PPFi iviytQY DQtn
iFJELD TESTING AND ADAPTATION OF A
METHODOLOGY TO MEASURE "IN-STREAM"
VALUES IN THE TONGUE RIVER,NORTHERN
GREAT PLAINS (NGP) REGION
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ROCKY MOUNTAIN-PRAIRIE REGION
OFFICE OF ENERGY ACTIVITIES
DENVER, COLORADO
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FIELD TESTING AND ADAPTATION OF A METHODOLOGY
TO MEASURE "IN-STREAM" VALUES IN THE TONGUE RIVER,
NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS (NGP) REGION
by
Ken Bovee
James Gore
Dr. Arnold Silverman
University of Montana
Missoula, Montana
for the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region
Office of Energy Activities
Contract No. 68-01-2653
OEA Coordinator: Denis Nelson
Project Officer: Loys Parrish
f 8OC-fPA R°9ion 8 Library
Denver*'Co"flSu'fO50° I
-J^9 80202.24fiR
March, 1977
-------
NOTICE
This document is a preliminary draft. It has not been formally
released by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency should not
at this stage be construed tcf represent Agency policy. It is being
circulated for comments on its technical merit and policy implications.
Please address comments to:
Mr. Denis Nelson
Office of Energy Activities 8EA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
i860 Lincoln Street
Denver, CO 80295
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ABSTRACT
A comprehensive, multi-component in-stream flow methodology was
developed and field tested 1n the Tongue River in southeastern Montana.
The methodology incorporates a sensitivity for the flow requirements
of a wide variety of in-stream uses, and the flexibility to adjust flows
to accommodate seasonal and sub-seasonal changes in the flow require-
ments for different uses. It also provides the means to accurately and
reliably determine the magnitude of the requirement for each in-stream
use. The methodology is a powerful tool for water managers, providing
the flexibility and accuracy necessary in water use negotiations and
trade-off considerations.
In-stream flow requirements were determined by additive independent
methodologies developed for: 1) fisheries, including spawning, rearing,
and food production; 2) sediment transport; 3) the mitigation of adverse
impacts of ice; and 4) evapotranspiration losses. In as much as each
flow requirement varied 1n importance throughout the year, the considera-
tion of a single irr-stream use as a basis for a flow recommendation is
1nadequate.
The base flow requirement for spawning shovel nose sturgeon was found
to be 13.0 m^/sec. During the same period of the year, the flow required
to initiate the scour of sediment from pools is 18.0 nrfysec., with Increased
scour efficiency occurring at flows between 20.0 and 25.0 m^/sec.
The study shows that an over-winter flow of 2.83 m^/sec. would result
1n the loss of approximately 80% of the riffle areas to encroachment by
surface ice. At the base flow for insect production, approximately 60%
11
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of the riffle area is lost to ice. Serious damage to the channel could
be incurred from ice jams during the spring break-up period. A flow of
12.0 m3/sec. is recommended to alleviate this problem. Extensive ice
jams would be expected at the base rearing and food production levels.
The base rearing flow may be profoundly influenced by the loss of
streamflow to transpiration. Transpiration losses to riparian vegetation
ranged from 0.78 m3/sec. in April, to 1.54 m3/sec. in July, under drought
conditions. Requirements for irrigation were estimated to range from
5.56 n^/sec. in May to 7.97 m3/sec. in July, under drought conditions.
It was concluded that flow requirements to satisfy monthly water losses
to transpiration must be added to the base fishery flows to provide ade-
quate protection to the resources in the lower reaches of the river.
Evaluation of component in-stream requirements shows that a base flow
of at least 23.6 m3/sec. must be reserved during the month of June to
initiate scour of sediment from pools, provide spawning habitat for shov-
el nose sturgeon, and to accommodate water losses from the system. In
comparison, a base flow of 3.85 m3/sec. would be required during early
February to provide fish rearing habitat and Insect productivity, and
to prevent excessive loss of food production areas to surface ice forma-
tion. During mid to late February, a flow of 12 m3/sec. would be needed
to facilitate ice break-up and prevent ice jams from forming. Following
break-up, the base flow would again by 3.85 m3/sec. until the start of
spawning season.
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1-1
The Study Area 1-4
Geomorphology 1-4
Surface Mater Resources 1-6
Fisheries Resources 1-8
References 1-11
CHAPTER 2: SUMMARY 2-1
CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSIONS 3-1
CHAPTER 4: RECOMMENDATIONS 4-1
Research Needs 4-5
CHAPTER 5: A COMPREHENSIVE METHODOLOGY FOR IN-STREAM FLOW
DETERMINATIONS 5-1
Introduction 5-1
Water Quality Component 5-5
Dissolved Oxygen 5-6
Temperature 5-7
Total Dissolved Solids or Discrete Salts 5-8
Fisheries Component 5-9
Ice Formation Component 5-12
Transpiration Loss Component 5-16
Sediment Transport Component 5-17
References 5-19
CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FISHERY COMPONENT METHODOLOGY 6-1
Introduction 6-1
The Critical Area-Indicator Species Method 6-2
Determination of Flow Criteria 6-4
Rearing Criteria with the Stonecat as Indicator 6-4
Streamflow Criteria Based on Benthic Macro-
invertebrate Studies 6-6
Flow Criteria for Spawning 6-15
Sauger Spawning 6-15
Shovel nose Sturgeon Spawning 6-16
Measurement and Mapping of Hydrologic Parameters 6-19
Multinle Transect Analysis (MTA) 6-19
Flow Prediction Models Used with MTA 6-19
Water Surface Profile Program (WSPP) 6-20
CONTOUR Program 6-24
iv
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Page
Application of the Methodology 6-30
Rearing Flow Recommendation Based on Stonecat
Criteria 6-30
Rearing Flow with Rhithroqena hageni as the
Indicator 6-35
Spawning Flow with the Shovel nose Sturgeon
as the Indicator 6-35
References 6-41
CHAPTER 7: VALIDATION OF THE FISHERIES COMPONENT METHODOLOGY 7-1
Introduction 7-1
Reaction of Fish to Flow Reduction 7-2
Results of Hydrologic Mapping 7-4
Results of Fish Collections 7-4
Reaction of Aquatic Insects to Flow Reduction 7-15
Discussion of Methodology and Field Techniques 7-25
Reproducibility 7-27
Limitations 7-29
References 7-36
CHAPTER 8: ICE FORMATION 8-1
Mechanics 8-1
Biological Effects of Ice Formation 8-10
Water Requirements to Minimize Ice Problems 8-11
References 8-14
CHAPTER 9: CONSUMPTIVE USE BY RIPARIAN VEGETATION 9-1
Introduction 9-1
Groundwater Supply Mechanisms 9-2
Riparian Evapotranspiration on the Tongue River 9-3
Methodology 9-3
Computation of Evapotranspiration Rates and
Correction for Precipitation 9-11
Irrigation: A Special Case of Evapotranspirati on 9-14
Results and Discussion 9-20
References 9-25
Chapter 10: SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 10-1
Introduction 10-1
Sediment Sources 10-4
Climatic Factors 10-5
Geologic Factors 10-6
Methods and Materials 10-8
Results and Discussion 10-9
Time and Scour Efficiency 10-15
Methodological Assessment of Sediment Transport
Studies 10-17
References 10-22
v
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Page
CHAPTER
11:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
11-1
CHAPTER 12:
GLOSSARY
12-1
APPENDIX
A:
HYDROLOGIC CONTOUR MAPS; REARING AREAS
A-l
- A-24
APPENDIX
B:
COMPOSITE MAPS; REARING AREAS
B-l
- B-l2
APPENDIX
C:
COMPOSITE MAPS; INSECT PRODUCTIVITY AREAS
C-l
- C-l2
APPENDIX
D:
MACROINVERTEBRATE ECOLOGY
D-l
- D-66
APPENDIX
E:
HYDROLOGIC CONTOUR MAPS; SPAWNING CRITICAL AREA
E-l
- E-l7
APPENDIX
F:
COMPOSITE MAPS; SPAWNING CRITICAL AREAS
F-l
- F-8
APPENDIX
G:
HYDROLOGIC CONTOUR MAPS; EXPERIMENTAL CHANNEL
SECTION
G-l
- G-l8
APPENDIX
H:
COMPOSITE MAPS; EXPERIMENTAL CHANNEL SECTION
H-l
- H-9
APPENDIX
I:
ICE FORMATION CROSS SECTIONAL DIAGRAMS
1-1
- 1-15
APPENDIX
J:
VEGETATION MAPS OF TONGUE RIVER FLOODPLAIN
J-l
- J-40
APPENDIX
K:
SEDIMENT-DISCHARGE RATING CURVES
K-l
- K-l3
vi
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1-1 Map of the Montana portion of the Tongue River Drainage
showing primary study areas 1-5
1-2 Flow duration curve for the Tongue River at stateline
and at Miles City, 1961-1970 water years 1-7
5-1 Component diagram of a comprehensive in-stream flow
recommendation procedure 5-2
5-2 Example of integrated methodology used to determine the
minimum streamflow requirement for the Tongue River during
the month of June 5-4
5-3 Example of the construction of a depth contour map 5-11
5-4 Example of a composite map showing areas meeting flow
criteria for the stonecat 5-13
5-5 Example of preferred area vs. discharge, or "peak of the
curve" plot used to determine optimum and minimum
streamflow requirements 5-14
6-1 Index map for macro invertebrate studies, Tongue River
Montana * '
6-7
6-2 "Peak of the Curve" graph for determining optimum rearing
flow, based on flow criteria for the stonecat, Vial!
Mapping Section 6-3&
6-3 "Peak of the Curve" graph for determining optimum rearing
flow, based on flow criteria for the stonecat, Orcutt -7
Mapping Section 6-3/
6-4 "Peak of the Curve" graph for determining optimum rearing
flow, based on flow criteria for Rhithrogena hageni,
Viall Mapping Section 6-38
6-5 "Peak of the Curve" graph for determining optimum spawn-
ing flow, based on flow criteria for the shovelnose
sturgeon, Ft. Keogh Section 6-40
7-1 "Peak of the Curve" graph for Riffle #1, Experimental c
Channel Section, Viall Ranch 7-5
7_2 "Peak of the Curve" graph for Riffle #2, Experimental .
Channel Section, Viall Ranch 7-6
7-3 "Peak of the Curve" graph for Riffle #1, Experimental
Channel Section. Gravel areas omitted. 7-7
vn
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Figure Page
7-4 Fish Distribution in Experimental Channel, Q = 2.01 cms. 7-11
7-5 Fish Distribution in Experimental Channel, Q = 1.33 cms. 7-12
7-6 Fish Distribution in Experimental Channel, Q = 1.07 cms. 7-13
7-7 Drift during the period of flow reduction, all invertebrates 7-18
7-8 Drift during the period of flow reduction, Ephemeroptera 7-19
7-9 Drift during the period of flow reduction, Plecoptera 7-20
7-10 Drift during the period of flow reduction, Hemiptera 7-21
7-11 Drift during the period of flow reduction, Coleoptera 7-22
7-12 Cumulative distribution curve of June streamflow in the
Tongue River, 1961-1974 7-34
8-1 Cross sectional diagram of surface ice sheet at SH Ranch
section 8-4
8-2 Cross sectional diagram of surface ice sheet at Viall
Ranch section 8-5
8-3 Cross sectional diagram of surface ice sheet at Birney
Ranch section 8-6
8-4 Relationship between current velocity and ice thickness
in the Tongue River during the winter of 1974-1975 8-7
9-1 Hydraulic gradient of floodplain groundwater in straight
and meandering channels 9-3
10-1 Criteria for scour, median size less than 5 mm. 10-18
viii
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LIST OF TABLES
Tables
1-1 Fish species inhabiting the Tongue River as determined
by electrofishing during 1974. 1-9
5-1 Expected ice thickness derived from current velocities
at measurement locations. 5-15
6-1 Occurrance of stonecats with respect to depth and cur-
rent velocity.
6-2 Relationship between diversity of aquatic invertebrates
and current velocity and depth. 6-'1
6-3 Relationship between diversity of aquatic invertebrates,
and turbulence and bottom configuration. °~'z
6-4 Frequency of occurrance of ripe shovelnose sturgeon,
according to depth and velocity groupings. 6-17
6-5 Flow criteria for spawning shovelnose sturgeon as deter-
mined by the combination of depth and velocity classes. 6-18
6-6 Predicted and measured water surface elevations (meters)
at SH section, at 2.38 cms. 6-ZZ
6-7 Comparison of predicted and measured velocities in
cm./sec. at Transect C, Vial1 Section. 6-Z3
6-8 Comparison of predicted and measured velocities in
cm./sec. using the CONTOUR Program, Transect C, Vial 1
Section. 6-Zt»
6-9 Comparison of predicted and measured velocities in
cm./sec. using the CONTOUR Program, Transect C, Viall
Section.
6-27
6-10 Comparison of predicted and measured velocities in
cm./sec. using the CONTOUR Program, Transect C, Viall
Section. 6-28
6-11 Comparison of predicted and measured velocities in
cm./sec. using the CONTOUR Program, Transect C, Viall
Section. 6-29
6-12 Comparison of predicted and measured depths, using the
CONTOUR Program. 6-31
6-13 Comparison of predicted and measured depths, using the
CONTOUR Program. 6-32
6-14 Comparison of predicted and measured depths, using the
CONTOUR Program. 6-33
ix
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Table Page
6-15 Comparison of predicted and measured depths, using the
CONTOUR Program. 6-34
7-1 Number of Individuals of Each Species Collected at
Four Experimental Flows. 7-8
7-2 Species Diversity at Four Experimental Discharges. 7-9
7-3 Change 1n average velocity at nine habitat areas in
experimental channel. Velocities in cm./sec. 7-14
7-4 Change in average depth at nine habitat areas in ex-
perimental channel. Depth in cms. 7-14
8-1 Approximate percentage of channel area frozen from
surface to streambed at various discharges at Viall
Ranch Section during a winter of normal severity. 8-13
9-1 Total canopy cover and canopy cover per km. for the
Tongue River from T & Y Diversion to above Ashland,
Montana. 9-7,8
9-2 CIimatological data for Miles City, Montana. 9-12
9-3 Inputs to Penman equation, derived using climatic
data from Table 9-2. 9-13
9-4 Effective precipitation, evapotranspiration, and net
evapotranspiration deficit; based on local climato-
logical data and the Penman equation. 9-15
9-5 Mean daily evapotranspiration, corrected mean daily
evapotranspiration, and mean daily maximum evapotran-
spiration rates. 9-16
9-6 Mean daily, rainfall-corrected mean daily, and mean
daily maximum instantaneous flow requirements for ri-
parian vegetation on the Tongue River. 9-17
9-7 Mean daily instantaneous flow requirements and rainfall
corrected mean daily instantaneous flow requirements
for irrigated crops, riparian, and total vegetation on
the Tongue River. 9-19
9-8 Water budget for lower Tongue River basin to test accuracy
of calculated values of evapotranspiration. 9-21
10-1 Analysis of suspended sediment load for several locations
on the Tongue River and tributaries. 10-10
10-2 Analysis of bedload for several locations on the Tongue
River and tributaries. 10-11
x
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LIST OF PLATES
Plate Pa9e
7-1 Diversion structure, island, and experimental channel
at Vial 1 Ranch Section. 7-3
8-1 Pumping station at the SH Ranch which was nearly de-
stroyed by ice jamming in February, 1975. 8-12
9-1 Aerial photograph showing canopy cover of the ripar-
ian vegetation of the Tongue River floodplain, in
the vicinity of Ash Creek. 9-5
9-2 Vegetation map showing canopy cover density as es-
timated from the aerial photo of the Tongue River
floodplain near Ash Creek. 9-6
xi
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PREFACE
This report is submitted in fulfillment of contract #68-01-2653,
issued by Region VIII of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, to
Dr. Arnold Silverman, Department of Geology of the University of Mon-
tana, Missoula, Montana.
One of the most enjoyable aspects of a project with the variety and
diversity of this one, is the constant opportunity to learn and share
ideas with experts from a wide range of disciplines. We have indeed
been fortunate to have received so much help from agency personnel at
both the state and federal levels.
We are indebted to Mr. Harold Fabricius, U.S. Geological Survey
Sedimentation Laboratory, Worland, Wyoming, whose advice and guidance
was invaluable in setting up a smooth running sediment laboratory in
Miles City. We are also indebted to Mr. Ralph Hurlburt, and the staff
and administration of Miles Community College, who donated laboratory
space and allowed free use of the college's equipment when needed.
Thanks are extended to Mr. Allen Elser, fisheries manager of Region
7, Montana Department of Fish and Game, who allowed unlimited use of
his personnel and equipment during this study. A special note of thanks
is offered Mr. Robert McFarland, Tongue River Project Leader, for the
Montana Fish and Game Department, who always had a place in his boat for
our studies and often took time out from his own work when help was needed.
This project was administered through the offices of EPA, Region
VIII, Mr. Loys Parrish, Project Officer. We are grateful to Mr. Parrish
and Mr. Denis Nelson, also of EPA Region VIII, for their persistence
and patience to ensure funding, and for their suggestions during the
xii
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course of the study. The diligence and guidance of Mr. John McBride,
Administrative Assistant to Dr. Silverman, is also gratefully acknowledged.
We wish to thank the ranchers and landowners along the Tongue River,
who allowed access through their land to the study areas. Without their
cooperation, the project could not have been successful. A very special
thank you is extended to Mrs. Lillian Viall, and Mr. Bruce Orcutt, who
not only allowed access, but freely offered encouragement, advice, and
sometimes meals, during our visits to their ranches. Their interest in
the project made the field work much more enjoyable.
xii i
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Historically, protection of aquatic resources has focused on
reduction or elimination of water pollution, avoidance of channel-
ization or other modifications of the streambed, or effecting
changes in land-use to ameliorate problems of non-point pollution.
Potential energy and water resource developments in the Northern
Great Plains have added a new dimension to the problems of aquatic
habitat protection. For the first time, large river systems are now
threatened with a substantial reduction of water during part or all of
the year.
In addition, industrial development in the sparcely populated
region is likely to be accompanied by a substantial population influx.
The increase in population will place a greater load on the waste assim-
ilation capacity of local rivers. Concurrently, fishing pressure and
other recreational use of lakes and rivers will probably increase. The
potential impact of increased demands on a depleted resource is a
difficult managerial problem.
At least partial protection of the aquatic resource may be accompli-
shed with the use of a "streamflow reservation." Essentially, this is
a water right held by the state stipulating a specified discharge to be
left within the confines of the natural channel. This discharge may be
seasonally varied to fulfill a particular biological requirement, such
as migration and spawning of fish, or a physical requirement, such as
increasing flow to reduce ice jamming.
1-1
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There are numerous methodologies available for the recommendation
of in-stream flow needs. While many methodologies address the problems
of water quality, sediment transport, riparian vegetation demands, ice
formation, etc., the final flow recommendation invariably is based on
the needs of the fishery. Thus, it is implicitly assumed that once the
basic requirements of the fishery have been satisfied, other stream
functions will also be adequately protected.
It is further assumed that most in-stream uses have an "extinction
point", that is, a volume of water below which a given use cannot exist.
This assumption may pressure the water resource planner to attempt to
define the extinction point in order to maximize off-stream uses. This
approach will most likely overlook complex, long-term physical or bio-
logical interactions, which will eventually result in preserving a mere
vestige of former aquatic resources.
Consequently, the fundamental question in any water development
scheme is, "How will this use conflict with existing stream uses?"
Stated another way, "How much water must remain in the channel to maintain
a viable ecosystem, provide for normal hydrologic functions, and satisfy
existing uses by riparian and irrigated vegetation?"
Stalnaker and Arnette (1976) state that there is no single, comprehen-
sive methodology for assessing all the different instream flow requirements.
They suggest a standardized set of methodologies best suited to a chosen
level of planning, resolution, and category of analysis. Unfortunately,
many of these methodologies have only been assessed theoretically, with
little or no case-history to determine the outcome of following, or not
following, a minimum flow recommendation. In addition, most methodologies
do not have provisions for testing the requirements of the many other
1-2
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in-stream uses besides fisheries.
In the Northern Great Plains, this problem is complicated by the fact
that the rivers contain warm water fish communities. Experiences gained
from studies of the dewatering of small mountain trout streams may not be
entirely adequate for dealing with these large and complex streams. Even
the basic data gathering techniques are subject to modification for use
in the large river system.
This study has several distinct, but inter-related objectives. A
primary objective is the development and field testing of a methodology
designed to assess streamflow requirements of a warm-water fishery
(Bovee, 1974). Details of the methodology are given in Chapter 5. Another
primary objective is the assessment of several non-fishery in-stream flow
needs (riparian vegetation, ice formation, and sediment transport) and
evaluation of the adequacy with which the fishery flows meet these other
needs. A secondary objective of the study is the evaluation and development
of field techniques for assessing in-stream needs applicable for use in
large rivers.
This report is divided into two sections. Section 1 deals with in-
stream flow requirements based on the various needs of the fishery. Section
2 concerns itself with flow requirements based on non-fishery needs.
Because of the large and varied amount of raw data required for a study of
this type, it is practical to present only the synthesized data in the text.
This approach may cause some confusion, as the derivation of answers to
certain questions may not be intuitively obvious from the text. Therefore,
a complete series of appendices are included at the end of the report.
These will consist primarily of data maps, charts, and tables used in the
solution of each subject problem.
To reiterate, this report will specifically address the methodological
1-3
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processes by which fishery and non-fishery flow requirements are determined.
In addition, the report will attempt to show valid techniques for increased
efficiency of data collection. Finally, the report will address the decision-
making process, and discuss the type of input required for this process.
The Study Area
The Tongue River 1n southeastern Montana was chosen as the study area
for this research project. Selection of this river was made on the basis
of its size, location, and composition of the f1sh community. The Tongue
is a medium sized river, with a bankfull discharge of approximately 45 m^/sec.
The average river width 1s about 50 meters.
Originating 1n the Bighorn Mountains of northern Wyoming, the Tongue
2
River drains an area of 3825 km before entering Montana near the town of
Decker. Streamflow 1s regulated by the 60 million cubic meter Tongje River
Reservoir, located near the Montana-Wyoming border. For the first 16 km
below the dam, the river flows through a rugged canyon. From the nouth of
the canyon, 1t meanders broadly across a wide valley as 1t flows northeast
the remaining 290 km to the Yellowstone River. At Miles City, the total
drainage area 1s 18,516 km (U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper #1916, 1969).
Figure 1-1 1s a map of the Montana portion of the Tongue River, shewing
Its major tributaries and study sites.
Geomorpholoqy
Despite a fairly high width-to-depth ratio, on the order of 50:1 in
many places, the Tongue River 1s an Incised stream for most of Its length.
Baker (1929) described the upper reaches of the basin as a recently uplifted
area In the process of dissection. He Indicated that the uplift began in
early Tertiary time and has since been Intermittent as shown by the many
gravel covered benches and stream cut terraces along the Tongue River.
1-4
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1-5
-------
The Tongue River basin is an asymetric watershed. Tributaries enter-
ing the river from the south and southeast are typically twice as long as
those entering from the north. Bass (1932) and Pierce (1936) concur that
the basin has been tilted upward and to the east. This has resulted in
the extension of the north and west flowing streams by headcutting.
The combined effects of the uplift and tilting has resulted in a
unique situation in the Tongue River. Although draining an area of high
sediment yield, the streambed of the river is armored in many places. The
substrate particles are much larger than would be expected in a "typical
prairie stream." Armoring is most apparent in the upstream areas, and it
is possible that the Tongue River Dam contributes to this condition.
As the river approaches its lower reaches, the sediment yield increases
and the substrate size noticeably decreases. Below the confluence of
Pumpkin Creek, the Tongue River gives way to a sandy bottom and gravel bars
typical of an alluvial stream. Complete details of the geology, structure,
and sediment characteristics of the Tongue River basin are discussed in
Chapter 11.
Surface Mater Resources
The average annual precipitation at Miles City, Montana, is 309 mm.
(NOAA, 1972). For the entire basin, the average precipitation is around
340 mm. per year. Of this total, approximately 47% falls during the months
of May, June, and July. Due to the high rate of evaporation, only a small
fraction (2 to 15%) of the total rainfall contributes to streamflow 1n the
Tongue River. Most of the water flowing 1n the Tongue has its origin in the
headwaters. During parts of the year, especially during the summer, the
Tongue River loses water as 1t flows downstream.
Figure 1-2 is a flow duration curve for the Tongue River at stateline
and at Miles City, MT. It Is Interesting to note that the two curves are
1-6
-------
10,000
5,000
1,000
500
100
50
10
5
\
\
h
\
V \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\ <
\\
\\
v
\ \
N \
" \ \
\\
\
i
\
\
i
\
\
\
\
y
11 .1
10 50 9
0 99 99.S
28.3
o
14.15 |
LU
OO
Q£
LU
O.
2.83 |
1.415 5
=>
o
0.283
o
ec
<
o
u~>
0.1415
0.283
Figure 1-2:
PERCENTAGE OF TIME
DISCHARGE WAS EQUALLED OR EXCEEDED
Flow Duration Curve for the Tongue River at state-
line (solid line) aid at Miles City (dashed line),
1961-1970 water years.
1-7
-------
nearly identical even though the size of the basin at Miles City is nearly
five times larger than at stateline. This is a further indication that
little additional discharge is accumulated in the lower river.
By most standards, the quality of water 1n the Tongue River is good.
There are few sources of organic pollution along the river, and the oxygen
content is usually quite high. The two major water quality problems,
turbidity and salinity, are naturally occurring, but may be seriously
influenced by man's activities.
When the streamflow 1s composed primarily of surface run-off, the
turbidity of the river 1s high. This 1s particularly true in the lower
river where there is a large source of fine sediment. When streamflow is
composed primarily of influent groundwater, turbidity is low, but the con-
centration of dissolved solids is high. Hopkins (1973) found that the con-
centrations of dissolved sol Ids varied from 674 mg/L when streamflow was
low, to 190 mg/L when It was high. Principal cations are sodium and
potassium, with smaller amounts of calcium and magnesium. Bicarbonate is
the primary anion, with substantial amounts of sulfate 1n some places,
depending on the aquifer supplying the water.
Fisheries Resources
The Tongue River supports a productive and diversified warm water
fishery. Table 1-1 lists the species Inhabiting the Tongue River as deter-
mined by electrofishlng during 1974. Most of the species listed in Table
1-1 are resident fish. However, the shovelnose sturgeon and the blue sucker
inhabit the river 1n greatest numbers during the spring, Indicating that
the river is an important nursery area for these species. Thus, any alter-
ation to the Tongue River may also have profound effects on the fishery of
the Yellowstone River.
The Tongue River is a popular fishing stream for many local inhabitants.
1-8
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Table 1-1: F1sh species Inhabiting the Tongue River as determined
by electroflshing during 1974.
Common Name
Carp
Flathead Chub
Sturgeon Chub
Longnose Dace
Silvery Minnow
Shorthead Redhorse
White Sucker
Longnose Sucker
Mountain Sucker
River Carpsucker
Blue Sucker
Shovel nose Sturgeon
Goldeye
Mountain Wh1tef1sh
Rainbow Trout
Brown Trout
Northern P1ke
Black Bullhead
Channel Catfish
Stonecat
Burbot (L1ng)
Rock Bass
Green Sunflsh
Pumpkinseed
Smallmouth Bass
White Crapple
Black Crapple
Yellow Perch
Sauger
Walleye
Scientific Name
Cyprinus carplo (Linnaeus)
Hybopsis gracilis (Richardson)
HybopsIs gelida (Glrard)
Rh1n1chthys cataractae (Valenciennes)
Hybognathu? nuchal 1s [Agassiz)
Moxostoma macro!epidotum (Le Sueur)
Catostomus commersoni (Lacepede)
Catostomu? catastomus (Forster)
Catostomus piatyrhynchus (Cope)
Carpiodes carpio (Rafinesque)
Cyciptus elongatus (Le Sueur)
Scaphlrhynchus platorynchus (Rafinesque)
Hlodon alosoides (Rafinesque)
Prosopium williamsoni (Glrard)
Salmo gairdnerl (Richardson)
Salmo trutta (Linnaeus)
Esox lucius (Linnaeus)
Ictalurus melas (Rafinesque)
Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque)
Naturus f'l avus (Raf 1 nesque)
Lota lota (Linnaeus)
Ambloolites rupestrls (Rafinesque)
Lepomls cyanellus (Raf1nesque)
Lepomis givbosus (Linnaeus)
Micropterus dolomieue (Lacepede)
Pomoxis annularis (Rafinesque)
Pomoxis nigromaculatus (le Sueur)
Perca flavescens (Mitchel1)
Stizostedion canadense (Smith)
Stizostedion vltreum ("Mi tchel 1)
1-9
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Fishing pressure is concentrated in areas of easy access and near pop-
ulation centers. A lack of public access areas is a problem along the
river. However, most landowners will allow access to fishermen who
request it. Such private accesss areas tend to be under-utilized, con-
sequently fishing success is usually high, and is sometimes spectacular.
Catches of sauger in the 1 - 2 kg range are not uncommon, channel catfish
weighing 4 to 6 kg are occassionally caught, and large, active smallmouth
bass are plentiful in many sections.
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REFERENCES
1. Baker, A.A., 1929, "The Northward Extension of the Sheridan Coal
Field, Bighorn & Rosebud Counties, Montana.", U.S. Geological
Survey Bull. 806-B.
2. Bass, N.W., 1932, "The Ashland Coal Field: Rosebud, Powder River,
and Custer Counties, Montana.", U.S. Geological Survey Bull.
831-B, 105 pp.
3. Bovee, K.D., 1974, "The Determination, Assessment, and Design of
'In-Stream Value', Studies for the Northern Great Plains-.'',
Northern Great Plains Resources Program, Denver, Colorado, 205 pp.
4. Climatological Data for Montana, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Vol. 77, 1972.
5. Hopkins, W.B., 1973, "Water Resources of the Northern Cheyenne
Indian Reservation and Adjacent Area, Southeastern Montana.",
U.S. Geological Survey, Hydro!ogic Investigations Atlas, HA-468.
6. Pierce, W.G., 1936, "The Rosebud Coal Field, Rosebud and Custer
Counties, Montana.", U.S. Geological Survey Bull. 847-B, 120 pp.
7. Stalnaker, C.B. and Arnette, J.L., 1976, "Methodologie's for the
Determination of Stream Resource Flow Requirements: An Assessment.",
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services, 199 pp.
8. Surface Water Supply for the United States, Part 6., 1969, U.S. Geological
Survey, Water Supply Paper #1916.
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CHAPTER 2: SUMMARY
A comprehensive methodology for the assessment of In-stream flow
needs was Implemented in the Tongue River in southeastern Montana. The
methodology consists of the determination of the individual flow require-
ments for a number of in-stream uses. Some of these "component" uses
are considered complementary; the flow requirement for one use will satisfy
the requirements for several other uses. However, uses such as the consum-
tive loss of water by riparian vegetation and irrigation are considered
additive. Because these uses actually remove water from the system, their
requirements must be considered separately to determine the total water re-
quirements needed to ensure the protection of the complementary uses.
The complementary uses examined Included: 1) Fisheries requirements
for spawning, rearing and aquatic invertebrate production; 2) Sediment trans_
port; and 3) Ice mitigation requirements, including habitat losses to 1ce
formation and flow requirements to prevent Ice jams from forming.
A flow requirement for a given period of time 1s determined by examining
the flow requirements for each of the complementary uses. The greatest mini ^
mum flow requirement for all complementary uses is selected as the critical
minimum requirement. The total 1n-stream flow requirement is then determlr^
by adding the total consumptive losses to this critical minimum flow for t^
time period 1n question (See Figure 5-1, 5-2).
The methodology uses 1n the assessment of the fishery flow requirement^
utilizes two separate but Inter-connected concepts. The first of these 1s
the critical area concept, by which areas of the stream most likely to be
affected by reduced streamflow may be Identified. The second is the use o-p
an indicator species, an inhabitant or user of the critical area, that is
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highly selective of the hydrologlc and substrate parameters found 1n cri-
tical areas. The methodology 1s based on the hypothesis that adequate
protection of the critical area habitat will result 1n equally satisfactory
protection of other habitat areas and the Inhabitants therein.
Implementation of the methodology consists of: 1) determining flow
criteria (preferred conditions of depth, velocity, and substrate) for each
of several Indicator species, and 2) assessing the amount (area) of prefer-
red habitat available 1n the critical area over a range of discharges.
Several Indicator species were examined and flow criteria determined
for each. The sauger (St1zosted1on canadense) and shovel nose sturgeon
(Scaphirhynchus platorynchus) wree selected as spawning flow Indicators,
while the stonecat (Noturus flavus) was selected as a rearing flow species.
Productivity of aquatic Insects, as a function of hydrologlc conditions, was
also evaluated. The mayfly nymph, Rhlthrooena hagenl, was selected as the
species whose optimum flow conditions most closely corresponded to those
for highest overall diversity and blomass.
Study of the stonecat showed 1t most commonly associated with substrate
particles 128 to 256 mm. 1n diameter, with considerable utilization of sub-
strate sizes ranging from small cobbles to boulders. Flow criteria for the
stonecat was established at depths between 30 and 60 cm. and velocities be-
tween 45 and 90 cm./sec., over a cobble substrate.
It was determined that depths of 20 to 40 cm., with velocities of 75
to 120 cm./sec., over a bottom composed of combined smooth and angular cob-
ble, provided the greatest diversity and blomass of aquatic Insects. This
corresponds well with the optimum conditions for the productivity Indicator
species, Rhlthrogena.
During the spawning run, large concentrations of sauger were found 1n
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water depths of 74 to 105 cm., with velocities from 64 to 90 cm./sec.,
typically over a fine to coarse, dune-form, sandbed. Unfortunately, these
flow parameters should not be used as flow criteria, as ripe females were
not collected during the two month sampling program.
Pipe shovelnose sturgeon of both sexes were collected in moderate
numbers during their spawning run. Criteria included depths of 60 to 100
cm. and velocities from 70 to 110 cm./sec. over a sand, or sand and gravel,
substrate.
Optimum flow conditions for rearing, insect productivity, and spawning
were evaluated using the multiple transect method of analysis developed by
Collings, et. al. (1972). Hydrologic maps showing areas of equal depth, vel-
ocity, and substrate type (where applicable) were prepared from data collected
at selected critical areas. For rearing and productivity, the best areas for
study are the riffles, which form complete control of the flow (at approximate
right angles to the flow), For spawning, the best critical areas are usually
gravel bars and shoals which, when covered by water, show a moderate current
velocity.
One finds that the optimum rearing flow, using the stonecat as the Indi-
cator species, is around 11.5 to 12.0 cms. (400 to 425 cfs.). This corres-
ponds to the optimum productivity flow as determined by using Rhithrogena as
the indicator species. The optimum spawning flow was estimated to be 50 cms.
from the discharge-preferred area curve.
A section on the field tested results of two flow prediction models are
reported in Chapter 6. The Water Surface Profile Program was developed by
the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and 1s an energy balance model using surveyed
channel and water surface elevation data in conjunction with the Manning equa-
tion. The CONTOUR Program, developed during this study, utilizes hydraulic
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geometry measurements made at two or more discharges. Data from each point
on each transect is subjected to a power function equation by logarithmic
regression. For each point on the transect, it is possbile to predict the
depth and velocity at various flows, as well as the width of the transect.
Each model gave reasonable results, and either can be of great utility in
1n-stream flow work.
The validity of the fisheries component methodology developed in this
study, Its limitations, and possible ways to overcome the limitations by
changes in procedure and/or equipment are examined in Chapter 7. To be
judged reliable, a methodology must be tested against two standards or cri-
teria. First, the method should give accurate and reproducible results.
Secondly, these results must agree with measurements or observed phenomena
1n the field. To be valid the methodology must also give results that meet
the criteria of water availability.
It was determined that basing the minimum streamflow requirement on a
percentage of the optimum flow is not a valid procedure. For the Tongue Riv-
er the natural streamflow was less than the methodology's recommended minimum
about 60% of the time. Therefore, it was necessary to Introduce a new con-
cept, the base flow, for the determination of minimum flows. The base flow
1s defined as that discharge which first provides some area meeting the flow
criteria for a given indicator species over the selected critical area. Util-
ization of the base flow concept allows a much more objective means of deter-
mining the minimum streamflow requirement.
Two field tests were conducted to determine the validity of the base flow
concept. During the fall of 1975, a small diversion structure was constructed
1n an island side channel of the Tongue River. Experimental streamflows were
adjusted and maintained 1n the channel by diverting water into or out of the
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channel. Two hydrologic mapping sections were established in the experimen-
tal channel, and contour maps drawn for several discharges. Once an exper-
imental flow had been set, it was maintained for a two week stabilization
period. At the end of this time a block net was erected at the lower end
of the channel and the channel sampled with electrofishing gear. We found
that at the optimum flow, as determleed by our methodology, the channel had
its highest diversity, the greatest mumber of sport and game fish, and the
largest mumber of the indicator species occupying the critical area. Con-
versely, at the discharge corresponding to our determined base flow, the di-
versity was the lowest, neither game nor sport fish were present, and the
indicator species was no longer found over the critical area.
