A WW A Research Foundation
"S
Water
Highlights
V-
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
Office of Water Research and Technology — U.S. Department of the Interior — Washington, D C 20240
Environmental Research Information Center — U S. Environmental Protection Agency — Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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WATER REUSE HIGHLIGHTS
A SUMMARY VOLUME OF
WASTEWATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE
INFORMATION
PREPARED BY:
The American Water Works Association Research Foundation
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FUNDING FROM:
Office of Water Research and Technology
U.S. Department of the Interior
Washington, D.C. 20240
Environmental Research Information Center
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
JANUARY 1978
DENVER, COLORADO
USA
U.S. EPA LIBRARY REGION 10 MATERIALS
RXQDD0D75fl3
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 1
I N T R 0 D U CTIO N
1. Since June of 1976, the AWWA Research Foundation has been involved in the gather-
ing, preparation and distribution of technical information in the wastewater
reclamation and reuse field. As a clearinghouse agent, current research data
and project coordination was supplied on a contractual basis between several water
utilities, federal agencies and foreign concerns interested in water reuse.
While the primary concern of the program was with potable reuse or the treating
of sewage effluents to a domestic quality water, data on many water reuse alter-
natives was supplied.
In September of 1977, the Foundation received federal funds from the Office of
Water Research and Technology and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to
publish monthly newsletters in municipal wastewater recycling. In addition to
that periodical was the preparation of this summary volume of water reuse activ-
ities titled "Water Reuse Highlights". The information contained herein has
been abstracted from earlier Foundation publications and attempts only to high-
light a rather intensive field of endeavor. It should, however, prove to be a
useful reference for those entities considering reclamation and reuse as a water
supply alternative.
The material is divided into the following subheadings with a subject index on
pages 118 - 119.
Advanced Wastewater Treatment (AWT) Research
Conference Calendar
Health Effects Research
Legislative and Funding Activities
Modeling for Reuse
Position Statements
Published Literature
Regulations
Water Reuse Plans and Demonstrations
****
AWT RESEARCH
2. The reliability of AWT plants in reuse situations is often questioned. Using
statistical analysis, Robert B. Dean, Science Advisor with the EPA, and Stanley
L. Forsythe, Southwest Ohio Regional Computer Center in Cincinnati, Ohio,
estimated the long-term reliability of the South Lake Tahoe, Nevada AWT plant
from six years of operations data.
Sewage treatment plant performance is commonly measured in terms of average
effluent quality covering different time periods. But average values give no
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 2
indication of plant reliability. In water reuse circumstances, it is important
to know the probability that a given process will exceed an established standard.
If an expression can be found that gives the fraction of concentration exceed-
ance in the past, the future performance of the plant can be predicted provided
it continues to operate in the same way. One can then predict how much the
basic processes must be altered to meet a more stringent requirement.
Reliability of any process must be described by at least two numbers. If the
distribution of the data is normal, then average and standard deviation results
are adequate. But that assumption is not usually met with wastewater quality
parameters where a log-normal distribution is evident. A calculated spread
factor S, the antilog of the standard deviation, is a better measure of the
frequency of the deviations.
The statistical methods were applied to the 7.5 mgd Tahoe AWT plant which has been
operating since 1968 with the treatment sequence shown in Figure 1, and discharg-
ing a high quality effluent to Indian Creek Reservoir for recreational and agri-
cultural reuse.
FIGURE 1
SOUTH LAKE TAHOE AWT PLANT FLOW PROCESS
ACTIVATED
SLUDGE
CHEMICAL
TREATMENT
INFLUENT PRIMARY
SOUTH LAKE TAHOE
LUTHER PASS
CARBON FILTERS
tLflf
SURGE TANK
3
4,000 m
5,000 m3
4,000,000 m3
INDIAN CREEK
RESERVOIR
225,000 m3
EMERGENCY
STORAGE
6,000 m3
BALLAST PONDS
V -
4,000 m3
Table 1, on page 3, indicates the plant performance with median values as a good
estimate of the geometric mean. Values within 98% and 99% of the median are also
shown with the spread factors. The consistency of spread factors (all close to
2 except MPN) indicate good plant performance and control and suggests that any
fluctuations are random and homogeneous. To improve the reliability of the plant,
if warranted, would require design alterations.
What this data and tests on other AWT effluents across the U.S. is attempting to
show is the need for statistical concepts in setting standards for discharges and
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HIGHLIGHTS
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TABLE 1
SOUTH LAKE TAHOE EFFLUENT - 1968-1974
Parameter
Median
98%
99%
Spread Factor*
MBAS mg/l
0.18
0.54
0.64
1.72
BOD mg/l
1.3
5.36
6.36
2.05
COD mg/l
9.6
24 5
30.7
1.57
Suspended Solids
0
0
0
-
Turbidity JTl)
0.30
1 20
1.50
1.94
Phosphorus mg/l
0.19
.91
1.22
2.11
Chlorine Residual mg/l
0 90
3.0
3.6
1.77
Coliform MPN/100 ml
(0 025)
5.1
13.0
13.
' The Spread Factor, S. is the antilog ot the standard deviation of the logarithms of the
original data points.
perhaps reuse situations which were previously riot considered.
If the performance of a plant obeys normal or lognormal statistics, there is a
real probability of exceeding any finite upper limit, although the probability
may be very small. The requirement that a parameter never exceed a designated
value is unrealistic from an operational point of view. If the requirement is
rephrased to permit the parameter to exceed the designated value not more than
one day in ten thousand, or once in about 30 years, one can at least calculate
the required performance of the plant. If the Spread Factor is 2.0, the statis-
tical tables show that the mean must be less than eight percent of the upper
limit. If, instead, the designated upper limit can be exceeded one day in a
thousand, the mean can be 12 percent of the upper limit and for one day in a
hundred, it can be 20 percent of the limit. In any case, a plant will be designed
as a compromise between the cost of meeting the regulation and the cost of not
meeting it; that is, the cost of expected fines and other adverse results of
exceeding the requirement.
~ ***
An unusual wastewater R0 system using spiral wound modules was designed, built
and installed for the El Dorado Irrigation District at Kirkwood Meadows in the
California High Sierras. The ski resort, 30 miles from Lake Tahoe, has extremely
stringent discharge requirements because of snow-melt conditions. The only
alternative to demineralization was hauling the expected 50,000 gpd effluent and
sludge 90 miles at tremendous expense.
R0 treatment is preceded by filtration of the secondary effluent with a 90% water
recovery. The quality of the final effluent, suitable for discharge to the sen-
sitive environment and reuse is compared with the discharge limitations in
Table 2.
TABLE 2
KIRKWOOD MEADOWS WATER QUALITY COMPARISON
PARAMETER UNITS DISCHARGE STANDARDS R.O. PRODUCT
TDS
mg/1
20
15
BOD
mg/1
3
0
ci2
mg/l
0.1
0
Susp. Sol
mg/l
3
0
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 4
PARAMETER
UNITS
DISCHARGE STANDARDS
R.0. PRODUCT
Alkal .
mg/1
15
10
COD
mg/1
9
1
Cal ci urn
mg/1
3
1
Magnesium
mg/1
1
0.3
Sodi urn
mg/1
3
1.8
Potassi urn
mg/1
1
0.9
Chlorides
mg/1
5
2
Sul fates
mg/1
0
1
"otal N
mg/1
4
2
Phosphorus
mg/1
1
0
Silica
mg/1
-
0.6
Iron
mg/1
-
0
Coli form
MPN/100 ml
2.2
-
PH
uni ts
6.5-8.5
6.5
****
4. A powdered activated carbon with 2-4 times the surface area and adsorption ability
of conventional products has been developed by Standard Oil Company of Indiana for
use in industrial wastewater treatment. But, the new carbon will be tested at the
municipal sewage treatment facility in Dyer, Indiana starting June 1, 1977. No
regeneration of the carbon is expected because of high recycling and low biomass
losses.
The Denver Water Department is also experimenting with the carbon in a two-stage,
counter-current pilot operation to determine organic, metals, and bacterial
removals for reuse research. The Amoco product has shown promising results in
early tests, but heavy polymer doses were required for good settling and filtration.
~ ***
5. NASA Research at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, in conjunc-
tion with the California Institute of Technology, has resulted in a less costly
use of powdered activated carbon for physical-chemical-treatment (PCT) of sewage.
Initial work in a 10,000 gpd pilot plant led to the design and construction of a
1 mgd facility in February of 1976 at the Orange County Sanitation District Plant
in Fountain Valley.
As diagrammed in Figure 2, the process uses activated carbon to provide secondary
treatment. The settled carbon-sludge mixture from the secondary clarifier is
added to degritted raw sewage to improve primary clarification. This primary
underflow is then dewatered through a filter press to 35-40% solids before enter-
ing a rotary calciner for pyrolysis and regeneration of the mixture to activated
carbon and ash. The carbon is then fed back to the secondary clarifier to
complete the cycle. A portion of the carbon ash is purged from the recycle to
accommodate removal of sand, clay, metals and other inorganics. The P-C-T sludge
could be converted to carbon itself,but the reaction is not self-sustaining. In
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 5
FIGURE 2
the NASA research the supplemental
carbon is delivered from cheap lignite
coal which acts as a catalyst in the
activation process. In addition, by-
product gases can provide an energy
source.
Laboratory-scale studies have indicated
the feasibility of the method. Coal
was pulverized to -40 mesh and mixed
with an equal amount of primary sludge;
the pyrolysis and activation conditions
were 850° C with steam applied for 20
minutes. The resulting carbon was 61.7%
ash with an iodine adsorption of 684 mg/1
of carbon. A raw sewage sludge COD of
421 was reduced to 59. Commercial
activated carbon resulted in a COD of 60.
Secondary effluent goes to a gravity, mixed-media filter before ocean discharge.
The main sewage plant itself is the feed source to Water Factory 21 with recharge
facilities.
Capital costs were projected for installation of a 175 mgd plant based on the "JPL-
Acts" process exclusive of land. The total ranged from $150-200 million which
would provide up to 25% capital cost savings over conventional methods to meet the
same ocean discharge standards.
Amortizing capital and 0 & M costs also reflected a 20-25% savings in total annual
charges.
In an effort to find alternatives to wastewater disinfection with chlorine and the
resultant chemical complexes,yet remove pathogens, additional research at the 1
mgd pilot plant has been conducted on carbon-chlorine systems.
Laboratory tests were conducted on the ability of chlorination between a 2-stage
adsorption process to remove phenols, aliphatic amines, aromatic amines and PCB's.
Satisfactory disinfection was accomplished with a product water low in chlorine
and derivatives.
****
6. As reported in the April, 1976 and March, 1977 issue of Desalination from the
Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company in Amsterdam, research is being conducted
in Israel on wastewater desalting for reuse purposes. Israel Desalination
Engineering, Ltd., reported the development of new asymmetric, non-cellulosic
membranes having a performance between that of a conventional R0 and ultrafilter
membrane.
CAL TECH/JPL SYSTEM
SEWAGE CARSON * SEWAGE
(OgGRlTTEO) SOUOS (5% SOLIDS)
ACTIVATED CARSON
CON SlURRV)
CARBON * SEWAGE
SQU04 SQUOS\
SOUOS
LIGNITE COAL
(MAKEUPSN6RGV
SEGMENTATION
(OEWATg*»NG>
qOTAfty CAIC:n6*
.PYRCLVS:S ANO
ASH
PURGE
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 6
3 2
Its main characteristics are high fluxes (4-10 m /m day) at low pressures (6-
10 atm.) and moderate rejections for various salts. The new membranes can with-
stand large variations in pH (1-13), temperature (70°-120°C), and have excellent
chemical and biological stability.
Both R0 and ultrafiltration were deemed inadequate for the special conditions in
treating sewage effluents such as the high particulate matter problem. In the
new process, sewage ultrafiltration (SUF), clogging was prevented by tubular
configurations, relatively high axial feed velocities and large flow channels.
Field tests were performed
TABLE 3
Effluent
ComDosition
ma/1
Oxidation
Pond
Effluent
HUF
Membrane
Effluent
BOO
72
5
Dissolved
COD
100
20
Total
COD
370
20
Vj
42
22
Suspended
Sol ids
160
0
7D5
975
790
T"u rbidity
JTU
70
0.3
Orthochosphate
13
1.6
at the Dan Region Wastewater Treatment and Reclamation
Plant which employs a series of three oxidation ponds,
Typical effluent and the feed to the mobile membrane
pilot plant is shown in Table 3.
Fluxes increased with increasing velocity reaching
37.2 gsfd at 10 ft./sc., and 8 atm. Periodical
mechanical cleanings, performed by the passage of
an oversized sponge ball through the membranes, com-
bined with occasional acid and tap water cleaning
were found to be effective in flux restoration.
It is the author's conclusion that the one step SUF
process can produce without restriction suitable
water for agriculture, groundwater recharge and
industry, and with minor additional treatment,
even for complete municipal recycle.
**~*
7. Recent experiments at the Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity in Maryland indicate the potential for wastewater disinfection with laser
radiation. Bacterial destruction was due primarily to molecular oxygen which
has been laser excited. Substantial coliform reduction was noted by oxygen
pressurization (increased DO) alone but was increased when simultaneously irra-
diated. No thermal kills were evident as the samples tested rose in water
temperature only 1°C. Theoretical interpretation of the data indicated that 10^
collisions of 0? molecules with a pathogenic microorganism are required for
inactivation. An area for future research is the ability of lasers and O2 to
inactivate virus, plus determine the economics and safety.
8. Westgate Research Corporation of Marina del Ray, California has for the past two
years been investigating the ultraviolet-light catalyzed ozonation process for
the U.S. Army Medical BioEngineering R&D Command and NASA.
The first year effort in 1974 determined the feasibility of water purification
and disinfection with UV-ozone. The combination was much more effective in
destroying E.coli, streptococcus faecalis, klebsiella pneumonia and acanthamoeba
castellanii than either of the unit processes alone.
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HIGHLIGHTS
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In the second year development of the oxidation process, effort was directed
toward specific organic compounds. Those tested included hydroquinone, pyro-
gallol, xylenol, urea, sodium acetate, ethanol, glycerol, glycine and acetic
acid. Process variables such as UV intensity, ozone concentrations and mass
flow, agitation, residence time, temperature and pH were examined on a batch
and continuous basis to determine their effect on oxidation efficiency. Pre-
liminary design data based upon experimental results were then formulated for
the Army MUST-reuse system and NASA long-term, manned space flight application.
Specific results as indicated in the NTIS Report, "UV-Ozone Water Oxidation/
Steri1ization Process" - December 1975, AD-A026 571, $5.50 are as follows:
a. Higher concentrations of ozone in oxygen reduces the amount of UV energy
required but the efficient utilization of O3 suffers. With UV radiation,
there is an increase in the utilization of ozone.
b. Composition of the solute in the wastewater appeared to have an influence
on process efficiencies. It has been observed in limited experimentation
that higher efficiencies are obtained if benzene derivatives, ring com-
pounds, and compounds with unsaturated bonds are predominant in the solute;
alcohols and urea appear to be more resistant to UV-ozonation.
c. A UV light path of 3 inches appeared to be more effective than Ik inches.
d. Increasing the temperature from 28°C to 48°C has little effect on
efficiencies.
100
e. Agitation did not improve efficiencies.
f. Input power to the UV lamps can be decreased after 50% of the TOC is removed
without affecting the rate of oxidation for a 60-minute detention time.
g. Figure 3 is a typical TOC reduction curve for a 4 component waste over a
90-minute exposure period.
FIGURE 3
Oxidation of 4-Component Mixture
3 liter Batches
S .102 Hydroquinone, Pyroqallol,
Xylenol and Sodium Acetate
43 watt UV input
75.fi mg/1 03/min in O2
A - w-m , r «
Ave mcjC 15 •2
Ave TOC/O3 Effic = 41.8*
X S 303 Hydroquinone, Pyrogallol,
Xylenol and Urea
43 watt UV input
75.6 mg/1 03/min in 02
Ave =i6.3
mgC
Ave TOC/O3 Effic = 41.5%
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Reaction Time - Min
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HIGHLIGHTS
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Westgate will begin marketing UV-O3 modules capable of treating 20,000 gpd with
multiple combinations to handle 10 mgd. According to the manufacturer, the
system exposes ozone enriched secondary effluent to a series of UV lamps which
converts practically all dissolved organics into CO2, water and oxidation pro-
ducts. Viruses and other organisms are also destroyed with heavy metal complexes
precipitating.
Chlorinated organics are said to be attached faster than others so the system
can be used selectively and reduce organics to lower levels than carbon adsorption
with a slight increase in energy costs.
9. Engineers and scientists from the FMC Santa Clara, California Laboratory and Baylor
College of Medicine in Houston, Texas presented a paper on the "Photodynamic
Inactivation of Infectious Agents in Water" at the ASCE National Water Resources
and Ocean Engineering Convention in San Diego in April of 1976.
The process involves adding a photoreactive dye, methylene blue, to the wastewater
at pH 10 and then irradiating the water with white light at the specific dye
absorption wavelength. This results in complete inactivation of virus and bacteria.
It is believed that the mode of inactivation is an attack on the nucleic acid chain
which does not allow for subsequent cell division of bacteria or replication of
viral nucleic acid in host cells. Consequently, the photodynamic inactivation
process may allow for a more positive control of infectious agents in wastewater
than either halogens or ozone.
The process appears to be readily adaptable to physical-chemical treatment (PCT)
plants of either the smaller package variety or to the larger municipal facilities.
Photodynamic inactivation requires various unit operations that are inherent to
tertiary processes for phosphorus, ammonia and organics removal.
A proposed treatment sequence is shown in Figure 4 which involves chemical clari-
fication, air stripping, recarbonation, filtration and carbon adsorption. The
plant is expected to produce an effluent with a consistent coliform count of less
FIGURE 4
PROPOSED PROCESS FOR PHOTODYNAMIC INACTIVATION
BASE
SECONDARY
EFFLUENT
D
FILTER
SENSITIZING
TANK
DYE
PHOTO CELL
ACTIVATED
CARBON
pH 10
FLOC &
SETTLING
TANK
O
o
P
- H2 SO4
AIR
EFFLUENT
pH 9.0 - 9.5
AMMONIA
REMOVAL
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 9
than 2.2/100 ml and a turbidity of less than 2 JTU's. The added dye is to be
removed with the carbon columns. Virus concentrations will be reduced from
1000 PFU's/gallon to 1 PFU/gallon or a 4 log reduction.
The process is more costly as compared to chlorination, breakpoint chlorination
and ozonation with the major factors being pH control and power costs. Solar
energy has been shown to be a possible alternative to the use of high intensity
monochromatic lamps for photo oxidation and may well reduce costs in the future.
Dr. Joseph L. Melnich, co-developer of the system, believes the treatment could
replace chlorine as the standard water purifier. He also feels "the new disin-
fection method will speed the day when water-short communities can recycle
sewage effluents into drinking water instead of discharging it as waste."
"kic-k-k
10. A test facility for wastewater recycle devices and water conservation systems was
established in the National Sanitation Foundation Building in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
The activity looks forward to a new standard that will cover various types of
self-contained onsite wastewater disposal and reuse systems. Several home waste-
water renovation and recycling systems are expected to be evaluated.
11. Aqueonics, Inc., in California has developed community water recycling systems
for reuse of generated effluents. In a proprietary treatment sequence, sewage
can enter a primary and secondary btoreactor but, depending on the reuse altern-
atives, several optional add-on processes are available. The names, if not the
unit processes, are impressive to a community seeking additional water resources
and include: synergistic irradiation, diatomaceous earth filtration, low pressure
reverse osmosis, acid and caustic recharge ion exchangers and ozonated dechlorination,
Several demonstration projects are being completed using the company's Re-Serv
system with projected municipal usage of the effluents for landscape irrigation,
ponds, golf courses and toilet flushing.
Typical effluent qualities are as follows:
BOD < 5 mg/1
NH3 < .1 mg/1
S.S. <3.7 mg/1
T0C < 5 mg/1
COD <16 mg/1
Total N 1.17 mg/1
The system is said to cost about $5.00 per gallon per day capital and 2
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HIGHLIGHTS
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12. Pure Cycle Corporation in Boulder, Colorado has developed a totally closed-loop
home recycling system. The proprietary 500 gpd unit incorporates a biological
reactor using rotating contactors, upflow clarification, tube ultrafiltration,
adsorption with carbon and resins, ion exchange with a blend of four resins and
UV sterilization to produce a water said fit for human consumption.
Effluent qualities are typically TOC -<1 mg/1, TDS - 1.5 mg/1, turbidity <0.1,
and NO3 - 10 mg/1.
The key to success in demonstration models has been the development of a digital
control unit to monitor quality, trigger alarms and eventually initiate correc-
tion procedures.
The firm, before marketing begins, is involved in predictive mode analysis,
improved monitoring capabilities, fail-safe operation, home-owner education,
health effects research, gems analysis and the development of reuse quality
standards.
While some units are being used in homes in the Boulder area, permission is
being sought from EPA and State and County Health Departments to market the
units in 1978 with mountain communities and isolated homes as the key targets.
Further information is available from: Pure Cycle Corporation, 2855 Walnut Street,
Boulder, Colorado 80301, (303) 449-6530.
****
13. Modular Conceptual Systems, Inc., of Ivyland, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. has developed
a compact AWT plant for water reuse. A schematic of the system is shown in
Figure 5 on the following page. Biological treatment is followed by filtration,
carbon adsorption and disinfection to prepare the effluent for use in toilet
flushing or irrigation. The on-site treatment units have a capacity of 1000 -
200,000 gpd.
OPERATION
Wastewater flows by gravity or by pump to a raw waste holding tank. The raw waste
holding tank is equipped with an overflow to the sludge holding tank. From the
raw waste holding tank the combined wastewater is pumped via a grinder pump to a
vibrating primary solids separator. Primary solids separated from the liquid
wastewater are deposited in a sludge holding tank and the liquid wastewater flows
by gravity to a trickling filter. The trickling filter, packed with plastic filter
media biologically removes the organic constituents of the wastewater.
Following biological treatment, the wastewater flows into a sump and is pumped to
a vibrating secondary solids separator. The primary and secondary solids separators
are integral units with one common drive motor. Secondary solids flow to the
sludge holding tank and the clear effluent flows by gravity to a sump. A portion
of the effluent is recycled to the primary separator while the remainder is
pumped to a dual media filter.
Prior to the dual media filter, sodium hypochlorite is injected on a periodic basis
in order to reduce the ammonia nitrogen concentration via break point chlorination.
Proper mixing of sodium hypochlorite and wastewater is assured by the use of an
in-line static mixer.
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 11
The dual media pressure filter, containing anthracite and sand, will remove resi-
dual suspended solids and turbidity. Filter effluent will flow to two parallel
activated carbon columns to provide dechlorination, color and trace organic
removal. Two standby columns are provided.
Following the activated carbon columns, the treated water flows through an iodin-
ator which imparts a 0.5 mg/1 iodine residual to the treated water. A multi-
compartment storage tank then provides storage capacity for the flush water supply,
backwash supply, evaporator supply and backwash surge. Water in excess of that
required for flushing and backwash is pumped from the evaporator storage tank to
an evaporator which will remain in use until all excess water is evaporated. The
flush storage tank is equipped with a pH meter and sodium bicarbonate will be
manually added as needed. A flush pump recycles all water required for flushing
with a hydro-pneumatic tank retaining the pressure.
The sludge holding tank receives solids from the primary and secondary separators
and from backwashina. The excess liquid in the sludge holding tank will be
pumped to the raw waste holding tank based on a level sensor. Excess solids will
be pumped from the sludge holding tank on a periodic basis.
FIGURE 5
EVAPORATION
EVAPORATOR
BACKWASH
FLUSH
NaOCl
HI LEVEL
FLOW EQUALIZATION
A
-DENOTES PERIOOIC OPERATION
DENOTES OPTIONAL OPERATION
4o-0-0CN0TE$ POSTIVE EXHAUST VENTILATION
STORAGE
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Page 12
In a report entitled "Feasibility Study of a Nuclear Power-Sewage Treatment
System for the Conservation and Reclamation of Water Resources" produced for
the OWRT by the University of Arizona, the authors reported a significant
increase in pollutant removal by applying waste heat.
Seventy percent of the energy produced in a nuclear power reactor is rejected
to the environment as low quality heat. One possible use of the available
heat was examined in a ferric-chloride, powdered activated carbon (PAC) and an
aluminum sulfate, PAC, physical-chemical wastewater treatment pilot plant. The
one-step process was evaluated as a function of temperature (20-80°C) with COD,
SS, turbidity and phosphorus removal as monitors. Optimum removals of all four
parameters occurred between 50-60°C.
It is the author's contention that a combined plant, which is population depen-
dent, would generate recycleable wastes. The most significant effect of heat was
on the floe characteristics and settling rates.
Figure 6 indicates the proposed commercial system. Raw sewage is passed through
primary clarification to remove large particulates that hinder heat transfer.
Passing through a condenser, the flow is heated to 43°C which is optimum for tur-
bine back pressures. The metal coagulant and carbon are added, settling occurs
and improves the quality by aeration. Makeup water for cooling towers is with-
drawn from the basins.
Biofouling, scaling, foaming, etc. has not been a problem, but the number of
cycles will determine additional treatment needs.
FIGURE 6
POWER PLANT - WASTEWATER TREATMENT - COOLING LAKE COMPLEX
RAW SEWAGE
EVAPORATION LOSS
WET
COOLING
TOWEk
GENERATOR
A£N0VAT£D WASTEWATER
SLUDGE
NET WATER
PRODUCTION
~>
****
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 13
Engineers at the Cleveland, Ohio Westerly Wastewater Treatment Plant have been
experimenting with a 30 gpm pilot plant to optimize ozone and carbon treatment
for possible effluent reuse. The results as reported at the Minneapolis 1976
WPCF Convention are as follows:
a. With a PCT flow scheme of raw sewage of lime, solids separation, carbon
adsorption and disinfection, inconsistent and unacceptable effluent
quality was evident.
The treatment sequence including post ozonation as the disinfection step
is shown in Figure 7. Organic removals across the carbon indicated no
relationship to cumulative surface loading rates.
