SOUTHEAST
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROFILES 1977
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IV
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SOUTHEAST
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROFILES 1977
ALABAMA MISSISSIPPI
FLORIDA NORTH CAROLINA
GEORGIA SOUTH CAROLINA
KENTUCKY TENNESSEE
REGION IV
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
345 COURTLAND ST.
ATLANTA, GEORGIA 30308
OCTOBER 1978
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FOREWORD
The environmental quality of the Southeast United States has been appreciated for generations by
Southerners. However, as population and economic development increase, our responsibilities to
protect this environmental heritage are also increasing. One of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's top priorities is to keep the public informed on how new developments affect
environmental quality. This report provides an overview of environmental quality in the Southeast
together with a minimal amount of program details to supplement the environmental data.
Southeast Environmental Profiles, 1977 is directed to the general public, elected officials, and
others concerned with obtaining an overall perspective on environmental quality. This is the first of
a series of annual reports which will be used to assess the success of environmental programs.
Unfortunately, there are still large gaps in the scientific knowledge necessary to project the
environmental benefits and costs of any given program. Good judgment and practical insight as
well as technical expertise are necessary to fill these gaps. Suggestions for solving environmental
problems and for improving the way these "Environmental Profiles" are presented are welcomed.
Please send your comments to the Regional Administrator, Region IV, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 345 Courtland Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30308.
^/Regional Administrator
Region IV, EPA
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CONTENTS
Page
WATER QUALITY General description of the Region 1
Water quality ot major river basins 3
Water quality characteristics, problems, and problem areas 4
Drinking water 8
Municipal wastewater treatment 10
Permits and planning 12
Shellfish 13
Wetlands 14
Lake Trophic Status 16
Oil and hazardous materials spills 18
II AIR QUALITY Standards and violations 20
Pollution sources 23
Auto emissions 24
Planning 25
Emissions inventories 25
New sources 29
III SOLID WASTE Types and disposal 30
Population served by authorized facilities 30
Programs and projects 31
IV TOXICANTS Toxic Substances Control Act 32
Evaluation of toxicity risks 34
Toxicant problems and problem areas 34
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CONTENTS Pa9e
V PESTICIDES Persistence 38
Residues in humans 38
Proper uses and disposal 39
Control programs 39
VI RADIATION Nuclear power generation 40
Dosage rates and accumulation 41
VII MINING Coal mining 42
Water quality problem areas 43
Phosphate mining 44
VII ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT STATEMENTS Review, preparation 45
IX NOISE Noise control programs, State legislation 46
Local ordinances 47
APPENDIX A - WQI PARAMETER DEFINITIONS
APPENDIX B — GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
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Cover photos taken by George Moo.
Bruce Ferguson, and Eric Hill.
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WATER QUALITY
Region IV encompasses eight Southeastern
States with a combined area of 383,000
square miles. This total includes 12,870
square miles of estuaries, lakes and streams.
Much of the Atlantic and Gulf coastlines
(2035 miles) support extensive brackish and
salt marshes while mangrove swamps are
common in southern Florida. While these
plant communities do not comprise a large
percent of the total acreage, they are very
important. Their contribution to such things
as primary productivity, island building and
shore line stabilization, purification of
pollutants, etc., make their preservation
crucial. A more detailed discussion of the
significance of these habitats is given in a
following section entitled "Wetlands."
Inland waters range from fast-moving
mountain trout streams to sluggish black
water coastal plain rivers. The Region
contains all or portions of some of the
nation's major rivers, namely, the Alabama-
Coosa, the Tennessee, the Ohio, and the
Mississippi as well as an abundance of man-
made and natural lakes.
Within the Region water quality is generally
good; however, some exceptions are noted
in areas of dense population or industry.
Municipal and industrial pollution usually
originates from discrete (point) sources
together with some generalized runoff in the
larger metropolitan areas. Point source
controls have been instituted through the
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES). This is a permit process
which sets effluent limitations for all point
source discharges originating from a given
activity.
Best Management Practices, e.g., terracing,
levees, no-tilt cropping, sodding, etc., are
used to reduce or impede runoff of nonpoint
source pollutants. Runoff ornonpointsource
controls utilizing these Best Management
Practices are being planned on a case-by-
case basis where needed to meet water
quality goals.
The Clean Water Act states, "It is the
national goal that wherever attainable, an
interim goal of water quality which provides
for the protection and propagation of fish,
shellfish, and wildlife and provides for
recreation in and on the water be achieved
by July 1, 1983.''
The nature and locations of existing water
quality problems on the major river systems
in the Region are shown in Table 1 and
Figures 1 and 2. The water quality of these
rivers in the Southeast was determined from
an assessment of nine standard water quality
characteristics (see Appendix A). Table 1
provides a further breakdown of water
quality according to the specific
characteristics considered in the index.
Two important types of problems not
depicted are: 1) poor water quality on
tributaries to these major rivers and 2)
problems related to water quality
characteristics not yet included in the index.
To a limited extent both these problems are
addressed in the Toxicants section.
1
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Figure 1.
WATER QUALITY IN REGION IV
# EXCELLENT Meets Federal Water Quality Goals
© GOOD Usually Meets Federal Water Quality Goals ^
O SATISFACTORY Provisionally Meets Federal Water
Quality Goals
O POOR Fails to Meet Federal Water Quality Goals
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700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
QUALITY
EXCELLENT: Meets Federal Water Quality Goals
GOOD: Usually Meets Federal Water Quality Goals
SATISFACTORY: Provisionally Meets Federal Water
Quality Goals
POOR: Fails to Meet Federal Water Quality Goals
INSUFFICIENT DATA
NOT IN REGION IV
FIGURE 2 Water Quality of Southeast Rivers and Tributaries (1976 Data)
2348
WATEF
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WATER QUALITY
Table 1
Average Water Quality Characteristics of Entire River Systems
(Including Specific Problem Areas and Causes)
1. MISSISSIPPI
2. OHIO
3. TENNESSEE
4. SAVANIIAH-
TUCALCO-
C11ATT00CA
5. A PA LAC! ICC OLA
CHATTAHOOCHEE
6. MOBILE
L. TOMUIGBEE-
13 L. WARRIOR
7. PEARL
. CAPE FEAR
9. CONCAREE-
EKCAD
PROBLEM AREA
A, Arkansas City, Arkansas to
Blyehcvil(C>
A. Louisa/ille, Kentucky
B. Cincinnati, Ohio
C. Huntington, West Virginia
INDICATED CAUSE OF PROBIXM
A. Fecal Coliform an
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WATER QUALITY
Table 1 - Continued
RIVER
10. WATEREE-
I CATAWBA
11. YADKIN-
PEE DEE
12. LUMBER
13. COOPER
14. SANTEE
15. SALUDA
16. LYNCHES
17. LITTLE
PEE DEE
18. FLINT
PROBLEM AREA
A. Lancaster, South Carolina
B. Marlon, North Carolina
INDICATED CAUSE OF PROBLEM
A. Fecal Coliform
B. Fecal Coliform
A. Entire River
B. Mouth Lynches River
A. Nichols, South Carolina
A. None
A. Fecal Coliform
B. BODc
A. Fecal Colifom
A. None
A. None
A. Ware Shoals, South Carolina to
Sans Souci, South Carolina.
A. Fecal Coliform
A. None
A. Entire River
A. Clayton CooAiff- i
A. Fecal Coliform
A. DO, B0D5
EXCELLENT: Meets Federal Water Quality
H GOOD: Usually Meets Federal Water Quality
~ SATISFACTORY: Provisionally Meets Federal Water Quality Goals
B j POOR: Fails to Meet Federal "Water Quality Goals
| ] INSUFFICIENT DATA
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WATER QUALITY
Table 1 - Continued
19. AI-ABA MA-
COOSA
20. SUWANNEE
21. YE LLC*
22. ALTAMA11A-
OCONEE
23. QCMin-o!
SOUTH
24. ST. JOHNS
25. ESCAMBIA
CONECUH
26. BLACKWATER
27. PERDIDO
PROBLEM AREA
INDICATED CAUSE OF PROBIJ;M
Below Cahaba River
Mpntgomery, AL^bpma
GadsdtfTi, Alabama
Below Rome, Georgia
, A.
I B*
C.
I D,
Turbidi ty
Fecal Coliform
Turbidity
Fc cal Col i fonn
Suwannee, Florida to Fargo,Georgia
A. Panther f sj i lir (w fpr:. ^
A. Jacksonville, Florida
Sawgrass Lake
A. Santa Rosa Sound
A. Bradley, Alabama
A. Barrineau Park, Florida
A. pi!
A. BOD^, Phosphorus
A. Fecal Coliform
B. DO
A. Turbidity
A. pH
A. pH
|pg| EXCELLENT: Meets Federal Water Quality
GOOD: Usually Meets Federal Water Quality
SATISFACTORY: Provisionally Meets Federal Water Quality Goals
~
POOR: Fails to Meet Federal Water Quality Goals
INSUFFICIENT DATA
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WATER QUALITY
Table 1 — Continued
f * £
/ / i
f # ^
28. PEACE
29. KISSIMMEE
30. PASCACQUIS
31. C111CKAS AW IIAY
32. YAZOO
33. LEAP
34. CUMBERLAND
35. GREEN
36. KENTUCKY
PROBLEM AREA
INDICATED CAUSE OF PROBLEM
A. Horse Creek to Bartow, Florida
A. Kissimmec, Florida
A. None
A. None
A. Entire Stream
A. Entire Stream
A. Clarksville, Tennessee
B. Nashville, Tennessee
A. Lockport, Kentucky
A. Phosphorus
A. Fecal Coliform, Phosphorus
A. None
A. None
A. Fecal Coliform
A. Fecal Coliform
A. Fecal Coliform
B. Fecal Coliform
I A. None
A. Fecal Coliform
EXCELLENT: Meets Federal Water Quality
GOOD: Usually Meets Federal Water Quality
| j SATISFACTORY: Provisionally Meets Federal Water Quality Goals
~
POOR: Fails to Meet Federal "Water Quality Goals
INSUFFICIENT DATA
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WATER QUALITY
Drinking Water
By virtue of modern treatment methods,
Americans are seldom subjected to
waterborne epidemics. However, the careless
use of chemical compounds and the
heedless disposal of toxic wastes (both in
the past and at present) are beginning to
pose new threats to the nation's water
resources.