The second field test took advantage of the closure for repairs of the
Tongue River dam. Drift samples of aquatic Insects were collected for a 48
hour control period prior to closure. During this time, a normal diurnal
pattern was observed, with a peak of about 150 animals captured per 4-hour
period. The base flow, as determined from the methodology using Rhithrogena
as the indicator, was around 3.70 cms. When the streamflow fell below 3.69
cms., massive drift of all species was observed. Almost a 10-fold increase
in the number of drifting animals occurred the first night. Although a diur-
nal pattern was maintained, the number of individuals in the drift was ele-
vated during both day and night collections. Interestingly, Rhithrogena
made up 10% to 20% of the Ephemeroptera in the drift once the stream flow
levels declined below base flow. Prior to the decline in streamflow this sp«
cies was not found 1n the drift in appreciable numbers.
We concluded, therefore, that the base flow concept was indeed valid. A*
base flow of 3.70 cms. in the Tongue River was equalled or exceeded at least
2-5
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75% of the time for the water years 1961-1970. Thus, base flow also meets
the criteria of water availability.
Also, base flow for sturgeon spawning was determined to be 13.0 cms.,
based on an inflection point occuring on the discharge-preferred area curve,
and on examination of the spawning composite maps. It 1s not realistic to
compare this flow requirement with the annual flow duration curve. Rather,
the spawning base flow was compared with the probability curve for discharges
during the month of June for the water years 1961 through 1974. We found
that the probability of a streamflow greater than 18 cms. during June was 83%.
On this basis we conclude that the spawning base flow is also reasonable in
terms of water availability.
Chapter 8 deals with the formation of 1ce in rivers and the effects of
reduced streamflow during the winter and early spring. Unlike many mountain
streams, the most serious ice problem 1n prairie rivers is the formation of
surface, rather than frazile or anchor 1ce.
During the winter of 1974-1975, the 1ce thickness was measured at several
cross sections. Current meter measurements were made with each thickness mea-
surement. When the thickness of the 1ce was plotted against current velocity,
an inverse relationship was apparent.
The mechanics of 1ce formation were studied in some detail, at the Orcutt
ranch section during the winter of 1975-1976. In the initial stages of freez-
ing, the thickness of the 1ce was nearly uniform. As freezing continued, it
was obvious that areas of low velocity thickened at a higher rate than areas
of high velocity. For a given temperature regime, each location showed a
cessation of thickening after an Initial period of growth. An insurgence of
colder temperature caused a resumption in 1ce growth at each location until
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a new equilibrium thickness was reached. It was hypothesized that this phen-
omenon is caused by the addition of frictional heat from the running water,
which prevents or retards the thickening process. Faster running water has
more kinetic energy, and therefore adds heat at a higher rate. This hypothe-
sis, however, has not been confirmed to date. Because of the effect of cur-
rent velocity on ice thickness, we conclude that reduced discharge would not
only reduce the depth of the water, but also result in a thicker ice cover.
This could result in larger areas of the stream being solidly frozen from top
to bottom. The most obvious effect of such encroachment would be the loss of
habitable area for insects and fish alike. Because of the large drag effect
of the ice where the water envelope (the space between the stream bed and the
bottom ice surface) is small, many areas not frozen to the bed may have insuf-
ficient velocities to support certain species. In addition, since the dischargi
is not affected by freeze-up, the same discharge must be conveyed through an
ever-decreasing channel cross section. As a result, significant increases in
velocity were observed in the thalweg areas, where the excess water was chan-
neled by the blocking ice pack.
We further determined that insufficient discharge during the break-up per
iod would result in an increased probability of ice jam formation. These ice
jams most certainly have an impact on the inhabitants of the river, but the
extent of the impact is yet unknown. In addition, the phenomenon is a clear
threat to man-made structures as well, and should be avoided if possible.
Based primarily on the findings of the 1974-1975 ice monitoring program,
and on the hydrologlc contour maps for the Viall section, it was possible to
estimate the water requirements to minimize ice formation and break-up diff-
iculties. At a flow of 2.83 cms., the base flow from stonecat criteria, up
to 80% of the riffle area would be frozen solidly to the bottom, with a poten-
2-7
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tial loss of circulation in some downstream areas. At a flow of 4.02 cms.,
near the base level for Rhithrogena, 50% to 60% of the control would be
frozen tight during a winter of normal severity. And finally, at 5.58 cms.j
a flow well above base flow, 20% to 30% of the control would still be lost
to ice.
Flow requirements to reduce ice jamming were also determined. At the
Vial1 section, it is likely that serious ice jams will occur at flows less
than 5.6 cms. At least 10 cms. would be required to ameliorate 1ce jamming,
although 1t would still occur. A flow of from 19 to 20 cms. would probably
be sufficient to prevent 1ce jams at this section.
Two thermodynamic models for predicting equilibrium 1ce thickness are
also presented 1n Chapter 8. The equilibrium thickness equation developed
by Pally, et. al. (1974) shows great promise for future use with 1n-stream
flow studies. However, the relationship between velocity and frlctional
heat production must be Investigated before this equation becomes generally
applicable.
Consumptive use of water and 1n-stream flow requirements for riparian
vegetation are the subjects of Chapter 9. The mechanics of water supply were
also studied to determine whether the vegetation was living on stored water,
or a continuously available supply. Core samples showed that the floodplain
is composed primarily of unconsolidated sand, gravel, and cobble, and that
the particle size of the alluvium was greatest at root depth for most trees.
It was determined that the riparian vegetation was not only continuously sup-
plied with river water, but also that the transm1ss1v1ty of the floodplain
was so high that the rate of supply may exceed the rate of loss to evapotran-
splratlon. The size of the meander bend was also thought to influence the
extent of the vegetation cover. On smaller bends, the pelzometric surface is
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probably planar, or nearly so. On the larger bends, the water demand by
vegetation, or losses to storage, may create a cone of depression near the
center of the meander peninsula. As a result the interiors of many large
meander loops are not vegetated by phreatophytes.
Total consumptive use of water was determined in two phases. First,
the total area of canopy cover was found by constructing vegetation maps
from aerial photos. Each vegetated area on each map was given a weighting
factor based on the percent of the total area actually occupied by canopy.
The vegetated areas were then measured by polar planimeter and the area
multiplied by the appropriate weighting factor to give the average canopy
cover. Total canopy cover was determined by multiplying the average canopy
cover per mile of river, by the total length of river under study. The to-
tal canopy area for the lower Tongue River was calculated to be 1970 hectares*
The rate of potential evapotransplration was found using a variation of
the Penman energy balance equation, and local climatological data. The aver-
age monthly effective precipitation (storms greater than 2.5 mm. of rain per
day) was subtracted from the monthly potential evapotranspiration to obtain
a mean monthly "evapotranspiration deficit."
The mean daily and mean daily maximum evapotranspiration rates were cal-
culated using mean daily and mid-day climatological inputs. The maximum daily
rates were computed because of the high transmissivity of the floodplalns. As
the instantaneous flow requirement will probably be satisfied quickly, the
daily maximum rate of use 1s important to in-stream supplies.
The highest rates of consumption occur 1n June, July, and August. The
rainfall corrected instantaneous flow requirements for those months are 0.90,
3
1.29, and 1.20 m /sec., respectively. During a drought period, the mean
daily rates of water withdrawal were calculated to be 1.31, 1.54 and 1.36 cms.
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for those months. The mean daily maximum flow requirements are 1.69, 1.94
and 1.76 cms., respectively.
Irrigation was considered a special case of evapotranspiration, and
the instantaneous flow requirements for irrigation were also calculated in
the same fashion, based on an irrigated area of 10,200 hectares. The rain-
fall-corrected flow requirement for irrigated crops is estimated to be 4.68,
6.67 and 6.25 cms. for June, July, and August, respectively. The total rain-
fall-corrected flow requirement for all riparian vegetation was calculated to
be 5.58, 7.96, and 7.45 cms. for those months.
These flow requirement calculations were tested using a water balance
equation. Inflow to the basin was calculated from stream gaging records at
the Tongue River Reservoir and monthly precipitation records for the basin.
Outflow Included the streamflow at Miles City, the potential volume of evapo-
transpi rati on, evaporation, and storage. Bacause evaporation and storage
were virtually impossible to estimate, they were eliminated from the equation
by selecting months when little or no rain fell, and was thus, not available
for evaporation or storage.
The results obtained from the water balance equation were consistent
with actual streamflow measurements. The error between the predicted out-
flow at Miles City, and that measured, was less than 10% for most dry months.
The flow requirements obtained are considered conservative, because the cal-
culated outflow was consistently greater than the measured outflow, particu-
larly for months with some measurable precipitation.
Chapter 10 deals with the subject of sediment transport in the Tongue
River. Sediment deposition causes problems not only for the fishery, but
also with man-made structures such as bridges, dlverlson dams, and irrigation
systems.
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The study of sediment transport was divided into the hydrologic func-
tions (watershed sources) and the hydraulic functions (sediment removal).
Of the hydrologic functions, the effects of climate, lithology, and geologic
structure are important factors in the supply of sediment to the river.
The climate is important because sufficient rainfall occurs to promote
erosion and runoff, but not enough to provide a good stabilizing vegetational
cover. Also, during spring snowmelt the basin behaves as if underlain by
permafrost. Thawed layers of soil are water saturated, while lower layers
remain frozen. This results in rapid runoff and very high sediment yield.
The lithology of the basin is especially interesting. The upper basin
surface consists primarily of the Tongue River member of the Fort Union
formation. This unit is highly fractured and resistant to weathering. Most
of the precipitation which reaches the mainstem Tongue River from this lith-
ologic unit, does so as groundwater. The surface of the lower Tongue River
basin is composed of the Lebo shale member, which is easily weathered and
eroded. However, sediment samples collected from tributaries in the Lebo
shale show that most of the sediment derived from this unit is so fine that
it passes through the system as suspended load. Much of the coarse sediment
in transport originates in the streambed and banks of the Tongue River 1tself«
Of the major extraneous sources of large sediment particles, the most impor-
tant is material which slumps into the river from the numerous terraces along
the river. This source is important because it 1s not necessarily stream-
flow related, as are most other sources. Therefore, large size sediment
frequently enters the stream at times other than high flow.
From data collected during the 1975 runoff season, it was determined
that sediment entering the river via tributaries would be a minor problem
because of the small size of the particles. It was further determined that
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the bed becomes less stable and more prone to aggradation in the lower
part of the basin. The greatest potential for aggradation probably occurs
in the lower 20 km. of the Tongue River below the confluence of Pumpkin
Creek.
During the 1976 runoff season, a sediment sampling station was estab-
lished in this lower reach. Samples were collected at two or three day
intervals during the rising limb of the spring runoff curve. The purpose
of the monitoring program was to attempt to determine the discharge required
to Initiate pool scour in this section.
Total suspended sediment, suspended silt-slay, and suspended sand loads
were plotted against discharge, as were the various size fractions of bedload.
A sharp break wasn't found 1n any of the curves to clearly suggest the initia-
tion of scour. However, trend fitted curves plotted to data clusters indi-
cated that there was an acceleration 1n movement of fine to medium sand as
dominant bedload between 18.0 and 25.0 cms. This finding was supported by the
Increased amount of fine sand in suspension at the same range of flows. Vie
suggest that 18.0 cms. 1s the lowest discharge at which pool scour would
occur. Apparently 20.0 to 25.0 cms. would be required for a high enough rate
of removal to scour the pools effectively. Even at 25.0 cms. true bed mobility
had not yet occurred, and 1t is likely that the sediment in motion was re-
cently deposited and loosely packed, and, therefore, readily transportable.
Scour efficiency was also discussed in Chapter 10. If the lowest scouring
flow 1s selected for sediment removal, the flow must be maintained for a
long period of time. The use of higher flows for a shorter peroid would
probably be a more efficient use of water. However, maximizing the scour
efficiency by releasing a large volume of water for a short period of time
to achieve pool scour should be avoided. It could result in the deposition
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of coarse materials where fines once occurred, thereby armoring the bottom
and making scour more difficult in succeeding years. In addition, such an
increase and following decrease in flow would undoubtedly damage the in-
stream resources which the scour was to have benefited.
Several sediment transport models are discussed in Chapter 10, although
they were not used or field tested in this study. Tractive force (shear
stress) models are simple and easily applied to the problem of scour. How-
ever, the single greatest failing of this method is the inadequacy in deter-
mining the critical tractive force (the shear stress needed to move a certain
size of particle) in a matrix of various particle sizes. The most reliable
method of determining critical tractive force is by empirical testing. If
this method is used, the tractive force model becomes academic, as the dis-
charge at which certain size particles move would already be known.
The tractive force method determines only the competence of a stream.
Numerous models are available, with varying degrees of sophistication, which
predict the sediment capacity at different streamflows. Most of these models
are field proven and reliable. Importantly, many of the inputs to these
models are identical to those required for the Water Surface Profile Program.
With a little extra field data, WSPP can be expanded to give sediment trans-
port data, as well as the hydraulic parameters it was designed for. This
would be a significant addition of information with little added field work.
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CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSIONS
The use of a comprehensive in-stream flow methodology, such as the one
derived in this study, can be a very powerful tool for water managers. The
methodology incorporates a sensitivity for the flow requirements of a wide
range of 1n-stream uses, and the flexibility to adjust flows to accomodate
monthly or seasonal changes in flow requirements. In addition, the method-
ology Includes an accounting for water losses, which we found to be of para-
mount Importance 1f 1n-stream resources are to be adequately protected. The
application of a water-use matrix (see Figure 5-2) gives the water manager
the ability to determine the critical flow requirement for a certain time
period, and of interpreting the consequences of reserving an Insufficient
flow.
The combined use of multiple transect analysis and flow criteria for
selected indicator species can be a highly effective means of determining
minimum and optimum streamflow requirements for fisheries. However, using
the optimum flow as a basis for determining the minimum or base flow, for a
given biological system is invalid and should be discontinued. The optimum
flow has no direct bearing on the minimum streamflow requirement. Imposing
a relationship where none exists seriously erodes the scientific objectivity
of the method and the resultant recommendations. Base flow should be defined
as that discharge which first provides some increment of preferred hydrologlc
area over the critical region. This definition allows a quantitative deter-
mination of the minimum flow requirement.
We have shown that the flow recommendation procedure under the original
methodological framework (percent of optimum flow) did not meet the criteria
of water applicability. Under the original minimum flow definition, the re-
3-1
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commended rearing flow for the Tongue River would be about 9.0 cms. The
natural streamflow was less than 9.0 cms. about 60% of the time in the
period 1961-1970. Using the base flow definition, the minimum flow require-
ment is 3.70 cms. This flow was equalled or exceeded 73% of the time from
1961 to 1970, and meets the criteria of water availability better than the
original definition. Also, it is more realistic to compare spawning flows
with monthly streamflow probabilities than with the annual flow duration
curve. The base spawning flow of 18.0 cms. for the Tongue River is normally
exceeded 83% of the time, based on streamflow records for June, from 1961
through 1974. The advantage of the base flow concept to the water manager
or reserving agency, is that it defines a "fall back" position in water
negotiation situations. It therefore provides the manager a base line from
which negotiations may be made upward, but not downward without serious con-
sequences.
The field tests conducted in this study give credence to both the con-
cepts of optimum flow and base flow. As base flow is approached, it might be
expected that the diversity and productivity would begin to decline. Indeed,
these were the findings of the field tests. Once base flow is passed, the
decline in diversity and productivity may become precipitous. The field
tests did not apply directly to spawning flow requirements, nor to longterm
trends within the fishery. Both of these subjects need to be field tested,
preferably over a number of years.
The formulation of flow criteria for warm water streams has only begun
with this project. It is extremely difficult to select an ideal Indicator
species when the preferred hydrologic conditions and ranges of tolerance have
not been determined for most of the species in prairie rivers. This is par-
ticularly true for the determination of spawning flow criteria. Future re-
3-2
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search into flow criteria should devote a considerable effort in this area.
An ideal indicator species should be velocity limited, as velocity is
affected more by reduced discharge than is depth. For this reason we con-
clude that Rhithrogena would be a better rearing indicator in the Tongue
River than would the stonecat. Indeed, it was shown that base flow for
aquatic insects was about 0.85 cms. higher than for the stonecat. The
shovel nose sturgeon appears to be an excellent spawning indicator for the
intermediate part of the spring runoff. Other species, however, such as the
sauger and channel catfish, should be reinvestigated for use as mid-spring
and early summer spawning Indicators, respectively.
A frequent criticism of the multiple transect method of assessing
optimum or base level streamflow requirements, is that 1t 1s time consuming
and expensive. The time requirement for data collection and drawing hydro-
logic maps 1s about 3 man-days for each section and discharge measured and
mapped. An additional time requirement occurs as a result of waiting for
the discharge to change sufficiently to warrant re-mapp1ng a section. Chap-
ter 6 shows how the use of flow prediction models can significantly reduce
the time, and consequently the cost of multiple transect analysis. With the
use of a computerized contour plotter, the total time requirement from initia-
tion of data collection to receiving the completed maps may be reduced as
much as 95 percent.
Both the Water Surface Profile Program and the CONTOUR Program were
shown to give reliable results. The time requirements for both programs are
about the same, approximately 2 to 3 man-days per section. In view of the
type of data output, and the overall superiority of hydrologic mapping to sin-
gle transect analysis or other flow assessment techniques, 1t must be concluded
that the use of flow prediction models is a significant improvement over con-
3-3
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ventional methods.
A second criticism of the multiple transect methodology is that it is
only applicable in small, wadeable rivers. This criticism is totally un-
justified. Data collection consists almost exclusively of current meter
measurements. For years the U.S. Geological Survey has made similar meas-
urements from boats mounted with cable booms, winches, and bomb weights.
There is no reason that the same equipment would not work for hydrologic
mapping on large rivers. Even the cumbersome tagline may be eliminated, if
desired, with the use of electronic distance meters.
Reproducibility of the methodology may be seriously affected if several
precautions are not observed during site selection and field installation.
Critical areas for rearing should be encompassed in the controls, and meas-
ured at approximate right angles to the channel. Areas with shelves, bars,
and islands should be avoided. Critical areas for spawning should include
gravel bars and shoals, which are usually the preferred spawning locations
for many mainstream fishes. At least one transect should be placed above
the control, and data from this transect used to make any discharge calcul-
ations. Finally, at least five discharges should be mapped to determine
either the optimum or base flows. Reproducibility and reliability are en-
hanced as more discharges are mapped, but the Increase in accuracy must be
weighed against the effort of attainment.
Studies of ice formation in the Tongue River indicate that reduced dis-
charge would result in a thicker surface ice sheet than normal. Two distinct
flow requirements are involved 1n ice considerations: 1) the requirement
to prevent excessive icing of riffle areas; and Z) the requirement to pre-
vent ice jams when the spring break-up occurs. At the rearing base flow of
3.70 cms., up to 60% of the riffle area may be frozen solid. However, all
3-4
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this area is not really lost, as much of the riffle area will not meet cri-
teria at base flow. At flows less than base flow, 80% to 90% of the riffle
areas may be lost to ice, with a potential for loss of circulation and
winterkill in downstream areas.
Serious ice jamming can be prevented with flows of 18.0 to 20.0 cms.,
but may be mitigated by flows as low as 10.0 cms. Ice jams are virtually
assured at flows less than 6.0 cms. It must be concluded, therefore, that
ice formation will not be an over-riding consideration at flows above the
base flow. Passage requirements for the break-up period over-ride the base
flow level by a rather large margin.
Thermodynamic models to predict the equilibrium thickness of the ice
sheet may prove to be extremely useful tools in the future. At this time,
more research is required to determine the heat production rate of running
water, the relationship between ice thickness, bed roughness and velocity,
and their affect on the rate of growth of the ice sheet.
Unlike most other in-stream uses of water, which tend to be complimen-
tary, streamflow for riparian vegetation is additive in the Tongue River.
It 1s the only consumptive in-stream flow requirement. The highest rates
of water use occur during June, July, and August. As a result of the water
supply mechanism for the trees, the effects of the vegetation on streamflow
would be a more serious problem than the effects of streamflow on the vege-
tation. If there is an^ water 1n the river, 1t is probably available to the
trees.
The mean daily instantaneous flow requirement for riparian vegetation,
excluding Irrigated cropland, was calculated to be 1.54 cms. for a rain-free
month of July. The maximum dally rate of withdrawal may be a high as 1.94
cms. for several hours per day during July. The mean daily July (rain free)
3-5
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requirement for irrigation is around 8.0 cms.
If only the rearing base flow were released from the Tongue River dam,
it is apparent that it would quickly be depleted. In fact, if only an irri-
gation flow of 6.67 cms. were released, and riparian losses not considered,
the lower 155 km. of river would fall below the base flow level, and the
lower 50 k.ou would probably have zero discharge. Therefore, 1t roust be con-
cluded that riparian consumptive losses must be calculated separately and
added to the base fishery requirement to ensure sufficient water for both.
The Penman equation used to estimate the mean daily and maximum daily
evapotranspiration rates appears to give satisfactory results. The estimation
of evapotranspiration by the Penman equation is probably as reliable, and
much easier and quicker, than an empirical determination. The source of
greatest error on any determination of this type is the estimation of the
area of canopy cover on the floodplain. The use of aerial photos is probably
the only satisfactory method of making this estimation. However, estimates
made from aerial photographs should be checked against ground truth data to
determine their accuracy.
The transport of sediment, and flow requirements for pool scouring are
complimentary uses to spawning flows. Most of the sediment entering the
Tongue River from Its tributaries is so fine that as it passes through the
system as predominately suspended load. The primary source of large size
sediment, outside the channel itself, 1s from slumping and caving from the
numerous stream-cut terraces along the river. Pool scour was estimated to
begin at around 18.0 cms.; however, the rate of sediment removal at this flotf
is so slow that the discharge would need to be maintained for a long period
of time for effective scouring to take place. A flow of 25.0 to 30.0 cms.
would more efficiently remove the sediment, using less total water by compar-
3-6
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ison, and would provide much better spawning flows.
Sediment transport models can be useful tools in assessing streamflow
requirements. However, some of the inputs to the models may be difficult
to obtain in the field. For many models, however, the necessary data are
very similar to those required for the Water Surface Profile Program. With
a little extra effort in data collection, a vast amount of information on
sediment transport may be obtained in the course of applying a flow predic-
tion model.
3-7
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CHAPTER 4: RECOMMENDATIONS
The Indicator Species-Critical Area method for determining in-stream
values was found to meet the three criteria for validity: accuracy, ground
truth, and water availability. However, several procedural and methodolo-
gical changes were required before these criteria were met. Recommended
modifications to the methodology are as follows:
1. The determination of a minimum streamflow requirement as a percentage
of the optimum flow should be replaced by the base flow concept as
defined in this study.
2. For at least some part of the year, aquatic insects appear to be more
sensitive to reduced streamflow than do fish. Therefore, if food is
potentially limiting, the Invertebrate fauna should be included 1n
any in-stream flow considerations.
3. The shovel nose sturgeon appears to be an excellent midseason spawning
indicator. However, Indicators for earlier and later spawning periods
should be investigated and flow criteria determined. The sauger,
smallmouth bass, and channel catfish are suggested as potential spawning
indicators.
4. Critical areas for rearing should be selected according to the following
criteria:
a. The area should contain a substrate of smooth and angular medium
cobble (128 to 256 mm. median diameter). If such substrates are
not available, the researcher should find conditions that most
closely approximate a cobble substrate.
b. The riffle area should form a complete control across the entire
channel, at approximately a right angle to the flow.
4-1
-------
c. River reaches containing shelves and bars should not be used
as critical areas, unless a separate substrate map is used in
compilation of the composite map. Areas with large islands
should not be used at all because the control 1s likely to be
at different positions on either side of the island.
d. Critical areas for spawning should Include gravel bars and
shoals. Channel constrictions and scour pools associated with
mid-stream bars should not be considered part of the critical
area, although they will frequently meet flow criteria for the
Indicator species. These areas are not very sensitive to chan-
ges in discharge, and maintain a fairly consistent hydrologlc
character even at low flows.
5. At least one transect should be placed above the control at the cri-
tical area. Date from this transect should be used to make any re-
quired discharge calculations.
6. A minimum of five discharges should be mapped at each critical area
to define either the optimum or base flow, but not both. Seven to
ten discharge measurements are probably sufficient to determine both
the optimum and base flow. Inas much as hydrologlc contour maps com-
piled for each critical area may be used to assess other in-stream
flow functions, such as ice formation, all mapped discharges should
be considered necessarily worthwhile.
7. The use of flow prediction models, particularly those outlined in this
study, 1s highly recommended. The Water Surface Profile Program 1s
particularly useful in that hydraulic functions other than flow charac-
teristics (i.e. tractive force, sediment transport, etc.) may be deter-
mined from WSPP data. The CONTOUR Progaam may be Implemented concur-
4-2
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rently with the WSPP. It was shown that, in particular, velocity
data from CONTOUR is equal or superior to that from the WSPP and
is more readily applied to hydrologic mapping. However, caution
is advised in the use of the CONTOUR model for extrapolation. The
model is designed as an interpolative tool» and extrapolation beyond
the field measured end points is unwarranted.
There are several in-stream uses of water which periodically over-ride
the requirements of the fishery, or are supplementary to them. It is, there-
fore, recommended that any intensive level methodology should include these
considerations, which is not as difficult as it might appear. Hydrologic
maps can be used to determine the extent of riffle icing at various flows,
and passage requirements for break-up. Determination of riparian vegetation
requirements involves considerable work, but this determination is so essen-
tial that the effort is entirely justified. Sediment transport rates may
be adequately described by one of a number of mathematical models available.
The inputs to the models are similar to those of the WSPP Program. Additional
field data would include an analysis of the bed materials, obtained by pipe
or auger sampling, and temperature and water density data. These data could
easily be obtained in the course of applying a WSPP-CONTOUR modeling program
to a critical area. It 1s recommended that these collections be made as a
routine procedure in the application of flow prediction models.
Water quality problems are likely to change from basin to basin, depend-
ing on land use, population, and industrial development. Specific water qual-
ity models should be Implemented as the need, or the prospective need, arises.
Again, the hydrologic information generated from the flow prediction models
can be extremely useful in the application of these models. Other data, such
as BOD loading or salinity concentrations are often quite easy to obtain.
4-3
-------
It 1s further recommended that 1n-stream flow requirements be determined
for each week, month, or season, depending on the over-riding consideration
for that particular period. For example, a higher discharge is needed in
late February in the Tongue River to minimize ice jams, but a rearing
base flow is probably adequate from October through February. Spawning flows
should be basetj on an appropriate Indicator species for early spring, mid
to late spring, and early summer respectively. Fall spawners may also be
a matter for consideration. Riparian vegetation and Irrigation requirements
should be considered additive and determined on a monthly basis. Discharge
requirements for sediment transport and pool scouring should not be set at
the lowest discharge at which a certain particle size commences to move.
Nor should 1t be set at the highest rate-shortest period flow to maximize
the efficiency of water use. A reasonable balance can be maintained between
sediment removal rates and the spawning requirements for a particular spawning
indicator.
A flow recommendation derived from any methodology should be checked
against the flow duration curve (or monthly probability curve in the case of
spawning flows) to ensure that the criteria for water availability can reason-
ably be met. However, the flow duration curve alone should not be the sole
basis for determining an 1n-stream flow requirement. In addition to its essen-
tially subjective elements, the flow duration curve itself may be biased by
diversions, or seasonal water losses, above the gaging station. A situation
similar to this exists on the lower Tongue River where a large diversion re-
moves a substantial flow above the gage house. While there is a good fishery
in this portion of river, the fish have the option of retreating to the Yellow-
stone River when flows become too low. This option is not reflected in the
flow duration curve, nor is 1t acknowledged by any methodology using stream-
4-4
-------
flow records alone, If the fishery were isolated, it might become appar-
ent that the natural streamflow is below base flow for parts of the summer.
Research Needs
The most pressing research requirement is the further compilation of
flow criteria for key species in warm-water streams. This is especially
true for spawning criteria. Investigations of spawning criteria should
not only include specific depth, velocity, and substrate details, but also
possible important spawning conditions, such as temperature, turbidity,
photoperiod, rise in stage,and bed movement. The criteria developed for
the shovel nose sturgeon in this study is to be considered only tentative.
Spawning, and spawning habitat should be monitored for several years, and
cross-checked with year-class strength to determine spawning success. Ideally,
flow criteria for spawning should perhaps be based on success rather than
activity.
Research should also be Initiated into the comprehensive use of computers
and computer plotters for compiling data and plotting hydrologic contour maps.
The primary reason that the multiple transect method is not more widely used
is because of the large time and manpower requirements involved in its appli-
cation. If the time requirement can be reduced, the methodology is likely to
be more widely applied. The use of flow prediction models and computer
plotters may reduce the time requirements to as little as one-fifth to one-tenth
current practice.
The critical area-Indicator species methodology should be applied to a
large river, such as the Yellowstone, using boats and boat-mounted stream
gaging equipment. It has apparently been assumed that the methodology 1s only
applicable to small rivers, but this assumption has been neither proved nor
disproved by an actual field test. The use of an electronic distance meter to
4-5
-------
replace the conventional tag-line, is strongly recommended for large river
work.
A long-term (3 to 5 year) field test of the critical area-indicator
species methodology is also needed. The field tests conducted in this
study were necessarily short term. A long-term test should cover an ex-
tended length of river, and should include virtually every habitat type
and fish in the river. Such a field test should monitor essentially the
same things studied in this project, but under a controlled-flow, exper-
imental situation. Incremental flow analysis using controlled reservoir
releases would be one means of better implementing such a study.
The entire subject of over-winter behavior of aquatic insects, es-
pecially in streams subject to surface ice formation, is a virtual unknown.
Research should be conducted to determine the movement and activity of
aquatic invertebrates during the surface ice season, and the effects of
spring break-up on the productivity of riffle areas. Ice research should
also investigate the hypothesis that frictional heat from running water
retards or prevents the thickening of the ice sheet. A related problem
is the determination of the heat exchange rate from water to ice.
4-6
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CHAPTER 5: A COMPREHENSIVE METHODOLOGY FOR IN-STREAM
FLOW DETERMINATIONS
Introduction
As originally conceived, an in-stream flow methodology referred pri-
marily to a procedure designed to assess streamflow as a primary influence
on fishery resources. The assessment of the relationships of streamflow
to other aquatic resources and processes was not considered a primary
function of the methodology. However, several of these "secondary" stream-
flow functions (such as ice formation or sediment transport) have direct
impacts on the fishery, or on the river itself. As this study progressed,
it became apparent that the consideration of these functions should actually
be incorporated into a methodological framework.
Presently, there is no single procedure capable of simultaneously deter-
mining the mlnumum streamflow requirements of several related aquatic re-
sources. Rather, the flow relationships and requirement for each type of
resource, or problem area, must be determined separately. Comparisons be-
tween the flow requirements for different ecosystem components can give a
better understanding of the total flow requirements of the ecosystem.
Thus, an "In-stream Flow Methodology" should be conceptualized as the
end result of the application of several problem-specific, component method-
ologies. Figure 5-1 is a simplified flow chart describing the combination
of the components under a single methodological framework.
Streamflow requirements for each of the components of Figure 5-1 may
be determined Independently, using a methodology designed to assess each
requirement. Some of the in-stream water uses are considered complimentary;
5-1
-------
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that is, the streamflow requirement to satisfy one use may satisfy several
others. Under this framework, the complimentary in-stream use with the
highest flow requirement for a certain time period is considered critical.
However, consumptive water uses such as transpiration from riparian
vegetation and irrigated crops, are considered additive or supplementary
uses. Flow requirements for these uses are combined and added to the
critical flow requirement as determined for the complimentary uses. The
total in-stream flow requirement for any time period is then defined as
the summation of the additive requirements and the greatest complementary
requirements.
The use of the comprehensive methodology to make a minimum streamflow
recommendation 1s Illustrated by the flow diagram 1n Figure 5-2. In this
Tongue River example the flow requirement for pool scour 1s 18.0 m^/sec.,
3
while the minimum flow for sturgeon spawning is 13.0 m /sec. The flow re-
quired to flush fines from gravel areas is only 11.0 m^/sec. Thus, critical
streamflow requirement for all complimentary uses is 18.0 m /sec. Total
transpiration losses were calculated to be 5.58 m3/sec. Therefore, the
3
total 1n-stream commitment for June 1s 23.6 m /sec. This is the instantan-
eous flow requirement to be released at the Tongue River Dam. A release
less than this may result 1n inadequate spawning and scouring flows in the
lower river.
In as much as different water requirements assume greater or lesser
importance at different times of the year, this methodological concept
allows the flexibility to adjust flow recommendations to meet the most Im-
portant seasonal or monthly need. A second attractive feature of this method
is that it also allows the flexibility to plan for changes in land use or
5-3
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waste loading, which might require a larger instream flow to maintain water
quality or other in-stream values. Additionally, the methodology incorpor-
ates the analysis of monthly variable water losses. Failure to correct the
total in-stream flow requirement for these losses will result in less than
adequate flow for the complimentary in-stream uses. Application of such a
comprehensive methodology will provide a more powerful management tool than
relying on a piecemeal approach to in-stream flow recommendations.
It should be apparent that the reliability of the comprehensive in-
stream flow recommendation depends upon the reliability of each component
methodology. A brief description of each of the component methodologies is
provided below. The water quality component was not included in this
study due to constraints of manpower; however, descriptions of water qual-
ity methodologies will be mentioned briefly.
UAtor Quality Component
Models applicable to the determination of flow requirements to main-
tain water quality may be found in general santiary engineering texts,
such as Velz (1970), or in technical bulletins outlining specific water
quality (WQ) parameters. Some water quality considerations are relatively
more important during certain seasons or months. For example, dissolved
oxygen is likely to be a most important parameter during the summer, when
water temperatures are highest, and during the fall, when there is the
greatest amount of accumulated vegetation and detritus in the stream. The
importance of other WQ parameters will vary from stream to stream, depend-
ing on geology, land use and effluent character. The concentration of
total dissolved solids, sodium, and boron are of prime importance in a
stream used for irrigation as opposed to one which is not. Therefore,
it becomes important to identify those WQ parameters which are most
5-5
-------
critical to a particular stream, and to determine the streamflow require-
ments to maintain a desired level of water quality, based on the critical
time period for each WQ parameter.
Mathematical modeling is usually employed in the assessment of stream-
flow requirements to maintain water quality. Several types of WQ models
are given below:
Dissolved Oxygen:
The most commonly used model for predicting streamflow and waste load-
ing effects on dissolved oxygen content 1s the streeter-Phelps carbonaceous
decay model. The generalized form 1s given 1n Equation 5-1.
1C.4_ L (QC) - KjL - KnLn + Ka (Cs - C) - Sb + P - R
at A 3x
(Eq. 5-1)
+ C
r
3£/A
3X
Where,
C » dissolved oxygen concentration
C$a dissolved oxygen concentration at saturation
Cr= dissolved oxygen added along river
S[j= dissolved oxygen sink due to sludge deposition
P = dissolved oxygen added by photosynthesis
R ¦ dissolved oxygen sink due to plant respiration
Kas reaeration coefficient
K^= deoxygenatlon coefficient for carbonaceous waste
Kn= deoxygenatlon coefficient for nitrogenous waste
A = average cross-sectional area of reach
Q * stream discharge
5-6
-------
L = waste loading in mg/L
X = distance
Implementation of Equation 5-1 requires the determination from the
literature of appropriate coefficients, and the empirical determination of
most of the other inputs. Details of the Streeter-Phelps model may be
found in Velz (1970) or numerous references listed by Stalnaker and Arnette
(1976).
Temperature:
The effect of reduced streamflow on extreme summer water temperature
may be assessed through the use of an energy budget model. The temperature
determination of a discrete volume of water as 1t moves downstream is based
on the method derived by Raphael (1962). This method consists of calculat-
ing the heat content of the water body, and converting this heat content
to a temperature. Equation 5-2 shows the conversion process.
A t =_L
v.
M9 ~ Kij " V
W
(Eq. 5-2)
Where,
or
tsty- change in temperature, in time 9. c
= total flow volume, in some time Interval, 9 (m )
A = surface area of the volume (m^)
Ht = increase in stored energy (Kcal/m^/hour)
6 = time in hours
w = specific weight of water (Kg/m )
/ 3\
V..= inflow volume in time interval 0 (m )
i0
t^= temperature of inflow volume (°C)
t = initial temperature of water volume (°C)
5-7
-------
The value of the Increase 1n stored energy, Ht» is calculated using
the energy balance equation:
Ht 1 (Hs " Hr' " Hb " He - Hh (Eq- 5"3)
Where,
= increase in stored energy as above
Hs = incoming solar radiation
Hr = reflected radiation from water surface
= effective back radiation
Hg ¦ energy loss to evaporation
= conducted heat loss
The units of all these terms are Kcal/m^/hour. Inputs for the deter-
mination of H. may be determined from local cl1matolog1cal data and any of
V
several specific references (Velz, 1970; Raphael, 1962).
