Bibliography
NCN-BEGULATORY APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
September, 1977

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NON-REGULATORY APPROACHES
ANDERSON, Fred, et. al. Environmental Charges; Economic, Technical, Legal and
Political Aspects. [Washington, National Academy of Engineering, Committee
on Public Engineering Policy], September 1977. 241 p. (Draft report).
"This book gives an integrated evaluation of the charges approach,
beginning with the theoretical underpinning already supplied by eco-
nomic analysis, but then moves on to consider technical feasibility,
legal foundations and pitfalls, and the political factors affecting
programs which legislatures could enact."
Council on Law-Related Studies. Effluent Charges on Air and Water Pollution:
A, Conference Report. Washington, Oct. 15-16, 1971. Washington, Environ-
mental Law Institute, 1973. 102. p. (ELI Monograph Series 1).
"The conference examined such questions as (1) can effluent charges
usefully supplement, or must they replace, direct regulation? (2) on
what and on whom should charges be levied, how will their levels be
determined, and should they be uniform or variable? (3) what institu-
tions are needed to administer them and what costs, especially of infor-
mation-gathering and monitoring, would they entail? The participants
examined such issues by reference to a dozen concrete plans or proposals
for charges. There were five sessions, devoted, respectively, to State-
wide charges as supplements to existing water quality regulations, basin-
wide effluent charges and alternative low-cost strategies, Federal excise
taxes on lead in gasoline and on automobiles emitting pollutants."
FISHER, A.C., and F.M. Peterson. The Environment in Economics: A Survey.
Journal of Economic Literature, 1(1): 1-33, March 1976.
"The authors have reviewed several theories/policies concerning the im-
portance of extractive resources vs. the importance of those amenity
services derived from the environment. One compromise suggested would
be a combined effluent tax and standard that would be as efficient as
a pure tax solution and,also more politically palatable."
IRWIN, W.A., and R.A. Liroff [Environmental Law Institute]. Economic Disincen-
tives for Pollution Control: Legal, Political and Administrative Dimensions.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, July 1974. 257 p. (Distributed by
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. as PB-239 340).
"This report defines an economic disincentive as a monetary charge levied
by government on conduct which is not illegal but which does impose social
costs, for the principal purpose of discouraging the conduct. Disincen-
tives are distinguished from other legal mechanisms which may have incider*-
tal economic effects, e.g., fines, user charges, and license fees. The
constitutionality of federal or state imposition of disincentives is
examined and the authority of the U.S. Envrionmental Protection Agency

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eiVi th<» phates ta utilize disincentives under selected federal environ-
mental statutes is analyzed. The legality of some disincentives adopted
by states is discussed. The charges imposed by several European coun-
tries are described and distinguished from disincentives. The history
of some previous proposals for federal disincentives is reviewed and
suggestions for additional disincentives which might be feasible are
offered."
KNEESE, A.V., and C.L. Schultze. Pollution, Prices and Public Policy. Wash-
ington, Brookings Institution^ 1975. 125 p.
LUMB, H.C. Fallacies of a Pollution Tax. Industrial Water Engineering,
8(4):15, April 1971.
MCCIXDSKEY, M. and J. Hlllis. Economic Deterrents, Penalizing Polluters -
Part I. Sierra Club Bulletin, 56(9):9-12. November 1, 1971.
MGSS, L.I. The Emission Tax, Penalizing Polluters - Part II. Sierra Club
Bulletin, 56 (9) :12—JL3. November 1971.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Pollution Charges;
An Assessment. Paris, 1976.
"The object of this study is to see whether the regulatory anchtax-
approaches can be made to complement each other rather than conflict.
The present study, based mainly on the analysis of concrete cases, aims
at being at the same time analytical and prescriptive by presenting a
detailed assessment of already implemented charge systems and a nuiriber
of proposals for the extension of the use of charges."
U.S. Congress. Pollution Taxes, Effluent Charges, and Other Alternatives
for Pollution Control. Prepared for Senator Ed Muskie by the Ccmnittee
on Environment and Public Works. May 1977.

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BACKGROUND LITERATURE
ALEXANDER, Tom. If We Persist on the Present Regulatory Paths, Costs Will
Outweigh Benefits and, Oddly Enough, the Environment May Get Dirtier.
Fortune, November 1976, pp. 129-131, 230-234.
"Far from attaining a state of ultimate grace, society is having trouble
even achieving the short-range goals established by'existing laws. At
least half the nation's designated air-quality regions are violating the
minimum standards they were to have met in 1975, and it now appears that
some major cities may never be in compliance..- And as for the harassed
Environmental Protection Agency that is supposed to be enforcing the law,
there's little it can do about many of these violations except to pretend
they're not happening.... It's hard to escape the conclusion that there's
got to be a better way. Many economists have been proposing that we
harness market forces to serve environmental ends... The regulatory
approach provides no incentive to reduce pollution beyond the mandated
standards. In theory at least, effluent charges would provide incentive
all the way to zero."
"Regid standards and timetables for pollution abatement that off time
cannot be met by industries and could eventually lead to greater amounts
of pollution. Since it appears that overtime the benefits of pollution
abatement may not exceed the costs, the author favors the imposition of
a tax or effluent charge on every polluter according to the amount and
relative harmfulness of the discharges. This method could also direct
greater attention to conserving, reusing, and recycling resources to re-
duce reliance on energy-consuming, pollution-producing methods of control".
BAUMQL, E., and J. Oates. The Instruments For Environmental Policy. Presented
at Conference of Environment, November 1972. (Unpublished Draft).
"With the objective, the realization of a set of specified standards
of environmental quality, Baumon and Oates have shewn elsewhere that,
assuming cost-minimizing (not necessarily profit-maximizing) behavior
by producers, effluent ..charges are the least-cost method of attaining
the target: the prtJpec-effluent fee will generate through private
decisions to set off activity levels which imposes the lowest costs on
society. One problem with an effluent charge scheme is the high monitor-
ing or metering costs. It is also pointed out that under oligopoly or
monopoly, taxes on pollutive activities may fail to do their job with
full effectiveness."
"The article cites a few cases of the use of effluent fees for environ-
mental protection (refers to other authors). Also cited are two studies
of industrial responsiveness to sewerage fees."

