
pores.
The contrast between nitrate-nitrogen con-
centrations In com field and tree plot piezometers
corroborate the soil nitrate-nitrogen concentration
profiles. The deep-rooted poplar has a dem-
onstrated and statistically supported effect as a
nutrient-removal mechanism.
The Poplar Tree Buffer
Strip Research Conclusions
The conclusions drawn from research on poplar
tree buffers grown in riparian corridors as a control
mechanism for nitrate nonpoint source include:
¦ Conclusion 1: Populus spp. trees can root deep
into riparian soils. Poplars formed viable root sys-
tems their entire buried length in 150 centimeter (5-
foot) deep trenches by planting 165 centimeter
(5.5-foot)-long poplar cuttings. When short cut-
tings 30 centimeters (12 inches) long are planted 25
centimeters (10 inches) deep, the bulk of the roots
penetrated 0.5 meters (20 inches) into the soil
profile following two dry growing seasons.
¦ Conclusion 2: Deep Populus spp. root systems
and the deep-planting method significantly
(p<.0005) reduced the nitrate-nitrogen mass in the
trenched soil profile. Soils were sampled 1.5
meters (5 feet) deep below com, fallow, and the
deep-planted poplar tree buffer. In contrast to an
average nitrate-nitrogen concentration of 25 mil-
ligrams of nitrogen per kilogram of dry soil in the
soil column below conventionally cultured com,
the entire profile below the trees contained an
average 2.3 milligrams nitrate-nitrogen per
kilogram of dry soil.
¦ Conclusion 3: Poplar tree roots reduce nitrate-
nitrogen in nearaurface groundwater. Following
heavy September rains, sampled wells 6 meters (20
feet) apart beneath the corn and the poplar buffer
contained 92 milligrams of nitrate per liter and 2
milligrams of nitrate per liter, respectively.
¦ Conclusion 4: Populus spp. grew well in den-
sely planted populations. The trees were spaced
an average area of 03 square meters (3.3 square
feet) per tree for a population of 33,500 trees per
hectare (13,200 trees per acre). After two growing
seasons the sampled trees averaged over 4.5 meters
60
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 55-61
(15 feet) tall. Populus spp. had an average growth
rate of 5.4 grams biomass per tree per day (dry
weight basis) during their second 175-day growing
season. At this rate, the poplar buffer strip will
yield over 43,500 kilograms of biomass per hectare
(40,000 pounds of biomass per acre) in two grow-
ing seasons. This mass is approximately 20 percent
leaf and 80 percent stem. There is no significant
difference (p>.l) in the growth rates between deep
and shallow rooted poplars.
¦ Conclusion 6: The sampled poplar trees con-
tained an average of 23 percent nitrogen in the
leaf tissue and 0.4 percent in the stem. This plant
nitrogen, in the form of protein, amino acids, and
other organic molecules, was all metabolized by
uptake of inorganic nitrate or ammonium nitrogen
from the soil pore water. In 1989, each tree
removed an estimated nitrogen mass of 10 grams
per tree during the 175-day growing season for an
average uptake of 57 milligrams per tree per day.
At this rate, the popular buffer strip stem and leaf
mass will contain an estimated 330 kilograms of
nitrogen per hectare (300 pounds of nitrogen per
acre) in two growing seasons.
References
Alberts, EE., G.E. Schuman, and R.E. BurwelL 1978. Seasonal
runoff losses of nitrogen and phosphorus from Missouri
valley loess watersheds. J. Enviroa Qual. (2):203-08.
Baker, J. L. 1980. Agricultural areas as non-point sources of pol-
lution. In Environmental Impact of Non-point Source Pollu-
tion. Ann Aibor Sd. Publ., Ann Arbot MI.
Baker, J.L. and H.P. Johnson. 1976. Impact of subsurface
drainage on water quality. Pages 91-98 in 3rd. Natl.
Drainage Symp. Proc. No. 77-1. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng., St
Joseph, MI.
Barbei; S.A. 1964. Chapter 3 in Soil Nutrient Bioavailability, A
Mechanistic Approach. John Wiley k Sons, New York.
Blackma A.M., CD. Binford, and N.M. El-Hout. 1969. Effects
of rates of nitrogen fertilization on com yields, nitrogen los-
ses from soils and energy consumption. Page 2 is In-
tegrated Farm Manage. Demonstr. Program, 1989 Progress
Rep. Iowa State Univ., Ames.
Bowmet K. H. 1981. Nutrient removal from effluents by an ar-
tificial wetland influence of ritfzosphere aeration and
preferential flow studied using bromide and dye tracers.
Water Res. 21.(5):591-99.
Burwell, R.E., G.E. Schuman, H.G. Heinemann, and R.G.
Spomer. 1977. Nitrogen and phosphorus movement from
agricultural watersheds. J. Soil Water Conserv. 32(5):226-30.
Christ, J.B., J.A. Mattsoa and S. Winaur. 1963. Effect of sever-
ing and stump height on coppice growth. Pages 58-64 in
Intensive Plantation Culture: 12 Yean Research, Rep. NC-
91, St Paul MN.
Cooper; J.R., J.W. Gilliam, and T.C. Jacobs. 1966. Riparian areas
as a control of non-point pollutants. In Watershed Research
Perspectives, Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, DC.
Council of Agricultural Science and Technology. 1965. Page 20
in Agriculture and Groundwater Quality, Rep. No. 103.
Ames, IA.
Crites, R.W. and S.C. Reed. 1986. Pages 349-55 in Technology
and Costs of Wastewater Application to Forest Systems. The
Forest Alternative for Treatment and Utilization of
Municipal and Industrial Wastes. Univ. Washington Press,
Seattle.
Dickman, DJ. and K.W. Stuart. 1983. Chapter 4 in The Culture
of Poplars in Eastern North America. Michigan State Univ.
Press, Lansing.
Dillaha, T.A., J.H. Sherrard, and L Dowan. 1969. Long-term ef-
fectiveness of vegetative filter strips. Water Environ. Tech-
nol. 1(3):418-21.
Ek AJS., J.E Lenarz, and A. Dudek. 1983. Growth and yield of
Populus coppice stands grown under intensive culture.
Pages 64-72 in Intensive Plantation Culture: 12 Years Re-
search. Rep. NC-91, St Paul, MN.
Glass, A.D.M. 1969. Pages 40-55 in Plant Nutrition. Jones and
Bartlett Publishers, Boston, MA.
Gregory, P.J. 1987. Root Development and Function. Soc. Exp.
Bk>L
Haynes, R.J. 1966. Pages 166-221 in Mineral Nitrogen in the
Plant-Soil System. Academics Press, Inc., New York.
Isebrands, J.G. et al. 1983. Yield physiology of short rotation in-
tensively cultured poplars. Pages 77-94 in Intensive Planta-
tion Culture: 12 Years Research. Rep. NC-91, St. Paul, MN.
Jacobs, T.C. and J.W. Gilliam. 1985. Riparian losses of nitrate-
nitrogen from agricultural drainage waters. J. Environ.
Qual. 14:472-78.
Kawase, M. 1961. Anatomical and morphological adaptation of
plants to waterlogging. Hort. Sd. 16{l):30-34.
Kramet L. A„ R.L Poggensee, and M.I. Suckup. 1989. 1969 Deep
Loess Research Station Progress Report Council Bluffs Res.
Stav U.S. Dep. Agric, Washington, DC
Lewis, OA.M. 1986. Chapter 1, pp. 1-48 in Plants and Nitrogen.
Edward Arnold Publishers, London, England.
Licht, L.A. 1990. Deep-rooted Poplar Trees Grown in the
Riparian Zone for Biomass Production and Non-point
Source Pollution Control. Ph.D. Diesis. Univ. Iowa, Iowa
City.
Lowrance, R. et al. 1984. Riparian forests as nutrient filters in
agricultural watersheds. Bioscience 34:374-77.
Mitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gossdink. 1986. Chapter 10, pp. 330-44 in
Wetlands. Van Noatrand Reinhold, New York.
National Research Council 1978. Nitrates: An Environmental
Assessment Natl Acad. Sd* Washington, DC.
Overcash M.R. and D. Pal. 1981. Chapter 11, pages 461-65 in
Design of Land Treatment Systems for Industrial Wastes —
Theory and Practice. Ann Arbor Science, ML
Schlossa; LJ. and J.R. Karr. 1989. Raparian vegetation and chan-
nel morphology impact on spatial patterns of water quality
in agriculturafwatersheds. Environ. Manage. 5:233-43.
Tlsdale, S.L. and W.L Nelson. 1975. Chapters 2-4, pp. 54-120 in
Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. 3rd ed. Macmillan, Inc. New
York.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1968. Pages 1-5 in SCS Techni-
cal Guide, sec 393. U.S. Dep. Agric Soil Conserv. Serv.
Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1961. Process Design
Manual: Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater. EPA
G25/1-81-013, Washington, DC.
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Treatment of Domestic Wastewater in the Golden Sands
Resource Conservation and Development Area, Wisconsin.
U.S. Dep. Agric Forest Serv. 43-63WA-7-57, Washington,
DC
Zavitkovshi, J. 1983. Protected and actual btomas production of
2- to 10-year-old intensively grown Populus "IHstis M.'
Pages 72-77 in Intensive Plantation Culture: 12 Years Re-
search. Rep. NC-91, St Paul, MN.
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 63-66
Applying Aerial Photography and
Remote Sensing to Lake Management
in Idaho
Mike A. Beckwith
Senior Water Quality Specialist
Idaho Division of Environmental Quality
Coeur D'Alene, Idaho
ABSTRACT
Idaho's Division of Environmental Quality (IDEQ) has investigated and applied aerial photography and
remote sensing to lake management activities over the past four years. Approximately 100 miles of shoreline
on seven North Idaho lakes were surveyed by a contractor This information has been used to search for
areas of potential increased nearahore productivity caused by human activities. Using aerial mapping
camera infrared photography, the EPA Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory prepared overlay
maps of wetlands, aquatic maaophyte beds, and potential near-shore nonpoint nutrient sources for the north
shore of Idaho's largest lake (Pend Oreille Lake) and its 25-mile outlet aim. The information was used to
locate aquatic macrophyte and periphyton sampling sites for a comprehensive lake and watershed
assessment and eutrophication study currently underway. The photographs and maps will also be used to
evaluate future trends in maaophyte communities and other near-shore conditions. Dominant watershed
land uses and vegetation ground cover of the watershed of this large lake were also characterized by
EPA-EMSL using LANDSAT satellite imagery. This information will be used in a lake eutrophication and
watershed assessment project (currently underway) for input to a nutrient load/lake response model
primarily to estimate nonpoint source nutrient loads from tributary sub-drainages that are not directly or
continuously monitored. LANDSAT data may also provide information about future land use and ground
cover trends such as timber harvest, land development, and uibanization. Finally, informal aerial
photographic techniques have been used by IDEQ and U.S. Geological Survey researchers in efforts to
characterize and sample tributary inflow plumes and lake currents.
63
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M. A. BECKWTTH
Aerial Shoreline Analysis
In late summer of 1987, Aerial Shoreline Analysis
(ASA) was conducted on 100 miles of shoreline of
seven North Idaho lakes by a contractor using
proprietary techniques. This effort was made pos-
sible by a grant from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Its objective was to iden-
tify areas of near-shore nutrient (and other pol-
lutant) loading and the resulting water quality
degradation along heavily developed shorelines
through photographic analysis and interpretation.
Photographs were taken from low altitude (500
to 1,000 feet) and at an oblique angle (about 45
degrees from vertical) to the shoreline. Two passes
were made of the target shoreline to photograph in
visible color and color infrared. Canon A-l 35mm
single lens reflex cameras equipped with 50mm
lenses and filters were used; the film was Kodak
(ISO 200) Ektachrome and Infrared 2236. Each
image was viewed and interpreted using the
contractor's Image Enhancement System, which
provides for overlap viewing and 2Qx and 80x
magnification. A narrative descriptioit and inter-
pretation of the potential causes of water quality
degradation, "hazard" rating, and recommended
follow-up and/ or ground verification actions for
each image were prepared, keyed to U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey (USGS) 7.5 foot quad maps, and
presented in a report.
Typically, nonpoint source nutrient loading
from excessive fertilization of lawns/ septic tank
leachate, runoff from near-shore agricultural areas,
and other nutrient sources would be expressed as
increased vegetative production in the near-shore
terrestrial and aquatic environments. Also, land
forms and areas of land use potentially contribut-
ing to water quality degradation could be iden-
tified, as could pipes, culverts, and ditches that
might carry or discharge pollutants. Conversely,
toxic pollutants would be expressed as areas of
decreased productivity or vegetative voids. A
secondary objective was to assess the usefulness of
these techniques compared to traditional manual
shoreline surveys.
This effort allowed the Idaho Department of En-
vironmental Quality (IDEQ) to view in a short time
a large amount of shoreline that otherwise
wouldn't have been surveyed. The resulting im-
ages provide a useful visual overview and narra-
tive description of potential areas of water quality
degradation associated with the most heavily
developed lake shoreline areas in Idaho's five
northern counties. However there is some doubt
whether the contractor's aerial shoreline analysis
produced better quantitative results, and, at ap-
proximately $590 per shoreline mile surveyed, in a
more cost-effective manner than a traditional
manual shoreline survey.
For example, the images produced (and sup-
plied to DEQ) appear less than tack-sharp under a
lOx loupe; apparent resolution could be expected
to decline further under the 20x and especially 80x
magnification used during interpretation. The
visible color transparency film used is not noted
among many photographers for having particular-
ly tight grain; that is, under magnification the
ability to distinguish between image details and
emulsion crystals could also be expected to decline.
Questions surrounding the image interpreta-
tions also arose. For example, the narrative as-
sociated with one scene describes "an apparent
white drain pipe with a growth of macrophytes
directly offshore." Upon field verification, the
drain pipe was discovered to be a white fence post
Also, lighter colored areas around beach rocks
were interpreted as "suspected toxic" areas; these
areas were simply beach sand devoid of vegetation.
In another scene, "a wet area on the beach indicat-
ing a suspected seep which needs to be inves-
tigated" was a sheet of metal grate that served as
boat ramp. In other instances, beach vegetation
was attributed to septic leachate; however, there
were no septic systems in the immediate vicinity.