Total Dissolved Solids or Discrete Salts:
For conservative contaminants, such as total dissolved sol Ids (TDS),
1t 1s assumed that dilution 1s the only mechanism for reducing the concen-
tration. Natural sources to TDS include feeder streams or groundwater In-
flow. Increased concentration of TDS may occur as a result of removing
water from a stream which receives high concentrations of dissolved solids
from these sources. High concentrations of TDS may also be caused by In-
creased evaporation of the natural stream due to Increased travel time re-
sulting from reduced discharge. The dilution equation (Crutchfield, et. al.
1975) 1s given below.
Qw Cw1 + Qr Cr1 (Eq. 5-4)
M1 (Qw + Qr)
5-8
-------
Where,
CM- = the resultant concentration of the influent and receiving water
1 mixture (mg/1)
Qw = the flow rate of the influent water (m^/sec)
w
•)
Qr = the flow rate of the receiving water (m /sec)
C . = the concentration of the dissolved solid parameter (mg/1) in
W1 the influent water
C . - the concentration of the dissolved solid parameter in the receiving
n water (mg/1)
Fisheries Component
The methodology used to determine minimum streamflow for fisheries
is designated the Critical Area-Indicator Species Method. This method
utilizes the environmental alteration of shallow water riffles and gravel
bars in response to changes in streamflow. These habitat areas reflect a
greater degree of sensitivity to change than other 1n-stream habitats,
because of the rapid change 1n hydrologic variables with change 1n discharge.
The sensitive habitats are defined then, as critical areas.
A logical extension of the critical area concept is that organisms
which Inhabit or utilize these shallow water areas will necessarily be more
sensitive to changes in streamflow than inhabitants of other stream areas.
Therefore, if suitable habitat 1s maintained 1n the critical area for species
using that area, it is assumed that conditions will be suitable for all other
species in the river. This concept is used 1n the criteria defining an in-
dicator species.
In applying this methodology, the same indicator species is not used
throughout the year. Rather, several indicator species have been identified
for use during the migration and spawning phase of the life history, and
5-9
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others during the rearing phase. For the purposes of this study, the sauger
and shovelnose sturgeon were selected as migration and spawning indicators.
Rearing conditions were evaluated in terms of productivity (aquatic insect
habitat) and balance (habitat diversity for fish). Maximum biomass and
diversity were utilized as criteria for maximum productivity. The stone-
cat was used as the indicator species delineating critical area habitats.
This method involves two separate phases of field data collection. The
first phase 1s the formulation of flow criteria for each Indicator species.
This flow criteria includes a determination of the velocity range, depth
range, and bottom type most commonly associated with each indicator species.
The second phase evaluates a series of discharges across a critical
area, or areas. This evaluation process requires the construction of plan-
1metr1c hydrologlc contour maps which delineate areas of equal depth or vel-
ocity. Field data for the maps are collected from four or more transects
across a critical area. At specified Intervals across each transect, mea-
surements of depth, velocity, and bottom type are made. A depth contour
map 1s prepared by transferring the transect depth measurements to their ap-
propriate positions on a scale drawing of the channel. Lines of equal depth
are then drawn on the map by interpolating to the desired depth contour be-
tween points on the same transect, or between corresponding points between
transects. Figure 5-3 shows a sample of a depth contour map with the field
data Indicated on the transect lines. Velocity maps are similarly constructed
on a separate planimetrlc map. These maps may be interpreted 1n a manner
similar to reading a topographic map.
The adequacy with which a given discharge provides habitat over the cri-
tical area for the Indicator species may then be evaluated with the use of a
5-10
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composite map. These maps are constructed by superimposing the appro-
priate depth, velocity, and bottom type contours on the same map. Only the
contours delineating the boundary conditions for the flow criteria of a
given indicator species are indicated. Areas of the map which do not meet
depth, velocity, and bottom type criteria are then cross-hatched. Unmarked
areas remaining on the composite map meet all of the flow criteria for the
indicator species. These areas are measured with a planimeter, and
the total area meeting the flow criteria determined for each discharge. For
each discharge "mapped", the area meeting the flow criteria is then plotted
against discharge. This curve is used to determine the optimum and minimum
streamflow requirements for the indicator species. An example of a composite
map is given 1n Figure 5-4. Figure 5-5 shows a plot of preferred habitat
area vs. discharge.
Ice Formation Component
At the outset of this study, 1t was recognized that ice formation played
an important role in N6P streams, but the extent and nature of its influence
was not known. The results of the study show that ice formation effects
the river ecosystem 1n two ways: 1) by reducing the amount of habitable area,
and 2) by disturbance of the river bed during the break-up period.
Me found that the equilibrium 1ce thickness (the thickness at which heat
loss from the top of the ice sheet equals the heat gained at the water-ice
interface) was inversely related to water velocity. Therefore, slower water
velocities were Invariably associated with a thicker surface ice sheet. In
as much as water velocity decreases significantly with reduced discharge, a
decrease 1n discharge would result 1n a greater equilibrium 1ce thickness.
The extent of habitat loss to the formation and thickening of an 1ce sheet
5-12
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5-13
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I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30
Discharge in cubic meters per second
Figure 5-5: Example of preferred area vs. discharge, or "peak of the
curve" plot used to determine optimum and minimum stream-
flow requirements.
5-14
-------
depends not only on the discharge, but on the thermal regime of the region.
At this time, the relationship between ice thickness and current velocity
can best be determined empirically, although several thermodynamic models
capable of predicting equilibrium ice thickness may soon become practical.
The methodology used in this study to assess the area loss due to ice
utilizes an empirically derived relationship between ice thickness and cur
rent velocity. For a given range of velocities there is a corresponding
range of expected ice thickness. Table 5-1 illustrates the relationship
described above.
Table 5-1: Expected 1ce thickness derived from current velocities at
measurement locations.
Current velocity Equilibrium thickness
cm./sec. cm*
60
50
45
40
30
20
19
21
21
22
25
29
The extent of habitat loss may be evaluated for the same critical areas
used 1n rearing flow determinations, using the depth and velocity contour maps
prepared for those areas. Velocity contour lines are used to estimate the
approximate thickness of the ice. The expected thickness of ice is then super-
imposed on the depth contour map for the same discharge. Where the predicted
ice thickness is greater than, or equal to, the depth within a given contour
Interval the area 1s assumed frozen to the bed. The percentage of the riffle
lost to ice formation may then be calculated from the maps.
5-15
-------
The determination of flow requirements to prevent ice jams from devel-
oping Involves a much more direct procedure. Since the greatest thickness
of ice measured 1n the Tongue River over the last two years (1975, 1976)
was not much more than 30 cm., it was assumed that most of the 1ce released
from pool areas would be about 30 cm. thick. The depth contour maps for a
given critical area were then examined to determine the extent of the area
less than 30 cm. 1n depth at various discharges. If the depth over the en-
tire critical area 1s greater than the thickness of the 1ce floating through
the area, the chance of 1ce jam formation is decreased considerably. Conver-
sely, the probability of a serious 1ce jam forming over a critical area In-
creases as the area containing the required depth decreases.
Transpiration Loss Component
Since transpiration losses along a river are additive, 1t 1s not possible
to select a critical area for the determination of the transpiration flow re-
quirement. The methodology used to determine transpiration losses 1s essen-
tially the same for riparian vegetation and Irrigated cropland.
The first step, 1n either case, 1s the determination of the total canopy
cover Involved 1n the transpiration process. For irrigated crops, the area
covered 1s usually available 1n the literature,including U.S.G.S. streamflow
records and gaging station descriptions. However, the area of riparian vege-
tation cover must often be determined empirically. This can be accomplished with
aerial photographs or LANOSAT color Infrared photographs. For this study* vegetated
areas were traced from aerial photos onto a grldded tracing paper, 1n such a
manner that each small square of the grid contained some canopy. The percen-
tage of each square covered by canopy was estimated, and that vegetation area
was given a weighting factor depending on the percentage of cover. The total
5-16
-------
cover for each vegetation map prepared in this manner was determined by
suring each vegetated area with a planimeter, and multiplying by the app
prlate weighting factor. Total canopy cover was determined by summation of
individual canopy cover areas as determined for each map.
The transpiration rate was then determined using the Penman equation
and local climatological data. By using the Penman equation, it is possib
to determine the mean daily and maximum daily transpiration rates of the ve
getation. These rates may be corrected for rainfall, 1f desired.
Daily water volume requirements for transpiration may then be determined
by multiplying the total canopy cover area (in square meters) by the trans
piration rate (meters per day). Instantaneous flow requirements were estim
ated by assuming that groundwater recharge 1s constant over time. By dividing
the mean daily water volume requirement by 86,400 sec./day, one can estimate
the instantaneous mean daily flow requirement for transpiration.
Because transpiration rates increase through early summer, and then de-
crease after August, the flow requirements for transpiration should be cal-
culated on a monthly basis. Unlike many other in-stream flow requirements,
for which the same volume of water may satisfy several functions, transpira-
tion losses are consumptive. Therefore, they must be considered as an addi-
tional requirement rather than a complimentary use.
Sediment Transport Component
The primary objective of the sediment transport component is to ensure
that the sediment accumulated in pools is removed by a scouring flow. In
this case the pools are considered critical areas. Additionally, the imple-
mentation of this methodology requires the determination of a critical stream
reach, which is defined as the reach with the greatest sediment source, and
5-17
-------
the least ability to remove sediment. This reach may vary from stream to
stream depending on the nature of the sediment inflow. For many streams,
however, the critical reach for sediment transport will be 1n the lowest
part of the basin, where the hydraulic gradient of the stream 1s at a mini-
mum.
Sediment transport on the Tongue River was evaluated empirically by
taking both bedload and suspended sediment samples at the downstream end of
a large pool. Sediment rating curves for various size fractions of sediment
were constructed by plotting the sediment load vs. the discharge. The Inter-
pretation of these sediment rating curves Is often made more difficult by a
scattering of the data points for a given discharge. This scattering phen-
omenon Is most serious for particle sizes less than 62 microns 1n diameter.
However, this size fraction may be omitted from the evaluation process because
1t does not reflect channel scour or flushing. Rather, these small particles
are already 1n transport when they reach the lower main stem of the river.
Fine to medium sand, either moving in suspension or as bedload 1s better In-
dication of the Initiation of scour.
Theoretically, scour may be Indicated 1n two ways. If the load of sed-
iment leaving the channel section 1s greater than the amount entering the
section, then scour may be assumed to be In progress If 1t can be established
that sediment 1s not entering the channel within the section. An alternative
method is the examination of the competence of the stream. This Involves
the determination of the discharge at which certain size fractions begin
moving.
The mass balance method works well if all sediment entering the critical
stream section can be measured and bank caving or slumping is not an Important
5-18
-------
source of sediment in the critical stream reach. Competence is y
difficult to determine, for some fine sand may move at virtually 9
within the critical stream section.
The method used to evaluate sediment transport in this study
ation of both the competence and mass balance methods. Numerous samples were
taken at a relatively low flow, with no sediment entering the rive
off. These samples were used to establish "background levels of the load in
the various size fractions of sediment. Subsequent samples at higher dis
charges were then examined to determine whether the load appreciably exceeded
the background level. Thus, a type of cluster analysis was used to interpret
the initiation of scour in the pool. For example, the background level for
fine sand moving as bedload in the Tongue River section sampled was found to
be about 3 metric tons per day for numerous flows below 18.0 cms. The load
at 18.0 cms. varied from 4 to 5 metric tons per day. However, from 18.0 to
20.0 cms. the load increased to 10 to 12 metric tons per day. Thus, it was
concluded that pool scour was initiated at around 18.0 cms. This scouring
value was also indicated by other larger particle sizes moving as bedload
and by the first appearance of fine sand in the suspended load.
References
Crutchfield, J.A., Mar, B.W., Crosby, J.VJ., Orsborn, J.F., 1975, "Appendeces
- Methodology and Data For Analyzing Quantity, Quality, and Economic
Aspects of Minimum Streamflows", Water Res. Cent. WSU and UW, Pullman,
WA.
Raphael, J.M., 1962, "Prediction of Temperatures 1n Rivers and Reservoirs",
Power Pi v., Proc. ASCE, 88: P02, 147-181.
5-19
-------
CHAPTER 6: IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FISHERY COMPONENT METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Essentially all of the data intensive, flow recommendation methodologies
had their origins on the West Coast. Basically, each methodology utilizes
extensive measurements of hydrologic parameters (velocity, depth, substrate,
etc.) across single or multiple transects. Measurements are repeated for a
wide variety of discharges. The adequacy with which a given discharge meets
the requirements of the fishery is evaluated using comprehensive flow criteria
(preferences for certain depth, velocities, etc.) for the fish species of
interest. The flow which provides the greatest area of preferred hydrologic
conditions is defined as the optimum streamflow.
The streams for which these methodologies were developed supported
salmonid fisheries with relatively few species. Because of the popularity
and high esteem of the salmonids, a considerable body of knowledge of their
streamflow needs had already evolved. The development of streamflow recom-
mendation methodologies for salmonids primary involved the coupling of the
field techniques with the criteria which already existed. In addition,
most salmonid streams exhibit a riffle-pool periodicity with well defined
areas of mlcrohabltat, making it relatively easy to establish study areas
and evaluate the effects of different discharges on the salmonid
community.
Two initial problems were defined in this study of a warm water stream
in the Northern Great Plains. The first, and most serious, is the great
variety of species found in the Tongue and other rivers of the region.
Obviously, the formulation of flow criteria for each species was out of
the question. The first problem to be resolved, then, was the species for
which flow criteria should be developed.
6-1
-------
The second problem involved the complexity of the channel in most prairi^
rivers. In addition to the pools and riffles common to a trout stream, the
Tongue River contains waterfalls and rapids, undercut banks and backwaters
both on the inside and outside of meanders, cut-off meanders, braided straight
sections and braided meanders, partial riffles, channel constrictions, de-
grading and aggrading tributary confluences as well as other environments.
Therefore, the problem of selecting the habitat type to be studied becomes
important. The flow recommendation methodology proposed is designed to cir-
cumvent these major difficulties, yet provide reliable, reproducible, and
defendable results.
The Critical Area-Indicator Species Method
Shallow areas in rivers, such as riffles and bars, are more drastically
affected by reduced discharges than are pools, or other stream habitat areas
(Kraft, 1972; Fraser, 1971). Moreover, such areas frequently retard or con-
trol the flow of water over them. The flow of water over the "control" thus
affects the flow in pools, backwaters, and other areas. Gravel bars are
shallow areas which may or may not act as a control; however,
these areas may have special importance as spawning grounds. Due to their
high sensitivity to changes in streamflow, these shallows are defined as
"critical areas." The critical area concept was apparently devised indepen-
dently by several different researchers, but was first promulgated by Russell
and Mulvaney of Region II, USFS, (Stalnaker and Arnette, 1976).
A logical extension of the critical area concept is that the inhabitants
of such shallow water areas will be more severely limited by reduced stream-
flow than will denizens of other habitats. Therefore, if suitable habitat 1s
maintained for riffle dwelling species, over the critical area, then the as-
sumption is that conditions will be suitable for all other species in the
6-2
-------
rest of the river. This concept is then used in the criteria defining an
"indicator species" (Bovee, 1974).
Three separate phases of the life history of fishes are considered
under the "indicator-species" methodology. These include migration, spawning,
and rearing. Rearing is further subdivided into production (aquatic insects)
and balance (habitat diversity) classifications.
The sauger and the shovelnose sturgeon were investigated as migration
and spawning indicator species. Both species spawn in shallow, fast water
and are highly migratory (Eddy and Surber, 1943; Eschmeyer, 1950; Nelson,
1968). The stonecut was selected as the indicator species for the rearing
phase of life history. According to the literature, stonecats are primarily
associated with riffles and rapids containing large, loose racks (Johnson,
1965; Larimore and Smith, 1963; Clay, 1962). The stonecast is utilized pri-
marily to evaluate fish community structure during the rearing phase. Pro-
ductivity, as a function of hydrologic conditions, was evaluated in terms of
macroinvertebrate biomass and diversity.
As described in Chapter 5, the Critical Area Indicator Species Method
is implemented in three phases. The first phase is the determination of
flow critiera for each indicator species. The second phase requires the col-
lection of hydrologic data, including depths, velocities, and substrates over
the critical area, and the construction of hydrologic parameter contour maps
for each critical area and discharge studied. The final phase evaluates the
adequacy with which different discharges meet the habitat requirements of
a particular indicator species over the critical areas. This is accomplished
through the construction of a composite map for each discharge, which de-
lineates areas meeting the criteria developed for an indicator species,
6-3
-------
and designated as the preferred area. The discharge which provides the
greatest amount of preferred area is defined as the optimum streamflow.
The minimum sustaining flow as used in many methodologies, is defined
as 75% of the optimum flow, the validity of this concept will be dis-
cussed in Chapter 7.
The following sections describe each of the three phases in detail,
and are arranged in the same sequence as that given above.
Determination of Flow Criteria
Rearing Criteria With the Stonecat as Indicator:
Riffle utilization by stonecats in the Tongue River was examined
by electrofishing from a drift boat with a 1500 watt DC mobile electrode
(Vincent, 1971). Whenever a stonecat was captured, its position in the
stream was marked with a small buoy. At each capture location, the para-
meters of depth and velocity were measured with a Price AA current meter
and wading rod. Velocities were measured at 0.6 of the total depth for
locations less than 60 cm. in depth. In deeper water, velocities were
measured at 0.2 and 0.8 of the total depth and averaged. The bottom type
was classified according to the Wentworth Particle Size Classification
(Krumbein and Sloss, 1955).
Stonecats were most commonly associated with substrate particles
ranging in size from small cobble to boulder, with the greatest occur-
rence in association with the medium cobble (128 to 256 mm.) class.
Table 6-1 shows the occurrence of stonecats with respect to depth and
velocity. The mean depth of 203 stonecats collected was 45 cm., with a
standard deviation of 14 cm. The mean velocity was 65 cm./sec., with a
6-4
-------
standard deviation of 20 cm./sec.
Table 6-1: Occurrance of stonecats with respect to depth and current
velocity.
DEPTH (cm.)
<15 16-30 31-45 46-60 61-75 >76
<15
0
0
1
1
1
1
16-30
0
0
3
0
0
0
o
-
61-75
1
8
i is
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76-90
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11 !
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0
0
4
4
0
0
> 106
0
1
3
1
0
0
The depths and velocities outlined 1n Table 6-1 are suggested as flow
criteria for the rearing period, as indicated by the stonecat. 783! of all
stonecats were found in water depths between 30 and 60 cm.; 74% occurred where
velocities ranged between 45 and 90 cm./sec.
Combining the first and last pairs of columns and rows, as suggested
2
by Snedecor and Cochran (1967), X was computed for Table 6-1. The null hypo-
thesis 1s stated as: there 1s no significant difference 1n the distribution
of velocity classes within depth classes of stonecats occurrence. X2 for
the condensed table (4x6) was 34.2887, with 15 d.f. The null hypothesis was
rejected at the 99.5% level of significance (p ¦ .005).
6-5
-------
o
X was also computed for the outlined block in Table 6-1 to determine
whether a significant difference exists within the suggested range of depths
and velocities. For the outlined area, was 5.1010, with 2 d.f. The null
hypothesis should be rejected, indicating that there is a significant dif-
ference in distribution, even within the area selected as flow criteria.
However, X^ computed for depth classes 31-60 cm., and velocity classes 46-75
cm./sec., was nearly zero. Thus, the null hypothesis was not rejected at th^
90% level (p = .10) for this depth-velocity class. The velocity class 76-90
cm./sec. introduces a statistically significant variation, but the variance
is positive, suggesting that this velocity range should remain part of the
velocity criteria.
Streamflow Criteria Based on Benthic Macroinvertebrate Studies:
During a one-week period in March, July, and September, 1975, a total
of 225 Hess samples were taken at riffles located at Birney, Montana (Sta-
tion III), the Viall Ranch near Ashland, Montana (Station IV), the Hosford
Ranch just downstream of the Tongue River Reservoir (Station II, Fig. 6-1).
These particular sampling times were chosen, based on distributional in-
formation presented in Appendix D, so that the summer, winter, and a tran-
sitional fauna between summer and winter were sampled and analyzed. Sam-
ples were taken along transects across the river at one meter intervals
and up to the limit of the sampling gear (45 cm. depth). For each sample
three variables were recorded: depth of the sample, as measured by a wad-
ing rod; the current velocity, measured by a Price AA current meter at six-
tenths of the depth of the sample (for mean current velocity of that sam-
ple); and the microprofile of the substrate itself.
Rather than measure the exact composition of the substrate of each of
the 225 samples, the device described in Appendix D allows the investigator
6-6
-------
6-7
-------
to rapidly assess the profile of the substrate and obtain some indication
of the roughness of the microhabitat.
Velocity, depth, micro-profile, and turbulence (by Froude number, F),
where
F = V (Eq. 6-1)
>/55
and: V = current velocity in cm./sec.
D = depth in centimeters
g = acceleration due to gravity (980 cm./sec.2)
were evaluated with emphasis on diversity and biomass of insects in the
sample, in order to determine optimum flow related conditions.
Based on the assumption that diversity and the biomass of a given
species is greatest at the optimum conditions, and will exhibit a clumped
distribution around this optimum point, the optimum flow conditions were
examined from two perspectives. First, since discharge is related primar-
ily to depth and current velocity, a three-dimensional graph was construct-
ed with diversity, depth, and velocity on the axes. A three-dimensional
surface was then constructed. The centroid on this surface was determined
to be that depth and velocity where average diversity was at its highest.
Centroids were calculated in the manner illustrated below;
Cv = IvH (Eq. 6-2)
v H
C. = ?dH (Eq. 6-3)
d H
where Cv is the centroid for diversity and current velocity and Cd is the
centroid for diversity and depth. H, the diversity, is calculated as:
s
H = - IPi In p1 (Emlen, 1973) (Eq. 6-4)
i
where p. is the proportion of the i-th species of s species within the sam-
ple and In p^ is the naperian logarithm of p^. An indicator species, show-
6-8
-------
ing adequate streamflow conditions, should have a range of tolerances similar
to conditions of maximum diversity, as well as a centroid location close to
the centroid for optimum conditions of diversity (COCD). For individuals of
a given species in a sample, N replaces H 1n equations (6-2) and (6-3), where
N 1s the number of Individuals of each species. Centroids determined from
the graphs of Individual species distribution as a function of velocity and
depth were compared with the centroid for optimum conditions of diversity
(COCD). Those species which showed the most restricted pattern of tolerances
to depth and current velocity, and whose centroid most closely matched that
of the COCD, were then considered to be potential indicator species. The pre-
sence of the Indicator species in future sample collections would indicate
maintenance of community structure as it was found during this study.
The thickness of the laminar boundary layer along the substrate often
determines the m1crod1str1but1on of invertebrates within a riffle (Hynes, 1970).
Turbulence, which 1s related to depth and velocity, and the profile of the
substrate, determine the depth of this boundary layer. To determine the pre-
ferences of Invertebrates for substrate and turbulence, similar three-dimen-
sional surfaces and centroid calculations were made. Froude number, micro-
profile Index, and diversity or number of Individuals in a species were used
as the variables. The centroid calculations are:
Cf - ffH (Eq. 6-5)
I"
(Eq. 6-6)
where C is the centroid for turbulence and diversity and C^ 1s the centroid
for micro-profile and diversity. The values v, d, f, and i refer to current
velocity, depth, Froude number and micro-profile Index for the 1-th sample
being examined. Centroids for the Individual species were calculated by
substituting N for H In equations (6-5) and (6-6). The centroid for dlver-
6-9
-------
sity was assumed to show the substrate and turbulence at which community
structure was at its optimum. Potential Indicator species were again de-
termined and compared with the indicators from the depth and velocity an-
alyses to determine if a single indicator species could be chosen.
The relationship between diversity, current velocity, and depth is
shown in Table 6-2 in which average diversity is presented over increments
of 10 cm. of depth and 15 cm. /sec. of current velocity. At this rather
large scale, a clumped distribution of high diversities is apparent. The
highest average diversities occur in an area where depth is from 20 to 40
cm. and current velocities from 75 to 120 cm. /sec. By using each sam-
ple point, rather than these large increments, the centroid on a better
defined surface has been determined. The centroid, that is, the point of
maximum average diversity, falls within this range at a point represented
by a current velocity of 76 cm./sec. and a depth of 28 cm.
Table 6-3 shows diversity compared with turbulence (F) and bottom
profile (I). A defined range on this incremental graph is not obvious
and one can conclude that turbulence and bottom profile do not influence
microdistribution as much as current velocity and depth. Using individual
sample values to compute the COCO for turbulence and profile, an F of
approximately 0.401 and an I of 2.02 were calculated to represent the op-
timum conditions. These values correspond to a streaming flow of moderate
turbulence and a bottom profile represented by a combination of smooth
and angular cobble, and are supported by findings of Wene and Wiekliffe
(1940), Cummins (1964), Torup (1964) and Egglishaw (1969), all of whom con-
clude that rubble areas of riffles are the most productive areas for aquatic
insects.
A flow of 76 cm. /sec. and a depth of 28 cm. provides an F value of
0.459. Thus, optimum turbulence conditions will be maintained by the rec-
6-10
-------
Table 6-2: Relationship between diversity of aquatic invertebrates
and current velocity and depth.
Depth in cm.
0 - 10 10 - 20 20-30 30-40 40 - 50
0 - 15
0.667
1.112
1.405
1.530
1.371
16 - 30
1.348
1.218
1.957
1.054
1.505
31-45
o
1.628
1.893
1.977
1.933
1.845
^ 46-60
g
1.440
1.721
1.605
1.958
1.812
* 61 - 75
1.523
1.703
1.728
2.034
1.612
•r
r° 76-90
oj
>
1.652
1.809
2.319
2.190
2.156
91 - 105
1.203
1.983
2.211
1.844
2.072
105 - 120
1.386
1.661
2.612
2.027
1.724
>120
0.541
1.802
2.131
2.301
1.817
6-11
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1.5 - 2.
1.327
j 1.356
660*2
689*1
1.745
o
*d-
o
•
CM
2.111
LO
1
o
1.399
2.119
00
•
2.080
2.763
r-
o
r—
1
in
609' I
1.310
1.946
1.476
o
i
o
CVJ
I
ro
i
CM
I
CO
LO
I
SO
I
m
i
10
uaquinN apnouj
6-72
-------
ommended COCD for current velocity and depth. Therefore, a flow of 76
cm. /sec. and a depth of 28 cm. over the maximum amount of smooth and
angular medium cobble in a given riffle will tend to maintain the aquatic
community with a minimum of change.
Figures D-2, D-4, and Table D-l in Appendix D show the graphic re-
presentation of the optimum conditions for representative mayflies com-
pared to the COCD and the actual values of these centroids. Of the spe-
cies examined, Ephoron album, Traverella albertana, and Rhithrogena hageni
show centroids which are close to the COCD of current velocity and depth,
and have the narrowest range of tolerances. Ranges of tolerances were dia-
gramatically produced and rounded to include at least 80% of the samples
containing individuals of that species being examined. Baetis tricaudatus,
Ephoron album, and Rhithrogena hageni show these same kinds of requirements
for profile and turbulence. A potential indicator species from the group
should show these patterns for all four variables; therefore, Traverella
and Baetis are eliminated from consideration as an indicator species.
Overlap of preferred ranges, with the range of maximum diversity, is
good 1n both Ephoron and Rhithrogena. However, Britt (1962) indicates
that substrate preferences of Ephoron may be of a greater variety than
Tongue River data indicates. In addition, Ephoron is a short-lived summer
species and would be a valid Indicator for only three months out of a
given year. Rhithrogena. on the other hand, occurs in the nymphal stage
during the entire year, and as such would be likely to appear in any benthic
sample taken which might be used to test for the presence of adequate stream-
flow conditions. In addition, the adaptation of Rhithrogena to swift waters
(the dorso-ventrally flattened body with gills being modified to form a hold-
fast for free movement on the upper surfaces of rocks in the face of the
strongest currents), as shown by Dodds and Hisaw (1924), Perclval and White-
6-13
-------
head (1929), Linduska (1942), Nielsen (1950), and Hynes (1970), indicates
that Rhlthrogena would be the best mayfly indicator not only of good cur-
rent velocity and depth conditions, but of smooth and angular cobble sub-
strate as well.
Figures D-2 through D-31 in Appendix D show the range of tolerances
of current velocity, depth, turbulence, and bottom profile for 38 of the
most common invertebrates inhabiting the Tongue River. Table 3 in Appen-
dix D lists the centroid, or approximate optimum condition, for each of
the 38 species. Although many of the invertebrate species examined have
ranges of tolerances which overlap the conditions of maximum diversity,
the total range of tolerances are usually so wide that these species would
probably not be sensitive indicators of adequate streamflow.
The Diptera examined suggest another potential indicator species (Fig.
ures D-26 and D-27, Appendix D). Simulium sp. has a range of velocity and
depth tolerances which overlap well with the area of maximum diversity, as
well as a centroid which is close to the COCD. Simulium also extends into
the cold water section of the river and would be the primary indicator in
this section as Rhithrogena has not been found in this area of the river.
In addition, a substrate Index of 2.23 indicates the presence of the opti-
mum substrate profile as well. Nielsen (1960) and Hynes (1970) have point-
ed out the adaptive structures which Simulium employs in its torrential ha-
bitat. The requirements of Metriocnemus sjk are similar to Simulium, but
the range of tolerances for current velocity and depth do not overlap as
well as Simulium with the maximum diversity area.
Rhithrogena hageni and Simulium sp. have been chosen as the best in-
dicator species. The presence of one or both of these indicators in a
benthic sample taken in a riffle of medium cobbled substrate would indi-
cate that adequate streamflow parameters to preserve the present inverte-
6-14
-------
brate community are being maintained. It should be noted that Rhithrogena
is the primary indicator species. Although the presence of Simulium will
indicate maintenance of adequate streamflow parameters, the absence of
Rhithrogena from benthic samples taken over several months may mean that
streamflow levels should be re-assessed. Simulium, alone, is not as sen-
sitive to altered flow conditions as Rhithrogena.
Flow Criteria for Spawning:
Two potential spawning indicator species, the sauger and the shovelnose
sturgeon, were sampled extensively during the spawning runs of 1975 and 1976.
The primary objective of the 1975 sampling program was to determine the loca-
tions of spawning grounds, and to test various methods of sampling in high,
turbid waters. One highly utilized spawning area for both species was loca-
ted by Montana Fish and Game personnel, and in 1976, the area was staked out
and hydrologically mapped as a critical area (See Appendix E).
Sauger Spawning:
Sampling for sauger began on March 23, 1976, when the water temperature
reached 7.8°C. A modified boom shocker was rigged to a small drift boat.
Power was supplied to the electrodes by a 3000 watt generator which was
rectified from AC to DC. Markers, such as those used for the stonecat, were
dropped when large concentrations of sauger were encountered. The function
of the markers was essentially to outline the areas where large numbers of
fish had congregated, rather than to mark individual locations. Several
short shocking runs were made within each sampling section, and areas of con-
gregation were measured for depth, velocity, and bottom type.
Concentrations of sauger were typically found in water depths of from
75 to 105 cm., with velocities from 64 to 90 cm./sec. The bottom type was most
6-15
-------
typically fine to coarse sand, and it was observed that stream areas with
dune configuration on the bottom yielded more fish than did areas with pla-
nar bottoms. It is surmised that individual sauger were resting in the
nodes between the dunes.
Unfortunately, the above flow parameters can not be used as flow cri-
teria. During the entire 2 month sampling program, not a single ripe female
was taken from any of the Tongue River sampling sections. The large con-
centrations of sauger were composed entirely of ripe males. Unless the fe-
males moved up from the Yellowstone River each night, and returned early
each morning, it must be concluded that spawning of sauger was limited, if
not completely excluded, in the Tongue River during 1976.
Haddix (1976) observed large congregations of sauger and walleye in
the Yellowstone River during 1976. He noted that both species collected
over large gravel bars, and was able to demonstrate that spawning had oc-
cured by collecting the eggs of both species. At the time of egg collection,
the depth of the spawning sites ranged from 27 to 43 cm., with velocities
between 11 and 27 cm./sec. However, insufficient data was collected to per-
form statistical analyses, or to demonstrate spawning preferences.
Shovel nose Sturgeon Spawning:
The sampling effort for shovel nose sturgeon proved to be more success-
ful than for spawning sauger. Sampling was accomplished by drifting a 7.5 cm.
mesh gill net through areas known to contain large concentrations of ripe
sturgeon. When sturgeon become entangled in a g111 net, they fight to the
surface with a great deal of splashing, and then retreat back toward the
bottom. Because of this unique behavior, it was possible to determine with
fair accuracy, the approximate location of the sturgeon as the net drifted
over them. Whenever a new sturgeon fought to the surface, a buoy was thrown
to mark the position. At the end of each drift, measurements of depth, vel-
6-16
-------
ocity, and bottom type were made at 3 to 4 locations around each marker.
The data for each marker was then averaged, to give a mean depth and vel-
ocity for each sturgeon captured. The measurement and averaging of flow
parameters 1n the general vicinity of capture is probably more valid than
a single measurement, because it was not possible to see exactly where each
captured sturgeon was located. Most of the sturgeon collections contained
both ripe males and females.
Virtually all of the sturgeon captured were found over bottoms of sand,
or sand and gravel. Like the sauger, they appeared more plentiful where
the streambed was dune-form rather than planar. Water depths ranged from 40
to 110 cm., with velocities between 50 and 110 cm./sec. Table 6-4 shows
the frequency of occurrance of captured sturgeon during the 1976 spawning run.
Table 6-4: Frequency of occurrance of ripe shovelnose sturgeon, according
to depth and velocity groupings.
DEPTH IN CM
40-50
51-60
61-70
71-80
81-90
91-100
101-110
Total
50-60
2
2
tf 61-70
1
4
4
3
12
i/i
5 71-80 1
1
13
5
4
2
1
27
S 81-90
1
1
3
5
1
11
>-
£ 91-100
6
5
4
4
19
o
£ 101-110
1
2
4
7
Total 1
3
21
19
18
11
5
78
The null hypothesis was defined as: there is no significant difference
1n the distribution of depth classes within velocity classes of sturgeon
2 2
capture. X was calculated for Table 6-12, giving a value of X = 33.38667
6-17
-------
with 15 d.f. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected at the .995
level.
Tentative flow criteria were established by combining depth and velo-
city classes until no significant difference 1n the observed frequencies
was detected, for at least the .80 level. Table 6-5 shows the suggested
flow criteria as determined by this method.
Table 6-5: Flow criteria for spawning shovelnose sturgeon as determined
by the combination of depth and velocity classes.
DEPTH IN CM
CO
LU O
»-t LU
(— oo
I—I
<_> 2:
o o
60-80
81-100
Total
70-90
22
11
33
91-110
13
12
25
Total
35
23
58
2
X for this table was 1.27864 with 1 d.f. The null hypothesis could not
be rejected up to the .75 level (.75>p>.50). Table 6-13 contains nearly 75%
of all the sturgeon sampled. However, due to the rather small sample size,
the above criteria should be considered tentative and subject to revision as
more information is collected.
The failure of sampling efforts to detect spawning sauger points out
the problems involved in determining spawning flow criteria. It is possible,
if not probable, that the sauger did not spawn 1n the Tongue River during
the 1976 run. Obtaining flow criteria 1s not difficult, but it does require
the full co-operation of the fish. It is recommended that further attempts
be made to document hydrologic parameters over spawning sites. In view of
the unpredictable behavior of some species, it may take three to five years
6-18
-------
of data collection before sufficient information can be gathered. However,
the problem 1s Important enough to commit a major effort and full scale
study.
Measurement and Mapping of Hydro!ogic Parameters
Multiple Transect Analysis (MTA):
Collings, et. al. (1972) first developed the technique of multiple tran-
sect analysis (MTA) for the purpose of evaluating the effects of streamflow
on discrete salmon spawning areas. While MTA is probably the most reliable
field technique presently available for the recommendation of spawning or
rearing flow requirements, it 1s, unfortunately* more easily explained than
implemented.
MTA utilizes a series of transects, arranged perpendicular to the flow,
along which the measurements of depth, velocity, and bottom type, are made.
In the Tongue River, four transects spaced 6 meters apart were established
over the critical rearing areas under examination, and up to 10 transects
spaced from 12 to 30 meters apart were used to assess passage and spawning
flows. Measurements of depth, velocity, and bottom type were made at 1.5 or
3.0 meter intervals on each transect; the distance between measuring points
was dependent on channel uniformity. Cross-sectional depth and (mean water-
column) velocity for each discharge were then plotted on separate planimetnc
maps of each study reach. Isollnes of equal depths and velocities were then
drawn on the maps. Depth and velocity contour maps for rearing and spawning
critical areas can be found 1n Appendix A and Appendix E, respectively.