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BAUMOL, W.J., and W.E. Oates. Economics, Environmental Policy, and the
Quality of Life. June 1977.
BINIEK, J.B. Pollution Taxes, Effluent Charges, and Other Alternatives for
Pollution Control. Issue Brief No. IB77009. Washington, Library of
Congress, Congressional Research Service, February 1977. 9 p.
BOWER, B.T., C.N. Ehler, and A.V. Kneese. A Context for Choosing Implemen-
tation Incentives for Environment! Quality Management. Envirnnmpnt-ai
Conment. January 1977. Pp. 5-10.
"This article is intended to address sane of the basic issues of
identifying and selecting incentives, both positive and negative, for
the implementation of environmental quality management plans."
Committee for Economic Development, Research and Policy Coircnittee. More
Effective Programs for a Cleaner Environment; A Statement on National
Policy. New Yorkt April 1974. 85 p.
DORFMAN, N.S., AND A. Snow. Who Will Pay for Pollution Control? - The
Distribution by Income of the Burden of the National Environmental
Protection Program, 1972-1980. National Tax Journal, 28(1):101-115,
March 1975.
DOWNING, P.B., and W.D. Watson, Jr. The Economics of Enforcing Air Pollution
Controls. Journal of Environmental Economics 1, Pp. 219-236. 1974.
"The goal of this paper is to determine the likely effect on a fimfs
control actions of alternative implementation and enforcement, policies
available to the control agency. Three alternatives are studied, legal
enforcement through the new source performance standards set forth by
EPA, and two effluent fee enforcement alternatives. First, a general-
ized model of the effects of implementation and enforcement policies
on the firm's control actions is developed. The model is then applied
to the case of particulate matter discharges from coal-fired power
plants in order to estimate empirically the effects of policy alterna-
tives on the firm's control efforts.
EfiLER and Bower. Implementation Incentives for Environmental Quality Manage-
ment. Preliminary Outline for Background Paper on Concepts and Issues.
FREEMAN-III., A.M. and R.H. Haveman. Residuals Charges for Pollution Control:
A Policy Evaluation. Science, 177(4045):322-329. July 28, 1972.
"Freeman and Haveman attempt to clarify sane of the misconceptions
concerning the efficiency, feasibility, and effectiveness of residuals
charges. The residuals charge strategy is compared to the regulation-
enforcement strategy in discussing the rationale for the residuals

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charge approach to environmental management (describing its economic
logic and explaining how it would work in practice) and in addressing
misconceptions regarding residuals charges; i.e., the belief that
charges can be implemented only if the magnitudes of the damages are
known in terms of dollars, the belief that residuals charges are
licenses to pollute, that charges hinder industrial abatement, that
charges are similar to user charges. Other topics touched upon are
pollution control costs, regulation and inflation, and market power.
An environmental strategy which minimizes its reliance on regulation-
enforcement and which emphasizes the use of economic incentives should
be further probed as an alternative to the problem-iaden regulation,
approach now being used for environmental regulation. The strategy
of residuals charges is the alternative preferred by the authors."
GRESSER, J. The 1973 Japanese Law for the Compensation of Pollution-Related
Health Damage; An Introductory Assessment. Environmental Law Reporter,
5:50229t5Q251, December 1975.
"Some major provisions of the Act include (1) examination of pollution
victims by a special Health Damage Certification"Council; (2) polluters
pay the entire costs of victim assistance; and (3) establishes an admini
strative structure to oversee compensation payments."
GRESSER, J., A. Morishima, and K. Fujikura. The Law for the Compensation of
Pollution Related Disease; An Assessment of the First Two Years of Imple-
mentation; Interim Report. Cambridge, Harvard Law School. 1976. 40 p.
(Unpublished Reports.
MIEDEMA, A.K., and T.H. Bingham. On Taxation and the Control of Externalities:
Comment and Counter-Proposal. Research Triangle Park, N.C., Research
Triangle Institute. 19 p. (Draft).
"Emission taxes would have to be adjusted not only for locatioial differ-
ences among emitters, but also for temporal differences in the production
of emissions. In a world of zero transactions costs, however, emission
taxes could be an optimal policy—from an allocative efficiency perspective
Inclusion of transactions costs in considering total resource costs,- how-
ever, indicates that optimal emission charges would be expensive to admini-
ster... The presence of transactions costs makes an emission charge less
cost-effective than an alternative specification of an emission rights
system that retains the welfare optima developed... for emission charges
but avoids the substantial transactions costs associated with emission
charges."
"Although both authors generally agree with the proposal that emission
tax rates should vary spatially, they argue that the time distribution
of emissions and the transaction costs involved should be considered at
least as important."

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Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Paying to Pollute.
Environment, 18(5):16-20. June 1976.
"France, Norway, Germany, and the Netherlands are experimenting with one
of the most effective policy instruments in the fight against pollution
Pollution Charges."
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. The Polluter Pays
Principle: Definition, Analysis, Implementation. Paris 1975. 20 p.
a/sc^tt
PEED, P.D. The Use of Economic Disincentives in Environmental- Quality
Management-. July 1, 1976.
"This paper discusses the economic causes of pollution, a variety of
economics-based responses, and some ways in which EPA could implement
economics-based approaches."
RENSHAW, E.F. - Pollution Taxes: Political Realities May Require Rebates.
Tax Notes, 4(42):3-4r Pp. 10-14. October 18, 1976.
"A possible solution to gaining congressional approval of pollution taxes
would be to insure that no pollution should be costless to the polluter,
e.g., a recycling of the taxes in the form of rebates to the polluter.0
RUFF, L.E. The Economic Common Sense of Pollution. The Public Interest,
19:69-85, Spring 1970.
"Although there are noneconomic aspects of pollution, pollution is an
economic problem which must be understood and dealt with in economic
terms."
SCHUUTZE, C.L. The Public Use of Private Interest. Harper's Magazine.
Volume 254, No. 1524~ May 1977. Pp. 43-62.
"The rash of new regulatory mechanisms established in recent years — for
pollution control ... - have begun to generate resentment against ex—
cessive red tape. Conservatives argue that recently adopted social in-
terventions have been a.mistake while the liberal wrong in the recent
trend of interventionism.
T^x Foundation, Inc. Pollution Control: Perspectives on the Government
Role. New York. 1971. 46 p.
"The study discusses the pros and cons of various fiscal proposals to
deal with the pollution problem, as well as technical, political, and
economic difficulties faced in setting optimum control standards...
The study brings together a number of cost estimates to provide a general
view of the magnitude of dollar amounts involved in making specified
improvements."