FIGURE 7
PILOT PLANT FLOW SCHEME
HASH MIX . fUCCUUTOII
WFUItKT
•€3
ma
%
UME FEED
r*
CLAMFIEI ttCARBONJWON
POLYMER
ok
UDtt STMAfiE
msmfecimn
EFFLUENT
cm
. backwash
"*¦ WASTE
iMASL
cxflBON msm
COLUMN FILTERS
J^
~BACKWASH
WASTE
BACKWASH
b. Monitoring the distribution of relative molecular weights before and after
carbon confirmed a hypothesis of selective adsorption. Larger molecular
weight groups were simply not adsorbed with the resultant effluent quality
difficult to maintain. The inconsistent performance of carbon in turn
hindered ozone effectiveness as a disinfectant. Noticeable COD reductions
across the ozone step were noted but unreliable disinfection occurred.
c. Ozone after carbon was forming intermediate organic products with different
molecular weights which exhibited better adsorption characteristics. This
led to the use of ozone prior to carbon.
d- The treatment scheme was modified, Figure 8, to include preozonation and
filtration. Consistent effluent values were 20 mg/1 BOD, 15 mg/1 SS and
1 mg/1 P. A steady state condition was achieved indicating no sign of
carbon media exhaustion or breakthrough.
e. Ozone pretreatment rendered certain organic species more soluble and biode-
gradable. The ozonated effluent contained dissolved oxygen in sufficient
concentrations to promote the growth of active micro-organisms in the filter
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 14
unit and on the carbon media surfaces. The biological action in the macro-
pores of the activated carbon restored adsorption capacity and extended
useful life. Sulfide formation was eliminated.
FIGURE 8
CARBON
COLUMN
CO)
FROM
THE
LIME
TREATMENT
SYSTEM
RE-
cmMixrai
OZONE
PRE
OZONATION
UNIT
PRESSURE
FILTER
OXYGEN
PRESSURE
FILTER
CARSON
COLUMN
'2~l !"n2ru4
INERT
MEDIA
I
CARBON
COLUMN
CiiSo.
CARBON
DIS-
COLUMN
INFECTION
Pilot Plant
Modi fied
Flow Scheme
****
NASA's scientists at the National Space Technology Laboratory in Mississippi have
spent the last two years experimenting with water hyacinths as a tertiary waste-
water treatment system. Results from the Vascular Aquatic Plant Project indicate
the successful preparation of an effluent for agricultural reuse and the use of
the hyacinths for bio-gas production, a protein and mineral additive to cattle
feed and as a soil fertilizer and conditioner.
The plants can grow in water with a TDS of 1000-1500 ppm reducing that value by
25%. High removals of cadmium, mercury, nickel, lead, silver, and toxic organics
have been noted in pilot studies. Seven-tenths of an acre of lagoons can be used
to treat 0.5 mgd of wastewater at very low cost.
Drying and grinding the plants after they have concentrated the pollutants into
cattle feed will be demonstrated using solar methods. Each acre of hyacinths is
capable of producing 2 million cubic feet of methane through anaerobic fermentation.
Additional spinoffs include using the bio-system for detecting heavy metals in
water because of the concentrating ability and recovering gold from tailings
piles near Colorado streams and worked out gold mines.
A 1 mgd system is envisioned for Disney World in Florida.
Previously considered to be nuisance growths, the plants have desirable charac-
teristics and have proven to be of value as shown in Table 4.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 15
The vascular aquatic plant (VAP) program is being conducted at several research
sites in the U.S. The results will indicate design, cost and operating values,
winter production, plant harvesting into useful products, carcinogenic removals
and valuable metal recovery.
The treatment sequence, in most cases, resembles that shown in Figure 9.
Additional information can be obtained from:
Technology Applications Office
Nat'l Space Technology Laboratories
Bay St. Louis, MS. 39520 U.S.A.
(601) 688-3155
Program Manager
Office of Application, Code ET
NASA
Washington, D.C. 20546 U.S.A.
(202) 755-8573
TABLE 4
WASTE TREATMENT WITH WATER HYACINTHS
FIGURE 9
TREATMENT PROCESS AND RECOVERY
Value of Uater Hyacinths
As a natural biolonical filtration system for industrial and sewaqe
waste treatment.
As a dried plant material qrown in nutrient-rich waters (frr-e of toxic
metals), the plants manufacture (or synthesize) crude orntmn (wluch
contains essential food value for human and animal con-.jri'' ion)
nutrients absorbed by the plant.
DOMESTIC SEWAGF/WASTE INFLUENT
As ,
urce of iK*than« o-is attained throuqh anaerohir fa
ntaM
As a fertilizer obtained from residual sludcje which conta i ns nitroqen,
iilinsnnnru', -irid iintass ium, essential for plant qrowth.
As .1 mparts t'nr mptal r«?rovPry tn wastewaters, the hyacinth '-an lbsorh
metals (;iiCh as ilver, m<»»-cury, cadmium) whirb c.,tn r r<'-i>v»r
CONVENTIONAL AERATED./
FIRST STACH LAGOON *
HACTEKIAL BREAKDOWN .
>. OK SOLIDS
FIRST STAGE
EFFLUENT
SECOND SI'AC.E LAGOON 'VA P
¦.;7 FILLED WITH WATER i. 2
;• HYACINTHS TO PROVIDE ; C
• TERTIARY FILTRATION
: 13y AnsonniN(i and
. MI-TADOLIZINU POLLUv,,^; SS*.
; TANTS ^
, HARVK.sriNi; or plants^',L "whnd
REMOVING MATURE AND ,
SATURATED PLANTS TO •
: OPTIMIZE POLLUTION
• REMOVAL .
****
t__ r r
•:*"J protective screen
TO PREVENT PI.ANTS
•H FROM ESCAPING
¦J LAGOON
FINAL EFFIUKNT MKKIING EPA/STATE
WASTK WATER QUAIJTT CRnTOIA
OPTION 1
SOI.AH PANELS
PLANTS DRYING
IN SOLAR DRYER
AMMAiiJSIS!;
PREFORMED
PROTEIN
SUPPLEMENT
QfiSA^MLBTILBEB
AND SOIL CONDITIONER
IMiM&LEQQB
PROTEIN EXTRACTION
PROCESS
OPTION 2
RIO-DIGESTOR
ANAEROBIC
FERMENTATION
PROCESS
h&sas
60% - 001, METHANE
C CUBIC FEET/POUND
PLANT MATERIAL
(DRY WEIGHT BASIS)
residual Ei.unc.p
AS COMMERCIAL
FBRTIUZER
Additional hyacinth research is taking place in Austin, Texas where year-round
plant growth and treatment is possible with protective covers.
Research on polishing stabilization pond effluent indicated the plants are capable
of removing algae, suspended particles and dissolved impurities. The clear
effluent was low in nitrogen and fecal coliforms with the following reductions
noted:
BOD 97%
SS 95%
COD 90%
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 16
Accumulations in plant tissue of chloride, magnesium, potassium and phosphorus
were evident. It was estimated that a one-acre standing crop of mature plants
would have contained 2500 pounds of minerals. The experimental facility treated
28,800 gpd in 0.14 acres with little attention or maintenance and energy fur-
nished by sunlight.
****
18. Drs. Juh Chen and Gerard Smith of the Thermal and Environmental Engineering Depart-
ment at Southern Illinois University reported at an American Chemical Society
Symposium in the Fall of 1976 on the use of sonocatalytic oxidation in wastewater
treatment.
The authors oxidized secondary effluent with ozone in combination with several
catalysts to increase reaction rates and efficiency. The catalysts in varying
dosages included the following:
ai r
activated Raney-Nickel (R-N)
ultra high frequency sound
Mn0„
Silica Gel
FeO.
A12°3
V2°5
MoO,
Pt. Black
ZnO
The most effective combination for almost total COD, T0C removal was with ozone,
air, ultrasound and R-N. Coliforms, phosphate and ammonia compounds were also
reduced. The R-N catalyst proved to be the most effective from the standpoint of
stability under intensive sound bombardment. Typical COD, T0C removals are shown
in Figures 10 and 11 respectively.
FIGURE 10
COD REDUCTION BY OZONATION, CATALYTIC
OZONATION AND SONOCATALYTIC OZONATION
FIGURE 11
T0C REMOVAL BY CATALYTIC OZONATION
-------
HibHLibhlb
Page 17
At the ASCE National Conference on Environmental Engineering, July 13-15, 1977,
at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, Los Angeles County Sanitation
District personnel described the addition of gravity carbon filters to their
Pomona Plant to meet reuse requirements.
Although the secondary effluent has been reused by industry and irrigation for
a number of years, public contact was increasing with the resultant more strin-
gent discharge requirements. Regulations proposed by the Regional Water Quality
Control Board included coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection
to achieve a coliform MPN of less than 2.2/100 ml. In addition, a maximum
chlorine residual limit of 0.1 mg/1 at a designated point in the receiving
stream was specified for the protection of aquatic life. The City of Pomona
included removal of virus to the maximum practicable extent, maximum chlorine
residual of 1.5 mg/1 and reduction of color to 10 units or less. If the require-
ments were met, it was hoped the reuse market could expand 10-fold as shown in
Table 5.
Rather than build the necessary treatment units, the County began researching
less expensive alternatives as shown in Figure 12.
Results indicated that each of the methods complied with the discharge limitations.
Annual cost analysis favored alternative No. 3 as shown in Table 6. The treat-
ment facility ultimately approved for construction in 1976 provided flexibility
in operation with either a single or two-stage system indicated in Figure 13.
The plant has been operational since early 1977 with an effluent quality shown
in Table 7.
FIGURE 12
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
ALUM
SO,
FLOCCULATION
Sy»l*m I
SytUm 2
System 3
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 18
FIGURE 13
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
tOMONA
VMIR ©CrT.
PUMP STATION
,P unUSSSS"^
IFFlMtHT
ChlO*inC
CQMTACT TANK
CJ ft 80ft
ritr £*S
COMTACf Tiwt
•0 »l|«OTO
StngI«~Sfog» Optrotio*
C6mT*C? Ti-t
to natures
CONTACT TIMC
10 »l»UTf»
POUCMA
WATCH ttPT.
TO
MU5C
CKLOKl.tC
CONTACT TA*<
T»o-3I«9« Op#fo)lw*
TABLE 5
POMONA, CALIFORNIA POTENTIAL REUSE
Consumer
Potential Use
Water Demand (MGD)
1973
2000
Average Oa^y
Max. Day
Average Day
1. Regional Park
Landscape Irrigation
1.25
3.10
1.25
2. Cal-Poly University
• at Pomona
Agricultural and Land-
scape Irrigation
0.35
4.30
1.07
3. State Hospital
Landscape Irrigation
0.40
1.Z0
0.40
4. Paper Company
Process Water
3.00
3.DO
3.00
5. Cemetary
Landscape Irrigation
0.15
0.30
0.34
6. Paper Company
Process Water
2.50
3.70
2.50
7. Water District
Irrigation, Cooling Wat
Groundwater Recharge
er, 1.71
1.70
11.0
8. Water Company
Irrigation
¦0.15
0.60
0.15
TOTAL
9.51
17.90
19.80
TABLE 6
COST ANALYSIS
Alternative
Capital
Operation 8
Maintenance
Annual Annual Capital
0 & M Cost(7X-20 yrs .)
Total Annual
Cost
No.1-Coagulation
at 500 mg/1 alum
$3.1xl06
184/1000 gal.
$656,000 $293,000
$949,000
No.2-Coagulation
at 150 mg/1 alum
+ bkpt Cl^
$3.3x10®
214/1000 gal.
$765,000 $311,000
$1,076,000
No.3-Carbon Filters $3.4xl06 i 7.04/1000 gal.
$256,000 $324,000
$580,000
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 19
TABLE 7
TYPICAL EFFLUENT QUALITY
Constituent
Uni ts
Raw
Sewage,
Primary
Effluent
Secondary
Efflnent
Final
Effluent
Suspended Solids
mg/1
250
85
6
-
COD
mg/1
4fl0
300
50
27
bod5
mg/1
240
170
-
> 2
Col iform
MPN/100 ml
-
--
2
Residual Chlorine
mg/1
--
--
0.1
Turbidity
TU
-
--
4.0
1.4
Color
Uni ts
--
--
27
7
****
Researchers at the University of Illinois presented a paper at the 1976 WPCF
Convention on tertiary treatment of secondary effluent for water reuse appli-
cation requiring high qualities. Dr. Edward S.K. Chian and Associates described
the use of sand filtration, reverse osmosis and ozonation in both laboratory and
field studies on activated sludge effluent. The operating parameter which varied
in the particular study was the food to microorganism ratio (F/M) to observe the
effects of loading on the molecular weight (MW) distribution of soluble organics
reaching the AWT processes.
The most chlorine-resistant indicator microorganism-mycobacterium fortuitum-was
selected for the ozone disinfection studies because of its higher survival rates
than poliovirus and E.coli.
One of the most significant findings in the study was that the operational para-
meter F/M in the activated sludge process is closely related to the quality of
effluent that can be produced by the subsequent R.O. step. The rejection of
organics increased when the loading rate F/M decreased from 0.69/day to 0.33/
day. In addition, the soluble TOC in the secondary effluent decreased from
18 mg/1 to 11 mg/1 as the loading decreased. At the lower secondary treatment
loading rate and at 90% product water recovery from the R.O. system, the effluent
TOC was 2.2 mg/1.
To determine the value of the product water for potential reuse, the R.O. permeates
were analyzed for organics to identify the nature of the TOC contributing com-
pounds. Approximately 0.7 mg/1 of acetic acid, 1.3 mg/1 of 2-butanol and 0.2 mg/1
of aromatic compounds were found. GC/MS analysis of the aromatics showed they
consisted of components similar to benzyl-ethyl ether, dichloroethoxy-phenol,
ethoxy-methyl hydroxy-propyl ether, etc. havinq molecular weights between 136 and
165.
Ozone studies were then conducted for disinfection and further organic removals.
Ozone inactivation rates were not affected by F/M ratios. A conclusion was
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 20
FIGURE 14
ORGANIC REMOVAL BY OZONE
I
'o 5 ;0 ;$ 20 25 JC 35 <
Time ,
reached that any effort to reduce the
gross organic matter in R.O. permeate
by ozonation would result in more than
sufficient inactivation of the most
resistant microorganisms. At a 98%
product water recovery, 65% of the
remaining TOC was removed through O3
within the first fifteen minutes.
After that time, as shown in Figure 14,
an ozone resistant fraction appeared
consisting mainly of oxalic and formic
acids. UV radiation increased the
TOC removal to the lower detectable
limit. The product water also con-
tained 6 mg/1 of TDS.
It was the author's conclusion that a
potable water can be produced from
secondary effluent but is not cost
effective.
Before closing the EPA Blue Plains, Washington, D.C. pilot plant in the Fall of
1977, a 36 gpm AWT treatment train was evaluated (see Figure 15). Over the 1%-
year reliability testing period, 107 water quality parameters were measured,
including virus, pathogens, metals, radioactive particles, pesticides and trace
organics with no existing drinking water standard being exceeded. The results
also showed that AWT reuse technology could produce a water from sewage efflu-
ents equivalent to many of the nation's finished drinking waters derived from
present surface supplies on a consistent and reliable basis. A side stream
ion exchange unit was evaluated for further removal. Some of the results are
shown in Figures 16, 17, 18 and Tables 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13.
FIGURE 15
EPA BLUE PLAINS AWT TREATMENT TRAIN
screen ,
s.g.r. nitrif.
clar.
sec.
eff.
1
carbon ads.
col. denit.
filtration
potable water
io" e!L hold.
clar.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 21
FIGURE 16
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM
RESULTS OF BACTERIAL ENDOTOXIN TESTING*
FIGURE 17
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM MUTAGENICITY
OF ORGANIC CONCENTRATES
SOURCE
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM
PUBLIC DRINKING
WATER SYSTEMS
I
i
3
4
5
6
J
8
9
10
ENDOTOXIN
EQUIVALENTS
(Ng/ml)
2 5 - 12 5
1.25
12. S
12 5
12.5
<0 625
soo
125
10
2.5
25
R.O. MEMBRANE AND
SOLVENT FRACTION
•MUTAGENIC POTENTIAL
CELLULOSE ACETATE
• PENTANE
• METHYLENE CHLORIDE NEUTRAL
• METHYLENE CHLORIDE ACIDIC
NYLON
• PEN TAN E
• METHYIENE CHLORIDE NEUTRAL
• MCIIIYLLNE CHLORIDL ACIDIC
COMPOSITE
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N D.
N.D.
N.D
1 LUlUi» A!>jAY I'KOCtPUttfc-JQHGtNiitN, J. M. etol,
.APKIlf) AND tNVIHON
• IN VITRO WITH STRAIN5 OF SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM
TA9tTk TA100
••N.D -NONE DklfcCTED
FIGURE 18
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM RESULTS
OF 80 ELEMENT SURVEY*
TABLE 8
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM
Performance of Ion Exchange Process
PARAMETER
INFLUENT
EFFLUENT
REMOVAL
ELEMENTS DETECTED IN EFFLUENT
(mg/0
Nu
- 37 8
ZN - 0.017
Bo - 0 034
K
- 7.08
Cd - 0 002
As - 0.006
Co
-54 0
1 - 0013
Nl - 0.004
V
- 0 003
Pb - 0.003
Cu - 0.013
Cr
- 0 001
Go - 0.001
Sr w 0.151
Ft;
- 0.031
Br - 0.100
Sn - 0.002
Co
- TR
Rb - 0.007
S - 2.85
ELEMENTS NOT DETECTED
Mil, Mo, Aij, 5c, Ti, Go, Y, Pd, In, Sb, To, Cs, la, W, Pi, Tl, Bi, Si, P,
Ar, Se, Kr, Zr, N b, Ru, Rh, Xe, Ce, Pr, Nd, Hm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho,
Er, Tin, Yb, t.u, HI, la, Ro, Os, ti, Ao, H0, Po, At, Rn, fi, Ra, Ac, lh, Pd,
U, Np, Pu.
•PROTON _ INDUCED X-RAY EMISSION PROCEDURE
(units-mg/1)
Flow (GPM)
pH
Alkalinity (as CaCO^)
TOC
BOD
COD
TPO.
4
TKN
NHyV
N'03+N0,-N
SS
TDS
Calcium
Magnesium
Chloride
Sulphate
Sodium
Potassium
Filter
Effluent
3.84
7.52
106
3.59
3.51
7.25
0.17
0.23
0.061
4.82
1. 13
343
55.4
5.52
64.7
47.7
33.3
9.30
4.94
15.3
1.70
1.00
3. 55
0. 11
0.37
0.56
2.95
0.54
43.3
1.80
0.42
3.85
0.52
7.40
2.40
Percent
86
50
72
51
35
39
52
87
97
92
94
98
78
74
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 22
TABLE 9
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM
Pesticides
Pesticide
Unit - yq/i
Aldrin
DDT
Dieldrin
Sndrin
Keptaclor
Heptaclor Epoxide
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Dianin
Guthion
Malathian
Parathian
effluent
4
10
1
5
0. *
1
2
-to
5
200
10
10
*EPA
Standards
200
4000
10°
TABLE 10
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM
General Organics
PARAMETER
(units - mg/1)
TO C
COD
BOD
M3A5
CCE
CAE
Phenol (mg/1)
UV ¦? 290 m
(*»T)
INFLUENT
Arithmat ic
Mean
74. 1
240
106
S. 92
Standard
Deviation
11.0
30. 5
15.7
I . 71
4.02
Arithmatic
Mean
2.^9
6.33
3. 12
0. 14
0. 75
2.25
3. 66
96.9
EFFLUENT
Standard
Deviation
1.35
3.12
2. IS
0. OS
0.64
0.64
1.52
0.37
*EPa Interim Drinking Water Standards
TABLE 11
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM
Metals
Metal *D.C. "EPA
(Unit-yug/l) Influent Effluent Drinking Water Standards
Mercury
0.723
0.666
<0.5
2
M
Caa^.um
1.92
0.143
<2
10
Selenium
4.76
4.76
<5
10
Chromium
15.7
2.24
<5
50
Lead
1S.6
0.308
<5
50
Manganese
152
7.96
Arsenic
2.48
2.25
<5
SO
Iron (mg/1)
1.2S
0.0599
Barium
111
32.3
<50
1000
Copper
53.2
4.36
Zinc
132
10.6
Boron
0,250
0.313
Flouride (mg/1)
0.693
0.722
1.0
1
Silver
2.71
0.134
*10
so
Cyanide
5.30
4.23
<20
Aluminum (mg/1)
-
0.251
* Washington, D.C. Aqueduct, OalecaTlia Plant
** EPA Interim Drinking Water Standards
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 23
TABLE 12
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM
General Inorganics
PARAMETER
(unit - mg/1)
pH
Total
Alkalinity
Conductivity
TDS
Hardness
CaCOj
Stability
Chloride
Sulphate
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
INFLUENT
Arithmatic Standard
Mean Deviation
EFFLUENT
Arit lunatic Standard
Mean Deviation
7. 20
125
11S
31.2
6.47
0. 118
15.1
23.6
7. 65
J. 73
0.579
7.54
102
514
357
162
0. 198
68.6
50. 1
56. 6
5.49
34.1
8.23
0. 146
12.1
36.0
31.6
7.13
0. 594
4. 56
5.33
4.40
0.431
2. 94
0. 313
TABLE 13
BLUE PLAINS REUSE SYSTEM
VOLATILE ORGANICS
COMPOUND
(UNIT mg/1)
INFLUENT
NITRIFICATION
DENIIRIFICATION
CARBON
CHLOR1NATION
DRINKING
WATER
ACHALDEHYDE
*TR,
TR.
TR,
v'
METHANOL
TR
~
ACETONE
TR
TR.
TR.
TR.
TR.
v'
DICHIORO -
METHANE
4
TR.
1
TR.
v'
ACROLEIN
TR
TR.
TR.
CARBON
DISULFIDE
TR.
TR,
TR.
V*
CHLOROFORM
10
3
2
5
7
v/
BROMOOICHLOR
OME1HANE
\
TR.
4
~
1,1,1—TR1CHLOR -
OETHANE
TR.
v/
CHLORODIBROM
OME1HANE
4
TR.
TR.
2
v'
BENZENE
2
1
)
1
2
v'
DIMUHYl
DISULFIDE
3
v/
TOLUENE
2
TR
TR.
TR
TR
N-HtXANDl
TR.
TR.
IETR ACHLORO -
ETHYLENE
3
v/
XYLENE
TR.
TR.
XV.
TR.
~
ALKTt BENZENE
TK
TR.
BENZALDCHYDE
TR.
2
CARBON
TETRACHLORIDE
2
TR.
1R.
TR.
~
•TR.= TRACfc ('J mo/I)
* NORS REPORT,ED EC. 1975
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 24
C 0 N F E R E NCE CALENDAR
1. This section contains a list of conferences, conventions, workshops, seminars,
training courses and expositions related to the water reuse field which were
held during the 1976-77 period or will be convened in the future. The spon-
soring associations' addresses are included below if more information, the
technical program or results of the meeting are needed.
AIChE
American Institute of Chemical Engineers
United Engineering Center
345 East 47th St.
New York, NY 10017
ASCE
American Society of Civil Engineers
345 East 47th St.
New York, NY 10017
AWRA
American Water Resources Association
St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Lab
Mississipp R. at 3rd Ave., S.E.
Minneapolis, MN 96822
AWWA
American Water Works Association
6666 West Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80235
Association of Environmental Engineering
Professors
Professor T.M. Keinath
Dept. of Environmental Engineering
Clemson University
Clemson, SC 29678
Association of Metropolitan Sewerage
Agencies
Suite 200
1015 18th St., N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
Battelle Columbus Labs
505 King Avenue
Columbus, OH 43201
Clemson University
College of Engineering
Box 1607
Clemson, SC 29631
CWC
Culp, Wesner, Culp Engineers
P.O. Box 40
El Dorado Hills, CA 95630
ICE
Institution of Civil Engineers
Great George Street
Westminster
London, SWIP 3 AA, ENGLAND
AIDIS
Inter-American Association of Sanitary
Engineering
Associacion Interamericana de Ingeniera
Sanitaria
Apartado 88-2 Feria
Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional
Republica Dominicana
IAWPR
International Association for Water
Pollution Research
Chichester House
278 High Hoi born
London, WCIV 7HE, ENGLAND
IDEA
International Desalination and
Environmental Association
1000 River Road
Teaneck, NJ 07666
101
International Ozone Institute
Richard S. Croy, Exec. Director
14605 Detroit Avenue, Suite 206
Lakewood, OH 44107
IWRA
International Water Resources Association
Executive Secretary
Av. Paulista, 2073 Conj. 1910/11
Sao Paulo, BRAZIL
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 25
IWSA
International Water Supply Association
1 Queen Anne's Gate
London, SW1H 9BT, ENGLAND
ICPRB
Interstate Commission on the Potomac
River Basin
4350 East West Highway
Bethesda, MD 20014
National Bureau of Standards
Materials Bldg., B-348
Washington, D.C. 20234
National Institute for Water Supply
P.O. Box 150
Parkweg 13
Leidschendam, THE NETHERLANDS
National Sanitation Foundation
NSF Bldg.