Flow Prediction Models Used with MTA:
The process of repeatedly measuring the hydrologic parameters across
multiple transects 1s undeniably the most reliable technique for obtaining
field data. Unfortunately, this technique has two significant faults which
6-19
-------
detract from its otherwise attractive features. The first is an imposing
time requirement. Each contour map set in Appendix A and E represents approx-
imately 3 man-days of work; however, field and office time is only a small
part of total time requirements. If streamflow is stable, several weeks may
pass before sufficient change in flow has occurred to warrant remapping a
section.
The second difficulty with direct measurement is that of streamflow
regimen. Often, flows will be too high to obtain good low-flow maps of the
section. Thus, the range of flows mapped may be severely restricted, partic-
ularly if the streamflow is regulated.
These problems may be partially or totally circumvented by the use of
flow prediction models. While such models should not be construed as complete
substitutes for field maasurement, they are useful tools to the water resource
planner. However, the planner may be hesitant to use a model if the reliabil-
ity of the output is in question. Therefore, the accuracy of streamflow pre-
diction models must be addressed before planners can use them with confidence.
Two flow prediction models were implemented and field tested in the Tongue
River to achieve this objective.
Water Surface Profile Program (WSPP):
The Water Surface Profile Program 1s a computer adaptation of the U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation's Water Surface Profile Computation Method B. The
WSPP Program was written to computerize the computations necessary to
determine water surface elevations at reservoirs and below dams. It 1s
adaptable to 1n-stream flow applications by predicting changes 1n stream
characteristics at many different flows,without making numerous field ob-
servations at these flows.
The WSPP is essentially an energy balance model, generally following
6-20
-------
the Bernoulli equation for open channel flow. However, the computer pro-
gram utilizes the Manning equation to predict hydraulic values at various
streamflows. The Manning equation is as follows:
V = 1.49 R2/3 S1/2 (Eq. 6.7)
n
Where:
V = Velocity
R = Hydraulic Radius (Area/Wetted Perimeter)
S = Slope of Energy Grade Line
n = Roughness Coefficient
The value "n" 1n the Manning equation commonly varies across a transect,
or between transects. For the WSPP, "n" 1s calculated for sub-sections of each
transect, from known velocities, hydraulic radii, and energy gradients.
Field data requirements for the WSPP are modest, although a survey team
of two to three persons 1s required to obtain the data. Data requirements
Include:
1. Cross-sectional data at each transect.
2. Distance between transects.
3. Measured discharge and velocity.
4. Water surface elevation at each transect at the measured flow.
5. Description of the streambed materials at each cross-section.
6. Identification of points along a transect where bottom materials
change.
7. Description of bank and overbank materials and vegetation.
Complete descriptions of the WSPP may be found in Spence (1975) and
Dooley (1975).
A field test of the WSPP was conducted during November, 1975. Meas-
6-21
-------
urements for the program were made at the SH Ranch section and the V1all
mapping section. Water surface elevations were re-surveyed at the SH
section to determine the accuracy of the model for predicting elevations,
which then can be used to determine depths. Table 6-6 shows the predicted
water surface elevations compared to those measured at 2.38 cms. flow in
the SH section.
Table 6-6: Predicted and Measured Water Surface Elevations (meters) at
SH section, Tongue River, at 2.38 cms.
Program 302.86 302.98 302.99 303.02 303.04 303.07 303.09
Actual 302.89 302.98 302.99 303.04 303.04 303.05 303.06
Absolute
Deviation 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.03
No significant difference p>.20
Ref: Elser, A.A., 1976. "Use and Reliability of the Water Surface Profile
Program Data on a Montana Prairie Stream," In-Stream Flow Needs Symposium,
AFS-ASCE, Boise, May 3-6, 1976.
Data In Table 6-6 was subjected to a paired data, two-tailed significance
test. No significant difference between predicted and measured values was
detected at the 80% level (p>.20), and the predicted elevations are considered
to be reliable (Elser, 1976).
The accuracy of WSPP In the prediction of velocities was tested at tran-
sect C of the V1all mapping section. Measured velocities were compared with
predicted velocities for five different discharges. The results of this field
test are summarized 1n Table 6-7.
6-22
-------
TaKiC • nf nrpdieted and measured velocities in cm./sec. at
Table 6-7: Comparison of Preai flnw.
Transect C, Viall Section at various
Flow =
2.83 cms.
Program
Actual
Deviation
1
58
47
11
Sub-section
2
66
44
22
3
4
5
47
26
45
43
40
27
4
14
18
Flow =
t = 1.333
4.25 cms.
Program
Actual
Deviation
No
61
55
6
Significant Difference at p>.20
72
51
21
56 34 51
56 28 40
0 6 11
t =
¦2.49 Significant Difference p<.10
Flow =
5.66
Program
Actual
Deviation
63
61
2
76
58
18
61 42
58 45
3 3
54
50
4
Flow
t = -1.353
7.36 cms.
Program
Actual
Deviation
No
67
57
10
Significant Difference, p>.20
79
64
15
65
75
10
48 59
64 61
16 2
Flow =
t = 0.1055
11.04 cms.
Program
Actual
Deviation
No
76
78
2
Significant Difference, p>.90
86
75
11
75 61 70
81 68 79
6 7 9
t = 0.1749 No Significant Difference, p>.80
Ref: Elser, A.A. 1976. 0£. cit.
6-23
-------
A paired-data, two-tailed significance test was performed for the
predicted and measured values of velocity. No significant difference was
found at the 80 percent level (p>.20) at flows of 2.83, 5.66, 7.37, and
11.04 cms. A significant difference was detected for the 4.25 cms. flow.
However, examination of the data shows only one sub-section with a sizeable
error. It should be stressed that an error of + 10 cm./sec. is not unrea-
sonable in highly turbulent, non-uniform flow such as that found in Viall
Transect C.
CONTOUR Program:
The CONTOUR Program was developed during the Tongue River study to over-
come a serious problem in the utilization of the WSPP in multiple transect
analysis. The WSPP is capable of predicting only average velocities across
relatively large sections of transects. Such averages cannot be used in
drawing planimetric maps such an those in Appendix A. A model which could
reasonably predict the velocity at a single point in the river is required
for planimetric mapping, and CONTOUR was designed for this purpose.
CONTOUR is based on a fairly elementary concept in stream hydrology.
Because a channel must transmit varying amounts of water during the year,
the observed mean velocity, mean depth, and width, at different discharges,
reflect the hydraulic characteristics of the cross-section. Plotting these
three functions against discharge, on log-log paper, tend to show a straight
line relation. With increasing discharge at a given cross-section, the width,
mean depth, and mean velocity each increase as power functions (Leopold and
Maddock, 1953), shown as follows:
w = aQb '» d * cQ^ '» v ¦ kQm (EQ- 6-8. 9, 10)
6-24
-------
The CONTOUR program assumes that these relationships hold for indi-
vidual , as well as mean, depths and velocities. Data and manpower require-
ments for CONTOUR compare favorably with the WSPP. In fact, data for both
may be taken concurrently if so desired. A study area, such as a critical
area as discussed earlier, is mapped in exactly the same manner as direct
measured MTA, at two widely different discharges. The only difficult re-
quirement for data collection is that all measurements must be made at
exactly the same locations for both discharges. These locations should be
identified in the field notes as data is collected (i.e. Transect C, point
10).
Each point in the stream 1s then subjected to a logarithmic regression
using the depths and velocities measured at each point at the two discharges.
A computer program has been written to 1) calculate the constants "C" and
"k", and the exponents "f" and "m" for the depth-velocity power functions
at each location; 2) calculate predicted depths and velocities at various
streamflows; and 3) display the output in an easily readable matrix. These
calculations may also be made with an electronic calculator, but the compu-
tations are quite tedious. This "simulated" data may then be used in the
construction of contour maps such as those in Appendix A and D.
The CONTOUR program was field tested on the same transect as was the
WSPP program to determine its comparability, and thereby its accuracy.
Tables 6-8 to 6-11 show the predicted and measured velocities at 18 points
along the transect at flows of 4.02, 5.58, 6.37, and 10.20 cms., respectively.
Predicted values for velocity compared to the measured values showing no sig-
nificant difference at the 10% level (p>.90) for flows of 4.02 and 5.58 cms.
6-25
-------
Table 6-8: Comparison of predicted and measured velocities in cm./sec.,
using the CONTOUR Program, at Transect C, V1all Section.
Flow = 4.02 cms.
Point
Measured
C2
11
C3
80
C4
53
C5
71
C6
60
C7
50
C8
41
C9
40
CIO
52
Cll
64
C12
61
C13
52
CI 4
71
CI 5
49
C16
49
CI 8
32
C26
40
C27
0
t = -0.0645
Predicted
Difference
17
-6
78
2
58
-5
72
-1
59
-1
50
0
55
-14
30
10
63
-11
56
8
55
6
45
7
65
6
41
8
55
-6
43
-11
36
4
0
0
No Significant Difference, p>.90
6-26
-------
Table 6-9: Comparison of predicted and measured velocities in cm Apr-
using the CONTOUR Program, at Transect C, Viall Section. ''
Flow =
5.58 cms.
Point
Measured
Predicted
Difference
C2
21
26
-5
C3
76
86
-10
C4
60
65
-5
C5
78
80
-2
C6
71
71
0
C7
46
54
-8
C8
47
60
-13
C9
63
40
23
CIO
59
69
-10
Cll
61
62
-1
C12
73
62
11
CI 3
52
53
-1
C14
78
67
11
C15
40
50
-10
C16
53
60
-7
C18
67
52
15
C26
60
46
14
C27
0
0
0
t = 0.0454
No Significant Difference
, p>.90
6-27
-------
Table 6-70: Comparison of predicted and measured velocities in cm./sec
using the CONTOUR Program, at Transect C, Viall Section. "
Flow = 6.37 cms.
Point
Measured
Predicted
Di f fere
CI
0
8
-8
C2
12
30
-18
C3
78
90
-12
C4
67
63
4
C6
76
76
0
C7
55
56
-1
C8
63
63
0
CIO
66
71
-5
CI 2
71
65
6
CI 4
80
68
12
C15
80
55
25
C16
66
63
3
CI 9
80
81
-1
C20
56
50
6
C24
67
32
35
C26
67
51
16
C27
0
0
0
t = 1.1619 No Significant Difference, p>.20
6*8
-------
Table 6-]]: Comparison of predicted and measured velocities 1n cm./sec.,
using the CONTOUR Program, at Transect C, Vial1 Section.
now = 10.20
Point
Measured
Predicted
Difference
CI
C2
C4
C6
C7
10
56
80
98
61
22
52
79
98
63
-12
4
1
0
-2
C8
CIO
C12
C13
C15
70
89
80
67
98
71
80
76
70
73
-1
9
4
-3
25
C16
C18
C19
C21
C23
87
73
67
71
66
71
76
98
66
50
16
-3
31
5
16
C25
C26
C27
70
87
0
59
74
0
11
13
0
No Significant Difference, p>.30
6-.29
-------
There was no significant difference at the 70 percent level (p> .30) at 10.20
cms., and no significant difference at the 80% level (p> .20) at 6.37 cms.
Therefore, it is suggested that the CONTOUR Program is at least as reliable
as the WSPP for predicting velocities. In addition, CONTOUR also predicts
point velocities in the stream.
CONTOUR may also be used to predict depths at specific locations across
a transect. Tables 6-12 to 6-15 compare the predicted and measured values
for depths on Vial 1 Transect C. Although the predicted values are usually
within 1 or 2 cm. of the actual depths, the paired data (t) test reveals a
significant difference at 4.02 and 5.58 cms. This difference results from
the predicted depths for those flows being consistently higher than the mea-
sured depths. There was no significant difference at 10.20 cms. (t = 1.2249,
17 d.f., p> .20) or at 6.37 cms. (t = 0.6538, 14 d.f., p> .50). Therefore, it
is suggested that although CONTOUR can predict depths at specific points on
a transect, the WSPP appears to be more reliable in depth prediction. This
greater reliability is probably a result of greater accuracy in the measure-
ment of depths. In fast water depths are difficult to measure, and may be
in error by as much as 3.0 cm.
Application Of The Methodology
Rearing F1ow Recommendation Based on^ Stonecat Criteria:
Composite maps, outlining the areas meeting both depth and velocity
criteria, were drawn from the depth and velocity contour maps in Appendix A.
Appendix B contains the composite maps for the Viall and Orcutt sections.
Areas not meeting depth-velocity criteria are indicated by cross-hatching on
the maps.
The optimum flow 1s determined by plotting the ares meeting flow criteria
against discharge. As streamflow Increases, the amount of preferred area
6-30
-------
Table 6-12: Comparison of predicted and measured depths, using the CONTOUR
Program, at Transect C, Viall Section.
Flow = 4.02
Point
Measured
C2
11
C3
24
C4
31
C5
40
C6
40
C7
31
C8
31
C9
34
CIO
27
Cll
31
C12
27
C13
24
C14
27
C15
24
CI 6
18
C18
12
C26
27
C27
15
t * -5.0736
Predicted (cm.) Difference(cm
12
-1
26
-2
35
-4
39
1
43
-3
32
-1
33
-2
36
-2
30
-3
32
-1
30
-3
23
1
31
-4
26
-2
23
-5
14
-2
29
-2
15
0
Significant Difference, p<.001
6-31
-------
Tahle 6-13- Comparison of predicted and measured depths, using the CONTOUR
Program, »t Transect C, Viall Section.
Flow = 5.57
Point
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
CIO
Cll
CI 2
CI 3
CH
CI 5
CI 6
C18
C26
C27
Measured (cm.)
Predicted (cm.)
Difference (cm.
15
16
-1
31
30
1
37
37
0
41
43
-2
43
48
-5
37
35
2
37
39
-2
38
40
-2
31
36
-5
37
37
0
31
36
-5
27
27
0
34
34
0
31
?9
2
21
28
-7
18
16
2
31
33
-2
18
19
-1
t = -2.2153
Significant Difference, p<.05
6- 32
-------
Table 6-14: Comparison of predicted and measured depths, using the CONTOUR
Program, at Transect C, Viall Section.
Flow = 6.37 cms,
Point
Measured (cm.) Predicted (cm.) Difference (cm.)
CI 0
C2 18
C3 37
C4 40
C6 49
C7 40
C8 37
CIO 37
C12 37
C14 37
C15 27
CI 6 24
C26 37
C27 21
4 -4
18 0
32 5
41 -1
50 -1
37 3
41 -4
38 -1
38 -1
36 1
31 -4
30 -6
9!? ?! 35 2
22 -1
t = _0 6538 No Significant Difference, p>.50
6 -33
-------
Table 6-15: Comparison of predicted and measured depths, using the CONTOUR
Program, at Transect C, Viall Section.
Flow = 10.20
Point Measured (cm.) Predicted(cm.) Difference (cm.)
C
C2
C4
C6
C 7
C8
CIO
CI 2
CI 3
C15
C16
C17
C19
C21
C23
C25
C26
C27
t = 1.2249
9
9
0
27
27
0
0
49
49
55
58
43
44
0
-1
49
51
o
49
48
-c
1
1
c
49
48
43
37
40
37
0
3
31
39
-8
c
24
19
31
27
5
A
27
26
4
1
5
18
13
27
19
8
46
43
27
30
3
-3
i
No Significant Difference,
p>.20
6-34
-------
also increases, rising to a well-defined peak. Increased discharges beyond
the peak usually exceed the flow criteria, and the size of the preferred area
decreases. Trend-fitted curves of preferred area vs. discharge were prepared
for the Vlall and Orcutt rearing areas, and are shown in Figures 6-2 and 6-3,
respectively. The optimum flow at the Vlall section was found to be 12.0 cms.
(425 cfs.)s a flow which provided 425 m2 of preferred area (57% of the total
wetted surface). For the Orcutt section, the optimum flow was 11.1 cms. (392
cfs.), which provides 499 m2 of preferred area (57% of total wetted surface).
According to the methodology proposed by ColUngs, et. al. (1972), the mini-
mum recommended streamflow is defined as 75% of the optimum flow. Thus, the
recommended minimum rearing flow, as determined by stonecat criteria would
be 9 cms. (318 cfs.) at the Vlall section and 8.3 cms. (294 cfs.) at the
Orcutt section.
Rearing Flow with Rhithrooena hagenl as the Indicator;
Composite maps outlining the area meeting flow criteria for Rhithrogena
hagenl as determined by Gore (1976) are given In Appendix C. Areas not meet-
tag depth and velocity criteria are Indicated by cross-hatching on the maps.
Figure 6-4 is a"peak of the curve" plot of optimum Insect production
area vs. discharge for the Vlall mapping section. The optimum flow at the
Vlall section (Figure 6-4) corresponds to that of Figure 6-2, where the
stonecat was used as the Indicator species.
Spawning Flow with the Shovelnose Sturgeon as the Indicator.
+ha rHtieal area 1n the Ft. Keogh section
Hydrologlc contour maps of the critical area
, _ «AWir...jiiA mane were drawn outlining areas meet-
are given 1n Appendix E. Composite maps
anri velocity. These are included 1n
ing criteria for substrate, depth, and v y
«nf-o that even at very low flows, a part
Appendix F. It 1s interesting to note tnat ever
6-35
-------
,u 20 30 40 50
DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
fearing discharge is defined as 75% of the optiwTfliiw Sustaining
6-36
-------
3 4 5 10 20 30
DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
40 50
Figure 6-3: "Peak of the Curve" Graph for determining optimum rearing flow,
based on flow criteria for the stonecat, Orcutt Mapping Section. Sustaining
rearing discharge is defined as 75% of the optimum flow.
6-17
-------
VJ
oc
UJ
m
oc
SJ-:::~'";^^T^s=«-a-25iiliS:R:t3y!i:ifinaiptnng|ip!i:3iSHi
iwssBsj «»:
iiiiitiii ¦iisiinH iujl mil mUtk
¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦¦iHiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiii
-------
of the mapped section meets the flow criteria. This area is a scour pool
which, at low flow* acts like a channel constriction due to Its proximity
to a large mid-channel sand bar. The scour pool is not considered part
of the critical area because 1t 1s relatively Insensitive to changes 1n
discharge, and 1s Isolated and not contiguous to the remainder of the spawn-
able area of the channel.
The "peak of the curve" plot for the Ft. Keogh spawning section 1s
shown 1n Figure 6-5. The Inflection point, at about 13.0 cms., 1s a result
of the scour pool, and represents the flow at which new spawning area 1s being
added at the highest rate per Incremental increase 1n discharge. The optimum
spawning flow was not reached or mapped 1n this critical area. By following
the trend-fitted curve upward, 1t 1s estimated that the optimum would probably
occur between 50 to 60 cms., or at near bankful stage.
6-39
-------
!:7
DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
30 40 50
Figure 6-5: "Peak of the Curve" Graph for determini™
based on flow criteria for the shovelnose sturgeon Ft K^nnh cSP^ning flow'
taimng spawning flow is defined as 75% of the optimum"flow Sectlon- Sus-
6-40
-------
References
Bovee, K.D » The determination, assessment, and design of 1in-stream
value studies for the Northern Great Plains Region," Northern Great
Plains Resources Program, Denver, Colorado, 205 pp.
Britt, N-W.r 1962 , "Biology of two species of Lake Erie mayflies, Ephoron
a'D""1 and Ephemera siroulans (Walker)," Ohio Biol. Surv. Bull.,
1 (5): 1-70.
Clay, Wm. 1962, Kentucky Fishes. Kentucky Department of Fish and Wild-
life Resources^147 pp.
Col lings, M.R., Smith, R.W., and Hlggins, G.T. 1972, "The hydrology of
four streams in western Washington as related to several pacific
salmon species," ILS. Geo!. Surv. Water Supply Paper #1968. 109 pp.
Cummins, K.W. 1964, "A review of stream ecology with special emphasis on
organism-substrate relationships," Pymatuninq Symposia 1n Ecology,
Spec. Pub. #4: 2-51.
Dodds, G.S. and Hisaw, F.L. 1924, Ecological studies of aquatic insects.
"Adaptations of mayfly to swift streams," Ecol., 5 (2): 137-148.
Dooley» J.M. 1975, "Application of U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Water
Surface Profile Program (WSPP)," Proc. Ft. Union Coal Field Sym-
posium, Billings, Montana, 2:138-T5T7
Eddy, S. and Surber, T. 1943, Northern Fishes. University of Minnesota
Press, Minneapolis, 276 pp.
Egglishaw, H.J. 1969, "The distribution of benthic invertebrates on sub-
strata in fast flowing streams," j). Anim. Ecol., 38 (1): 19-32.
Elser, A.A. 1976, "Use and reliability of Water Surface Profile Program
data on a Montana prairie stream," In-Stream Flow Needs Symposium,
AFS-ASCE, Boise, Idaho.
Emlen, J.M. 1973, Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach. Addison Wesley,
Reading, Mass.
Eschmeyer, P.H. 1950, "The life history of the walleye, Stizostedion
vitreum, in Michigan,"Bull. Inst. Fish. Res., Mich. Dept. Cons. vol.
3, 99 pp.
Fraser, J.C. 1971, "Regulated discharge and the stream environment,"
Int. Symp. River Ecol. and Man, University of Mass. (Amherst).
Gore, J.A. 1976, "In-stream flow requirements of benthic macroinvertebrates
in a prairie river," M.A. Thesis, Univ. of Montana (Missoula), 17Z pp.
Haddix, M. 1976, Private communication. Montana Fish and Game Dept., Region
7, Miles City, Montana.
6-41
-------
Hynes, H.B.N. 1970, The Ecology of Running Waters. University of Toronto
Press, Toronto, OntarToT 555 pp.
Johnson, M.6. 1965, "Estimates of fish populations in warm water streams
by the removal method," Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 94 (4): 350-357.
Kraft, M.E. 1972, "Effects of controlled flow reduction on a trout stream,
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 29: 1405-1411.
Krumbein, W.C. and Sloss, L.L. 1955, Stratigraphy and sedimentation. W.H.
Freeman Co., San Francisco. 497 pp.
Larimore, R.W. and Smith, P.W. 1963, "The fishes of Champaign County,
Illinois, as affected by 60 years of stream changes," 111. Nat. Hist.
Surv. Bull., 28 (2): 299-382.
Leopold, L.B. and Maddock, T. 1953, "The hydraulic geometry of stream
channels and some physiographic implications, "U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof.
Pap. #252.
Linduska, O.P. 1942, "Bottom type as a factor influencing the local dis-
tribution of mayfly nymphs," Can. Ent., 74 (1): 26-30.
Nielsen, A. 1950, "The torrential invertebrate fauna," Olkos, 2: 176-196.
Nelson, W.R. 1968, "Reproduction and early life history of the sauger
(Stlzostedion Canadense) in Lewis and Clark Lake," Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc., $7 (2): 155-166.
Percival, E. and Whitehead, H. 1929, "A quantitative study of the fauna
of some types of streambed," J. Ecol., 17: 282-314.
Snedecor, 6.W. and Cochran, W.6. 1967, Statistical Methods. Iowa St.
Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa. 593 pp.
Spence, L.E. 1975, "Guidelines for using Water Surface Profile Program to
determine Instream flow needs for aquatic life," Open file report,
Montana Dept. F1sh and Game, Environ, and Info. Div., Helena, Montana.
22 pp.
Stalnaker, C.B. and Arnette, J.L. 1976, Methodologies for the determinati
of stream resource flow requirements: an assessment," U.S.F.W.S. Offi
of B1ol. Serv., Western Water Allocation. 197 pp.
Thorup, J. 1966, "Substrate type and Its value as a basis for the dellmin
ation of bottom fauna communities in running water," Pymatuning Lab.
Ecol. Spec. Pub. #4: 59-74.
Vicent, R. 1971, "River electrofishing and fish population estimates,"
Prog. Fish. Cult., 33 (3): 163-169.
Wene, G. and W1ckl1ff, F.I. 1940, "Modification of a stream bottom and
Its effect on the insect fauna," Can. Ent., 72:131-135.
6-42
-------
CHAPTER 7: VALIDATION OF THE FISHERIES COMPONENT METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The objective of using any flow recommendation methodology 1s the
protection of the 1n-stream resource to which the methodology 1s applied.
Not only must the methodology meet the criteria for scientific reliabil-
ity, but It must also be legally defensible. When a water resource
planner enters an adjudication proceeding to reserve a fishery flow, he
must be able to demonstrate 1) the amount of water required to sustain
the fishery, and 2) the consequences of reserving an Insufficient flow.
A study conducted by Mllhous (1973) showed that each of the meth-
odologies used 1. Montana. Washington, and Oregon tended to over-allo-
cate water for the fishery. That 1s. more water was "required" to sus-
tain the fishery than was naturally available 1. the rivers studied.
4.~a » ficherv These findings would be partlcul-
Yet, each river supported a fishery.
,rly damaging to a planner's flow recommendations In an adjudication pro-
ceeding. Therefore, the reliability of a given methodology mst be de-
.... ^ the methodology to Insure Its valld-
termlned, and modifications made to the mexnouu uyjr
, .. „ r«i«r»tor Soedes-Crltlcal Area concept
1ty. To achieve this end, the Indicator specie*
was field tested 1n the Tongue River.
During the period August to November, 1975. the flow of the Tongue
River was altered considerably due to repair procedures at the Tongue
J r- 1Q75 the level of the reservoir
River Dam. During August and September, »
was lowered, resulting 1n very high discharges to the river. During late
September and October. 1975. flows were steadily decreased, and in late
October the dam was closed. Groundwater Inflow and water pumped over the
spillway kept the river from drying up; the lowest streamflow measu e
the V1all Ranch, near Ashland, MT., was 2.83 cms. The closure o
7-1
-------
Tongue River Dam enabled researchers to map critical areas at very low
flows and to monitor the effects of reduced flow on the aquatic insect
community. However, this principal field test was made difficult, and
was probably affected somewhat, by wide fluctuations even at reduced
flows.
Reaction Of Fish To Flow Reduction
An experimental channel was established at the Viall Ranch, SW 1/4
NW 1/4 Sec 2, T1S, R 44E. Streamflow was diverted to one side or the
other around an island, to deplete or augment the flow in the experimen-
tal channel. The diversion structure was constructed from cinder blocks
and sandbags (Plate 7-1). Because streamflow was initially high when
the diversion was built, and then fell steadily during the entire exper-
iment, it was very difficult to keep a constant flow through the experi-
mental channel. However, a continuous vigil was maintained at the diver-
sion site and water level fluctuations in the experimental channel were
minimized.
Two riffle areas within the experimental channel were hydrologically
mapped using Multiple Transect Analysis (Chapter 6). In addition, the
average velocity and maximum depth was determined for two backwater areas
and four pools within the channel at several different discharges. Hydro-
logic maps of the experimental channel are included in Appendix 6. Flow
criteria for the stonecat were applied to the hydrologic maps, and com-
posite maps showing areas meeting criteria were constructed. The composite
maps for the two riffle areas are shown in Appendix H.
Several experimental "runs" were conducted in the channel. At each
of several flows, riffle areas and associated habitat areas were mapped
and measured. The mapped flow was then maintained in the channel for a
two-week acclimation period. At the end of the acclimation period, a
7-2
-------
Plate 7-1: Diversion structure, island, and experimental channel at
Viall Ranch section. Experimental channel is immediately downstream
from the diversion structure.
7-3
-------
fish collection was made to determine distribution, species composition,
and diversity associated with each flow. A 1500 watt DC electrofishing
unit (mobile positive electrode), mounted in a drift boat, was used to
make the collections. A 1/2" mesh block net was erected at the lower
end of the experimental channel to prevent fish from escaping downstream.
Sampling was done slowly and methodically, ensuring that all micro-
habitat areas within the channel received equal sampling effort. Each
fish captured was examined and keyed immediately. A color-coded buoy
was dropped at each capture location to indicate the species captured.
The position of each buoy was then plotted on a planimetric map of the
channel to indicate the species distribution at each flow.
Results of Hydro!ogic Happing:
The optimum streamflow for the experimental channel was determined
by the "peak of the curve" method for Riffle #1 and #2, illustrated by
Figures 7-1 and 7-2. It can be seen that Figure 7-1 does not peak and
decline as expected. This phenomenon was caused by a gravel bar, which
extends out from the Island Into Riffle #1. At very high flows the shelf
was flooded and the hydrologic parameters of depth and velocity met the
flow criteria for the stonecat. Since gravel 1s a poor substrate for
stonecats, the gravel bar was omitted from the "critical area." Figure
7-3 shows the "peak of the curve" plot for Riffle #1, with the gravel bar
area omitted.
The optimum flow for Riffle #1 from Figure 7-3 is 2.01 cms., while
the optimum at Riffle #2 occurred at 1.33 cms.
Results of Fish Collections:
If the theoretical optimum flow as determined by the application of
the methodology can be equated to a biological counterpart, then there
should be some trend in species composition, distribution, or community
7-4
-------
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
¦1:
DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
eak of the Curve" Graph for Riffle #1, Experimental Channel
Ranch, from Appendix H.
7-5
-------
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-2:
DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PFR
-------
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
r-3:
DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
"Peak of the Curve" Graph for Riffle #1. Experimental Channe
jvel substrate areas omitted.
7-7
-------
structure that would reflect such an optimum condition. However, de-
scription of an "optimum fishery" does not lend Itself to traditional
means of analysis.
The results of fish collections made at a pre-diversion flow (4.70
cms.) and three experimentally controlled flows are given in Table 7
below:
Table 7-1: Number of Individuals of Each Species Collected at Four
Experimental Flows.
Species
Redhorse
Longnose Sucker
White Sucker
Mountain Sucker
River Carpsucker
Flathead Chub
Longnose Dace
Lake Chub
Silvery Minnow
Carp
Rock Bass
White Crappie
Sauger
Stonecat
Yellow Bullhead
Total Species, S
Flow (cms.)
4.70
5
1
I
0
0
II
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
6
2.01
1.33
1.07
1
6
0
5
0
3
0
1
1
4
1
2
2
0
0
44
67
73
11
11
33
0
0
13
7
0
0
1
0
0
1
4
1
1
2
0
0
1
0
2
6
5
0
1
0
11
10
8
m measure ot ine tuiiwium
through the concept of ecological diversity. It is a generally accepted
axiom in ecology that a large environmental stress, exerted upon a diverse
biological community, will result in a decrease in species diversity (Cairns,
1969). The simplest description of biological diversity is S, the number
of species present. However,indices of diversity which concurrently ac-
7-8
-------
u rtf cnecies arid the frequency distribution of
count for both the number of spe
mav be an indication of community
individuals within those species,
structure.
faH hv pielou (1969), it was determined
Based on arguments presented by Pieio
/L i \ the most appropriate for the type
that the Brillouin index (below) was
of collection made: , „
N! (Eq. 7-1)
H = (1/N) log __ ^
W Nx!
Where N = number of individuals in the pec^esf
N = number of individuals of eacn spec
x
irniated for each collection made, and the
Brillouin's index was calculated ror
, _ . lo 7_2 Because of the numerical superiority
results are presented in Table '
, thpv tended to mask changes in
of the flathead chub in all collectio ,
+ f +h* sDecies. Therefore, a second calculation
diversity among the rest of the speci
4U Mn.Htous Chub from the computation. These
of H was made, omitting the ubiqultou
results are also presented in Table 7-2.
t pnur Experimental Discharges.
Table 7-2: Species Diversity at Four Experi
Flow
cms.
4.70
2.10
1.33
1.07
All species
.463
.597
.484
.493
Diversity (H)
Flathead Chubs Excluded
.418
.704
.665
.491
The differences between all diversity Indices 1n each column of Table
7-2 are significant (t test, p <.10). The highest diversity occurred at a
flow of 2.10 cms., although the diversity at 1.33 cms. (chubs excluded) was
also quite high.
7-9
-------
Data in Table 7-1 show that some of the changes which occurred during
the course of the experiment were qualitative as well as quantitative. A
deficiency of the species diversity index,when used alone, is that it is
insensitive to the qualitative changes in species composition. Thus, it
would be possible to acquire an entirely new fauna without significantly
changing the value of the diversity index (Richards, 1976).
Figures 7-4, 7-5, and 7-6 show the distribution of fish in the exper-
imental channel at flows of 2.01, 1.33, and 1.07 cms. These figures show
quite graphically that compositional changes within the channel were more
significant than were the quantitative changes.
At all flows, the community was numerically dominated by the flathead
chub. However, Figure 7-4 shows that members of the sucker family were
most plentiful at the discharge of 2.01 cms. In addition, pool and back-
water areas were utilized primarily by suckers and minnows. Figure 7-5
shows several interesting trends. At 1.33 cms., the predicted optimum flow
at Riffle 2, a substantial group of stonecats was found over that riffle.
Pools and backwaters at this flow were utilized by rock bass, crappie, sau-
ger, and bullhead, in addition to flathead chubs. Figure 7-6 shows an in-
creasing dominance by longnose dace as water in the channel became shallower.
It also illustrates a movement of the group of stonecats from Riffle #2 to
the chute between Pools 3 and 4. Rock bass and other sport fish were con-
spicuous in their absence at reduced flow.
Because the fish had free ingress or egress to the channel during the
two week acclimation period, it is assumed that the presence or absence of
species indicates the suitability of habitat areas within the channel. Tables
7-3 and 7-4 show habitat areas indicated on the planimetric maps of the exper-
imental channel.
7-10
-------
04~¦oa©$®©
-------
ililillilii
-------
SS JS & 6
o 0
g i*n ii i
j IIII|«g
<*>~0»®©
-------
Table 7-3: Change in average velocity at nine habitat areas in
experimental channel. Velocities in cm./sec.
Flow Habitat Area
R1
R2
BW1
BW2
PI
P2
P3
P4
P5
2.01 cms.
58
73
0
0
33
32
26
20
0
1.33 cms.
47
59
0
0
32
19
20
19
0
1.07 cms.
45
58
0
0
24
15
17
19
0
Range
13
15
0
0
9
17
9
1
0
Percent
Decrease
22
21
0
0
27
53
35
5
0
Table 7-4: Change in average depth at nine habitat areas in
experimental channel. Depth in cms.
Flow Habitat Area
R1
R2
BW1
BW2
PI
P2
P3
P4
P5
2.01 cms.
24
28
40
64
95
100
95
135
80
1.33 cms.
22
24
36
54
85
92
85
127
74
1.07 cms.
18
21
30
49
82
87
82
122
69
Range
6
7
10
15
13
13
13
13
11
Percent
Decrease
25
25
25
23
14
13
14
10
14
Generally, the absolute decrease of velocity is greater than the
decrease in depth in riffle areas. However, the percent decrease 1n
depth is greater than the percent decrease in velocity in riffle areas.
The reverse is true when pools and backwaters are compared. If the
depth or the velocity is initially small, then a small absolute change
may appear as a large percent change. Similarly, the absolute changes
in velocity were generally greater in riffles than in pools, while the
7-14
-------
percent change in velocity in some pools was quite high. The absolute
change in depth 1n pools was greater than in riffles, but the riffles
showed a higher percent change in depth.
Reaction Of Aquatic Insects To Flow Reduction
From October 31, through November 3, 1975, and from November 4
through November 5, 1975, drift samples were taken to assess the effects
of the closure of the Tongue River Reservoir Dam. Drift nets (mesh size
18 per cm. 30 cm. X 38 cm. orifice) were placed at the downstream end
of the riffle area on the V1all Ranch section. During the sampling per-
iods, the net contents were emptied into collecting jars of 10% formalin
and water at four hour Intervals. Depth of the water and current velocity at
the orifice were also measured at the time of collection. The samples were
later washed, sorted, Identified, and counted to determine normal drift
patterns and the effect of reduced flow on the drift of the stream inver
tebrates. It was assumed that the flow reduction would surpass those con
dltlons of velocity and depth which cause Invertebrates to enter the
1n search of new habitats.
Approximately two weeks after the apparent minimum discharge had
been reached, ranging from 25 c.f.s. (.71 cms.) at the reservoir to
c.f.s. (2.12 cms.) at the mouth of the river, quantitative Hess samples
were taken at the eight sampling stations described in Appendix D.
samples were used to determine the Initial effect of the flow re
ductlon on community structure and distribution of Invertebrate sp
Diurnal periodicity of drift of the mayfly, Baetls yaaans, had been
closely examined by Waters (1962). During daylight hours,
Individuals drifting into the nets is fairly low. However, during the
night hours, the drift Increases to a level ten times that of daytime
Waters (1965, 1966) concluded that drift was due to excessive produ
7- 15
-------
That is, drift is density dependent. Increase in density causes the
placement of smaller individuals into high current velocity areas and
causes them to enter the downstream drift in search of less dense areas
to inhabit. In Waters' (1972) recent review of the drift of stream in-
sects, the effect of light on behavior patterns is also suggested as a
reason for drift.