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TULDQCK, G. Excess Benefit. Water Resources Research, 3(2):643-644, 2d
Quarter 1967.
"After reviewing various literature on the econimic basis for effluent
charges, Mr. Tullock discovered that one important aspect of that eco-
nomic base has been virtually ignored — that governments need money
and the return from charges on externalities is a- passible source of
such funds."
TYBOUT, R.A. Pricing of Pollution. The Bell journal of Economics and .
Management Science, 3(1):252—66. Spring 1972.
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Operations. Views of the
Governors on Tax Incentives and Effluent Charges. H. Rept. No. 1330.
Union Calendar No. 567. March 15, 1966, 89th Congress, 2d Session.
Washington, U.W. Government Printing Office, 1966.
WEIDMAN, J. An Introduction to the Effluent Charge Approch. March 30, 1977.
"There is no turnning back the clock for thosepeoples tned to the finer
pleasures of a higher standard living. It would be nonsensical to ex-
pect factories to shut down, candles to replace lightbulbs, and people
to stop driving just so we could all breath easier. Therefore, to com-
bat the problem our country has set up a system of regulation-enforcement,
which, dispite its intentions, has to the greater extent failed. In the
paper, a workable alternative, to regulation is explored. One which will
effectively cope with the complexities and problems of pollution control."
WHITAKER, J.C. Striking a Balance; Environment and Natural Resources Policy
in the Nixon-Ford Years. Washington, American Enterprise Institute for
Public Policy Research, 1976. 344p (AEI-Hoover Policy Studies? 21)
(Hoover Institution Studies; 57).
"The evolution of environmental policy from Gifford Pinchot (sometimes
known as the father of the conservation movement) to the Nixon-Ford era."
WHITE, L.J. Effluent Charges as a Faster Means of Achieving Pollution Abate-
ment. Public Policy, v._ 24..Winter 1976. Pp. 111-125.
"Argues that economics should be supporting pricing schemes as such schemes
will bring about abatement faster(in addition to being more efficient than
existing policies)."

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LAW-RELATED LITERATURE
HOCK, J. Constitutional Considerations Associated With Pollution Taxes,
Natural Resources Lawyer, 7(1):97-135. Winter 1974.
LEE, R.A., A History of Regulatory Taxation. Chapter lr Police Power-and
the Taxing Power. The University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1573.
"Discusses the shift, of the Federal Government from laissez-faire-policy
to interventionist, regulatory policy in the early-20th century, and
the subsequent increased taxing power of Congress. Lee shows the flexi-
bility with which the Supreme Court has interpreted the Constitution,
allowing for these changes."
LXMAN, S.R. The Constitutionality of Effluent Charges. University of Wisconsin,
Water Resources Center, May 1969.
"A detailed analysis of the constitutionality of both State and Federal
effluent charge systems. The author has completed an exhaustive study
of cases having, a potential bearing on the issue of the legality of
effluent charges. He concludes that if the enabling legislation clearly
spefifies that the action is being taken under Congress's power to
regulbte commerce, or a States right to protect the health, safety and
welfare of its citzens, it should be constitutional."
MARSHALL, D. Environmental Protection and"the Role of the Civil Money Penalty:
Some Practical and Legal Considerations. Environmental Affairs, Spring 1975-
"This is a review of legal and administrative literature aimed at making
a case for civil penalties."
"The article begins with a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses
of various enforcement tools: private damage suits, emission charges,
injunctions, criminal sanctions and civil penalties. Emission charges
are attacked on technical grounds (inability to measure environmental
damage; don't know what it takes to neutralize pollution's effect).
In the discussion of eitfil penalties he distinguishes them from "emis-
sion deterrence charges" (which seem to be like the Connecticut abate-
ment charges). He admits that one can be used as effectively as the
other. However,, he sees his conception of a civil penalty as being
superior because it (1) considers more factors (firms ability to pay,
actual damage to the envrionment), and (2) is more direct."
"He then makes the argument for the administrative imposition of such
sanctions (relying heavily on Goldschmidt). He discusses the constitu-
tional issues surrounding civil penalties: separation of
powers and the civil/criminal debate."
NAGEL, Stuart, S. Incentives for Compliance with Environmental Law.
American Behavioral Scientist, v. 17, May-June 1974. Pp. 690—710.

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"The compliance incentives discussed in this paper include: CI) discharge
taxes or fees, (2) contingent injunctions, (3) tax rewards and subsidies,
(4) objective civil penalties, {5) publicizing wrongdoers, (6) selective
government buying power, (7) fines and jail sentences, and (8) conference,
persuasion."
KiORDAtf, C. - The policy and Legal Aspects of Pollution Taxes. Termpaper.
July 8, 1976. ~33p.