To insure safe drinking water for future
generations, the Safe Drinking Water Act of
1974 authorized EPA to set national
standards. Interim regulations to implement
the Safe Drinking Water Act went into effect
on June 24, 1977. These regulations
established monitoring frequencies, analytical
techniques and maximum levels for certain
harmful contaminants. Table 2 indicates the
type of monitoring required.
Because some contaminants are harmful
only after a long, continuous exposure,
water systems are divided into community
and non-community In general, community
systems serve residents while non-
community systems serve transient areas
such as parks, schools, hotels, etc. When a
system fails to meet established standards,
the public is notified and the situation is
explained to the extent that the user is well
aware of the significance of the particular
problem.
The law mandates that the States will have
primary enforcement authority, primacy, as
soon as they can demonstrate their ability to
enforce standards at least as stringent as
those at the Federal level. As of February
1978, seven of eight States in Region IV had
primacy. In North Carolina, EPA continues
to have enforcement responsibility.
MONITORING
THE NATIONAL INTERIM PRIMARY
REQUIRED BY
DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS
I CONTAMINANTS
SYSTEMS THAT MUST MONITOR
Comnu
nitv
Non-Communitv 1
Snr facp
HkniinH
.S11 r f a r p
firminH 1
I.
Microbiological
X
X
X
X
II.
Turbidi ty
X
X
III.
Organic Chemicals
(a
r.hlnrinflfpH hyHrnrflrhnns
RnHri n
X
X
I. i n rl a n f>
v
v
Mprhoxychlor
X
X
Tnxanhene
X
X
(b) Ch lorophenoxys
2.4-D
X
X
9 U. S — TP Si luov
X
V
IV*
Inorganic Chemicals
Arseni c
V
x
Barium
V
y
CP rim i urn
X
v
Chromi nm
x
X
Lead
X
V
Mercury
X
x
Nit-rare (aft N)
x
*
Sp1 en inm
X
X
1 "£>»-
V
V.
Radionuclides
Gross aloha
X
X
narrirlp nhnfnn*
1*PrimariLy systems which serve
8
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WATER QUALITY
Drinking Water
Drinking water contamination by minute
levels of potentially dangerous man-made
organic chemicals has been intensively
studied in recent years. The public health
significance of long-term, low level exposure
to these substances has not been fully
determined, but EPA is rapidly taking steps
to reduce both the exposure levels and
frequency of exposure to them. For example,
an important group of potentially cancer-
causing chemicals (trihalomethanes) is
formed during the water treatment process
as chlorine combines with naturally present
materials. The agency in early February,
1977, published a proposed regulation that
will establish 100 ppb maximum contaminant
levels for these chemicals. Another larger
group of synthetic organic chemicals from
industrial wastes and spills sometimes reach
water supply sources. This group is so
numerous that analyzing for each constituent
would be impractical.
Granular activated carbon treatment will be
required for systems serving more than
75,000 people which use sources possibly
contaminated by these man-made organic
chemicals.
On the basis of limited sampling. Table 3
shows those Southeastern cities which may
have a problem with (A) trihalomethanes or
(B) synthetic organic chemicals in their
drinking water. Further testing is needed to
substantiate the initial data. This is only a
limited sample and other cities in this
Region may have similar problems. All cities
over 75,000 population, including those listed
below, will have to undertake monitoring to
determine whether special treatment is
necessary. After further monitoring some of
the cities listed below may not require
additional treatment.
Table 3
List A
Charleston, South Carolina
Jackson, Mississippi
Louisville, Kentucky
Melborne, Florida
Miami, Florida
Montgomery, Alabama
List B
Chattanooga, Tennessee
Louisville, Kentucky
Miami, Florida
The Safe Drinking Water Act also authorizes
EPA to establish a national program to
protect underground sources of drinking
water. One of the provisions of this program
requires a permit before waste fluids can be
injected into deep wells. To insure all
viewpoints are given a chance for
expression, an opportunity for a public
hearing is provided before these permits are
issued. The permit specifies the conditions
under which injection may take place to
lessen the possibility of underground water
contamination. EPA urges individuals to take
an interest in these proceedings and work
with their State and agencies to provide the
best possible drinking water.
9
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WATER QUALITY
Municipal Wastewater Treatment
About 700 of 2,500 municipal wastewater
treatment plants (WTP) in Region IV are
major dischargers, i.e., designed to treat one 800
million gallons per day (1 mgd) or more
with varying degrees of thoroughness. The
largest is the 135 mgd North Plant in
Memphis, Tennessee (construction now ^00
nearing completion.)
600
" 500
Over $700 million was committed in 1977 to
build or upgrade treatment facilities in the
Region through the Construction Grants
program. Through this program EPA now
pays 75 percent of the eligible construction
costs. Figure 3 shows the amount of Federal «
money committed to the construction of o
treatment facilities and the number of these Q
facilities placed under construction. o ^qq
C/3
c
Unfortunately, the Federal government .2
provides very little support for operation and =
maintenance (O&M) once these plants are ^ 300
installed This creates a greater economic
incentive at the local level to avoid O&M
costs than to avoid the initial construction
costs. Hence, many of our wastewater
treatment plants are achieving only mediocre
performance. As such, the public is not
receiving the full environmental benefit
possible from their water pollution control
dollars.
200
WATER QUALITY
Municipal Wastewater Treatment
(105)
"Number of facilities placed
under construction each year
1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 A973 1974 1975 1976 1977
Years
FIGURE 3 Federal Support Committed For Wastewater Treatment Facilities
In Region IV
10
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WATER QUALITY
Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Figure 4 shows the percent of major plants
inspected in each State which met
secondary treatment standards, i.e., the
minimum level called for in the Clean Water
Act.
To deal with this lack of effective O&M,
Region IV established a training program for
treatment plant operators together with
detailed technical assistance studies.
Operational changes are usually recom-
mended after these studies; additionally, the
findings serve as the basis for training at
plants with similar problems. The success of
this program depends on many factors, such
as plant size, operational flexibility, the
initiative and capabilities of the local plant
operators, the acceptance of EPA's
recommendations, and cooperation at all
levels.
WATER QUALITY
Municipal Wastewater Treatment
125
100
75
50
25
Did not meet secondary standards
Met secondary standards
I
!
P
w
TN
KY
MS
FIGURE 4 Percent of Major Facilities Inspected Meeting Secondary Standards
(FY 1977)
11
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WATER QUALITY
Permits and Planning
NPDES — The National Pollutant Discharge
elimination system (NPDES) is a permit
procedure which forms the backbone of the
national water clean-up program. During
Fiscal Year 1977, 2574 major discharge
permits were in effect, 484 of which were
subject to some form of enforcement action
due to permit violations.
208 Program — Comprehensive, areawide,
two-year studies have been instituted to
develop long-term waste treatment
management plans. These plans are tailored
to an individual area according to guidelines
in Section 208 of the Clean Water Act.
Currently, 32 metropolitan areas/industrial
complexes in Region IV have local
government planning agencies funded
through EPA at a total cost of $26.5 million.
In addition, Statewide 208 Plans are being
prepared to cover the remaining areas.
outside the area-wide jurisdictions. Control
of non-profit source pollution from
agriculture and construction, as well as point
sources of pollution, water quality standards,
and groundwater contamination are
emphasized. All these 208 planning
programs provide significant opportunities
for interested citizens to take part in
decisions which will achieve the clean water
goals of the law in their areas.
12
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WATER QUALITY
Shellfish
The shellfish discussed here are limited to
saltwater oysters, clams, and mussels. These
mollusks obtain their nutrition by filtering
microorganisms and particulate matter from
the surrounding water. Unfortunately, by so
doing, they also accumulate any pathogenic
bacteria, toxic pollutants (organics and
heavy metals), biotoxins, and radionuclides
which may be present.
have not been conducted in the area or the
natural habitat is not suitable for the growth
and propagation of shellfish.
Because shellfish can accumulate hazardous
materials and are often eaten raw, they must
be harvested from areas where the water
meets standards set by the National Shellfish
Sanitation Program Manual of Operations.
Areas are approved only when a sanitary
survey indicates that the area is free of
dangerous concentrations of the pathogens
and toxicants. Acreage approved, closed, or
conditional, i.e., subject to periodic closure,
according to current water quality
conditions is shown in Figure 5. Seasonal
population changes, marina operations,
temporary malfunctions of sewage treatment
plants, runoff from contaminated land areas,
etc., frequently cause nearby shellfish
harvesting areas to be closed.
In some instances areas are classified as
"closed" because either sanitary surveys REGIONAL SUMMARY
1971 1974 1976
500,000
L0
SCALE
CZJ CLOSED
~ CONDITIONAL
¦I APPROVED
r 1,000,000
FIGURE 5 STATUS OF SHELLFISHING WATERS
IN REGION IV
13
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Estuaries are the nursery-grounds for much n
of the seafood important to commercial
fisheries. When these critical habitats are
filled, drained, paved, diked, or otherwise
altered, a vital link in the marine food chain
is damaged or destroyed. Coastal and inland
wetlands also provide a vital habitat for
water fowl and other wildlife, e.g., deer,
beaver, fox, mink. Wetlands reduce flood
peaks, filter out silt and various pollutants,
and produce valuable detritus,i.e., finely
divided organic material. This detritus
provides the nutrition for a multitude of
planktonic organisms at the bottom of the
food chain which in turn support a host of
desirable and commercially valuable
species.7/
Figure 6 shows the losses by dredging and
filling coastal wetlands from 1947 to 1967.10/
Until 1972 there was no effective saltwater
wetland protection legislation in the coastal
states. However, since 1972 both federal and
state permit programs have been
implemented to protect these valuable
wetlands (Table 4). Hopefully, wetland
inventories underway by the U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service will show that this loss of
valuable wetlands is being curtailed.