Hughes (1969 a, b) had indicated that some mayfly nymphs, particularly
Baetis, orient themselves in streams by the presence of the sun (or any
bright light) on their dorsal sides. The absence of this dorsal light cue
causes disorientation and undirected movement which tends to add more Indi-
viduals to the drift.
Elliott (1967) indicates that photoperiod has a role 1n causing diurnal
periodicity 1n drift. Those Individuals occur1n9 most 1n the drift are night
active. Being negatively phototaxic. the absence of sunlight Induces forag-
ing behavior In night active nymphs and larvae. Movement from under rocks
to the surfaces of rocks not only Increases the density of the Individuals
exposed to direct current but Increases competition for available space and
food on these rock surfaces. This greater competition for available resour-
ces results 1n greater displacement of individuals and their addition to the
drift.
Bishop and Hynes (1969) believe that competatlve interactions play a minor
role in the amount of drift and that displacement to less than optimum areas,
due to increased density during night foraging. Is the primary cause of drift.
They do point out the role of light as a factor in their report of depressed
drift during periods of moonlight, as had been previously reported by Ander-
son (1966).
Minshall and Winger (1969) have shown that a sudden reduction in stream
7-16
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flow will result 1n an Increase 1n invertebrate drift. The main cause of this
increased drift in response to changes to other than optimum conditions of
velocity and depth. If the streamflow reduction is sufficiently rapid, normal
avoidance response to light will not occur and drift will increase during
daylight hours as well.
Pearson and Franklin (1969) believe that water level fluctuations affect
drift by altering the population density at any given point and by affecting
the amount of light penetrating to the substrate.
Lemkuhl and Anderson (1972) agree with previous statements that volume of
flow and mlcrodlstrlbution are the primary and inter-related causes of drift
1n aquatic ecosystems. However, they suggest that drift 1s a species specific
response and that information on drift of a few representative species cannot
be extrapolated to generalizations about all insects.
As can be seen by Figures 7-7 through 7-11, drift of stream invertebrates
1n the Tongue River does exhibit a diurnal periodicity. Of particular Interest
1s the fact that the night samples, in addition to containing Increased numbers
of mayflies, has as its main component, large numbers of standing water forms,
especially the hemipteran Graptocorlxa and the coleopterans Qyrus and Oytisca.
This diurnal periodicity of Hemlptera and Coleoptera 1s previously unreported.
Solar cues for orientation and foraging may also play a great role 1n mainten-
ance of position 1n still water along the edges of the river. Removal of solar
cues may cause movement Into running water and addition to the drift.
Drift Increased dramatically after reduction of the level of the river by
3 cm., representing a change 1n discharge from 190 c.f.s. (5.38 cms.) to approx
imately 130 c.f.s. (3.68 cms.). Although a diurnal period was maintained as the
river level dropped (approximately 3 cm./day during the sampling period) the
pattern is on an elevated scale. Greater numbers appear to be drifting during
the day as well with massive drift occurlng during the night hours.
7-17
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The constant drop in water level was apparently not sudden enough
to cause massive daytime drift. However, it probably caused consider-
able lateral movement with narrowing stream width. Lateral movement
may cause an increase in density of invertebrates in a given area which
would be exhibited by increased drift during the day and especially at
night when foraging takes place. Displacement of individuals to less
than optimum foraging areas, depth,and velocity conditions would be
considerably higher than under normal circumstances.
The fact that massive drift began when stream discharge was reduced
to between 130 c.f.s. (3.68 cms.) and 110 c.f.s. (3.12 cms.) indicates
that minimum discharge, to maintain optimum streamflow requirements for
benthic community, has been reached. Thus, on the basis of drift infor-
mation, it would be appropriate to recommend that a discharge of 130 c.
f.s. (3.68 cms.) be maintained as a minimum in the channel of the Tongue
River.
The presence of young-of-the-year of the stonecat (Noturus flavus),
which has been recommended by Bovee (1975 a,b) as an indicator fish species,
in the samples from hours 0000 to 0400 on the nights of November 3rd and
4th, indicates the probable attainment of minimum discharge for maintenance
of the fish community as well.
The fact that the positive phototaxis of Rhithrogena (as noted by
Elliott, 1967) has been overcome and that this species also increased in
drift samples after 130 c.f.s. (3.68 cms.) flow had been reached,supports
the other evidence that Rhithrogena would be a good indicator species.
A community association dendrogram and abundance kite diagram are
presented in Figures 21 and 32 of Appendix D. The dendrogram indicates
that, as a result of the dewatering of the Tongue River, the asso-
ciation (similarity) between communities has increased and approaches homo-
7-23
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genelty over the length of the river, although distinct communities re-
main. The distribution of the organisms 1n comparison with previous
fall samples (see Figure 3, Appendix D) has been dramatically changed.
The overall effect has been to displace many of the species downstream
a distance of 40 to 120 km. (25 to 75 miles).
In other species, the reduction has had the effect of increasing
the range of the species over the length of the river. As representative
examples, Rhithrogena hageni had Its downstream limit extended from Sta-
tion VI to VII; Paraleuctra sara had been displaced downstream three sta-
tions; Capnia 11mata was only found at Station V rather than III and IV;
the downstream limit of Isogenoldes frontalis was extended to the mouth of
the river; Cataclvsta has moved from Station III to Station VII, and Me-
trlocnemus Increased Its distribution over the length of the river.
Dugesla tigrlna became the dominant Individual In the cold water sec-
tion of the river. The molluscs are considerably reduced, possibly re-
flecting the concentration of Dugesla, a mollusc predator, and the ina-
bility of rapid lateral migration 1n order to remain in the running water
area. A dominant 1s not apparent 1n the middle section of the river; how-
ever, Rhithrogena and Strophoptery are quite abundant. In the lower river,
the overwhelming dominant 1s Ephemerella. Due to decreased turbidity (less
suspended food material) and less than optimum conditions of current velocity
for the proper construction of trap nets, Cheumatopsvche, formally dominant
1n the lower part of the river, has been greatly reduced In number (Compare
Kite diagrams for Cheumatopsyche on pages D-45 and D-60).
Comparison of numbers of Individuals 1n samples before and after closure
of the dam indicate that densities of the samples have increased to a consid-
erable degree. Most samples taken during the closure period show density 1n-
7-24
-------
creases to be threefold or more. Since 1t was impossible to obtain con-
tinuous drift samples during closure, due to nightly formation of anchor
and frazil ice, it is not known whether drift conditions had returned
to their normal diurnal patterns. Thus, a maximum macroinvertebrate
density can not be estimated. One can assume, however, that since the
width of the river was reduced to 7 meters from an average width of 30
meters, the overall number of Invertebrates in the river have also been
reduced as a result of Increased drift and decrease in habitable sub-
strate surface area.
Discussion Of Methodology And Field Techniques
To be judged reliable, a methodology must meet two basic criteria.
First, it must have a high degree of reproducibility; results obtained
from one part of the river should not differ substantially from results
obtained 1n another part, for the same biological function. Secondly,
results obtained by application of the method must agree with actual ob-
servations and measurements in the field. It is the purpose of this sec-
tion to discuss the validity of the methodology, identify limitations
and areas of Inadequacy, and recommend procedures to increase the relia-
bility of the methodology.
Perhaps the most serious deficiency of the methodology most widely used
to date is the recommendation of a minimum of fisheries requirement based on some
percentage of the optimum flow. In most cases of 1n-stream flow recom-
mendations, the determination of the optimum flow 1s irrelevent to the
problem. When streamflow 1s adjudicated, 1t 1s highly unlikely that
fisheries will be allocated an optimum flow. Likewise, the definition
of a minimum streamflow as a percentage of the optimum flow must be
subjective, and is therefore unjustified. The criticisms raised by Mi 1 -
hous (1973) are valid, and are essentially a result of this subjective
7-25
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definition of the minumum flow. The selection of a recommended rearing
flow as 75% of the optimum would require a minimim rearing flow of around
9 cms. (320 c.f.s.) for the Tongue River, for example. From the flow
duration curve for the Tongue River (Chapter 1), it can be seen that na-
tural streamflow was less than 9 cms. about 60% of the time for the wa-
ter years 1961-1970.
Milhous (1973) suggests that this problem may be overcome by the
definition of a "base flow." His definition of the use of the base flow
concept is as follows:
"There shall be a flow in perennial streams which p£eseryes
certain values and the remaining available wj£er shall be
allocated among competing uses and users on the bas s o
maximum net benefits. In the case °V *£ flES
that a survival flow will be in the
to maintain the fishery above the .!e^!\Jjimum
part of an allocation of waters on the basis of maximum
net benefit."
In other words, water volumes above preservation flows (i.e. enhance
ment flows) must compete with other beneficial uses of the water. Unfor
tunately, the definition of the survival flow is critical, with litt
room for error. It is here proposed, that the "base flow as defined above,
may be accurately and reliably determined by the Indicator Species Cri
tical Area methodology. "Base flow" may be defined as that discharge
which first provides some increment of preferred area for the indicat
species, over the critical area. For the Tongue River, base flow was
termined to be 2.83 cms. (100 c.f.s.), using the stonecat as the indicator
species. However, when Rhithrogena hageni is used as the indicator spe
it can be shown that the extinction point for flow criteria occurs some
where between 3.70 and 3.85 cms. (See Appendix C). This flow was equalled
or exceeded about 75% of the time for the water years 1961-1970 (Hopkins,
1973). Therefore, the base flow concept meets the criteria of wate
billty.
7-26
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Experiences provided from the experimental channel and from the
studies of aquatic insect drift, confirm that there is a definite re-
lationship between streamflow, community structure and productivity.
While it is probably impossible to predict with any methodology the
absolute minimum water volume requirement of the ecosystem, it was
possible to determine the base flow requirement within 0.3 to 0.5
cms. using the Indicator Species-Critical Area Method.
It was shown that once the flow falls below the base flow level
as predicted by the metholology, both insect and fish communities may
be considerably altered. Flows of less than 3.68 cms. in the main chan-
nel of the Tongue River resulted in a ten-fold increase in the number
of aquatic insects in the drift. Concurrently, there was a three-fold
increase in the density of insects. This result is interpreted as a
net decrease in the carrying capacity of the river, with a resultant
decrease in insect productivity.
Changes within the fish community are possibly not as dramatic as
those within the insect community. However, the changes indicated by
the experimental channel are the type which might result in an undesir-
able recreational fishery. As the flow in the experimental channel fell
to the base flow level, the diversity of the fish community declined
significantly. This decline in fish diversity was accompanied by a qual-
itative species shift, trending toward domination by suckers and minnows
and the displacement of sport and game fish. Such a shift is likely to
decrease the quality of recreational fishing in the river.
Reproducibility.
Reproducibility as used here is a characteristic of a methodology
or procedure which results in comparable data between one area of the
river and another, for the same biological function. Several factors
7- 27
-------
must be considered to ensure high reproducibility with this methodology.
The most important of these considerations is the number of dis-
charges which must be mapped to adequately define either the optimum or
the base flow for a given indicator species. For example, the Viall
section was mapped at seven different discharges, the Orcutt section at
only five. As a result, the optimum flow at the Viall section is more
clearly defined than for the Orcutt section for both the stonecat and
for Rhithrogena. The optimum flow for Rhithroqena was probably not
mapped at the Orcutt section, since the optimum flow curve does not
show a sharp peak. When the base flow concept is used, it is partic-
ularly important that sufficient data be collected at the lower end of
the optimum flow curve. This procedure could provide a considerable
time and manpower savings, but may require some a priori concept of
what the base flow looks like. Unnecessary or unimportant measurements
may be eliminated by constructing the maps for each set of data as soon
as possible after it is taken. This makes it possible to determine if
either the optimum or the base flow 1s being approached. As a rule of
thumb, five discharges are sufficient to approximate the optimum or base
flow, but up to ten may be required for good resolution.
It was determined from the experimental channel studies that site
selection may significantly affect reproducibl1 ty. Controls should be
carefully selected, and sections with shelves or gravel bars should be
avoided unless these areas are defined as critical areas, as Is the
case when spawning flows are determined.
Controls should extend completely across the river, at approximately
a right angle to the direction of flow. Many stream controls, however,
tend to be arcuate and non-perpendicular to flow. The use of multiple tran
sects makes it possible to include the entire control area in a map, whereas
7- 28
-------
single transects frequently miss a sizeable portion of the control.
Reproducibility may also be affected in the computation of the dis-
charge from the mapping data. Computation error may be compounded if
the same measurement errors are made at two different sites. If there
is a U.S.G.S. gaging station nearby, the discharge may be obtained from
a rating table for the station. However, if the discharge is computed
from mapping data, computation error may be reduced by establishing at
least one of the transects above the control, and using data from that
transect to calculate the discharge. In most cases, the control itself
is non-uniform 1n cross section and velocity, conditions which are not
conducive to good discharge measurement. However, in following the above
recommendations, the multiple transect method can be expected to give
highly reproducible results.
Limitations:
A frequently raised objection to multiple transect methodology deals
with the large time and manpower investments required to obtain and synthesize
the field data. Approximately three man-days are required for the acquisition
of field data and construction of hydrologlc maps for each discharge and
critical area measured. An additional time requirement can occur in wait-
ing for a sufficient change in discharge to justify remapping a section.
Both types of time and manpower requirements may be significantly
reduced through the use of the flow prediction models presented in Chapter
6. The Water Surface Profile Program, used 1n conjunction with the CON-
TOUR Program can accurately and reliably supply the data needed for plan-
imetrlc mapping, with an approximately 60% work-time reduction for data
collection. The time requirement for the construction of planlmetrlc
maps may also be reduced through the use of computerized contouring plot-
7-29
-------
ters, such as the Cal Comp plotter. The potential savings in work-time
with the use of such plotters may be as large as 95% (one day for the plot-
ter as compared to around 20 days for hand-drawing) for each critical area.
Therefore, it may be possible to reduce the total time requirement for im-
plementing the methodology from its present 6 to 8 month requirement to
as little as one month. This potential for savings most certainly warrants
further Investigation Into the use of flow prediction models and plotter
programs.
Perhaps the second-most frequently raised criticism of multiple tran-
sect analysis is that it must be restricted to small, wadeable rivers.
This restriction 1s probably unjustified. The U.S. Geological Survey has
made current meter measurements from boats for years (Carter and Dav1d1an,
1968). Special equipment, such as bomb weights and cable booms would be
required, but such equipment 1s neither rare nor expensive. Even the use
of the troublesome tagllne may be eliminated with electronic distance me
ters such as the Hewlett-Packard 3800 B (Paily and Macagno, 1976).
Another possible limitation to the methodology is in the selection of
indicator species. As originally conceived, the indicator Species Critical
Area Method was designed to allow researchers to concentrate their efforts
on a few species, and a few habitat areas, rather than diffusing their
forts over the entire river length and fish community. The underlying pre
mise of the methodology 1s that stream velocity is affected more than dep
with reduced streamflow. This premise appears to hold true formost streams.
Therefore, an ideal indicator species should be velocity limited rather than
depth limited. The composite maps in Appendix B show that the stonecat s
preferred area decreased more rapidly due to insufficient depth than
of insufficient velocity. Conversely, Appendix C shc*s that Rhithrogena
7- 30
-------
hageni was restricted more by loss of velocity rather than depth. It is
suggested that Rhithrogena hageni is probably a more sensitive indicator
species than Noturus flavus.
Both the stonecat and Rhithrogena appear to be ubiquitous in most
N6P rivers. An advantage of using Rhithrogena as an indicator, as opposed
to some other fast water species, is that 1t is relatively long-lived, and
may be found in its nymphal stage at virtually any time of the year. In
the absence of Rhithrogena other fast water species may be used as Indica-
tors. Examples of these alternate species are Ephoron, Traverella, or
Iron of the order Ephemeroptera.
Other fish species may show more current dependence than the stone-
cat, and the search for an ideal fish Indicator should not be abandoned now.
Investigations should Include the mountain sucker, the longnose dace, and
possible the sturgeon chub. Until flow criteria can be established for these
species, 1t is recommended that Rhithrogena hageni be utilized as the rearing
indicator species.
Continuing research is needed Into the determination of spawning flow
criteria and Indicator species. The criteria established for the sauger and
shovelnose sturgeon during this study should be considered only tenative. A
great deal of pertinent information concerning spawning criteria remains to
be collected. Increased water volumes and turbidity seriously impair the abil-
ity to sample the spawning fish population. Sampling 1n the spring of 1976
showed that concentrations of fish do not necessarily equate with spawning,
particularly 1f the number of ripe or running females 1s small. It may take
several years of data collection before sufficient Information 1s gathered to
show definite flow preferences by spawning fish. However, these constraints
should not deter researchers from attempting to define such criteria.
7-31
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Additionally, there appears to be an almost steady procession of dif-
ferent species utilizing the same critical areas for spawning during the
course of the spring. Elser (1976) suggests that several Indicator species
be used to resolve this problem. During the early rising stage of the spring
runoff, the sauger 1s the primary spawner. Later, as the runoff approaches
Its peak, the shovelnose sturgeon begins Its spawning activity. The channel
catfish 1s among the last species to spawn, apparently during the falling
stage of the spring runoff. Each of these species was commonly found in
fast to very fast water (especially the sturgeon), supporting the hypothesis
that they may be good velocity limited Indicators.
The selection of critical areas for spawning should purposely include
areas of gravel bars and shelves. Many species, Including the sauger and
shovelnose sturgeon, select gravel bars as preferred spawning areas. There
1s also an Important hydrologlc reason for using gravel bars as critical
areas. At the Ft. Keogh site, most of the water at low flow tended to be
concentrated 1n the thalweg. Therefore, 1n order to meet even the shallowest
passage requirements, the velocity of the water was very high, even at low
flow. When the gravel bars were flooded they afforded areas of relatively
slower water, which facilitates the passage of migrating fish. At lower flows,
migrants are forced to swim against the much stronger current in the thalweg.
The base flow for spawning, using the shovelnose sturgeon as Indicator,
may be found by examination of the spawning composites 1n Appendix F, and the
discharge-preferred area curve 1n Figure 7-8. The scour pool near the left
bank of the sampling site was not considered to be part of the critical area
because 1t showed relatively little hydrologic change at different discharges.
7-32
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Suitable hydrologic conditions first occurred
over the gravel bar, considered to be the critical area, at a discharge of
13.0 cms. At this same discharge an inflection point occurs on the dis-
charge-preferred area curve (Figure 7-7). Therefore, it is recommended
that 13.0 cms. be considered the base spawning flow for the shovelnose stur-
geon. In terms of water availability, it is not realistic to compare the
base spawning flow with the annual flow duration curve, for a 13.0 cms. flow
is only exceeded about 20% of the time. Rather, water availability should
be based on the return period of the high spring runoff. Figure 7-12 shows
that there is an 86% probability that a June base flow would equal or exceed
13.0 cms., based on streamflow records for the water years 1961 through 1974.
A final limitation, perhaps the most Important, deals not with the meth-
odology, but with the philosophical concept of "in-stream flows" Itself.
There are many legal and socio-economic ramifications which must be resolved
before a water use policy, giving full consideration to in-stream needs, can
be established.
It has become apparent that among the competing uses of water, 1n-stream
needs consistently occupy the lowest priority position. If Irrigation, muni-
cipal, and industrial uses all have higher priorities than 1n-stream needs,
then 1t seems reasonable to believe that in-stream requirements will receive
only whatever water 1s left over. Should this be the case, there
appears to be little justification for establishing an^ in-stream flow require-
ments regardless of the methodology.
The only practical exception to this argument appears to be the use of
reservoir releases to ensure an in-stream flow. In this case, the question
arises: "Who pays for the storage to be eventually released to maintain 1n-
7- 33
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30 40 50 60 70
PROBABILITY, IN PERCENTAGE OF FLOWS LESS THAN INDICATED
Figure 7-12: Cumulative distribution curve of June streamflow in the
Tongue River at Miles City, 1961-1974.
98 99
7-34
-------
stream flow?" Should the public pay for public water to remain in the chan-
nel, or should the water users be required to pay for depletion of a public
resource? These questions must be answered before a course of action can
be affirmatively taken. The state of the art for determining in-stream
needs appears many years ahead of our ability to ensure that these flows
will remain in the channel.
7-35
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References
Bishop, J.E. and Hynes, H.B.N. 1969, "Downstream drift of the inverte-
brate fauna in a stream ecosystem," Archiv fur Hydrobiologie, 66(1):
56-90.
Bovee, K.D. 1974, "The determination, assessment, and design of 'in-
stream value' studies for the Northern Great Plains Region," North-
ern Great Plains Resources Program, Denver, Colorado. 205 pp.
. 1975, "Assessment and implementation of 'in-stream value'
studies for the Northern Great Plains," Proc. Ft. Union Coal Field
Symp. 2: 112-123.
Cairns, J. 1969, "Rate of species diversity restoration following stress
in freshwater protozoan communities," Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 48:
209-224.
Carter, R.W. and Davidian, J. 1968, "General Procedure for Gaging
Streams," Tech. Water-Res. Invest. U.S. Geological Survey, Book 3,
Chapter A6~ 1~3 pp.
Elliott, J.M. 1967, "The life histories and drifting of the Plecoptera
and Ephemeroptera in a Dartmoor stream," J. Anim. Ecol. 36(2): 342-
362.
Elser, A.A. 1976, "Use and Reliability of the Water Surface Profile
Program Data on a Montana Prairie Stream," In-Stream Flow Needs Sym-
posium, AFS-ASCE, Boise, Hay 3-6, 1976.
Hopkins, W.B. 1973, "Water Resources of the Northern Cheyenne Indian
Reservation and Adjacent Area, Southeastern Montana," U.S. Geo!.
Surv. Hydro1. Invest. Atlas, HA - 468.
Hughes, D.A. 1966a, "On the dorsal light response in a mayfly nymph,"
Anim. Behav. 14: 13-16.
. 1966b, "The role of responses to light in the selection
and maintenance of mlcrohabitat by the nymphs of two species of
mayfly," Anim. Behav. 14: 17-33.
Lemkuhl, D.M. and Anderson, N.H. 1974, "Mlcrodistribution and density
as factors affecting the downstream drift of mayflies," Ecology
53(4): 661-667.
Mllhous, R.T. 1973, "A review of fisheries minimum flow methodologies
from the viewpoint of water availability," Am. Water Resources
Association, Seattle, Oct. 22-24, 1973.
Mlnshall, G.W. and Winger, P.V. 1968, "The effect of reduction of stream
flow on Invertebrate drift," Ecology, 49(3): 380-382.
7- 36
-------
Paily, P.P. and Macagno, E.O. 1976, "Numerical prediction of thermal
regime of rivers," J. Hyd. Div. ASCE, HY3: 255-274.
Pearson, W.D. and Franklin, D.R. 1968, "Some factors affecting drift
rates of Baetis and S1mul11dae In a large river," Ecology 49(1):
75-81.
Pielou, E.C. 1969 , An Introduction to Mathematical Ecology, Vliley-
Interscience, New York. 286 pp.
Richards, J.S. 1976, "Changes in fish species composition in the Au
Sable River, Michigan, from the 1920's to 1972," Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc., 105(1): 32-41.
Waters, T.F. 1965, "Interpretation of invertebrate drift 1n streams,"
Ecology, 46: 327-334.
. 1966, "Production rate, population density, and drift of
a stream invertebrate," Ecology 47(4): 595-604.
. 1972. "The drift of stream insects," Ann. Rev. Ent.. 17:
253-272.
7-37
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CHAPTER 8: ICE FORMATION
Mechanics
Despite the common occurance, and biological and economic impor-
tance of ice formation in rivers, relatively little is known concerning
the process of ice formation or its biological effects. Several types
of ice commonly occur in rivers at various stages of freeze-up, and there
may be some confusion between the various forms. Schaefer (1950) gives
a good description of the three principle forms of ice found in rivers.
Frazile ice crystals are thin, circular disks showing no visible
evidence of the trigonal symmetry common to snow crystals. These crys-
tals range in thickness from 25 to 100 microns, and from 1000 to 5000
microns in diameter. They are apparently surface-formed crystals which
occur whenever bulk water is supercooled, and may often be seen forming
small rafts of floating skim ice. Whenever turbulence is encountered,
many particles can become submerged, leading to a false impression that
frazile ice forms primarily in turbulent riffle areas. During the early
stages of freeze-up, frazile ice forms on practically the entire river
surface. However, riffle areas remain open long after surface ice has
formed on other parts of the river, and are prime producers of frazile
ice during intermediate freeze-up.
When an object, such as a rock or tree root, is submerged in water
containing frazile ice; the crystals collect on the upstream side of the
object. This results in an underwater buildup of frazile ice crystals
in large sponge-Uke masses. These masses may easily be mistaken for an-
chor 1ce.
Anchor 1ce consists of sheet-Uke crystal aggregates of Ice which
grow out from submerged objects. Anchor 1ce 1s thought to form as a re-
8-1
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suit of radiatlonal cooling of the streambed (Barnes, 1926), and therefore
forms in similar manner to frost forming on terrestrial surfaces. Cold,
clear nights are required for good anchor ice formation, whereas cold tem-
peratures alone are sufficient for frazile ice formation. Schaefer (1950)
suspects that many of the formations previously reported as anchor ice
were in fact structures formed by the shingling effect of frazile ice par-
ticles.
Surface sheet ice is first formed when pans of floating frazile ice
crystals jam together and adhere to the bank and other pans of ice. Areas
of rapid and turbulent water tend to remain open during this freeze-up
period because the ice crystals remain in suspension, rather than floating
to the surface. Once a continuous layer of surface sheet ice has formed
over an area the formation of frazile ice ceases, although areas of open
water will continue to produce frazile ice indefinitely. Thickening of
the ice sheet proceeds primarily through conduction of heat through the
ice sheet.
Barnes (1906) describes the thickening rate by conduction alone, by
the formula:
t = LSE (1+E) (Eq. 8-1)
KT ?
where t is the time in seconds for the ice sheet to attain a thickness E,
in cm; L is the heat of fusion, 79.7 cal/gram; S is the density of ice,
.9166; K is the thermal conductivity of ice, 0.0057 cal/°C difference of
temperature per square centimeter per second; and 0 1s the temperature
difference between the under side of the 1ce sheet (0 °C) and the air tem-
perature. This formula assumes that the surface is clear of snow, and
does not consider advected heat losses or gains. According to this for-
mula, the 1ce sheet over a river should be of uniform thickness along a
cross section, or between areas subject to the same atmospheric conditions.
8-2
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During the winter of 1975, the ice thickness was measured over cross
sections at the SH Ranch, the Vial! Ranch, and the Birney section. These
measurements are illustrated in Figures 8-1, 8-2, and 8-3, respectively.
Current meter measurements, made through the ice, indicated that there is
an apparent relationship between current velocity and the thickness of
the ice cover. A least square regression line was calculated for the
three cross sections measured in 1975, giving the equation:
T = 85.5 V*'364 (Eq. 8-2)
Water depths less than 40 cm. were not used in the calculation because
of the drag effects of the ice. The scatter diagram for this data is given
in Figure 8-4. THe curvilinear correlation coefficient for the data in
Figure 8-4 is -0.532. With 20 degrees of freedom, this Inverse relation-
ship is significant at the ]% level (p >.99).
During the winter of 1975-76, the mechanics of the thickening process
were observed at the Orcutt ranch section. Three cross sections were est-
ablished and small metal pylons were driven into the streambed to mark
measurement locations. Current meter measurements were made at each lo-
cation whenever the thickness was measured. Each location was measured
seven times, and the growth of the Ice sheet across each transect was
monitored from time of first ice cover until the sheet began to break up.
The results of the monitoring program are given in graphical form in
Appendix G. It can be clearly seen from the diagrams, that during the
early stages of surface 1ce formation, the thickness of the ice sheet is
nearly uniform. Only areas of high velocity water remained open. As the
thickening process continued, the rate of thickening was faster in areas
of low velocity than 1n areas of high velocity. For any given temperature
regime, each location showed a cessation of thickening after an initial
period of growth. An insurgence of colder temperature caused a resumption
8-3
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Figure 8-4: Relationship between current velocity and ice thickness In the
Tongue River during the winter of 1974-1975. Data points are for water areas
greater than 40 cm. 1n depth.
8-7
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in growth at each location, until a new equilibrium thickness was attained.
Paily, et. al. (1975) have described the dependence of the melting
rate of an ice cover on the flow parameters beneath it, and the temperature
of the air over it. The non-dimensional differential equation describing
the rate of thickening is given in Equation 8-3.
dS . 1 - HT (1 + S) ; S „ Jjsl SQ (Eq. 8-3)
cU ' 1 + S (t » 0) k1
Where S = (hwi/k.) s; t = t/piLiki/hia2(Tm - Ta); T = (Tw Tm)/(Tm - Ta);
H ¦ h -/h^ ; T ¦ 0 °C, is the temperature at the water-ice interface;
wi 13i m
Ta is the air temperature; Tw is the average water temperature; hia 1s the
coefficient of heat transfer from ice to air; hw1 1s the coefficient of
heat transfer for. water to ice#v s Is the thickness of the ice; ki is the
thermal conductivity of 1ce; Pi 1s the density of ice; L1 1s the latent
heat of fusion; and t is time. The criterion for equilibrium thickness
(dS/dx = 0) 1s obtained from the following:
S = 1 - 1 (Eq. 8-4)
e HT
Where,
Se = equilibrium thickness.
H = ratio between heat transfer rates from water to ice and ice to air.
T = the ratio between the temperature of the water and air, respectively.
Equation 8-4 shows that for HT greater than or equal to one, the equili-
brium thickness 1s zero. Only for HT less than one, will melting lead to
stabilization of the 1ce cover after finite time. In fact, melting is per-
haps the wrong expression to describe the equilibrium condition.
Examination of the parameters included in Equation 8-4 can give some
insight into the mechanism by which ice forms at different rates across a
8-8
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river section. H 1s the ratio between the heat transfer rates from water
to ice, and from ice to air, respectively. In an unheated stream (no source
of thermal effluent) the major source of heat must be frlctlonal heat, pro-
duced by running water, along the bed and the ice Interface. Higher rates
of heat production may be expected where the water velocity 1s faster. This
will tend to give H a higher value and, therefore, require a smaller value
of T (a colder ambient air temperature) to offset the effect of the higher
value of H. This hypothesis may explain the variation 1n thickness with
respect to current velocity.
Use of equation 8-4 will be limited until values for hwi can be deter-
mined. Pally, et. al. (1974) have given several determinations of hia, and
have shown that the base exchange rate 1s primarily a function of air tem-
perature and wind velocity. The value of h ^ 1s most likely a function of
water temperature, water velocity, bed roughness, and perhaps Ice thickness
(resulting 1n an increased normal force). At this time, values of hw-j are
not available, but 1t may be possible to estimate heat production from run-
ning water through the use of the Bernoulli equation.
V « velocity at location N
N
Potential heat production may be represented as the difference In total energy
between two locations In the stream, as 1n Equation 8-6.
(Eq. 8-5)
Where
En s total energy at location N
= bed elevation at location N
D s depth at location N
N
"vri ¦ E " E1 - E2
(Eq. 8-6)
8-9
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Rinlngical Effe^ of Ice Formation
Little Information is available concerning the effects of ice on the
aquatic ecosystem, although certain relationships can be hypothesized.
Formation of surface ice will have its greatest impact on organisms, par-
ticularly aquatic insects, living in shallow water areas. The most ob-
vious effect of ice formation will be the loss of habitable area where
the ice sheet extends down to the streambed. Because of the large drag
^ - ^wainnp (the open water area between
effect of the ice where the water envelop
n man*/ areas not frozen to the bottom may
bed and ice interface) is small, many
thP more velocity limited species.
have insufficient velocities to support
j j^m«nci-rated in the material of Appendix
Another important effect is demons
^ streambed, there is a steady de-
I. As the ice column builds toward th
in some Darts of the channel. Since
cline in velocity and conveyance area
. .1u affected by freeze-up, the same discharge
the discharge is not appreciably atfee
4„«
-------
Eventually, the more weakly-bound blocks of ice break loose from the
mass and begin floating downstream. Where a controlling feature 1n the
channel is encountered, such as a shallow area, constriction, or block of
1ce still frozen to the bed, the floating 1ce pack begins to pile up. This
tends to dam water behind the jam,aid1ng in the release of more ice
blocks from up-stream areas. These new 1ce blocks then stack up behind, and
on top, of the original jam. The process may be repeated several times be-
fore a sufficient head 1s developed to release the entire Ice jam. When
release finally does occur, huge blocks of ice are tumbled through the
water, grinding Into the bed and banks of the river.
It 1s almost Inconceivable that 1ce break-up would not have an effect
on the river ecosystem. It would seem that the aquatic Invertebrates, 1n
particular, would suffer most from this phenomenon, although fish might be
affected. However, so little 1s known of the over-wintering habits of fish
and Invertebrates in rivers, that 1s is difficult to even speculate what
the effects of break-up would be on a river system.
A more quantifiable effect of 1ce movement 1s the structural damage
done by 1ce to pumping stations, bridges, and head gates along the river.
Each year several of these kinds of structures are damaged by the formation
and release of jams. Plate 8-1 shows a pumping station on the Tongue River
that was nearly destroyed by the ice break-up during the spring of 1975.
Vlater Requirements to Minimize Ice Problems
If water levels 1n the Tongue River are reasonably high during the forma-
tion and growth of the surface 1ce sheet, the 1ce will probably not cause
an appreciable problem. The extent to which the controls will be frozen from
top to bed may be assessed empirically through the use of Figure 8-4, and
the hydrologlc maps of Appendix A.
8-11
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x 4-^r, (far bank) at the SH Ranch which was nearly
Plate 8-1: Pumping station ^ 1975. The elevation of the pump
destroyed by ice jamming in Dr J . extended upstream for
is about 6 meters above the streanweu.
several kilometers.
8-12
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For areas included within the 60 cm./sec. velocity contours, the ice
thickness should be about 20 cm. For areas within the 45 cm./sec. coutours,
the thickness would be around 22 cm; and within the 30 cm./sec. coutour,
the thickness would be about 25 cm. The flotation depth for the ice 1s de-
fined as 90% of the thickness. It Is then possible to estimate, from the
depth and velocity contour maps of Appendix A, the approximate percentage
of the control which would likely be frozen to the bed. Table 8-1 shows
the extent of freezing for several discharges at the Viall section.
Table 8-1: Approximate percentage of channel area frozen from surface to
streambed at various discharges at the Viall Ranch section
during a winter of normal severity.
Discharge Percent Streambed Frozen
(cms.) (Approximate)
6.30 5 - 10*
5.58 20 - 30%
4.02 50 - 60%
2.38 75 - 80% **
** with a potential loss of circulation
The hydrologlc maps of Appendix A may also be used to estimate the dis-
charge required to minimize 1ce jams during break-up. Assuming that ice
blocks during break-up will average 30 cm. 1n thickness, areas less than 30
cm. In depth will be prone to collect Ice, Since the Ice in the lower
river tends to be thicker than In the upper river, larger passage require-
ments would have to be met. However, at the Viall section, Ice jams would
form across at least half the channel at any flow less than 5.58 cms. Jams
covering one-third of the channel might be expected at flows of 10.2 cms;
8-13
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and one-fourth the channel at 12.0 cms. Flows of 19.4 cms. would probably
be free of 1ce jams, but flows of less than 4.0 cms. may result in total jam
m1ng of the channel. Total jamming would most certainly be expected at a
flow of 2.83 cms.
While it may not be possible to maintain a flow of 20.0 cms. for the
purpose of flushing 1ce from t^e river system, it may be desirable to main-
tain a flow of from 10.0 to 12.0 cms. to control the extent of ice jamming.
Maintenance of flows near or below the base flow level can be expected to re-
sult 1n extensive and potentially damaging 1ce jams.
References
1. Barnes, H.T., 1906, Ice Formation, Robert Drummond, New York. 250 pp.
2. ..1926, ice Engineering, Renouf Publishing Company, Mont-
real, Canada.
3. Polly, P.P., Macagno, E.O., and Kennedy, J.F. 1974, "Winter-Regime
Thermal Response of Heated Streams, J. M- 21*•• Er°£.- to-
Soc. Civ. Eng., HY 4: 531-551.
4 Maraano E 0 Kennedy, J»F.» and Dagan, 6. 1975, "Effects
" onTarge vLh Discharges on |?te
Water Resources Research Institute, Ames Iowa, ISWRRI - 68.
5 Parson* u i 1940 "Ice 1n the Northern Streams of the United States,"
TM^ j G^phvs Un". Snow-Survey Conf. Seattle., pp. 970-72.
6. Schaefer, V.J. 1950, "The Fonnatlon of Frazil and Anchor Ice 1n Cold
Water." Trans. Am. Seoghys. Un., 31. 6, pp. 885-893.
8-14
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CHAPTER 9: CONSUMPTIVE USE BY RIPARIAN VEGETATION
Introduction
The relationship between a river and the riparian community existing
on its floodplain might be described as symbiotic. The dependence of the
vegetation on the river as the primary water source is paramount. However,
the river ecosystem also receives major benefits from the riparian commun-
ity.