And finally, a failing septic system was discovered
during field verification that was not indicated by
the ASA photography.
Conclusions about Aerial
Shoreline Analysis
* Allows survey of large area of shoreline in
veiy short time;
* Provides aerial imagery of the shoreline;
* Provides a qualitative visual baseline from
which to evaluate land use and development,
vegetation, and other trends over time;
* Provides information that must be considered
"qualitative" in nature without extensive and
rigorous ground verification; and
* Facilitates locating sampling sites and
designing more intensive water quality
studies and assessment activities.
64
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: £3-66
Aerial Photography and
Mapping
Aerial photography and mapping are also being
used in the three-state assessment of the Pend
Oreille and Clark Fork Basin Assessment
authorized by section 525 of the Gean Water Act.
EPA's Environmental Monitoring Systems Labora-
tory (EMSL) photographed and mapped almost the
entire length of the Clark Fork River in Montana,
the northern shore of Pend Oreille Lake, and the
Pend Oreille River in Idaho and Washington
during the summer of 1988. This effort was con-
ducted as the EPA plane and crew shuttled be-
tween Superfund sites in Washington and Mon-
tana, resulting in substantial savings because plane
and crew mobilization and other fixed costs were
shared among projects.
If not for this arrangement, it is doubtful such
work could have been performed in the Pend
Oreille and Clark Fork Basin assessment. EPA-
EMSL estimates costs for acquiring the photog-
raphy at $10 to $20 per square mile. However,
photointerpretation and preparation of overlays
are perhaps the most significant and variable costs
of such an effort.
A 9 x 9-inch mapping camera was used to ac-
quire high-quality color infrared photographs
(1:18,000 scale) for interpretation and preparation
of map overlays. Each frame depicts an area about
2.5 x 2.5 miles. These high quality photomaps of
the north shore of Pend Oreille Lake and the Pend
Oreille River show aquatic macrophyte beds and
potential algal blooms in near-shore waters and
dominant vegetation types, ground cover, land use
patterns, and physiographic features potentially in-
fluencing lake and river water quality.
The maps have been used to locate macrophyte
and periphyton sampling sites in IDEQ's Pend
Oreille Lake Project, Idaho's portion of the Pend
Oreille and Clark Fork Basin Assessment, and
Idaho's largest lake assessment project undertaken
to date. The photomaps will also be used to quan-
tify present macrophyte distribution and charac-
terize trends in macrophyte and periphyton
coverage and near-shore tend use over time.
Discussion of EPA-EMSL
Photomapping
As in the Aerial Shoreline Analysis discussed pre-
viously, the quality of the photointerpretation
depends largely on the interpreter's experience
with the technologies used and especially on
familiarity with local conditions. On several oc-
casions, knowledge of local conditions was
provided to the interpreter at his or her request, in-
cluding on-the-ground photographs of certain
areas in question.
The EPA-EMSL interpretations appear to be
quite accurate. However, in one area where the
shoreline is composed of poorly consolidated gla-
cial and lake sediments, near-shore turbidity
produced by wave action was interpreted as algal
blooms. Also, an area interpreted as industrial was
actually log storage for a local lumber mill.
Watershed Characterization
of Ground Cover and
Vegetation Type from
Satellite Imageiy
EPA-EMSL also classified and quantified vegeta-
tion type and land cover in the Pend Oreille Lake
watershed through analysis of LANDSAT satellite
imagery. Dominant land cover and vegetative
types identified and quantified by subdrainage in-
cluded:
¦ coniferous forest
¦ coniferous forest (thinned/sparse cover)
¦ forest deaicuts
¦ agricultural land (cropland/pasture)
¦ rangeland
¦ wetlands
¦ urban areas
¦ water
¦ barren areas
¦ river debris/logjams, and so forth.
Use of LANDSAT Characterization
of Ground Cover and Vegetative
Type in Pend Oreille Lake Project
By applying an appropriate nutrient export coef-
ficent to the total area of land in a given vegetative
type or land cover; an estimate of nonpoint source
nutrient loads to the lake can be made few input to a
nutrient load-lake response model However; be-
cause more than 95 percent of the annual
hydrologk and nutrient load to the lake can be ac-
counted for by tributary monitoring data, the
method of applying export coefficients to
65
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M.A.BECKWJTH
LANDSAT-generated estimates of land use and
vegetative cover will not be relied upon as heavily
as if there were little tributary monitoring data.
Instead, this information will serve largely as a
complement to the empirical tributary data and
augment the detailed land use characterization
being performed manually for the heavily
developed and near-lake axeas of the watershed.
The data may also be of considerable value in
evaluating gross trends in land use over time, such
as land development timber harvest.
Informal Aerial Photography
Remote Sensing Techniques
IDEQ staff have also applied informal aerial
photography techniques to lake monitoring and
management activities. These efforts generally
consist of finding concerned citizen pilots who like
to fly and who don't mind state bureaucrats hang-
ing out the window taking photographs.
These informal techniques have been used to
gun an aerial perspective of small watersheds
during the design stage of water quality studies
and to obtain dramatic photographs for public in-
formation activities. They have also been used to
precisely locate and determine the extent of the tur-
bid inflow of the Clark Fork River to Pend Oreille
Lake prior to characterizing and sampling the
plume. Photographs were taken and processed the
afternoon before the actual sampling trips thus al-
lowing for optimum planning of desired transmis-
someter transects and sampling points.
Conclusions
IDEQ has approached using aerial photography
and remote sensing technologies in its lake assess-
ment and management efforts soipewhat cautious-
ly, carefully assessing their utility and cost effec-
tiveness in the context of the agency's lake
management activities and taking advantage of op-
portunities as they arose.
These technologies show great promise, espe-
cially when linked to the ongoing developments in
Geographic Information Systems (and other data
management) and computer simulation tech-
nologies. It would seem prudent to consider ap-
plying aerial photography and remote sensing
technologies to lake assessment and management.
However it would seem equally prudent to con-
sider them simply as some of the many useful tools
available that can be used effectively to augment
but not replace traditional, empirical data gather-
ing.
66
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 67-76
The P8 Urban Catchment Model for
Evaluating Nonpoint Source Controls
at the Local Level
Nancy Palmstrom
Senior Aquatic Ecologist
IEP, Inc.
Northborough, Massachusetts
William Walker, Jr.
Environmental Consultant
Concord, Massachusetts
ABSTRACT
P8 is a model for predicting the generation and transport at stormwater runoff pollutants in uiban
watersheds. Continuous water balance and mass balance calculations are performed on a user-defined
system consisting of the following elements: watersheds (nonpoint source areas); devices (runoff
storage/treatment areas, BMPs); partide dasses; and water quality components. Simulations are driven by a
continuous hourly rainfall and daily air temperature time series. The model was developed for engineers and
planners involved in designing and evaluating runoff treatment schemes for existing or proposed urban
developments. The model is initially calibrated to predict runoff quality typical of that measured under the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Nationwide Uiban Runoff Program for Rhode Island rainfall
patterns. Predicted water quality components include total suspended solids (five size fractions), total
phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, copper lead; zinc, and hydrocarbons. Inputs are structured in terms that
should be familiar to planners and engineers involved in hydiologic evaluation. Several tabular and graphic
output formats are provided. The computer runs on IBM PC-compatible microcomputers.
Introduction
Residential and commercial developments have
appeared in increasing numbers in recent years
throughout Rhode Island (RI Dep. Environ.
Manage. 1988). This increase in development af-
fects the surrounding environment in a number of
ways. In particular, as open or forested land is
developed, the area containing impervious sur-
faces increases dramatically, leaving fewer surfaces
where precipitation can infiltrate. Increasingly,
lakes, ponds, rivers, and wetlands are being af-
fected by unmitigated stormwater runoff. Nation-
ally, nonpoint sources of pollution account for
degradation of estuaries, lakes, and rivers, about
45, 76, and 65 percent, respectively (U.S. Environ.
Piot. Agency, 1989). On the other hand, municipal
and industrial point source discharges degrade
only 9 to 30 percent of these water resources.
67
-------
N. PAIMSTKOM mi W WALKER, JR.
Through sound land use planning and review
processes, contributions of contaminants in urban
runoff can be minimized and watery wetland, and
wildlife resources protected. However; one of the
primary constraints to implementing nonpoint
source pollution controls is the lack of tools avail-
able to the local planner or engineer responsible for
evaluating proposed development projects. There-
fore, the P8 Urban Catchment Mode), which
predicts the generation and transport of storm-
water runoff pollutants in urbanized catchments,
was developed under a contract with the Nar-
ragansett Bay Project. The intent was to provide
local and state land use planners and engineers
with a tool to evaluate the effectiveness of
measures for controlling urban runoff water
quality, with a minimum of site*spedfic data.
Detailed, technical documentation for the
model, including simulation methods and algo-
rithms, calibration, testing and limitations are
provided in the P8 Urban Catdunent Model Pro-
gram documentation (Walker, 1990) and PS Urban
Catchment Mode! User's Manual (IEP, 1990).
Model Description
Overview
The P8 model simulates runoff and pollutant trans-
port for a user-defined system consisting of a maxi-
mum of 24 watersheds, 24 stormwater best man-
agement devices (BMPs), 5 particle size classes,
and 10 water quality components. Simulations are
driven by a continuous hourly rainfall time series.
P8 consists primarily of algorithms derived from
other tested uiban runoff models (SWMM,
STORM, HSPF, D3RM, TR-20). However, P8 has
been designed to require a minimum of site-
specific data, which are expressed in terminology
familiar to most local engineers and planners. An
extensive user interface providing interactive
operation, spreadsheet-like menus, help screens,
and high resolution graphics facilitates model use.
The model simulates pollutant transport and
removal in a variety of treatment devices (BMPs),
including swales, buffer strips, detention ponds
(dry, wet, and extended), flow splitters, and in-
filtration basins (offline and online), pipes, and
aquifers (Fig. 1). For certain water epuality com-
ponents, the model is initially calibrated to predict
median (50th percentile) or extreme f90th percen-
tile) runoff concentrations measured under the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's)
Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP)
(Athayde et at 1983). Particle settling velocity dis-
tributions are also calibrated to NURP measure-
ments.
Limitations of P8 and Other
Urban Runoff Models
As with any water quality model, there are certain
assumptions and inherent limitations that must be
considered. A clear understanding of the assump-
tions and limitations is essential to the appropriate
use of the model and interpretation of output. The
following discussion highlights some of the
primary assumptions and limitations of runoff
water quality models in general, as well as those
specific to P8. The program's technical documenta-
tion (Walker, 1990) provides a more detailed dis-
cussion of these limitations.
The results of the Nationwide Urban Runoff
Program indicate that runoff quality is highly vari-
able from site to site and from storm to storm at a
given site (Athayde et al. 1983). The availability of
calibration data limits the accuracy and use of
urban runoff water quality models (Huber, 1986).
Site-specific data sufficient for calibration are
generally not available to the engineer and planner,
particularly for future developments. The reliance
of the P8 model on a generalized data source
(NURP) does not solve the data availability prob-
lem but does provide a reasonable starting point
for calibration and a consistent frame of reference
for evaluating proposed developments.
Another important concept is that runoff model
predictions are more accurate in a relative sense
than in an absolute sense (Huber, 1986). For ex-
ample, because it is independent of assumed runoff
concentrations, prediction of suspended solids
removal efficiency in a detention pond is likely to
be more accurate than predictions of inflow or out-
flow concentrations of suspended solids. Pollutant
removal is estimated by the P8 model based on par-
ticle characteristics (settling velocities or decay
Tates) of the runoff in relation to hydraulic charac-
teristics of treatment device (area, depth, overflow
rate, and residence time). These relationships are
simulated by a physically based model. Removal
efficiencies are independent of assumed inflow
concentrations, which are highly variable from site
to site.
A key assumption of the P8 model, as well as
other physically based water quality models, is that
urban runoff contaminants are largely associated
with suspended solids. P8 is designed to evaluate
the adequacy of treatment systems for a proposed
development wife respect to a target removal ef-
ficiency for total suspended solids, a specific par-
ticle class, or a specific water quality component.
-------
ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 67-76
1 = DETENTION POND
INFLOW
FLOOD
INFILTRATION BASIN
INFLOW
SPILLWAY
NORMAL OUTLET
ORIFICE
WEIR
RISER
DRAWDOWN TIME
SPILLWAY
)Ooooo<
?yyvy> > chrushed
INFILTRATION
vyyyv stone
H
(•ptlanal)
3 » SWALE / BUFFER
INFLOW
OVERLAND SHEET FLOW
OUTFLOW
4 = GENERAL DEVICE
INFLOWS
5 = PIPE / MANHOLE
INFLOW
SPILLWAY
NORMAL OUTLET
INFILTRATION
INFLOW
INFLOW
OUTFLOW
7 = AQUIFER
PERV. WATERSHED DEVICE
LINEAR RESERVOIR
6 » SPLITTER
INFLOW
INFLOW
ALTERNATE
OUTFLOW
NORMAL
OUTFLOW
<
J
U
o
a.
>
1
' • , :V
•ASEFLOW
LINEAR RESERVOIR
INFLOW
F'flure 1.—P8 device types.
69
-------
N. PALMSTROM and W. WALKER, JR.
The generation, transport, and removal of water
quality components (phosphorus, metals, petro-
leum hydrocarbons) are simulated by assigning
contaminant components (mg/kg) to particle frac-
tions.
The only removal mechanisms directly simu-
lated by the model are sedimentation and filtration.
Biological and chemical mechanisms of con-
taminant removal in treatment devices are not
directly considered. Dissolved substances can be
simulated with user-supplied estimates of kinetic
parameters.
The primary intended uses of the model in-
clude:
¦ Evaluating site (development) plans for com-
pliance with a treatment objective, expressed
in terms of removal efficiency for total
suspended solids or a single particle class (for
example, 70 percent or 85 percent total
suspended solids removal) (RI Dep. Environ.
Manage. 1988).
¦ In a design mode, selecting and sizing BMPs
to achieve a given treatment objective. The
program automatically scales BMPs to match
user-defined watersheds, storm time series,
target particle class, and target removal ef-
ficiency.