P.O. Box 1468
Ann Arbor, MI 48106
National Water Resources Association
955 L'Enfant Plaza North, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20024
NWS IA
National Water Supply Improvement
Association
P.O. Box 8300
Fountain Valley, CA 92708
National Water Well Association
500 West Wilson Bridge Road
Worthington, OH 43085
New York University
SCENYU Registrations
New York Conference Management Center
360 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10017
Oak Ridge National Lab
P.O. Box X
Oak Ridge, TN 37830
Society of Chemical Industry
14 Bel grave Square
London, SW1X8PS, ENGLAND
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
U.S. EPA
26 West St. Clair St.
Cincinnati, OH 45268
U.S. Water Resources Council
2120 L Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20037
University of Texas at San Antonio
Center for Applied Research & Technology
San Antonio, TX 78285
WATERCARE
California Association of Reclamation
Entities of Water
Lloyd C. Fowler, President
5750 Almaden Expressway
San Jose, CA 95118
WPCF
Water Pollution Control Federation
2626 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20037
Weston Environmental Engineers
Weston Way
West Chester, PA 19380
-------
CONFERENCE CALENDAR
SPONSQR(S)
TITLE
FIELD
LOCATION
DATES
-o IC
QJ I—I
<7>
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r~
IS3 i—i
CD
IT
—I
00
WATERCARE
National Water Supply Improvement
Association (NWSIA)
National Well Water Association
Water Pollution Control
Federation (WPCF)
International Association for
Water Pollution Research(IAWPR)
Culp, Wesner, Ctilp Engineers
National Sanitation Foundation
(NSF) and EPA
International Ozone Institute
(101) and EPA
3rd Annual Conference
3rd Annual Conference
National Groundwater Quality
Sympos i um
49th National Conference
8th Biannual Conference
3rd Annual Seminar on Wastewater
Treatment and Reuse
3rd Annual Conference on Individual
Onsite Wastewater Systems
Workshop on Oxidation Products of
Organics in Water
wastewater reclamation and reuse
water reclamation
groundwater quality, recharge
water resources, reuse
AWT, recharge, reuse
land treatment, sludge handling, AWT
on-site reuse, gray water
organics, ozone/UVozone/sonics, health
Malibu, C/\
Oklahoma City, OK
Las Vegas, NV
Mi nneapolis, MN
Sydney, AUSTRALIA
So.Lake Tahoe, NV
Ann Arbor, MI
Cincinnati, OH
6/76
7/11/76
9/76
10/3-8/76
10/\7-22/16
10,/?7-?R/76
11/16-18/76
11/17-19/76
American Institute of Chemical
Engineers (AlChE)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)
101
American Water Works Association
(AWWA)
U.S. Water Resources Council
101
IAWPR
WATERCARE
Training Courses
National Conference on Treatment &
Disposal of Industrial Wastewaters
and Residues
3rd International Symposium and
World Congress
National Convention
National Conference on Water
Advanced Methods for Water Treat-
ment
Conference
4th Annual Conference
19 7 7
AWT
water reuse
ozone technolony, AWT
water reuse, resources, health
resources, reuse
electrolysis and recent ozone
advances
Advanced treatment and wastewater
reclamation
Houston, TX
Houston, TX
Paris, FRANCE
Anaheim, CA
St. Louis, MO
Montreal, CANADA
Johannesburg,
SOUTH AFRICA
water conservation and reuse in drought Concord, CA
3/19-20/17
4/26-?J
-------
SPONSOR(S)
TITLE
FIELD
LOCATION
DATES
National Water Supply Improvement
Association (NWS1A)
American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE)
State of California
Association of Metropolitan
Sewerage Agencies
Clemson University
AlChE
Society of Chemical Industry and
Chemical Society of London
101 and EPA
National Institute for
Water Supply
EPA, Hoffman-LaRoche, Inc. and
Battelle
WPCF
New York University
5th Annual Conference
National Conference On
Environmental Engineering
desalination, AWT, reuse
water reuse, resources
Drought Conference: Industrial Water reuse paper
Allocation & Conservation
Conference on Energy Conservation and
Wastewater Managements,
Membrane Separation Technology
Training Courses
New Processes of Wastewater
Treatment and Recovery
reuse paper
AWT
advanced wastewater treatment
AWT
Current Status of Wastewater Treatment
and Disinfection with Ozone
2nd International Symposium on
Aquatic Pollutants
AWT
Environmental behavior and biological
effects, AWT, reuse
50th Annual Conference
Water Recycle Systems
NSF 4th National Conference
National Water Resources Association Convention
Culp, Wesner and Culp, Engineers
ICPRB
American Water Resources
Association (AWRA)
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Weston Engineers
AIChE
101
Wastewater Treatment Seminar
The Potomac Estuary Supply
13th Annual Conference
Water Chlorination: Environmental
Impact and Health Effects
Dual Water Supply Workshop
AWT courses
Symposium on Advance Ozone
Technology
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
resources, AWT, reuse
courses
individual onsite wastewater systems
reuse papers
water reuse, sludge alternatives
indirect reuse, AWT
assessment, management and politics
of water, reuse
biomedicine, toxicology and modeling
disciplines
reuse via dual distribution, models
water reuse
AWT
San Diego, CA
Nashville, IN
Concord, CA
Los Angeles, CA
Hartford, CT
Clemson, SC
Denver, CO
London, ENGLAND
Cincinnati, OH
Amsterdam,
the NETHERLANDS
Columbus, OH
Philadelphia, PA
New York, NY
Los Angeles, CA
Chicago, IL
Ann Arbor, MI
Boise, ID
So.Lake Tahoe, NV
Washington, D.C.
Tucson, AZ
Gatlinburg, TN
West Chester, PA
New York, NY
Toronto, CANADA
7/17-21/77
7/13-15/77
7/15/77
7/28-29/77
a/16-19/77
ft/17-19/77
8/27-28/77
9/5-8/77
9/15/77
9/26-28/77
9/28-30/77
10/2-7/77
10/12-14/77
12/14-16/77
2/27-3/1/78
10/18-20/77
10/23-27/77
10/26-27/77
10/27-28/77
10/31-11/3/77
10/31-11/4/77
11/4/77
11/12-13/77
11/16-18/77
-a rc
QJ i—«
ca o
co n:
r~
no •—i
cr>
m
-------
SPONSOR(S)
TITLE
International Desalination and
Environmental Assn. (IDEA)
University of Texas
1st International Congress on
Desalting and Water Reuse
Risk Assessment and Health Effects
of Land Application of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludges
Association of Environmental
Engineering Professors
Fundamental Research Needs for
Water and Wastewater Treatment
Systems
AIOIS
National Bureau of Standards
IAWPR
*
£ IAWPR
*
NWS IA
AWWA
WATERCARE
IWRA
WPCF
International Water Supply Assn.
IAWPR, Royal Society of Tropical
Medicine and the Institution of
Civil Engineers
16th Inter-American Congress of
Sanitary & Environmental
Engineering
9th Research Symposium
5th International Sewage and
Reuse Engineering Exhibition
9th Annual Conference
6th Annual Conference
Annual Conference
6th Annual Conference
3rd World Congress on Hater
Resources
Annual Conference
12th International Water Supply
Congress and Exhibition
Engineering, Science and Medicine
in the Prevention of Tropical
Water-Related Disease
FIELD
LOCATION
DATES
"O IC
£D I—I
C£> G">
(D ZC
r~
INS 1-i
11/28-12/3/77 COg
—I
12/12-13/77 to
desalination, AWT, reuse
pathogens, AWT, reus*:
Tokyo, JAPAN
San Antonio, TX
AWT, reuse, research
Arlington, VA
12/15/77
19 7 8
AWT, reuse
Trace Organic Analysis: A new
frontier in Analytical Chemistry
technical exhibition
AWT systems and reuse
desalination, reuse
reuse sessions
reuse
Water for Human Survival
reuse sessions
several aspects of water supply
Santo Domingo,
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Gaithersburg, MD
Munich, GERMANY
Stockholm, SWEDEN
Sarasota, EL
Atlantic City, NJ
San Diego, CA
Sao Paulo, BRAZIL
Anaheim, CA
Kyoto, JAPAN
2/19-24/7*!
4/10-13/78
6/5-10/78
6/12-16/78
6/16-20/78
6/25-29/78
6/78
6/29-7/5/78
10/1-6/78
10/2-6/78
London, ENGLAND
12/12-14/78
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 29
HEALTH EFFECTS RES E A R C H
1. The possibility of domestic reuse emphasizes the need for medical research into
the possible toxicological effects of ingestion. At present however, there are
no accepted guidelines for direct reuse.
The College of Medicine at the University of Cincinnati has, for the last few
years, been developing technology for using cultured cells as a toxicity indi-
cator. The in vitro (out-of-1iving-host) studies involved growing cells in
specialized nutrients, then subjecting them to various concentrations of suspected
toxicants. Growth, protein, synthesis or morphological changes can then be noted.
The advantages of the bioassay system includes:
1. Cells are the smallest self-sustaining units of life and perform most
of the metabolic functions of whole organisms.
2. Cell culture assays require a small amount of space and are relatively
inexpensive.
3. During the course of a test, cell numbers may double 3 or 4 times, repeatedly
exposing all aspects of cell metabolism to the contaminants.
Two separate experiments were run using concentrated Cincinnati tapwater and then
effluent from a synthetic hospital waste treated by ultrafiltration, reverse
osmosis and ozone. Unconcentrated tapwater did not inhibit cell synthesis but
at a 64-fold concentration, cytotoxic response was noted.
The distilled effluent did not create a toxic response in the cells, but as low
as a 2-fold concentration did. Slight toxicity from a group of sixteen alleged
non-toxic compounds was reflected throughout the experiment.
Although the synthetic waste was considerably more toxic in the concentrations
used, it was felt that further development of the AWT processes would reduce the
problem.
2. The U.S. Army Medical BioEngineering R&D Laboratory in Fort Detrick, Maryland,
U.S.A., is involved in the development of non-potable and potable water reuse
criteria for field hospitals employing wastewater renovation and recycling.
To develop the data for chronic and acute effects analysis, health related research
is mandatory but the program is somewhat overwhelming with currently available
techniques.
Extensive research is needed in the field to refine toxicology methodologies. The
National Institute of Health is sponsoring a massive program in the area of dose-
response mathematics and extrapolation of animal data to human situations. There
is every likelihood that the NIH work will be applicable to water reuse standards.
Development of mathematics for extending dose-response or dose-risk information
from acute and chronic studies to very low level chronic exposures experienced
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 30
by human populations is an extremely difficult task. NIH is supporting a large
multi-university statistical research program to determine how dose-response
curves might be extended from massive dose experimental results to the trace
contaminants region.
The likelihood that statistical methods will be available is slim. The fall-
back position in this kind of work is the mega-mouse experiment which is too
costly to perform for most chemicals. A second fallback position is the
execution of massive epidemiological investigations which are probably more
expensive than mega-mouse research.
Extrapolation of animal test results to humans has been historically tenuous and
will likely continue. A feeling in the Army is that animal experiments conducted
to date are essentially worthless for attempts to predict human effects.
The Army would like to be able to use individual cells as the indicator of life
effects. Three research contracts have been supported to use cells as an on-
line toxicity indicator.
They also suggested continuation of research for developing rapid screening
methods for toxicological hazards. No federal agency has sufficient funds to
perform a complete toxicological analysis on even a small fraction of the
chemicals of interest. The need for a screening method to replace the standard
costly tests is evident.
One of the immediate Army tasks has been as follows:
a. Review the available literature concerning acute and long-term health
effects of ingestion of the identified components in potable water and
the occular and dermal effects in the case of non-potable applications
such as bathing, laundry and recreational uses in which human contact
is likely. Document the knowledge, identify areas in which the necessary
information is lacking and recommend studies to obtain that information.
b. Propose the adoption of existing standards for water reuse based up-
on the uses to which they are to be put, the duration of exposure and
the military mission involved which may cause more emphasis to be
placed upon short-term or semi-acute effects than the chronic ones.
A sub-committee of the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Military Environ-
mental Research will be established to review this research. The Army is coor-
dinating this work with the Navy, NASA, EPA and OWRT while maintaining liaison
with the Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
AWWA and the WPCF.
****
3. Rapid evaluation of the potential hazards posed by new chemicals can now be
performed with a sequence of bioassay methods developed by Battelle's Columbus
laboratories.
Battelle, an independent, non-profit research laboratory, uses a sequence of
five rapid and easily repeated cell tests conducted outside of living organisms
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 31
in an artificial environment to predict toxic or carcinogenic activity.
In a series of evaluations, the Ames assay for initial spot screenings is used
in conjunction with the Battelle-developed series designated "rapid mammalian
cell toxicity and prescreen confluency assays".
The basis for both types of assays is the way in which bacteria or animal-cell
tissue cultures react to various chemicals. The methods used are:
a. Ames bacterial mutagenesis assay
b. Battelle-Columbus prescreen toxicity assay
c. Balb/c 3T3 clinical transformation assay
d. C3H 10T1/2 mouse prostate cell assay
e. Syrian hamster embryo cell clonal transformation assay
The sequence is expected to approach 95-100% certainty in identifying hazardous
chemicals when combined with corroborative evaluations, including sophisticated
lab animal experiments.
4. As reported in the April 1977 issue of Environmental Science and Technology, trace
organics in water require considerably more research according to EPA's William
T. Donaldson.
Increased interest in organics has resulted from the improved capability for iden-
tification and measurement of large numbers of compounds at trace levels and from
recognition that serious health effects are possible in lab animals. Unfortunately,
very little is known about the human health effects. More than 2 million organic
compounds have been identified with the number in one sample related to the sensi-
tivity of the measurement technique.
Based on the number of compounds detected by current methods, one would expect to
find every known compound at a concentration of 10"^ g/1 or higher in a sample of
treated drinking water. Therefore, to discuss the composition of water in a purely
qualitative sense is meaningless, although many compounds have been tested without
concentration values.
For the "zero tolerance" proponents, it should be noted that 10"^ g/i is approxi-
mately 1010 molecules per liter; most water treated for domestic consumption
contains about 10^ molecules of organic matter per liter. Drinking water will
probably always contain large numbers of organic compounds and the problem is to
determine which ones are in significant concentrations to pose a hazard to humans.
A U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Directory of toxic compounds
lists 1500 suspected carcinogens without a dose-response relationship. To date,
toxicologists are unable to determine no-effect levels of carcinogens in man by
extrapolation from the no-measureable-effects in animals. Neither can they prove
from an animal experiment that a substance is not carcinogenic to man.
The epidemiology of carcinogens and chemicals that are only toxic when present
chronically is also difficult to delineate. Most relationships between human
exposure to chemical and development of cancer have been observed following
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 32
occupational contact at much higher levels than those encountered normally. As
the exposure concentrations approach levels encountered in non-occupational
activities, the relationships begin to get lost in the "noise" created by other
factors.
The author describes the inconsistencies and error in using statistical or pre-
dictive analysis for determining suspected chemicals in the environment. Another
often overlooked factor in measuring trace organics is the analytical method itself.
In nearly all cases, only those compounds that are volatile enough to pass through
a gas chromatograph are identified and measured. In addition, the group of com-
pounds usually is further restricted to those that can be extracted from water by
a non-polar solvent or adsorbed by carbon. With those limitations, only 10-20%
of the total mass of organics in most waters are analyzed.
Dr. Donaldson calls for a program to measure all organics, amenable to analysis,
in all media and for selected geographic areas, in which a specific human health
problem is significantly higher or lower than normal. However, the base normality
has not been established from epidemiology or other studies. A highly compre-
hensive analysis is required, but the detection levels adopted must be carefully
selected. The level must be low enough to reveal all important compounds, but
not so low that it makes analysis unduly difficult. In drinking water, those
compounds at the highest concentrations are usually present at 10^ ug/l or less.
Therefore a detection limit of 10"^ or 10~ >ug/l is usually selected.
Weaknesses are evident in the analytical procedures themselves with surrogate
methods needed. It was the author's intention to point out the need for extensive
research in analytical and monitoring capabilities, but a survey with known
techniques could begin now.
****
5. In the April 1977 issue of New Engineer Magazine, the Ames bacterial test for
carcinogenic screening was discussed by Aileen M. Smith, freelance writer, as to
its relevancy and usefulness in the environmental hazard field. Several points
in the article are summarized as follows:
a. Animal bioassays are presently considered the only definitive methods of
carcinogenicity testing, but they are time-consuming and expensive.
b. One alternative is to derive the possible health effects from the known
molecular structure. But, knowledge is limited and not enough informa-
tion can be provided for a final answer.
c. There is a need for a quick, inexpensive screening test that is reliable
and easy to perform. In order to be accurate, such a test must actually
incorporate, or mimic, specific attributes of the cancer process that
occurs in humans. To be of real use, the test must produce very few false
positives and no false negative results.
d. The Salmonella-microsome test, developed over the past decade by Dr. Bruce
Ames, a biochemist at the University of California in Berkeley, comes close
to fulfilling those criteria. Once a lab is set up, a test on one chemical
costs only a few hundred dollars and takes only a few days to complete.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 33
e. The test measures not the carcinogenic potential (tumor formation) but
rather, the mutagenic (potential to produce genetic changes) of a chem-
ical. Almost all known carcinogens turn out to be mutagens and hence,
register positive in the Ames test.
f. In addition to being cheap, bacteria have a number of other advantages.
Complicated genetic procedures are much easier to perform on bacteria,
and bacteria are easily malleable. Through experimentation, they can be
gradually molded to simulate patterns of mammalian cell behavior.
g. In the Ames test, bacteria and the chemical are put together on a petri
dish and incubated. If the chemical is a mutagen, it will mutate the
bacteria which would be difficult to detect. Thus, reverse mutation is
utilized. Bacteria were developed that already have mutations in the
genes that govern the ability to make histidine whictj allows growth.
h. If the chemical being tested is a mutagen, and if it acts on the bacteria,
the already mutated bacteria are mutated once again. The bacteria returns
to normal, makes histidine and begins to grow. After 48 hours, the colo-
nies are visible.
i. Ames screened hundreds of known mutants of Salmonella typhimurium before
an appropriate strain was found. Tested strains are continually being
added to and refined to increase the accuracy and versatility of the test.
j. One of the shortcomings of the test is the false positive results. A few
classes of chemicals that contain known or suspected carcinogens are diffi-
cult to pick up. The chlorinated hydrocarbons, carbon tetrachloride and
dieldrin, have registered negative. 109 chemicals considered to be non-
carcinogens, but close relatives of known carcinogens, were tested. 87% reg-
istered negative. Among the "false positives", several chemicals had only
limited animal tests which leaves some doubt as to their non-carcinogenic
classification. There is also the possibility that mammals may have detox-
ified some of the "false positive" through normal metabolic processes ren-
dering them harmless to humans, but mutagenic to bacteria.
k. Another shortcoming is the test's inability to provide quantitative answers
about the potency of substances that register as mutagens. Because dosage
is important in the actual causal relationship, the detriment is a serious
drawback.
1. But, most researchers agree that the Ames test is suggestive evidence of
carcinogenicity which requires backup by bioassay methods. It must be
used with discretion. Apparently, many carcinogens are mutagens, but not
all mutagens are demonstrable carcinogens.
m. False negatives also worry some researchers because the reverse mutation
step does not provide a guarantee. It would not be advisable to market a
particular chemical product only on the basis of a negative Ames test.
Others are concerned that it is impossible for a bacterial system to fully
mimic the human system. Validation tests have shown only 70-90% accuracy.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 34
n. One researcher felt that the argument over the test was moot because its
validity as a pre-screen was based on the invalid assumption that there
was a shortage of bioassay laboratories in the country.
o. Another suggested that instead of using an imperfect short-term method
like the Ames test to screen everything, labs should selectively perform
bioassays on chemicals on the basis of the extent of exposure to the
public, the length of exposure, persistence of the chemical and the
structure-activity relationship. An enormous financial burden could be
reduced in this manner.
p. There is another argument in favor of animal tests. The Ames method,
because the medium is bacteria, does not carry the political clout
that creation of a tumor in a test animal does.
q. The Ames test does have a useful role looking for trouble (positive where
they were not expected) rather than confirming safety (negatives where
they were expected). The method seems to have a good ability to hunt out
carcinogenicity in complex chemical mixtures.
****
6. Dr. Robert C. Cooper, Associate Professor in the Department of Biomedical and
Environmental Health Sciences at the University of California, Berkeley, reported
at the 1976 ASCE National Water Resources Convention on "Health Considerations in
the use of Tertiary Effluents". As the author described in this paper, the
public health significance of wastewater reuse must be considered in terms of the
disease agent involved and the dose to a susceptible population.
The agents present in wastewater can be conveniently divided into two groups,
biological (infectious) and chemical compounds.
Biological agents can be of bacterial, viral and parasitical origin. The most
important wastewater-borne enteric pathogens in the U.S. are members of the
genera Salmonella and Shigella from which frequent outbreaks occur. The viruses
of potential concern include (1) the enteroviruses (polio, coxsackie, Echo);
(2) the adenoviruses; (3) the reoviruses; and (4) the agent of infectious hepa-
titis. All together there are at least 101 identified virus strains among those
four groups. Internal parasites and associated diseases in sewage effluents
include amoebic dysentery, giant roundworm and giardiasis.
The second large category of health-affecting agents includes those of either
an inorganic or organic chemical nature which may be either acutely or chroni-
cally toxic to an exposed population. Chemical agents arise from a number of
sources, both natural and as a result of man's activities. Their variety and
distribution are widespread with new compounds continually being formulated and
discharged. It is expected that the toxic substance registry will ultimately
include 500,000 entries.
Table 1 gives an indication of inorganic chemicals which are listed as of concern
in public water supplies. Limit concentrations were derived from available
toxicological data and established tolerable dose levels.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 35
Table 2 is a representative list of organic compounds found in finished drink-
ing water in the U.S. Very little is known concerning the public health
impact, and allowable concentrations are just now being formulated. The toxi-
cological and epidemiological data concerning organics are relatively sparse
and inconclusive. The few studies available relate quality parameters in an
indirect way.
A study in 1947 in London showed that four boroughs which were supplied with
well water had lower cancer mortalities than those areas whose supply was from
river water. In Holland, studies indicated the same results in indirect reuse
situations. Recently, statistical analysis were performed in which the correl-
ation between cancer mortality and water supply sources was determined among
residents of the Parishes in Louisiana. The rate study was limited to white
males only and correlations were made for all malignant neoplasms, urinary
cancers, gastrointestinal cancers, pulmonary cancers and cancers of the liver.
The results indicated a significant correlation between surface water (Mississippi
River) and total cancer mortality. The authors estimated that a parish that
changed from 100$ river water to ground water would decrease its cancer rates
in white males by 33 per 100,000 population.
TABLE 1
TABLE 2
A SELECTED LIST OF POTENTIALLY TOXIC
CHEMICAL AGENTS FOUND IN DRINKING WATER
AND RECOMMENDED LIMIT CONCENTRATIONS
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IDENTIFIED FROM
FINISHED DRINKING WATER
Compound
Compound
Acetone
Hexachloro Benzene
Chemical
Recommended
Acetophenone
Hexachloro Ethane
Agent
Maximum
Acetylene Dlchloride
Hydroxy Ad1pon1trile
Standard mg/1
Benzene
Isoborneol
Qaiiia
Isocyanic Acid
DcTlZO f (1 ld£0 1 e
Arsenic
0.05
Bromo Benzene
Isopropanyl Isopropyl Benzene
Bromo Chlorobenzene
Isopropyl Benzene
Barium
1.0
Bromo Dichloromethane
Bromo form
p-menth-1-en-8-pl
o-methoxy Phenol
Cadmi um
1.01
Bromo Phenyl Phenyl Ether
2-Methoxy Biphenyl
Butyl Benzene
Methyl Benzothiazole
Chromium
0.05
Camphanol
Camphor
Methyl B1phenyl
Methyl Chloride
Cyanide
0.20
Caprolactam
Carbon Tetrachloride
Nitroanisole
Ni trobenzene
Lead
0.05
Chloro Benzene
Chloro Dlbromo Methane
Octane
Pentane
Mercury
0.002
Chloro Ethoxy Ether
Chloro Ethyl Ether
Propyl benzene
Tetrachloroethylene
Ni trate
10.0*
Chloroform
Chloro Hydroxy Benzophenone
Toluene
Trichloroethane
Nitrite
1.0*
Bis-Chlorofsopropyl Ether
Triglycodichloride
Chloromethyl Ether
Th i omethy1benzoth i azole
Selenium
0.01
Chloronltro Benzene
Vinyl Benzene
Chioropyridine
Dimethyl Naphthalene
*mg Nitrate or Nitrite-Nitrogen
Chloromethylethyl Ether
Dibromo Benzene
Dimethyl Sulfoxide
Dinitrotoluene
Oichloroethane
Ethyl Benzene
Dichloroethyl Ether
Ethylene Dichloride
Dimethoxy Benzene
Exo-Z-Camphanol
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 36
Applicable dose-response data are needed for the agents found in wastewater.
Ideally, if such data were known, then limits on concentrations allowed in
tertiary treatment plant effluents could be established, and engineers could
use the quality limitations as design targets for process efficiency. The
efficiency requirements might be based on an assessment of the risk of disease
to the population consuming the treated wastewater. Perhaps an acceptable risk
of contracting disease through the use of reclaimed water should be one chance
in 1 million gallons of water consumed.
The development of dose-response data for all agents which may be suspected of be-
ing in water,although most useful is a Utopian goal. This is particularly the
case when working with those agents to which the host response is of a chronic
nature and developed over a long period of exposure. In the case of many carcino-
genic compounds, there may well be no threshold dose, and thus, no level can be
maintained in which there would be no measurable response over time.
Because of the difficulties involved in the isolation, identification and deter-
mination of the health significance of every agent apt to be in wastewater, it
will not only be important to continue to identify specific problems, but also
to carefully examine the health status of the population as it relates to water
quality. The major problem is the absence of an adequate index of the general
health of a population, the inadequate reporting of many diseases, and the
uncertainty as to what are the significant parameters in evaluating quality.
From such studies, water quality criteria may be derived. At present, there
seems to be a dichotomy of thinking in that water quality standards for AWT
effluents are expected to be of some different order than those placed upon
water taken from a polluted source. It would seem advisable to develop criteria
that would be applicable to both, a formidable task.
If reuse is to be practiced, the strictest surveillance will most certainly be
required. Realistically, one cannot speak in terms of zero concentration of
organism; thus, it is important to know as much about dose-response relationships
as is possible.
Dose contact should be considered. Obviously, the manner in which a susceptible
host comes into contact with an infectious agent or toxic agent will affect the
occurrence of disease. Direct reuse certainly holds the most potential as a
health hazard as compared to industrial, recreational or agricultural reuse.
Dr. Cooper also spoke at the 6th Annual CWC-Lake Tahoe Reuse Seminar in October
of 1977. His presentation centered on:
a. the possible hazardous agent
b. the agent dose
c. the dose response
d. the dose contact
Water borne disease potentials from biological to chemical contaminants were then
reviewed under the above four health considerations. The least area of knowledge
is in dose response or the acceptable levels of risk which need to be determined
for environmental insults.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 37
"Because little is known in the first three areas of concern, control has to be
made and is possible on dose contact. This means limitations on potable reuse,
etc., until more is known. It also means we do not know how many excess cancers
are caused in the U.S. because of indirect reuse."
****
7. The World Health Organization International Reference Centre for Community Water
Supply (IRC/CWS), located in the Netherlands has assumed the role of an inter-
national coordinating agent for the study of health effects of direct and indirect
reuse of wastewater for human consumption, including research and practical studies.
The emphasis is to stimulate and promote new worldwide cooperative studies and
avoid duplication of work. Proposed research will include analytical-chemistry,
toxicology, epidemiology and the technology to treat the water to a level of purity
that is economically feasible and safe for human use.
New techniques predicting the availability of certain quantities of surface and
groundwater of a certain quality will be a part of the investigation. Cooperation
will include regular meetings of the experts concerned and the establishment of
data banks for organics identified in drinking water and their toxicological
significance.
In January 1975, the IRC/CWS convened in Amsterdam an international group of
experts in the health effects relating to potable reuse. The objectives were to
review existing knowledge, formulate research needs, exchange information and
consider international cooperation. Dr. Shuval, of Israel, acted as a consultant
to the group in the formulation of a program to meet the objective.
Dr. Arthur W. Garrison of EPA's Environmental Research Lab in Athens, Georgia,
continued the effort with an extensive report on the analysis of organics in
water. That work is now available as IRC Technical Paper Series (No. 9), "Analysis
of Organic Compounds in Water to Support Health Effect Studies" - Dec., 1976 and
is available from:
World Health Organization
International Reference Centre for
Community Water Supply
P.O. Box 140
Leidschendam, THE NETHERLANDS
An earlier publication, Technical Paper Series (No. 7), "Health Effects Relating
to Direct and Indirect Reuse of Wastewater for Human Consumption", Dec., 1975, is
also available from the same source.