14
WATER QUALITY
Wetlands
Saltwater Wetlands,
Acreage Lost Between
1947-1967 ;'nc'
r f
Thousands of Acres
_
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WATER QUALITY
Wetlands
TABLE 4
AVAILABLE LEGAL PROTECTION
FOR WETLANDS
Freshwater
Saltwater
State
State
Permit
Program
Federal
Permit
Program
State
Permit
Program
Federal
Permit
Program
AL
NO
YES
NO
YES
FL
YES
YES
YES
YES
GA
NO
YES
YES
YES
KY
NO
YES
NOT APPLICABLE
MS
NO
YES
YES
YES
NC
NO
YES
YES
YES
SC
NO
YES
YES
YES
TN
NO
YES
NOT APPLICABLE
In conjunction with the Corps of Engineers
dredge and fill permit program both EPA
and the affected State Pollution Control
Agency must review and approve each
application before a permit can be granted.
In the future the Corps is expected to
provide accurate and up-to-date information
about the quantity and type of wetlands lost
by each permit action The number of
wetland acres remaining in each state can
then be continually updated. This should
eliminate the paucity of recent data as
shown by the dates on Figure 6.
Figure 7 gives a comparison of freshwater to
saltwater wetlands 8/ Unfortunately, the
freshwater areas are not protected to the
same degree as the saltwater wetlands.
!_KVj.—
FIGURE 7 TOTAL WETLANDS ACRES
Total Wetland
Acreage
"MILLIONS OF ACRES"
Saltwater Acres
15
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WATER QUALITY
Lake Trophic Status
In recent years, eutrophication has been
used in a negative sense to describe a
situation whereby a lake becomes clogged
by algae and other aquatic plants due to
organic pollution. However, this is a misuse
of the term. To more clearly explain the
concept of eutrophication, it must be divided
into two components, natural eutrophication
and cultural eutrophication.
Natural eutrophication is the natural aging
process of a lake which usually begins as
soon as the lake basin is formed. Erosion of
soil and rocks releases minerals into the
lake waters. The minerals serve as nutrients
for aquatic plants (phytoplankton) which in
turn are food for microscopic animals
(zooplankton). They are eaten by larger
organisms, and so on, eventually providing
food for fish, land animals, birds, and even
man. Waste products plus the remains of
dead organisms in the lake settle to the
bottom. There they enter in the detrital food
chain, to eventually be recycled to the water
in the form of plant nutrients. This process
slowly increases the amount of available
nutrients as well as the system productivity.
Cultural eutrophication occurs when various
activities of man, e.g., sewage, runoff, etc.,
cause a rapid increase in the available
supply of nutrients. When this occurs,
phytoplankton productivity can increase
dramatically. In extreme cases, the total
respiratory demand may become so great
that at night when photosynthesis stops, the
water becomes depleted of oxygen. When
this occurs all of the organisms which
depend on the water for their oxygen supply
will be killed, including most of the algae.
As with natural eutrophication, the dead
organisms will settle to the lake's bottom
and subsequently be returned to the water
in the form of plant nutrients.
In some cases cultrual eutrophication may
be viewed as beneficial, especially from the
viewpoint of the fisherman. Initially, as the
degree of eutrophy increases so does the
production of fish. Problems occur when
plant growth becomes so profuse that
floating mats of algae and other plants
create limited access to a lake or when
toxicity/nutrient imbalance favor the growth
of undesirable algal species.
The information contained in Figure 8 was
obtained by the National Eutrophication
Survey. Definitions of the trophic states are:
Oligotrophic — Very low nutrient
availability and biotic productivity, e.g.,
Lake Tahoe, NV; Crater Lake, OR; Dale
Hollow Lake, KY.
Mesotrophic — Low to moderate nutrient
availability and biotic productivity, e.g.,
Lake Cumberland, KY; Lake Sidney
Lanier, GA; Martin Lake, AL.
Eutrophic — High nutrient availability and
biotic productivity (Good fishing). The
water will probably appear green due to
the presence of algae, e.g., Lake
Okeechobee, FL; Lake Marion, SC; Ross
Barnett Lake, MS.
Hypereutrophic — Extremely high nutrient
availability and biotic productivity.
Usefulness of lake is reduced by floating
mats of aquatic plants and/or emergent
aquatic plants, e.g., Reelfloat Lake, TN;
Lake Jessup, FL; Lake Erie, OH.
16
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WATER QUALITY
Lake Trophic Status
3000
2500
CM
E 2000
£
0
Q)
O
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WATER QUALITY
Spills
Federal regulations require that the Coast
Guard's National Emergency Response
Center at 800/424-8802 (toll free) be notified
immediately of any oil or hazardous material
spills "into or upon the waters of the United
States" This Center will then coordinate
with EPA Region IV for appropriate response
within all areas of the latters jurisdiction.
Over the past several years, Region IV's
Emergency Response Team has answered
several thousand calls regarding oil and
hazardous materials spills. A response may
consist of just supervising or actually
cleaning up the spilled material together
with obtaining contractual assistance. Where
required legal processing of claims and
punitive court action against those
responsible for the spill may be undertaken.
Oil Spills
During 1976 and 1977 the number of oil
spills from transportation sources was almost
identical, i.e., 305 and 308, respectively, for
the first nine months of each year. However,
the total volume of spills during the first
nine months of 1977 was 170,000 gallons
greater than the previous year. This suggests
that spills from transportation sources could
be becoming more significant. Oil spills from
both transportation and non-transportation
sources consisted primarily of fuel and
heating oil, gasoline, and crude oil. Figure 9
shows the number of oil spills together with
information on causes and the distribution of
spills to various waterways. Figure 10
includes the volume of oil types spilled from
transportation and non-transportation
sources. The importance of preventive
measures have been stressed through the
spill prevention and containment plans which
are required by law for each oil storage
facility. In this regard the Region has
inspected the physical facilities and/or plans
at more than 9,000 oil storage facilities. This
number is greater than that for similar
inspections made by all of the other nine
Regions combined. Approximately 950 of the
facilities inspected were found to be in
violation of the law. Of this number over 900
have taken corrective action; the remainder,
only recently found to be in violation, are in
the process of taking such action.
Causes of Spills
Total Spills
Spills Reaching Waterways
600
500
400
300
200
| 100
a.
w
o 0
<5
E 100
3
Z
200
300
400
500
600
700
Human
Other Deliberate
Failure
Error
Causes of transportation
related spills not in
available records
January 1975 — July 1977
Non-transportation
Related Spills
Streams
Creeks
Rivers
Lakes
Canals
and
Salt
Water
~l 1-
January 1976 — September 1977
~
Transportation
Related Spills
Spills not reaching
waterways
FIGURE 9 Oil Spills
18
-------
WATER QUALITY
Spills
Hazardous Materials Spills
Federal law requires that hazardous
materials spills be reported, however,
implementing regulations which specify what
substances are hazardous will not be
completed until early 1978 From January
1976 — September 1977 there were 223
hazardous materials spills comprising more
than 6 million gallons of liquid and nearly
2000 tons of solid chemicals. Figure 10
compares these volumes with slightly over 2
million gallons of oil spilled over a 10 month
longer period of time. As reporting is now
voluntary the actual number of hazardous
materials spills is estimated to be 75 to 80
percent greater than those reported Even
though the appropriate regulations are not
yet in force, Region IV continues to respond
to hazardous materials spills to insure public
safety
Hazardous Materials Spills
Oil Spills
6,084,432 gals, (liquid)
1,964 tons (solid)
(for scale purposes only, 16 lbs 1 gal.)
1,543,010 gals.
T ransportation
Related
504, 046 gals.
©
Non-transportation
Related
Jan. 1976 — Sept. 1977
Jan. 1975 — July 1977
£ Fuel & Heating Oil ^ Crude Oil
^ Gasoline O Other Oils
FIGURE 10 Volumes of Oil and Hazardous materials Spills.
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Quality Standards
The Clean Air Act of 1970 directed EPA to
establish national ambient air quality
standards (NAAQS) for the most common
pollutants which adversely affect the public's
health and welfare. Such standards were set
in 1971 for six pollutants, i.e., total
suspended particulate matter, sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, photo-
chemical oxidants (ozone), and nitrogen
dioxide. Lead will probably be the seventh
pollutant incorporated into the standards.
Both primary and secondary standards are
specified in the Federal regulations. Primary
standards are intended to protect the public
health; secondary standards, which are more
stringent in the case of particulates and
sulfur dioxide, are intended to protect the
public welfare, i.e., damage to materials,
vegetation, etc. Pollutant levels are measured
over various averaging times with short-term
limits (24 hours or less) set for all
pollutants, except nitrogen dioxide which
has an annual average concentration limit.
The short-term limits may be exceeded once
a year without violation of the standards. A
brief description of each pollutant may be
helpful.
• Total suspended particulates (TSP)* —
particles of solid or liquid substances,
produced mostly by stationary fuel-
combustion furnaces and industrial
processes. They range in size from visible
soot and smoke to submicroscopic
particles. An additional and significant
fraction of this pollutant is dust which
enters the air by reentrainment from
various sources including both paved and
unpaved roads.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) — acrid, corrosive,
poisonous gas produced chiefly when
sulfur-bearing fossil fuels are burned.
Coal burning accounts for about 60% of
all sulfur dioxide emissions. A secondary
pollutant, sulfate compounds, are of
increasing concern, but there is not
enough knowledge of them now to permit
the development of a separate standard.