Perhaps the most obvious benefit is the shade and cover provided by
overhanging vegetation. Water temperatures may be moderated considerably
due to the shading effect. Bowie and Kam (1968) noted that water temper-
atures along a 2.4 km. defoliated reach of a small stream increased 4° to
6° E during the summer and were 7° to 8° F. colder during the winter, compared
to an upstream control section.
Fish benefit directly from the cover provided by vegetation. In addi-
tion to the cover afforded by dead snags and log jams, riparian vegetation
1s the single most important factor in the formation of undercut banks.
Alluvial channels tend to have unstable banks, and the existence of these
favored hiding places 1s attributable almost totally to the stabilization
of the banks by vegetation.
The riparian community also makes a significant contribution to stream
energetics. Hynes (1972) and others have noted that leaves and other debris
which fall Into the water are often heavily utilized by stream herbivores.
Chapman (1966) estimated that 51$ of the aquatic portion of the coho salmon
diet, 1n a small stream he studied, originated from allochthonous sources.
Riparian vegetation may also play an important role in maintaining
good water quality. In the process of removing water from the river, trees
and brush also remove the salts and nutrients dissolved in the water. Be-
cause these plants are generally long-l1v1ng and slow to decompose, there
can be a considerable storage of these materials. Compared to the rapid
9-1
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decompostlon and nutrient release characteristic of many species of algae,
salt removal by riparian vegetation may indeed be considered long-term
storage.
Groundwater Supply Mechanisros
In the discussion of water requirements for riparian vegetation, 1t
is Important to determine the mechanism by which the plants are supplied
with water. Along many of the small ephemeral streams 1n the Northern
Great Plains, the vegetation must rely on bank storage. By this mechanism,
a large spring runoff is required to recharge the local groundwater zone
with a sufficient water supply to support the vegetation through the grow-
ing season. This supply 1s periodically augmented by precipitation. Also,
the vegetation tends to conserve available moisture by lowering its evapo-
transpiration rate when supplies are low (Robinson, 1956).
Riparian vegetation along the Tongue River 1s apparently supplied with
water on a continuous basis. This situation is suggested by the nature of
the floodplaln materials, and by the patterns of vegetation along the river.
Core samples were taken at several locations along the Tongue River flood-
plain, and each sample Indicated that the floodplaln was composed primarily
of coarse gravel. There was usually so little clay present in the matrix
that the walls of the hole Invariably caved In before casings could be In-
stalled. By virtue of this low clay content, 1t is unlikely that the Tongue
River floodplaln has the storage capability to support the vegetation com-
munity in existence over even short periods of time without a continuous source of
water. However, the transmissivity of the floodplaln 1s likely to be extremely high.
This "flow through" mechanism 1s also suggested by the pattern of veg-
etational development in response to channel sinuosity. It can be seen
from the maps 1n Appendix J that areas with short wavelength and tortuous
meanders generally have more vegetation than long meanders or straight sec-
9-2
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tions. In these accentuated areas the groundwater flow probably moves
directly across the meander loop. Figure 9-1 illustrates the difference
that channel sinuosity can make in establishing the depth to groundwater.
Figure 9-1: Hydraulic gradient of floodplain groundwater in straight (a)
and meandering (b) channels.
It is highly significant that the bulk of the vegetation on the Tongue
River floodplain obtains its water in a continuous manner similar to illus-
tration (b) 1n Figure 9-1. Because the depth to groundwater is never very
great, the head resistance to the osmotic pressures causing evapotranspir-
ation is minimized. Therefore, the vegetation may use water at higher rates
than if the depth to water were greater.
Evapotranspiratlon of river water must be considered an unavoidable
loss, and as such, becomes a distinct in-stream flow requirement. If the
flow requirements for evapotranspiratlon are not considered, the rearing flow
for the fisheries may be seriously depleted.
Methodology:
The estimation of the daily and instantaneous water volume requirements
for evapotranspiration involved two separate operations: 1) the estimation
of the total canopy cover of the floodplain, and 2) the estimation of the
potential evapotranspiratlon rates from cllmatological data.
Color aerial photos of the Tongue River were used to determine areas
of vegetation cover. Vegetated areas were outlined on ruled tracing paper
with the use of a light-table. These areas were delineated so that each
Riparian Evapotranspiratlon on the Tongue River
9-3
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small square of the grid system was occupied by at least one tree. Areas
of similar canopy density were identified and given a weighting factor based
upon the approximate percentage of each square covered by vegetation. Plates
9-1 and 9-2 illustrate one such aerial photo and corresponding vegetation
map. Appendix J contains the vegetation maps for the Tongue River from the
T & Y Diversion dam to several kilometers above Ashland, Montana.
Vegetated areas were then measured by polar planimeter and tabulated
according to percent-cover class. Data compilation for each map entailed:
calculation of the total weighted canopy cover; measurement of river length
in km.; and calculation of average canopy cover per km. of river. Table 9-1
gives the total canopy cover and canopy cover per km. of river length for
each vegetation map. This data is also cross-referenced to Appendix J. The
average canopy cover for the 160 km. of river measured was 6.5 hectares per
km. This is equivalent to about 26 acres per mile. The total length of the
Tongue River is 303 km. from the Tongue River Dam to the mouth. Assuming
that the area measured is representative of the entire river, the total area
of canopy is 1970 hectares, or 19,700,000 square meters.
The rate of potential evapotranspiration was calculated using a varia-
tion of the Penman equation (Criddle, 1958). (See also. Penman, 1956,
Tanner and Pelton, 1960; Van Bavel, 1966). There are several variations of
Penman's original model, each requiring climatological measurements of vary-
ing sophistication. The variation suggested by Criddle (1958) was selected
because its data requirements were more accessible than the more sophisti-
cated models of Van Bavel (1966) or Tanner and Pelton (1960).
The Penman equation is an energy balance method in which several assumptions
are made. The first assumption is that the total energy received by the
earth's surface through radiation must equal the sum of 1) the energy used
for evaporation, 2) heating the air, 3) heating the soil and 4) any
9-4
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Plate 9-1: Aerial photograph showing canopy cover of the riparian
vegetation of the Tongue River floodplain, in the vicinity of Ash Creek.
Photo courtesy of the Montana Department of Fish and Game.
9-5
-------
Plate 9-2- Vegetation map showing canopy cover density as estimated
from the aerial photo (Plate 9-1) of the Tongue River floodplain near
Ash Creek.
9-6
-------
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9-8
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extraneous or advected energy. It is further assumed that for short periods,
such as daily and monthly balances, the latter two items may be neglected
without seriously affecting the accuracy of the method. Tanner and Pel ton
(1960) state that the soil heat flux is least during the summer months
when the soil temperature is near maximum. The greatest soil flux errors
occur during the spring and fall when soil temperatures change rapidly.
This assumption is considered valid on the grounds that the soil heat flux
is most stable during the Important growing season months.
The application of this model also requires the estimation or meas-
urement of the net radiation received by the surface, and partitioning this
energy between heating of the air and evaporation of water. Distribution
is assumed to occur according to the Bowen ratio, a fraction dependant upon
the temperature and water vapor pressure at the surface, and at some height
above the surface. If the Bowen ratio 1s approximated from mean daily data,
an error will result from the strong weight given night-time values when
there 1s little evapotransplratlon (Tanner and Pelton, 1960). Since mean
dally temperatures were used to determine the mean daily evapotransplration
rates, this error will cause under-est1mat1on of these rates.
It was further assumed that monthly weather conditions as measured at
the Miles City FAA airport are representative of the conditions for the
length of the river. In most data this assumption is valid, with the poss-
ible exception of wind velocities. Location of the airport, on a high
plateau, Insures that wind velocities will be somewhat higher than they are
1n the valley. However, 1t can be demonstrated that a 25% overestlmatlon
of the wind velocity results 1n an error of only about 8% in the potential
evapotransplration rate.
The Penman equation as presented by Crlddle (1958) uses the following
three formulas:
9-9
-------
H = R (1 - r)(.18 + .55n/N) - oT* (-56 - .092v/e^)(.1 + -9n/N) (Eq. 8-1)
d
E » .35 (e. - eJ)0 + -0098 uj
-------
and relative humidity were used to estimate mean daily maximum rates. Other
inputs for the model were obtained from charts and tables provided by Criddle
(1958). Climatic data and model inputs are listed in Tables 9-2 and 9-3
respectively.
Computation of Evapotranspi rati on Rates and Correction for Precipitation:
While most of the water used by the riparian community comes directly
from the river, a portion of each month's total requirement is satisfied
by meteoric water. Therefore, a correction for rainfall is made in the
mean monthly evapotranspirati on rate as found in Table 9-4. The term "effec-
tive precipitation" is used in Table 9-4 to describe the total amount of
monthly precipitation of sufficient intensity to influence the ground water
supply. It is generally accepted that storms with intensities of less than
2.5 mm. per day of precipitation do not effectively change the soil moisture
(Aase, et.al., 1973). In addition, it was assumed that approximately 10%
of the measureable precipitation is intercepted by the vegetation and is
directly evaporated. Actual interception will range from 100% for light
showers to less than 10% for heavy rains. Effective precipitation was cal-
culated according to the expression:
EP = .9 (P - p) (Eq. 9-4)
Where:
EP = Effective precipitation in mm./month
P = Mean monthly total precipitation in mm./month
p = Mean monthly precipitation from storms delivering 2.5 mm/day
or less, in mm./month.
The average monthly effective precipitation was subtracted from the
monthly potential evapotranspirati on rate to determine the monthly "evapo-
transpi rati on deficit." This term represents the approximate amount of
water supplied by the river for evapotranspiration during months of normal
9-11
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9-13
-------
rainfall. Values for mean monthly evapotranspiration, effective precipi
tation, and evapotranspiration deficit are found in Table 9-4. Table 9-5
gives the mean daily evapotranspiration rate, the rainfall-corrected mean
daily rate, and the mean daily maximum rate. The latter tern was incorpor-
ated to determine the potential instantaneous flow requirement during the
peak water use period of each day. Van Bavel (1966) shows that there is
a large peak in the rate of evapotranspiration between 11:00 a.m. and 3:00
p.m., corresponding to the period of maximum temperature, radiation intensity,
and vapor pressure deficit.
The instantaneous flow requirements were determined for each calculated
evapotranspiration rate by converting the rate to meters per day and multi
plying by the total area of canopy cover. This gives the potential rate
A. . . . npr dav. Dividing the total volume
of daily consumption in cubic meters per oay.
• , e\f <* the average instantaneous flow in
per day by 86,400 seconds per day gives wie a »
u- a i/aiupc are listed in Table 9-6 for the
cubic meters per second. These values are
.» .... . .n+Miicni rati on. It was assumed that inflow
three different rates of evapotranspiration.
to the ground water regime was constant over the 24-hour period; therefore,
the values In Table 9-6 should be considered conservative. If It had been
assumed that ground water Inflow accelerated during the daylight period,
these figures would approximately double.
Irrigation: A Sgecial Case of Evapotranspiration
Irrigation may be defined as the use of water to supply any deficit
between precipitation and potential evapotranspiration. This definition
implies that the rate of evapotranspiration is not limited by the availabil-
ity of soil moisture. Therefore, irrigated crops may be considered a
special classification of riparian vegetation.
According to U.S. Geological Survey streamflow records, approximately
10,200 hectares of cropland are irrigated with water from the Tongue River
9-14
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between the Tongue River Dam and Miles City. Including the total area of
trees along the river, the total area of "riparian vegetation is 12,170
hectares. Irrigated crops occupy 891, and true riparian vegetation lit
of the total area. Evapotranspiration from irrigated crops will be
the primary consumptive use by vegetation of all types.
Several assumptions are made 1n the estimation of crop evapotranspir-
atlon; 1) The rate of evapotransplration for irrigated crops with an ade-
quate water supply is assumed to be the same as for trees. The Penman equa-
tion was originally designed for the estimation of evapotransplration from
short crops with complete ground cover. If there 1s an error in this assump-
tion, It 1s probably an underestimation of the water used by the trees; 2)
while 1t 1s probably true that more water 1s supplied by Irrigation than is
actually used by the plants. It 1s assumed that most of the excess returns to
the river; and, 3) 1t is further assumed that water supplies and soil moisture
are not limiting.
Mean daily and rainfall corrected mean daily evapotransplration volumes
were computed for the primary irrigation months. May through September. Aver-
age instantaneous flow requirements were calculated on a 24-hour basis for
both types of evapotransplration rates. These values are listed In Table
9-7 along with riparian and total evapotransplration requirements.
The accuracy of the values listed 1n Table 9-7 was tested using a water
budget for the Tongue River between the Tongue River Dam and Miles City.
The water balance equation is:
Outflow = Inflow - Storage
Q +e* + e =Q4 + p- s Uq. 9"5)
Ho t a 1
Where:
3
Q = measured streamflow at Miles City, in m /month
o
E = calculated evapotransplration volume for total vegetation
t
9-18
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9-19
-------
in m3/month
Q
E = evaporation in nr/month
a 3
Q = measured streamflow at Tongue River Dam in m /month
1 .3
P = effective precipitation in m /month
3
S = in-basin storage in m /month
Estimates of storage and actual evaporation proved impossible to obtain.
Since both factors are directly related to the availability of surface wa-
ter from precipitation, it was possible to eliminate them from consideration
by selecting months which had little or no effective rainfall. Test results
are given in Table 9-8. It can be seen that even a small amount of precipi-
tation can seriously affect the accuracy of the water budget. In most cases,
the monthly volume of outflow calculated for Miles City is greater than the
, ... ,, c r c naaina station. This reflects losses to di-
amount measured at the U.S.G.b. gaging btanvi
rect evaporation and storage, and possibly an underestimation of the evapo-
transpiratlon rate. It should be noted however, that where the errors 1n
Table 9-8 are positive (calculated outflow is less than measured outflow),
the error is less than 10%.
Results and Discussion
Despite the generalized nature of the data inputs for the Penman equa-
tion. the rates of potential evapotransplratlon in Table 9-5 appear reason-
able for the Tongue River cHmatic region. The seasonal total for poten-
tial evapotransplratlon, calculated from the mean daily rates is slightly
over 1 meter per growing season. Moulder, et. al. (1960) used an inflow-
outflow-storage method to determine the actual evapotransplratlon of a
similar riparian comuntty on the Little Bighorn River. They calculated a
seasonal evapotransplratlon of about .92 meters. It may be assumed that
where soil moisture is not limiting, the actual rate of evapotransplratlon
will be about 90* of the potential rate. Thus, the rates given in Table
9-20
-------
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9-21
-------
9-5 are probably accurate to within 10% of the actual rates.
The Instantaneous flow requirements shown in Table 9-6 may seem large,
but they actually represent a small incremental loss. The rate of change
in discharge attributable to natural riparian vegetation is only about
.004 m3/sec per km. (.24 c.f.s. per mile) for the rainfall corrected mean
for July. The largest and most significant consumptive use of water is
the irrigation of crops. The average incremental loss to irrigation would
be about .022 m3/sec per km. (1.25 c.f.s. per mile) during the same period.
Table 9-7 shows that the 1n-stream flow requirements for both irriga-
tion and riparian vegetation are very high. The use of means in Table 9
acHmation of day-to-day instream flow
may result in serious error in the estimation j
requirements over relatively short periods. While the extraction of water
b, riparian vegetation is fairly predictable, extraction by irrigators is
not. For example, rain may result In a complete halt in irrigating, leaving
a surplus of water 1n the river. A prolonged drought, on the other hand,
might result 1n all irrigators removing water on the same day. Such a de-
mand would most assuredly result in actual streamflows being much less than
the predicted means.
Table 9-8 1s primarily useful 1n demonstrating that the instantaneous
streamflow requirements calculated 1n this chapter are reasonably accurate.
By eliminating storage and surface evaporation terms from the water
budget by selecting months when rainfall was minimal, it was possible to
compare predicted and actual water losses. By using monthly averages it
was possible to smooth the erratic daily water use curves. Table 9-8 shows
conclusively that if there is any significant error in the volume water re-
quirements for total vegetation. It 1s probably an error of underestimation.
In the two cases of overestimated evapotransplration the errors were less
than 7%.
9-22
-------
Table 9-8 also shows that It Is unwise to overestimate the effective-
ness of rainfall to supply water for evapotranspiation. The assumption
that rainfall plays an important role in contributing to either streamflow
or evapotranspiration seriously underestimates the amount of direct surface
evaporation, and to a lesser degree, the amount of storage. This error
becomes greater as the amount of precipitation increases. The direct re-
sult of underestimating storage and direct evaporation is an overestimation
of the predicted outflow at the mouth of the basin.
The relationship between in-stream flows for fisheries, and in-stream
flows for riparian vegetation and downstream irrigation uses, is complex
and subtle. If all the water used by vegetation of all types were removed
at one point, there would probably be little problem in assigning an addi-
tional streamflow for the fisheries below the point of withdrawal. However,
because of the incremental and erratic pattern of water withdrawal, it 1s
very Important that 1n-stream flows for the fishery are defined in such a
way that no part of the fishery 1s shorted. For example, a minimum fishery
flow for the Tongue River might be assigned as 2.83 cms. (100 c.f.s.).
Downstream irrigation for the month of July would be about 6.67 cms. (236
c.f.s.). Yet, if 6.67 cms. were released from the Tongue River Dam, the
lower 155 km. of river would contain less than the recommended streamflow.
Theoretically, the discharge would approach zero about 47 km. (30 miles)
above the mouth. Failure to consider water use by riparian vegetation and
upstream water users 1n this example, would not only deplete the fishery
for the lower half of the river, but would probably destroy the lower one
sixth of the river. Therefore, 1t Is not enough to simply define a fishery
flow alone. The specific area of the river that requires this flow must
also be defined. In the case of the Tongue River, this area would be down-
stream from the T & Y Diversion. In-stream flows for vegetation must be
9-23
-------
considered additive, not complimentary. The complimentary approach will
most certainly lead to deterioration or loss of the fishery, riparian
vegetation, and perhaps even irrigated crops, in the lower part of the
basin.
Failure to account for water withdrawal by riparian vegetation will
itself result in a water deficiency, particularly during the months of
July and August. While downstream water users are guaranteed adequate
irrigation water by priority water rights, the riparian community is pro-
tected by an enormously permeable floodplain. As long as the riverbed is
not dry, the trees will remove water from the river.
This discussion should not be interpreted as an argument for the de-
foliation of the floodplain in an attempt to reclaim water. It has been
shown that riparian vegetation accounts for only about 10% of the total
vegetational water requirement. Thus, elimination of the riparian commun-
ity (no small task in itself) would at best increase the available water
supply by about 10$. Bowie and Kam (1968) found that eradication of ri-
parian vegetation from a stream In Arizona resulted in only about a 6%
savings of water. They noted that evaporation caused the initial decrease
in water volume, followed rapidly by a regrowth of riparian vegetation which
was virtually impossible to control. Considering the benefits derived
from riparian vegetation, elimination of floodplain vegetation can not be
justified as a means of saving water. However, water use by riparian vege-
tation must be considered an additive 1n-stream flow requirement, If other
in-stream uses are to be protected.
9 -24
-------
References
1. Aase, J.K., Wight, J.R., and Siddoway, F.H. (1973), "Estimating
Soil Water Content on Native Rangeland," Agricultural Meteorology,
12: 185-191.
2. Bowie, J.E. and Kam, W. (1968), "Use of Water by Riparian Vegetation,
Cottonwood Wash, Arizona," U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper
1858, 62 pp.
3. Chapman, D.W. (1966), "The Relative Contributions of Aquatic and
Terrestrial Primary Producers to the Trophic Relations of Stream
Organisms," In: Organism-Substrate Relationships in Streams. Spec-
ial Publication #4, Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology, University of
Pittsburgh, pp. 116-130.
4. ciimatological Data for Montana, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Vols. 66-77, 1972.
5. Criddle, W.D. (1958), "Methods for Computing Consumptive Use of
Water," Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., Irrigation and Drainage Division,
Paper 1507, 27 pp.
6. Hynes, H.B.N. 1972, The Ecology of Running Water, University of
Toronto Press, 555 pp.
7. Moulder, E.A., Klug, M.F., Morris, D.A., and Swenson, F.A. (1960),
"Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Little Bighorn River
Valley," U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1487, 222 pp.
8. Penman, H.L. (1956), "Estimating Evapotranspiration," Trans. Am.
Geophys. Union, 37: 43-50.
9. Robinson, T.W. (1956), "Phreatophytes," Ground Water Short Course,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Feb. 10, 1956, 25 pp.
10. Tanner, C.V. and Pelton, W.L. (1960), "Potential Evapotranspiration
Estimates by the Approximate Energy Balance Method of Penman,"
J_. Geophys. Res., 65(10): 3391-3413.
11. VanBavel, C.H.M., (1966), "Potential Evapotranspiration: The Com-
bination Concept and Its Experimental Verification," Wat. Res. Res.
2(3): 455-467.
9-25
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CHAPTER 10: SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Introduction
Sediment transport and sedimentation are usually considered to be sub-
jects within the broad study of water quality. However, the problems caused
by sediment particles in motion are considerably different from those caused
when sediment ceases to move. It 1s necessary, therefore, to differentiate
between the factors which lead to sediment movement and deposition, and
the respective water quality problems associated with each.
Sediment is transported in streams by several mechanisms: 1) Suspension;
the particles are supported by the surrounding fluid throughout the entire
motion; 2) Saltation; particles are plucked or bounced into the flow and then
return to the bed after travelling a short distance; and 3) Surface creep;
particles roll or slide along the bed. Sediments moving by saltation and
surface creep are primarily supported by the bed and are termed "bedload".
Particles supported primarily by the fluid 1n motion are referred to as "sus-
pended load". For some particle sizes there may be a considerable Inter-
change between the suspended load and the bedload (Stalnaker and Arnette,
1976). Generally, particles in the suspended load tend to be smaller than
the particles moving as bedload. Those particles in the suspended load which
are finer than the bulk of the bed materials are termed "washload". This
fine grained suspended material usually passes through the channel with little
more than a transient impact (Einstein, 1950).
Washload is a primary cause of turbidity in streams, and is related
to several water quality problems. The most familiar of these 1s the re-
moval of fine particles from drinking water supplies. The same type of
sediment is often responsible for plugging nozzles on sprinkler irrigation
10-1
-------
systems. Turbidity is an important factor in the aquatic ecosystem, for
it reduces the visibility of sight feeding predators. Continuous high
turbidity may play a selective influence against the sight feeders, such
as smallmouth bass, and favor carp and other bottom feeders (Sigler, 1968;
Cahn, 1929).
Generally, the amount of bedload and settleable suspended load is a
small part (on the order of 10%) of the total sediment load. However,
with respect to channel character and the aquatic ecosystem, these are
the most important components. Many aquatic organisms have rather spe-
cific substrate requirements during at least a part of their life histor-
ies. It is a generally accepted axiom of aquatic biology that the areas
of highest insect productivity are those with large, loose substrate
materials, free of sand. The least productive areas are those over which
the substrate is sand or gravel (Percival and Whitehead, 1929; Wene and
Wickliff, 1940; Sprules, 1947; Cummins, 1964; Thorup, 1964; Gore, 1976).
Some species of fish are likewise substrate oriented, and are severely
limited when their preferred substrate becomes Inundated with finer mater-
ial. Clay (1962) states that the stonecat is extremely sensitive to sed-
imentation, and is most successful where the current velocity is sufficient
to prevent the accumulation of sand and gravel. The rock bass (Ambloplites
rupestrls) and smallmouth bass (Mlcropterus dolomieui) both prefer a rocky
substrate, but are not as adverse to sand bottoms as the stonecat (Scott,
1949; Hubbs and Bailey, 1938; Reynolds, 1965).
In addition to the obvious effects of sedimentation of riffle areas
on the riffle dwelling species, movement of bed materials is crucial to
other stream areas. The formation and maintenance of pool areas 1s largely
a function of the scouring of these areas during the spring runoff. In
the absence of this annual scouring cycle, pool areas will gradually fill
10-2
-------
with sand and silt. Pool areas are also primary catch-basins for organic
sediments produced within the channel, or entering from sewage outfalls, feedlots,
leaf litter, and other sources. These organic sediments may form slude de-
posits capable of depleting the dissolved oxygen content for some distance
downstream (Velz, 1970; Mills, Starrett, and Be11rose, 1966).
Sedimentation has been shown to cause dramatic declines in the repro-
duction of many species. Deposition of fines over spawning grounds reduces
the Infiltration rate of oxygen-rich water to eggs deposited on, or 1n,
the gravel spawning beds (Silver, Warren, and Doudoroff, 1963). Salmonlds
are especially vulnerable to sedimentation because they bury their eggs 1n
the gravel. However, many warm-water species would likewise be affected 1f
sediment were deposited on their nests at a higher rate than the guarding
male could remove 1t. Members of the catfish family which select channel
cavities as spawning sites would also be deleterlously affected, as would
several genera of cyprlnlds. Species which spawn by broadcasting eggs would
probably be affected the least, particularly 1f the eggs are rapidly water
hardened and did not stick to the bottom.
A common problem associated with aggradational alluvial streams 1s the
deposition of sediment as mid-stream bars. This frequently results 1n Increas-
ed bank erosion as the river 1s forced to split around the bar. The formation
of mid-channel bars 1s explained 1n some detail by Culbertson, et. al. (1967).
Pools are scoured at the outside of meanders, primarily at higher stages. Ma-
terial scoured from the pools tends to deposit and form bars where the velocity
becomes uniform 1n the crossover between meander bends. During falling stage,
the crossing bar is slowly scoured due to locally increased slope, until equilibrium
is reestablished at the lower discharge. Thus, pools are scoured at high
discharges, and filled at low discharges, while cross-over bars have the oppo-
site tendency. It should be stressed that pool scouring is not the only source
10-3
-------
of sediment for the formation of cross-over bars. However, it Is possible
that an absence of pool scour will eventually result 1n a stream with little
variation in bottom configuration.
Sedimentation can also cause major problems with man-made structures
and facilities along the riverside. Culbertson, et. al. (1976) shows that
deposition commonly occurs between bridge pilings and in some cases can
increase the susceptibility of the bridge to damage by 1ce jams, drift, and
flood waters. Pool scour 1s also important for the efficient use of sprink-
ler Irrigation systems. Without annual scouring of the pool housing the
pump Intake, the pump will pick up Increasing amounts of sand and silt.
The result will be that pipes and nozzels will be plugged with sediment
with greater frequency, and possibly will result In damage to the pump
Itself.
In addition to sprinkler Irrigation, flood Irrigation may be affected
by Inadequate sediment removal. There are several small diversion dams
along the Tongue River which are used to feed canals for flood Irrigation.
These diversion dams are, 1n a sense, large pools. During low water, the
pools collect large amounts of sediment, which Is scoured only at relatively
high flows. Failure of the river to scour these diversion dams will result
1n 1) complete filling of the diversion basin with sediment, and 2) intro-
duction of large amounts of sediment into the canal system. This may re-
sult 1n higher operating costs to the water users, who will be forced to
dredge the diversion basin, the canal system, or both, to maintain an effi-
cient irrigation system.
Sediment Sources
Many factors must be considered in the evaluation of the potential sed-
iment problems of a river. Some factors are considered hydro!ogle; these
are parameters characteristic of the drainage basin, the climate, geology,
10-4
-------
lithology, vegetation, and land use practices which contribute to, or re-
tard, the rate of sediment removal from the drainage. Other factors are
hydraulic, and relate to the capacity of the river to remove a certain
amount of sediment at a given discharge. In order to maintain an estab-
lished equilibrium condition in the river, it is important that the hy-
drologic parameters of the watershed are balanced by the hydraulic capa-
bilities of the stream. Cordope and Kelly (1961) found that the greatest
damage from sedimentation occurs when sediment enters the stream at other
than high flow periods, and therefore water velocity was insufficient to
remove the added load.
Climatic Factors:
The climate of the NGP contributes significantly to the sediment
problems of many of the rivers. Langbein and Schunm (1958) found that
regions receiving around 38 cm. of rain per year have the highest rates
of sediment yield per unit area. Such areas received sufficient rainfall
to cause active surface erosion, but not enough to grow an adequate vegeta-
tive cover to retard runoff or stabilize the soil. The NGP region is also
frequently subjected to violent thunderstorms of small areal extent. When
these storms occur in tributary basins, they can result in extremely high
concentrations of sediment in the feeder streams, with little significant
increase in discharge in the main stem to handle the added load. For most
watersheds, more than one-half of the soil losses are attributable to such
small storms, with return periods of less than one year (Piest, 1965).
The climate also contributes to the erosion process during the early
spring. The so-called "lowland runoff" from snowmelt occurs 1n the lower
parts of the drainage during late February and early March. During the
early phases of snowmelt, the ground is frozen and relatively little sedi-
ment is added to the streams. Later, the top layers of soil are thawed,
10-5
-------
but a deeper frost zone is still present 5 to 10 cm. below the surface.
This frost zone impedes the infiltration of water, leaving the thawed layer
virtually saturated and easily eroded. Runoff during this period usually
results in very high concentrations of sediment in the streams. A particu-
larly interesting aspect of the lowland runoff is that the streambeds of
many of the feeder streams are covered with a sheet of ice 20 - 30 cm. thick,
and frozen to the bottom. During the period of lowland runoff, these streams
become almost frictionless conduits for sediments and water, and loose little
of either before they enter the main stem.
Geologic Factors:
The geology of the Tongue River basin plays a major role in both the
hydrologic characteristics of the watershed and the hydraulic characteristics
of the river. Structurally, the basin has been elevated to the south by
the Big Horn uplift (Baker, 1929). As a result, the Tongue River has a
slightly increased gradient which has led to incision and armoring of the
bottom throughout much of its length. The assymetry of the valley and the
occurance of gravel deposits on the west side of the streams, indicates that
the region has been tilted eastward subsequent to, or during, the Pleistocene
(Pierce, 1936; Bass, 1932). The presence of numerous gravel covered benches
and stream-cut terraces along the river indicates that uplift of the basin
has been Intermittent. Because of basin tilting and uplift, tributaries
entering the Tongue River from the south are longer, and are assumed to be
head-cutting. In any event, they carry much more sediment than those enter-
ing from the north.
Differences in Hthology account for the large variations in sediment
yield typical of the Tongue River valley. In the upper valley, roughly from
Brandenberg to the Tongue River dam, the dominant surface Hthology 1s the
Tongue River member of the Fort Union formation. This unit 1s composed of
10-6
-------
light colored sandstone and interbedded gray shale. Several coal beds
are also found in the Tongue River member. However, the outstanding fea-
ture of the unit is the red clinker of the Roland coal bed, which marks
the contact between the Fort Union and Wasatch formations. This clinker
bed plays an important role in the hydrology of the upper basin. Because
it is fractured, and extremely resistant to weathering, much of the moisture
falling into the upper basin infiltrates very rapidly. This results in a
rapid throughflow, with little erosion. Thus, most of the water entering
the Tongue River from this lithologic unit does so as groundwater, and is
relatively sediment-free.
In contrast, the underlying Lebo shale member of the Fort Union for-
mation is composed of loosely consolidated, somber shaded shale beds with
lenses of gray and yellow sandstone. This member forms a large portion of
the Tongue River Valley north of Brandenberg. The Lebo shale weathers
easily and is subject to rapid erosion. In addition, many of the hillslopes
in the Lebo are bare of vegetation, which undoubtedly aids the erosion pro-
cess. The Lebo member contributes a large amount of sediment to the Tongue
River, most of it from the shaly horizons, and carried primarily as washload.
Perhaps the greatest source of coarse sediment for the Tongue River is
the valley alluvium through which the river flows. Although composed of
unconsolidated sand and gravel, the banks of the Tongue are quite stable
due to the network of tree roots along the banks. In many places the river
impinges against high, steep, and unvegetated alluvial terraces. These
terraces are composed of unconsolidated sand and gravel, and are particularly
prone to slumping. Such slumps are important sediment sources, because un-
like the other major sediment sources, the introduction of this material is
often totally unrelated to the discharge of the river. While most of the
primary sediment-runoff events are caused by, or accompanied by, a rise dls-
10-7
-------
charge, the slumping of river terraces is not. Unfortunately, the amount
of sediment entering the channel in this manner is virtually unquantifiable
without a long, stochastic examination of the process.
The study of sediment transport in the Tongue River had several inter-
connected objectives. The first objective was the examination of the hydrol-
ogy of the watershed 1n order to 1) determine the characteristics of the var-
ious sediment sources; 2) determine the relative Importance of each sediment
source in the contribution of coarse sediment to the river; and 3) locate the
river section where the river hydraulics are least able to carry the sediment
load. The second broad objective Includes 1) the assessment of the sediment
transport characteristics of the critical section; 2) the determination of the
discharge at which active scour begins; and 3) the comparison of this flow re-
quirement with the flow required for the spawning of the indicator species.
Methods and Materials
All suspended sediment samples were taken with a US DH-48 sampler with
a 1/4" nozzle. Samples were collected by the equal transit rate (ETR) method
as described by Guy and Norman (1970). Bedload samples were taken at regular
Intervals across the stream with a Helley-Smith pressure difference sampler
(Helley and Smith, 1971). A one minute sampling period was allowed for each
vertical bedload sample. Sampling was limited primarily to wadeable flows,
as wading afforded better control of the Helley-Smith sampler.
All samples were analyzed according to the methods described by Guy
(1969). Suspended sediment samples were wet-sieved through a 62 micron
sieve to separate the sand and silt-clay fractions. The sand fraction was
filtered with a Gooch crucible, while most silt-clay samples were evaporated.
In order to minimize problems with dissolved solids 1n the evaporated samples,
each sample was allowed to settle, decanted, and washed with distilled water
10-8
-------
several times prior to evaporation. Organic material was removed by treat-
ment with 7% H202 prior to evaporation. Samples were heated to dryness,
and placed in desiccators until cool. Then samples were weighed to the
nearest milligram.
Bedload samples were treated repeatedly with hydrogen peroxide solution
(7%) to remove the large amounts of organic sediment included within the
sample. Organic-free samples were washed with distilled water, heated to
dryness, and oven baked for at least one hour at 110 °C. Samples were then
cooled and dry-sieved through nested sieves mounted in a motorized shaker.
Each size fraction was then weighed to the nearest 10 milligrams.
Results and Discussion
Sampling during the 1975 runoff was concentrated on the tributaries
draining both the Lebo shale and Tongue River lithologies. Several spot
samples were also collected within the Tongue River at Birney, Viall
Ranch, SH Ranch, and Orcutt Ranch. Results of the analysis of suspended
sediment samples are suitmarized in Table 10-1. Table 10-2 summarizes the
analysis of bedload samples taken at the same time.
Results are not listed for the Birney section, although it was sam-
pled several times. At all flows, the suspended load was quite low at
Birney, and bedload movement was imperceptible. This condition probably
reflects the influence of the Tongue River dam, which removes most of the
sediment a relatively short distance above Birney, and the armored condition
of the streambed around Birney.
The influence of Hthologic differences between the Tongue River mem-
ber and the Lebo shale is especially apparent in Table 10-1. Hanging Woman
Creek and Otter Creek, which both drain the Tongue River member, usually
carried a very low concentration of sediment. The concentration of suspended
sediment in Hanging Woman Creek ranged from 26 to 340 mg/1. In Otter Creek,
10-9
-------
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10-11
-------
the concentration varied little from 45 mg/1. The suspended sediment in
both streams was extremely fine, almost colloidal. Bedload movement was
not detected in either stream. The primary load of both streams is appar-
ently in the form of dissolved solids.
The concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS) in Hanging Woman
Creek ranged from 1000-2900 mg/1, while Otter Creek had an average TDS
concentration of 1400 mg/1. In comparison, the TDS concentration for the
Tongue River and most of the lower tributaries varied only slightly from
500 mg/1. This fact tends to confirm the hypothesis that rainfall 1n the
upper valley reaches the mainstem primarily as groundwater.
Conversely, the load carried by tributaries draining the Lebo shale 1s
composed primarily of suspended sediment. For most of the streams In this
part of the drainage, the suspended load consists a great deal of washload,
with less than 10% sand in most of the samples. The high sand concentration
1n the Brown Creek sample probably reflects the Influence of frost, as dis-
cussed earlier. In some Instances, the dally load of each of these small
tributaries can be quite large. Loads ranging from 500 to 1000 metric tons
per day were not uncommon; however, most of the streams in the lower drain-
age are ephemeral and carry these high loads for only a short period during
the spring. In addition, appreciable amounts of coarse sediment occurred
1n suspension only as the creeks approached bankfull stage.
The contribution of coarse sediment by the bedload of the small tri-
butaries 1s minor. Table 10-2 shows that most of the bedload is made up of
fine to medium sand (125 to 250 microns median diameter), and the load from
each stream was usually less than one metric ton per day.