****
8- The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been involved in several
health related studies under the auspices of its Municipal Environmental Research
Lab (MERL), Health Effects Research Lab (HERL) and Office of Water Supply. These
programs are summarized as follows:
a. In 1975, Oak Ridge National Lab was funded to identify non-volatile organics
in typical municipal effluents upstream of drinking water intakes. The 2-year
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 38
study would evaluate the effect of disinfection (CI?* 03, UV) on organics
with some toxicological screening and mutagenic work.
Sixty liters of secondary effluent from the Oak Ridge, Tennessee Wastewater
Treatment Plant were ozonated to a total dose of 22.8 mg/1 and concentrated
3000-fold by vacuum distillation. A high resolution liquid chromatogram of
the concentrate was prepared and the eluate fractions representing the large
peaks were collected, frozen and lyophilized. One-half of the residue from
each peak is being processed through the multi-compartment identification
procedure and the remainder is being stored at -10°C in a dessicator and
will be tested for mutagenic activity.
b. Syracuse Research Corporation began work in 1976 to monitor polynuclear aro-
matic hydrocarbons (PAH) in several New York state waters. Several PAH com-
pounds are known carcinogens with the WHO setting limitations on six specific
ones without any adequate means of measurement. The funded research work
will examine new extraction methodologies and isolation techniques. In the
EPA 80-cities survey, PAH was indicated in several waters, but was below
detectable limits. A portable field sampler was constructed and field tested.
No sampling problems were encountered but during elution of PAH, considerable
impurities were also eluted which interfered with the GC analysis. Solvent
selection followed by chromatography on a florisil column gave encouraging
results.
Flexible polyurethane foam plugs were successful in concentrating the trace
quantities. Analyses were performed on 10 selected water supplies in the
Eastern U.S. with PAH compounds detected in the ppt range in all samples.
In many cities, all six with standards were found. While the concentration
in the finished drinking water was small (0.9-15 ppt), the values found in
raw waters were as high as 600 ppt but still well below the WHO recommended
limits. The new method is 10,000 times more sensitive than previous systems.
c. The University of Colorado Chemistry Department received HERL funds to eval-
uate the effects of ozone on organics at the recently completed Estes Park,
Colorado sewage plant which uses ozone as the final disinfection step.
Procedures for handling, sampling, concentrating, separating and identifying
the organics were standardized. The principle volatile products of the
ozone disinfection process used are n-heptanal, n-octanal and n-nonanal. Some
of the halocarbon loading is caused by chlorination of the drinking water and
the compounds reaching the wastewater plant. Ozonation does not change the
concentration of the two major chlorinated constituents - chloroform and
tetrachloroethylene.
Caffeine was found to be a major component with ozonation resulting in a
complex mixture of products such as dimethylparabanic acid and a previously
undescribed compound with a molecular formula of C7H10N4O3. The acid was
found to be non-mutagenic in testing.
A combination of a dynamic headspace sampling system and high resolution
gas chromatography has been used successfully to determine qualitative and
quantitative information about volatile wastewater components before and
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 39
after chemical disinfection with ozone and chlorine. The major new products
formed in the reaction of wastewater with ozone are n-heptane, n-octane,
n-hexanal, n-heptanal, n-octanal and n-nonanal in the low and sub-ppb range.
Significant increases in the concentration of toluene, o-, m-, p-xylenes,
and styrene have been observed after chlorination of wastewater, in addition
to chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Some of the halocarbon loading is caused by chlorination of the drinking
water supply and the compounds reaching the wastewater treatment plant.
Ozonolysis does not change the concentration of chloroform and tetrachloro-
ethylene, the two major chlorinated constituents in the Estes Park effluent.
Cytotoxicity - The University of Colorado Medical School was awarded a grant
in 1976 to develop a rapid screening procedure for checking the impairment
of metabolic and phagocytic functions of blood cells by trace water contaminants.
Phagatosis is the ability of white blood cells to digest foreign matter and is
an important part of the body's immune system. Any reduction of that ability
usually results in disease. Essentially the project is attempting to develop
a new toxicity measurement technique. Preliminary dose response curves from
polluted river and effluent samples have shown increasing impairment with
increasing concentrations of contaminants.
It was concluded that multiple cellular response tests were practical and
could be completed within 9 hours after receipt of a sample. In the ppb range,
research showed little or no effect of identified organic substances on human
neutrophile function, but the compounds will be tested in higher concentrations
to determine possible toxicity.
Additional work showed that powdered activated carbon following secondary
treatment adsorbs the solutes of low polarity but leaves highly polar and
ionic materials in solution. Reverse osmosis eliminates these ionic and highly
polar materials but lets pass the materials of low polarity. Both processes
remove humic materials and both pass some material of medium polarity.
Preliminary testing of combined scintillation spectrometry and high performance
liquid chromatography systems for on-line evaluation of water samples was
begun. It is hoped that the measurements will be able to provide a continuous
indication of toxicity.
Inorganics - Purdue University received a contract for evaluating 80 out of
the 106 known elements in AWT effluents. Rare earths are measured in the
parts per trillion range with the use of the proton induced x-ray emission
procedure. Few facilities are available for such work because of the necessity
for a cyclotron to provide protons. Initial work uncovered surprisingly high
concentrations of strontium and other elements never measured before. This
work is also being applied to the water supply field and its relationship to
cardiovascular diseases.
Grant monies were awarded to Texas ASM University for research in trace
metal, virus removal and UV disinfection studies at the Dallas AWT pilot
plant. A final manuscript, "Characterization for Potable Reuse and Ultra-
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 40
violet Disinfection of Municipal Effluents", has been prepared and is under
review prior to publication.
g. Texas A & M has also received research funds to evaluate pyrogenic materials
or endotoxins which pass carbon filters. After injection of effluent samples
into guinea pigs and rabbits, the pyrogenic response is noted in terms of
fever and potential temperature rise. An aerosal exposure chamber was fabri-
cated and calibrated to measure that type of response with the Veterinary
School aiding in the studies.
In the second year of work, endotoxin and bacteria levels from three disin-
fection processes (CI2> UV, O3) are being evaluated by animal response research.
h. SCS Engineers in Long Beach, California contracted to prepare a state-of-the-
art document on health effects associated with direct and indirect reuse of
renovated wastewaters for potable purposes. A draft version of the volume
has been submitted to EPA with publication expected in early 1978.
A new contract has been awarded to the consulting firm to study the propor-
tion of wastewater in receiving waters at water supply abstraction points.
The primary objective is to determine how much wastewater and wastewater-
derived materials from municipal and industrial discharges are to be found
in the surface supplies of U.S. cities over 25,000 population, and to develop
and utilize a procedure that will take into account alterations of residuals
between discharge and intake point.
i. Syracuse Research Corporation (SRC) received a grant in 1976 to assess the
toxicology of several AWT effluents from eastern sewage plants incorporating
physical-chemical, biological and land treatment. In January of 1977, SRC
began work on the mutagenic/carcinogenic potential of mixtures of organic
substances in treated wastewaters. Three test systems were used:
(1) Salmonella microsomal mutagenesis assays
(2) Saccharomyces mutagenesis assays
(3) An in vitro carcinogenesis assay method involving the use of baby
hamster kidney fibroblasts which is said tD be 91% positive with
known carcinogens and negative in 97% of the tests with known
non-carcinogens.
Salmonella microsomal mutagenesis assay (Ames test) worked well on unconcen-
trated reclaimed wastewater. The saccharomyces system worked well with muta-
gens not requiring metabolic activation. Samples are being obtained at the
Lake George Village, New York sewage plant.
j. A $55,000 grant was awarded in late 1977 to the Orange County Water District
for evaluation of Water Factory 21's effluent which completed the third and
final year of the planned $200,000 support. An interim report on the first
two years of operation and organic monitoring is being prepared and plans
call for publishing it in the EPA Environmental Technology Series.
k. Prior to the closure of the EPA Blue Plains, Washington, D.C. pilot plant in
October of 1976, 120,000 gallons of AWT effluent was collected, concentrated
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 41
to 100 gallons using dinandialysis membranes and forwarded to Gulf South
Research Institute in New Orleans for organic work. Further concentration
and deionization were necessary prior to toxicological evaluation in
animal feeding studies.
A pilot study was initiated with the concentrated organics incorporated into
an agar base diet to determine palatibility and gross signs of toxicity.
Groups of mice were exposed to either purina meal, control agar base diet,
or agar base diet containing the TOC mixture. The results indicated that
the animals did not reject any of the test substance, nor did chemical signs
of toxicity or change in body weight appear over a 7-day exposure period.
The principle investigator, Nachman Gruener, has broadened the scope of his
work to include an in vivo mutagenicity test (mice), a behavorial toxicity
test (mice) and in vitro mutagenicity tests with bacteria (Ames test) and
mammalian cells (L 929), as well as the range-finding, reproduction and
90-day feeding experiments with AWT concentrates. All of the research will
be finished in November of 1977 with analysis completed by early 1978.
Other than the range-finding experiments, only the results of the reproduction
experiments have been analyzed thus far. Litter size and birth weights are
not significantly affected by the concentrate eaten by the mothers. After 28
days however, there was a significant reduction in the mean weight of the
young of the mothers fed higher amounts of the concentrate, even though these
mothers showed no difference in body weight or food consumption.
1. A first draft of the final report on "Evaluation of AWT Systems at the Blue
Plains Pilot Plant for Potable Reuse Purposes" is being prepared. Results
from the 18-month potable reuse treatment sequence evaluation have shown
reliability and the safety of effluent discharge upstream of water supply
intakes.
Viruses were absent in the product water, with radioactivity, trihalomethane,
other volatile organics, heavy metals, pesticides, TOC, turbidity, general
inorganics, and pathogens similar to those found in finished drinking waters
during the 1975 EPA NORS Study.
Effluent organic concentrates did not exhibit mutagenic properties, no signi-
ficant trace element was noted and endotoxin levels were comparable to public
drinking water supplies.
m. Samples from six AWT plants in the U.S. were collected by Gulf South in 1975
and 1976, concentrated and delivered to HERL for evaluation.
One-half of the sample was sent to Stanford Research Institute for toxicolo-
gical analysis and mutagenic research. The standard Ames Test was used in
lieu of more expensive and time-consuming animal studies. As there is an
85% correlation between mutagenic results and carcinogenicity, the Ames Test
was considered sufficient for short-term results.
Mutagenic testing of wastewater concentrates from the AWT plants at Dallas(2),
Pomona(3), Tahoe(2), Blue Plains(2), Escondido(l) and Orange County(2) was
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 42
completed in 1977. With the exception of the Orange County samples, all
other concentrates were divided into 6 fractions prior to testing: Cellulose
acetate - pentane extract, cellulose acetate - methylene chloride-neutral,
cellulose acetate - methylene chloride-acidic, nylon concentrate - pentane
extract, nylon concentrate - methylene extract - neutral, nylon concentrate
- methylene chloride extract - acidic. Each of the samples was tested using
the in vitro microbiological assays with strains of salmonella typhimurium
TA 98 and TA 100.
The following samples contained at least one fraction with mutagenic activity:
Dallas 1 and 2, Pomona 1, Lake Tahoe 1 and 2 and Blue Plains, 1. No muta-
genic activity appeared in Pomona 2 and 3, Blue Plains 2, Escondido and
Orange County.
For groups which were mutagenic, activity was always observed in the cellulose
acetate - methylene chloride extract - acidic. In general, methylene chloride
seemed to extract more mutagens than pentane, and cellulose acetate membranes
concentrated more mutagens than nylon membranes.
It is recommended that aliquots of the fractions which demonstrated mutagenic
activity be submitted to chemical characterization to obtain some indication
of the active agents. Perhaps some chemical commonality existed, since most
of the activity was found in the same subfraction after membrane concentration.
Aliquots of those fractions which demonstrated mutagenesis will be submitted
to chemical characterization to obtain some indication of the active agents
within.
The remaining sample portions were sent to Battel!e-Columbus Laboratories
to make a detailed analysis of the 20 most prevalent organics plus other
selected compounds. A relationship between chemical contaminants and muta-
genic properties will hopefully be found.
The objective of the task is to provide a state-of-the-art capillary column
GC/MS analysis of the mutagenic concentrates. Because of the complexity of
the concentrate samples, it is essential to use glass capillary GC columns
even after fractionation and derivatization. In order to obtain a clean
mass spectrum for every prominent component, each fraction is analyzed on
both a polar and a non-polar column. These components are identified by
their electron impact mass spectra using a computer search technique and
manual interpretation, and then confirmed by comparison with authentic refer-
ence samples. Quantitation is accomplished by addition of internal standards
and comparison of the integrated extracted ion currents corresponding to
each of the components and the internal standards. In preparation for a
three-year program in capillary GC/MS analysis of water concentrates, commer-
cially available columns have been evaluated to set specifications for both
polar and non-polar columns. The test mixture used for the polar column
was slightly different from that for the non-polar column. The tests were
performed on a GC with predetermined column conditions. The GC column per-
formance of the capillary GC/MS system was examined with a tested column and
found to be comparable to that of the GC. 26 compounds of potential health
hazards were used to test the concept of using a polar and non-polar column
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 43
in the analysis of complex mixtures. The non-polar column permitted more
of the 26 compounds to be identified, while the polar column provided
better separation for some of the compounds.
A partitioning scheme has been developed to separate these complex AWT con-
centrates into groups of potentially toxic compounds. This is necessary
even though all concentrates are analyzed on both polar (SP 1000) and
non-polar (SP 2100) capillary columns. This partitioning scheme will be
further tested by analyzing a test mixture of model compounds with various
functional groups. A concentrate of the Lake Tahoe AWT plant will be
evaluated in the last quarter of 1977.
The contract also provides for the concurrent systematic analysis of organics
in concentrates of five U.S. water supplies.
***~
9- Israeli epidemiological investigations on spray irrigation of effluents has indi-
cated significant increases in diseases among populations exposed to the aerosal
virus hazard. Dr. Hi 1 lei Shuval, principle investigator, compared agricultural
communities practicing spray irrigation with partially treated, non-disinfected
oxidation pond effluent with 130 communities without that form of water reuse.
Figure
As shown in
fever and infectious
were found in
1, the mean incidence of Shegellosis, Salmonellosis, typhoid
" hepatitis is 2-4 times higher. No significant differences
strep infections, tuberculosis and influenza.
Test results have spurred strong treatment measures including effective bacterial
and viral inactivation when sewage irrigation is to be practiced near exposed
populations.
Mean seasonal incidence per 100.000
(2.2)
Shieellosis
Salmonellosis
Infectious
hepatitis
Typhoid
(ever
tnttuerua
E
E
Influenza
labor atoty
continued
Streptococcal A
infection g
Tuberculosis *
B
27
_iI! I
lv-SN) Wastewater
* (NNNNj irrigation
I -i No wastewater
Bl —1 irrigation
Summer
Shigellosis * -2)
Q
Infectious
hepii litis
(0.92)
W i n t e r
****
FIGURE 1
MEAN SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN
COMMUNITIES WITH AND WITH-
OUT WASTEWATER SPRAY
IRRIGATION.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 44
10. Dr. B.C.J. Zoeteman of the National Insitute of Water Supply in the Netherlands
is involved in the overall planning and management aspects of water reuse in
his country. Health aspects are an important consideration and different
methodologies will be examined. According to Dr. Zoeteman, there are two
approaches to the toxicological evaluation of renovated water to be used as
drinking water or drinking water produced from polluted sources as shown in
Figure 2 (page 45). The first approach requires the establishment of maximum
allowable concentrations for each potentially hazardous substance that may be
found in renovated water. Although it will take a long time to establish proper
tolerance levels, this kind of research is of great important as it is essential,
that full toxicological information is available for each one of the pollutants
on the black and grey list. In case the pollutant appears on a regular basis or
accidentally, a data bank for the rapid retrieval of such toxicological data is
an essential tool in water quality management for reuse systems.
The second approach would consist of experiments of exposing animals to water
containing the complete mixture of water pollutants at different concentrations.
Although this approach does not indicate the substances responsible for toxic
effects, it can give information about the total toxic properties of the renovated
water, including the combined and possible antagonistic or synergestic effects
resulting from the exposure to a mixture of toxic and non-toxic compounds.
From a health point of view, the detected levels of contaminants in drinking water
derived from heavily contaminated sources are the most relevant data in relation
to the water reuse for human consumption. Information on the concentration of
contaminants in wastewater, surface and drinking water, although still limited,
reveals that an enormous amount of organic as well as inorganic compounds are pre-
sent, of which the toxicity is not understood very well and so this has to be
studied further. Furthermore, in the evaluation of the toxicological data, the
applied safety factor is an essential aspect since there are problems in extrapo-
lating results from animal experiments to men.
First of all, it should be realized that drinking water is a rather unique food
product as it is universally consumed daily by the total population at all ages
and in all stages of health and disease during an entire life span. Furthermore,
by stating maximum acceptable concentrations of pollutants in drinking water, the
total body burden to which the individuals are exposed must be taken into consid-
eration. The intake of chemicals from air and food may in many cases, be more
important than the intake from water.
For all these reasons it will be clear that there is a great need for intensive
toxicological research, consisting of studies to establish maximum acceptable
concentrations of individual chemicals as well as studies on renovated water
plants for domestic consumption to identify the presence of toxic effects before
any project for recycling of water is envisaged.
~***
11. In the April 1977 issue of Water - South Africa, Dr. W.H.J. Hattingh of the National
Institute for Water Research wrote an article entitled "Reclaimed Water: A Health
Hazard", which described the comparison of AWT effluents with surface water sup-
plies in his country from eight years of data.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 45
FIGURE 2
POSSIBLE APPROACHES TO THE TOXICOLOGICAL EVALUATION
OF RENOVATED WATER TO 8E USED AS DRINKING WATER
INVESTIGATIONS ON HEALTH EFFECTS OF
CONSUMPTION OF RENOVATED WASTE WATER
individual-
Pollutants
Concentration
Separation
Total Mixture
of Pollutants
Direci
t testing
Identification
Measurement
— Cytotoxicity
— Enzyme Inhibition
— Bacterial Resp. Inh.
— Behaviour Changes of
Aquatic Organisms
— Accumulation in
Aquatic Organisms
Concentration
L.D. 50
Accumulation
Sensitation
Interaction
Q
tc
ironic
sxicit
i
—
Epidemiology
- Additive effects
- Synergistic effects
- Antagenistic effects
1. Reversible changes -
physiological, biochemical
and morphological
Epidemiological
Studies
2. Irreversible changes -
pathological toxicity to specific
organs such as cardiovascular
and nervous systems and liver,
carcinogenicity, mutagenicity,
teratogenicity and fetoxicity
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 46
The 1 mgd Windhoek Reclamation Plant in Southwest Africa has been producing a
very high quality effluent on an intermittent basis since 1969. Comparisons
between the Windhoek product and local sources is shown in Table 3 and 4 with
the constituents regarded as being detrimental to human health shown as criteria
in Table 5.
TABLE 3
THE AVERAGE CHEMICAL QUALITY OF THE DIFFERENT SOURCES OF POTABLE WATER
IN WINDHOEK OVER THE PERIOD 1971 TO 1975
Goreangab Dam
Von Bach
Dam
Pahl
Quelle
Re-
claimed
Raw
Treated
Treated
Boreholes
water
Conductivity (mS/m)
34
41
25
86
110
Alkalinity*
98
96
91
273
89
COD**
33
32
40
28
33
MBAS***
0,4
0,4
0,4
0,5
Ammonia-N
0,9
0,4
3,6
0,7
0,1
Organic-N
1,2
0,6
2,7
0,6
0,6
Nitrate-N
0,9
0,7
1,1
1,+
25,0
Nitrite-N
<0,1
<0,1
<0,1
<0,2
<0,1
Ortho-P
0,4
<0,2
0,9
0,6
<0,2
Organic- P
1,3
0,3
0,7
0,3
<0,2
E
Organic-C
14
15
14
13
8
Fluoride (F")
0,2
0,2
0,2
0,8
0,1
Chloride (CI")
20
27
5
27
130
Sulphate (SO,")
36
40
34
104
210
Sodium (Na)
28
29
2
101
154
Potassium (K)
7
7
4
13
29
Calcium (Ca)
27
36
32
58
57
Magnesium (Mg)
4
4
2
18
5
Aluminium (Al)
699
309
903
247
Arsenic (As)
—
—
—
_
Boron (B)
147
96
112
176
Barium (Ba)
<250
<250
<250
<250
<250
Beryllium (Be)
<50
<50
<50
<50
<50
Cadmium (Cd)
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
Cobalt (Co)
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
"5b
4
Chromium (Cr)
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
Copper (Cu)
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
Iron (Fe)
813
59
156
250
<25
Manganese (Mn)
92
70
25
40
<25
Nickel (Ni)
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
Lead (Pb)
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
Strontium (Sr)
122
127
88
381
225
Zinc (Zn)
54
82
54
57
<25
'Alkalinity at pH 4,3 (CaCQj)
**COD * Chemical oxygen demand
•**MBAS = Methylene blue active substances
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 47
TABLE 4
THE AVERAGE MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF THE DIFFERENT SOURCES OF POTABLE
WATER IN THE WINDHOEK AREA OVER THE PERIOD 1970 TO 1975
Goreangab Dam
Purified
Pahl
Re-
Von Bach
Raw
Purified
Dam
boreholes
water
£
Total plate count
292 x 10*
20
400
600
<100
Coliforms (37°C)
23 x 10*
0
0
14
0
Faecal coliforms (44,5°C/18h)
5 x 10*
0
0
6
0
£
Confirmed E. coii I
3 x 10s
0
0
<1
0
8
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
4 x 102
0
0
2
-
Clostridium perfringens
17 x 10s
0
1
<1
-
Staphylococci
34
0
0
<1
-
Percentage of samples positive for enterovirus
6
3
<1
0
0
TABLE 5
DRINKING WATER QUALITY CRITERIA WHICH MIGHT AFFECT PUBLIC HEALTH AS PROPOSED BY
THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO), US PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE (USPHS), SOUTH
AFRICAN BUREAU OF STANDARDS (SABS), RUSSIA (USSR), USA NATIONAL ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES (NAS), THE BRITISH MINISTRY OF HEALTH (UK), AUSTRALIA, JAPAN AND
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA) OF THE USA.
All concentrations in yg/1 unless otherwise stated
Quality criteria proposed by
WHO
USPHS
Japan
UK
USSR
European
International
SABS
NAS
Australia
EPA
Parameter
(1962)
(1968)
(1969)
(1970)
(1970)
(1971)
(1971)
(197J)
(1973)
(1975)
Arsenic
10
50
50
50
50
50
100
50
50
Barium
I 000
4000
1 000
—
—
1 000
1 000
1 000
Cadmium
10
10
10
10
50
10
10
10
Chromium
50
50
too
50
—
50
50
50
50
Copper
1 000
10 000
100
50
50
1 000
1 000
10 000
—
Cyanide
10
10
100
50
50
10
200
10
—
Lead
50
100
(00
100
100
50
50
50
50
Mercury
—
[
5
—
1
—
2
—
2
Phenolic compounds
1
5
1
1
1
1
I
—
—
Selenium
10
1
10
10
—
10
10
10
Siker
50
—
—
—
—
—
50
50
Zinc
5000
1 000
1 000
5 000
5000
5 000
5000
5 000
Organic Matter (CCE)
200
—
—
200- 500
—
—
300
700
—
Pesticides
Total chlorinated
hydrocarbon
—
_
—
—
—
—
1 066
—
1 092
Total organo phosphorus
100
and carbamates
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Total chlorophenoxys
—
—
—
—
—
—
52
—
no
Nitrate-Nitrogen
JO
10
JO
< ] 1,5
10
10
10
10
10
Fluoride (mg/£)
0,6 - 1,7
0,8
1,5
0,7- 1,7
0,6 - 1,7
1,0- 1,5
1,4-2,4
1,5
1,4-2,4
Coiiforms/IOQ
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 48
Average chemical and biological qualities from potable waters and the Stander
Wastewater Reclamation Plant in Pretoria are shown in Tables 6, 7, 8 and 9
respectively.
It was the author's conclusion that reclaimed effluent is a safe water supply
and would not present a health hazard when proper treatment and safeguards
are present.
TABLE 6
THE AVERAGE CHEMICAL QUALITY OF THE DIFFERENT POTABLE WATERS IN THE
PRETORIA AREA OVER THE PERIOD 1972 to 1975
NIWR
Vaai River
Rietvlei Dam
at Vereeniging
Rietvlei
Erasmia
Pretoria
Laboratory
Raw
Treated
Fountains
Borehole
Fountains
Tap water
Raw
Treated
Conductivity (mS/m)
54
58
27
55
49
44
52
37
Alkalinity*
160
140
98
196
162
71
84
86
COD**
30
34
18
18
20
47
22
22
MBAS***
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,2
Ammonia-N
0,4
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,3
0,4
0,4
0,5
Orgarfic-N
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,5
0,4
2,0
0,7
0,8
Nitrate-N
0,1
<0,1
0,6
2,1
2,1
0,7
1,3
1,0
Nitrite-N
0,5
0,3
0,2
0,1
<0,1
0,2
0,1
0,2
Ortho-P
0,5
0,6
0,2
<0,2
<0,2
0,2
0,4
<0,2
¦sw
Organic-P
0,4
0,2
0,1
0,1
0,1
0,2
0,2
0,4
5
Organic-C
17
12
7
6
7
7
10
8
Fluoride (F~)
0,3
0,3
0,1
0,1
<0,1
0,2
0,4
0,2
Chloride (CI")
31
51
15
46
25
53
36
21
Sulphate (S04")
60
76
10
12
10
44
111
58
Sodium (Na)
58
63
10
15
15
46
39
22
Potassium (K.)
8
8
1
1
2
3
7
4
Calcium (Ca)
27
28
24
53
44
33
56
42
Magnesium (Mg)
15
15
13
31
24
11
30
7
Silver (Ag)
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
Aluminium (Al)
154
192
145
154
137
149
263
171
Arsenic (As)
2
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
Boron (B)
188
174
109
107
107
103
259
139
Barium (Ba)
<250
<250
<250
<250
<250
<250
<250
<250
Beryllium (Be)
<5
<5
<5
<5
<5
<5
<5
<5
Cadmium (Cd)
<5
<5
<5
<5
<5
<5
<5
<5
Cobalt (Co)
<25
<25
<25
<25
27
<25
<25
<25
Chromium (Cr)
<25
26
<25
<25
25
<25
28
<25
"afc
Copper (Cu)
27
<25
<25
<25
<25
40
28
29
1
¦a.
Mercury
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Iron (Fe)
1939
26
26
25
26
71
1534
<25.