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WATER RELATED
ABT Associates, Inc. Economic Analysis of Industrial Incentives foe Pollution
Control; Implications for Water Quality. Washington, Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Administration, December 1967.
ACKERMAN, B.A., S.R. Ackerman, and-D.W. Henderson. The Uncertain Search For
Environmental Policy: .the Costs and Benefits of Controlling Pollution _
Along the Delaware River. University of Pennsylvania"Law Review, 121(6)!
1226-1308, June 1973.
"A substantive critique of water pollution policy with consideration
given to the inherent limitations of the economises analysis of the
issue of environmental degradation. This is the second in a series
of articles by the author examining the scientific and economic foun-
dations of water pollution policy as it is presently evolving in the
United States."
ACKERMAN, B.A., et. al. The Uncertain Search for Environmental Quality.
New York, The Free Press, 1974.
"The authors take" a look at a model regional agency, the Delaware
River Basin Conmission, and its attempt to adopt a massive pollution
control program for the Delaware River."
ACKERMAN, S.R. , Effluent Charges; A Critique. Canadian Journal of Economics,
6(4}:512-528, November 1973.
ARMSTRONG, J.M. Regional Economic Optimization and Efffuent Charge Theory
in Water Resources Utlization. Ph.d. Dissertation, Univ. of Michigan, 1969.
BROWN, G.M., Jr. Effluenmt Charges; A Discussion Paper. Prepared for the
National Conmission on Water Quality. Seattle, University of Washington,
Institute for Economic Research, August 1975. 27p. (unpublished Report)
BUFKE, H. A Single Rate For Water; Can a Rate Structure Effectively Aid
Conservation? Public Interest Economics West (1), May 1977- San Francisco.
COMMINS, J.A. C.R. Marshall, and A. Stapler. Financial Alternatives to
Reduce the Economic Impact of Industrial Water Pollution Control. Wash-
ington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, July 10, 1975. 94p. (unpublished Report)..
"To help industry bear the financial burden imnposed by the FWPCA, this
report investigates various financial assistance methods (alternatives
and subsidies) the Federal government now uses or might use in the

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MARSHALL, H.E., and R.T. Ruegg [National Bureau of Standards]. Analysis
of Cost-Sharing Programs For Pollution Abatement of Municipal Waste-
Water; final report. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office-of
Research and Development, November 1974. 147 p. (Distributed by Nation-
al Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va., as PB 239 42Q.i
"Tms study evaluates existing cost-sharing programs for wastewater
pollution abatement and emphasizes an"alternative approach. The"
alternative stresses that more efficient abatement will result if
(1)	the same percentage cost share applies to all plant and non-
plant techniques of abatement; (2) the same percentage applies to
all categories of cost; (3) the same percentage applies to large
arid small corrmunities; and "(4) provision for Federal cost sharing
of every abatement technique that is technically viable."
Maryland. General Assembly. An Act to Establish Resource Utilization Charges
On Water Withdrawals in the State of Maryland. 2d Draft. Annapolis,
September 20, 1974. 9 p.
MILLER, W.L. and J.H. Gill. Equity Considerations In Controlling Non-Point
Pollution From Agricultural Sources. Water Resources Bulletin, 12(2):253-
261, April.1976.
PESKIN, H.M., and E.P. Seskin. Cost Benefit Analysis and Water ^Pollution"
Policy. The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C. 1975. 370 p.
"as cost-benefit analysis is a formal procedure for comparing the
costs and benefits of alternative policies, the 19 contributing
authors of this book have banded together to seek (1) the theore-
tical and applied issues relating to the measurement of benefits?
(2)	similar material pertaining to the assessment of costs; (3)
aspects of uncertainty which are relevant to cost-benefit analysis;
and (4) how the specific technique of-cost-benefit analysis relates
to the broader area,of public policy."
— n\ i V-T	T
ROSE-ACKERMAN, S. 'Market Models for Pollution Control; Their Strengths
and Weaknesses. Paper prepared for the National Ccaimission on Water
Quality. New Haven,_Yale University Department of Economics, September
1975. 24 p., app. (Unpublished Report).
"Given the high cost of pollution control this paper advocates not
an effluent charge scheme but proposes a pollution rights scheme
under which dischargers would bid for the right to emit wastes to the
extent permitted under the 1972 Amendments to the FWPCA."

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future. To analyze the operation and effects of these alternatives
should lead to better ways to achieve financial goals."
DECKER, C.T. Rate Surcharges: Friend or Foe? Water and Wastes Engineering,
8(11):F2-F4. November 1971.
"Before industry "makes any decision on a pollution abatement program,
it could be detrimental not--to include a detailed study on the current-
economics of pretreatment."
DELUCIA, R.J. AN EVALUATION OF Marketable Effluent Permit Systems. (Meta
Systems, Inc.). Final report. U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Develop--
men, Sept. 1974. 363p. (Distributed by National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, Va. as PB 239 428).
"This report is a study; of the practical problems and prospects of
using marketable effluent permits as one method of implementing the
1972 Amendments (to the Federal Pollution Control Act). Perhaps the
strongest argument in favor of the use of a market in discharge rights
is that the economises allegations concerning the working of the
marketplace remain untested in pollution control in the United States,
while many other ideas have been tried and found wanting."
Economic Corrsnission for Europe, Committee on Water Problems. Principles
and Methods for the Provision of Economic Incentives in Water Supply
and Wastes Water Disposal Systems (including the fixing of charges).
ECE/Viater/16. New York, United Nations, 1976. 25p
ELLIOTT, Ward. VMT Disincentive Choices for the Los Angeles Basin. ^Political
Science Department, Claremont Men's Colleage. Clarement, California. „j6 p?v.
"Mr. Ward feels that in .light of current transportation problems, nuie
planning attention need be given to three strong disincentives - fuel
rationing, fuel surcharges, and metered smog and congestion charges."
KNEESE, A.V. The Case fo Effluent Charges As Part of a National Environ-
mental Program. Prepared for the National Commission on Water Quality.
August 1975.
KNEESE, A.V., and B.T. Bower. Environmental Quality Analysis: Theory and
Method in the Social Sciences. Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins Press, for
Resources for the Future, Inc., 1972.
MAR, B.W. A System of Waste Discharge Rights for the Management of Water
Quality. Water Resources Research, 7(5):1079-1086, October 1971.
"As indicated in this paper a system of marketable rights can (1) simplify
the problems in existing management systems of new discharger entry into
a region, (2) incorporate the effluent charge system and the management
approach, and (3) provide a mechanism for government or the private sector
to adjust the quality of water without creating serious economic penalties
for other parties discharging wastes."