P8 can also be used for predicting concentra-
tions or loads from urban sites or whole water-
sheds. In the absence of site-specific calibration
data, however, such predictions are subject to
greater uncertainty because of random site-to-site
variability in runoff concentrations.
Simulation Methods
Figure 2 provides a conceptual illustration of
processes simulated by the P8 model. Runoff from
pervious areas is computed using the Soil Conser-
vation Service's (SCS) curve number technique
(U.S. Dep. Agric. 1964), as implemented by Haith
and Schoemaker (1987) for continuous watershed
simulations. Antecedent moisture conditions are
adjusted based upon five-day antecedent precipita-
tion and season. Percolation from pervious areas is
estimated by difference (rainfall-runoff-evapo-
transpiration). Evapotranspiration is computed
from air temperature and season using Hamon's
(1961) method, as implemented by Haith and
Schoemaker (1987). Runoff from impervious areas
starts after the cumulative storm rainfall exceeds
the specified depression storage. Thereafter, runoff
rate equals rainfall intensity. All precipitation is as-
sumed to be rainfall.
WATERSHED
TREATMENT DEVICE
LOAD, DECAY SWEEPING
FROM UPSTREAM DEVICES
OUTLETS
WASHOFF
SPILLWAY
SETTLING
/DECAY
INFLOWS
r— : RUNOFF
PERVIOUS AREA 1
STORAGE
NORMAL
infiltrate
PERCOLATION
EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION
EXFILTRATE
EXFILTRATE
BASEFLOW
AQUIFER
VOLUME & MASS FLUX
MASS FLUX
Figure 2.—P8 mass-balance schematic.
-------
ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 67-76
Particle concentrations in runoff from pervious
areas are computed using a method similar to the
sediment rating curve included in EPA's
stormwater management model (Huber and Dikin-
son, 1988). Particle loads from impervious areas are
computed using either or both of two techniques:
(1) particle accumulation and washoff and/or (2)
fixed runoff concentration. Results are totaled. The
first method is used in default particle data sets. An
exponential washoff relationship similar to that
employed in EPA's stormwater management model
(Huber and Dildnson, 1988) is used to simulate par-
ticle buildup and washoff from impervious sur-
faces.
When the model is executed, the water-
shed/device network is sorted in downstream
order. An elevation/volume/discharge table is cal-
culated for each device based upon input informa-
tion, including physical dimensions and outlet
characteristics. The table directs flow-balance cal-
culations using the relationship between storage
volume and outflow. Continuous mass-balance cal-
culations are performed on each device and par-
ticle class, accounting for inflow, outflow, change-
in-storage, and removal terms. Depending upon
device type, up to 15 mass-balance terms are con-
sidered in the simulations, as identified in Table 1.
Removal mechanisms include settling, first-order
decay, second-order decay, and filtration. Con-
tinuous water-balance and mass-balance checks are
maintained on each device and on the overall
device network.
Program Mechanics
The P8 model operates on an IBM PC or compatible
computer system (preferably an AT-class or Wgher
with a numeric co-processor and hard dtekJ.TheFo
installation diskette contains more than 90 dis
files, including sample case flies and input data
files. Sample case files may be used for instruction-
al purposes or as templates for building a new case
file. Input data files provided on the distribution
diskette include particle/water quality component
files and precipitation air temperature files for
Providence (Rhode Island) Airport Both a techni-
cal program documentation and user's
available for the P8 model (Walker, 1990; IEP, 1990).
The menu operates like a spreadsheet and
provides access to up to four tiers of program op-
tions or functions. The primary menu options
allow the user to enter, edit, or save a case file, ex-
ecute the model, list or plot the output, access sup-
plementary program functions, and access on-line
help documentation. Two user modes (NOVICE
Table 1.—Mass balance terms.
TERM
DESCRIPTION
01 Watershed Inflows
Inflow from watershed linked to
device via surface runoff or
percolation (aquifer)
02 Upstream Device
Inflow from upstream devices
03 Infiltrate
Outflow passing through bottom/
sides of device through Outlet 1
04 Exfiltrate
Equals infiltrate(03) minus
flltered(05)
05 Filtered
Mass removed during Infiltration
(trapped in soil)
06 Normal Outlet
Ouflow passing through Outlet 2
07 Spillway
Outflow through Outlet 3, used as a
"relief when device is hill
08 Sedhn.+ Decay
Mass removed via sedimentation
and/or decay
09 Total Inflow
Sum of inflows from watershed and
upstream devices
10 Surface Overflow
Sum of Outlets 2 and 3; also
includes Outlet 1 if Its device
number > 0
11 Ground*. Outflow
Outflow through Outlet 1 If Its device
number -= 0
12 Total Outflow
Sum of surface and groundwater
outflows
13 Total Trapped
Sum of sedimentation, decay, and
filtration
14 Storage Increase
Increase in storage volume (or
mass)
15 Mass Bal. Check
Error term in mass-balance
equation; should be small in relation
to total Inflows if appropriate time
steps are used
and ADVANCED) are provided to facilitate user
training.
Model Applications
Site Design Application
The stormwater management system for a large
commercial shopping mall provides an illustrative
example of the P8's simulation capabilities. The
mall site is divided into two separate drainage
areas (Fig. 3). Only the upper drainage area and
treatment system will be discussed.
Runoff from the drainage areas is collected and
routed through a treatment train that includes a
sedimentation basin followed by three created wet-
land cells (Fig. 4). Oil and grease separators ahd
regular sweeping of paved surfaces also provide
stormwater treatment but were not considered in
the P8 simulations.
-------
N. PALMSTROM and W. WALKER, JR.
m
AREA I
AREA 4
UPPER
WATERSHED
LOWER
WATERSHED
Figure 3.—Emerald Squara Mall dralnaga araaa.
EMERALD SQUARE MALL, N. ATTLEBORO, MA
¦SM.U.CAS
WITLAND
Flgura 4.—Emarald Squara Mall uppar watershed achamatlc.
WITLANO
A water quality sampling program has been in
place since June 1989 at the mall. This program in-
cludes the collection of a single grab sample and
flow measurement at the terminal discharge point
during one storm event each month. Water samples
are analyzed for a series of water quality con-
stituents, including but not limited to total
suspended solids, total phosphorus, total Kjeldahl
nitrogen, copper, lead, zinc, and hydrocarbons, as
required for the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System permit for stormwater dis-
charge from the mall site. Data from the period of
June 1989 to May 1990 will be used to compare the
model predictions with available information.
During this period, no discharge conditions oc-
curred on 6 of the 12 sampling rounds.
The key model input variables for the simula-
tion of stormwater runoff from the upper mall
drainage area are provided in Table 2. The 1980
hourly precipitation data from Providence Airport
and the NURP 50th percentile (median) default
calibration were used in the P8 simulation. A statis-
tical analysis of the 1980 precipitation record
reveals that it is representative of an average year
(Walker, 1990). A second simulation was completed
using the NURP 90th percentile default calibration.
These data as well as other precipitation and par-
ticle files are provided on a P8 distribution diskette.
Comparison of the P8 simulation results to data
collected between June 1989 and June 1990 reveals
that, with the exception of hydrocarbons, observed
concentrations were lower than those predicted by
72
-------
ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 67-76
P8 watershed Input Table 3.—Comparison of predicted and measured flow-
weighted mean concentrations.
Table 2.—Emerald Square Mall—
data.
WATERSHED LINKAGES
Watershed - 1 upper mall
Surface runoff device = 1 inflow
Percolation device = 0
WATERSHED CHARACTERISTICS
Watershed area (acres) = 31.5
Impervious fraction = 0.68
Impervious depression storage = 0.02
SCS curve number = 80.0
Sweeping frequency = 0
Water quality load factor =1.0
the P8 model (Table 3). There are a number of fac-
tors that must be considered when comparing ob-
served and predicted values, including the
methods of sample collection, number and charac-
teristics of storm events sampled, as well as limita-
tions and assumptions of the model itself and input
variables selected by the model user. This example
provides a rough comparison of model perfor-
mance with field data, although more intensive
monitoring is needed to support site-specific
predictions of concentrations or loads.
Watershed-scale Application
A watershed-scale application of the P8 model is
developed in much the same manner as site ap-
plications. The watershed may be divided into
multiple subwatersheds as needed. As with the site
application, the watershed is defined based on total
areas, impervious fraction, and the SCS pervious
curve number. The impervious fraction may be es-
timated based upon typical impervious fractions
associated with various land use categories. An
average SCS curve number is used that is repre-
sentative of the average conditions within the
watershed. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
may facilitate the determination of impervious
fraction and SCS curve numbers in laige water-
sheds.
In this example, the Hunt-Potowomut River
watershed is divided into seven subwatersheds
DISCHARGE CONCENTRATIONS (mo/Ll
PREDICTED
PERMIT
PARAMETER*
MEDIAN
WORSE CASE
ACTUAL
LIMIT
TSS
6.46
19.40
3.80
30.0
TP
0.12
0.26
0.02
0.4
TKN
0.69
1.52
0.66
5.0
Cu
0.02
0.04
<0.04
0.045
Pb
0.003
0.008
0.003
0.02
Zn
0.07
0.23
<0.05
0.13
HC
0.39
0.79
1.23
5.0
Note: Predicted flow-weighted concentration is based on simulation of 93-
109 storm events; Actual values are flow-weighted average ot six
storm events.
'Parameters: Total suspended solids, total phosphorus, total KjeMaM ni-
trogen, copper, lead, zinc, and hydrocarbons.
(Table 4). Soils groups and pervious curve numbers
are representative of each subwatershed. Segmen-
tation of the model to predict surface runoff and
baseflow at the mouth of the watershed is il-
lustrated in Figure 5. An AQUIFER device is used
to simulate baseflow, and a PIPE is used to collect
surface runoff. Outflows from these devices are
routed to a second PIPE for prediction of total
streamflow. The model has been calibrated against
streamflows measured by the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey (Gauge 01117000) for Water Years 1981-83 and
tested against data for Water Years 1984-86.
Calibration involved adjusting times of con-
centration for baseflow and surface runoff to match
observed peak flows over various averaging inter-
vals. The baseflow time of concentration (700 hours
or -30 days) was calibrated against the measured
30-day moving average peak flow for Water Years
1981-83 (~230 cfs, April 1983). The 30-day moving
average is used for baseflow calibration because it
is insensitive to runoff time-of-concentration
(much shorter than 30 days). The surface runoff
time-of-concentration (70 hours) was calibrated
against the instantaneous peak flow observed on
April 11, 1983, at 4:30 a.m. (968 cfs). As shown in
Figure 6, the model accurately predicts both the
magnitude and the time of this peak with the
calibrated times of concentration.
Table 4.—Input values for Hunt-Potowomut Watershed.
T°T*L impervious dominant PERVIOUS
WATERSHED S
Mawny-Frenchtown 4,486.6 B 58
Fry Brook 1,986.8 A 32
Sandhill River 2,351.2 7 32
Hunt River 2,621.5 °-140
Unnamed—2 *918.1 a/B 45
Scrabbletown 1,727.6 0.055 45
Unnamed—1 603.6 0210
Total 14,695.4
73
-------
N. PALMSTROM and W. WALKER, JR.
WATERSHEDS
RUNOFF
TOTAL
STREAMFLOW
PERCOLATION
BASEFLOW
AQUIFER
Figure 5.—Hunt-Potowomut River watershed schematic.
1000
BOO
o
U 600
T
r
L
0 400
w
c
800 650 700 750 800 850 900 950
HOURS
Figure 6.—Predicted Instantaneous peak flow—Hunt-
Potowomut River (observed peak April 11, 1983, 4:30
a.m., 968 cfs).
Results of model testing against measured daily
streamflows for Water Years 1984-86 are shown in
Figure 7. Observed and predicted monthly total
flows (expressed in inches over entire watershed)
for the entire period of flow record (Water Years
1970-86) are compared in Figure 8, while yearly
moving-average flows are compared in Figure 9.
The model over-predicts yearly mean flows during
drought periods (1971,1977,1981). This may be re-
lated to errors in the prediction of evapotranspira-
tion or to the effects of diversion from the water-
shed for water supply purposes (not considered in
simulations). The U.S. Geological Survey (1977)
reports that measured flows are affected by water
supply diversions for East Greenwich, North
Kingstown, Warwick, and Quonset Point (mag-
nitudes of diversions not reported). Such diver-
sions would tend to have greater impacts on
measured streamflows during drought periods.
The comparisons support the structure and
calibration of the hydrologic components of the
model for predicting streamflow in this region.
Calibration and testing of water quality com-
ponents against site-specific data are recom-
mended for future work.
Conclusions
The P8 Urban Catchment Model was developed for
state and local planners involved in evaluating or
designing stormwater management systems for
proposed developments. It simulates runoff and
pollutant export from watersheds and pollutant
removal in treatment devices. The P8 model con-
sists primarily of algorithms derived from other
tested urban runoff models. Simulations are driven
by hourly precipitation data readily available from
the U.S. Weather Bureau's monitoring stations. Ini-
tial calibrations of top runoff concentrations and
74
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 67-76
1000
800
600
400
CO
ll
200
w
*
0
§
1000
>¦
•J
800
<
•00
Q
400
200
0
81 82 83
I
CALIBRATION PERIOD
Figure 7.—Predicted versus observed daily itream flow—Hunt-Potowomut River, 1984-88.
particle settling velocities measured under the
Nationwide Urban Runoff Program provide a basis
for predicting pollutant removal efficiencies in
runoff treatment devices for user-defined water-
shed/ device linkages with minimal site-specinc
information. If the model is to be used to predict
pollutant concentrations or loads, it should be
calibrated to local data sets for both water quality
and discharge.
References
Athayde, DJM. et al. 1983. Results of the Nationwide Urban
Runoff Program, Volume I-Final Report NTO rew-
185552. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Water Plann. Div.,
Washington, DC.
Haith, D.A. and LX. Schoemaker. 1987. Generalised watershed
loading function* lor abeam flow nutrient*. Water Keaour.
Bull. 23(3):471-548.
Hamon, W.R. 1961. Estimating potential wapotrwiiptation.
Page* 107-20 i» Vol 87, NOHY3 Proc. Am.Soc.Qvil Eng., J.
Hydraul. Div.