Manganese (Mn)
25
<25
<25
<25
<25
<25
29
<25
Nickel (Ni)
28
27
<25
26
27
<25
30
<75
<25
Lead (Pb)
<25
<25
<25
27
<25
<25
27
Strontium (Sr)
69
65
24
33
28
67
148
85
26
71
<50
Zinc (Zn)
39
29
28
61
32
41
35
Phenol
68
56
73
72
61
54
<50
Cyanide (CN")
<50
<50
<50
<50
<50
<50
<50
•Alkalinity at pH 4,3 (CaCOj)
**COD » Chemical oxygen demand
•••MBAS * Methylene blue active substances.
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 49
TABLE 7
THE AVERAGE MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF THE DIFFERENT SOURCES OF POTABLE
WATER IN THE PRETORIA AREA DURING THE PERIOD 1972 to 1975
Vaal River at
Riervlei
Riervlei
Eras-
Pretoria
NIWR
Vereeniging
Dam
Fountains
mia
Fountains
Labor-
Bore-
Before
After
hole
Before
After
tap
Raw
Treated
Raw
Treated
CI,
a
ct
ct
water
Total plate count
e
(37 °C/24 h) x 10»
33
0,12
44
9
8
12
5
8
12
10
Colifomis* (37 °C)
35
0
30
35
10
3
5
1
10
¦ 5
Faecal coliforms*
e
(44,5 "C/18 h)
17
0
12
5
4
<1
4
<1
1
50
Confirmed E. coli /*
12
0
0
0
0
0
—
—
0
6
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
9
0
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
0
0
1
Clostridium ptrfrin^ms"
17
0
113
87
6
<1
<1
<1
<1
7
Staphylococci*
9
0
<1
<1
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
Clostricium perfringens*
8
1
Staphylococci*
64
0
Enterococci*
91
0
Total enterovirus x 103
24
0
Total parasite ova
1
0
a
k.
Ascaris ova
1
0
Hookworm ova
0
0
Taenia ova
0
0
Other ova
0
0
•By membrane filtration
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 50
TABLE 9
CHEMICAL QUALITY OF RAW WATER TO
THE STANDER WATER RECLAMATION
PLANT AND THE FINAL WATER PRODUCED
DURING CONTINUOUS OPERATION IN 1975
Raw
Final
Conductivity (mS/m)
66
60
Alkalinity*
158
35
COD**
36
19
MBAS***
0,8
0,6
Ammonia-N
7,6
0,4
Organic-N
4,6
1,1
Nitrate-N
11,3
15,3
Nitrite-N
0,5
0,1
Ortho-P
6,0
0,4
~Sb
Organic-P
1,4
0,4
£
Organic-C
18
8
Fluoride (F~)
0,1
0,1
Chloride (CI")
46
90
Sulphate (SO«*)
45
46
Sodium (Na)
46
63
Potassium (K)
13
12
Calcium (Ca)
41
35
Magnesium (Mg)
20
4
Silver (Ag)
<25
<25
Aluminium (Al)
109
102
Arsenic (As)
2
2
Boron (B)
260
164
Barium (Ba)
<250
<250
Beryllium (Be)
<5
<5
Cadmium (Cd)
<5
<5
Cobalt (Co)
<25
<25
Chromium (Cr)
<25
<25
4.
Copper (Cu)
<25
<25
Mercury (Hg)
4(1)
22"1
Iron (Fe)
161
59
Manganese (Mn)
<25
<25
Nickel (Ni)
<25
<25
Lead (Pb)
<25
<25
Strontium (Sr)
75
52
Zinc (Zn)
32
<25
Phenol
93
92
Cyanide (CN')
<50
<50
*Aikalinity at pH 4,3 (CaCOj)
••COD ¦ Chemical oxygen demand
***MBAS » Methylene blue active substances.
(1) See text for explanation of these high figures.
*~**
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 51
The Netherlands National Institute for Water Supply has developed a theoretical
consideration for possible health effects in water reuse situations as well as
organics monitoring and international research cooperation.
The scheme for introduction of reuse in a water supply system is given in
Figure 3.
FIGURE 3
DRINKING WATER BALANCE OF A CITY
AW Ad A s Ar
Api ,
1
I 1 j
-{treatment REUSE !
SOURCE: M
CONSUMPTION
TREATMENT
DISCHARGE : D
Water losses in the system ( A ) are given by:
.'Losses during water treatment i
Ad
:Losses during consumption
Aw
•.Losses during transport and distribution
As
•.Losses in the sewer system
Ar
.•Introduction of rain
(A)
:za (pi, d, w, s, r)
M
:Total quantity of water abstraction from the source
D
•.Wastewater discharge
When a city is confronted with water shortages the decision to reuse must be
weighted against economics, health risks, type and amount of recycling.
The degree of reuse is commonly expressed by the reuse factor R, the ratio
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 52
between the quantity of reclaimed water (Q) and the available quantitiy of
raw water (M). (R = Q/M)
The percentage of effluent for reuse is dependent upon the actual changes in
the water volume in the system and can be expressed as a recovery percentage.
The percentage of the wastewater, which has to be recycled can be expressed
mathematically as a function of the recovery and the reuse factor or a water
scarcity index and is graphically given in Figure 4.
The water scarcity index is by definition, the ratio of the water demands over
the available raw water.
FIGURE 4
Relation between effluent recycling percentage and
water scarcity index at different recoveries.
100
90 -
80 -
70-
Effluent Recycling % 60
50 -
(Recovery %) R + 1
40 -
30 -
20 -
10 -
2
3
4
1
5
Water scarcity index = quantity Hwnapd
quantity available
= R + 1
A sewer system in Europe is assumed to have a recovered effluent percentage of
40-60% with 50% considered as a realistic figure.
The reuse factors will then be 0, 25, and 50 with these figures used in further
calculations, because only the reuse factor is responsible for typical reuse
effects due to repeated recycling of pollutants.
In such a closed or semi-closed system, contaminants will show a tendency to
accumulate. The level of accumulation can be described with simple models and
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 53
with worst-case simulations. From the simplified equation for the equilibrium
concentration (1) a second equation can be drawn up, the so-called equilibrium
concentration under worst condition, e.g. when the treatment efficiency is zero,
or no treatment for the contaminant is available.
Ceq = (A-Ac + B-Cj (1)
in which:
Ceq requilibrium concentration, of a considered pollutant
AC :use increment concentration of a considered pollutant
Cm :concentration of a considered pollutant in raw water
A + B -.factors dependent on waterbalance and treatment efficiency
Ceq = R>a + C worst-case condition
C rn
When wastewater reuse is considered it is necessary to know whether or not the
new situation will create an increased health risk for the consumer and to what
extent. For this purpose the water quality in both cases can be compared.
Before reuse of wastewater becomes a part of the water supply system, the con-
centration of pollutant A in drinking water is called Cmg.
Due to water recycling, the equilibrium concentration of pollutant A under
steady state conditions changes.
The ratio between the concentration of constituent A in the case of reuse and
without reuse is called the potential health risk (K).
The nature of the considered contaminant and increased concentration will lead
to potential health risks, (ratio water quality at reuse - water quality without
reuse) The mathematical expression for the potential health risk factor K is
given by equation 3.
c R + sm
„ _ eq reuse me p
Sue " Sp, -R
(Spi = treatment efficiency)
This rather complicated formula can be simplified when no treatment effect is
assumed (Spl =1).
This situation is called the worst-case situation and Equation 3 can be written
as:
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 54
Kwc =R csf+ 1 = R cr + 1 (4>
Kwc represents the potential health risk factor under the worst conditions.
The factors K and Kwc were calculated for some carcinogenic components based
on water quality data for the Dutch city of Dordrecht and with pollutants
increasing by a factor of 1.5, a recovery factor of 60% and a recycling per-
centage of 55%.
Table 10 shows the relevant data for three carcinogenic contaminants.
TABLE 10
The potential health risk calculation related to
3.4. benzofluoranthene, 11.12 benzofluoranthene
and 3.4. benzopyrene in case of wastewater reuse.
Max. reported concentration
in u/1 in:
R = 0,5
River
Rhine
Drinking
water
Dordrecht
Domestic
sewage
Dordrecht
Separation
factor
s
Use increment
concentration
c
Contaminant
K Kwc
3.4 benzo-
fl uoranthene
0,21
0,044
0,30
4,8
0,3 0
1,4 4,4
11.12 benzo-
fl uoranthene
0,23
0,005
0,34
46
0,34
1,2 35
3.4 benzo-
pyrene
0,15
0,004
0,31
38
0,31
1,4 40
Normal treatment will reduce the concentration of the carcinogenic contaminants
by a factor of 5-50%. If reuse is considered, the potential health risk can be
calculated with the help of Equation (3).
Figure 5 shows that to avoid unnecessary health risks the reuse factors have to
be chosen as small as possible. The effect of treatment is very large. When
the purification effect is limited, the potential health risk can be high.
To illustrate that fact, it can be shown that a non-removable chemical in sewage,
when 80% is directly reused, is at a 10 times higher concentration than if the
tap water was derived from an indirect reuse situation with river discharge,
dilution and abstraction.
If 85% of the sewage is directly recycled, a factor of 100 times the pollutant
concentration is possible as compared to tap water derived from river water
containing 5% of the sewage effluent.(see Table 11) These calculations indicate
the great importance for detailed studies ot health effects of present indirect
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 55
FIGURE 5
The increasing Kwc and K-value as a function of the reuse factor.
3.4 benzopyrene
:wc 11.12 benzofluoranthene
30 "
Potenti al 20 -
health
risk
10 •
:wc 3.4 benzofluoranthene
—K for all 3 contaminants
R
TABLE 11
Potential increased levels of exposure to a persistent
chemical in domestic effluent via directly reused
wastewater compared with indirect wastewater reuse.
Percent Directly
Recycled wastewater
Ratio* of potential exposure for
direct/indirect reuse
River with
50% effluent
River with
5% effluent
25
1.5
6
50
3
21
75
7
61
80
9
81
85
12
115
90
19
181
95
39
381
* (Exposure ratio) direct/indirect = 1 + ^recycled . cycle
^normal Criver
and planned direct reuse of wastewater for human consumption. By the use of
mathematical models, it will further be possible to extrapolate the health risk
of present indirect reuse situations to those encountered in future projects of
direct reuse.
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 56
13. The question related to the health effects of heavy metals and organics in drink-
ing water supplies is complex. First, is there an effect of each of the many
elements and compounds, and if so, what effect, present at which concentration?
Further, are the effects symptomatic as mutagenic, carcinogenic or teratogenic?
Before these questions can be answered, the proper questions must be formulated.
Part of the difficulty in assessing the health effects of heavy metals and trace
organics has been in the lack of coordination in data gathering and subsequent
reporting. Clinical epidemiological data, while present, is widely scattered,
making analysis difficult. Research aimed at alleviating the situation by gather-
ing the pertinent results into one place was published in the Journal of Environ-
mental Health, Volume 39, No.2, as "Physiological Effects of Trace Elements and
Chemicals in Water". The authors, M.M. Varma and H.M. Katz, of Howard University,
Washington, D.C., and S.G. Serdahely of WHO, compiled a comprehensive literature
survey of the occurrence, sources, concentration and health effects of heavy
metals including: mercury, cadmium, arsenic, lead, beryllium, chromium and
manganese, the trace elements; fluoride and nitrates and organic compounds too
numerous to mention. Concern is voiced, in respect to the potable reuse of treated
wastewater, about the accumulation and concentration of these contaminants through
conventional treatment processes. The significant results are presented in
Table 12, while the original document should be consulted for more information.
TABLE 12
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TRACE ELEMENTS & CHEMICALS IN WATER
JEH, SEPT/OCT 1976
A - HEAVY METALS
snilRfF OF pni I I1TI0N FORMS OCCURRING IN HEALTH EFFECTS CONCENTRATION ^
MERCURY
Manufacture of lamps, controls, batteries.
Dental use, pesticides, fungicides, mil-
dew proofing aqents in paints, chloro-
alkali
Released from land disposal.incineration.
1. Most Toxic: alkyl mercury compounds
methylmercury (MM)
2. Toxic: elemental mercury compounds
mercuric 1ons
3. Less Toxic: inorganic mercury salts
Phenyl and methoxyethyl compounds
901! of (MM) ingested is adsorbed in the
gastro-intestinal tract-accumulates in
blood cell concentrates In brain and
nervous system; can cross placental barrle
and cause irreversible damange to fetus at
levels that cause no symptoms to mother;
elemental mercury accumulates in brain
•nd central nervous sytem; 75-85? adsorbed
excreted more rapidly; phenyl and
Methoxyethyl concentrate 1n kidney and
liver excreted much more rapidly.
Methyl mercury causes
neurological symptoms '
a blood level of 02 ug/?
corresponding to daily
intake of 3C0 ug/day.
FDA Regulations -
30 ug/day
WHO Regulations -
33ug/day MM
50ug/day total mercury
CADMIUM
Cd++
In high concentration Cd 1s a deadly
poison. 5-6% adsorbed through oral
ingestion; 30% inhaled; concentrates
in kidney (renal cortex); cardiovascular
disease possibly; affects lung, kidney,
liver.
At 200 ppm concentra-
tion, chronic kidney
disease begins
Electroplating,zinc ore mining,pigments,
stabilizer in PVC, released in industrial
waste discharge, waste incineration, melt-
ing scrap steel
ARSENIC
Pesticides, detergent made from phosphate
rock, also fertilizers from phosphate.
1. Highly Toxic: Arsenites,d1methyarsine
2. Toxic: Arsenates,inorganic arsenlcals,
arsenic trloxlde, organic arsenlcals
3. Non-Toxic-. Elemental Arsenic
Exposure to arsenic trloxlde has caused
dermatitis,hyperkeratosis, gastro-
intestinal disorders, peripheral neuro-
pathy, muscular weakness, degenerates
lung, liver, kidney, pancreas, stomach,
heart and blood. Correlation with skin
cancer.
LEAD
Gas additive, storage batteries, pigments
automobile exhaust, land disposal, highway
paint leaching
Children: Mental retardation, cerebral
atrophy, kidney tumors, nervous system
Man retains 200-400u
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 57
Table 12 cont.
B - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
-sniiarr ng pm i uTTnti
BIPHEJJVIS (PCD'3)
"•'^Ctricdl Industry
FORMS OCCURRING IN
HEALTH EFFECTS
Fat soluble stored in lipids-increase
succcpt^bil ity to infectious diseases,
animal results: liver enzyme activity
increased, bladder cancer, chloracne,
blindness, gastro-intestinal diseases,
skin discoloration in newborn infants
CONCENTRATION
SjHijALATE ESTERS
*sticizers in PVC manufacture,
J"sect repellent
Di-2-ethyl-hexyl and d1-n-butylphthalates
Phthalic acid esters (PAE)
PAE's have low order of acute toxicity-
have produced teratogenic effects in rats.
IlNAPHTHVlAHINE
Agricultural chemicals, food colors, dyes,
Petroleum anti-oxidants, effluents from
dye manufacture and agricultural runoffs.
1-naphthylami ne
2-naphthylamine
Malignant tumors of bladder, methemoglo-
bemia
2-naphthylamine is a known carcinogen
{ISIL phosphatfs
' jj,l,eretaraants, plasticizers for PVC
ma"ufacture
Tr1-orthotolyl phosphate (TOTP)
Tri-orthocresyl phosphate
Trri-ethylphenyl phosphate
^gVLONITRTI f
ndustriaI intermediate in manufacture of
m„;. 1 "'¦•ermeaiate
ast,« and elastomers
Intestinal cramps, vertigo, blurred vision
headache, diarrhea, vomiting, muscular
weakness, coma, pulmonary edema. TOTP 1s
highly toxic. Tri-orthocresyl affects the
neuromuscular system, as does tri-ethyl-
phenyl
Vinyl cyanide,propenitrile,
cyanothylene, acetonitrile
Mutagen-interferes with RNA
1.050 in mice is 26-43
rog/kg
2 mg/1 causes behavioral
changes
****
LEGI S L A T I V E S FUNDING ACTIVITIES
1. On November 8, 1977, the President signed into law, PL95-155, the EPA Research
and Development Authorization Act of 1978, which requires the EPA to sPer|d $25
million on water reuse research. Background information on this important
legislation follows.
Included in the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (PL93-523) was Section 1444,
which authorized the expenditure of $25 million for potable reuse research.
Those monies, earmarked by Congress for needed reuse research, were to expire
at the close of fiscal year 1977 (September 30, 1977).
Working against that dealine, Representative James P. Johnson (R-CO), early in
1977, brought to the attention of the House, that no positive action was taken
to request the use of the authorized funds.
Confronting the EPA on the issue, Johnson was informed that the EPA had failed
to ask for those monies or have them appropriated because of y ....
uncertainties concerning reuse which would make assessing cur
projects very difficult".
However, on the floor of the House, Rep. Johnson pointed out that "these technical
uncertainties as well as related health questions are
cern which can only be fully investigated and resolved through a P^ticidemon
stration size facility which would qualify for cost"? A? nrnkipm lohnsnn
provisions of the SDWA". In response to his perception of the problem, Johnson
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 58
introduced a bill, on February 22, 1977, to provide for a "simple amendment" to
SDWA to remove the optional wording and require that EPA grant $10 million in
FY1978 for potable reuse demonstration projects.
The amendment (HR5101) to the EPA R&D Legislation went to the House HUD and
independent sub-agencies and sub-committees for committee study. With committee
approval, and additional support on the floor from California, New Mexico and
New York, the required amount was increased to $25 million. On April 19, 1977
the amendment was approved in the House by a vote of 358 to 31, with 41 abstentions.
When taken to the Senate, the reuse provision was removed from their version of
the EPA legislation and placed in the Senate Safe Drinking Water Act (S.1528)
which was subsequently passed. In a compromise move, an attempt was made to
insert the same wording into the House version of the SDWA. Opposition was
encountered and the amendment was dropped entirely because it would have jeop-
ardized passage of the entire bill.
With the reuse monies stranded in S.1528 and HR5101, a conference between repre-
sentatives of both legislative branches was held to resolve differences in word-
ing.
U.S. House of Representatives and Senate Conferees concluded discussion in Octo-
ber of 1978, and after successful House ballot, the bill went to the President,
becoming PL95-155.
In the language of the conference report, the $25 million will be offered as
65-75% cost-sharing grants for the purpose of:
a. Assisting in the development and demonstration (including construction)
of any project which will demonstrate a new or improved method, approach
or technology for providing a dependable safe supply of drinking water
to the public; and
b. Assisting in the development and demonstration (including construction)
of any project which will investigate and demonstrate health and conserv-
ation implications involved in the reclamation, recycling and reuse of
wastewaters for drinking and the processes and methods for the preparation
of safe and acceptable drinking water.
****
M 0 DELING FOR REUSE
1. In order for wastewater reuse to realize its true potential, it must be consid-
ered as part of a regional water resources management plan. Such comprehensive
planning required the capability for planners to "step back" from the situation
and assess the consequences of various allocation schemes. Digital computer
models, and linear programming techniques have been applied successfully as aids
to resource planning, but their use in the field of wastewater reuse is in its
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 59
infancy. The references in this section begin to explore the utility of modeling
as a powerful tool for water resources planning.
In a recent EPA publication, EPA-600/2-76-058, entitled "Future Direction of Urban
Water Models", the state of the art of urban water modeling since 1968 was
reviewed. As pertaining to the subsystem category of reuse, six specific models
were mentioned. These include:
1. Bishop, A.B., D.W. Hendricks, and J.H. Milligan, "Assessment Analysis
for Water Supply Alternatives", Water Resources Bulletin, AWRA, Vol. 7,
No. 3, June 1971, pp. 542-553.
2. Kugelman, I.J., "Water Reclamation and Reuse", WPCF Journal, Vol. 46,
No. 6, June 1974, pp. 1195-1199.
3. Mallory, C.W., The Beneficial Use of Storm Water, Final Report to
U.S. EPA, EPA-R2-73-139, Hittman Associates, Inc., Columbia, Maryland,
January 1973, 266 p.
4. Mulvihill, M.E., and J.A. Dracup, "Optimal Timing and Sizing of a Con-
junctive Urban Water Supply and Waste Water System with Nonlinear
Programming", Water Resources Research, Vol. 10, No. 2, April 1974,
pp. 170-175.
5. Water Resources Engineers, Systems Analysis for Urban Water Management,
prepared for the Office of Water Resources Research through the ASCE
Water Resources Research Program, Walnut Creek, California, September
1970, 78 p.
6. Weddle, C.L., S.K. Mukherjee, J.W. Porter, and H.P. Skarheim, "Mathe-
matical Model for Water-Wastewater Systems", AWWA Journal, Vol. 62, No. 12,
December 1970, pp. 769-775.
****
A computer program, PROCS, has been developed by Moore, Gardner and Associates,
Consulting Engineers, to perform preliminary cost estimates in AWT plants for
comparative purposes. The program selects a treatment sequence to meet the
required effluent limitations, but does not produce detailed design information.
Ten unit operations are included in PROCS: preliminary treatment and activated
sludge, nitrification - denitrification, chemical precipitation, filtration,
carbon adsorption, reverse osmosis, ozonation, chlorination and post aeration.
Removal efficiencies are calculated which take into account different qualities
of wastewater.
****
3- Dr. G.C. Hall of South Africa's National Institute for Water Research (NIWR) has
reported on the development of linear programs to optimize direct reuse in a
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community. The article, as it appears in the June 1977 NIWR issue of Water Report,
states that a system approach is required to balance stream augmentation and
reclamation. A rather simplistic model could be used as an initial thrust at
determining the economical balance and screen possible flow systems.
An example of a possible circulation system is shown in Figure 1 which consists
of 24 directed flows that join at 10 nodes. A cost coefficient (cost per unit
of water conveyed including treatment) is associated with each flow.
For example, the cost coefficient for flow #9 would include the unit cost of treat-
ing raw water to potable standards. Decision variables in the model are the mag-
nitude of flow with the objective to minimize the total cost of water supply sub-
ject to demand satisfaction and quantities available. Other constants include
the physical capacities of the carriers and concentration build-ups.
Linear programming techniques are a suggested method to solve the model even
though some of the constraints are not amenable to linear solutions. It is
possible to modify the constraints permitting an approximate linear program
which can then be adjusted manually to satisfy the deviations. The basic method
suggested appears in South Africa's research to be satisfactory for problems
involving fewer than 100 decision variables.
FIGURE 1
SIMPLIFIED LINEAR MODEL FOR REUSE
Induitriol use
Service reservoir
Domestic
use /Z
Irrigation with
saline effluents
22]
Brine
Reclamation
and de-
salination
plant J
Irrigation
return flow
2«
****
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In "The Decision to Reuse Water", a paper presented at the 1977 AWWA Anaheim
Convention, Drs. Baumann and Dworkin of Southern Illinois University provide
a good introduction to the wastewater reclamation and reuse field with empha-
sis on decision criteria and modeling factors. Three types of models for
evaluating reuse economics are identified.
1. Projected costs of treating wastewater to a suitable level are contrasted
with the costs of providing the water from an alternative source.
2. Various supply alternatives are evaluated to optimize or determine the
least cost alternative under given conditions.
3. A municipal system is simulated through the interaction of supply and
demand components and the waste treatment and reuse systems.
Through analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the three categories of
models, the more comprehensive supply-demand alternate is selected for further
investigation. Model development is discussed, with each specific component
expanded to illustrate its relation and significance in the decision-making
process.
The authors contend that water reuse is a viable, attractive and economically
more efficient method of providing municipal supplies. However, they ask:
If recycled renovated wastewater can be safe to drink, and
under specific qualifications the concept is a socially
acceptable and economically efficient alternative for muni-
cipal water supply planning, then why has the rate of
adoption been so low? The answer may be related to the
existence of two problems: the unavailability of a method-
ology to assess the relative value of reuse, and the
professional biases of consulting engineers, public health
officials and municipal water managers. An effort has been
made to correct the first deficiency: a simulation model has
been developed to evaluate the relative merits of specific
water reuse systems. The second problem has been only defined
and awaits additional research.
In summary, and to demonstrate the feasibility of the model as a water resources
management tool, the applicability of reuse to the Colorado Springs, Colorado
municipal water supply was investigated.
****
POSITION S T A T E M E N T S
On June 18, 1971, the Board of Directors of the AWWA issued a position statement
on the "Use of Reclaimed Wastewater as a Public Water Supply Source". At that
time, the AWWA encouraged increased reclamation of wastewaters for non-public
water supply needs, specifically industrial cooling and processing, crop irrigation,
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recreation and groundwater recharge. While acknowledging that the full potential
of reclaimed water should be developed, AWWA felt that the state of scientific
knowledge and wastewater treatment technology was not sufficiently advanced to
support use as a public water supply source. In response to the situation, AWWA
called upon its Research Foundation and the U.S. EPA to sponsor sustained, inten-
sive research and development to that end.
Policy statements such as the one issued are subject to review every five years.
In order to get a broader range of input, the original one-page policy was sub-
mitted to the Water Resources and Water Quality Divisions of AWWA for comments.
The latter Division requested rather sweeping changes in content from the recog-
nition of indirect reuse to the support of a full-scale, multi-disciplinary
research program in potable water reuse.
After unanimous approval in the Divisions, the revised policy statement, Figure 1,
still presses for support from the Federal sector of needed research. The lan-
guage is similar, and the content identical to that expressed in a joint American
Water Works Association - Water Pollution Control Federation Resolution issued
in November, 1973.
FIGURE 1
AWWA POLICY STATEMENT REVISION
Use of Reclaimed Wastewaters as a Public Water Supply Source
The American Water Works Association recognizes that properly treated
wastewaters constitute an increasingly important element of the total
available water resources. In relation to this situation several
factors are important. These are as follows:
1. Ever increasing amounts of treated wastewaters are being dis-
charged to the waters of the Nation and constitute an increas-
ing proportion of many existing drinking water supplies;
2. More and more proposals are being made to introduce reclaimed
wastewaters directly into various elements of domestic water
supply systems in certain water short areas;
3. The sound management of our total available water resources may
include consideration of the potential use of properly treated
wastewaters as part of drinking water supplies in certain instances;
4. Insufficient information exists concerning acute and long-term
effects on human health resulting from such uses of wastewater;
5. Fail-Safe technology to assure the removal of all potentially
harmful substances from wastewater is not available.
Based on these factors the policy of the American Water Works Association
is to urge the Federal Government to support an immediate and sustained
multi-disciplinary national research effort to provide the scientific
knowledge and technology relative to the future use of reclaimed waste-
waters as a public water supply source in order to assure the full pro-
tection of the public's health, and further, that any advocacy of such
direct use of reclaimed wastewaters as a public water supply source await
the development of the needed scientific knowledge and treatment technology.
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Prior to adoption, the policy statement will be balloted at two further organi-
zational levels, and then be presented to the Board of Directors, possibly as
early as June, 1978.