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SEAGRAVES, J.A. Puzzled by Surcharges? Here's How Durham Operates. Waste
Water Engineering, 9(3): March 1972.
"Seagraves proffers the view that surcharges represent a step in the
direction of efficient pricing and greater equity but notes that
there are problems in defining equity. Using data from Durham, N.C.
for 1969, the year before their_surcharge went into effect, three
alternative measures of equity are illustrated. He also discusses
problems inherent to these measures of equity."
"Seagraves introduces;the question as to why cities have adopted
surcharges instead of simply billing industries separately for the
various components in the monitored wastes. He contends that separate
billing would be more equitable considering the variety of industries
encountered in most cities and would eliminate the incentive to use
extra water so as to reduce the surcharge."
SEAGRAVES, J.A. and R;D. Elliott. The Effects of Sewer Surcharges on the
Level of Industrial Wastes and the Use of Water by Industry. Water
Resources Research Institute of the University of North Carolina..
Report No. 70. August 1972.
TIHANSKY, D. A Survey of Empirical Benefit Studies. In H.M. Peskin and
E.P. Seskin, eds. Cost Benefit Analysis and Water Pollution Policy.
Washington, The Urban Institute, 1975.
"Out of the massive literature on water resource management the
author has directed the main focus of his paper to water quality
as it relates to benefit assessments."
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Operations. Subcommittee
on Natural Resources and Power. Water Pollution Control and- Abatement.
Hearings, 88th Congress, 1st and 2d sessions. Washington, U.S. Govern-
ment Pr inting Office 11966..

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AIR RELATED
ANDERSON, R.J., and J.E. Wilen. The Proposed Pure Air Tax Act of 1972 r
Some Cautionary Continents on Emissions. National Tax Journal, 27(1) t
151-162, March 1974.
"The possible effects of the proposed Pure Air Tax Act of 1972 on
air pollution and on implementation of the Clean Air Act of 1970
are analyzed. Concludes that"the Pure Air Act of 1972 may be, in
partr incompatible with the intent of the Clean Air Act and may be
quite difficult to administer."
An Explanation of the Proposed Regulations Providing Civil Assessments for
Air Pollution Violations. Hartford, State of Connecticut Department
of Environmental Protection, October 21, 1974. 6 p.
An Introduction to Connecticut's Economic Approach to Environmental Law
Enforcement. Hartford, Department of Envrioranental Protection. 42 p.
(Draft Report).
Assessment Of Civil Penalties. Connecticut Law Journal, 36(28):7-8,
January 7, 1975.
ATKINSON, S.E., and D.H. Lewis. Washington Environmental Research Center.
A Cost Evaluation of Alternative Air Quality Strategies. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, January 1974. HQ p. (Distributed by National
Technical Information Service), Springfield, Va., as PB 245 129.
"With the help of a computer siitiulation and using St. Louis as a model
region, this paper evaluates three alternative particulate air pollu-
tion control strategies: emissions least-cost (ELC) strategy, ambient
air quality least-cost (ALC) strategy, and the strategy suggested inf
the State Implementation Plan (SIP) Guidelines."
BARRET, L.B., and T.E. Waddell. Cost of Air Pollution Damage: Status
Report. Research Triangle Park, N.C., U.S. Envrionmental Protection
Agency, National Environmental Research Center, February 1973. 80 p.
(Distributed by National Technical Information Service)^ as PB 222 040.
BINGHAM, T.H., et. al. [Research Triangle Institute], Allocative and
Distributive Effects of Alternative-Air Quality Attainment Policies?
Final. Report.. Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Implementation Research Division, Oct.1974 119 p. (Unpublished Report).
BINGHAM, T.H., et. al. (Research Triangle Institute]. Cost-Effectiveness
of a Uniform National Sulfur Emissions Tax; Final Report. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, February 1974. 203 p. (Distributed by National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va., as-P£H236^586)
"This study provides an initial examination of the effectiveness
and costs of a uniform national tax on the major emitters of sulfur."

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BINGHAM, T.H., et. al. Transactions Costs of Implementing Alternative
Least-Cost Air Quality Attainment Policies. Draft Final Report.
(Research Triangle Institute). March 1976.
CARSCN, W.D.f Jr. A Uniform Charge on Emissions in an Urban Air Basin.
Sacramento, California Air REsources Board, [n.d.] 22 p. (Draft Report)..
"This paper discusses application of a charge based on emissions .
from identified stationary sources in an urban region. The problems
of practical application are discussed with special attention to the
difficulties of selecting an appropriate level for the charge."
CHAPMAN, D. A Sulfur Emission Tax and the Electric Utility Industry.
Energy Systems Policy, l:(l)-30. Fall 1974.
"This paper reports the results of an empirical analysis which
utilizes an econometric model of demand and fuel substitution
and an engineering production model. The conclusions which follow
from the analysis are that emissions and damage would have little
effect on electricity demand growth and nuclear power growth, and: the
sulfur emission tax assumes greater value if the Clean Air Act is
not implemented. Net benefits are positive in all cases, and the
highest calculated net benefit to the nation is $32 billion.
Charles River Associates Incorporated. Regional Management of Automotive
Emissions: The Effectiveness of Alternative Policies for Los Angeles.
Washington, U.S. Envrionmental Protection Agency, January 1977. 285 p.
(In preparation).
"This study has two objectives: first, to develop procedures to
evaluate policies for controlling automobile emissions; and-second,
too use these procedures to evaluate specific pollution control
strategies for Los Angeles... The following specific strategies
were evaluated: increased gas taxes, taxes on vehicle emissions
per mile based on odometer readings and emissions tests, nonresiden-
tial parking surcharges, extensions of route miles by conventional
bus, and annual taxes based on vehicle model, make and year. The
report*s findings indicate that implementation of these policies
could significantly- decrease pollution. Emission taxes and gasoline
taxes are particularly effective."
Department of-Bwiconmen tal Protection. Assessment of Civil Penalties
. for Violation of Air Emissions Standards and Orders of the Commissioner.
Ccjnnecticut Law Journal, 36(34) :1B-6B, February 18, 1975.
iscusses four approaches, or "philosophies," toward pollu-
k-iw.i	the emission standards philosophy, air quality standard
philosophy, emission tax philosophy, cost benefit philosophy.