Hubet W.C. 1966. Modeling urban runoff quality; state-of-the-
art In B. Uibonas and L.A. Roesnen eds. Proc Eng. Found.
Conf. Urban Runoff Quality—Impact and Quality Enhance-
ment Technology. Am. Soc Civil Eng., New York.
Hube& W.C. and R.E. Dildnson. 1988. Storm Wkter Management
Model, Version 4: User's Manual. Environ. Ret. Lab., U.S.
Environ. Prot Agency, Athens, G A.
IEP. 1990. P8 Urban Catchment Model-User's Manual (Version
1.1). Prep. Narragmsett Say Prcfv Providence, RI.
Northborough, MA.
Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management. 1988.
Recommendations of the Stormwater Management and
Control Committee Regarding the Development and Im-
plementation of Technical Guidelines for Stormwater
Management. Off. Environ. Coor.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1964. National Engineering
Handbook. Section 4: Hydrology. Soil Conserv. Serv.
Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Agency. J989. Nonpoint Sources—Agenda
for the Future. Off. Water, Washington, DC
WUkeii W. 1990. P8 Urban Catchment Model Program
Documentation Version 1.1. Prep. IEP, Inc, Northborough,
MA and Narragansett Bay Proj., Providence, RI.
75
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N. PALMSTROM and W. WALKER, JR.
70 71 72 73 74 76 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 80^6
O
s
70 71 72 73 74 7» 76 77 78 79 80
pSowom^X^.11" 0bMrV#d m°nth,y ^ W0W M ,RCh## °W th* wfr.h.d), Hunt-
•0
•0
40
3 90
ao
10
77
•• ••
Fiflur# 9.—Ytarly movlng-avtragt flows — Hunt-
Potowomut Rlvtr, 1970-86.
76
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 77-93
Assessing Impacts of Motorized
Watercraft on Lakes: Issues and
Perceptions
Kenneth J. Wagner
Associate, Baystate Environmental Consultants
East Longmeadow, Massachusetts
ABSTRACT
Discussions of Impacts of motorized watercraft on lake ecology are more often emotional than
scientific. Potential impacts ate critically examined in light of existing data relating to motorized
watercraft and water clarity, nutrient and metals concentrations, oil and gas Inputs,
oxygenation, shoreline erosion, rooted aquatic plant distribution, epilimnetic mixing, and
interactions with invertebrates, fish, waterfowl, and other aquatic wildlife. As a general rule, the
negative impacts of boating outweigh benefits in terms of lake ecology alone, without
consideration of social and economic factors. Negative influences are often consequences of
illegal or irresponsible boating, however and are difficult to separate from impacts caused by
other human activities. Careful evaluation of lake features and user expectations is
recommended before formulating lake-specific boating regulations.
Introduction
Motorized boating is many things to many people.
To enthusiasts, it is freedom of motion, skipping
across the water on skis, access to favorite fishing
sites, and port-hopping with friends. To other lake
users, including fish and wildlife, it is a safety
hazard, noisy annoyance, and source of water pol-
lution. Most lakeside discussions about motorized
boating are grounded in emotional responses,
either positive or negative, that are often based on
long-term observations or multiple experiences
that may have distinct validity but are rarely the
result of careful scientific study. As a consequence,
observations from one lake system may be applied
to others where the circumstances are actually
quite different. A clear accounting of possible im-
pacts and the lake features and motorized
watercraft characteristics that determine the level
of impact is needed.
For the purposes of this assessment, boating
will be considered to include all forms of fuel-
driven motorized watercraft, encompassing jetskis
and boats of all sizes with outboard (two-cycle) and
inboard (usually four-cycle) engines of varying
horsepower. Human-powered watercraft (canoes,
kayaks, or rowboats), sailing vessels without
auxiliary engines (smaller sailboats or windsur-
fers), and boats with electric motors are excluded
from consideration. Additionally, no consideration
77
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K. J. WAGNER
will be given to less common specialty watercraft
such as float-planes and snowmobiles used for the
sport of watercress. The effects of winter use of
snowmobiles on ice are also not discussed. Impacts
induced by recreation will be the focus of this
evaluation; commercial impacts, however, may in-
volve similar mechanisms.
This discussion is generally limited to ecological
consequences of motorized watercraft use, al-
though social and economic impacts often interact
with ecological impacts to greatly complicate as-
sessment and regulation. The ecological effects of
boating should be balanced with those that are so-
cial and economic in any assessment of overall im-
pact, and it is especially important to consider non-
ecological impacts when formulating regional or
statewide policies or regulations. Issues of access,
crowding, safety, economic dependence, willing-
ness to pay, and lake user expectations are critical
elements in any management plan.
Potential Impacts
Motorized boating activities may influence lake
ecology in a great number of ways, some positive
but most negative (Table 1). For the purposes of
this discussion, potential ecological impacts are
divided into four general categories: water quality
effects, sediment quality alteration, changes in
flora, and influences on fauna. Impacts on water
quality and sediments tend to be direct, while in-
fluences on flora and fauna may be direct or in-
direct.
Although most conceivable boating impacts ap-
pear adverse to lake ecology, their impact is highly
variable and may not be obvious or even detectable
in many cases. Degree of impact is a function of
both lake features and motorized watercraft char-
acteristics. Proper evaluation of anticipated im-
pacts is therefore dependent on an adequate under-
standing of key properties of the lake and the
watercraft using it.
Critical Motorized
Watercraft Characteristics
Properties of the watercraft and its engine can
greatly affect the level of impact from the operation
of the craft (Table 2). Whether the watercraft is
powered by a two-cycle (usually ah outboard),
four-cycle (typically an inboard), or jet propulsion
engine tends to influence water quality impacts
and the minimum depth of water necessary for
operation. Jetskis can operate in the shallowest
Table 1.—Potential motorized watercraft Impacts on
water reeoureea and aaaoclated biota.
A. Altered water quality
1. Increased turbidity
2. Increased nutrient levels
3. Increased hydrocarbon concentrations
4. Increased metals levels
5. Increased oxygenation
6. Increased contamination by pathogens
7. Changes in taste and odor
B. Altered eedlment quality
1. Redistribution of particles
a. Shoreline erosion
b. Littoral zone changes
2. Increased nutrient accumulations
3. Increased hydrocarbon accumulations
4. Increased metals accumulations
C. Altered flora
1. Epilimnetic mixing of plankton
2. Inhibition of algal growth
3. Stimulation of algal growth
4. Inhibition of rooted plant growth
a. Direct damage
b. Indirect suppression
5. Dispersal of rooted plants
D. Altered fauna
1. Collision-induced mortality
2. Reduced reproductive success
3. Changes through food resource modification
4. Changes through habitat modification
a. Physical habitat
b. Chemical habitat
5. Flesh tainting
water, while outboards tend to operate most in at
least three feet of water and inboards in depths of
at least five feet. This is largely a function of engine
size and associated watercraft dimensions.
Until the mid-1970s, two-cycle outboard en-
gines were considered to be inefficient users of fuel
and major contributors to water pollution by
hydrocarbons, metals, phenols and oxygen-
demanding substances (Jackivicz and Kuzminski,
1973a). In this type of engine, oil and gasoline are
mixed in a single chamber, with subsequent flow
through the combustion system. Although this al-
lows production of a relatively lightweight engine,
the expense in terms of fuel efficiency and water
pollution appears to have been substantial. Un-
burned oil and gasoline accumulated in the
crankcase and were eventually discharged to the
aquatic environment (Muratori, 1968; Stewart and
Howard, 1968; Jackivicz and Kuzminski, 1973a).
It has been estimated that as much as 55 percent
of the fuel consumed by an outboard motor is dis-
charged unburned to the aquatic environment; the
average for all outboard motors was estimated at
10 to 27 percent (Jackivicz and Kuzminski, 1973a).
Approximately 40,000 gallons of unburned fuel
was being discharged annually into Lake George,
New York, in the late 1960s (Stewart and Howard,
1968), and the estimated annual discharge of fuel
78
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 77-93
Table 2.—Characteristics of motorized water craft that
Influence ecological Impact on lake ecosystems.
1. Type of engine
a. Two-cycle
b. Four-cycle
c. Jet propulsion
2. Engine design/age
a. Conventional (most
pre-1977 engines)
b. Modified for fuel
efficiency
3. Size of engine
a. Small (<20 hp)
b. Medium (20-100 hp)
c. Large (>100 hp)
4. Crankcaae eize
(relative to engine size)
a. Small
b. Large
5. Engine condition
a. Tuned
b. Untuned
6. Fuel ratio (gaa:oll) and
oil type
a. Meets engine specifica-
tions
b. Differs from specifica-
tions
7. Speed of engine opera-
tion
a. Idle or trolling (<1500
rpm)
b. Cruising (1500-2500
rpm)
c. Racing (>2500 rpm)
8. Speed of watercraft
operation
a. Slow (<5 mph)
b. Medium (5-15 mph)
c. Fast (15-30 mph)
d. Very fast (>30 mph)
9. Displacement of water
a. Low (<5 cubic yards)
b. Medium (5-15 cubic
yards)
c. Large (15-30 cubic
yards)
d. Very large (>30 cubic
yards)
10. Density of motorized
watercraft
a. Low (>25 ac/boat)
b. Medium (10-25 ac/
boat)
c. High (5-10 ac/boat)
d. Very high (<5 ac/
boat)
11. Frequency of traffic
a. Rare (<100 passes/
yr)
b. Low (100-1000
passes/yr)
c. Medium (1000-2000
passes/yr)
d. High (2000-4000
pasaea/yr)
e. Very high (>4000
passes/yr)
(Also consider daily/
weekly/seasonal pattern
of use)
into waters of the United States at that time was be-
tween 100 and 160 million gallons (Jackivicz and
Kuzminski, 1973a). Aside from the pollution conse-
quences, motorboat enthusiasts were wasting mil-
lions of dollars per year in unburned fuel.
The fuel crises of the 1970s and increasing en-
vironmental awareness resulted in a number of en-
gineering advances that greatly reduced the dis-
charge of fuel; recycling of fuel that accumulated in
the crankcase became a standard feature in 1972
(Jackivicz and Kuzminski, 1973a). Solid state igni-
tion systems became standard in 1977, boosting the
ignition voltage from 20,000 to 45,000 volts and
greatly improving combustion efficiency (Jernigan,
1990), and lighter, cleaner oils have been
developed. Fuel waste is typically less than 1 per-
cent in a well-tuned, modern engine. Unfortunate-
ly, older engines were built to last, and as many as
half the engines currently in use in New England
were manufactured before 1977 (Jernigan, 1990).
The figure is substantially lower in the South, and
nationwide not more than 25 percent of older en-
gines are on the water.
Four-cycle engines, by comparison, have
changed little over the past few decades (Jernigan,
1990). Oil and fuel circulate separately, with en-
gineering very much like automobile engines. Per-
ceived as more environmentally sound in the 1960s
and 1970s, these engines are now viewed much like
those of older automobiles. Jet propulsion engines
are a more recent addition to watercraft and tend to
be very fuel efficient.
The size of the engine affects fuel efficiency and
resultant water pollution, with larger engines (>40
hp) tending to be more efficient than smaller ones
(Jackivicz and Kuzminski, 1973a). Crankcase size
makes a tremendous difference in a pre-1972 en-
gine, with small crankcases wasting an average of
less than 2 percent; larger crankcases typically
waste 30 to 50 percent (Jackivicz and Kuzminski,
1973a). Whether the engine is tuned or untuned
also affects performance, as does meeting the en-
gine specifications for oil to gas ratio (Kuzminski
and Jackivicz, 1972).
The speed of engine operation is also very in-
fluential, at least for outboard engines (Jackivicz
and Kuzminski, 1973a). Idling or trolling wastes
more fuel than cruising, which in turn is more
wasteful than racing. Unlike automobile engines,
outboards apparently do not reach a peak of fuel
efficiency; the difference in fuel waste between
high speed and low speed operation for older en-
gines it around 15 percent and is likely to be much
lower for modern (post-1977) engines. Additional-
ly, the speed of engine operation determines the
speed of propeller rotation, which affects the tur-
bulence created in the water. Here the relationship
between operation speed and impact is positive,
however; greater speeds create more turbulence.
The speed of watercraft operation (not to be
confused with the speed of engine operation, al-
though the two are related) is another important
impact-determining feature. The effect is not re-
lated to pollution from fuel, but rather to the wake
created. The greater the watercraft speed, the
greater the energy transfer to the surrounding en-
vironment. This does not necessarily mean that
higher speeds create larger wakes, however. To un-
derstand the relationship between watercraft speed
and wake, one must consider the displacement
volume of the watercraft and how it changes with
speed.
There has been little scientific research on this
topic, but the associated mechanisms are intuitive-
ly clear. Wake is a function of water displacement,
which is determined by the volume of boat below
the water's surface and the rate of movement.
However, as the rate of movement increases, water
resistance forces the hull upward and the volume
79
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X. J. WAGNER
of boat below the waterline generally decreases.
Most small boats moving at high speeds displace
less water and create less of a wake than at slower
speeds since little of the boat is actually in the
water and air is displaced instead.
As the boat slows down, there is a trade-off be-
tween rate of motion and below-water boat
volume; water displacement per unit time is rough-
ly constant. Variation in this mid-range of speeds
will depend on specific hull configuration and
overall buoyancy of the watercraft. At some point
during deceleration the watercraft ceases to sink
into the water; further decreases in rate of motion
will result in less water displacement per unit time.
The speed-wake relationship is therefore boat-
specific and likely to have a peak at some inter-
mediate speed. For this reason, a "no wake" or-
dinance is likely to be more effective than
establishing some moderate headway speed limit
to control wakes and also suggests that lowering of
open water speed limits may increase wakes.
Liddle and Scorgie (1980) discussed the types of
waves created by moving watercraft and noted the
importance of both speed and boat design. In the
studies cited in their review, increased speed
resulted in greater wake, but the design of the
boats was not revealed and the maximum speed
noted was less than 10 miles per hour (mph).
European research of this type is usually per-
formed in canals, where speeds are limited. There
are advantages to such a limited set of conditions,
however, and it has been possible to model wake
generation as a function of boat design, speed,
cross-sectional area below the waterline, and the
cross-sectional area of the canal. An appropriate
speed limit can be calculated for a given boat
design in a specified canal. The authors also noted
that inboard engines tended to create less wake
than outboard motors on similar boats at similar
speeds.