• Carbon Monixide (CO) — a colorless,
odorless, poisonous gas produced by
incomplete combustion of carbon in fuels.
More than three-fourths of carbon
monoxide emissions come from motor
vehicles.
• Hydrocarbons (HC)* — gaseous vapors
formed by the evaporation of volatile
organic chemicals and the incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels. Main sources
are automobiles, petroleum refineries and
transfer operations, and users of organic
solvents.
20
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Quality Standards
Their chief significance is their role in the
formation of smog or oxidants. Natural
sources, e.g., plants, rotting vegetation,
etc., also produce hydrocarbons but the
magnitude of significance of these
naturally occuring products is not well
understood.
• Photochemical oxidants (Ox)* — a
complex group of chemicals formed when
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in
the presence of sunlight. Often known as
smog or ozone, these compounds make
themselves known by reduced visibility
and irritation of the eyes and respiratory
tract.
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)* — gas produced
with high-temperature combustion is
followed by oxidation of the combusion
products. Such emissions are equally
divided between stationary sources (power
plants) and motor vehicles. Nitrogen
dioxide is an irritant to the eyes as well
as a precursor of smog.
*/ Omission of the word poisonous from the
descriptions for TSP, HC, Ox, and NO2 is
not meant to minimize their harmful effects.
Even though they are not in themselves
considered poisonous, some reduce our
protective mechanisms against infection
while others contribute, to emphysema,
sinusitis, asthma, and other debilitating
ailments.
Where air quality standards are now being
met the States are required to provide a
maintenance strategy to insure continued
acceptable air quality. This strategy must
deal with many factors including the
likelihood of population increases and
industrial growth.
Where standards are not presently being
met, more stringent action is required. For
these existing non-attainment areas, the
States are required by the Clean Air Act to
develop and implement strategies to attain
the primary air quality standards by 1982.
Failure to develop acceptable attainment
plans will result in sanctions for these areas
such as limiting industrial expansion and
withholding Federal funds for highway
projects.
Table 5 shows where violations of the
national ambient air quality standards
(NAAQS) occurred during 1976 and 1977.
the hydrocarbon standard is not included
since it is intended as a guide for
developing implementation plans to achieve
the oxidant standard, and only limited
monitoring data are available. Violations of
secondary standards are indicated in yellow
and violations of the primary standards are
shown in red. Particulate violations for 1976-
1977 were more common than usual in
Region IV because of very dry summers
both years.
21
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Quality Standards
TABLE 5
Violations of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards 1976-1977
Areas
TSP
SO2
CO
Ox
NO?
Areas
TSP|S02
CO
Ox.
NO?
Areas
TSP
SO2
\co
I Ox
[no?
Alabama
Kentucky
South Carolina
1
Colbert Co
Bell Co.
Berkely Co.
Gadsen
Boone Co
Charleston Co.
r^jj
Boyd Co.
Charleston
Jefferson Co
Campbell Co.
N. Charleston
J/
Central Birmingham
Newport
Georgetown
Lauderdale Co
8S8
2
Corbin
Lexington Co.
Madison Co.
MM
Daviess Co.
[3
Richland Co.
Mobile Co.
Owensboro
Columbia
—
N Mobile Co.
ni
Fayette Co.
York Co.
—
Downtown Mobile
Greenup Co
Rock Hill
Morgan Co.
Hazard
Rest of State
—
—
Russell Co.
Henderson Co
Tennessee
Rest of State
Henderson
Florida
Jefferson Co.
Anderson Co.
W. Louisville
Benton Co.
Broward Co
W. Co. ad) to Ohio River
Bradley Co.
Dade Co.
Kenton Co
Davidson Co
c
Duval Co
Louisa
Nashville
Escambia Co.
Marshall Co.
Hamilton Co.
Hillsborough Co.
McCraken Co.
Chattanooga
Leon Co
Muhlenberg Co.
Humphreys Co.
Orange Co.
Pikeville
Jacksboro
Palm Beach Co.
Richmond
Johnson City
/
Pinellas Co
Shepherdsville
Knox Co.
Polk Co
Webster Co.
Lafollette
/
Seminole Co
Rest of State
Maury Co.
Rest of State
Mississippi
Columbia
"
Georgia
Mt. Pleasant
—,
Laurel
Polk Co.
Atlanta (inside 1-285)
Rest of State
Roane Co
Clayton Co.
mm
J&
North Carolina
Kingston
Cobb Co,
¦B
*88
Rockwood
Coweta Co
¦n
Avery
Rutherford Co
DeKalb Co.
Buncombe Co.
Shelby Co.
Douglas Co.
Carteret Co.
Memphis
Fayette Co.
Durham Co.
Sullivan Co.
Fulton Co
w
¦¦
Forsyth Co.
Bristol
Atlanta (Fulton Co.)
Mecklenburg Co.
Kingsport
Gwinnett Co.
¦¦i
Mitchell Co.
Sumner Co.
Henry Co
Ml
Young Co.
Tullahoma
Muscogee Co
HI
Rest of State
Union City
Paulding Co.
tmm
HI Violation of primary standard
Williamson Co.
Rockdale Co.
Hi
Wilson Co.
Savannah
Rest of State
1
Walker Co.
Washington Co.
1 1 In compliance with standard (or presumed in compliance)
flU Portions only
1 1 Unclassifiable (insufficient data)
Rest of State
1
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Pollution Sources
The Clean Air Act lists two categories of air
pollution sources — stationary and mobile.
Power plants, manufacturing concerns, and
oil refineries are among the most common
examples of stationary sources while
airplanes, automobiles, trucks, and buses are
the most obvious sources of mobile
emissions The responsibility for controlling
mobile source emissions is primarily at the
Federal level, whereas State and local
agencies are primarily responsible for
controlling emissions from stationary
sources.
EPA maintains an emissions data system,
based largely on information furnished by
the States. This system contains data from
both point and area emission sources. Point
sources are stationary sources large enough
to individually have a significant effect on air
quality, e.g., steel mills, power plants, and
other industrial processes Area sources
include small stationary sources, e.g.,
residential heating, and mobile sources, e.g.,
auto emissions, which are smaller
individually, but may have a significant
cumulative impact.
State implementation plans are concerned
with establishing limits for point source
emissions and bringing these sources into
compliance. The Clean Air Act Amendments
of 1977 designate as major sources
enterprises which emit, or have the potential
to emit, 100 tons + of pollutants per year.
Figure 11 shows the number of major
emission sources in Region IV and the
number in compliance with established
emission limits.
Control of point sources in Region IV is
improving air quality. Additional improve-
ment required by air quality standards will
probably mean further control of area
sources.
Potential 100 ton/yr. Pollutant
Emission Sources in Region IV
In Compliance with
Emission Limits
Not in Compliance
with Emission Limits
KY AL TN
MS GA SC
FIGURE 11
23
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Pollution Sources
Automobile-Related Sources
Automobiles are the largest contributor to
mobile source pollution. As the number of
vehicles increases, emission controls are
increasingly necessary to meet air quality
standards in some areas of Region IV.
Through necessity, local governments have
begun to address this problem. The key
components of these controls are the vehicle
inspection and corrective maintenance
programs Figures 12 and 13 show the
magnitude of carbon-monoxide and ozone
problems in major Region IV areas.
STANDARD — 10 mg/m3 (9 ppm)
8 hr mean
FIGURE 12 Violations of NAAQS for Carbon Monoxide (1976)
(The number of listings of a given city indicate the
number of monitors within the city area).
600
STANDARD — 160 mg/m3 (0.08 ppm) max hourly cone
0 — No violations of standards
* — No data during the summer
AL FL GA KY MS NC SC TN
24
FIGURE 13 Violations of NAAQS for Ozone (1976) (The number of listings of a
given city indicate the number or monitors within the city area).
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Quality Planning
Economic growth and good air quality are
often difficult to reconcile. Air quality
planning attempts to meet this challenge
through good planning. This is dependent
on good data and an understanding of the
relationship between sources, emissions, and
air quality.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977
provide the legal impetus for this planning.
The Act imposes strict air pollution limits
and goals on both large stationary (point)
sources and groupings of mobile and/or
small stationary (area) sources.
Emissions Inventories
Emissions inventories are required by the
Act. They are a logical starting point for
planning a control strategy for a given
pollutant and a vital component in revising
plans to attain standards in present non-
attainment areas. Figures 14, 15, 16, 17, and
18 show estimates of total county emissions
for indicated pollutants as of April 1977.
Estimates are based on:
• listed emissions on permit applications,
• voluntarily reported emissions from those
not required to apply for permits, and
• estimates of area sources.
25
Figure 14.
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
O
©
O
o
Less than 1000 tons per year
1000 to 2999 tons per year
3000 to 9999 tons per year
10,000 or more tons per year
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Quality Planning
Figure I b .
HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS
Less than 1000 tons per year
1000 to 2999 tons per year
3000 to 9999 tons per year
10,000 or more tons per year
Figure I 5.
NITROGEN DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
O Less than 1000 tons per year
© 1000 to 2999 tons per year
O 3000 to 9999 tons per year
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Quality Planning
Figure 17 .
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
Less than 1000 tons per year
1000 to 9999 tons per year
10,000 to 99,999 tons per year
100,000 or more tons per year
O
O
Figure 18 .
CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS
Less than 1000 tons per year
1000 to 9999 tons per year
10,000 to 99,999 tons per year
100,000 or more tons per year
27
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Quality Planning
Figures 14-18 and Figure 19 provide a basis s
for calculating the type and volume of
-------
AIR QUALITY
Air Quality Planning
New Source Reviews
Good air quality planning also includes a
review of proposed new sources. New point
sources in non-attainment areas must meet
the strict requirements of the Act- In attain-
ment areas, new sources must not cause
significant air quality deterioration. New
point source emissions must be treated with
the latest available and economically feasible
technology EPA is encouraging State and
local agencies to administer their own air
pollution control programs, provided that
they are at least as stringent or environ-
mentally protective as the Federal programs.