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DE NEVERS, N. Air Pollution Control Philosophies. Journal of the Air
Pollution Control Association. Vol. 27, No. 3. March 1977. P. 197-205
DOWNING, P.B., and W.D. Watson, Jr. Enforcement Economics in Air Pollu-
tion Control; Final Report. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Research and Development, December 1973. 113 p. (Distributed
by National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va., as PB-
240 963).
"Emission tax enforcement is recommended by the authors as probably
the best solution for minimizing the management costs imposed upon
impacted industry and resource costs on enforcement agencies."
Dufce Law Journal. The Effluent Fee Approach for Controlling Air Pollution.
Pp. 943-990, October 1970.
"Pollution control programs, present control efforts - effluent stand-
ards, which limit the emittance of specific forms of pollutants,
absolute prohibition of certain polluting activities and controls
on certain polluting activities - and possible alternative policies -
tax credits, subsidies, private action, and effluent fees - are briefly
discussed in terms of their practical and economic advantages and dis-
advantages."
FERRAR, T.A., et. al- Financial Incentives and Pollution Control: A Case
Study. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (Distributed by National
^Technical Information, Service, Springfield, Va., April 1975.
GRIFFIN, J.M. An Econometric Evaluation of Sulfur Taxes. Journal of Politi-
cal Economy, 82(4):669-668, July/August 1974.
GRIMES, M.H. The Sulfur Oxide Tax. Washington, Library of Congress,
Congressional Research Service, February 10, 1972. 26 p.
KDVEL, A. The Case for Civil Penalties: Air Pollution Control. Journal
of Urban Law, 46:153,^JL968.
"This is primarily an indictment of the use of criminal penalties to
to enforce pollution law. As evidence of the ineffectiveness of
criminal law Kovel cites Boston statistics which show that of the
800 complaints under the City's pollution statutes only 4 cases
have proceeded to prosecution and one conviction has resulted. He
cites burden of proof and hesitancy to impose "criminal" sanction as
the cause."
"Kovel is generally supportive of a system of administratively imposed
penalties. He argues that such a proceeding is more flexible and
can bring better expertise to bear on a problem. However, he does
not seem to see this as the immediately best reponse. The position

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"KCTul iw gcnrr^21y supportive-of a system of administratively imposed
penalties. He argues that such a proceeding is more flexible and
can bring better expertise to bear on a problem. However, he does
not seem to see this as the immediately best reponse. The position he
is pushing involves use of civil remedies by courts for pollution
cases."
LANDIS, R. [Charles River Associates Incorporated]. The Effect of Auto-
motive Fuel Conservation Measures on Air Pollution. U.S. Enirionmental
Protection Agency, September 1976. 598 p. (Distributed by National
Technical Information SErvice, Springfield, Va., as PB 259 908).
MANDELKER, D.R., and T.A. Sherry. Emission Quota Strategies as an Air
Pollution Control Technique. Ecology Law Quarterly, 5(3):4Q1-431, 1973.
Maryland, General Assembly. An Act to Establish Resource Utilization
Charges for Water and Air Assimilation Services in the State of Mary-
land. 2d draft, [Annapolis] September 20, 1974. 12 p.
MIEDEMA, A.K. Policy Choices for Air Quality Goal Attainment. Research
Triangle Park, N.C- Research Triangle Institute (n.d.J 31 p.
"Miedema advocates emission rights as the most premising air quality
attainment policy due to their greater certainty and ability to handle
the problem of future industrial and regional growth. This report com-
pares emission rights with other majoij air quality attainment policies
(emission control regulations, emission control subsidies, and emission
charges) and concludes with emission rights emerging as the best possi-
ble choice at the smallest possible cost to the nation."
MONTGOMERY, W.D., III. Market Systems for the Control of Air Pollution.
Thesis, Department of Economics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.r
May 1971. 168 p.
SCHNEIDER, A.M. An Effluent Fee Schedule for Air Pollutants Based on
Pendex. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 23(6):486-
STOLPMAN, Paul. An Emission Tax on NQx Emissions from New Cars. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency., Office of Policy Analysis. August 21,
1975. 13 p.
"Discusses the use of an emissions tax as a means of fostering the
the development of NOx controls."
Tax on Lead in Gasoline. In Council on Environmental Quality, comp.
The President's 1971 Envrionmental Program. Washington, U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, March 1971. p. 30.

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-18-
he is pushing involves use of civil remedies by courts for pollution-
cases."
LANDIS, R. [Charles River Associates Incorporated]. The Effect of Auto-
motive Fuel Conservation Measures on Air Pollution. U.S. Enirionmental
Protection Agency, September 1976. 598 p. (Distributed by National
Technical Information SErvice, Springfield,_Va., as PB 259 908).
MANDELKER, D.R., and T.A. Sherry. Emission Quota Strategies as an Air
Pollution Control Technique. Ecology Law Quarterly, 5(3):401-431, 1973,
Maryland. General Assembly. An Act to Establish Resource Utilization
Charges for Water and Air Assimilation Services in the State of Mary-
land.. 2d draft. [Annapolis] September 20, 1974. 12 p.
MIEDEMA, A.K. Policy Choices for Air Quality Goal Attainment. Research
Triangle Park, N.C. Research Triangle Institute [n.d.] 31 p.
"Miedema advocates emission rights as the most promising air quality
attainment policy due to their greater certainty and ability to handle
the problem of future industrial and regional growth. This report com-
pares emission rights with other major air quality attainment policies
(emission control regulations, emission control subsidies, and emission
charges) and concludes with emission rights emerging as the best possi-
ble choice at the smallest possible cost to the nation.*
MONTGOMERY, W.D., III. Market Systems for the Control of Air Pollution.
Thesis, Department of Economics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.,
May 1971. 168 p.
SCHNEIDER, A.M. An Effluent Fee Schedule for Air Pollutants Based on
Pendex. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 23(6):486—
STOLPMAN, Paul. An Emission Tax on NOx Emissions from New Cars. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency., Office of Policy Analysis. August 21,
1975. 13 p.
"Discusses the use of an emissions tax as a means of fostering the
the development of NOx controls."
Tax on Lead in Gasoline. In Council oh Environmental Quality, comp.
The President's 1971 Envrionmental Program. Washington, U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, March 1971. p. 30.