****
2. Established in 1973, the National Water Supply Improvement Association (NWSIA)
is dedicated to the improvement of community water supplies through desalting,
wastewater reclamation and other water sciences. Representing a small (200)
but highly qualified membership composed of national and international manu-
facturers, consulting firms, engineers, municipal water officials, government
representatives and firms which supply equipment for water and wastewater treat-
ment, positions endorsed by NWSIA carry considerable weight. The general member-
ship of NWSIA in July, 1976, adopted the following resolution which is appropriate
for entities involved in wastewater reclamation.
Only relevant reuse sections have been reproduced here.
WHEREAS, the membership of the NWSIA has again reviewed the present
desalination, wastewater reclamation and new water science programs
in the U.S.; and
WHEREAS, de-emphasis by agencies of the Federal Government of desalting
research and demonstration continues to shock the members of the NWSIA,
who also find disappointing the leisurely approach taken to research in
the area of water recycling, especially that involving health aspects
of reclaimed water; and
WHEREAS, approaches under the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 to research
into the health aspects of reuse of reclaimed wastewater has continued slowly
and has delayed application of this technology as a water conservation
measure, at a time when conservation is an increasingly recognized factor
in water resources development and environmental enhancement programs.
BE IT HEREBY RESOLVED, that the NWSIA calls to the attention of the Presi-
dent of the United States and of the U.S. Congress, the sad state of water
resources research programs of the Federal Government. NWSIA urges that
the EPA, the Department of the Interior, NSF, ERDA & 0MB be held to strict
account for these programs. NWSIA urges that the Congress take up soon
the consideration of reorganization of the Federal Agencies in order to
insure that adequate timely attention be given to the resources crises that
impends, and that water resources research demonstration and development
programs for all purposes and particularly for improved water supplies be
developed, funded and activated. NWSIA petitions the Federal Government
to provide the technological support needed by water agencies in the U.S.
in meeting their requirements...
WHEREAS, the policy statement of the California Association of Reclamation
Entities of Water (WATERCARE) regarding water quality criteria having been
presented for review of general NWSIA membership; and
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Page 64
WHEREAS, NWS IA emphasizes the need to protect all communities through the
development and application of adequate water quality standards to water
supplies; and
WHEREAS, NWSIA declares that there are no pristine waters, since stable
organics and trace elements that may have an adverse effect on human life
are found in rainwaters, lakes, streams, rivers and groundwaters; and
WHEREAS, NWSIA finds that community wastewaters make their way into most
of the water supplies of the world, thus requiring water quality standards
that adequately consider this contribution.
BE IT HEREBY RESOLVED, that the NWSIA believes in and encourages the adoption
of water quality standards that protect the public health, and endorses
the Concept of Uniform Standards applicable to water supplies according
to use regardless of the source of the water.
RESOLVED FURTHER, that in preparing legislation for reorganization of water
resources research in 1977, the Congress carefully consider the critical
needs for inclusion of desalination and wastewater reclamation in research
programs; and, further, the need to place construction and operation functions
related to nationwide programs in an action and program oriented Federal
Agency, such as the Bureau of Reclamation if its scope be broadened.
The resolutions were placed before Congress to offer, according to NWSIA, "needed
guidance as to which agencies will administer research programs, what new
directions those programs will take, and whether demonstration projects will be
funded
****
3. As indicated in a memorandum presented at the WPCF Philadelphia Convention on
October 3, 1977 by Douglas Costle, EPA Administrator, there has been a major
shift in that Agency's policy on water reuse. In pursuit of the national goals
of conserving water and eliminating the discharge of pollutants to navigable
waters by 1985, as articulated in PL92-500 (the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act Amendments of 1972)..."the Agency (EPA) will press vigorously for publicly
owned treatment works to utilize land treatment processes to reclaim and recycle
municipal wastewater."
The following excerpts from the memorandum convey the scope, justification and
impact of the new position:
At the time P.L. 92-500 was enacted, it was the intent of Congress to
encourage to the extent possible the development of wastewater manage-
ment policies that are consistent with the fundamental ecological
principle that all materials should be returned to the cycles from which
they were generated. Particular attention should be given to wastewater
treatment processes which renovate and reuse wastewater as well as recycle
the organic matter and nutrients in a beneficial manner.
...Land treatment systems involve the use of plants and the soil to
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Page 65
remove previously unwanted contaminants from wastewaters. Land treat-
ment is capable of achieving removal levels comparable to the best
available advanced wastewater treatment technologies while achieving
additional benefits. The recovery and beneficial reuse of wastewater
and its nutrient resources through crop production, as well as waste-
water treatment and reclamation, allow land treatment systems to
accomplish far more than most conventional treatment and discharge
alternatives.
The application of wastewater on land is a practice that has been used
for many decades; however, recycling and reclaiming wastewater that
may involve the planned recovery of nutrient resources as part of a
designed wastewater treatment facility is a relatively new technique.
One of the first such projects was the large scale Muskegon, Michigan,
land treatment demonstration project funded under the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1966 (P.L.84-660), which began
operations in May 1974.
...Because land treatment processes contribute to the reclamation and
recycling requirements of P.L. 92-500, they should be preferentially
considered as an alternative wastewater management technology. Such
consideration is particularly critical for smaller communities. While
it is recognized that acceptance is not universal, the utilization of
land treatment systems has the potential for saving billions of dollars.
This will benefit not only the nationwide water pollution control pro-
gram, but will also provide an additional mechanism for the recovery
and recycling of wastewater as a resource.
EPA currently requires each applicant for construction grant funds to
make a conscientious analysis of wastewater management alternatives
with the burden upon the applicant to examine all available alternative
technologies. Therefore, if a method that encourages water conservation,
wastewater reclamation and reuse is not recommended, the applicant should
be required to provide complete justification for the rejection of land
treatment.
Imposition of stringent wastewater treatment requirements prior to land
application has quite often nullified the cost-effectiveness of land
treatment processes in the past. EPA must ensure that appropriate Federal,
State and local requirements and regulations are imposed at the proper
point in the treatment system and are not used in a manner that may
arbitrarily block land treatment projects. Whenever States insist upon
placing unnecessarily stringent preapplication treatment requirements
upon land treatment, such as requiring EPA secondary effluent quality
in all cases prior to application on the land, the unnecessary wastewater
treatment facilities will not be funded by EPA.
****
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PUBLISHED L I T E R A T U R E
1. The references listed in this section are drawn from many sources, but unified
by their reuse-related subject matter. For easier access, the material is
organized as follows:
I. Technical Reports
A. Processes
B. Testing, Monitoring & Chemical Contaminants
C. Virus & Bacteria
D. Reuse & System Management
E. Economic Factors
II. Books
III. Conference Proceedings
I. TECHNICAL REPORTS
With the exception of one, as noted, all of the references in the Technical
Reports section may be obtained from the National Technical Information
Service (NTIS), U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road,
Springfield, Virginia, U.S.A. 22161.
A. Processes
1. "Ammonia Removal from Wastewater: A Review of the State of the Art"-
John H. Whiting, A. Paul Adams & Milton Roth, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover.
N.J. Jan 1976.
AD A020 698/7PSP P.C. $4.50
2. "Water Treatment by Reverse Osmosis and Membrane Processes"-BiblioqraDhv
August 1976, 150 pages.
NTIS/PS-76/0652/8WP $25.00
3. "UV-Ozone Water Oxidation/Sterilization Processes"
December 1975, 102 pages
AD-A026 571/OWP $5.50
4. "Waste Treatment by Reverse Osmosis and Membrane Processes Part 1
Sewage", August 1976, 69 pages. Citations from the Engineering Index
Data Base. Contains 62 abstracts from worldwide research efforts
plus studies on design and performance. '
NTIS/PS-76/0653/6WP $25.00
5. "Ozonation Used in Water & Sewage Treatment" from NTIS Data Bank
August 1976, 52 pages. '
NTIS/PS-76/0655/1WP $25.00
This published search contains a bibliography of federally funded research
48 abstracts mdustnal wastes, sewage and drinking water.
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Page 67
"Ozonation Used in Water & Sewage Treatment" from Engineering Index
Data Base, August 1976, 152 pages.
NTIS/PS-76/0656/9WP $25.00
Contains 145 abstracts on worldwide research reports covering design,
operation and costs.
"Nitrogen Removal in Sewage Treatment Systems" (A bibliography with
abstracts), September 1976, 146 pages.
NHS/PS-76/0692 4 WP $25.00
All aspects of nitrogen removal in sewage treatment systems from federally
funded reports is covered including breakpoint chlorination, bio-denitri-
fication, ammonia stripping, design aspects and microbiology.
"Evaluation of Membrane Separation Processes, Carbon Adsorption, and
Ozonation for Treatment of MUST Hospital Wastes", Abcor, Incorporated,
August 1976, 456 pages.
AD - A030 057/4WP $12.00
Treatment sequence evaluations, quality specifications and operating
criteria.
"Wastewater Treatment Using Flocculation, Coagulation and Flotation
(A Bibliography with Abstracts)", October 1976, 212 pages.
NTIS/PS-761 0790/6WP $25.00
207 abstracts on processes and performance of federally funded research
in the field.
"Sewage Filtration", November 1976,
Volume 1, 170 pages, NTIS/PS-76/0890/4WP $25.00
Volume 2, 58 pages, NTIS/PS-76/0891/2WP $25.00
A 2-Volume published search from the Engineering Index Base covering the
periods of 1973-1975 and January-August, 1976 respectively. 214 abstracts
from the worldwide literature are available.
"Evaluation of new R.0. Membranes for the Separation of Toxic Compounds
from Wastewater", Edward Chian, Illinois University, June 1976, 323 pages.
AD-A030 884/1WP $9.75
Results of a 3-year study on membranes and wastewater with reliability
and computer programming data.
"Packed-Bed Reactors for Nitrification and Denitrification of Secondary
Effluents", James C. Young, Iowa State Water Resources Research Institute,
June 1976, 151 pages.
PB-259 607/0WP $6.75
Upflow pack-bed reactors (PBR) in laboratory and pilot scale experiments
were used as a tertiary process for BOD, SS and nutrient removal research.
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Page 68
Granular medias were examined with a treatment sequence selected which
was comparable in results to PCT systems employing carbon.
13. "A Feasibility/Development Study for the Removal of Ammonia from Waste-
water using Biologically Regenerated Clinoptilolite", Michael J. Semmens,
Illinois University Water Resources Center, August 1976, 153 pages.
PB-260 512/9WP $6.75
Results of a study to reduce costs of resin regeneration using nitri-
fying bacteria.
14. "Naval Stores Wastewater Purification and Reuse by Activated Carbon
Treatment", Hercules, Inc., October 1976, 45 pages.
PB 261-168/9WP $4.00
Report describes PCT process removing 80% of the COD and 85% of the TOC
at 31 -4
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Page 69
21. "The Removal of Organic Matter from Water Supplies by Ion Exchange",
Minnesota University, February 1977, 59 pages.
PB-266 022/3WP $4.50
A study on the use of anion exchange resins for organic removal. Test
organics were removed to the lower limit of TOC analysis with high
basic resins which were easily regenerated by Na CI. Selectivity and
kinetics was briefly investigated.
22. "UV-Ozone Water Oxidation/Sterilization Process", Westgate Research
Corporation, November 1976, 214 pages.
AD-A038 609/4WP $7.75
A report describing the 2nd and 3rd year efforts in developing a UV-
ozone system for the Army MUST project and NASA manned spacecraft.
Mathematical models were derived.
23. "Processing of Raw Sewage by Ultra-Filtration", David W. Taylor Naval Ship
Research & Development Center, Annapolis, Maryland, April 1977, 18 pages.
AD-A041 607/3WP $3.50
Evaluation of microfiltration and ultrafiltration systems for naval
wastewater discharges including pretreatment and maintenance requirements.
24. "Wastewater Disinfection: A State-of-the-Art Summary" by Dr. C.M. Sawyer
is a five-section report dealing with the advantages and disadvantages
of chlorination and alternative methods. It is available as Bulletin
#89 at no cost from Water Resources Research Center, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24601 U.S.A.
B. Testing, Monitoring and Chemical Contaminants
1. "Development of Techniques for Detection of Low Molecular Weight
Contaminants in Product Water from Waste Purification on Water
Reuse Systems", Ami con Corporation, August 1976, 87 pages.
AD-A038 148/3WP $5.00
Evaluation of a lab-scale permanganate colorimeter instrument to
monitor organics from the Army's MUST system. The hardware is
judged low-cost, rugged, simple and reliable.
2. "The Development of a Test for the Potability of Water Treated by a
Direct Reuse System", Cincinnati University.
AD-A025 143/9WP $7.50
3. "Development of an On-Line Biological Detector", Gulf South Research
Institute, July 1976, 58 pages.
AD-A034 493/7WP $4.50
4. "Instrumentation and Automation Experiences in Wastewater Treatment
Facilities", Raytheon Corporation, October 1976, 378 pages.
PB-262 232/2WP $10.75
Nationwide survey of plant automation and instrumentation-successes and
needs.
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Page 70
5. "Research Needs for Automation of Wastewater Treatment Systems. Proceed-
ings of a Workshop held at Clemson, South Carolina in 1974", Clemson
University, January 1977, 134 pages.
PB-262 816/2WP $6.00
Research needs plus the effect of automation on design of wastewater
recycle systems.
6. "Selected Applications of Instrumentation and Automation in Wastewater-
Treatment Facilities", Raytheon Company, December 1976, 315 pages.
PB-263 777/5WP $9.75
Control strategies for operation of wastewater plants including auto-
mation, direct digital and computerized control.
7. "Technology Transfer Potential of an Automated Water Monitoring System",
Battel!e Columbus Labs, May 1976, 89 pages.
N 77 - 25006/6WP $5.00
The nature and characteristics of the potential economic need (markets)
for a highly integrated water quality monitoring system.
8. "Analysis of Organic Compounds in Water to Support Health Effect Studies",
The World Health Organization International Reference Centre for
Community Water Supply, Technical Paper Series #9, December 1976, 90 pages.
May be obtained from the W.H.0. - I.R.C., P.O. Box 140, Leidschendam,
the Netherlands.
Organic identification and characterization are stressed by the project's
consultant, and author Dr. A.W. Garrison of the U.S. EPA.
C. Virus and Bacteria
1. "Virus Elimination in Water and Wastewater"
AD A021 773/7WP $4.00
The report emphasizes treatment technology for disinfection, particularly
virus removal, economics and new processes.
2. "Disinfection of Wastewater: Task Force Report", EPA, March 1976,67 pages.
PB-257 449/9WP $4.50
Several issues concerning wastewater disinfection and alternatives.
3. "New Microbial Indicators of Disinfection Efficiency", Illinois
University, July 1975, 88 pages.
AD AO30 547/4WP $5.00
Examines the use of yeast organisms as a more reliable indicator of
disinfection for viral pathogen work.
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Page 71
4. "Development of a Chemiluminescent and Bioluminescent System for the
Detection of Bacteria in Wastewater Effluent", R.R. Thomas, Boeing
Company, Houston, Texas, 1975, 50 pages.
N76-23824/5WP P.C. $4.00
D. Reuse and System Management
1. "Fresh Water from Sewage on Long Island", Brookhaven National
Laboratory, April 1976, 17 pages.
BNL - 21371 $3.50
Describes small sewage treatment systems for recycling wastewater into
potable groundwater aquifers.
2. "Recreational Reuse of Municipal Wastewater Phase II", Texas Tech
University, Lubbock Water Resources Center, April 1976, 93 pages.
PB 261-256/2WP $5.00
Modeling of recreational reuse potential in Lubbock, Texas water
quality analyses and health aspects.
3. "Renovated Wastewater as a Supplementary Source for Municipal Water
Supply: An Economic Evaluation", EPA, October 1976, 133 pages.
PB-262 203/3WP $6.00
Cost analysis of two wastewater renovation and reuse projects.
4. "Select Minerals and Potable Reuse of Reclaimed Wastewaters", Harold
Wolf, Texas A & M, March 1977, 86 pages.
PB-265 203/0WP $5.00
Analysis of relationship of drinking water mineral content and heart-
circulatory deaths.
5. "Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Municipal Wastewater Reuse", SCS
Engineers.
PB 252 932/9WP $8.00
6. "MIUS Wastewater Technology Evaluation", NASA, May 1976, 127 pages.
N76 - 30120/9WP $6.00
Capital, operating and maintenance costs are provided for the waste-
water treatment part of MIUS.
7. "Estimating the Reliability of AWT", EPA, June 1976, 9 pages.
PB-265 254/3WP $3.50
Complete analysis of Tahoe data.
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 72
8. "Developments at International Conference on Water Pollution Research
(8th) held in Sydney, Australia, October 17-22, 1976", Delaware
University, June 1977, 229 pages.
PB-268 365/4WP $8.00
Critical analysis of Conference with several reuse papers.
E. Economic Factors
1. "Feasibility Study of a Nuclear Power-Sewage Treatment System for
the Conservation and Reclamation of Water Resources", 1976.
PB-255 630/6WP $3.50
2. "An Analysis of the Market Potential of Water Hyacinth-Based Systems
for Municipal Wastewater Treatment", Battelle Columbus Labs,
January 1976, 250 pages,
N76 - 28679/8WP $8.00
Baseline design and market study of tertiary sewage treatment.
3. "Energy Costs of Wastewater Reuse", Arizona University, September
1976, 14 pages.
PB-257 518/1WP $3.50
Regression techniques to relate cost and energy for application to
Arizona reuse projects.
4. "Municipal Wastewater Recycling: A Strategy for Meeting the Zero
Discharge Goal of PL 92-500", University of California-Davis,
February 1976, 139 pages.
PB-261 912/OWP $6.00
Justification and need for water reuse paper.
5. "An Economic Appraisal of Reuse Concepts in Regional Water Supply
Planning", Utah State Research Lab, April 1976, 62 pages.
PB-268 093/2WP $4.50
A mathematical programming model is applied to reuse potential for
optimum allocations.
II. BOOKS
A. The book, Advanced Wastewater Treatment, by Culp and Culp is still avail-
able for $16.95 from Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 450 West 33rd Street,
New York, New York 10001. The 310-page volume describes several ter-
tiary sewage treatment processes used in the reclamation and reuse of
effluents. Costs and reliability factors are included.
B. Introduction to Wastewater Treatment Processes. R.s. Ramalho, 409 pages,
Academic Press, Inc., Ill Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003,
1977, $22.50. Tertiary Treatment.
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 73
C. A new book, Handbook of Water Resources and Pollution Control, as
edited by Harry W. Gehm and Jacob I. Bregman contains several chapters
on the subject of water quality, AWT, water reclamation and reuse and
solids handling. It is available for a 10-day free examination or
$39.50 from Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 300 Pike Street, Cincinnati,
Ohio 45202.
HI. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
A. The proceedings from a three-day workshop in Boulder, Colorado in March
of 1975 are still available. The report entitled "Research Needs for the
Potable Reuse of Municipal Wastewater" describes the research priority
needs in health effects work, treatment reliability and technology,
and the socio-economic area. Report number PB-249 138/9WP can be pur-
chased for $7.75 from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS),
U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia,
22161.
B. The 192-page proceedings of the 7th International Water Quality Sym-
posium (1975) held in Washington, D.C. is available for $10.00 from
the Water Quality Research Council, 477 East Butterfield Road, Lombard,
Illinois 60148. The report contains several papers on the health
effects of water contaminants, environmental concerns and water reuse.
C. At the 1975 AWWA Minneapolis Conference, a seminar on water reuse was
conducted. The proceedings, 75-20109, are available from the American
Water Works Association, Publications Order Department, 6666 West
Quincy Avenue, Denver, Colorado 80235. Members: $2.00 Non-members:$4.00.
D. Proceedings from the 3rd National Conference on Complete WateReuse,
held June 27-30, 1976 in Cincinnati are now available for purchase
from the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th Street,
New York, New York 10017. The 628-page booklet includes a variety
of topics fromin-plant industrial recycling, AWT research and potable
reuse. This volume, P-13 and the Proceedings of the Second Conference,
May 1975 in Chicago, P-14 are priced at $55.00 each. They may be
obtained as a set for $90.00. The proceedings of the First Conference
are out of print.
E. Proceedings of the June, 1976 WATERCARE Conference in Malibu, California
(reuse) are available in limited numbers for $5.00 from the present
WATERCARE office at 5750 Almaden Expressway, San Jose, California 95118.
****
REGU) ATTfiMc
Under the Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act, the California State Depart-
ment of Health was charged to establish "reclamation criteria for each varying
type of use of reclaimed water where such use involves the protection of public
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 74
health" Having previously established criteria for irrigation and recreational
reuse, the Department of Health, in June 1976, issued the first draft of pro-
posed 'criteria for groundwater recharge with reclaimed water. The stated intent
of the regulations was to control organics being introduced into groundwater
aquifers used as potable supply. The regulations would apply to new demonstra-
tion projects, which until additional information on the quality and health
effects was obtained, would be the only projects allowed involving groundwater
recharge through spreading with reclaimed wastewater. A summary of the extensive
scope of the proposed regulations appears in Table 1. Informal public meetings
were held during June with some broad-based comments as follows:
--Water Districts felt that the standards were unnecessary, demanding
and unattainable.
--The protection of the public health is imperative, but regulations
which most drinking water supplies cannot meet were termed unrealistic.
If the regulations are enforced, they should be applied to all waters
for domestic use, including surface supplies.
--There should be a single standard for suitability of domestic water,
regardless of the source.
--The standard should be applied to the groundwater at point of extraction,
not to influent. Treatment processes are designed to produce an
acceptable effluent quality.
—Water used for groundwater recharge need not have potable water quality
assigned to it. Regulations should recognize moderating effects of
underground detention.
--The regulations should apply to groundwater recharge in general and
not only to demonstration projects.
—The water conservation values of reuse need to be recognized.
In November, 1976 the Department of Health issued a second draft of the proposed
regulations. Significant changes were made: the requirement of R.O. treatment
was dropped, the total nitrogen requirement was deleted, the COD limit was
changed to less than 5.0 mg/1, the sampling programs were relaxed and the require-
ment of biomonitoring for toxic compounds and source pollution control were
deleted. While retaining the required activated carbon treatment (30 minute
detention time), the definition of adequate treatment was expanded to include
percolation through an unsaturated zone of undisturbed soil for 10 feet, and the
amount of recharge by reclaimed wastewater was limited to 20% of the total water
entering a groundwater basin.
A third draft of the proposed regulation was issued in January, 1977. A limit
on TOC was established at less than 3.0 mg/1 with daily sampling requirements
and increases in organics sampling frequency. The source pollution control
program was reinstated and a hydrogeologic study was required prior to beginning
a demonstration project. In response to comments from water reclamation entities,
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 75
TABLE 1
JUNE 1976 VERSION
Required Treatment:
Secondary Treatment
Activated Carbon
Reverse Osmosis
Physical 4 Chemical
Quality Parameters:
Total N less than 10 mg/l
CQQ tnedlan le« than 2.Q wg/\ per 7 days
less than 5.0 mg/l per 1 sample
Squired Monitoring
& Quality
Requi n?ments:
too
Semi-Monthly
Total N
Organic*:
benzene 3,4-benzophyrene
carbon tetrachloride indencf1,2,3-cd) pyrene
P-d1chlorobenzene chloroform
vinyl chloride bromodichloromethane
1,2,4-trlchlorobenzene bromoforro
b1s-{2-ch1oroethyl) ether 1,2-dichloroethane
II ,12-benzofluoranthene polycholorlnated blphenyls
1,1,2-tr1cbloroethylene pentachlorophenol
2,4-dichlorophenol 3,4-benzofluoranthene
fluorantheoe 1,12-benzoperylene
Monthly
Inorganic Chemicals Limiting
Constituent Concentration, mg/l
Arsenic 0.10
Barium \ .0
Cadmium 0.01
Chromium 0.05
Cyanide 0.2
Lead 0.05
Mercury 0.005
Nltrate-N ~ N1tr1te-N 10.
Selenltfn ,.Q.Ql
Organic Chemicals Limiting
Constituent Concentration, mg/l
Carbon-alctrtol extract(CAE-m) 3.0
Carbon-chloroform extract(CCE-») 0.7
Foaming agent(MBAS) 0.5
Pesticides:
A1dr1n 0.017
Chlordan« 0.003
DOT 0.0^2
Oleldrin 0.017
Endrln O.OOl
Heptachlor 0.018
Heptachlor epoxide ..0.018
Lindane 0.056
Methoxychlor 1.0
OrganophosphorousS Carbamate compounds .0.1*
*As parathlon in cholinesterase inhibition
Toxaphene 0.005
Herbicides:
2,4-0 plus
2,4,5-T plus
2,4,5-TP 0.1
Fluoride Concentration
SUMMARY OF CALIFORNIA REGULATION
ON WASTEWATER RECLAMATION
THROUGH GROUNDWATER RECHARGE
Daily Afr Temperature
Lower
Optimum
"Upper
50 - 54
1.2
1.7
55 - 58
1.1
1.5
59 - 64
1.0
1.3
65 - 71
0.9
1.?
72 - 79
0.8
1.0
80 - 81
0.7
0.8
TABLE 2
SEPTEMBER 1977 VERSION
Required Treatment;
Secondary Treatment
Activated Carbon
Physical 4 Chemical
Quaflty Parameters:
COO median less than 5.0 mg/1 per 1 sample
TOC less than 3.0 mg/l
Required Monitoring
& Quality
Requirements:
Daily
cncr"
roc
Quarterly
Organic chemical Monitoring
benzene 3,4-benzophyrene
carbon tetrachloride lndeno(l(2,3«cd) pyrene
p-d1ch1o roben zene c h1oro fo m
vinyl chloride bromodiehloromethafle
1.2.4-trichlorobenzene bromoform
bis-(2-eMoroethyl) ether 1,2-dicMoroethane
11,12-benzofluoranthene polycholorlnated biphenyls
1,1,2-trtchloroethyUne pentachl oroohenol
2,4-dichlorophenol 3,4-benzof7 uoranthene
fluoranthene 1,12-benzoperylene
Inorganic Chemicals Limiting
Constituent Concentration, mg/l
Arsenic 0.05
Barium 1.0
Cadmium 0.010
Chromium 0.05
Lead.. 0.05
Mercury 0.002
Nitrate (as HO3) 45.
Selenium...... .. •...« .............. .0.01
Organic Chemicals Limiting
Constituent Concentration, mg/1
Endrirc ................. .0.0002
Lindane 0.004
Metfioxychlor . 0.1
Toxaonene 0.005
2.4-0 . 0.1
2.4.5-TP SHvex 0.01
fluoride
Annua) Average o< Maximum Caily
Mr Twwature (Degrees)
Radioactivity
Gross Beta. •. .
Rfld1um-226....
Stront1um-90..
Fahrenheit
Celsius
Unit ting
Concentration, mg/l
.1000 pc/I
,...3 pc/1
...10 pc/1
Semi-Annually
Constituents
Color-Units
Copper
I ron
Manqanese.