From the data 1n Table 10-1 and 10-2, several conclusions were reached
concerning the nature of sedimentation 1n the Tongue River Valley. First,
the contribution of coarse sediment (larger than 125 microns, median dia-
10-12
-------
meter) by the tributaries throughout the length of the river, is inconsequen-
tial. A large amount of sediment enters the river from the tributaries, but
it is mostly washload. Secondly, the source of most of the coarse sediment
is from in-channel deposits, bank caving, and terrace slumping. Of these,
only slump material enters the river for reasons other than high flow. Thirdly,
the river bed becomes less stable and more prone to aggradation in the lower
parts of the basin. This is the result of several factors: 1) a general re-
duction in slope, resulting in less energy available to move sediment; 2) a
larger source of coarse sediment with the capability of entering the river
(terraces and banks are perhaps least stable in this part of the river); and
3) an Increase in channelization in the lower reaches. Sediment is actively
scoured from the channelized reaches, even at low flows, and 1s quickly depo-
sited where the channelization ends. Therefore, it was concluded that the
greatest potential for sediment deposition and aggradation would probably
occur in the lower 20 km. of the Tongue River, below the confluence of Pump-
kin Creek.
During the spring of 1976, a sediment sampling station was established
in an unchannellzed portion of the lower river near the Ft. Keogh Range Ex-
periment Station (USDA). Samples were collected at two to three day intervals,
from the end of March through the middle of June. The purpose of the sampling
was to attempt to determine the discharge required to initiate bed-material
movement in the section. The sampling area was located at the foot of a large
pool, just upstream from a channel constriction which acted as a control.
During the sampling period tributary runoff was intermittent and minimal, and
the banks immediately above the section were fairly stable. It was assumed
that a substantial increase of coarse material in either the bedload or sus-
pended samples would be an indication that scour had been initiated in the
pool, and that most of the sediment collected would therefore be channel de-
rived.
10-13
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Sediment rating curves were constructed for both the total suspended
load and bedload, and the constituents of each type of load. These curves
are Included in Appendix K. The straight lines on each figure in Appendix
K are the least square fit of the data.
Several general trends are apparent from the curves in Appendix K:
1) The total suspended load is so dominated by silt-clay sized par-
ticles, that there 1s little difference between curves K-l and K-2, or K-4
and K-5. The degree of scatter for these curves indicates that the concen-
tration and load of silt-clay particles are related to exterior processes.
They are related to discharge by virtue of an Increase in both washload and
precipitation.
2) The scatter of points for suspended sand particles (Figures K-3, K-6)
is smaller, Indicating less randomness In the relationship between suspended
sand load and discharge.
3) The total bedload curve likewise has little scatter, Indicating a non-
random process. The scatter becomes greater as particle size Increases. At
the flows sampled, 1t is likely that the capture of larger bedload particles
Is largely accidental and random.
4) The trend-fitted curve (dashed line) for Figures K-3 and K-6 suggests
that the occurance of fine sand 1n suspension is accelerated at flows between
18 and 25 cms. This discharge range may initiate the scour of fine sand from
the pool.
5) A similar relationship is suggested in Figure K-8, where there is a
clustering effect of data points. Between 18 and 25 cms. there appears to be
a significant Increase In the movement of particles up to 250 microns median
diameter.
6) In general, the slopes of the least square lines become smaller as
the particle size increases. This would Indicate that true bed mobility
10-14
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9* rmc and that the coarse ma-
has not been attained by discharges up
ter1«l collected may be considered as background.
. ,he DUI.pose of selecting a discharge for the
It must be stressed that the p p
+ tn cause degradation of the channel, but only to
removal of sediment is not to caus
i Tt mav be stated unequivocally, that total bed
assure scour of the pools. It
. \ not occurred at 25.5 cms., the highest flow
scouring (bed mobilization) had not occurre
of fines, deposited on the bed, apparently
sampled. However, the movement
was initiated at flows between 18 and 25 cms.
• charD line of demarcation, no sharp break
Unfortunately, there is no sharp nne
*¦ 9 cinaleflow capable of scouring the pools,
in curve, that would suggest a single now ^
Rather, the initiation of pool scour 1s represented only by a broad band
of discharges. A commonly accepted axiom of hydrology states that there
u m..ct he overcome before sediment will move,
is an inertial effect which must be overcu.
e energy to initiate movement than it does
Stated another way, it takes more eneryy
to sustain it. The axiom applies equally to suspended load and bedload.
This inertia! effect may be involved in the spHttingof the data clusters at th%
18-20 cms. level for the fine to medium sand represented inthe figures of
Appendix K.
It is suggested therefore, that 18 cms. be considered the lowest dis-
charge at which pool scour would occur. However, 20 to 25 cms. would be
required for accelerated scour capable of removing the amount of sediment
deposited in the pools over a year. At flows up to 25 cms. 1t 1s likely
that the sediment moved 1s recently deposited, loosely packed, and readily
transportable. In order to move the coarser, and more fimly packed, bed
materials underlying this deposit, flows In excess of 30 cms. would probably
be required.
Time and Scour Efficiency:
Data in Appendix K show that even at fairly low discharges fine sand
10-15
-------
particles were in motion. Once the critical shear stress of individual
particle sizes has been exceeded, only the rate of transport 1s affected
by increased discharge. In terms of in-stream flows, particularly where
reservoir releases are involved, this point becomes crucial. If X amount
of sediment must be removed from a stream section, it might be removed by
a discharge of Q cms., maintained for 30 days. The same amount of sediment
might also be removed with a discharge of 10 Q cms., maintained for only
3 days. The release of the 10 Q discharge would obviously be the more effi-
cient use of water for sediment removal. However, the flow of 10 Q might
also be disastrous to the in-stream resources which are to benefit from
sediment removal. A balance must be struck, therefore, between the most
efficient rate of sediment transport and the discharge tolerances of all
other in-stream resources.
Associated with this concept is the preferable rate of rise and drop
1n stage. It has been deomostrated that rapid changes in water level are
deleterious to insects and fish alike (Giger, 1973; Hooper, 1973; Hoppe
and Finnell, 1970). Little is gained by suddenly increasing the flow in
hopes of causing instantaneous scour. A sudden large drop in discharge
may cause coarse gravel, and other large sized sediment already in motion,
to settle in areas normally filled with finer sediment. This would tend
to make initiation of scour more difficult with each succeeding year. It is
recommended, therefore, that the rate of change in discharge should not exceed
25% of the previous 24-hour discharge until such tine as it is demonstrated that
a faster change 1n stage is not harmful to other resources. The total time
required for pool scour should be considered an Integration from low flow
up to the desired scouring flow, the duration of scouring flow, and the re-
treat back to low flow. Since a large amount of sediment will be removed
during the rising and falling stages, the high flow duration may be reduced
10-16
-------
significantly.
Methodological Assessment of Sediment Transport Studies:
The empirical method used in the assessment of sediment movement is
the simplest and most reliable method available. It is not without its
limitations, however. The use of hand-held wading equipment restricted
sampling 1n the Tongue River (Ft. Keogh Section) to discharges less than
25 cms. At higher flows, wading became difficult and much of the equipment
unmanageable. The Helley-Smith sampler, in particular, requires good con-
trol in order to take "clean" samples. Although weighted toward the tall,
and collared properly, the sampler still had a tendency to nose into the
bed if care was not taken. This problem obliged the researchers to station
oneself so that the sampler could be controlled through its entire descent
Sampling from a boat was attempted, but abandoned because of this problem
One of two design modifications might help make the Helley-Smith sam-
pler easier to control in large, deep rivers:
1) Attachment of a 1/4 " steel plate, to the rear stab-
ilizer fin, which would weight the tail considerably without changing the
hydraulic characteristics of the sampler.
2) Affixing a "spoiler" to the stabilizer fin, allowing water pressure
force the tall down.
The empirical method of sediment analysis has many of the shortcomings
of the multiple transect method of assessing fishery flows. It requires
special equipment, laboratory space, and a considerable time investment,
partial solution to the problem may lie in the use of sediment transport
models.
There are several methods used to assess sediment movement in streams.
The simplest of these is the comparison of the mean channel velocity at var
ious discharges with the velocity required to move a certain size particle
10-17
-------
Although commonly used, this method is not very accurate, for it does not
consider the effects of packing and Inertia, or the fact that shear stress
is also related to depth.
Another commonly used method is the computation of the tractive force
at various flows for comparison with the tractive force required to move
particles of a given size (critical tractive force). The expression for
the average shear stress in a channel is:
i ¦ o)R s (Eq. 10-1)
Where, to = the specific weight of water, R is the hydraulic radius, and s
is the slope of the energy gradient. In many hydraulic computations this
slope is approximated by the slope of the water surface, as the two are
parallel in uniform flow.
Lane (1955) has developed criteria for the movement of noncohesive
materials based on critical tractive force. For materials with median dia-
meters smaller than 5 mm., the critical tractive force may be determined
from Figure 10-1.
Mean Diameter in mm.
Figure 10—1 Criteria for scour, median diameter of particle less than 5 mm.
From: Lane, E.W. 1955. "Design of Stable Channels," Trans.
ASCE, 120: 1234.
10-18
-------
The critical tractive forces designated in Figure 10-1 are applicable
to canals and may not be appropriate for the non-uniform flow conditions
of rivers (King and Brater, 1963). Leopold, et. al. (1964) give the follow-
ing equation as a means of finding the critical tractive force:
Tc ' Mo - p) g o s (Eq. 10-2)
Where:
K = nU/6)
2
n = a packing coefficient « number of grains x D
unit area
a = mass density of grain
p = mass density of water
g = acceleration of gravity
D = grain diameter
s = slope of energy gradient
If grain size and density are given in cm. and gm./cm respectively,
the units of critical tractive force will be in dynes per cm . If the
3
grain size is in feet, and density in slugs per ft , the critical tractive
force will be In lbs./ft . The operational weakness of the equation, as
far as the field worker is concerned, is the determination of the value for
the packing coefficient. Most values for critical tractive force are
derived from flume data, wherein the size of the sediment particles are
standardized. In rivers, the bottom sediment is usually a well mixed ma-
trix of many particle sizes. Leopold (1964) suggests that the most practical
method of determining a reliable estimate of t would be one based on plot-
c
ting the measured rate of transport for each size class against mean bed
shear for a variety of conditions, and extrapolating the empirical relation
to the intercept where transport rate equals zero.
10-19
-------
Unfortunately, the critical tractive force method gives a value only
for the competence of the stream. It tells little about the amount of sed-
iment of different sizes in transit at different discharges. There are
many sediment transport models available to achieve this end. However,
most are quite complex, and descriptions of each are beyond the scope of
this report. The reader is referred to the original reference organized
to the model type designated below:
1. Critical shear stress:
A. Kalinske, A.A., 1947, "Movement of sediment as bed-load in
rivers," Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 28, (4). *
B. Chang, F.M., Simmons, D.B., and Richardson, E.V., 1965, "Total
bed-material discharge in alluvial channels," U.S.G.S. Mater
Supply Paper 1498-1.
2. Bed-load function:
A. Einstein, H.A., 1950, "The bed-load function for sediment
transportation in open-channel flows," Soil Cons. Serv. Tech.
Bull. 1026.
B. Colby, B.R. and Hembree, C.H., 1955, "Computations of total
sediment discharge, Niobrara River near Cody, Nebraska,"
U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper 1357.
C. DeVries, M., 1965, "Considerations about nonsteady bed-load
transport 1n open channels," Delft Hydraulics Lab. Pub. #36. *
3. Suspension:
A. Rouse, H., 1937, "Modern Conceptions of the mechanics of
turbulence," Trans. ASCE, vol. 10. *
B. Bagnold, R.A., 1966, "An approach to the sediment transport
problem from general physics," U.S.G.S. Professional Paper
442-J. *
C. Brooks, N.H. and Keck, W.M., 1963, "Calculations of suspended
load discharge from velocity and concentration parameters,
USDA Misc. Pub. 970, paper #29.
D. Tywoniuk, N., 1972, "Sediment discharge computation procedures,"
J. Hyd. Div., Proc. ASCE 98(HY3), 521-540. *
*Stalnaker and Arnette (1976) list these and several other sources. This
list includes only the more readily accessible references.
10-20
-------
~ Of these models to the field worker (besides their
The most Important aspect of these «
, > „ fhP nature of the data Inputs required. Most of the
proven reliability) is the nature
« ,vf the following data Inputs in common:
models have all or some of the to mo
1. Surveyed cross-sectional data.
2. Determination of energy gradient.
flow depth, hydraulic radius, and mean velocity
3. Determination of flow aepu., j
for a number of discharges.
, , •*. characteristics of bed, particle density, and porosity.
4. Particle size character is
5. Temperature and density of fluid.
, items 4 and 5, the data requirements are essentially
With the exception of items an y
Identical to those required by the Water Surface Profile Program as outlined
in Chapter 6. Item 4 may be determined from three to five composite samples
n * item 5 might require several water samples to
taken with a pipe sampler. Item a migr
* ^cities at different concentrations of washload. If
determine a range of densiti
x -ic needed, it should probably be determined empirically
critical tractive force is nee
by the «thod suggested by Leopold, et. al. (1964). The general conclusion
must be made that a few additional data inputs, collected 1, the process of
gathering Information for the WSPP, would enable researchers to add sediment
transport analysis to the hydrologic aspects of the WSPP. This would be a
significant addition of Information with little added field work.
10-21
-------
References
Bagnold, R.A., 1966, "An Approach to the Sediment Transport Problem from
General Physics," U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper 442-J.
Baker, A.A., 1929, "The northward Extension of the Sheridan Coal Field,
Bighorn and Rosebud Counties, Montana," U.S.G.S. Bull. 806-B.
Bass, N.W., 1932, "The Ashland Coal Field, Rosebud, Powder River, and Cus-
ter Counties, Montana," U.S.G.S. Bull. 831-B, 105 pp.
Brooks, N.H. and Keck, W.M., 1963, "Calculation of Suspended Load Discharge
from Velocity and Concentration Parameters," U.S.D.A. Misc. Publ. 970,
pp. 229-237.
Cahn, A.R., 1929, "The Effect of Carp on a Small Lake: The Carp as a Dom-
inant," Ecology, 10: 271-274.
Chang, F.M., Simons, D.B., and Richardson, E.V., 1965, "Total Bed-Material
Discharge in Alluvial Channels," U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper 1498-1,
23 pp.
Clay, W., 1962, Kentucky Fishes. Kentucky Dept. of Fish and Wildlife
Resources, 147 pp.
Colby, B.R. and Hembree, C.H., 1955, "Computations of Total Sediment Discharge,
Niobrara River near Cody, Nebraska," U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper 1357,
187 pp.
Cordone, A.J. and Kelly, D.W., 1961, "The Influence of Inorganic Sediment
on the Aquatic Life of Streams," California Fish & Game, 47: 189-228.
Culbertson, D.M., Young, L.E., and Brice, J.C., 1967, "Scour and Fill in
Alluvial Channels with Particular Reference to Bridge Sites," U.S.G.S.
Open File Report, 58 pp.
Cummins, K.W., 1966, "Arevlew of Stream Ecology with Special Emphasis on
Organism-Substrate Relationships," In: Organism Substrate Relationships
in Streams, Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology, Spec. Publ. #4, University
of Pittsburgh, pp. 2-51.
DeVrles, M., 1965, "Considerations About Nonsteady Bed-Load Transport in
Open Channels," Delft Hydraulic Laboratories Publ. #36.
Einstein, H.A., 1950, "The Bed-Load Runction for Sediment Transportation
1n Open Channel Flows," Soil Cons. Service (U.S.D.A.) Tech. Bull. 1026.
Glger, R.D., 1973, "Streamflow Requirements for Salmonids," Oregon Wildlife
Commission, Job Final Report, AFS 62-1, 117 pp.
Gore, J.A., 1976, "In-Stream Flow Requirements of Benthlc Macrolnvertebrates
in a Prairie River," M.A. Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, 172 pp.
10-22
-------
Guy, H.P., 1969, "Laboratory Theory and Methods for Sediment Analysis,"
U.S.G.S. Tech. Water-Res. Invest, Chapter CI Book 5, 58 pp.
Guy, H.P. and Norman, V.W., 1970, "Field Methods for Measurement of Fluvial
Sediment," U.S.G.S. Tech. Water-Res. Invest., Chapter C2, Book 3, 59 pp.
Helley, E.J. and Smith, W., 1971, "Development and Calibration of a Pressure-
Difference Bedload Sampler," U.S.G.S. Open File Report. 18 pp.
Hooper, D.R., 1972, "Evaluation of the Effects of Flows on Trout Stream
Ecology," Pacific Gas and Electric Company, 94 pp.
Hoppe, R.A. and Finnell, L.M., 1970, "Aquatic Studies on the Fryingpan
River, Colorado-1969-70," Completion Report, BSFW and Colorado Div.
of Game, Fish, and Parks, 12 pp.
Hubbs, C.L. and Bailey, R.M., 1938, The Smallmouthed Bass. Cranbrook Institute
of Science Bulletin #8, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, 95 pp.
Kalinske, A.A., 1947, "Movement of Sediment as Bed-Load in Rivers," Trans.
Am. Geophys. Union, 28(4).
King, H.W. and Brater, E.F., 1963, Handbook of Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill,
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Lane, E.W., 1955, "Design of Stable Channels," Trans. ASCE, 120: 1234.
Langbein, W.B. and Schumn, S.A., 1958, "Yield of Sediment in Relation to
Mean Annual Precipitation," Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 39: 1076-1084.
Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G., and Miller, J.P., 1964, Fluvial Processes in
Geomorpholoqy. W.H. Freeman & Co., 522 pp.
Mills, H.B., Starrett, W.C., and Bellrose, F.C., 1966, "Man's Effect on the
Fish and Wildlife of the Illinois River," HL Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol.
Notes. 57: 1-24.
Percival, E. and Whitehead, H., 1929, "A Quantitative Study of the Fauna
of Some Types of Streambed," J_. Ecol., 17: 282-314.
Pierce, W.G., 1936, "The Rosebud Coal Field, Rosebud and Custer Counties,
Montana," U.S.G.S. Bull. 847-B, 120 pp.
Piest, R.F., 1965, "The Role of the Large Storm as a Sediment Contributor,"
U.S.D.A. Misc. Pub!. 970, pp. 98-108.
Reynolds, J.B., 1965, "Life History of the Smallmouth Bass, Micropterus
J^Sci?1e39:7n417-43e! M07neS RiV6r' B00ne County» t°waOowa
Rouse, H., 1937, "Modern Conceptions of the Mechanics of Turbulence "
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Scott D. 1949 "A Study of a Stream Population of Rock Bass, Ambloplites
rupestris," Invest. Indiana Lakes & Streams, 3. 169-234.
10-23
-------
Sigler, W.F., 1958, "The Ecology and Use of Carp in Utah," Utah St. Univ.
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Stalnaker, C.B. and Arnette, J.L., 1976, "Methodologies for the Determination
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Thorup, J., 1966, "Substrate Type and its Value as a Basis for the Delimitation
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Tywoniuk, N., 1972, "Sediment Discharge Computation Proceduers," iJ. Hyd.
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10-24
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CHAPTER 11: BIBLIOGRAPHY
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11-1
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11-2
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11-9
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CHAPTER 12: GLOSSARY
advected heat loss: Removal of heat from a surface, typically by wind,
through a predominantly horizontal motion.
aggradation: Progressive deposition of sediment within a channel or on
the flood plain, resulting 1n an increased elevation of the stream-
bed or flood plain.
allochthonous: Organic material entering the stream from outside sources;
1.e. leaf fall.
armored streambed: A streambed 1n which all of the fine sediment has been
removed, leaving only coarse material which cannot be transported.
association coefficient: A computational index used to determine the re-
lative similarity of community structure for different communities.
association dendogram: A diagram which Indicates the degree of similarity
of community structure for different locations.
assymetrlc watershed: A drainage basin in which the lengths and stream
orders of the tributaries draining one side of the basin are signifi-
cantly different from those on the other side.
autochthonous: Organic material produced within the stream; I.e. algae.
base flow: The minimum flow requirement for the preservation of any in-
stream resource; a survival flow requirement.
bedload: Sediment particles which, when 1n motion, are supported primarily
by the bed.
blomass: The amount of living matter in an area, or volume, of habitat.
Bowen ratio: The ratio between the portions of the total available energy
expended to sensible heat to the air and to the evaporation of water.
canopy: The foliage overstory of trees or brushy plants; the area covered
by leaves and branches of trees.
channel constriction: A narrowing of the channel which may act to control
upstream flow.
clInker: A very hard and resistant rock formed from shale which has been
baked by burning coal beds; fused residual minerals from the burning
of the coal bed.
cm.: Centimeters (distance).
cms.: Cubic meters per second (discharge).
12-1
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cm./sec.: Centimeters per second (velocity).
COCD: Centroid of optimum conditions of diversity; a point on a two-
dimensional surface representing the depth-velocity, or turbulence-
substrate conditions most conducive to high aquatic invertebrate di-
versity.
composite map: A scaled, plan view of a channel area, delineating areas
suitable for habitation or use by a certain indicator species.
conveyance area; The cross sectional area of flow, normal to the direction
of flow.
critical area: A stream area, reach, or habitat type which shows the great-
est variation in hydrologic parameters, such as depth and velocity,
with changes in discharge.
critical tractive force: The force required to initiate movement of a given
sediment size.
degradation: The lowering of the streambed elevation by progressive scour
of the bed.
diurnal periodicity: A behavior pattern which 1s recurrent on a daily basis.
diversity: A statistic describing the relative abundances of different
species in a collection of S species, sometimes refers to the number
of different species.
drift, invertebrate: Refers to aquatic Invertebrates which have released
from, or have been swept from, the substrate and move or float with
the current.
effective precipitation: The amount of precipitation required to signifi-
cantly change soil moisture; total precipitation adjusted to reflect
interception and immediate evaporation.
energy gradient: The slope of the line representing the change 1n elevation
of the total energy head. For uniform flow, the slope 1s approximated
by the slope of the water surface.
ephemeral stream: Any stream which transmits water intermitantly during
the year, usually in response to snow melt or heavy rainfall.
evapotransplration: Transfer of moisture from a vegetated surface to the
atmosphere.
evapotranspiration deficit: The approximate difference between the rate
of precipitation and the rate of evapotranspiration, representing the
amount of water supplied by the river for evapotranspiration.
flow criteria: The velocity range, depth range, and substrate type most
commonly associated with a given species.
12-2
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Froude number: The ratio between 1nert1al forces and gravity forces in
running water; used as an Index of turbulence.
hydraulic depth: Ratio of the conveyance area to the greatest width.
hydraulic gradient: Slope of the water surface
hydraulic radius: The ratio of the conveyance area to the wetted perimeter.
For wide, shallow streams this approximates the hydraulic depth.
hydrologlc contour map: A scaled planlmetric map showing Isolines of equal
depths or equal velocities, or delineating areas of common bottom
types. Maps are read like topographic maps.
ice, anchor: Sheet-Uke crystal aggragates which grow outward, from sub-
merged objects as a result of radlatlonal cooling of the streambed.
ice, frazlle: Surface-formed, thin and circular, disk-shaped crystals of
1ce which occur wherever an open water surface 1s supercooled. Frazile
ice may coalesce to form a surface 1ce sheet.
1ce, surface: A solid 1ce layer in complete flotation over a body of water.
First formed by the coalescence of frazile ice crystals, but thickened
primarily by conduction of heat through the 1ce to the atmosphere.
Incised stream: A stream which has cut through bedrock or Into Its stream-
bed to such an extent that the meander pattern 1s quite stable.
Indicator species: Here used to describe a species which 1s more sensitive
to changes in hydrologlc or substrate parameters than other species,
and which 1s an Inhabitant or periodic user of critical area habitats.
It 1s assumed that 1f the flow requirements of the indicator species
are met, the requirements of all other species will also be met.
Instantaneous flow: The volume of water passing any point in an instant
of time. Units are 1n cubic meters per second.
kite diagram: A diagram describing the relative abundance and distribution
of a species within Its range.
Latent heat of fusion: The negative heat transfer required to change the
state of water from liquid to solid.
micro-profile: The three-dimensional "topography" of the substrate providing
habitat for aquatic invertebrates.
micro-profile Index: A statistical description of the roughness and surface
area availability of the substrate.
multiple transect analysis: The process of utilizing hydrologlc data meas-
ured across several transects over a critical area to assess the avail-
able habitat area at different discharges.
12-3
-------
optimum flow: The discharge which provides the greatest amount of
habitat area for a given Indicator species and critical area.
permeability: The relative ease with which water can move through
earth materials; the rate of discharge per unit area, through
earth materials, under controlled hydrologlc conditions.
phototaxls: 0r1entat1onal movement of organisms where light is the
directive factor.
point depth: The vertical depth at a specific location 1n a channel
cross-section.
point velocity: The mean velocity of the vertical water column at
a specific location in a channel cross-section.
porosity: The ratio between the volume of void space and the total
volume of earth material.
riparian vegetation: Vegetation situated 1n close proximity to a river
and dependant upon the river, or Influent groundwater, for Its water
source.
roughness coefficient: A correction factor Incorporated Into hydraulic
models to account for the flow resistance of the bed and banks.
sediment yield: The amount of sediment, per unit area, eroded from
a watershed each year.
sinuosity: The ratio between the length of a river and the length of
Its valley.
soil heat flux: Loss or gain 1n heat energy from heating or cooling
of the soil.
steady flow: Flow in which the depth or water level does not change
during a specified time Interval.
stream control: Any feature of the channel configuration which controls
the flow in such a way that it restricts the transmission of water.
streamflow reservation: Essentially a water right granted to a state
agency to protect an In-stream flow for the beneficial use of
fish and wildlife, maintenance of water quality, preservation of
natural channel processes; or to honor and support existing water
rights.
thalweg: The Une following the lowest part of a valley, usually fol-
lowing the deepest part of the channel.
12-4
-------
thermal conductivity: The ability of a substance to transmit heat.
Used primarily to describe the loss of heat through a thickness
of surface 1ce.
tractive force: The effective component of the gravity force acting
on a body of water, parallel to the channel bottom and equal to
wALS, where u (omega) 1s the unit weight of water, A 1s the wetted
area, L 1s the length of channel reach, and S 1s the slope.
transmlsslvlty: The ease with which water can move through a thickness
of earth or aquifer materials; the discharge rate for a thickness
of aquifer of unit width under controlled hydraulic conditions.
turbidity: The degree of opacity or cloudiness of a body of water due
to the suspension of particulate matter. Usually caused by sedi-
ment but may also be caused by algae.
uniform flow: Flow 1n which the depth of water 1s equal at every sec-
tion of the channel.
washload: That portion of the suspended sediment load which, because
of Its small settling velocity, 1s held 1n suspension as essentially
colloidal particles.
water envelope: The layer of liquid water occuring between the bed of
a stream and the underside of a surface 1ce sheet.
12-5
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APPENDIX A
HYDROLOGIC CONTOUR MAPS
REARING AREAS
1. Direction of flow is from top of page to bottom
2. For easier interpretation, depth contours are
indicated by vertical typeface. Velocity con-
tours are indicated by slanting typeface.
3. Hatchered areas on contour maps indicate isolated
areas of reduced depth or velocity, depending on
the type of map.
4. Dashed lines Indicate edge of water, either at
banks or on exposed bars.
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APPENDIX B
COMPOSITE MAPS
REARING AREAS
1. Direction of flow is from top of page to bottom.
2. These maps indicate areas meeting preferred con-
ditions of depth, velocity, and substrate, for
the stonecat.
3. For easier interpretation, depth contours are
indicated by vertical typeface. Velocity con-
tours are indicated by slanting typeface.
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areas which do not meet flow criteria for the
stonecat. Only those stream areas without
cross-hatching meet flow criteria.
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stream banks or on exposed bars.
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APPENDIX C
COMPOSITE MAPS
INSECT PRODUCTIVITY AREAS
1. Direction of flow 1s from top of page to bottom.
2. These maps Indicate areas meeting preferred con-
ditions of depth, velocity, and substrate, for
optimum diversity and productivity of aquatic
insects, as determined using Rhlthrogena hageni
as the Indicator species.
3. For easier Interpretation, depth contours are
Indicated by vertical typeface. Velocity con-
tours are Indicated by slanting typeface.
4. Cross-hatched areas on composite maps indicate
areas which do not meet flow criteria for
Rhlthrogena hageni. Only those areas without
cross-hatching meet flow criteria.
5. Dashed lines Indicate water's edge, either at
banks or on exposed bars.
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-------
APPENDIX D
MACROINVERTEBRATE ECOLOGY
-------
APPENDIX D: MACROINVERTEBRATE ECOLOGY
Microprofile Measuring Device
Measurement of the exact composition of the substrate would be an ex-
tremely long and time consuming process for each of 175 samples collected
in this study. However, the nature of the substrate material determines
the profile of the substrate, and it is this profile to which the inverte-
brates must adapt in order to obtain habitable conditions of current vel-
ocity. The index of the profile can provide, with proper interpretation,
information on the roughness of the substrate and surface area availability.
The method used allows the investigator to measure the substrate profile
before sampling benthic organisms, without having to map the position of
the substrate particles or physically remove portions of the substrate for
measurement. In this manner, a given piece of substrate can be rapidly
recoIonized so that samples on the same substrate can be taken again, if
necessary.
The prototypic device is designed to fit within a Hess Bottom sampler.
The micro-profile sampler 1s constructed using a circular sheet of plexi-
glass (about 1 cm. thick) with a diameter of 35.68 cm., to give a tenth-
square-meter surface area (see Figure Dl). The sheet Is prepared by drill-
ing holes 1n a grid pattern such that 21 holes are placed at 5 cm. intervals
1n the grid pattern. The holes are drilled large enough to accept 21 thread-
ed steel rods of about 8 mm. diameter (rods of smaller diameter cause too
much free play on the plexiglass sheet to be effective). Three of the steel
rods are fixed to the sheet at a standard distance of 17.5 cm. from the bot-
tom surface of the sheet with a system of washers, lock washer, and nuts to
fit the threaded rods. These three supportive legs are placed to form a
uniform triangle 1n three outer grid holes.
D-l
-------
Figure Dl. Schematic of Microproflle Measuring Device
All measurements are in cm.
D-2
-------
This device is then placed within the Hess sampler, which has been pre-
viously placed in the water upon the substrate area to be sampled. The fixed
legs, which provide a "zero" reference point, should be maneuvered to be as
close to the base substrate as possible; that is, not upon any large objects
protruding from the substrate surface. The remaining 18 rods, each 30 cm.
long, are allowed to fall vertically within their respective grid holes.
As the rods make contact with various objects on the substrate the rods are
clamped (a standard barrel-type pinch clamp 1s suitable) at the upper sur-
faces of the plexlgless sheet to prevent further movement.
When all rods have been placed, the device can be removed from the Hess
sampler (using the fixed legs as handles) and Invertebrate sampling can con-
tinue by normal procedure. Once the device Is removed, the length of the
18 "free" rods are measured from the plexiglass surface to the tip of the
rod. If the grid 1s numbered and the rods are measured and recorded, a
three-dimensional schematic drawing of the substrate can be made. The dis-
tances to be schematically represented are the lengths of the 18 "free" rods
minus the length of a "standard" rod which has been allowed to fall to a flat
surface upon which the device is also sitting. The standard deviation of
the mean length of the 21 rods (where the three fixed rods are "standard"
length) provides a single descriptive index (I) which is useful in habitat
description. The Index numbers are defined below:
PROFILE TYPE
0 - 0.5
0.5 - 1.0
1.0 - 1.5
1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
3.0 - 4.0
4.0
Smooth
Moderately smooth (gravel)
Small cobbled
Smooth, medium cobbled
Rough, medium cobbled
Large cobbled
Bouldered
Critical (angular boulders)
D-3
-------
Velocity, depth, micro-profile, and turbulence (by Froude number, F),
where:
F * V (Eq. D-l)
v"g D
and; V = current velocity in cm./sec.
D = depth in centimeters
g = acceleration due to gravity (980 cm./sec^.)
were compared with diversity of insects in the sample and number of
individuals of a given species per sample, in order to determine op-
timum flow related conditions.
Flow Related Requirements For Macroinvertebrates
The following figures and tables illustrate the optimum conditions of
depth, velocity, turbulence, and microprofile for the invertebrates examined.
The large square on the velocity and depth Figures (D1 - D31) is the area
representing conditions of maximum diversity (also Table D-l). The calcula-
tions for this area, the COCD, and the optimum centroids for the individual
macroinvertebrates, are described in Chapter 5 of the report. In addition,
the area where at least 80% of the macroinvertebrates occurred is also shown
on each of the figures (D2 - D31). The centroids, like the COCD, describe
the optimum point on the surface for either velocity, depth, and number of
individuals, or turbulence, microprofile, and number of individuals. A de-
finite area of maximum diversity was not defined in the relation between
microprofile and turbulence (Table D-2). It can be assumed that the maximum
diversity area will be generally located in close proximity to the COCD for
microprofile and turbulence.
D-4
-------
N. D
V \
n _ in
O
CsJ
1
o
20 - 30
30 - 40
40 - 50
0-15
.667
1.112
1.405
1.530
1.371
16 - 30
1.348
1.218
1.957
1.054
1.505
31 - 45
1.628
1.893
1.977
1.933
1.845
46 - 60
1.440
1.721
1.605
1.958
1.812
61 - 75
1.523
1.703
1.728
2.034
1.612
76 - 90
1.652
1.809
2.319
2.190
2.156
91 - 105
1.203
1.983
2.211
1.844
2.072
105-120
1.386
1.661
2.612
2.027
1.724
>120
.541
1.802
2.131
2.301
1.817
Table Dl. Average Diversities for Depth and Velocity. Average diversity
for all samples that occured within the block represented by the
increments of depth and current velocity. Current velocity in
cm./sec. Depth in cm.
D-5
-------
F\I
0 - .1
.1 - .2
.2 - .3
.3 - .4
.4 - .5
.5 - .6
.6 - .7
>.7
1.399
1.327
1.744
1.609
1.356
1.400
1.995
2.119
2.099
2.000
1.657
1.310
1.871
1.589
1.978
2.064
1.946
2.080
1.745
2.017
1.959
2.366
2.763
2.040
1.560
1,072
2.111
1.875
2.6000
1.476
2.025
1.750
Table D2. Average Diversities for Microprofile and Turbulence. Average
diversity for all samples that occured within the blocks
represented by the increments of microprofile and turbulence.
D-6
-------
Table D-3: Centroids of optimum velocity (C ), depth (Cd), microprofile
index (Cj), and Froude Number (C^) for 38 species of macro-
invertebrates in the Tongue River. Depths and velocities
have been rounded to the nearest cm. and cm./sec., respectively.
Species
C
V
Cd
Ci
Cf
DIVERSITY
76.
28.
2.01
.401
Ephoron
97.
30.
album
2.03
.557
Baitis
tricaudatus
74.
28.
2.01
.411
Baetis
alexanderi
55.
23.
1.80
.392
Ephemerella
84.
25.
1.99
margarita
.502
Ephemerella
82.
29.
hystrix
2.05
.526
Tricorythodes
33.
2.00
minutus
68.
.356
Choroterpes
27.
2.07
albiannulata
62.
.425
Traverella
albertana
80.
32.
2.14
.499
Stenonema
reesi
60.
27.
1.73
.336
Rhithrogena
32.
2.07
hageni
82.
.454
Strophopteryx
19.
1.97
fasciata
73.
.478
Paraleuctra
sara
74.
15.
2.10
.500
Capnia
2.19
limata
56.
23.
.348
Isogenoides
2.24
.402
frontalis
71.
36.
Acroneuria
abnormis
81.
27.
1.99
.505
Ophiogomphus
2.24
.376
morrisoni
73.
28.
Hydroptila sp.
63.
30.
2.09
.343
Cheumatopsyche
2.16
.396
sp.
74.
33.
Hydropsyche
2.10
.450
bifida
76.
33.
Hydropsyche
1.95
.417
occidental is
66.
26.
D-7
-------
Table D-3 (Con't)
Species Cv Cd C. Cf
Hydropsyche
sp. a
83.
Hydropsyche
sp. b
83.
Hydropsyche
61.
sp. c
Brachycentrus
americanus
68.
Leptocella sp.
52.
Athrlpsodes
sp.
79.
Rhagovella sp.
22.
Stenelmis
sp. a (1)
72.
Stenelmis
sp. a (a)
73.
Stenelmis
sp. b (1)
62.
Stenelmis
sp. b (a)
70.
Dubiraphia sp.
57.
Simulium sp.
78.
Metri ocnemus
sp.
78.
Sphaerium
simile
92.
Physa
gyrina
93.
Dugesia
tigrina 48.
34. 2.07 -462
35. 1.87 .390
31. 2.03 .321
28. 1.94 .357
29. 1.74 .274
27. 1.97 .404
31. 2.21 .155
30. 2.05 .405
29. 2.26 .403
25. 1.89 .385
33. 1.96 .358
28. 1.55 .347
27. 2.23 .495
31. 1.83 .443
34. 2.00 .500
39. 1.82 .421
23. 1.80 .309
D-8
-------
Figure 02. Optimum Depth and Current Velocities. Ephemeroptera.