New source programs are designed to: (1)
prevent significant air quality deterioration,
(2) develop new source performance
standards, and (3) control emissions of
hazardous air pollutants, e.g., asbestos,
beryllium, mercury, and vinyl chloride Table
6 shows the number of sources categorized
in each of the three program objectives.
Table New Source Programs
NUMBER OF SOURCES SUBJECT TO CONTROL THROUGH:
Prevention of
significant
deterioration
New source
performance
standards
National emission
standards for
hazardous air
pollutants
1975
NEW 76
TOTAL
1975
NEW 76
TOTAL
1975 & NEW 76
TOTAL
AL
0
1
1
3
18
21
18
18
FL
0
1
1
10
12
22
18
18
GA
0
0
0
8
9
17
23
23
KY
0
2
2
3
0
3
16
16
MS
0
0
0
3
3
6
4
4
NC
0
1
1
6
7
13
13
13
SC
0
0
0
5
2
7
9
9
TN
0
0
0
4
0
4
16
16
29
-------
SOLID WASTE
The average citizen thinks of solid waste as
the material that the garbage man hauls off.
Solid waste is actually a broad array of
waste materials, including garbage, refuse,
and other discarded materials from
community, commercial, agricultural, mining,
and industrial activities. It also includes
sludges from waste treatment plants, water
supply treatment plants, and air pollution
control facilities as well as low-level
radioactive material.
The ultimate solution to the management of
solid wastes involves reducing the amount of
material discarded and recycling more of
what is discarded. Unfortunately, society will
never be able to recycle all its solid wastes.
Even incineration leaves a significant
quantity of irreducible, unusable residue.
Sanitary landfills are engineered construction
projects designed to efficiently bury solid
waste to protect both ground water and the
surface environment. To do this they must
be properly located, designed, and operated,
or they are only little better than dumps with
all their attendant health and pollution
hazards. Figure 20 indicates that an
increasing number of people are being
served by authorized solid waste disposal
facilities.
Percent of Population*Served by State Authorized
Solid Waste Disposal Facilities
Regional Summary
84% Served
Served
'Based on 1970 Census Figures
FIGURE 20
30
-------
SOLID WASTE
EPA's approach to solid waste management
is to provide financial and technical
assistance to help build more effective State
solid waste management agencies.
Assistance and information are also provided
to individuals, public and private agencies,
and institutions. Some current programs and
projects are described below.
State Solid Waste Grant Program — Annual
EPA grants help develop and improve State
solid waste programs. Management Plans
have been developed and published in all
eight states; hazardous or industrial surveys
have been completed or are nearing
completion as well. Tennessee has passed a
comprehensive hazardous waste management
law; and Florida has published a State
Resources Recovery Program document.
Solid Waste Management Facility Information
System — EPA's computerized data base
offers a mechanism for storing, updating,
and retrieving information on solid waste
management facilities, e.g., disposal sites,
transfer stations, incinerators. This system is
currently in use by South Carolina; the other
Region IV States are working toward
adopting the same or similar systems.
Status of Hazardous Waste Management —
Technical complexities coupled with limited
resources prompted each State to handle
management of hazardous wastes on a case-
by-case basis. The Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act of 1976 requires that each
State set up a control program by October
1978. If a state elects not to set up a
program, EPA will assume jurisdiction.
Enforcement — There is no direct Federal
regulatory power over land disposal of
municipal solid waste, but provisions of the
Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, and the
Refuse Act of 1899 have been used to
eliminate many environmentally offensive
practices. Under the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act, EPA will establish
national standards for non-hazardous waste
disposal which will be enforced by the
States.
Federal Facilities — EPA's guidelines for
solid waste management practices are
mandatory for Federal agencies. In addition
to previously developed land disposal
guidelines, EPA has also published
guidelines that require resource recovery at
Federal facilities. Agencies will be required
to recycle paper, use resource recovery
plants, and use returnable beverage
containers. Federal facilities must now also
obtain any required permits for solid waste
sites and facilities from the appropriate
Federal, State, interstate and local
authorities.
31
-------
TOXICANTS
Toxicants are chemical substances or
mixtures which present an unreasonable risk
of injury to health or to the environment.
Recent incidents in which toxicants such as
mercury, kepone, carbon tetrachloride,
hexachlorocyclopentadiene, PCBs, PBBs,
and others have been introduced into the
environment have focused the public's
attention on the attendant dangers
associated with their manufacture and use.
These incidents have highlighted the need
for increased vigilance and effective action
to protect the public and the environment
from acute and chronic toxicity problems.
Table 7 identifies the locations and types
of the known and potential toxicant problem
areas shown in Figure 21.
Toxic Substances Control Act
In an effort to reduce the dangers
associated with the manufacture and use of
toxic substances, Congress passed the Toxic
Substances Control Act (TSCA) on October
11, 1976. TSCA has four major objectives:
1. To provide information needed to
determine the degree of risk associated
with potentially toxic substances so that
regulations can be instituted as warranted;
Known
Problem Areas
KY 1
SC 1
TN 1
FL 1
MS 1
AL 2
AL 3
TN 2
TN 3
FL 2
GA 2
TABLE 7
KNOWN AND POTENTIAL TOXIC POLLUTANT PROBLEM AREAS IN REGION IV
Lake Weiss and Coosa River from Rome to GA-AL
Stateline
Ohio River from Ashland. KY io Cannelton L&D
Lake Hartwell and Twelve Mile Creek
Mississpnp River at Memphis
Huntsville Spring Branch, Indian Creek and the
Tennessee River af Redstone Arsenal
Main Canal at Vero Beach
Yazoo River Basin
Mobile River
Birmingham Area — Bankhead Lake, Locust Fork, Village
Creek, Valley Creek, and Five Mile Creek
Chattannooga Area - Chickamauga Lake. Chattanooga
Creek and Chickamauga Creek
Holston River and North Fork Holston River at
Kmgsport
Peace River
Savannah River from Port Wentworth to Horse Creek
Potential Problem Areas
AL 4
FL 4
MS 2
NC 1
NC 2
NC 3
SC 2
SC 3
TN 4
TN 5
TN 6
TN 7
TN 8
AL 5
KY 2
TN 9
TN 10
AL 6
FL 5
FL 6
KY 3
KY 4
NC 4
TN 11
TN 12
FL 7
Alfafia River
Black Warrior River at Tuscaloosa
Miami - Ft Lauderdale area canals
Bowie River at Hattiesbury
Catawba River at Mt. Holly
Catawba Riber and Lake Rodiss at Leoofr
Cape Fear River at Wilmington
Lawsons Fork Creek
North Fork EdiSto River at Orangeburg
Loosahatchie and Wolf Rivers at Memphis
Watauga River at Ehzabethton
Nolichucky River from its confluence with the
French Broad to mile 7 6
Forked Deer and Obion Rivers
Hatchie River Basin
Baker Creek and Wheeler Lake at Decatur
Tannessee River from the Calvert City Industrial
Complex to its confluence with the Ohio River
Duck River from mile 214 to 221 and Big Bigby Creek
West Fork Stones River
Coosa River at Gadsden
Lake Jackson
St Johns River at Jacksonville
Dowey Lake
Fishtrap Lake
Swift Creek at Wintervriie
Ocoee River at Copperhill
Little Rigeon River at Sevierville
Problem
Orgamcis
Organics
Organics
Organics
Pesticides
Pesticides
Pesticides
Organics and heavy metals
Organfcs and heavy metals
Organics and heavy metals
Organics and heavy metals
Heavy metals
Heavy metals
Heavy metals and fluorides
Organics
Organics
Organics
Organics
Organics
Organics
Organics
Organics
Organics
Organics
Organics
Pesticides
Pesticides
Organics and heavy metals
Organics and heavy metals
Organics and heavy metals
Organics and heavy metals
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
metals
metals
metals
metals
metals
metals
metals
metals
Escambia Bay
CNnch River below Oak Ridge and White Oak Lake
Unionized ammonia, cyanide
and thiocyanate
Radionuclides
32
-------
KNOWN and POTENTIAL TOXIC POLLUTANT
PROBLEM AREAS in REGION IV
O Areas of Known Contamination
O Areas of Potential Contamination
-------
TOXICANTS
2. To anticipate and prevent problems
through premarket screening for
potentially toxic effects of new products;
3. To balance costs, risks, and benefits
during environmental decision-making in
regard to the introduction of new
products and the continued production
and use of existing products; and
4 To achieve coordination in and among
Federal agencies concerned with toxic
substances.
Under TSCA, EPA is authorized to obtain data
from industry on the production, use, health
effects, and other matters concerning chemi-
cal substances and mixtures. If warranted, EPA
may regulate the manufacture, processing,
distribution in commerce, use, and disposal of
a chemical substance or mixture. Over 50,000
chemical substances are commercially mar-
keted in the U.S., with about one thousand
new substances being introduced each year.
The sale of these chemicals exceeds $100
billion per year, hence the magnitude of their
regulation/control is staggering. Pesticides,
tobacco, nuclear material, firearms and am-
munition, food, food additives, drugs, and
cosmetics are currently regulated under sep-
arate laws and are thus excluded from regula-
tion under TSCA.
Evaluation of Toxicity Risks
In addition to short-term or acute toxicity,
many substances bioaccumulate and/or
present long-term risks associated with
carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, and terato-
genesis. The most common method of
analyzing these properties is exposing
laboratory test animals to the substance in
question. This is followed by correlating
animal tests to human effects. The validity of
applying animal carcinogenesis test results
'to man is firmly based upon empirical
evidence. In every case, except arsenic, each
chemical known to cause cancer in man has
been found to do so in animal species. 1/
Another means of assessing carcinogenesis
in man is to determine cause and effect
relationships in areas of high cancer
mortality rates (see Figure 22).1/
Researchers have estimated that 60-90% of
all cancer is related to environmental factors.