Odor-Threshold 3.0
Zinc 5.0
53.7 and below 12.0 and below 2.4
53.a to 58.3 12.1 to 14.6 ...2.2
50.4 to 53.3........14.7 to 17.6 .,...2.0
63.9 to 70.6 17.7 to 21.4 l.B
70.7 to 79.2 21.5 to 26.2 1.6
79.3 to 90.5 25.3 to 32.5 1.4
ng/l
.15.0
..1.0
. .0.3
.0.05
Additional Required
Studies 4 Reports:
Health Monitoring
Groundwater Tlonitoring
Hydrogeologlc Study
Spreading Area Practices
Source Pollution Control
Constituents
Total Dissolved Solids.
mg/l
.1000
Specific Conductance 1600 mlcromhos
Chtoride , 500
Sulfate 500
Additional Required
studies & Reports:
Continuous Biomonitorlng for Toxic Substances
Health Monitoring
Groundwater Monitoring
Hydrogeologic Study
Spreading Area Practices
Source Pollution Control
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 76
the quality requirements for reclaimed wastewater for recharge and that of the
groundwater at the point of extraction were separated. Also, the amount of
recharge water permitted in a groundwater basin was increased to 50%.
The latest version of the proposed groundwater recharge regulations, as issued
in September, 1977 are summarized in Table 2 (previous page). Minor changes
appeared, primarily redefining the Department of Health's position. Health
monitoring, if required, will be performed by the recharger, and the required
hydrogeologic study must be reviewed and approved by the Department of Health,
prior to beginning a project. The percentage of reclaimed water entering a
groundwater basin may be greater than 50% if it can be shown that the concentra-
tion of reclaimed wastewater at the abstraction well is less than 50%.
The present regulations were to undergo a formal hearing by Health Department
and state personnel, then be submitted to the Attorney General's office for
enforcement proceedings. But in November, 1977, a proposal was submitted to
review reuse projects entirely on a case-by-case basis and eliminate the pro-
posed regulations. That proposition was received favorably and is expected to
be adopted as the course of action in California.
WATER REUSE PLANS S DEMONSTRATIO N S
A tertiary wastewater treatment process involving flocculation with alum, sedi-
mentation, filtration and disinfection has been successfully put into operation
to serve the Apollo Park recreational lakes near Lancaster, California. In a
recent EPA report on the project, the 0.5 mgd plant successfully demonstrated
wastewater reuse for recreational purposes meeting all water quality require-
ments and being comparable in cost to other water sources.
The County Park itself was constructed because of the reclaimed water resource
available in an arid area. The lakes proved to be an excellent fish environ-
ment, well-suited for growth and reproduction. However, due to an unforeseen
natural soil condition, a mercury contamination problem resulted with the levels
in the fish exceeding maximum allowable levels for human consumption but no
adverse health effect on the fish were noted.
Public acceptance of the park has been well established with over 90,000 visitor-
days in the second year of operation. The overall treatment sequence is shown
in Figure 1 with the tertiary schematic in Figure 2. Figure 3 indicates the
recreational lake development following the space program theme. As shown in
Table 1, the quality of the effluent in the lake deteriorates because of soil
conditions. Algae has been a problem in the oxidation ponds prior to the chem-
ical nutrient removal process.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 77
FIGURE 1
DIAGRAMATIC LAYOUT OF TREATMENT
FACILITIES AND PROCESSES
FIGURE 2
TERTIARY TREATMENT PROCESS
FLOW DIAGRAM
T~<
Q
O-
L
i
T_
rn^T-rp=gnll
•wfw *-n. ¦ .. PyJT
S I r——, j
. 2 L—-""I 31
ovf mo* ponos
/
I 1 j
» r
SOXtftNrATION TANKS
ll
OXtOATiOM
'OHO N»l
f* OM PONS N#i
»UPfL,T
CMCMtCAL COAGULANT
AOO'TIO
JOO
• Art A
PtANT 1NpLUCNT
(Oj SAMPLE PQ INT
CHL0A1NA7IOM IO««/l
rtOCCUCATlON
CXAM8CH
( 2 0 MINI
2«ac«c aouatic
AtCMCATlON
LAKES
fTNAC CPFLU6NT
SAMPLt PQmT
SCDIWCN TA'iON
(2.5 HOuASJ
9mm
OlLOAlNC contact
WATtA
MIOIA
pILTCA
FILTER IFFU»tNT
fiLff* BaCxwash ami SUiOCC
MTUMNCO TOPWM4AHT INMJCNT
WCTWCLt
FIGURE 3
DEVELOPMENT PLAN
APOLLO COUNTY PARK
ifr a
LA Kg NC/L ARMSTRONG
TABLE 1
LANCASTER AVERAGE WATER
QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
TERTIARY
TERTIARY
APOLLO
CONSTITUENT
UNITS
INFLUENT
EFFLUENT
LAKES
Temperature
°F
55
57
56
Turbidity
JT U
45
1.8
14
pH
PH
9.4
6.5
8.3
TOS
mg/1
636
638
910
Susp. Solids
mg/1
100
1.9
22
Alkalinity
mg/1 CaC03
245
83
153
Boron
mg/1
.99
.90
1.3
C02
mg/1
0
54
2
Hardness
mg/1 CaCOj
63
62
118
MBAS
mg/1
0.11
0.1
0.12
NH3-N
ng/1
.29
0.22
.63
Org-N
mg/1
11.8
2.1
1.7
NO3-N
mg/1
0.51
0.53
2.1
BOD
mg/1
32
1.9
1.8
COD
mg/1
182
36
44
00
mg/1
10
9.2
8.9
Total PO4
mg/1
30.4
0.23
0.45
Potassium
mg/1
17
16.5
19.5
Sodium
mg/1
183
176
210
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 78
2. The Water Resources Research Center at the University of Hawaii has, for the
last five years, been investigating the agricultural reuse potential of
secondary sewage effluents. A small 0.85 mgd treatment plant near the Mi 1i-
lani Town Development provides the effluent for the Central Oahu Project site,
Figure 4.
FIGURE 4
CENTRAL OAHU PROJECT SITE
Seal e
Project Location
PACIFIC
OCEAN
ctrr ano county or
HONOLULU
Hjwilt Cimf
))
ftlfiwj
lol«J Cifia
FtllWIO
Whjlfporf
.V OAHU
' •. liy«>
VWAHI AW A* „
: r^sT
Jff ¦!*.»««
"raw#*
*iinM
KAIUUA
' to-*'V
olu HHIt
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 79
TABLE 2
WEIGHTED COMPOSITE MILALANI STP ANALYSES
26 AUGUST 1 974T
CONSTITUENT*
RAW
SEWAGE
CHLORINATED CONSTITUENT
FFF< IIFNT REOUCTION (%)
PH RANGE
CONDUCTIVITY RANGE (uPlhOJ/cm)
Dissolved oxygen range
oxygen-reduction potential
^ANGE (mv)
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
t"AL DISSOLVED solids
total volatile solids
V°UTILE SUSPENDED SOLIDS
BOO,
tNLORlOE
SULFATE
*SAS RANGE
Tqtal kjeloahl nitrogen
no2 + NO, NiTROGEN
T°TAL NI f.ROGEN
^THOPHOSPHATE PHOSPHORUS
sooium
POTASSIUM
calcium
"AGNES IUM
^SALINITY (CaC03)
»CA (s;o2)
Residual chlorine range
t°TAL COLIfORH RANGE
5/IOO ml)
»WL COLIfORM RANGE
1/100 mi)
f'WL STREPTOCOCCUS RANGE
(/100 mt)
6.7-3.1
6.4-7.0
460-700
440-540
0
2.7-3-4
¦230)-(+75)
150-235
159
6
411
333
252
65
135
3
241
12
48
55
76
33
1 .5-19.0
0.3-0-9
36.4
13-9
0.02
3.62
36. ^2
17.52
! 5 ¦ 9
13.5
50
55
to. 0
9.2
10
11
6.6
7.9
52
60
84
81
--
0.7-3.0
1.3 x I07-
52-650
1.3 x 103
2.4 * !06-
0-260
1.0 x 108
3.0 x 105-
0-62
4.0 x 10s
96
19
74
98
95
-15
57
62
18000
52
15
-10
3
-10
-20
-15
3.6
NOTE; NO » nondetactable.
1 2^-hr composite sample-
f 16-hr composite sample.
Nondetectable below 0.003
SAMPLING
DATE
HEAVY
METAL
22-23 OCT
raw
19711
effl.
2 OCT 1973*
raw effl.
13
raw
JAH 19752
effl.
9
CADMIUM
0.004
,0.005
ND
ND
ND
ND
LEAD
0.028
0.047
0.003
ND
—
—
mercury
ND3
ND3
ND3
ND5
ND
ND
COPPER
—
—
0.021
0.010
NO
0.0002^
ZINC
—
—
0.025
0.027
ND
0.0037
NICKEL
-
-
0.015
0.015
ND
0.0065
IRON
-
—
0.432
0. 164
—
--
ALUMINUM
~
-
0.592
0.532
—
—
CHROMIUM
-
—
—
ND
ND
T*'' units in mct/i unless noted otherwise.
~^r composite samples.
supply is sufficient to irrigate 150-200 acres of sugarcane by the furrow method.
Application of the effluent for the first year of the two-year cycle increased
the sugar yield by about 6% as compared with control plots. However, when applied
ror the entire two-year cycle, sugar yield was reduced by about 6% and cane
quanty by 16% even though the total cane yield increased by 11%. This was due
to the sensitivity of sugarcane to nitrogen loadings.
The quality of the percolate recovered from field lysimeters was of acceptable
quality. Phosphorus, potassium, suspended solids, BOD, TOC and boron were effec-
tively removed. Both chlorides and TDS remained unaffected but were still below
drinking water standards.
Human enteric viruses were present even in the chlorinated effluent. But the
absence of these in all sugarcane and grass percolates suggest strongly that
the possibility of contaminating deep underground water sources is extremely
J2§!!!ote. Survival of poliovirus was minimal in an open field area which was
exposed to direct sunlight, high temperature and dessication. In contrast, the
viability of the virus was maintained for up to two months in a field of mature
sugarcane where the virus was protected from environmental elements.
Thus, the possible health hazard posed by viruses in the fields cannot be ignored.
Fortunately, they are not transmitted by physical contact but must be ingested
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 80
before infection can occur. Thus, the following precautionary measures were
developed for field workers to minimize the risk of contact:
a. Posted warning signs
b. Thoroughly washing hands and outer
garments
More research is taking place in the use of ozone or bromine for beter disin-
fection prior to irrigation.
3. The Flushing Meadows Project in the Salt River Bed west of Phoenix, Arizona was
installed in 1967 to study renovation of secondary sewage by groundwater
recharge with rapid infiltration basins. Several years of testing and research
into quality aspects has resulted in a very successful U.S. Department of Agri-
culture (USDA) program under the direction of Dr. Herman Bouwer.
Current emphasis is on maximizing nitrogen removal by denitrification in the
soil. With a loading rate of 200 ft. per year and careful management of the
flooding and drying periods, 50% nitrogen removal has been achieved. In 1974,
virus were detected in the effluent but not in test wells 20-30 feet below the
infiltration basins. Human viral pathogens do not appear to move through the
soil into the groundwater but are apparently absorbed and degraded.
The USDA is expanding its research to include the new Phoenix 23rd Avenue pro-
ject where infiltrated effluent is recovered for unrestricted irrigation use.
However, careful management of the system is required to protect the potable
aquifer from the renovated sewage.
A third aspect of the western region water conservation lab is the use of reno-
vated water for recreational lakes under the Rio Sal ado Project. That is a
master plan to convert a 40-mile stretch of the normally dry Salt River bed in
the Phoenix area into a greenbelt with recreational, commercial and wildlife
benefits.
Additional data from the research is as follows:
1. While wastewater is greatly improved in quality as it percolates through
soil, the quality of the resulting renovated water may not be as good as
that of the local native groundwater, whose quality is thus degraded.
2. To take advantage of the beneficial aspects of land application without
trading a surface water pollution problem for a groundwater contamination
situation, the spread of wastewater in the aquifer must be restricted.
3. This can be accomplished by removing the reclaimed water from the aquifer
at some point away from the application area. The land between them
provides additional treatment.
4. Such zoning of only part of an aquifer as a tertiary treatment facility is
not necessarily new. The difference between conventional zoning (separation
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 81
of a well and septic tank) and zoning for land treatment is that, for the
latter, the wastewater is removed from the aquifer after it is renovated.
5. The renovated water may be discharged into surface supplies for indirect
reuse, or directly for unrestricted agriculture, recreation and industry.
6. Using renovated water for drinking is not yet encouraged because the pos-
sible health effects of the refractory organics and other compounds in
low concentrations are not yet completely understood.
****
South Australia, the state lying northwest of Victoria, Figure 5, has been described
FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
METROPOLITAN ADELAIDE
DRAINAGE AREA
South Australia
township locality
an<; rainfall distribution
x ¦ Annual 'kinfnri
~* ' O'tf .0 nc*t««
whyam
w JJS j
as the driest region in the driest
continent of the world. To fully
conserve valuable water resources,
the various organizations involved
in sewage collection and treatment
have tried to promote effluent
reuse wherever practicable. More
than one-half of the state's popu-
lation of 1.5 million live in Metro-
politan Adelaide, Figure 6, where
reclamation and reuse have been a
necessity for 35 years.
BOUYAR
lOUtM MVMCI TftUTMfffT
7 ADELAIDE
DRAINAGE
DRAINAGE AREA
•I!
\W GLENELG
\
TMATMMT W09KS
DRAINAGE AREA
J
ORA1MAG5
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 82
Two major sub-potable systems are evident.
a. The Glenelg Treatment Works, an activated sludge plant, Figure 7, with an
average daily flow of 15 mgd has been providing secondary effluent for a
variety of purposes. In 1933, the water was first used to irrigate lawns,
shrubs and trees on the grounds proper. TDS levels approached 2750 mg/1
because of saline groundwater infiltration into the sewers. Lawns would
be watered for a 2-3 week period, then regular city water would be used
to leach out the excess salts. TDS has been reduced to 1500 mg/1 with
sewer improvements.
90% of all the effluent is now used for two championship golf courses, two
public courses, driving ranges, a public caravan park, bowling greens and
ovals, tennis courts, public lawns, sport and recreation areas and the
Adelaide airport.
b. The Bolivar Treatment Works, another secondary plant but with polishing
ponds, Figure 8, treats approximately 25 mgd.
Following a 3-year appraisal of bacteriological and virological results of
Bolivar effluent, approval was given to irrigate potatoes, orchards, vine-
yards, fodder grasses, tomatoes, flowers, onions, cucumbers and seed crops,
as well as stock watering under controlled conditions. Few problems have
occurred with soil and quality testing continuing by health and agricultural
officials.
The Port Adelaide Plant, 8 mgd, with an effluent TDS of 3730 mg/.l uses its
secondary effluent for plant beautification after some blending with city
water.
The new Christies Beach Works (0.5 mgd) provides secondary effluent through a
dual distribution system to several city parks, nature strips and scenic ovals.
High winds in the area removed most of the topsoil and made living conditions
undesirable. To soften the harsh environment, trees, shrubs and perennials
were offered free to residents which were watered by the effluent at a low cost.
The most important future use of effluent for irrigation is in the planned city
of Monarto. Wastewater would be used 12 months of the year in a spray irrigation
and land treatment scheme. The Department of Mines is currently investigating
the movement of possible reclaimed water into the potable aquifer. South
Australians have expressed a willingness to fully utilize their water resources
in a variety of ways.
In additional research work on agricultural reuse of effluents at Braeside,
Victoria, Australia, the following facts were evident:
a. Nine vegetable crops were sown and planted with 2 crops on each plot using
city and reclaimed wastewater on lettuce, cabbage, beets, turnips, beans,
radishes, carrots, celery and cucumbers.
b. The yield was better with reclaimed water when fertilizer was not used.
But, when fertilizer was applied, the yield with city water was better.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 83
FIGURE 7
R«lurn Activated SJudg*
Activated Sh*du>
StrniMmn to* Dltpo^l
GRIT REMOVAL A
PftCAERATlON TANKS
AERATION TANKS
PRIMARY SfOlMENTAl ION TANKS
RAW
SEWAGE
SECONDARY DIGESTION TANKS
PRIMARY OtCfSTlON TANKS
FINAL SEPARATING TANKS
FULLY
DlGtSTtD
SLUDGE
EffLUENT
UTILIZATION
CHLORINE CONTACT TANK
TO SEA,
M««l Uchanyti
S. A. G.
E.&W S. DEPT.
GLENELG SEWAGE TREATMENT WORKS
SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM
(4 km oulj
FIGURE 8
main pumping station
DISINTEGRATORS
oAq Scritnlnu
crnrruc —¦ - . ..a..
PWMAIW SeOIMtHTATlOH TANKS
FI1IMF, GfilTfiEtfWAli
- Fi!£is PREAIRAMN TANKS
J-£H3—rni
Sklnvimnot Spray*
&altlt>ury
&(««
Ad«luid«
GRIT PITS
jrmrn,
NufiKil5lydo(
HUMUS TANKS
• ImOLO&ICAll r FiltftS
secondahy pump* stn
naificui-ATioN &
MM.SS COUTBQl
CHAMBER
FLUME
DO
E<
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 84
By adjusting fertilizer application to a level generally well below those
normally used commercially, reconditioned water was best.
c. The harvested crops of radishes and turnips were sent to the Keith Turnbull
Research Laboratories at Frankston as rabbit feed, but the rabbits declined
to eat either foodstuff.
d. Seventy-two fruit trees were planted and maintained according to normal
orchard practice. Early death amongst the trees followed the toxic
accumulation of ammonia after the application of chemical nitrogen fer-
tilizer. No fruit was obtained and few significant conclusions could be
drawn. Those trees using city water were higher than those on chlorinated
effluent.
e. The production of forage crops with effluents was higher, but weeds were
a problem.
f. Cattle, after grazing on wastewater-irrigated pastureland, were examined
for beef measles with no conclusions drawn.
g. The field tests on crops and pasture indicated that the nutrients in the
effluent could be used to advantage. If allowance was made for the type
and quantity of the nutrient in the wastewater, and a fertilizer was
applied to give the balance of nutrient requirements of the crop, the yield
could be superior to that obtained from market-gardens irrigated with city
waters. The cost of necessary fertilizer could also be reduced and in one
case was shown to be one-fourth of the normal amount.
h. Coliform organisms were counted on Braeside effluent vegetables and compared
with those purchased from commercial markets. The Braeside samples were, if
anything, better quality than those bought from stores. Future work is
needed however, in measuring E. coli or strep organisms.
i. The Chief Health Officer from the Commission of Public Health expressed the
view that the examination and evaluation of the health aspects of using
reclaimed wastewater for growing vegetables would be a major project requir-
ing full scale investigation, and that at present, it was not possible to
state what criteria should be applied in evaluating any test results. Because
of the lack of applicable criteria, the acceptability of the produce for
human consumption could not be satisfactorily determined.
****
5. At the Manufacturing Service Center of Eaton Corporation in Willoughby Htlls,
Ohio, a 10,000 gpd system for complete recycling of sanitary wastes has been
operating since January of 1975. It employs batch biological-PCT treatment
processes with sand filters, activated carbon and chlorination. Solids are
aerobically digested with the effluent used for everything but drinking and
kitchen purposes. In the restrooms, reclaimed effluents are used for toilet
flushing and hand and face washing in the sinks. The product water, with 99.6%
of the BOD removed, has an SS of less than 1 and a zero fecal coliform count,
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 85
Excess water goes to lawn irrigation year-round which also serves as a bleed-
off, eliminating the need for demineralization.
The 125 employees have fully accepted the recycling system after some orienta-
tion. No signs are posted indicating reclaimed water, but the quality is moni-
tored by the local health department.
6. At the Langeley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration
FIGURE 9 (NASA) has been evaluating
the application of space
technology to the homebuild-
ing industry. What has
resulted is a "Tech House"
concept which utilizes energy
conservation, solar heating
and water recycling.
Plans for the home shown in
Figure 9 are available for
$10.00 from:
North Carolina Science and
Technology Research Center
P.O. Box 12235
Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina 27709
U.S.A.
(919) 549-0671
Details of the water recycling
system are shown in Figure 10
with grey water being treated
and reused for toilet flushing
purposes. Material for the
system is commercially available and was purchased at a cost of $450.00
For evaluation, a simulated living pattern was created over a three-week period
during February and March of 1977. Water use was recorded and microbiological
characteristics determined.
Performance results were as follows:
1. 92% of the required flush water was provided from the reclaimed source.
2. Overchlorination resulted in a total kill of all organisms.
3. Energy consumption was 0.07 kwh per day,
4. No degradation in filter performance was noted,
5. Overall household water use was reduced by 70%,
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 86
FIGURE 10
NASA TECH HOUSE TREATMENT SCHEMATIC
HuL
Cold
Drains
j/4m Copper
Tube
1 (120V)
!i/4" Cupper Tube
-Viint
2" Cast
I roa
I 100 Gallon
I Collection Tank
i (PolyetUy Icik- )
Pump
Valve
iin \ |
M4
To Sewer
****
7. Treated Effluents from the water reclamation plants in Lubbock, Texas have been
reused for beneficial purposes since 1938. In that year, a local farm contracted
with the city to use effluents for irrigation of 200 acres southwest of this
town. That farm has now increased to 2500 acres and uses 10-12 mgd for watering
cotton, milo, grains, corn and pasture grasses. Runoff from the land is controlled
by dams but the water table over the years has risen to within 4-10 feet of the
surface.
In 1970, a power company contracted to use from 4-12 mgd of secondary effluent
for cooling tower water in the electric generating plant. When the power plant
has cycled the reclaimed water about four times, it is mixed with well water,
then used again for irrigation.
In January of 1968, the City Planning Department proposed that consideration be
given to beautifying a local canyon with a series of dams to form small recrea-
tional lakes. In dry seasons, the lakes would be maintained by pumping water
from wells on the 2500 acre farm nearby, thus lowering the water table and allow-
ing for more storage. Extensive tests have shown the aquifer under the farm to
be free of bacteria and virus. Although bacteriologically safe for primary
human contact, only secondary or indirect contact like fishing, boating, etc.
will be allowed. The "Canyon Lakes Project", as it is appropriately titled, is
making every attempt to recycle wastewater in a classical cascading sense.
****
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 87
8. In May of 1973 a Water Reuse Promotion Center was incorporated in Tokyo, Japan
with the object of encouraging the development and practical application of
water reuse technology, by reclamation of wastewater and seawater desalination,
in order to cope with acute water demands.
The main activities of the Center are:
1. Construction and operation of test plants for water reuse.
2. Promotion of R & D technology.
3. Provide consulting services on construction of reclamation plants.
4. Establish standards for reuse facilities and certification of
performance.
5. Provide an information service on reuse technology.
6. Survey water reuse status in Japan.
7. Promote international cooperation in reuse.
The organization is sponsored heavily by Japanese industries, banks, water utili-
ties and foundations.
Several sub-potable demonstrations are currently in operation in Japan as indicated
in Table 3.
TABLE 3
STATUS OF JAPANESE REUSE PROJECTS
CITY
SEC.TRT.
PLANT
PUBLIC
UTILITY
VOLUME
M3/DAY
USE
AWT
TREATMENT
SELLING
COST 1
Shibaura
"
311
Railroad car
washing-Nat-
ional Railway
rapid sand
filtration
1.1
Water shortages
"
••
110
car - floor
wash, Metro
whsle.market
Strainer
1.1
"
1)
Morlgasakl
"
1,758
inplant wash,
Metro Refuse
Disposal Burea
I
1.1
-
"
Sunamachl
"
1,491
digested
sludge
washing
-
1.4
II
Mikawa-
shlna
Sunamachl
"
1,100
home flushing,
air cond.fire
fighting,lawns
Chemical
coag, filtra-
tion CI 2
5
-
Kawasaki
Irlezakl
Kawask1
Municipal
Water Works
4.7
industrial
cooling
sprlnkllnq
CI 2
0.6
-
Nagoya
Sennen
Nagoya
Municipal
Water Works
103
industrial
process
w/cooling
Chemical,
coag, filtra-
tion, CI g
0
against ground
subsidence
Ohsaka
Nakahama
Ohsaka
City
1.5
water source
Ohsaka
Castle's moat
fi 1tratlon
Cl2
0
-
Kltakyusyu
Kougouzeki
Municipal
Sewage
Works
11
industrial
cooling, Mit-
subishi Corp.
ci2
0.5
-
****
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 88
9. From correspondence with Mr. V. Raman, Secretary of the Indian Association for
Water Pollution Control, the following water reuse projects are currently oper-
ating in India.
Several small villages and district towns employ raw sewage for irrigation pur-
poses, but with a high incidence of parasitic infections in farm workers.
Metcalf and Eddy, under the auspices of the World Bank, are doing the feasibility
study for agricultural reuse in Bombay, the largest city. They are being assisted
by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute of Nagpur in find-
ing suitable agricultural sites for the 400 mgd of flow. Several multi-storied
commercial buildings in Bombay tap domestic sewage from nearby city sewers for use
in air conditioning systems.
The city of Madras is building a 15 mgd plant for effluent usage in nearby indus-
tries. Additional agricultural reuse is being implemented in the cities of Delhi
and Bhilai.
Severe water shortages will necessitate more reuse demonstrations in the future.
10. The City of Singapore, with an area of 225 square miles and a population of 2.25
million, is one of the more densely populated areas in the world. Insufficient
water supply has led the Public Utilities Board to investigate water recycling
and reuse.(Figure 11)
FIGURE 11
SINGAPORE - LOCATION MAP
CAUSEWAY,
SELtTAR
RESERVOIR
.KftANJL
RESERVOIR/
ypClftCE
'reservoir
(reclamation
*W"VMACRITCHIE
" RESERVOIR
ULU PANDAN
wastewater at
TREATMENT PIANT|1
JURONG
IHOUSTRtAL
% ESTATE
^Singapore
^t^CITY .
SCALE
9 MILES
5 KILOMETERS
As early as 1915, treated effluent was used for general wash water and irrigation
of flowers and gardens.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 89
In the mid-1960's, the Jurong Industrial Estate was constructed with 5.4 mgd of
reclaimed wastewater being used in paper and textile manufacturing as well as
for rinsing and cooling purposes with the user costs in the range of $0,076 to
$0.24 per 1000 gallons. Secondary effluent from the nearby Ulu Pandan Plant
receives prechlorination, dual media filtration, cascade aeration and post-
chlorination before reuse by the industries, or in irrigating public parks and
roadway landscaping. No use is made of the water in vegetable gardens or for
watering livestock.
In June of 1971, six high rise residential apartments were selected for a dual
plumbing system and the use of Jurong reclaimed wastewater for toilet flushing.
Visible pipes are colored yellow with the only complaint from users being slight
foaming when flushing or odors after long periods of stagnation. Heavier
chlorine doses have combated the problem. The acceptance and success of the
pilot work has led the government to extend the program to an additional 4000
apartments.