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TAhjOi\, G.T.C. An Economic Analysis of Governmental Air Quality Controls.
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkely, June 1973.
U.S. Congress. House. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970; Report No. 91-
1146. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office. 52 p. (91st Cong.,
2d session).
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Coimerce..
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1976; supplemental report to accompany
H.R. 10498. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.
10 p. {94th Cong., 2d Sess. House. Report No. 1175 pt. 2).
U.S. Congress. House. Bill No. 14931. To Promote the Abatement of
Atmospheric Sulfur Into the Atmosphere. 92d Conq., 2d Sess., May 11,
1972 »
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce.
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1976; report to accompany H.R. 10498.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. 507 p. (94th Cong.r
2d sess. HOuse. Report No. 1175).
U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Puhlic Works. National Air Quality
Standards Act of 1970. Report No. 91-1196. Washington, U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, September 17, 1972 (91st Cong., 2d sess.).
Vickrey, W. The Possibilities of Air Pollution Control Through Various
Forms of Effluent Charge. Presented at Air Pollution Economic Effects
Seminar. Oregon State Uniyersity, October 31, 1969. p. 56-70.
"This is a brief summarization of the advantages an effluent charge
method would have over other alternative methods, such as subsidi-
zing (through rebates or otherwise) or the installation of abatement
equipment for pollution control."
Wilson, D.G_, and P.W. Chen [Massachusetts Institute of Technology]. An
Analysis of Emission Charges as a Method of Reducing Sulfur Pollution.
Upton, N.Y., Brookhaven National Laboratory, Biological and Environ-
mental Assessment Group, September 1975. 95 p.
"Discusses the advantages of pollution charges in reducing sulfur
emissions over setting standards, the advantage of being able to
adjust charges according to health and property damage resulting
from emissions, and the advantage of being able to use the "feedback"
from the collected payments to compensate those suffering from
health or property damage due to sulfur emissions."
Wilson, R. Tax the Integrated Pollution Exposure. Science, 178(4057):
182-183, October 13, 1973. [Letter]

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SOLID WASTE
ANDERSON, R.C. Public Policies Toward the Use of Scrap Materials. Ameri-
can Economic Association. Vol. 67, No. 1. Pp. 355-358. February 1977-
"This paper examines the principle economic arguments which have
been offered in support of a federal program of recycling incentives
and analyzes some of the recent legislative proposals in light of
available information on the structure of the secondary materials
industry."
ANDERSON, R.C. Tax Incentives for the Recovery of Secondary Lead. Environ-
mental Law Institute. Washington, D.C. 16 p.
"This paper focuses on recycling in the domestic lead industry. A
comparison of the quantities of lead theoretically available for
recycling with the quantities actually recovered indicates that a
significant portion of the theoretically available lead is not
presently recovered. This paper summarizes research in progress
that is designed to answer two questions. First, how would recy-
cling of lead be affected by the elimination of tax subsidies for
primary lead producers? Second, how would recycling of lead be
affected if similar tax subsidies were granted to the suppliers or
users of secondary lead?"
BARDACH, E.r Armstrong, Gibbs, and Jensen. * The Buy Back Strategy: An
Alternative to Container Deposit Legislation. Berkely School of public
Policy. May 1977.
Beverage Containers: Possibilities for Reuse and Recycling. Wellington,
N.A., Department of Trade and Industry and the Commission for the
Envrionment, November 1975. 54 p.
"One of the conclusions reached by this broad study of litter is that
low deposits increase incentives for bottlers to get empties: high
deposits make new containers more economical."
BINGHAM, T.H., et. al. [Research Triangle Institute]. An Evaluation of
the Effectiveness and Costs of Regulatory and Fiscal Policy Instru-
ments on Product Packaging. Environmental Protection Publication
SW-74c. Washington, U.S. Envrionmental Prot. Agency, 1974. 301 p.
"This study provides an evaluation of the costs and effectiveness
of two types of government policy instruments (regulation requireing
the use of recycled materials in packaging and several types of
taxes on. packaging) that may be used to influence the quantity and
composition of consumer products packaging and the use of recycled
materials in consumer product package manufacture. The analysis
provides an initial basis for policy decisions regarding the desira-
bility of these policy instruments as possible means for reducing