These factors include cigarette smoking,
exposure to carcinogenic agents in
workplace, and the ambient environment,
i.e., air, water, soil and biota. Natural agents
such as solar and cosmic radiation, natural
asbestos, and aflatoxins, a class of
chemicals secreted by some molds, are also
considered to be environmental cancer
causing factors.3/ Epidemiological and
toxicological research is currently underway
within EPA in an attempt to determine the
relationship between pollutants in the
ambient environment and cancer and other
human health effects.
Toxicant Problems
In the past, toxicant problems have been
handled on a case-by-case basis as they
arose. Elevated mercury concentration in
fish tissues is a good example. This problem
emerged only after 52 people in Minamata
and Niigate, Japan died from eating
contaminated fish. Subsequently a nation-
wide investigation of 106 potential industrial
dischargers of mercury was conducted in
the United States by the Federal Water
Quality Administration, predecessor to EPA,
34
-------
TOXICANTS
Figure 22.
CANCER MORTALITY, 1960-1974
All Cancer Types
© Higher than U.S. Average
O Same as U.S. Average
0 Lower than U.S. Average
between May 1970 and April 1971. Seven
areas in Region IV were discovered to be
contaminated with mercury. Fish caught in
these areas contained mercury in excess of
the FDA "action level" (0.5/ug/g). These
areas, in order of decreasing severity, are:
(1) North Fork Holston River, TN; (2) Mobile
River, AL; (3) Savannah River, GA. (4)
Pickwick Reservoir, AL, MS. and TN; (5)
Kentucky Lake, KY and TN. (6) Brunswick
Estuary, GA; and (7) Chickamauga
Reservoir, TN Of these areas, only the
Savannah River has shown significant
decreases in tissue concentration (see Figure
23) since 1972. Although the discharge of
mercury has been stringently controlled
since the early 1970's, mercury is a
persistent toxicant and is still present in fish
tissues above the FDA "action level" in all
these areas 4/
'The FDA's "action level" is the
concentration below which consumption is
considered safe, e.g., for Hg 0.5/jg/g.
Concentrations above the "action level" may
or may not be safe depending on the actual
concentration, amount consumed, frequency
of consumption, etc. When the "action level"
is exceeded a decision as to the action
required is made on a case-by-case basis
depending on the severity of the hazard.
35
-------
TOXICANTS
TOXICANTS
O)
O)
g
c
o
c
a>
o
c
o
O
CT>
X
c
CO
to
3
C
C
<
3 0-
2.0-
1.0-
to
Q
FDA
'Action Level'
'70
'71
'72
'73
'74
'75
'76
FIGURE 23 Mercury concentrations in Largemouth Bass Fillets taken from the
Savannah River below Savannah Bluff Lock and Dam.
High concentrations of PCBs, another
persistent pollutant in fish, have also been a
problem in Region IV. Concentrations in
excess of the FDA "action level" (5.0iUg/g)
have been detected in fish caught in Lake
Hartwell, GA and SC and in Lake Weiss and
the Coosa River in GA and AL. Several
other areas in the Region have sediment
concentrations in excess of normal
background levels; however, lack of data
makes the extent of the overall problem
difficult to determine.2/ Traditionally, data on
toxic organics have not been routinely
collected. This limits the data base and has
the effect of biasing projections, as sampling
is concentrated in areas where problems are
already known to exist.
In Louisville, KY, hexachlorocyclopentadiene.
"hexa" and related compounds were dumped
or spilled into the city sewers. As a result, the
Morris Forman Wastewater Treatment Plant
was closed in late March, 1977; but only after
several employees were hospitalized due to
exposure to these compounds. Additionally,
100 million gallons per day (mgd) of raw
sewage had to be bypassed directly into the
Ohio River for several months. Although the
plant was reopened in August, 1977, the
Broadway interceptor sewer and treated
wastewater from the facility were still contam-
inated as of January 1978 and 10-15 mgd of
raw sewage was still being discharged to the
Ohio River. Clean-up costs for the Louisville
sewerage system alone were $500,000.
36
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TOXICANTS
The Ohio River has been subject to
numerous related incidents. In early 1977 a
spill of carbon tetrachloride on a major
tributary caused great concern at
downstream waterworks. A lack of timely
information on concentration levels,
inaccurate estimates of arrival time at
downstream water intakes, and a lack of
suitable techniques at waterworks for
detecting carbon tetrachloride led to the
formation of a prototype Early Warning
Detection Network. Through EPA funding
the network is being implemented by the
Ohio River Water Sanitation Commission and
cooperating water utilities. Seven stations
are monitored at least five times a week for
selected organic chemicals. When problem
compounds are detected and confirmed, a
notification plan is activated. This allows
appropriate action by downstream water-
works to protect the public drinking water
supplies. In some cases additional water
treatment may be needed; in other cases
water intakes must be shut off until the
chemical passes down river.
EPA is currently developing effluent
guidelines and water quality criteria for 129
toxic compounds designated as "priority
pollutants." The Agency is also compiling
inventories of production, use, and storage
of various chemical substances and mixtures
as called for in TSCA. Procedures are being
developed to define "exposure risks"; i.e.,
procedures to determine which substances
or mixtures are toxic and at what
concentrations they constitute an unreason-
able risk of injury to health or the
environment. Information is also being
collected on public water supplies to
determine what chemicals are contaminating
drinking water.
Efforts in Region IV with regard to toxic
substances include:
1. Monitoring to determine water discharges
and ambient concentrations of the
"priority pollutants";
2. Bioassays of the discharge from selected
industries to determine both acute and
subacute toxic responses in aquatic
organisms,
3. Assistance to industries in developing the
inventories required by TSCA; and
4. Identification of potential problems which
could effect public water supplies.
The magnitude of the toxicant problem is
just beginning to be appreciated. Increased
information on long term health effects of
toxicants together with improved analytical
techniques for detecting them will result in a
mushrooming of identified exposures and
risks. Current monitoring techniques have
barely scratched the surface of the problem.
However, in an effort to address the problem
it is projected that "the control of toxic
substances will be, perhaps in a period of
ten years, every bit as rigid as the Food and
Drug Administration regulations on drugs
are today."9/
37
-------
TOXICANTS
The Ohio River has been subject to
numerous related incidents. In early 1977 a
spill of carbon tetrachloride on a major
tributary caused great concern at
downstream waterworks. A lack of timely
information on concentration levels,
inaccurate estimates of arrival time at
downstream water intakes, and a lack of
suitable techniques at waterworks for
detecting carbon tetrachloride led to the
formation of a prototype Early Warning
Detection Network. Through EPA funding
the network is being implemented by the
Ohio River Water Sanitation Commission and
cooperating water utilities. Seven stations
are monitored at least five times a week for
selected organic chemicals. When problem
compounds are detected and confirmed, a
notification plan is activated. This allows
appropriate action by downstream water-
works to protect the public drinking water
supplies. In some cases additional water
treatment may be needed; in other cases
water intakes must be shut off until the
chemical passes down river.
EPA is currently developing effluent
guidelines and water quality criteria for 129
toxic compounds designated as "priority
pollutants." The Agency is also compiling
inventories of production, use, and storage
of various chemical substances and mixtures
as called for in TSCA. Procedures are being
developed to define "exposure risks"; i.e.,
procedures to determine which substances
or mixtures are toxic and at what
concentrations they constitute an unreason-
able risk of injury to health or the
environment. Information is also being
collected on public water supplies to
determine what chemicals are contaminating
drinking water.
Efforts in Region IV with regard to toxic
substances include:
1. Monitoring to determine water discharges
and ambient concentrations of the
"priority pollutants";
2. Bioassays of the discharge from selected
industries to determine both acute and
subacute toxic responses in aquatic
organisms,
3. Assistance to industries in developing the
inventories required by TSCA; and
4. Identification of potential problems which
could effect public water supplies.
The magnitude of the toxicant problem is
just beginning to be appreciated. Increased
information on long term health effects of
toxicants together with improved analytical
techniques for detecting them will result in a
mushrooming of identified exposures and
risks. Current monitoring techniques have
barely scratched the surface of the problem.
However, in an effort to address the problem
it is projected that "the control of toxic
substances will be, perhaps in a period of
ten years, every bit as rigid as the Food and
Drug Administration regulations on drugs
are today."9/
37
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PESTICIDES
Pesticides are a class of toxic substances
which came under close public scrutiny with
the publication of Silent Spring by Rachel
Carson in 1962. In the 1950's and 1960's,
organochlorides were the predominate
pesticides in use. These persistent
compounds required application only once
or twice during the growing season of a
crop. This persistence, however, proved to be a
major shortcoming as they also persisted in
the soil and water, in fish and wildlife, and
even in people. In a 1969 soil survey of
croplands, the most common pesticide
residues were dieldrin, aldrin, DDT and
chlordane. In 1972 EPA banned the use of
DDT. Shortly after, aldrin and dieldrin were
also banned. Use of chlordane is now
restricted to soil application for control of
ants and termites. Figure 24 shows the
decline in concentrations of DDT and other
organochlorides in human fat tissues.5/
With the ban on DDT and several of the
other organochloride insecticides there was
an increase in the use of organophosphates
and carbamate insecticides. These are less
persistent, but they are often more acutely
toxic and more dangerous to handle than
the organochlorides. In order to insure safe
handling of all pesticides as well as their
proper application and use, the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
requires States to develop, train, and certify
both private and commercial pesticide
applicators. As of September 30, 1977.
40,266 commercial and 260,261 private
pesticide applicators had been certified in
Region IV.
10.0.
9.0
E
8.0.
Q.
CL
CO
CD
3
7.0.