The density of motorized watercraft on a lake
will greatly influence impacts. A single boat is like-
ly to do much less damage than 100 boats in the
same area, although even a single boat can do great
harm in a sensitive environment. How many boats
are too many? There is no easy answer to that ques-
tion, in light of both the variables previously noted
and the salient features of lakes yet to be discussed.
Based on the viewpoints of many boaters, one
boat per 25 acres of water surface is considered suf-
ficient for all recreational boating activities (racing,
skiing, fishing) (Zwick, 1990). As the density of
watercraft increases or acreage per boat decreases,
the resource becomes less acceptable for certain
uses. Racers and waterskiers feel restricted at less
than 10 acres per boat and nearly all motorized
watercraft users feel crowded at less than 5 acres
per boat. This indicates something about an-
ticipated watercraft densities for specific uses but
does not elucidate boat density-impact relation-
ships.
In terms of water odor produced by motorized
watercraft, a threshold ratio of 1.3 million gallons
of water to 1 gallon of fuel consumed (English et al.
1963a) or 3.7 million to 9.3 million gallons of water
to 1 gallon of exhaust discharge (Kuzminski et al.
1974) has been established for older engines. The
ratio would be much higher for modern engines.
At an average fuel consumption of 0.5 gallons per
hour (typical range for smaller recreational boats =
0.1 to 1 gal/hr), 2.6 million gallons of dilution
water would be needed per hour o( operation. A
100-acre lake with an average epilimnetic (mixed)
depth of 20 feet contains 653 million gallons of
water. Without considering flushing rate or decom-
position of discharged fuel, the example pond
could support over 250 hours of boat operation
without acquiring a detectable odor. Furthermore,
it has been demonstrated that the threshold for
detectable odor increases over the course of motor-
boat operation, as people become accustomed to it.
(English et al. 1963b).
A barely perceptible surface film covering one
square mile can be created by 25 gallons of fuel, al-
though detection of the colored sheen (usually
identified as oil film) requires 100 gallons of fuel
per square mile (Jackivicz and Kuzminski, 1973b).
The film becomes very visible at 200 gallons per
square mile and becomes a true "oil slick" at 1,332
gallons per square mile. At the 10 percent waste
level and a fuel consumption rate of 1.0 gallons per
hour, a motorized watercraft operating for 8 hours
would release 0.8 gallons of fuel; therefore, over 31
such motorized watercraft would have to operate
continuously for the same 8-hour period in a 640-
acre area to produce a barely evident film. This rep-
resents a marginally acceptable density for boats
engaged in constant motion, such as waterskiing,
racing, or sightseeing. It would therefore require a
dangerous density of motorized watercraft or mors
than a minor spill to produce a clearly discernible
oil film on a given day, even for older engines. A
notable possible exception would be marinas,
where high densities of boats fuel up and operate
at inefficient motor speeds.
Frequency of traffic is partly dependent on den-
sity but is also related to area use preferences or
restrictions. In the absence of restrictions or per-
ceived desirability of one area over another, each
portion of a lake might be expected to receive as
80
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 77-93
much traffic as any other; however, boating law
creates numerous restrictions, and variability in
lake features sets up definite gradients of
preference among possible boating areas. Channels
and areas of least obstruction are likely to receive
more motorized watercraft traffic, except where
fishing is the primary use.
A careful study of the impact of traffic frequen-
cy in an English canal system (Murphy and Gaston,
1983) revealed threshold levels of traffic for impact
on macrophyte communities through turbidity
generation. During critical spring macrophyte
development periods, traffic that would equate to
an annual level of 300 to 600 passes per year af-
fected macrophyte community composition. Fre-
quencies of 2,000 to 4,000 passes per year generated
enough turbidity to suppress most macrophyte
growths.
Critical Lake Features
Many features of a lake predispose it to certain im-
pacts and may protect it from others (Table 3). The
area of a lake will determine its uses to some ex-
tent; lakes smaller than 20 acres are unlikely to ex-
perience substantial traffic by motorized watercraft
although just a few boats could influence the ecol-
ogy of an entire small lake. Laiger lakes are not as
likely to be impacted over their entire area, but in-
creased boating activity on larger lakes may lead to
localized impacts at a variety of levels.
The volume of the epilimnion in a lake will
determine the immediate volume of dilution water
available to counteract pollution inputs from
motorized watercraft or to be affected by resuspen-
sion of bottom sediments. The values in Table 3 for
general size categories are based on an average
epilimnetic depth of 20 feet and the areas listed
under "Lake area." Combining epilimnetic volume
with information on the hydraulic residence time
(usually on an annual basis but preferably on a
seasonal level) allows assessment of the volume of
available dilution water over time and evaluation
of the response of a lake to possible pollutant in-
puts.
The difference between the total lake area and
that of the hypolimnion is the part of the lake that
could potentially be directly impacted by
propeller-induced turbulence, although impacts
below 10 to 13 feet seem unlikely. Assuming that
thermoelines typically form at around 20 feet, the
shoalness ratio also reflects the portion of the lake
bottom potentially impacted by turbulence from
motorized watercraft. The shallowness ratio, which
compares the area of the lake under less than 5 feet
Table 3.—Characteristics of lake ecosystems that
Influence ecological Impact by motorized watercraft.
1. Lake area
a. Low (<20 ac)
b. Medium (20-100 ac)
c. Large (100-300 ac)
d. Very large (>300 ac)
2. Epilimnetic volume
a. Low (<130 million gal)
b. Medium (130-653 mil-
lion gal)
c. Large (653-1960 mil-
lion gal)
d. Very large (>1960 mil-
lion gal)
3. Hydraulic residence time
a. Low (<21 days)
b. Medium (21-90 days)
c. High (90-365 days)
d. Very high (>365 days)
4. Shoalness ratio
(area <20 ft deep/total
area)
a. Low (<0.25)
b. Medium (0.25-0.50)
c. High (0.50-0.75)
d. Very high (0.75-1.00)
5. Shallowness ratio
(area <5 ft deep/total
area)
a. Low (<0.10)
b. Medium (0.10-0.25)
c. High (0.25-0.50)
d. Very high (>0.50)
6. Shoreline development
(shoreline length/circum-
ference of circle with lake
area)
a. Low (<1.5)
b. Medium (1.5-3.0)
c. High (>3.0)
7. Littoral zone bottom
coverage by rooted
plants
a. Low (<25%)
b. Medium (25-50%)
c. High (50-75%)
d. Very high (75-100%)
8. Substrate type
a. Cobble
b. Gravel or sand
c. Silt or clay
d. Organic muck
of water to the total lake area, is more indicative of
the lake bottom area likely to be directly affected by
motorized watercraft.
The ratio of the length of shoreline around the
lake to the circumference of a circle with the same
area as the lake provides a size-independent
measure of lake shape and indicates much about
how motorized watercraft could affect the water-
body. Higher ratios suggest irregular shorelines
with more waterfront per unit area than smaller
ratios. Numerous coves may serve to isolate im-
pacts, but there is a greater potential for the
shoreline to be affected. High ratios also imply
greater safety risks as well as ecological consequen-
ces.
The extent of littoral bottom covered by rooted
aquatic plants is an important element to consider
when determining the impact of motorized
watercraft since extensive cover helps to minimize
resuspension of bottom sediments. The stability of
plant root systems is important because there is a
great variability among common macrophyte
species (Liddle and Scorgle, 1980). The ability of
vegetative fragments to re-root and establish new
plants may also magnify motorized watercraft im-
pacts.
Finally, the nature of the bottom sediments in
the pond will greatly affect motorized watercraft
impacts. Fine materials are more easily
resuspended and take longer to resettle. However,
the chemical composition of the sediments may
81
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K. J. WAGNER
mute or compound the influence of any motorized
watercraft inputs. Lastly, boulders, cobble, or
stumps deter intensive use of shallow water where
they can damage boat hulls or propellers.
Impact Evaluation
With these considerations in mind, the existing
database for motorized watercraft impacts can be
critically evaluated. This analysis will discuss the
potential influences listed in Table 1, assessing
what is known of each impact and associated
mitigative factors.
Altered Water Quality
Increased Turbidity
Motor-induced turbulence certainly has the poten-
tial to resuspend bottom sediments, but it is not
certain how much turbidity observed in lakes can
be attributed to motorized watercraft. Although
turbidity increases from motorboating were sug-
gested (Yousef et al. 1978) prior to 1980, there was
little quantitative evidence of motorized watercraft
causing appreciable turbidity (Liddle and Scorgie,
1980). For example, Moss (1977) found only a very
weak correlation between boating activity and tur-
bidity, while a much stronger correlation between
phytoplankton and water clarity has been drawn
from research on English river and canal systems.
Similar results were obtained for another English
system by Hilton and Phillips in 1982. Suspended
solids loads from the watershed may also over-
shadow any effect by motorized watercraft
(Horsfall et al. 1988).
More recently, however, there has been increas-
ing evidence of motor-induced turbidity. Yousef et
al. (1980) observed increased turbidity in three
Florida lakes in response to recreational motorboat
traffic and demonstrated this effect with an
enclosure experiment. Murphy and Easton (1983)
related turbidity to boat traffic in an English canal
system and found that it was the primary
mechanism controlling macrophyte community
composition and biomass. A detailed study of an
English river and canal system examined pre-
viously by Moss (1977) demonstrated how a single
boat could affect turbidity levels, gdting an impact
threshold speed of 5 mph and a-fecovery time of
about two minutes (Garrad and.Hey, 1987).
A lay monitoring program involving Secchi
disk measurements in an Indiana lake suggested
increased turbidity from boating during holiday
weekends (Crisman and Jones, 1990). A more ex-
tensive lay monitoring program in New
Hampshire that used Secchi disk measurements to
detect motorized watercraft impacts in multiple
lakes found highly variable effects (Schloss, 1990).
Impacts were observed in water that was over 15
feet deep in some instances.
Baystate Environmental Consultants (BEC) ex-
amined motorized watercraft influence on tur-
bidity in four Massachusetts lakes in 1988 as part of
a Massachusetts Qean Lakes Program study.
Periods of low and high motorized watercraft ac-
tivity were monitored seven times over 48-hour
periods. The results (Figs. 1 and 2) strongly suggest
the influence of motorized watercraft on turbidity
in shallow water away from swimming areas. Un-
acceptable water clarity is the result of interaction
between motorized watercraft and shallow water
depth, fine bottom sediments, and cover by weakly
rooted plants.
Oldham Pond, with the deepest average depth
(12.2 ft) and lowest shallowness ratio (0.17) showed
the least influence, while Furnace Pond, with the
shallowest average depth (5.3 ft) and highest shal-
lowness ratio (0.30), exhibited the most
pronounced impact. Impacts were detected shortly
after the onset of elevated boat activity (0.02 to 0.07
boats/ac/hr between 9 a.m. and 8 p.m.), declined
over each of two nights but not to the previous
day's starting level, and increased again
throughout each of two weekend days (Fig. 2).
Conditions were considered intolerable by swim-
mers in all but Oldham Pond by late Saturday
afternoon. Conditions during the virtual absence of
motorized watercraft (Fig. 1) did not change detec-
tably, and turbidity was appreciably lower than
during the period of elevated motorized watercraft
useage.
Note that the density of motorized watercraft
that resulted in unsatisfactory conditions ranged
ftom 14 to 50 acres per motor, which would
generally be considered an acceptable ratio for
motorized activity from the perspectives of safety
and user satisfaction. Note also, however, that if
the state law prohibiting motorized watercraft
within 150 feet of a public or private swimming
area was obeyed, shallow areas would be exposed
to much less motorized watercraft traffic.
Increased Nutrient Levels
Motorized watercraft may influence nutrient levels
in three ways: inputs from the motor itself, Inputs
from the occupant(s) of the watercraft, and
resuspension and recycling of previously settled
nutrients from the lake bottom or thermocline
region. Phosphorus was a very minor component
82
-------
ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990. 77-93
a
i ,
TURBIDITY IN OLDHAM POND
DURING LOW RECREATIONAL USE
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¦ 0T-T7
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20 29 49 30
TH 0«) IM» »/!/—. lyn.lln)
TURBIDITY IN LITTLE SANDY BOTTOM PONO
DURIN6 LOW RECREATIONAL USE
tS-Tt
IS-T2
0 20 29 43 3D
I tC (Ml) l/l/M. 2fm
TURBIDITY IN FURNACE POND
DURIN6 LOW RECREATIONAL USE
F*-Tl
rf-T2
TURBIDITY IN STETSON POND
DURIN6 LOW RECREATIONAL USE
¦ SP-TI
B SP-T2
20
L (W) (I
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0 20 29 49 90
ALL STATIONS LOCATED ALONG SHORELINE AT WATER DEPTH OF THREE FEET
Figure 1.—Turbidity In four ponds during near absence of motorized watercraft.
in leaded gasoline but is contained at somewhat
higher levels in unleaded gasoline (Jackivicz and
Kuzminski, 1973a). Yet the engineering advances
associated with engines required to use unleaded
fuel appear to have minimized release of phos-
phorus in exhaust. However, additives intended to
improve the operation of the more wasteful older
engines using unleaded gasoline contain even
more phosphorus, which could be a threat to lakes
with high sensitivity to phosphorus load increases.
Inputs of phosphorus from fuel may be detec-
table, but are apparently minor when compared
with other sources. Hallock and Falter (1987) deter-
mined that phosphorus and nitrogen inputs as-
sociated with engine exhausts comprised less than
1 percent of the corresponding loads to a set of
lakes experiencing elevated use by powerboats. A
mix of engine types was involved, but the contribu-
tions from different engine groups was not quan-
tified. BECs studies of a variety of Massachusetts
lakes have accounted for nearly all of the measured
phosphorus and nitrogen loads without consider-
ing motorized watercraft.
Inputs from watercraft occupants have been
considered a problem in some aquatic systems
(King and Mace, 1974; Craig, 1977; Lewis and
Marsh, 1977), but the problem tends to be severe
only in harbor areas where large boats congregate.