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the generation of packaging wastes, increasing the use of recycled
materials in packaging manufacture, and reducing the natural resource
utilisation of packaging."
BULLIS, H. Federal Policy Issues in the Recycling of Wastepaper. Con-
gressional Research Service, Library of Congress). March 14, 1973.
Revised July 31, 1974. P. 123.
"A fundamental question in this examination concerns how deeply the
Federal Government should be involved in wastepaper recycling. Areas
considered for legislative activity include taxes, transportation,
loans, and subsidies."
California Legislature. Assembly Bill No. 1125. Introduced by Assembly-
man Kapiloff. Tax levy: to allow, in addition to any allowable deduc-
tions, a credit against those taxes for specified percentages of the
amount paid by a taxpayer to purchase certain recyclable solid waste
materials, which are recycled in California... March 28, 1977.
FIEKGKSKY, S. Tax Subsidies for Recycling Solid Waste Materials: An
Overview. BSM-76-15. Washington, U.S. Treasury Department. 19 p.
(Staff Memorandum).
GABA, J.M. Regulation of Municipal Solid Waste Through Taxation; the
New York Recycling Incentive Tax. Columbia Journal of Envrionmental
Law, 1(2):312-330, Spring 1975.
GRUBE, A.H. A Review of Quantitative Economic Studies of Recyclable
Materials Production and Demand. Research Triangle Park, N.C.,
Research Triangle Institute, August 22, 1975. 50 p.
GUDGER, C.M., and K.D. Walters. Beverage Container Regulation: Econo-
mic Implications and Suggestions for Model Legislation. Ecology
Law Quarterly. Vol.-5:265 Pp. 265-290-.
"The purposes of this article are: (1) to focus on the one legisla-
tive approach, that of Oregon, which has successfully attacked the
envrionmental problems of disposable beverage containers; (2) to
present the evidence of its effectiveness; (3) to discuss the feasi-
bility of extending this approach to other jurisdictions; and (4)
to suggest changes in the legislation to make it even more effective."
MACDONALD, B.W. Analysis of Municipal Used Newspaper: Recovery/Disposal
Options. Garden State Paper Company. Saddle Brook, New Jersey.
November 1976. 66 p. Draft Copy.
"This report presents a model for evaluating the economics of alter-
native newspaper recovery/diposal options. The chief newspaper

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TOXICS
Library of Congress. Issue Brief; Toxic Substances Contamination -
Compensation and Indannities. Issue Brief #B77019.
SCHWEITZER; G. Carcinogenisis Testing of Industrial Chemical Laws,
Regulations and Practicality. Presented to Toxicology Forum Aspen,
Colorado. July, 18, 1977

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TAX POLICY
DRAYTCN, W. The Tar and Nicotine Tax; Pursuing Public Health Through Tax
Incentives. 81 Yale Law Journal 1487. 1972.
HOSKINS, W.L. Let the Pricing System Provide the Incentive. Industrial
Water Engineering, 8(4):8-lOf April 1971.
MOORE, M.L., G.F. STREULING. Pollution Control Devices: Rapid Amortiza-
tion versus the Investment Credit Taxes. V. t2, January .1974. p. 25-30
"Considers the optimal decision rule for the tax treatment of pollution
control devices."
ROTHENBERG, L. State Preferential Tax Treatment for Pollution Control.
Facilities Research Report #61. January 1971. Federation of Tax.
Adninistrators.
TIETENBERG, T.H. Specific Taxes and The Control of Pollution; A General
Equilibrium Analysis. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 77(4):503-522,
November 1973
VAUGHN, J.M. Tax Breaks Can Offset Part of the Cost of Required Protection
of the Environment. Taxation for Accountants, 13, July 1974. Pp. 40-45.
"The special amortization provisions of Section 169, for pollution
control facilities, is not the only provision relating to environ
mental regulation. Section 162(f), which covers fines and penalties
and related expenses, also must.be taken into account. This article
discusses the deductions available."

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TAX EXEMPT BONDS
DORFMAN, N.S., and A. Snow. Who Will Pay for Pollution Control? — the
Distribution by Income of the Burden of the National Environmental-
Protection Program, 1972-1980. National Tax Journalr 28(1):101-115,
March 1975.

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AIR RELATED.
ANDERSON, R.J., and J.E. Wilen. The Proposed Puce Air Tax Act of 1972:
Some Cautionary Comments on Emissions. National Tax Journal, 27{l)r
151-162, March 1974.
"The possible effects of the proposed Pure Air Tax Act of 1972 on
air pollution and on implementation of the Clean Air Act of 1970
are analyzed~ Concludes that the Pure Air Act of 1972 may be, in-
part, incompatible with the intent of the Clean Air Act and may be
quite difficult to administer."
ATKINSON, S.E., and D.H. Lewis. Washington Environmental Research Center.
A Cost Evaluation of Alternative Air Quality Strategies. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, January 1974. 70 p. (Distributed by National
Technical Information Service), Springfield, Va., as PB' 245 129.
"With the help of a computer simulation and using St. Louis as a model
region, this paper evaluates three alternative particulate air pollu-
tion control strategies: emissions least-cost (ELC) strategy, ambient
air quality least-cost (ALC) strategy, and the strategy suggested inf
the State Implementation Plan (SIP) Guidelines."
BARRETT, L.B., and T.E. Waddell. Cost of Air Pollution Damage: Status
Report. Research Triangle Park, N.C., LkS. Envrionmental Protection
Agency, National Environmental Research Center, February 1973. 80 p.
(Distributed by National Technical Information Service), as PB 222 040.
BINGHAM, T.H., et. al. [Research Triangle Institute]. Allocative and
Distributive Effects of Alternative Air Quality Attainment Policies;-
Fmal Report. Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Implementation Research Division, Oct. 1974 119 p. (Unpublished Report).
BINGHAM, T.H., et. al. (Research Triangle Institute]. Cost-Effectiveness
of a Uniform National Sulfur Emissions Tax; Final Report. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, February 1974. 203 p. (Distributed by National
Technical Information "Service, Springfield, Va., as PB 236 586).
"This study provides an initial examination of the effectiveness
and costs of a uniform national tax on the major emitters of sulfur."
BINGHAM, T.H., et. al. Transactions Costs of Implementing Alternative
Least-Cost Air Quality Attainment Policies. Draft Final Report.
(Research Triangle Institute). March 1976.
CARSON, W.D., Jr. A Uniform Charge on Emissions in an Urban Air Basin.
Sacramento, California Air REsources Board, jn.d.] 22 p. (Draft Report).
"This paper discusses application of a charge based on emissions
from identified stationary sources in an urban region. The problems
of practical application are discussed with special attention to the
difficulties of selecting an appropriate level for the charge."

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