CO
co
6.0.
CC
H—
c
CO
5.0.
E
13
-C
C
4.0 1
o
-*—<
CO
1—
3.0 J
c
CD
O
c
2.0 J
o
O
1.0.
~ Total DDT
~ Other Organochlorides
1970 1971 1972 1973 1974
FIGURE 24 Pesticide Residues in Human Fat Tissues
38
-------
PESTICIDES
The need for continued and even increased
use of pesticides can be clearly
demonstrated from estimates of crop losses
even at existing pesticide use levels. The
current estimated annual crop losses are
13.8% from insect damage, 11.6% from plant
disease, and 9.5% from weeds. The use of
herbicides is also rapidly increasing.
Herbicides are used to control weeds in
agricultural crops, reduce aquatic vegetation
in waterways, and defoliate telephone and
power line rights of way.
The use of pesticides is also vitally
important in the control of disease bearing
insects. However, improper or over zealous
use can actually worsen insect infestation as
well as foster environmental damage. Fish
kills from spills or from spraying too close
to streams are among the more apparent
dangers. Other dangers are more subtle,
e.g., over kills of predatory insects, may
allow pest species to proliferate more rapidly
or destruction of soil microogranisms may
decrease the soil's ability to break down
crop residues. This in turn decreases the
soil's ability to retain moisture and requires
increased use of synthetic fertilizers.
Pesticide disposal presents another serious
problem. Alabama recently approved the first
landfill in the Region for accepting
hazardous wastes. This is a commendable
step toward proper disposal. South Carolina
is currently developing a program for proper
disposal of hazardous materials. However,
the full solution to pesticide container
disposal is yet to be worked out. It may
have to involve a recycle program to the
manufacturers.
EPA's pesticide program personnel
investigate accidents involving pesticides, as
well as potential or reported cases of
mishandling, mislabeling or misuse of
pesticides. Table 8 lists the number of
samples which have been analyzed to
evaluate potential problems and the number
of violations which were detected. The
percentage of violations is higher than would
be expected from random sampling since
many samples are taken in response to
complaints.
Table 8
Pesticide Problem Investigation
Fiscal Year '73 '74 75 '76 '77
Number of
Samples
Number of
Violations
% Violations
949 728 839 — 1282
161 87 65 — 163
17 11 8 — 13
39
-------
The impact of nuclear radiation on the
environment has been a major concern ever
since the atomic bomb violently ushered in
the atomic age The threat of atomic
weapons is always present, but of more
immediate concern to EPA are the effects of
much lower levels of radiation from the
nuclear power industry. Currently the
amount of radioactivity added to the
environment from individual nuclear power
plant operations is small. Figure 25,
however, shows that releases of long-lived
radioactive materials from nuclear power
generation are increasing. As a result, future
generations will be obliged to accept
elevated levels of radioactivity because of
the present commitment to nuclear power
generation. The radioactive effluents and
wastes shown on Figure 25 are from nuclear
power plants which reached commercial
operation, or had measurable releases prior
to commercial operation as of December
1976. With respect to solid wastes, the
charted values are for process wastes only
and do not include spent fuel shipments.
The accumulation of radioactive wastes will
become increasingly significant in the future.
Figure 26 shows that as of December 1977,
Region IV had 9 nuclear power generating
sites with a combined total of 15 nuclear
reactors. This is projected to increase to 25
sites and 53 reactors by 1991. Even though
suitable technology has not yet been
developed, considerable Federal and State
attention is being directed towards the
ultimate disposal of radioactive wastes from
nuclear power plants. In the meantime all
interim waste storage facilities must be
closely monitored to insure that the
radioactivity is contained.
40
RADIATION
N^i
] Airborne Releases
Liquid Releases
Solid Waste Shipped Offsite
which atoms of radioactive sources disintegrate.
Types and Trends of Radioactivity Releases
from Regional Nuclear Power Generation
FIGURE 25
-------
RADIATION
The radiation dose accruing to the individual
depends on the principal exposure pathways.
This dosage can be predicted by an
assessment of site-specific information for
each particular source. Figure 27 compares
whole body radiation dose rates from
nuclear power to that of other environmental
and medical radiation sources. In 1970 the
generation of nuclear power contributed
1/1000 of 1 percent of the total radiation
dose the average person received. At the
present rate of increase, this will reach
about 1/100 of 1 percent by the year 2000. If
this rate of increase were to continue the
total background radiation dose would be
doubled in 150 years. It has been estimated
that by the year 1990 over half of the
Region's electrical generating capacity will
be nuclear.6/
EPA is presently responsible for setting
environmental standards and for providing
Federal guidance on all radiation matters
that could have effects on public health. The
agency, in conjunction with the States, also
operates a network of stations across the
Region that monitor radioactivity levels in
the air and water.
/ MS
Nuclear Power
Reactors in
Region IV
¦ Licensed to Operate
A Being Built
O Planned
Reactors Located
at Same Site
Summary of Estimates of Annual Whole-Body
Dose Rates in the U. S. (1970)
<0
. 100
E
0) 80
~
Other (Including Nuclear Power)
Medical/Dental
Natural Background
Maximum exposure not to exceed 170
mrem over and above natural background
and necessary medical exposure.
^Millirem is a unit of biological dosage related to the amount of energy
deposited in tissue by various kinds of radiation.
FIGURE 26 FIGURE 27 41
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MINING
Coal Mining
Coal deposits in Alabama, Tennessee, and
Kentucky have been continuously mined for
the past 50 years (Figure 28). Today, mining
activities in these areas are being expanded
to keep pace with the increased demand for
coal. Kentucky is the major coal producer in
the U.S. with extensive surface mining
operations in both the eastern and western
portions of the state.
Strip mining runoff may reach surface
streams directly and/or collect in
inadequately designed holding ponds. During
or immediately after heavy precipitation
these ponds can overflow, releasing
concentrated pollutants to receiving streams.
If these concentrations are too high to be
sufficiently diluted by the receiving stream,
the ecological balance of the stream may be
disrupted.
All methods of coal mining create some
pollution Suspended solids are carried to
rivers and streams as erosion washes away
loose soil at mining sites. If sulfur is
present, acid drainage coupled with high
concentrations of dissolved toxic materials
creates even more severe water pollution
problems
r
)_TN_._
Major Coal
and Phosphate
Mining Locations
in Region IV
AL
Coal
Phosphate
FIGURE 28
42
-------
MINING
Coal Mining
Extensive damage is caused by mineral
acids especially sulfuric. This acid is formed
in the streams when iron sulfide is exposed
to air and water. Acid streams corrode
culverts, bridges, locks, boat hulls, barges,
and pumps. If this condition becomes
especially pronounced, water related
recreation diminishes and property values
along these streams decline.
To combat water pollution associated with
coal mining EPA established regulations
effective July 1, 1977, which require the coal
mining industry to:
1. Follow guidelines to insure adequate
design of holding ponds,
2. Conform to effluent concentration
limitations for manganese, iron, and total
suspended solids, and
3 Conform to pH limits (to control acidity).
Enforcement of these regulations should
reduce the pollution load contributed by the
coal mining industry to the rivers and/or
streams.
Specific Water Quality Problems Associated
with Coal Mining — Region IV
Alabama — The Black Warrior River Basin
near Tuscaloosa is intermittently affected by
acid mine drainage and siltation
Kentucky — Limited acid mine drainage
occurs along the upper reaches of the
Cumberland River in Harland, Bell and Knox
counties. More minor pollution also exists in
Laurel, Whitley, and McCreary counties
along the Cumberland River tributaries. The
upper reaches of the Kentucky River,
especially the North Fork and its tributaries
have depressed water quality. Continous
pollution from mine drainage exists only in a
few minor tributaries in the vicinity of
Hazard and Whitesburg. Intermittent mineral
acidity occurs in the Levisa Fork of the Big
Sandy River. Sedimentation is a bigger
problem than acidity in eastern Kentucky
streams. Acid from abandoned deep and
surface mines in western Kentucky causes
problems in the Tidewater Basin in
Christian, Webster and Union counties. The
Green River Basin has acid problems in
McLean, Muhlenberg, Ohio, Daviess and
Butler counties.
Tennessee — Acid drainage with its
associated pollutants is found throughout
the coal bearing region crossed by the
Tennessee River and its tributaries. The East
Fork of the Obey River is continuously
acidic as are creeks of northern Tennessee
in the vicinity of Jellico.
Planning for responsible mining and
reclamation procedures is more important
now than ever before. With coal production
expanding, all the environmental problems
discussed above will increase unless
environmentally protective operations are
planned and funded in advance.
43
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MINING
Phosphate Mining
Phosphate is one of the major chemicals
used in fertilizers. As the demand for
fertilizers has increased so has the demand
for phosphate. Phosphate mining has increased
by about six percent per year over the past 30
years. If this trend continues, the U. S. will have a
demand for approximately 3.858 x 10 tons of
phosphate in 1980. Most of this demand will
be satisfied by the phosphate mines located
in Region IV.
Major phosphate mining reserves in Region
IV are located in Florida, North Carolina,
and Tennessee (Figure 28). North Carolina
has one functioning site and another
scheduled to begin operations soon.
Tennessee has had nearly 30,000 acres of
land disturbed by phosphate mining. Florida,
however, is the major U. S. phosphate
producer with Polk County containing the
largest deposits. Other known deposits in
Florida are located in Hillsborough, Manatee,
Hardee, DeSoto, Charlotte, Hamilton, and
Sarasota counties. Approximately 110,000
acres of land in Florida are currently
disturbed by phosphate mining activities;
however, according to figures of the Florida
Phosphate Council 300,000 acres of
previously mined land have been reclaimed.
Some 80,000 to 90,000 acres of unreclaimed
land has returned to a natural state and may
not need further reclamation.