Furthermore, the impacts of actual watercraft users
and shoreline activities are rarely separated; the
impact of sewage and other waste discharges in
freshwater lakes from watercraft alone is largely
unqualified. Much like the problems of litter and
bacterial pollution, nutrient inputs from watercraft
occupants are largely a consequence of illegal or ir-
responsible acts that are largely a function of the
passengers, not the watercraft.
Resuspension and recycling of previously set-
tled nutrients by motorized watercraft vary widely
and are highly susceptible to the modifying in-
fluences of lake features and watercraft charac-
teristics discussed previously. In studies of multiple
lakes in New Hampshire, Schloss (1990) found
phosphorus load increases from motorized
watercraft ranging from 8 to 80 ng/L. In lakes
where internal loading is a primary phosphorus
source, motorized activity can be very influential.
83
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K. /. WAGNER
TURBIDITY IN OLDHAM POND
DURING HIGH RECREATIONAL USE
H 0P-T2
~ 0P-T4
t 20 24 SO *4 48
IH (M» CB^i».7/IS/»«.2»«Fri*»f>
TURBIDITY IN LITTLE SANDY BOTTOM POND
DURING HIGH RECREATIONAL USE
IM OIK)
24 JO 44
7/15/88, Tfm FrMaf)
TURBIDITY IN FURNACE POND
DURING HIGH RECREATIONAL USE
¦ FP-TI
B rp-n
~ rp-n
4 20 24 SO 44
TH (Ml) 7/13/M, TtmrrUi)
TURBIDITY IN STETSON POND
DURING HIGH RECREATIONAL USE
¦ SP-TI
0 sr-n
~ S*-T3
* 20 24 30 44
(NR) 7/13/t*. 2pBFrMjf>
STATIONS 0P-T4, FP-T3, LSBP-T3 AND SP-T3 ARE LOCATED CENTRALLY WITHIN EACH LAKE;
ALL OTHER STATIONS ARE LOCATED ALONG SHORELINE AT A WATER DEPTH OF THREE FEET
Figura 2.—Turbidity In four ponds during tvelvated use of motorized watercraft.
In field studies of Florida lakes, Yousef et al.
(1980) found that the rate of increase in phosphorus
content from water column agitation exceeded the
rate of decrease after its cessation. A net gain in
phosphorus levels of 7 to 166 ng/ L was observed in
response to motorboat activity. In BEC's study of
four Massachusetts lakes discussed in conjunction
with turbidity generation, only Furnace Pond ex-
hibited detectably higher phosphorus levels from
motorized watercraft activity. Furnace Pond has a
highly organic, nutrient-rich muck with a low
specific gravity, while the other three ponds have
greater portions of sand in their bottom sediments.
Increased Hydrocarbon
Concentrations
. ,
Hydrocarbon emissions from motorized watercraft
are similar to those produced by automobiles, with
over 100 possible compounds released at detec-
table levels (Jackivicz and Kuzminski, 1973a).
Many of these will not persist in water, however,
because of volatility and natural degradation
processes. Additionally, actual inputs are not readi-
ly visible during most operational speeds, as
propeller-induced turbulence rapidly mixes ex-
haust discharge with surrounding lake water.
Phenolic compounds have been cited as the most
troublesome exhaust component (English et al.
1963a), and Kuzminski et al. (1973) indicated that
the bulk of the emitted hydrocarbons were com-
ponents of unburned fuel. This problem has been
greatly diminished by engineering advances of the
last two decades.
Given the volume of fuel necessary to produce a
visible oil film, visual detection of motorized
watercraft impacts outside of marinas is unlikely.
Even within a marina, runoff from adjacent park-
ing lots may prove to be a greater source of
hydrocarbon films than watercraft. Chemical
detection is possible, but the capacity of natural
systems to attenuate impacts is often surprising.
Key questions regarding impacts on flora and
fauna will be addressed later in this discussion.
84
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 77-93
Increased Metals Levels
Although there has been considerable research on
the concentrations of metals in aquatic sediments
and biota, and those metals must travel through
the water to reach the sediment or organisms, there
is little documentation that motorized watercraft
elevate metals levels in water. Metals are fairly
rapidly sequestered in the sediments (Kuzminski
and Mulcahy, 1974), and are recycled through
biological processes and some chemical reactions at
low pH. If a particular metal is not present at
elevated levels in the sediments, the overlying
water is unlikely to contain a detectable level.
Increased Oxygenation
Turbulence created by motorized watercraft would
appear to have the potential to increase mixing (at
least near the surface of a lake) and would thereby
be expected to increase oxygen transfer from the at-
mosphere to the lake. Yousef et al. (1980) observed
a very limited and statistically insignificant in-
crease in dissolved oxygen levels in their Florida
study lakes despite appreciable changes in tur-
bidity and phosphorus concentration. Dissolved
oxygen levels were near saturation throughout
their experiments, however, limiting the potential
for oxygen increases.
Hallock and Falter (1987) observed no increase
in dissolved oxygen levels in enclosures subjected
to eight hours of outboard engine use and noted
that discharge of oxygen-demanding substances
resulted in a detectable decrease in oxygen levels
for as much as 12 days after motorized test runs.
Similarly, the literature reviewed by Milliken and
Lee (1990) suggested oxygen reductions in marina
areas related to sewage discharges; oxygenation by
propeller-induced turbulence was apparently in-
sufficient to counteract oxygen demand.
Motorized watercraft do not appear to be a sig-
nificant force in aeration of lakes. Aside from the
counteraction of discharged oxygen-demanding
compounds, the real potential for oxygen levels to
be increased by motorized watercraft should be
carefully considered. The rate of transfer of oxygen
to an aquatic environment can be described by the
O'Connor-Dobbins equation (Weber, 1972):
k = pi • v/h3)0'5
where k = transfer coefficient
D| = diffusion coefficient = 0.001944 ft2/day
@20*C
v = velocity in ft/day
h = depth of mixing, arbitrarily set at 10 ft here
The difference between a lake surface impacted
only by normal winds and a lake surface disturbed
by motorized watercraft will be reflected in the
velocity term, v. Assuming a watercraft speed of 25
mph (37 ft/sec or 3.2 million ft/day) and a normal,
quiescent mixing speed of 0.01 feet per second (864
ft/day), the resulting values for the transfer coeffi-
cient k, are 2.48 per day for the motor-impacted
area and 0.04 per day for the undisturbed lake.
While this suggests that motorized watercraft can
greatly elevate the transfer coefficient, the affected
area must also be considered in predicting the
overall contribution.
Given a single motoiboat operating at 25 mph
and causing complete mixing in an area 10 feet
wide, 367 square feet of lake area will be affected
by the altered transfer coefficient every second. In a
100-acre lake during that same second, the natural
transfer coefficient will be in effect over an area of
4,356,000 square feet. Weighting the transfer coeffi-
cients by the respective areas affected per unit time,
the motorboat raises the rate of oxygen transfer by
only 0.5 percent. In a 100-acre lake, the number of
high-speed watercraft operating simultaneously
should certainly not exceed 10, suggesting a maxi-
mum increase in aeration potential of 5 percent
under the specified conditions. It is therefore high-
ly unlikely that motorized watercraft will have an/
detectable positive impact on the dissolved oxygen
level of a lake.
Increased Contamination by
Pathogens
The release of pathogens from motorized water-
craft activity is a function of sewage discharges and
falls into the same category as nutrient inputs by
watercraft occupants. It is a people management
problem, not just a motorized watercraft issue.
Release of pathogens is generally monitored
through assessment of fecal bacterial levels, al-
though total coliform standards are used as well.
Little impact was detected by some researchers
who lumped in-lake and shoreline activities
(Rosebery, 1964; Carswell et al. 1969; Canter, 1976).
However, differences in bacterial levels between
reservoirs where recreation was allowed and those
where it was not are evident (Minkus, 1965;
Carswell et al. 1969), but they are simply not great
enough to warrant extreme precaution where treat-
ment of water supplies is routine. The use of bac-
teria as surrogates for pathogenic contamination
and various aspects of study design have been
criticized (Carswell et al. 1969), however, suggest-
ing the need for more detailed investigations.
85
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K. J. WAGNER
Gibson et al. (1986) have pointed out the poten-
tially overshadowing impact of wildlife popula-
tions and urban pets on water resource microbiol-
ogy but note that most violations of health
standards appear to be related to high intensity
recreational use. Marinas are particularly suscep-
tible to problems of this nature, presumably
through inadequate or disregarded waste disposal
provisions. Milliken and Lee (1990) noted that
several studies had established a positive correla-
tion between fecal coliform bacteria concentrations
and boat densities, but that no direct link between
boating and the incidence of disease had been
demonstrated. Other studies reviewed by Milliken
and Lee indicated no correlation between fecal bac-
teria and boats, however, and suggested an over-
riding influence by land-based sources of bacteria.
In cases where boat inputs were believed to be
the primary source of fecal bacteria, a ratio of 26 to
58 million gallons of water to each boat has been
suggested to maintain a fecal coliform concentra-
tion less than 14 per 100 milliliters (Milliken and
Lee, 1990). This is the standard for marine shellfish
harvest; adjustment to the freshwater contact
recreation standard of 200 per 100 milliliters yields
a ratio of 2 to 4 million gallons (700 to 1540 cubic
meters) of water to each boat. This ratio may be
hard to meet in marina situations but represents no
problem in most open water areas.
Changes in Taste and Odor
The sensory properties of water can certainly be af-
fected by exhaust discharges from motors (English
et al. 1963a,b; Kuzminski et al. 1974), but the quan-
tities necessary to impart a perceptible taste or odor
would necessitate a high density of motorized
watercraft. While the need for millions of gallons of
dilution water per gallon of exhaust discharge may
seem high, the water volumes typically en-
countered in the open lake environment are far
greater. Persistent problems are therefore likely to
arise only in confined areas with high motor den-
sity, such as marinas.
Altered Sediment Quality
Redistribution of Particles by
Shoreline Erosion
Waves generated by motorized watercraft may cre-
ate a shoreline erosion hazard if the shoreline con-
dition is susceptible to erosion. Key factors in
determining erosion susceptibility are soil condi-
tion and vegetative cover, each of which can be al-
tered by shoreline activity (Settergren, 1977;
Horsfall et al. 1988). Shoreline use patterns and
resultant conditions are therefore of paramount im-
portance to determining the impact of motorized
watercraft on shoreline erosion.
Impact variability is expected to be much like
that of tuibidity generation or alteration of nutrient
levels. Cases of severe erosion have been docu-
mented (Liddle and Scorgie, 1980), but conclusive
separation of motorized watercraft impacts from
wind-generated wave activity and land-based
runoff damage is rare. Shoreline erosion at
watercraft input points has been documented
(Densmore and Dahlstand, 1965; Hansen, 1975),
but this is not a function of motor activity.
Redistribution of Particles by
Littoral Zone Processes
Given the distinct potential for motorized
watercraft to resuspend previously settled particles
(Yousef et al. 1980; Garrad and Hey, 1977),
redistribution of particles within a lake seems quite
plausible. Studies of such phenomena are lacking,
however, and observational data suggest no ob-
vious effects. It seems likely that particles would be
vertically stratified with the finest material on top
and that there would be an eventual loss of fine
material from shallow areas as it is resuspended
and carried to deeper portions of the lake. Lagler et
al. (1950) observed alteration of benthic inver-
tebrate communities and suggested that some
habitat modification was occurring through
redistribution of fine sediments, but other
mechanisms were not ruled out.
Increased Nutrient Accumulations
Given the lack of evidence for marked increases in
actual nutrient inputs by motorized watercraft, it
appears that there is no reason to assume any ap-
preciable accumulation of nutrients in the sedi-
ments as a consequence of motorized watercraft ac-
tivity. If such accumulations are to be found, they
would be in marina areas. If sediment nutrient
levels are not elevated in areas of extensive boat
mooring, there is little likelihood of finding
watercraft-related increases in nutrients in offshore
sediments.
Increased Hydrocarbon
Accumulations
Although spills can create extensive and lasting
hydrocarbon accumulations in aquatic sediments,
the potential for inputs of the necessary magnitude
to freshwater lakes is limited to marinas. Con-
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 77-93
tamination in marinas has been found to be severe
in some cases (Broman, 1984) and minimal in
others (Nixon et al. 1973), based on documented
biotic impacts. Given the lighter nature of fuels, ac-
cumulations are rather different than those as-
sociated with crude oil spills; much of the fuel
hydrocarbon content is volatilized or forms an
emulsion with water and never reaches the lake
bottom (Jackivicz and Kuzminski, 1973a). The
potential for meaningful contamination exists, but
each potential case should be assessed on its own
merits.
Increased Metals Accumulations
Metals enter the aquatic environment from motor
exhausts (Jackivicz and Kuzminski, 1973a; Pecor
and Novy, 1973) and from leaching from anti-foul-
ing paints (Alliot and Frenet-Piron, 1988; Balogh
1988). Since anti-fouling paints are generally used
in marine situations, they should not be a major
factor in metals accumulations in smaller fresh-
water lakes. Metals in engine exhausts have been
more of a factor in the past than they are today (Jer-
nigan, 1990), but the sediments contain evidence of
past abuses that can affect lake ecology.
Lead is the metal most commonly associated
with engine exhaust, but cadmium, tin, and other
metals can also be released in detectable concentra-
tions and accumulate in lake sediment (Byrd and
Perona, 1979; Makker et al. 1989). Studies of sedi-
ment composition are unlikely to definitively iso-
late motorized watercraft as the source for these
metals, as land-based sources complicate data in-
terpretation (Koppen and Souza, 1984), but a very
likely relation of metals accumulations to
motorized watercraft density has been established
in several cases (Byrd and Perona, 1979; Makker et
al. 1989). The potential impacts of these accumula-
tions are addressed in the sections of this discus-
sion devoted to flora and fauna.
Altered Flora
Epilimnetic Mixing of
Phytoplankton
The turbulence introduced by motorized watercraft
certainly has the potential to mix the phyto-
plankton community in the upper water layer of a
lake (Yousef et al. 1978,1980) and could be a factor
in minimizing surface scum formation in small
lakes. As with the impact of motorized watercraft
on oxygen levels, however, the effect of motor-in-
duced turbulence is likely to be minor when com-
pared to natural processes such as wind-induced
mixing or massive rises of vacuolate cyanophytes.