Ephoron album (1 and solid line), Baetis tr1caudatus (2 and dashed
line), and Baetis alexanderl (3 and alternating dashed and dotted
11ne).
D-9
-------
20 30
Depth
(c*i.)
Figure D3. Optimum Depth and Current Velocities. Ephemeroptera.
Ephemerella margarita (4 and solid line), Ephemerella hystrix
(5 and dashed line), Tricorythodes minutus (6 and alternating dashed
and dotted line), and Chofoterpes albiannulata (7 and dotted line).
D-l 0
-------
10 20 20 40
Depth
(cm.)
Figure 04. Optimum Depth and Current Velocities. Ephemeroptera.
Traverella albertana (8 and solid line), Stenonema reesi (9 and
dashed line), and Rhlthrogena hagenl (10 and alternating dashed
and dotted line).
D-ll
-------
-I 1 1 1 h-
1.0 1,5 ?%q 2,5 3,0
I
Figure 05. Optimum Turbulence and Microprofile. Ephemeroptera.
Ephoron album (1 and solid line), Baetis tricaudatus (2 and
dashed line), and Baetis alexanderi (3 and alternating dashed
and dotted line).
D-12
-------
.4..
F
©
0
-®-
/•
!V_
/
1.0
1.5
' I
?.o
2.5
5.0
Figure D6. Optimum Turbulence and MicroprofUft. Ephemeroptera.
Ephemerella margarita (4 and solid line), Ephemerella hystrix
(5 and dashed line), Trlcorythodes mlnutus (6 and alternating
dashed and dotted line), and Choroterpes albiannulata (7 and
dotted line).
D-13
-------
Sd^twlinff RMthr09ena h49en1 "° 4"« alternat1ng dashed
D-14
-------
Figure 08. Optimum Depths and Current Velocities. Plecoptera.
Strophopteryx fasciata (1 and solid line), Paraleuctra sara
(2 and dashed line), and Capnia limata (3 and alternating dashed
and dotted line).
D-15
-------
Figure D9. Optimum Depths and Current Velocities. Plecoptera.
Isogenoides frontalis (4 and solid line) and Acroneuria abnormis
(5 and dashed line).
D-16
-------
.6-
.4..
.2
r
7T"
if
© ®® Yi
I ¦
• ji
( « > ~ i—
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 5.0
I
Figure 010. Optimum Turbulence and M1croprof1le. Plecoptera.
Strophopteryx fasclata (1 and solid lines), Paraleuctra sara
(2 and dashed line), and Capnla limata (3 and alternating dashed
and dotted line).
D-17
-------
.2
/
\
.61
Y
.41
©
1.0
1.5
?.0
2.5
^.0
Figure Dll. Optimum Turbulence and Microprofile Plecoptera
Isogenoldes frontalis (4 and solid line) and'Acroneurla abnormls
(5 and dashed line). s
D-18
-------
120--
90 ..
V
(cm/nec
60 ..
J>0 ..
-t-
10 20 50 40
Depth
(cm.)
Figure D12. Optimum Depth and Current Velocity. Odonata.
Ophiogomphus morrisoni (1 and solid line).
D-19
-------
.61
•41
.2i
1.0
4-
+
1.5 2.0
I
2.5
Figure D13. Optimum Turbulence and Mlcroprofile. Odonata.
Ophlogomphus morrisoni. (1 and solid line).
3.0
D-20
-------
Figure D14. Optimum Depth and Current Velocity. Trichoptera.
Hydroptlla sp. (1 and solid line), Cheumatopsyche spp. (2 and
dashed line), and Hydropsyche bifida (3 and alternating dashed
and dotted line).
D-21
-------
Figure D15. Optimum Depth and Current Velocity. Trichoptera.
Hydropsyche occidentals (4 and solid line), Hydropsyche sp.a
(5 and dashed line), and Hydropsyche sp. b (6 and alternating
dashed and dotted line).
D-22
-------
1?0
90 4-
v
(cm/cec,
60 ..
50 ..
10
-I 1-
20 50
Depth
(cm.)
40
Figure D16. Optimum Depth and Current Velocity. Trichoptera.
Hydropsyche sp. c (7 and solid line), Brachycentrus americanus
(8 and dashed line), Leptocella sp. (9 and alternating dashed and
dotted line), and Athrlpsodes sp. (10 and dotted line).
0-23
-------
.41
/\
1
\
1
\ i
v S- -
«
i
1.0
1.5
/
2.0
2.5
Figure D17. Optimum Turbulence and Mlcroproflle Trlchoptera
Mroptlla sp. (1 and solid line), Cheumatopsyche spp. (2 and
da5h5d.l^eh a?d HydroPsyche bifida (3 and alternating dashed
ana dotted line;.
D-24
-------
.6-.
.4..
.2
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
-H—
5.0
Figure D18. Optimum Turbulence and M1croprof1le. Trichoptera.
Hydropsyche occidental 1s (4 and solid line), Hydropsyche sp. a
(5 and dashed line), and Hydropsyche sp. b (6 and alternating
dashed and dotted line).
D-25
-------
1«5 2.0 2.5 3.0
I
Figure D19. Optimum Turbulence and Microprofile. Trichoptera.
Hydropsyche sp. c (7 and solid line), Brachycentrus americanus
(8 and dashed line), Leptocella sp. (9 and alternating dabhed
and dotted line), and Athripsodes sp. (10 and dotted line).
D-26
-------
D-27
-------
Figure D21. Optimum Turbulence and Microprofile. Hemiptera.
Rhagovelia sp. (1 and solid line).
D-28
-------
V
(cm/cec
10
20 50
Depth
(cm,)
40
Figure D22. Optimum Depth and Current Velocity. Coleoptera.
Stenelmls sp. a (adult) (1 and solid line) and Stenelmls sp. b
(adult) (2 and dashed line).
D-29
-------
i?o-U
90 1
*
(cm/nec
60
50
10
H 1—
20 30
Depth
(cm.)
40
Figure D23. Optimum Depth and Current Velocity. Coleoptera.
Stenelmis sp. a (larvae) (1 and solid line), Stenelmls sp. b
(larvae) (2 and dashed line), and Dubiraphia sp. (3 and
alternating dashed and dotted line).
D-30
-------
.61
.41
.2
S'
\
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5 3.0
Figure D24. Optimum Turbulence and Microprofile. Coleoptera.
Stenelmls sp. a (adult) (1 and solid line) and Stenelmis sp. b
(adult) (2 and dashed line).
D-31
-------
Figure D25. Optimum Turbulence and Microprofile Coleootera
Stenelmis sp. a (larvae)(l and solid line), Stenelmis sp.'b
(larvae)(2 and dashed line), and Dub1raph1a sp. (3 and
alternating dashed and dotted line).
D-32
-------
1?0--
90
V .
(cm/cec
60 ..
50 ..
-i 1 1 h
10 20 50 40
Depth
(cm.)
Figure D26, Optimum Depth and Current Velocity. Diptera.
S1mul1um spp. (1 and solid line) and Metriocnemus sp. (2 and
dashed line).
D-33
-------
i'5 2.0 2.5 3.0
I
Figure D27. Optimum Turbulence and Microprofile. Diptera.
Simuliuto spp. (1 and solid line) and Metriocnemus sp. (2 and
dashed line).
D-34
-------
1P0-L
90 J.
V .
(cm/cec
60 1
30 I
10
-J 1—
20 30
Depth
(cm,)
40
Figure D28. Optimum Depth arid Current Velocity. Mollusca.
Sphaerlum simile (1 and solid line) and Physa gyrina (2 and
dashed line).
D-35
-------
.2
[
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
-H—
3.0
Figure D29. Optimum Turbulence and MicroDrofilp Mnii,.c«
i«1¥?nirie 0 a"d S0,fd '<">
D-36
-------
D-37
-------
.6
.4
.2
-V
1—
1.5 2.0
I
1.0
2.5 3.0
Figure D31. Optimum Turbulence and Microprofile. Turbellaria.
Dugesia tigrina (1 and solid line).
D-38
-------
Distribution and Abundance
Kite-diagrams (Figures D34 and D35) are presented showing relative abun-
dance and longitudinal distribution along the Tongue River (Figure D32, Table
D4). Dashed lines indicate the presence of the organism in that section of
the river, as determined by kick samples, for which relative abundances have
not been determined.
Analysis of the kite-diagrams to cjetermine community associations can
be accomplished through the use of clustering techniques. A modified Jaccard
association coefficient (Church, 1976) is used to compare community structures,
as determined by Hess samples for distributional information. An association
matrix is constructed where the association values are determined as follows:
Jid • Pi x Pj (Eq. D2)
where Pi = (a + b)/(a + b + c) (Eq. D3)
and P. = (a + c)/(a + b + c) (Eq. D4)
J
when a is the sum of the relative abundances of those species which occur in
both samples i and j, b is the sum of the relative abundances of those species
which occur only 1n sample i, and c is the sum of the relative abundances of
species which occur only in sample j.
Dendrograms (Figures D33) are constructed by using the WPGMA (weighted
pair-group using mathematical averages) clustering method (Sneath and Sokal,
1974). The dendrogram indicates those samples which are most closely related
(that is, most similar) by connecting them together at the highest possible
association coefficient. Coefficients range from 0 to 1, where 1 is Identity.
Thus, for example, 1n the fall-winter distribution, samples III' and III are
virtually identical with an association coefficient of .974. It is for this
reason that sample site III' was eliminated from further consideration in
subsequent logltudlnal sampling. The high degree of similarity of community
D-39
-------
structure indicates that the effects of the sewage effluent in the town of
Birney is small enough so that samples taken at site III would be represen-
tative of the aquatic community of the general area.
From the dendrogram of the fall-winter distribution (Figure D33), it
can be seen that three distinct communities exist along the length of the
Tongue River. Sites I and II are in the cold water section and association
with comnunities in the warm water section is very small (.475). In the
upper warm water area a distinct community exists, as shown by samples III'
and III, and IV. Sample V seems transitional between the upper and lower
warm water communities, and as such, is not closely associated with either.
It does, however, seem to be most closely associated with the upper warm
water community. The lower river shows a third distinct community. In this
area, the close association between sites VI and VII, with such different
substrates (Table D4) indicates the preference of the insects in these areas
for a distinct profile (tending to be smooth) rather than a substrate material
type. Turbidity and algal cover seem to be variables which may also cause
close association of these two communities.
It can be seen that the transition zone between cold water and warm water
habitats (as delineated in Figures D33 and D34, and by sample III') serves as
the border for the upstream distribution of many organisms. Only a few insect
genera (Baetis, Strophopteryx, Hydropsyche, Simulium, and Metriocnemus) extend
the entire length of the river, through both cold and warm water environments.
The Effect of Hypolimnial Discharge:
Neel (1963) states that if a reservoir is deep enough to become thermally
stratified and has a hypolimnial drain, the discharge of cold water has a
stabilizing effect on the thermal regime of the river below the dam, such that
temperatures are considerably colder in the summer and warmer in the winter.
Hubbs (1972) has found that the reduction of 24-hour temperature fluctuations
D-40
-------
D-41
-------
TABLE D4
Collection Area Characteristics
AREA TURBIDITY SUBSTRATE PERIPHYTON
I
II
Low
Medium to
large
cobble
Cladophora.
Spi roqyra.
dense mats
nr
in
Low to
moderate
Medium to
large
cobble
Cladophora.
Spirogyra,
sparse mats
IV
Low
Medium to
small cobble
Mostoc»
sparse
Cladophora
V
Moderate
Medium
cobble
Mostoc,
sparse
Cladophora
VI
Moderate to
Heavy
Bedrock with
medium cobble
Heavy
Nostoc
VII
Heavy
Medium cobble
and sand
Heavy
Nostoc
D-42
-------
c
«
E
£
3
(/>
->
{« f
o
s-
X3
c
£
lO
•I—
u
o
«/>
to
<
n w
If) ID N SB
• • • •
A)|jei|ui|S
0>
CO
CO
o
0»
t-
3
13)
D-43
-------
Figure D34. Fall-Winter Benthic Macroinvertebrate Abundances
| II III I I IV
Choroterpes albiannulata
Paraleptophlebia debilis
Leptophlebia sp.
Baetis trlcaudatus
Stenonema reesi
Rhithrogena hageni
Ephemerella margarita
Tricorythodes sp.
Tricorythodes minutus
Ophiogomphus morrisoni
Argia vivida
Strophopteryx fasciata
D-44
-------
I
i
Paraleuctra sara
Capnia limata
Isogenoides modestus
Isogenoides frontalis
Acroneuria abnormfs
Cataclysta sp.
Cheumatopsyche sp.
Hydropsyche bifida
Hydropsyche sp. a
HydropsyChe occidental is
D-45
-------
Figure D34 (cont.)
Hydropsyche sp. b
Hydropsyche sp. c
Brachycentrus numerosus
Brachycentrus americanus
Athripsodes sp.
Leptocella sp.
Laccoblus sp.
Stenelmis sp. a
Stenelmis sp. b
Simulium sp.
Metriocnemus sp.
Atherix sp.
-------
Figure D34 (cont.)
Ferrlsla rivularis
Physa gyrina
El 11ptio sp.
Sphaerlum simile
-------
Figure D35. Summer Benthic Macroinvertebrate Abundances
I II III IV v
Baetis tricaudatus
Baetis sp. b
Baetis alexanderi
Lachlania powelli
Rhithrogena hageni
Stenonema reesi
Heptagenia solitaria
Choroterpes albiannulata
Traverella albertana
EphemereUa hystrix
Tricorythodes minutus
D-48
-------
Figure D35 (cont.)
Ephoron album
Argia vlvida
Ophiogomphus morrisoni
Isogenoldes frontalis
Acroneurla abnormls
Graptocorlxa sp.
Cheumatopsyche sp.
Hydropsyche sp. a
Hydropsyche occidentalIs
Hydropsyche sp. b
Hydropsyche sp. c
Hydropsyche bifida
Hydroptlla sp.
Athripsodes sp.
-------
Figure D35 (cont.)
Leptocella sp.
Brachycentrus americanus
Simulium sp.
Metriocnemus sp.
Stenelmls sp. a
(adult)
(larvae)
Stenelmls sp. b
(adult)
(larvae)
Dubiraphla sp.
Duqesia tigrina
Lumbricus sp.
Ferrisia rivularis
-------
Figure D35 (cont.)
Physa gyrina
Lymnea sp.
Sphaerium simile
Pisidfum compressum
Lampsilis radiata
(slllquoidea)
-------
causes a marked decrease in the number of invertebrate species. Most organ-
isms live best in a situation of thermal flux which synchronizes the life
cycle and stimulates growth of insect instars. This information is supported
by work on the mayflies by Ide (1935) and more recently by Trottier (1971) on
the effects of temperature on the life-cycle of dragonflies.
Ward (1974) found that the South Platte River, in Colorado, was typical
in its responses to hypolimnion srain from the Cheesman Dam. Benthic algae
increased in the cold water section through a combination of decreased tur-
bidity, increased nutrients, increased flow constancy, and decreased bank
and bed erosion. Filamentous chlorophytes were especially enhanced. Although
densities of some invertebrates may increase below a reservoir, diversity is
markedly decreased and increases slowly downstream. Ward also predicted that
those species able to survive and mate under low temperature condition, and
adjusted to depend on photoperiod and endogenous rhythms to avoid winter emer-
gence, are those species most likely to be dominant in this area. In addition.
Ward suggests that these are unstable communities within which a relatively
minor biotic or abiotic change would produce great changes in community struc-
ture.
Lemkuhl (1972), in studies of the Saskatchewan River, has found that dia-
pause eggs, which require temperature fluctuations to hatch, will hot hatch
in areas influenced by hypolimnial release. Fifteen species of mayflies
were found above the reservoir, and none in the thermally altered area below
the hypolimnial release. Due to constant temperature, four criteria were not
met: 1.) the necessity of freezing temperatures to break egg diapause; 2.)
a rapid fluctuation from freezing to higher temperatures to induce hatching
in some species; 3.) the requirement of a minimum temperature over a given
period of time to stimulate nymph maturation; and 4.) a certain number of
degree days at high temperatures for emergence to take place. The inference
D-52
-------
is made that non-mayfly aquatic insects, which often have similar requirements,
are eliminated from these areas for the same reasons. Spence and Hynes (1971)
have also found that lowered temperatures cause the increase in growth and
abundance of periphyton (by reduing the number of grazers), which leads to a
radical alteration of the substrate. This eliminates many substrate specific
organisms and increases the number of available microhabitats for those spe-
cies which would be less abundant under normal conditions. Spence and Hynes
argue that the effects of a hypolimnial release changes the benthos in the
same way as mild organic pollution.
Pearson, Kramer, and Franklin (1968) and Ward (1974) found that with
increasing distance from the dam, atmospheric conditions and tributary waters
combine to return the river to its pre-impoundment state and the numbers of
invertebrate species increase. Depending on the discharge rate, the depth of
the hypolimnion, and the hydraulic geometry of the river, the hypolimnial ef-
fects Can extend to a distance of 150 km. below the reservoir.
Radford and Hartland-Rowe (1971), from their work on the Kananaskis River
1n Alberta, found that areas affected by hypolimnial release show low diversity
and densities of invertebrates. This situation continues into the uneffected
portions of the river where densities and diversity of invertebrates increases,
but is still substantially lower than in similar unimpounded rivers.
Hilsenhoff (1971), working on Mill Creek in Wisconsin, has found that
pre impoundment surveys showed diverse fauna of Ephemeroptera, Trivhoptera, Dip-
tera, and Coleoptera. After impoundment the community was almost completely
eliminated and replaced with Simuliidae and Chironomidae. Increases in total
phosphorus and nitrogen, as well as altered thermal regime, were the implied
causes for the change in community structure.
Isom (1969) and Bates (1962), in separate investigations on influences
of mainstream impoundments in the Tennessee Valley, have found a decline in
D-53
-------
mollusc diversity as a result of hypolimnial releases. Although the union-
icean clams were greatly reduced, the Lampsilinae and other smaller clams
persist and often make up the entire community in the area directly below
a hypolimnial drain reservoir. Trotzky and Gregory (1974) found the same
effects of hypolimnial discharge dams on woodland streams in Maine.
The Tongue River Reservoir dam has a hypolimnial discharge and the
biological situations described above are distinctly exhibited on the Tongue
River. In the area of the river affected by the hypolimnial discharge the
insect fauna is diminished and the dominant forms are the molluscs Physa qy-
rina and Sphaerium simile, along with the riffle beetle Stenelmis sp. b_.
Based on the collection point data (Table D4), the cold water area is also
an area of low turbidity and increased periphyton, as exemplified by the
dense mats of Cladophora. Stolier (1963) observed similar relationships be-
tween a hypolimnial dam release and Cladophora on the Marias River in Montana.
These dense mats of Cladophora apparently provide a tremendous increase in
the availability of suitable habitats for the riffle beetles, as large numbers
(up to 2250 individuals/m^) have been found inhabiting the dense mats of fil-
amentous algae. Open areas of small and medium cobble are, likewise, inhabited
by large numbers of Sphaerium and Physa (400 individuals/m^).
Elliott (1967) and Hynes (1970) have shown that there is a definite trend
for adults of the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera to fly upstream
for the purposes of oviposition. Although this event has not been investigated
on the Tongue River, it is a likely occurence. However, assuming that Lemkuhl's
hypotheses for the temperature requirements of diapause eggs is correct, the
eggs deposited in the cold water section of the river do not undergo sufficient
temperature fluctuations to break diapause. Thus, the insect larvae and nynpto.
except in the few cases mentioned previously, do not occur in the cold water
section and the insect eggs in this area probably remain in diapause until thftlr
D-54
-------
death. Where the original temperature regime is re-established (at III' and
downstream) the increase of the insect species is quite pronounced.
Van der Schalie (1973) has determined the temperature tolerances of many
pulmonate snails, in particular Physa gyrina. The animals fail to feed and
grow in areas where the mean water temperature is less than 4° C. In addition,
although growth is faster at temperatures above 24° C., this advantage is off-
set by greater survival and reproductive abilities at lower temperatures.
Although growth is possible at temperatures above 30° C., the organism will
not reproduce. Thus, the physid snails seem to thrive best in waters where
cool temperatures exist in the winter. These river conditions are reproduced
in the area of the Tongue River influenced by the hypollmnlal discharge. Be-
cause the higher summer temperatures of the middle river are not conducive to
mol 1uscan growth and reproduction and these greater temperature fluctuations
are conducive to proper insect development as well, Physa and Sphaerium are
diminished or eliminated and the dominant invertebrates are the hydropsychids
and Strophopteryx fasciata. In addition, the algal cover of Cladophora is
reduced (through increased grazing and chemical changes) and Nostoc is present.
Even though diversity has increased, due to a return to warm water condit-
ions of thermal flux and increased suspended and organic matter in the water
from tributary and irrigation flow, the communtiy may still be considered im-
poverished. Compared to invertebrate communities in a similar unimpounded
river, the Middle and Lower Yellowstone (Newell, 1975), the number of species
of invertebrates at any station on the Tongue River is considerably lower.
Although the environments are similar, the Influence of the hypolimnion dis-
charge is dominant.
Finally, as the river nears its junction with the Yellowstone River, a
third community 1s present. Increased turbidity causes the amount of avail-
able light to be reduced, and the abrasive action of suspended particles fouls
D-55
-------
many insect gills or causes alteration of the substrate to other than optimum
conditions (Hynes, 1970). Thus, in the area of the lower river, where turbid-
ity is high, the benthic fauna is dominated by Cheumatopsyche, which can take
advantage of the suspended matter in its feeding habits. The dominant algal
form in this area is Nostoc.
The Effect of Flow Reduction:
In order to reduce pressure on the Tongue River dam during a six week
period, the control gates were left open during the greater part of the spring
and summer of 1975 to drain the reservoir as much as possible. This continual
release of water from the reservoir did not allow complete formation of a hypo-
limnion layer. Water released during this period was observed to have temper-
atures only 1° or 2° C. cooler than at the mouth of the river at Miles City
(Figure D36). The release of water at these elevated temperatures eliminated
the cold water environment associated with the stretch of river below the dam.
The alteration of community structures can be seen in the dendrogram
(Figure D33) and kite-diagram (Figure D37). Warming of this section of the
river has apparently made it habitable to most of the insect species which are
commonly found in the upper warm water section. The dendrogram shows that site
III has become more closely associated with sites I and II. No clear dominant
can be discerned in the "cold" water area; however, the hydropsychids and
Stenelmis sp. b. are most abundant and the formerly dominant Physa and Sphaerlui
are considerably reduced.
There are two possible explanations for the new community composition In
the area. If the ideas of Lemkuhl (1972) are accepted and one assumes that
adults fly upstream to lay eggs, the change in thermal regime to that of greater
temperature fluctuations has probably allowed the hatching of diapause eggs,
and nymphal and larval development of many insects, which the formerly cooler
waters would not have allowed. The presence of individuals (in some samples)
D-56
-------
25
20
15
41 0
I 1
-------
which are obviously not first or second instar (that is, some individuals
close to emergence) precludes this idea as being the sole explanation.
Madsen, Bengtson, and Butz (1973) and Bishop and Hynes (1969) have
shown the evidence of positive rheotaxis in aquatic insects, through the up-
stream migration of virtually all larval and nymphal stages of all the major
groups of aquatic insects. Upstream migration is quite pronounced in the
Ephemeroptera (particularly Baetis), the Trichoptera, the Coleoptera, and
Diptera. Thus, the presence of many aquatic insects in this community seems
to be due to the hatching of diapause eggs, influenced by thermal changes 1n
the section, and the upstream migration of larval and nymphal forms to an
area which had been formerly uninhabitable, and acted as an apparent barrier
to upstream migration.
The lower part of the river, as shown by dendrogram (Figure D33), is no
longer divided into two distinct communities. The dominance and great abun-
dance of the two mayflies, Traverella albertana and Rhithrogena hageni, from
sample point IV downstream dampens the effect of changes in number or occurence
of the rarer species of aquatic insects. It should be noted as well, that the
lower part of the river is dominated almost exclusively by short-lived summer
species of mayflies which do not occur in the fall and winter samples.
D-58
-------
Figure D37. Distribution and Relative Abundance. Macroinvertebrates,
After Massive Flow Reduction.
Choroterpes albiannulata
Baetis tricaudatus
I II III iv
VI VII
Baetis alexanderi
Tricorythodes minutus
Rhithrogena hageni
Ephemerella margarita
Stenonema reesi
Ophiogomphus morrisoni
Argia vivida
Strophopteryx fasciata
Paraleuctra sara
Capnia limata
D-59
-------
Figure 037 (cont.)
Isogenoides frontalis
Acroneuria abnormls
Cataclysta sp.
Hydroptila sp.
Cheumatopsyche sp.
Hydropsyche bifida
Hydropsyche sp. a
Hydropsyche occidental is
Hydropsyche sp. b
Hydropsyche sp. c
Brachycentrus americanus
Athripsodes sp.
Leptocella sp.
Stenelmis sp. a
Stenelmis sp. b
Dubiraphia sp.
-------
Figure D37 (cont.)
Simullum sp.
Metrlocnemus sp.
Atherlx sp.
Physa gyrlna
Pisidlum compressum
Lampsllis radiata
(s1liquoidea)
Dugesia tlgrina
-------
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Spence, J.A. and H.B.N. Hynes. 1971, Differences in benthos upstream and
downstream of an impoundment. J_. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 28: 35-43.
Stolier, Q.J. 1963, Some limnological effects of Tiber Reservoir on the
Marias River, Montana. Mont. Acad, of Sci. 23: 111-137.
Thorup, J. 1966, Substrate type and its value as a basis for the delimin-
ation of the bottom fauna communities in running waters. Pymatuning
Lab. Ecol. Spec. Pub., No. 4, 59-74.
Trottier, R. 1971, Effect of temperature on the life cvcle of Anax junius
(Odonata: Aeshnidae) in Canada. Can. Ent. 103(12): 1671-1683.
Trotzky, H.M. and R.W. Gregory. 1974, The effects of water flow manipulation
below a hydroelectric power dam on the bottom fauna of the upper Kennebec
River, Maine. Tran. Am. Fish. Soc. 103(2): 318-324.
Ulfstrand, S. 1967, Microdistribution of benthic species (Ephemeroptera,
Plecoptera, Diptera: Simuliidae) in Lapland streams. Oikos. 18: 293-310.
1968, Benthic animal communities in Lapland streams. Oikos
Supplementum. 10: 120pp.
Van der Schalie, H. and E.G. Berry. 1973, Effects of temperature on growth
and reproduction of aquatic snails. Environmental Protection Agency,
Ecological Research Series, EPA-R3-021.
Wallace, O.B. 1975a, The larval retreat and food of Arctopsyche; with phy-
logenetic notes on feeding adaptations in Hydropsychidae larvae (Trichoptera)
Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 68(1): 167-173.
. 1975b, Food partitioning in net-spinning Trichoptera larvae:
Hydropsyche venularis, Cheumatopsyche etrona, and Macronema zebraturn
(Hydropsychidae). Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 68(3): 463-472.
0-65
-------
Ward, J.V. 1974, A temperature-stressed stream ecosystem below a hypolimnial
release mountain reservoir. Archiv fur Hydrobiologie. 74(2): 247-275.
Waters, T.F. 1962, A method to estimate the production rate of a stream
invertebrate. Tran. Am. Fish Soc. 91(3): 243-250.
. 1964, Recolonization of denuded stream bottom areas by drift.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 93(3): 311-315.
. 1965, Interpretation of invertebrate drift in streams.
Ecology. 49(1): 75-81.
. 1966, Production rate, population density, and drift of a
stream invertebrate. Ecology. 47(4): 595-604.
. 1972, The drift of stream insects. Ann. Rev. Ent. 17: 253-
TTT.
, and R.J. Knapp. 1961, An improved bottom fauna sampler. Trans.
Am. Fish. Soc. 90: 225-238.
Wene, 6. and F.I. Wickliff. 1940, Modification of a stream bottom and its
effect on the insect fauna. Can. Ent. 72: 131-135.
D-66
-------
APPENDIX E
HYDROLOGIC CONTOUR MAPS
SPAWNING CRITICAL AREA
1. Flow direction Is from left to right.
2. For easier Interpretation, depth contours are
indicated by vertical typeface. Velocity con-
tours are Indicated by slanting typeface.
3. Hatchered areas on contour maps Indicate isolated
areas of reduced depth or velocity, depending on
the type of map.
4. Dashed lines Indicate edge of water, either at
stream banks or on exposed bars.
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APPENDIX F
COMPOSITE MAPS
SPAWNING CRITICAL AREA
1. Flow direction 1s from left to right.
2. These maps Indicate areas meeting preferred con-
ditions of depth, velocity, and substrate, for
spawning shovelnose sturgeon.
3. For easier interpretation, depth contours are
Indicated by vertical typeface. Velocity con-
tours are indicated by slanting typeface.
4. Cross-hatched areas on composite maps indicate
areas which do not meet flow criteria for spawn-
ing shovelnose sturgeon. Only those stream
areas without cross-hatching meet flow criteria.
5. Dashed lines indicate water's edge, either at stream
banks or on exposed bars.
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APPENDIX G
HYDROLOGIC CONTOUR MAPS
EXPERIMENTAL CHANNEL SECTION
1. This experimental channel was located in a side
channel around a large island in the Viall Ranch
section. Flow was manipulated by a diversion
structure at the head of the island.
2. Direction of flow is from top of page to bottom.
3. For easier interpretation, depth contours are
indicated by vertical typeface. Velocity con-
tours are indicated by slanting typeface.
4. Hatchered areas on contour maps indicate isolated
areas of reduced depth of velocity, depending on
the type of map.
5. Dashed lines indicate edge of water, either at
stream banks or on exposed bars.
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Figure G-ll: Depth Contour Map for Riffle #2 of the Experimental
Channel Section. Depths 1n cm. Experimental Dis-
charge: 2.12 cms.
G-ll
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5 Meters
Figure 6-12: Velocity Contour
Channel Section.
Discharge: 2.12
Map for Riffle §2 of the Experimental
Velocities in cm./sec. Experimental
cms.
G-12
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5 Meters
23; Depth Contour Hap for Riffle #2 of the Experimental
Channel Section. Depths In cm. Experimental Dis-
charge: 1.47 cms.
G-13
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5 Meters
Figure G-14: Velocity Contour Map for Riffle #2 of the Experimental
Channel Section. Velocities in cm./sec. Experimental
Discharge: 1.47 cms.
6-14
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5 Meters
Figure G-15: Depth Contour Map for Riffle #2 of the Experimental
Channel Section. Depths In cm. Experimental Dis-
charge: 1.33 cms.
G-15
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G-16
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5 Meters
Figure G-17: Depth Contour Map for Riffle K of tl* ExperlnenUI
Channel Section. Depths 1n cm. Experinenul 01s-
charge: 1.08 cms.
G-17
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I 1
5 Meters
Figure 6-18: Velocity Contour Hap for Riffle #2 of the Experimental
Channel Section. Velocities in cm./sec. Experimental
Discharge: 1.08 cms.
G-18
-------
APPENDIX H
COMPOSITE MAPS
EXPERIMENTAL CHANNEL SECTION
1. This experimental channel was located in a side
channel around a large island in the Viall Ranch
section. Flow was manipulated by a diversion
structure at the head of the Island.
2. Direction of flow 1s from top of page to bottom.
3. For easier interpretation, depth contours are
indicated by vertical typeface. Velocity con-
tours are indicated by slanting typeface.
4. Cross-hatched areas on composite maps indicate
areas which do not meet flow criteria for the
stonecat. Only those stream areas without
cross-hatching meet flow criteria.
5. Dashed lines Indicate water's edge, either at
banks or on exposed bars.
-------
5 Meters
Area not meeting depth criteria
Area not mee
ting velocity criteria
Figure H-l: Composite Map for Riffle #1 of the Experimental Channel
Section, Showing Areas Meeting Flow Criteria for the
Stonecat. Experimental Discharge: 4.70 cms. Area
Meeting Criteria: 163 square^meters.
H-l
-------
I 1
5 Meters
Area not meeting depth criteria
Area not meeting velocity criteria
figure H-2: Composite Map for Riffle #1 of the Experimental Channel
Section, Showing Areas Meeting Flow Criteria for the
Stonecat. Experimental Discharge; 2.12 cms. Area
Meeting Criteria: 72 square meters.
H-2
-------
I 1
5 Meters
Area not meeting depth criteria
Area not meeting velocity criteria
Fiqure H-3: Composite Map for Riffle #1 of the Experimental Channel
Secttdns Showing Areas Meeting Flow Criteria for the
Stonecat. Experimental Discharge: 1.58 cms. Area
Meeting Criteria: 59 square meters.
H-3
-------
5 Meters
Area not meeting depth criteria
Area not meeting velocity criteria
Figure H-4: Composite Map for Riffle #1 of the Experimental Channel
Section* Showing Areas Meeting Flow Criteria for the
Stonecat. Experimental Discharge: 1.27 cms. Area
Meeting Criteria: 39 squarf meters.
H-4
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h »
5 Meters
Area not meeting depth criteria
Area not meetinfl velocity criteria
Figure H-5: Composite Map for Riffle #1 of the Experimental Channel
Section, Showing Areas Meeting Flow Criteria for the
Stonecat. Experimental Discharge; 1.07 cms. Area
Meeting Criteria: 27 square meters.
H-5
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I I
5 Meters
Area not meeting depth criteria
Area not meeting velocity criteria
figure H-6: Composite Map for Riffle #2 of the Experimental Channel
Section, Showing Areas meeting Flow Criteria for the
Stonecat. Experimental Discharge: 2.12 cms. Area
Meeting Criteria: 36 square meters.
H-6
-------
I 1
5 Meters
Area not meeting depth criteria
Area not meeting velocity criteria
Figure H-7: Composite Map for Riffle #2 of the Experimental Chanctel
Section, Showing Areas Meeting Flow Criteria for the
Stonecat. Experimental Discharge: 1.58 cms. Area
Meeting Criteria: 53 square meters.
H-7
-------
5 Meters
Area not meeting depth criteria
Area not meeting velocity criteria
p1gure H-8: Composite Map for Riffle #2 of the Experimental Channel
Section, Showing Areas Meeting Flow Criteria for the
Stonecat. Experimental Discharge: 1.33 cms. Area
Meeting Criteria: 60 square meters.
H-8
-------
I —
5 Meters
Area not meeting depth criteria
Area not meeting velocity criteria
Figure H-9: Composite Map for Riffle #2 of the Experimental Channel
Section, Showing Areas Meeting Flow Criteria for the
Stonecat. Experimental Discharge: 1.07 cms. Area
Meeting Criteria: 11 square meters.
H-9
-------
APPENDIX I
ICE FORMATION CROSS SECTIONAL DIAGRAMS
1. Cross hatched areas indicate surface
ice sheet
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APPENDIX J
VEGETATION MAPS OF TONGUE RIVER FLOODPLAIN
LEGEND
100% Cover
90% Cover
75% Cover
50% Cover
25% Cover
10% Cover
0% Cover
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APPENDIX K
SEDIMENT-DISCHARGE RATING CURVES
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DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
Figure K-l: Total Suspended Sediment Concentration Curve for the Ft.
Keogh Section, Tongue River, Montana.
K-l
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DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
Figure K-2: Concentration of Particles Smaller than 62 Microns (Silt-
tana ction) as SusPended Load, Ft. Keogh Section, Tongue River, Mon-
K-2
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DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
Figure K-3: Concentration of Particles Larger than 62 Microns (Sand Frac-
tion) as Suspended Load, Ft. Keogh Section, Tongue River, Montana.
K-3
-------
DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
Figure K-4: Total Suspended Sediment Load Curve for the Ft. Keogh Sec-
tion, Tongue River, Montana.
-------
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DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
Figure K-5: Total Suspended Load Curve for Particles Smaller than 62
Microns (Silt-Clay Fraction) for the Ft. Keogh Section, Tongue River,
Montana.
K-5
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DISCHARGE IN
Figure K-6: Suspended Load Curve
(Sand Fraction) for the Ft. Keogh
CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
for Particles Larger than 62 Microns
Section, Tongue River, Montana.
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Figure K-7: Total Sediment Bedload Curve for the Ft. Keogh Section,
Tongue River, Montana.
K-7
-------
1000
500
200
100
50
20
10
Figure
the Ft
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; •
-------
DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
Figure K-9: Movement of Medium Sand (250 to 500 Microns) as Bedload in
the Ft. Keogh Section, Tongue River, Montana.
K-9
-------
DISCHARGE II
Figure K-10: Movement of Coarse
in the Ft. Keogh Section, Tongue
CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
Sand (500 to 1000 Microns) as Bedload
River, Montana.
K-10
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DISCHARGE IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
Figure K-13: Movement of Coarse Gravel (4 to 8 mm) as Bedload in the
Ft. Keogh Section, Tongue River, Montana.
K-13
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