One major concern with phosphate mining is
the release of phosphate into nearby bodies
of water. Phosphate is one of two required
macronutrients needed for algae. Over
abundant supplies of phosphate may cause
luxuriant growths of algae and attendant
nuisance conditions, such as, odors, fish
kills, and clogged waterways.
Phosphate ore also contains uranium,
radium, and other radionuclides. These
present a potential radiological contamina-
tion problem as a result of gaseous and
liquid discharges from ore benefication and
processing facilities. Land disturbed during
strip mining and subsequently reclaimed also
presents a potential radiation problem to
homes later built on these reclaimed lands.
Flouride emissions, associated with handling
and processing phosphate ore, may cause
both air and water pollution problems.
Excessive emissions can result in fluorosis,
an irreversible condition of bone and tooth
deterioration.
EPA now has regulations limiting the
discharge of both air and water pollutants at
phosphate mining operations. Unfortunately,
the present regulations require "phosphate
mining operations to conform to effluent
concentration limits only for total suspended
solids and pH. It is hoped that these
regulations will be strengthened so EPA can
be more effective in regulating the pollutants
associated with the phosphate mining
industry.
44
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENTS
Region IV is heavily involved, through the
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
process, in evaluating the impacts of certain
construction projects/permit actions on the
natural environment. The process involves a
series of increasingly comprehensive
analyses depending on the size and/or
environmental significance of a project. For
relatively small facilities having only short-
term impacts, an Environmental Assessment
is prepared. If, upon review, its impacts are
verified as minor, a negative declaration is
assigned and the project proceeds For
those small facilities which are determined
to have major or long term impacts and
larger facilities and undertakings having
obvious environmental significance, a
complete draft EIS is prepared. This first
draft statement is reviewed and any negative
comments assume the form of environmental
reservations, listing stipulated changes.
Necessary alterations are made by the
sponsoring agency and incorporated into a
final statement. If, however, the sponsor
elects not to make the stipulated changes or
the project, per se, poses significant long-
term environmental consequences, the
facility can be rated as unsatisfactory and
notification is sent to the Council on
Environmental Quality for Dispostion.
The number of EIS's, draft and final,
reviewed by the Region since 1971 as well
as those on which the Region expressed
environmental reservations are shown in
Figure 39.
In addition, EPA also is the primary enabling
Federal agency in preparing certain
Environmental Impact statements. This EIS
preparation has progressed from a small
office with a temporary staff to a complete
section coordinating 201 projects, new
source NPDES permits, 303 Basin Plans and
Clean Lakes Projects.
In the future the EIS program will be
working on permitting hazardous waste
disposal areas, approval of 208 plans, and
state-issued new source NPDES permits, and
preparation of general, area-wide EIS's for a
group of similar actions in one area.
300
250 .
¦o
5
| 200
CD
DC
V)
cn
lu 150
CD
100 .
50
Drafts
¦ Approved
~ Environmental
Reservations
Finals
~ Approved
E3 Environmentally
Unsatisfactory
t- CM CO -<3- LD CD f-
r— r— i— r~~ r— r—
CT> CD CD CT> CT5 CD
FIGURE 29 Number of EIS's
Reviewed.
45
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NOISE
Oppressively loud sound is becoming far too
prevalent in today's environment. Hearing
loss as well as hypertension often results
from prolonged high noise levels.
Community noise is dealt with in the Noise
Control Act of 1972. This law mandates that
the policy of the United States is "to
promote an environment for all Americans
free from noise that jeopardizes their health
or welfare".
Under this law EPA serves as the primary
Federal regultory authority for noise control
from construction equipment, transportation
equipment (except aircraft), motors, engines,
and electrical or electronic equipment. EPA
also coordinates all Federal programs related
to noise research and noise control. EPA
assists State and local governments in
developing noise control ordinances, and in
selecting and operating noise-measuring
equipment. In addition to Federal
regulations, State and local governments
have many other options of their own to
control environmental noise. These include
land use standards, building codes, use and
operating standards, and noise emission
standards for new products not already
regulated by EPA.
Percent of State Populations Protected by
Local Noise Ordinances with Acoustical Criteria
46
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NOISE
EPA and the National Institute of Municipal
Law Officers have published a model noise-
control ordinance that communities may use
as a guide to develop new noise control
codes. Most communities, if they have noise
control programs, rely on difficult to enforce
nuisance provisions and very subjective no
loud noise or quiet zone requirements. EPA
encourages the adoption of ordinances and
legislation based on measurable noise levels,
i.e., acoustical criteria whidh can actually be
measured and therefore, objectively
enforced. Table 9 shows the number ot
Region IV communities with acousjical
ordinances. In addition to assisting in the
development of noise control ordinances,
Region IV offers technical assistance,
equipment loans, and expert testimony to
states and communities in the Southeast.
Three categories of noise control ordinances
currently in use are.
Zoning (Land Use Ordinance) — An
ordinance that sets property line sound
limits for land use categories, e.g.,
residential, commercial and industrial.
Nuisance Ordinance — A general ordinance
prohibiting all noises offensive or annoying
to individuals or the community.
Motor Vehicle Ordinance — An ordinance
limiting the noise from motor vehicles as
defined by the State.
The status of noise ordinances and
legislation with acoustical criteria in Region
IV is still in the beginning stages (see Figure
30). Currently, Florida is the only state with
acoustical criteria for motor vehicles. It also
leads in the number of communities which
have established ordinances incorporating
acoustical standards (excluding motor
vehicles).
Table 9
Number Of Communities With
Ordinances Incorporating Acoustical
Criteria (Excluding Motor Vehicle)
Alabama
3
Mississippi
0
Florida
32
North Carolina
3
Georgia
7
South Carolina
2
Kentucky
1
Tennessee
1
47
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(APPENDIX A)
Region IV's water Quality Index currently
evaluates a stream based on the nine
common water quality characteristics defined
below During the next year plans are to
expand the index to include toxicants and
possibly some biological characteristics.
Dissolved Oxygen (D.O.): Oxygen dissolved
in water is as necessary to fish and other
aquatic organisms as oxygen in the air is to
man. Organic material, ammonia and various
chemicals can deplete the D O. in the water.
BODs: Standardized measure of the amount
of oxygen which is used by bacteria in five
days while oxidizing organic matter.
Bacteria: Fecal coliform bacteria are
indicators of fecal contamination from warm
blooded animals, including man. They
usually indicate the presence of sewage or
contaminated runoff and serve as a warning
that waterborne pathogens may be present.
pH: This is a measure of acidity or alkalinity.
Extremely high or low pH is harmful to
aquatic life. Low pH (acid) water is often
responsible for damaging manmade
structures.
Nitrogen (N): Nitrate (NO3) and nitrite (NO?)
compounds are combined by the index.
These compounds have a fertilizing effect on
aquatic plants, which if allowed to grow
unchecked can lead to a broad spectrum of
nuisance conditions.
Phosphorus (P): Phosphorus (all forms) in
the water is another element which has
fertilizing effect on plant species.
Temperature: The temperature of water will
affect its biological, physical, and chemical
nature. In general, higher temperatures
cause more severe problems.
Turbidity: Turbidity is the cloudy or hazy
appearance of water caused by a suspension
of tiny liquid droplets or, more usually,
finely divided solids. Turbidity interferes with
many water uses.
Total Solids: All materials present in water
which will not evaporate are known as total
solids — generally a measure of its
"saltiness". Excess amounts can affect water
taste, cause mineral buildup in pipes, and
limit the type of aquatic life.
48
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(APPENDIX B)
Glossary
beneficiation — improving the chemical/
physical properties of an ore so that the
metal can be recovered at a profit.
best management practices — The most
appropriate land management techniques
used to control non-point source pollution
from various land use activities.
biotoxins — any of various poisonous
substances produced by certain plant and
animal cells.
carcinogenesis — producing or having a
tendency to produce cancer.
Clean Water Act — The Federal Water
Pollution Control Act and its subsequent
amendments.
detritus — fine particles of settleable organic
material primarily carbon from decaying
plants; or fine mineral materials suspended
in water.
effluent — wastewater discharged into the
environment, treated, untreated, or partially
treated.
eligible construction costs — that portion of
construction costs of wastewater treatment
facilities determined by EPA to be eligible
for Federal funds.
epidemiological — relating to the study of
disease effecting a large number of people
and spread over a wide area.
FDA action level — the concentration of a
toxic material below which consumption is
considered safe.
fiscal year — current Federal fiscal year is
October 1 — September 30.
heavy metals — a class of metals including
mercury, lead, and cadmium which occur
naturally in the environment and are
accumulated by certain organisms.
mutagenesis — the occurrence or induction
of mutation usually by extracellular agents.
non-attainment areas — areas in which air/
water quality standards are not being
attained.
non-point source — the occurrence of
pollution from diffuse sources such as
urban and agricultural runoff.
organochlorides — an organic compound
which contains one or more chorine
atoms, often used as pesticides.
planktonic — relating to the suspended
plants and animals in the aquatic
environment.
point source — any distinct, confined
discrete conveyance such as a pipe, ditch,
channel, tunnel or well from which
pollutants are or may be discharged.
ppb — parts per billion, a unit of measure
commonly used in expressing low
concentrations.
primary productivity - the rate at which
energy is stored by photosynthetic activity.
productivity — a measure of the amount of
organic material produced within a given
time period in a specific environment.
radionuclides — atoms that exhibit
radioactivity.
teratogenesis — the occurrence or induction
of non-genetic birth defects resulting in
abnormal growth or structure.
toxicological — relating to any substance
that kills or injures an organism through
its chemical or physical action or by
altering its environment.
49
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REFERENCES
1. "Average Annual Age — Adjusted Death
Rates By County, 1960-1974; Selected
Rate Categories and Cancer Sites,"
Geomet Inc., August 1977.
2. Brunner, R. J. and David W. Hill,
"Ambient Concentrations of PCB's in the
Southeast from STORET Data and
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