Heavily travelled boating lanes may experience
some surface scum control, however, at least
during normal boating hours.
In much the same way as watercraft have the
potential to disrupt surface accumulations of algae,
they have the potential to stir up bottom-dwelling
mats of filamentous algae in shallow areas (Schloss,
1990). These mats sometimes rise to the surface as a
consequence of trapped gas bubbles, but this
process may be short-circuited by turbulence from
motorized watercraft. In addition to stirring up the
algal mats themselves, motorized watercraft may
facilitate resuspension of associated nutrient-rich
sediment particles that may then fuel additional
algal growth.
Inhibition of Algal Growth
Although concentrated solutions of motor exhaust
have been shown to be detrimental to phyto-
plankton growth (Stewart and Howard, 1968; Kuz-
minski and Fredette, 1974), water from lakes or
coastal areas that have been impacted by
motorized watercraft had little negative effect on
phytoplankton growth (Nixon et al. 1973; Kuz-
minski and Fredette, 1974). Walsh et al. (1985) sug-
gested that organotins derived from boating ac-
tivity could be a hazard to diatoms in areas of
heavy motorboat traffic, based on toxicity at fairly
low concentrations. In standard bioassays, it took a
dilution ratio of less than 13,333 gallons of water to
one gallon of engine exhaust to inhibit the growth
of Selenastrum, and a ratio of less than 3333:1 to kill
the algae (Kuzminski and Fredette, 1974); natural
dilution ratios tend to be much higher, even in
marinas.
Yet data exist that indicate toxicity of engine-
derived hydrocarbons to plankton at much lower
concentrations, and it has been suggested that
toxicity assays should employ natural assemblages
of organisms (Home, 1990). Even if the produc-
tivity of the natural assemblage is not detectably al-
tered, there may be substantial shifts in species
composition or relative abundance. There appear
to be many influential variables here, yielding a
wide range of possible responses. Nevertheless,
normal levels of outboard motor usage have not
been shown to have distinctly toxic effects on
aquatic communities (Mflliken and Lee, 1990).
Stimulation of Algal Growth
There is little evidence of any stimulatory effect of
motor exhaust on growth. Kuzminski and Fredette
(1974) found no increase in growth rates of
87
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K. J. WAGNER
Selenastrum in standard bioassays employing en-
gine exhaust, and Nixon et al. (1973) found no in-
crease in planktonic production in a marina area
over a nearby marsh habitat. This is generally con-
sistent with the lack of evidence for substantial
nutrient inputs from motorized watercraft, but
these studies did not address lakes with very low
nutrient loading.
Although inputs from motorized watercraft do
not appear to have a consistently substantial im-
pact on algae, increased nutrient levels caused by
motor-induced turbulence can stimulate algal
growth (Yousef et al. 1980). The increase in nutrient
levels may be offset to some extent by reductions in
light intensity and spectral quality changes, but the
net effect of motorized watercraft traffic appears to
be an increased potential for phytoplankton
growth. This potential may be overshadowed by
land-based inputs, however (Horsfall et al. 1988),
and should be assessed on a case-by-case basis.
Inhibition of Rooted Plant Growth
by Direct Damage
The direct impact of motorized watercraft on
rooted plant communities is a function of the depth
of those communities below the water surface, the
rooting stability of the species in the community,
and the force exerted by the watercraft. Lagler et al.
(1950) noted that a motorboat could effectively
remove all rooted vegetation at a water depth of
less than three feet. Liddle and Scorgie (1980)
separated plants into four categories of rooting
stability, based on ease of removal, and discussed
the forces generated by motorized watercraft.
Aside from direct contact with the propeller,
which can remove the growing tip of submerged
plants, abrasion from boat hulls can damage or
destroy aquatic macrophytes (Liddle and Scorgie,
1980). Recovery from disruption of the root system
of some plants can be very slow, leaving bare
patches of erodible sediment or allowing replace-
ment by other species (Zieman, 1976). BEC's divers
have observed areas where swaths of Najas flexilis
and Nitella flexilis, two rather weakly rooted
species, have been removed by propeller action
during the initiation of waterskiing runs in water
up to 10 feet deep.
Although the above mechanisms of direct dis-
turbance are known, the actual extent of direct
physical damage to rooted plants ty motorized
watercraft in specific aquatic systems is largely un-
known. Most direct impacts are likely to take place
in shallow water (<5 ft), while indirect impacts
dominate in deeper lake areas.
Inhibition of Rooted Plant Growth
by Indirect Suppression
The primary means for indirect suppression of
rooted aquatic plants by motorized watercraft is
generation of turbidity, with the level and timing
having prime importance (Murphy and Easton,
1983). In 50 percent of the canals studied, the
threshold of 2,000 to 4,000 motoiboat passes per
year necessary to generate enough turbidity to
eliminate rooted macrophytes was attained; 24 per-
cent exceeded the 2,000 passes per year level, and
26 percent surpassed the 4,000 passes per year fre-
quency. However, plant assemblages were altered
but not eliminated if a frequency equating to 300 to
600 passes per year was maintained during the
critical spring development period.
As many factors contribute to generation of tur-
bidity by motorized watercraft, it is necessary to
carefully assess lake conditions and characteristics
of the watercraft before estimating likely impacts
on the rooted plant community. Additionally, other
uses of the lake must be considered. Except in
heavily trafficked boating lanes, it is unlikely that
the level of turbidity necessary to eliminate plants
will be sustained or accepted by other lake users
(for example, swimmers). Management actions
would probably be demanded before conditions
degraded to the point where widespread rooted
plant die-off occurred. More subtle effects relating
to spring peaks of turbidity generation (around the
Memorial Day holiday weekend) are more likely to
occur but have not been documented in lakes.
Dispersal of Rooted Plants
Motorized watercraft may aid dispersal of plants
within and between lakes. It is difficult to separate
the impacts of watercraft from those of waterfowl
and water currents, however, and few conclusive
studies have been completed. Since vegetative frag-
ments cut from rooted plants by propellers have
been observed to take root and start new plants
(personal observation), there is clearly the potential
for intra-lake spread of nuisance species by
motorized watercraft.
The rapid spread of certain nuisance species (for
example, Myriophyllum spicatum) among the lakes
in a region has been attributed to trailered motor-
boats by government agencies, but there are few
careful studies. Newroth (1979) demonstrated
inter-lake dispersal by motorized watercraft in
British Columbia, Canada, and a very insightful
study was performed by Johnstone et al. (1985) in
New Zealand, where the authors found that the
88
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 77-93
distribution of nuisance species in 107 lakes strong-
ly indicated watercraft as prime vectors. Of the
motorized watercraft on 14 surveyed lakes, 27 per-
cent had come from another lake; only 5.4 percent
of motorized watercraft leaving these lakes carried
viable plant fragments, however. The probability of
a boat leaving the water with viable plant frag-
ments increased with increasing plant density in
the vicinity of the boat ramp. Successful transfer
declined with increasing distance between lakes,
up to a maximum distance of about 76 miles.
Altered Fauna
Collision-induced Mortality
Most fish and wildlife can successfully avoid col-
lisions with watercraft, so collision-induced mor-
tality is a somewhat unusual occurrence. An ex-
ception is presented by the manatee in Florida,
which has been subjected to substantial mortality
as a consequence of motorized watercraft traffic.
O'Shea et al. (1985) found that out of 219 manatee
deaths that could be attributed to known causes, 87
were the result of collisions with motorboats and
and at least 55 others were related to other human
activities. Richardson et al. (1985) found that
whales responded to boat noises (actual or
recorded) with evasive actions, and similar respon-
ses have been assumed for fish.
Reduced Reproductive Success
In a classic 1950 study, Lagler et al. examined the
effects of motorboats on warmwater fish popula-
tions and found no significant impacts that could
be clearly linked to the boats. There was no sig-
nificant mortality of spawning adults or fry, and
production between the motor pond and the con-
trol pond was similar. Adults fled from nesting
sites as boats approached but returned as soon as
the boats passed. The only mechanism of fish mor-
tality considered likely was destruction of eggs and
nests by motor-induced turbulence in veiy shallow
(< 2 ft) water. No overall impact on bass and sun-
fish populations from this mechanism was
detected, however.
Researchers (Galhoff et al. 1984; Koepth and
Dietrich, 1986) have documented evasive flights of
waterfowl in response to motorized watercraft ap-
proaches, but the impact on the reproductive suc-
cess of such waterfowl has only recently received
focused attention. Ahlund and Gotmark (1989)
found that predation on eider ducklings by gulls
increased by 200 to 300 percent in the presence of
motorized watercraft. Predation took place
primarily when the adult eider ducks were scared
away from their nests by watercraft. The proximity
of gulls to the nesting area and the frequency of
boat traffic were found to be the most important
variables in determining predation rates.
Watercraft can increase human disturbance of
nests simply by making nesting areas more acces-
sible, but such impact is not restricted to motorized
watercraft and is a function of irresponsible human
actions, not the watercraft itself. Ream (1979) dis-
cusses the stresses placed on wildlife by intentional
and unintentional human actions associated with
recreation of all types and notes that increased
education of recreationists could go a long way
toward minimizing impacts.
There has been speculation that loon popula-
tions in North America have been negatively im-
pacted by motorized watercraft, but the laigest
threat to these birds is methylated mercuiy com-
pounds that do not appear to be a result of motor
usage (Mclntyre, 1989). Certainly these birds and
other species are sensitive to human presence,
however, and intensive motorized watercraft traffic
may reduce waterfowl use of affected lakes
(Horsfall etal. 1988).
Changes through Food Resource
Modification
Motorized watercraft can alter the food resource
base in a lake by stirring up the bottom sediments
in shallow areas. Lagler et al. (1950) postulated that
reductions in invertebrate densities in very shallow
water in their motor pond were related to preda-
tion by sunfish and bass when the invertebrates
were washed from safe hiding by motorboats.
Trout have been observed to gorge themselves
on large dragonfly nymphs, Anax, and smaller
damselfly nymphs, Emllagma, when the bottom of
a shallow pond was severely agitated (personal ob-
servation). Even extreme turbidity did not prevent
greatly elevated predation on the exposed nymphs.
Bluefish in bays have also been observed to con-
gregate behind boats stirring up the mud in shal-
low waters (personal observation), and dolphins
have been known to cluster in the vicinity of
shrimp boats (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983).
How much influence such activity has on fish
growth or invertebrate densities in freshwater en-
vironments is generally unknown.
The activities of fishermen can affect food
resources, either by what they take out of the sys-
tem or what they put in. Intense fishing tends to
alter the size structure of fish communities and can
89
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K ]. WAGNER
have a cascading effect on other portions of the
food web (Kitchell and Carpenter, 1987), although
such fishing is not strictly dependent on motorized
watercraft. Shorebird assemblages can be struc-
tured by the wastes available from fishing fleets
(Hudson and Furness, 1989), although the mag-
nitude of such influences in smaller recreational
lakes is likely to be negligible.
Changes through Habitat
Modification — Physical Habitat
Although Lagler et al. (1950) suggested that motor-
boats in water less than 3 feet deep could impact
fish and benthic invertebrate habitat, quantitative
studies of physical habitat alteration are rare. The
forces exerted by motorized watercraft traffic are
generally within the range of naturally occurring
actions (waves, mixing), and would not be ex-
pected to detectably change the physical habitat
over large areas except under unusual circum-
stances.
If the littoral or shoreline habitat was altered,
however, this would probably affect faunal resi-
dents. Impacts of motorized watercraft on reptiles
and amphibians have been virtually undocu-
mented, but indirect impacts through habitat
modification are certainly possible. Careful con-
sideration of the features of a lake that might make
it prone to such changes in habitat is warranted,
but there is no clear research basis for assuming
any impact.
Changes through Habitat
Modification — Chemical Habitat
Substances discharged from motors during opera-
tion can be toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates
but not at typically occurring concentrations.
Lagler et al. (1950) found no chemical effects on
fish or invertebrates in a pond subjected to sub-
stantial use by motorized watercraft. Nixon et al.
(1973) found little difference between the faunal as-
semblage in a marina and that in a nearby marsh
that was largely unaffected by boat traffic. Neither
water quality nor sediment condition were found
to detectably influence biotic structure in these
cases.
Bioaccumulation of metals or otifter substances
could have long-term effects on bttithic dwellers,
suspension feeders, and their predators, but non-
lethal effects are difficult to measure and separate
from other influences. Horsfall et al. (1978) found
only low levels of lead in sponges from a heavily
boated lake and concluded that there was no dis-
cernible influence on the sponge population of the
lake by motorboats. Yet Balogh (1988) found higher
levels of zinc, copper, cadmium, and lead in mus-
sels in a boat harbor in Lake Balaton, Hungary,
than in nearby open waters and suggested a
detrimental effect on the harbor population from
antifouling agents on boat hulls.
In bioassay tests (Kuzminski et al. 1974) scud
were found to be adversely affected by a solution
of 3 percent motor exhaust water, while dragonfly
nymphs were not negatively impacted until the ex-
haust concentration was increased to at least 15
percent. Bluegill sunfish and fathead minnows
were not typically affected by less than a 20 percent
solution of exhaust (Kuzminski and Jackivicz,
1972). Typical dilution of engine exhausts in even a
marina setting would result in exhaust concentra-
tions of far less than 1 percent, suggesting that ob-
servable mortality from chemical contamination of
lakes by motorized watercraft is unlikely.
Chronic toxicity occurred at lower concentra-
tions, but the toxicity of exhaust solutions declined
markedly over a period of about two weeks
(English et al. 1963a). Unless motorized watercraft
use is persistently elevated in an isolated area with
limited flushing, chronic effects are highly im-
probable.
Flesh Tainting
Although organisms may not be killed by the sub-
stances released by motorized watercraft, more
subtle effects are possible. Behavioral changes have
not been well studied, but tainting of fish flesh has
received some attention by virtue of its bearing on
recreational fishing interests. English et al.
(1963a,b) found that discernible tastes occurred in
several warmwater fish species after multiple
weeks of exposure at dilution ratios less than
6,000,000:1. The maximum dilution that produced
flesh tainting is of the same magnitude as the odor
threshold. Therefore, if there is no water odor, fish
flesh tainting is unlikely.
Managing Motorized
Watercraft Impacts
From the above discussion, it should be clear that
there are few if any rules of thumb by which
motorized watercraft management should be
governed. It is essential that the features of the lake
and the watercraft using it be considered in any
evaluation of probable impacts. Probable impacts
will vary widely among systems. If one wishes to
90
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 77-93
successfully manage motorized watercraft on a
lake, it is critical that the goals of such management
be derived in a logical fashion and be clearly stated.
In setting goals, it is highly desirable to assess
the lake user community, including human and
nonhuman elements, and to quantify human user
preferences and expectations for the resource.
Determining the management objectives will in-
volve evaluating and balancing ecological, social,
and economic considerations and often falls into
the realm of politics. Once the goals of manage-
ment are set in place (which is easier said than
done), the appropriate strategies for achieving
those goals can be intelligently screened.
Motorized watercraft restrictions fall into just a
few categories. Prohibition of all or certain types of
motorized watercraft is the most severe restriction
but is often warranted. A regional perspective on
boating opportunities is helpful when considering
prohibition of motorized watercraft for a given
lake. The use of prohibition is justified when safety
considerations are paramount or when the mini-
mum anticipated level of impact on the lake
ecosystem is inconsistent with management objec-
tives.
A more subtle and less discriminatory form of
prohibition involves restricting access. If there are
only a few spaces in the parking area associated
with a boat launch, a limited number of watercraft
will be brought to the lake. A certain number of
passes can be made available for watercraft use on
a controlled lake, after which access is denied. Such
restrictions may limit density but will not neces-
sarily eliminate impacts by motorized watercraft
and may be perceived as unfair by lake users.
Horsepower limits represent a modified form of
prohibition, which addresses engine size but not
watercraft design or operational features. Speed
limits address the operational features in a general
way but do not consider engine size or watercraft
design. Horsepower limits are easier to implement
and enforce than speed limits, while the latter are
more likely to minimize disruptive ecological ef-
fects than horsepower limits. Either may be con-
strued as unfair or arbitrary by some user groups
for logical reasons. If either horsepower or speed
limits are to be employed, it is advisable to base the
established limit on a scientifically defensible ra-
tionale and the specific characteristics of the lake in
question. Blanket coverage of a region by these
limits is apt to be inappropriate.
The most flexible approach to motorized
watercraft restrictions involves time and/or space
zoning of the lake, lime zoning of a lake involves
setting hours for motorized transport and other
uses or establishing a schedule of rotating days for
specific uses. In Eastham, Massachussetts, for ex-
ample, motorized watercraft are permitted on odd-
numbered days, allowing windsurfers, sailboaters,
canoeists and others using nonmotorized
watercraft to have the run of this 110-acre lake on
even-numbered days. Conditions are such that any
turbidity generated on odd-numbered days has
subsided to minimal levels by the morning of even-
numbered days. Such regulations were considered
necessary to accommodate elevated pressure from
competing uses in this summer resort community.
Other uses of time zoning include quiet hours
during which more passive recreational pursuits
can be enjoyed, hours in which the majority of lake
surface is devoted to waterskiing, and periods
during which fishermen can practice their art free
of distraction. The key is in reaching a consensus
among user groups that satisfies the greatest num-
ber of users for the greatest amount of time while
preserving desirable lake qualities.
Space zoning involves setting aside portions of
a lake for specific uses (Engel, 1988). Aside from es-
tablishment of supervised swimming areas, space
zoning is likely to be acceptable only in larger lakes
where sufficient space is available for each use.
Space zoning allows key habitat areas to be set
aside, can restrict motorized watercraft to areas of
least potential impact, protects the best fishing ,
spots from disturbance, and promotes safe swim-
ming. When space zoning is applied, appropriate
lake management techniques for each area of the
lake can be selected. The reduced scale of im-
plementation tor each technique (for example, har-
vesting or aeration) may lead to a cost savings and
allows area-specific fine-tuning of each technique
for maximum effectiveness.
Conclusions
The many possible impacts of motorized watercraft
are determined by a complex combination of lake
and watercraft characteristics that is unique to each
lake or at least each lake type. It is therefore critical
to have a clear understanding of the relative impor-
tance of each factor and its role in the system under
scrutiny. As regulatory approaches to managing
motorized watercraft are limited in diversity and
are restrictive by intent, it is essential to make wise
choices based on sound scientific information and
relevant social and economic issues.
The impacts of motorized watercraft appear to
be largely density dependent; increased use trans-
lates into increased potential for impact. Some im-
pacts have relatively distinct thresholds, however,
so the relationship between density and impact is
91
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K. J. WAGNER
not always linear. Many impacts are most likely to
occur in marina situations, suggesting that if effects
are not observed in marinas they will probably not
be detectable in the lake. Similar impacts from
other sources may overshadow those from
motorized watercraft, and it is not always possible
to separate the effects of motorized watercraft from
those of other watercraft or land-based activities.
Alternative explanations for observed impacts
must be considered in management decisions.
The potential negative impacts of motorized
watercraft appear to greatly outnumber possible
positive effects. It is therefore not reasonable to
claim that the aquatic environment benefits from
motorized watercraft use. As the types and levels
of impact can vary so tremendously between lakes,
however, it is also not reasonable to assume that
motorized watercraft will have a detectably
detrimental impact on a given water resource.
Restrictions and performance standards should be
set on a case-by-case basis, with regional coordina-
tion to maximize satisfaction of demand for
specific uses within an appropriate geographic
range.
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ENHANCING STATES' LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 95-98
Stormwater and Urban Runoff
Discharge Permits for the County of
Los Angeles
Catherine Tyrrell
Director
Santa Monica Bay Restoration Project
Los Angeles, California
Xavier Swamikannu
Water Quality Engineer
California Regional Water Quality Control Board
Los Angeles, California
ABSTRACT
Stormwater has been identified as contributing disproportionately to the degradation of wateifcodiea in Los
Angeles County, California. Recognizing the urgency of addressing this problem, key local agencies of the
Santa Monica Bay Restoration Project formed a working group to devise a strategy for the development of a
stormwater management program within the county. The working group determined that the best approach
for developing a timely, comprehensive, and cost-effective program would be to obtain a permit under the
existing authority and framework of the NPDES program as soon as possible (without waiting for the release
of EPA's final regulations). The permit would be issued by the Regional Water Quality Control Board to the
County of Los Angeles Department of Public Works, as the principal permittee, with the cities and other
¦ ¦ ,J--,l- a Amihi* and coooeiativelv developed
county ot los Angeies uepanmera IH rilMH. nvinwf —¦ *•_- r. r — A
agencies as co-permittees. This approach provides the basis for a flexible and cooperatively developed
program that will be adaptable to the distinct structure of die Los Angeles County drainage system: its large
size, the proximity of constituent cities, the networking of the stanndrain systems, and overlapping city and
Introduction
The Clean Water Act was amended in 1972 to
prohibit the discharge of any pollutant to navigable
waters from industries and municipal sewage treat-
ment facilities (point sources) unless the discharge
is authorized by a National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit. These facil-
ities were targeted for regulation because they were
easily identifiable and waste discharges from them
were loosely controlled. However, as mote and
more point source discharges were brought under
regulation, it became apparent that more diffuse
sources like stormwater discharges, urban runoff,
and agricultural runoff were also major con-
tributors to the deterioration of water quality. In
1983, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
completed the five-year Nationwide Urban Runoff
95
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C. TYRRELL and X SWAMIKANNU
Program (NURP), which established priorities for
the control of stormwater and urban runoff dis-
charges.
The Water Quality Act of 1987 added section
402(p) to require EPA to establish regulations set-
ting forth NPDES permit requirements for storm-
water discharges associated with municipal
separate storm drain systems and industrial
facilities. EPA was to promulgate final regulations
for municipal separate storm drain systems serving
cities with a population of 250,000 or more by
February 4,1989, and by February 4,1991, for cities
with populations of 100,000 or more but less than
250,000. Proposed stormwater regulations for in-
dustries and large cities (population 250,000 or
greater) were published by EPA in the Federal
Register for comment on December 7, 1988. Final
regulations are tentatively scheduled to be issued
by the end of 1990.
Background
Stormwater and urban runoff discharges in Los
Angeles County contribute disproportionately to
the deterioration of waterbodies in the county and
impair their beneficial uses. Santa Monica Bay,
which was included in the National Estuary Pro-
gram in 1988 in recognition of its unique resources,
provided the impetus and initiative for the
Regional Board, EPA, Los Angeles County, and
other cities (principally Los Angeles and Santa
Monica) to work toward a program to control
urban runoff and stormwater discharges to Santa
Monica Bay and eventually to all waterbodies in
the county.
The consensus of the interagency work group
was that the best approach to develop a timely,
comprehensive, and cost-effective program is to
obtain a permit under the existing authority and
framework of the NPDES program as soon as pos-
sible (without waiting for the promulgation of
EPA's final regulations). This approach provides
the basis for a flexible and cooperatively developed
program that would be adaptable to the Los An-
geles County drainage system's distinct structure,
its large size, the proximity of constituent cities, the
networking of the storm drain systems, and over-
lapping city/county jurisdictions over drainage
facilities.
The strategy visualizes a permit being issued to
the Los Angeles County Department of Public
Works, the principal permittee, and cities and other
entities as co-permittees, under the framework of
NPDES. The proposed permit requirements differ
markedly from previous NPDES permits issued to
municipal and industrial facilities, by emphasizing
pollution control through best management prac-
tices (BMPs) as opposed to technology-driven
water quality standards, at least in the first five-
year term.
The task force recognized that extensive public
participation and involvement would be required
to execute and implement an effective program.
Consequently, opportunity for public review and
comment is provided through annual regional
board workshops and permit provisions mandat-
ing permittee demonstration of public input prior
to submittal of plans and programs.
The permit divides Los Angeles County into
five drainage basins that will be phased in over a
period of three years beginning with the Santa
Monica Bay Drainage Basin in July 1990. In the first
year, the Los Angeles County Department of Public
Works is required to submit source characterization
data and identify stormwater and urban runoff dis-
charge sources. Further, it is required to document
existing stormwater pollution control practices,
provide an implementation schedule for early ac-
tion BMPs, and submit a stormwater monitoring
program workplan.
In the second year, the Los Angeles County
Department of Public Works must implement a
comprehensive stormwater quality monitoring
program, submit plans and schedules for im-
plementation of additional BMPs and actions to ad-
dress illegal discharges and illegal practices, and
provide evidence of legal authority to enforce
regulations and prosecute violators.
In the third year, it is required to document
progress on plans, schedules, and programs sub-
mitted in the second year. This information will be
scrutinized to document the effectiveness of BMPs
and other control measures implemented in reduc-
ing water quality impacts from discharges of
stormwater and urban runoff.
Permit Overview
The stormwater discharge permit would be issued
by the Regional Board to the County of Los An-
geles, Department of Public Works, as the principal
permittee, with the cities and other agencies and
entities involved as co-permittees. The Los Angeles
County Department of Public Works, the permit
coordinator responsible for the general administra-
tion of the permit, will coordinate cooperation by
co-permittees. The permit requires permittees to
develop and implement an effective countywide
stormwater pollution control program.
96
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ENHANCING STATES'LAKE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS, 1990: 95-98
For a systematic development of the stormwater
program, Los Angeles County is divided into five
drainage basins (see Fig. 1) : Santa Monica Bay (I),
Upper Los Angeles River (II), Upper San Gabriel
River (III), Lower Los Angeles River (IV) and
Lower San Gabriel River (V). The county will be
phased into the program in the following three
stages:
Drainage Basin Start of Compliance
Santa Monica Bay July 1,1990
Upper Los Angeles River
and Upper San Gabriel River July 1,1992
Lower Los Angeles River
and San Gabriel River July 1,1993
Permit Requirements
Within the first year after initiation of each
drainage basin into the program, the permittees are
required to submit available information and data
on water quality, water flow, precipitation, land use
patterns, and any such information that would
facilitate identification of sources of stormwater
and urban runoff discharge problems. The permit-
tees are also required to document existing proce-
dures and practices to regulate stormwater runoff,
provide the schedule of implementation of early
action BMPs, and submit a workplan for the
development of a stormwater monitoring program.
In the second year, permittees are required to
submit a monitoring program based on the work-
mTtot mo cotrtftVATt
Of ftooo waurs
Figure 1.—Delineations of drainage basin boundaries In Los Angeles County that facilitate phasing of the
Stormwater Quality Management Program.
97
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C. TYRRELL and X. SWAM1KANNU
plan approved in the first year; plans and
schedules of implementation for additional BMPs;
and plans and schedules to address illegal dis-
charges, illicit practices, and runoff from construc-
tion sites. In addition, permittees shall provide
evidence of legal authority to enforce stormwater
quality regulations and to prosecute violators.
Requirements for the third year stipulate sub-
mittals that contain evidence of satisfactoiy
progress in implementation plans according to
schedules agreed upon in the second year. The en-
tire county will be in compliance with permit re-
quirements by July 1,1996.
Permit Renewal
To renew the permit, an application must be sub-
mitted 180 days before the expiration date and
should include summaries of results of the
monitoring program, BMPs implemented and
evaluation of their effectiveness, procedures imple-
mented to detect illegal discharges or disposal
practices and evaluation of their effectiveness, and
evaluations of the need for additional BMPs, source
controls, and structural controls. Further, the ap-
plication shall include a plan of action describing
stormwater discharge and urban runoff quality
management activities that will be undertaken
during the term of the next permit.
Public Involvement
The Regional Board recognizes that an effective
stormwater program can be implemented and ex-
ecuted only with ample public participation and
involvement. The public is invited to submit com-
ments in writing and participate in annual
stormwater permit workshops to be held prior to
approval of plans and implementation schedules.
Conclusion
The result of this interagency effort in stormwater
regulation is a workable stormwater program
tailored to the distinct structure of Los Angeles
County. The effort represents a significant ac-
complishment by regulatory agencies in attempts
to address the threat to water quality posed by
nonpoint sources of pollution, described by EPA
Administrator William Reilly as one of the greatest
failures of environmental policy in the United
States.
98
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