It became apparent that a higher quality effluent would foster even more reuse.
A 100,000 gpd AWT plant was designed by Camp, Dresser & McKee in 1972, con-
structed in 1973 and placed in operation in September, 1974.
Secondary effluent undergoes chemical treatment, ammonia stripping, filtration,
carbon adsorption and demineralization by three methods and disinfection with
chlorine or ozone. The process flow schematic is shown in Figure 12. Typical
effluent quality and removal characteristics are shown in Table 4.
FIGURE 12
DEMONSTRATION PLANT - PROCESS FLOW SCHEMATIC
FERRIC
CHLORIDE
ALUM
POLYMER
SOLIDS
CONTACT
CLARlFlER
HAW
WATER
RECARBONATtQN
TANK
TO SLUDGE LAGOON
WASTE
OZONATOR
CARBON
ADSORPTION
COLUMN
EFFLUENT
OAS
ION EXCHANGE
CHEMICAL FEED
SLUDGE
CHLORINE
CONTACT
CHAMBER
TREATED WATER
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 90
TABLE 4
SINGAPORE AWT DEMONSTRATION PLANT RESULTS
SECONDARY EFF. AWT EFF. AVG. REMOVAL
PARAMETER RANGE mg/1 RANGE mq/1 RANGE %
Alkalinity
190-340
30-116
80
Turbidity
3-750
0.5-4.8
93
SS
16-535
0.4-7.2
95
BOD5
8-58
0.2-4.6
95
COD
47-645
2-29
89
TOC
9-170
2-24
70
PO4-P
2-15
0.01-1.65
92
TKN-N
16-46
0-6.4
93
NH3-N
15-44
0-5.6
94
no2-n
0-0.35
0-0.08
85
LAS
0.14-1.9
0-0.78
85
Fe
0-1.64
0-0.09
95
Zn
0-0.6
0-1.6
50
The demo plant is being used to determine the feasibility of treating wastewater
to potable water standards within practical economic constraints.
Overall treatment reliability has been demonstrated with the R.O. process proving
superior to the electrodialysis and ion-exchange methods for demineralization.
Virus recovery by the University of Singapore has been negative but this is not
to imply their absence because new concentration techniques are needed. Fish
bioassays are being performed to determine organic uptake in selected organs.
Based on operational data developed to date, it was the consultants opinion that
reuse could provide a viable means for the Government to augment the water supply.
****
Toups Engineering Consultants has completed a report for the Goleta County Water
District on wastewater reclamation by irrigation. Located in the water-short
coastal area north of Los Angeles, the county has evaluated several alternatives
for increasing available supply. Initial studies in 1975 indicated that imported
waters would cost $302.00 per acre-foot, while reclaiming local wastewater would
run $205.00 per acre-foot. The decision then became what was the optimum method
to utilize available sewage effluents. As groundwater recharge standards were
not expected to be developed for a 5-year period, the decision to irrigate
existing agricultural areas and landscaping projects was reached. Approximately
3300 acres of avocados and lemon groves, plus 800 acres of golf course, park,
highway and campus landscaping was available.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 91
Typical chemical characteristics of the existing water supply and primary effluent
available are shown in Table 5.
TABLE 5
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
GCWD WATER SUPPLY AND GSD WASTEWATER
Constituent^
Water
Supply
Projected
Wastewater
Actual
Wastewater
Cations
Calcium(Ca) 88 108 124
Magnesium(Mg) 32 52 44
Sodi um(Na) 50 120 262
Potassium(K) 3 15 19
Ammoni um(NH4) na 30 40
Anions
BicarbonateCHCOj) 198 318 na
Sulfate(S04) 228 258 308
Nitrate(N03) 12 4
Phosphate(P04) na 30 74
Chloride(Cl) 29 104 354
Fluoride 0.5 1.2 0.
Boron 0.4 0.8 0.
Total Hardness 350 485 485
Total Dissolved Solids cnr. nnr. , -j7(-
690 yyu 1,0/0
Hydrogen Ion(pH) 7.9 6.9 na
na - Data not available
(a) Milligrams per liter unless otherwise noted.
One interesting factor was the
very high use-increment of TDS.
An additional 386 mg/1 of TDS over
the normal expected range was due
to sewer discharge of brines from
home water softeners. Several
plans to alleviate the situation
were discussed. The effluent was
further compared to several other
successful wastewater irrigation
projects in California as indicated
in Table 6 and the criteria for good
agricultural reuse in Table 7.
The California Department of Health
has established additional treat-
ment criteria for reuse as shown
in Table 8. To meet the quality
and irrigation requirements,
secondary treatment and more effec-
tive disinfection is planned. The
facilities are scheduled to be
constructed and operating by 1978.
But the future depends upon suc-
cessful bond issues, definition
of legal responsibilities, environ-
mental impacts and contracts for
sale of the reclaimed water.
TABLE 6
EXISTING AREAS USING RECLAIMED WASTEWATER
FOR CITRUS OR AVOCADO IRRIGATION
agency
CROP
IRRIGATED
AREA
(acres)
AVERAGE
WATER-USE
(ac-ft/yr)
IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
RECLAIMED
OUALITY
TDS
WATER
(mq/1)
B
LEVEL OF
TREATMENT
Irvine Ranch W.D.
(Irvine Co.)
Avocados
Citrus
1,200
4,200
Furrow
1,100 (10)
0.75
Secondary
Fall brook, S.D.
Avocados
Citrus
16
50
Sprinkler
1,200 (10)
0.5-1.0
Secondary,
Filtration plus
Chlorination
Strathmore PUD
Citrus
2
55
Furrow
na
na
Primary plus
oxidation ponds
Chi no Basin MWD
(Fontana)
Citrus
72
675
Furrow
400
(J.5
Primary
LACSD-Pomona
(Cal Poly, Pomona)
Avocados
Citrus
na
600
Furrow
500
0.7
Secondary
Exeter
Citrus
na
785
na
na
na
Primary plus
oxidation ponds
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 92
TABLE 7
COMPARISON OF MINERAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER
QUALITY WITH IRRIGATION WATER CRITERIA FOR REUSE
Projected
Wastewater
Irrigation
Criteria
Existing
with Upgraded
Landscape
Aqriculture
Constituent (a)
Wastewater
Facilities
Spray
Drip
Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS)
1,376
1,376
2,000
1,000
1,000
Boron (B)
0.8
0.8
2.0
1.0
1.0
Chloride (CI)
354.
354.
350.
100.
100.
Sodium (Ha)
262.
262.
350.
120.
120.
Percent Sodium - %
54.
54.
65.
50.
50.
Coliform-MPN/100 ml
ns
200.
23.
2.2
ns
ns - Not specified,
(a) Milligrams per liter
TABLE 8
CDH RECLAMATION CRITERIA FOR WASTEWATER REUSE
REUSE
REQUIRED TREATMENT
ALLOWABLE
COLI FORMS
(MPN/100 ml)
Food Crops
Spray Irrigation
Surface irrigation
Bio-oxidation, coagulation/
clarification, filtration,
disinfection
2.2
General
8io-oxidation, disinfection
2.2
Orchards and vine-
yards with no fruit
contact with water
or ground
Primary sedimentation
ns
Exceptions
Considered on individual
basis if crop undergoes
pathogen destroying processing
ns
Fodder, Fiber & Seed
Crops
Fodder, fiber and
seed crops
Primary sedimentation
ns
Pasture for milking
animals
Bio-oxidation, disinfection
23
Landscape Irrigation
Bio-oxidation, disinfection
23
Recreational Impoundments
Nonrestricted
Bio-oxidation, coagulation/
clarification, filtration,
disinfection
2.2
Restricted to non-
bodily contact
Bio-oxidation, disinfection
2.2
Landscape-non-contact
Bio-oxidation, disinfection
23
ns-Not specified
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 93
Iri the December, 1976 issue of Water and Wastes Engineering was a description
of a reuse project in Woodlands, Texas, a new, fully planned community being
developed in a heavily forested area 30 miles north of Houston. When com-
pleted in 1977, the new town will provide work, recreation and living facili-
ties for 150,000 people.
To preserve the forested environment, the owners have incorporated ecological
planning into the development process which is reflected in the selected
wastewater treatment plant, Figure 13.
Treated wastewaters will be recycled into Lake Harrison, a 60 mg recreational
facility in the village which also serves as a reservoir for irrigation demands.
Overflows from the lake are discharged into Lake Houston watershed which is the
source of domestic water for Houston. Quality requirements are BOD - 5 mg/1,
SS - 5 mg/1 and a P of 2.0 mg/1 on a monthly average.
The plant, to be developed in 4 incremental stages, has a present capacity of
0.5 mgd with an ultimate 6 mgd rating. Should nitrogen removal become a future
requirement, ammonia stripping will be employed. Dual media filters are
employed with the ozone contact tower being a vessel 5 feet in diameter and 12
feet high filled with 3-inch polypropylene packing with a liquid detention time
of 30-60 seconds.
Initial tests have resulted in the following effluent characteristics:
Parameter Influent Effluent
BOD ~T00 1
COD 330 6
SS 40 4
P 20 1.9
Fecal Coli 0
FIGURE 13
LAYOUT OF WOODLANDS SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
INFLUENT
PANTHER
CREEK
LIME FEED
RECREATION
LAKE
SOLIDS TO
LANDFILL
MVIMT
VACUUM
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 94
The city of Aurora, Colorado on Denver's eastern border, is investigating the
possibility of municipal wastewater reuse. For many years, filtered secondary
effluent has been used for golf course irrigation, but the new plans call for
eventual potable reuse. In a preliminary report prepared by C^M-Hill Engineers
for the city, a 20 mgd AWT plant would be constructed and be operating by the
early 1980's. Conventional primary and secondary treatment for 20 mgd is to
be followed by disinfection and filtration steps for 12.5 mgd only. This water
would then be used via a secondary distribution system for agricultural purposes
(parks, greenbelts, golf courses, etc.) and industry. The remaining 7.5 mgd of
flow would undergo further treatment and eventually be discharged into a ter-
minal water supply reservoir to be followed by conventional water treatment and
public use. The direct pipe-to-pipe 1 ink is missing but the potable reuse
acronym is still evident. The preconceptual treatment sequence for the higher
grade water consists of lime clarification, two-stage recarbonation, filtration,
ammonia removal with ion exchange, breakpoint chlorination, carbon adsorption,
reverse osmosis and chemical oxidation. Estimated costs for the industrial/
irrigation portion of the project approach $12.1 million, with an additional
$43 million for the potable quality plant. Additional information about this
ambitious program can be obtained by contacting Mr. C.A. Wemlinger, Director of
Utilities, Municipal Building, Aurora, Colorado 80010.
'~***
In the U.S. Army Corps of Engineer's evaluation of water supply alternatives for
the Washington, D.C. area, three indirect
reuse projects were examined. Their
purposes being to supplement the base
flow of the Potomac River by making highly
treated wastewater available for use dur-
ing drought conditions. Two of the pro-
jects considered - (1) Fairfax County
Plant, Figure 14, and (2) the 60 mgd
Montgomery County Plant, Figure 15 - would
also serve to reduce the wastewater manage-
ment plant in the Washington Metropolitan
area. The third project would employ
AWT at Blue Plains, pumping the effluent
upstream of the water intakes, Figure 16.
Corresponding cost estimates are indicated
in the respective figures.
The advantage of piping highly treated
effluents upstream was to reduce the poten-
tial health hazard with dilution and util-
ize the so-called "instream purification
processes". As indicated in previous Plan-
ning Reports, the Montgomery Plant effluent
would have been considerably better than
the river quality itself. The Corps, in
an effort to find the answers needed, has
decided to test estuary waters and Blue
Plains effluent in what has been nicknamed
the "Six-Million Dollar Plant".
FIGURE 14
REPRESENTATION OF FAIRFAX COUNTY
AWT OPERATION
TREATED
EFFLUENT
PIPELINE.
AWT
PUMPl
WATER
SUPPLY
INTAKES
WASTE WATER:
PIPELINE i
FROM ,
POTOMAC
INTERCEPTOR
'To TREATMENT
and DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
POTOMAC
UPPER i.
ESTUARY
Loudoun County (25 mgd yield to the Potomac River from April
through October)
Initial construction colt
(does not include the cost of land)
$301,114,000
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 95
FIGURE 15
REPRESENTATION OF MONTGOMERY COUNTY AWT OPERATION
FIGURE 16
REPRESENTATION OF BLUE PLAINS
RIVER MIX OPERATION
AWT
WASTE WATER
FROM FUTURE
COLLECTION
SYSTEM
TREATED
EFFLUENT
PIPELINE
n
WATER
SUPPLY
NTAKES
To TREATMENT
and DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
POTCMAC
RIVER
UPP~ER t
ESTUARY
Project/Six*
Montgomery County
AW7/7S MGD
Unstjgvd Construction
Con (S milltontl
134.3
Staqad Construction
Com S million*)
134.3
1
5t
t Li
POTOMAC ,
RIVER t
UPPER 1
ESTUARY '
TREATED EFFLUENT
PIPELINE-USED
ONLY WHEN NEEDED
FOR WATER SUPPLY
m To TREATMENT
"and OiSTROurtON
system
PUMP
effluent
DISCHARGE POINT
FOR N0N-0R0U6HT
CONDITIONS j
CARBON
COLUMNS
PLAINS
WASTE
WATER
Montgomery County
AWT/150 MGO
Fairfax County
AWT/35 MGO
Fairfax County
AWT/ 70 MGO
Blue Plains
AW7/J00MGD
221.4
98.5
153.2
164.7
123.7
115.2
N/A
Pro)«et/SUt
Plant Mix/50 MGO
Plant Mix/100 MGO
Rivar Mix/100 MGO
River Mix/150 MGO
River Mix/200 MGO
Unstayed Construction
Coat
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 96
Massachusetts-Rhode Island, and Washington, D.C. - have the most critical and
immediate need to develop water supply sources to meet growing water demands.
Studies of the 200,000 square mile region indicates a population of 50 million
persons, but with an increase by the year 2020 to 80 million. A severe drought
in the northeast in the 1960's caused Congress to pass PL89-298 directing the
Corps to work with appropriate federal, state and local officials to insure
against future drought-related water shortages.
Since the drought, no major water supply projects have been built in the three
most critical areas and the general purpose of the interim report is to briefly
present a wide range of available alternatives based on a separate and ongoing
major water supply survey.
As a planning premise it was generally assumed that direct wastewater reuse would
not be generally acceptable during the time frame of the study. However, deli-
berate indirect reuse was acknowledged as impacting available supply. Planned
indirect reuse in the east (AWT effluents into water supply reservoirs) is
considered direct reuse in several western states.
The statement was made that indirect reuse could be made safe by employing care-
fully controlled AWT methods or land treatment. "AWT plants, whether using bio-
logical or PCT processes, can produce effluent that is eminently suitable for
indirect water supply use. The effluent can be safely discharged into a stream
or surface water body that is used as a water supply source. While the emphasis
and interest in AWT has in the past centered on their role as a pollution control
tool, their usefulness as a viable source of water supply cannot be overlooked.
Basic plans for the three areas are summarized as follows:
The Washington D.C. Metropolitan Area: One of the Corps' alternatives concerns
construction of a pilot estuarine water treatment plant to determine the tech-
nical feasibility of full scale use of the Potomac estuary for water supply and
to answer the health-related questions. Formal plans include the treatment of
sewage effluents from the Blue Plains facility as well. In many cases, the
secondary effluent is of a higher quality than the Potomac itself. Additional
references were given to the planned Montgomery and Occoquan AWT plants.
The New York Metropolitan Area: Emphasis was given to surface water sources in
that complex region but groundwater recharge programs in two Long Island
counties, Nassau and Suffolk, merited considerable attention. Surface water
augmentation with treated wastewaters also received consideration. The Connec-
ticut plan of conservation and development contained a rather limiting policy
of not even considering streams within the watershed which might contain
sewage discharges.
Eastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island: While surface water development and con-
servation were stressed, some interest in land treatment and recovery of effluent
was shown.
Since public works projects normally take many years to plan, authorize, design
and build, it is critical that all parties involved in the water supply decision-
making process be made aware of the choices available to avert shortages. With
rapidly increasing technology, reuse may come to the forefront as a viable soluti'
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 97
16. Dr. H. Sontheimer of the University of Karlsruhe in West Germany is involved in
a Berlin Project to recharge aquifers with treated wastewater. Within the next
12 months, a pilot plant will be constructed to remove nutrients and biological
soil clogging organisms. Early research has indicated that ozonation prior to
recharge changes the non-biodegradable organics in such a way that there is com-
plete biological oxidation within the ground. Other tests have shown that when
ammonia and nitrates are in a stoichiometric correlation, biological oxidation
in the ground lead to nitrogen formation and removal of all inorganic nitrogen
compounds.
Extraction for potable purposes is not expected until much more is known about
the combination treatment and ground processes.
****
17. In the 1976 Annual Report from the South African Water Research Commission (WRC)
two on-going reuse research projects in the Cape Town region are described. The
first involves treatment research at the Athlone Sewage Works on a 300 m^/day
pilot plant which is operated by the municipality while the National Institute
for Water Research (NIWR) provides specialist services. The process design
incorporates an aerated biological stage after lime treatment and ammonia strip-
ping to insure quality equalization and higher efficiency in the removal of
organic carbon and NHo. Subsequent physical-chemical units include secondary
clarification, sand filtration, disinfection and carbon adsorption.
Proposals have been made that the siting of future sewage treatment and reclama-
tion plants should be planned on a regional basis for optimum reuse, so as to
obtain the benefit of scale and allow segregation of domestic and industrial
effluents.
The reclamation and reuse of purified sewage effluent in the Cape Peninsula could
substantially relieve the critical water supply problem in the region. The main
purpose of the second contract is to evaluate the technical and economic feasi-
bility of full scale water reclamation and its storage in and abstraction from
the sand beds of the Cape Flats, and to develop the required design criteria.
During the year 1976-77, extensive studies were undertaken on the hydraulic suit-
ability of the sand beds for storage, infiltration and withdrawal of natural
waters or treated effluents. Geohydrological studies showed a daily subterranean
flow to an ocean bay of 75 Ml or approximately 3nw/da.y per meter of coastline.
This fresh water could be intercepted and used but at the expense of sea water
intrusion. To create a hydraulic barrier against the saltier source, artificial
recharge by covered infiltration channels or ponds appeared feasible with 220 Ml
per day of treated domestic sewage as the source. After one year of storage in
the coastal aquifer it too would be abstracted for all uses.
A preliminary mathematical model has been developed for simulating the behavior
of the groundwater resource under a wide range of conditions.
Three sewage purification works, with an eventual combined capacity of 400 Ml per
day are currently under construction along the bay coast. In two of the three
installations, provision is being made for nutrient removals which simplifies
the subsequent reclamation plant. The Cape Flats plant, which will replace the
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 98
oxidation pond system, will be commissioned by the end of 1978, offering an
improved effluent to the proposed 4.5 Ml per day demonstration AWT plant.
A new agreement between the WRC and municipality will postpone the full recla-
mation plant until the Cape Flats facility becomes operational. In the mean
time, only a portion of the demo plant will be built to enable infiltration
studies.
18. Plans have been developed in Marin County, California, north of San Francisco,
to implement wastewater reuse via irrigation in newly developed parks. Respon-
sibility for the program comes under the auspices of the Marin Municipal Water
District which serves 181,000 consumers in a 140 square-mile area.
In 1974 the District proposed to integrate four water supply activities: reuse,
conservation, desalination and importation to meet future water demands. One
of the goals was to provide 2000 acre-feet of reclaimed wastewater annually by
1995. The District, with the refreshing attitude of viewing reclamation not in
terms of disposal, but in support of the domestic supply, has evaluated the
treatment requirements, user potential and environmental impacts for reuse in
the Las Gallinas Valley Area.
A 1.0 mgd filtration and chlorination plant is to be built for $500,000. The
proposed steps following the existing trickling filter process will produce
an effluent superior to the prescribed reuse quality limitations of:
BOD 40 mg/1
D.0. 2 mg/1
Dissolved Sulfide 0.1 mg/1
Total Coliform 23/100 ml
In conjunction with the plant, an experimental R.0.
FIGURE 17
WASTEWATER AND RECLAIMED WATER FLOW DIAGRAM
DE-CW.OR1NATOR SCL
PRIMARY
0IOFILTER
INFLUENT
PRIMARY
CLARIFlER
Discharge
CHLORINE
CONTACT POND
PUMP
PRIMARY
CLARIFlER
Sludge
HLORINATOF
GRIT
REMOVAL
SECONOARY
BIO rILT E R
SLUDGE
THICKENER
FINAL
CLARIFIER
PUMP
LAND
ISPOSA
DIGESTERS
Boexwosh Water
/CONDITION ING
V. PONO
Control©
CENTRIFUGE
process will be sponsored by
the District, UCLA and
the California Department
of Water Resources. The
overall facility and storage
units will be sized to accofl'
modate landscape irrigation
needs for the proposed
Marin County Mclnnis Park,
Civic Center and Fairgrounds-
District policy will requirg
the use of reclaimed water
within the use area, as it
becomes available for con-
sumers. Thus, the project
will accommodate growth
rather than induce it.
Figure 17 indicates the se-
lected treatment sequence
and Table 9. the irrigation
quality requirements as
compared to raw water sup-
tfCfWP
ZS//A Prtpottd
I I Existing
ply and exisiting effluent.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 99
Two other documents are enclosed for interest. These include Table 10 - State
Guidelines for Landscape Irrigation with Reclaimed Effluent - and Table 11 -
an example of the user-seller contract for reclaimed water.
TABLE 9
LAS GALLINAS VALLEY - WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
MM WD
Domestic Water
Northern Area
7/1/75
Metals
to
12/21/75
mg/1
LGVSD
Effluent
mg/1
Class 1
Irrigation Water
mg/1
Aluminum
.013
.1
5.00
Arsenic (As)
.001
•
0
0
1
•
8
.10
Boron (B)
.1
.40-.60
.5
Cadmium (Cd)
.001
0-.025
.010
Calcium (Ca)
76.4-21.2
5.4-45.6
Chromium (Cr)
.005
0-.04
.10
Copper (C)
.02
.01-.11
.20
Cyanide (CN)
.01
.01
Fluoride
.87
1.0
Iron (Fe)
.06
.47
5.0
Lead (Pb)
.01
.02-.04
5.0
Magnesium (Mg)
7.7-10.0
16.3-33
Manganese (Mn)
.05
.34-1.0
.20
Mercury (Hq)
.0005
.001-1.0
Nickel (Ni)
.0-.05
.2
Phenols
.001
.14-.3
Silver
.005
.0-.044
Sodium
8.2
95-133
Zinc
.01
.06-.07
2.0
Nutrients
Nitrate (N)
.1
.06-.35
Nitrite (N)
.01
.05-.26
Ammonia (N)
17-50
Total Organic Nitrogen
.9-5.4
Total Phosphate (PO4)
23-33
Potassium (K)
13
Miscellaneous
Total Hardness
84.5
137-155
TDS
130
424-600
EC
199
841-1260
Ph
8.2
6.8-7.6
6.56-8.4
Bicarbonate (HCO3)
79-239
90
Sulfate (SO4)
15.8
55-93
Cloride (CI)
15.2
102-213
142
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 100
TABLE 10
GUIDELINES FOR USE OF RECLAIMED WATER FOR LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION
STATE OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
1. Reclaimed water shall meet the Regional Water Quality Control Board requirements
and the quality requirements established by the State of California Department of
Health for health protection.
2. The discharge shall be confined to the area designated and approved for disposal
and reuse. Irrigation should be controlled to minimize ponding of wastewater and
runoff should be contained and properly disposed.
3. Maximum attainable separation of reclaimed water lioes and domestic watir lines
shall be practiced. Domestic and reclaimed water transmission and distribution mains
shall conform to the "Separation and Construction Criteria" (see attached).
a. The use area facilities must comply with the "Regulations Relating to
Cross-Connections," Title 17, Chapter V, Sections 7583-7622, inclusive,
California Administrative Code.
b. Plans and specifications of the existing and proposed reclaimed water
system and domestic water system shall be submitted to State and/or
local health agencies for review and approval.
4. All reclaimed water valves, outlets and/or sprinkler heads should be appropriately
tagged to warn the public that the water is not safe for drinking or direct contact.
5. All piping, valves, and outlets should be color-coded or otherwise marked to
differentiate reclaimed water from domestic or other water.
a. Where feasible, differential piping materials should be used to facilitate
water system identification.
6. All reclaimed. water valves, outlets, and sprinkler heads should be of a type that
can only be operated by authorized personnel.
a. Where hose bibbs are present on domestic and reclaimed water lines,
differential sizes should be established to preclude the interchange of
hoses.
7. Adequate means of notification shall be provided to inform the public that reclaimed
water is being used. Such notification should include the posting of conspicuous
warning signs with proper wording of sufficient size to be clearly read. At golf courses,
notices should also be printed on score cards and at all water hazards containing
reclaimed water.
8. Tank trucks used for carrying or spraying reclaimed water should be appropriately
identified to indicate such.
9. Irrigation should be done so as to prevent or minimize contact by the public with
the sprayed material and precautions should be taken to insure that reclaimed water
will not be sprayed on walkways, pissing vehicles, buildings, picnic tables, domestic
water facilities, or areas not under control of the user.
a. Irrigation should be practiced during periods when the grounds will have
maximum opportunity to dry before use by the public unless provisions
are made to exclude the public from areas during and after spraying
with reclaimed water.
b. Windblown spray from the irrigation area should not reach areas accessible
to the public.
c. Irrigated areas must be kept completely separated from domestic water
wells and reservoirs. A minimum of 500 feet should be provided.
d. Drinking water fountains should be protected from direct or windblown
reclaimed water spray.
10. Adequate measures should be taken to prevent the breeding of flies, mosquitoes and
other vectors of public health significance during the process of reuse.
U. Operation of the use area facilities should not create odors, slimes, or unsightly
deposits of sewage origin in places accessible to the public.
-------
AGREEMENT FOR THE PURCHASE AND
THIS AGREEMENT, made and entered into this day of
, 19 , by and between
, its
successors and assigns, and hereinafter referred to as "User", and Marin Municipal Water
District, a public corporation of the State of California, and its successors and assigns,
and hereinafter referred to as "Water District".
WITNESSETH:
WHEREAS, the parties hereto recognize that it is for the benefit of the
community and in the public interest that wastewater be reclaimed and used for landscape
irrigation whenever practical; and,
WHEREAS, Water District has constructed a wastewater treatment facility,
hereinafter referred to as "reclamation facility", the effluent from which will be suitable
for landscape irrigation purposes; and,
WHEREAS, User has existing and/or future landscape areas which can utilize
reclaimed water for landscape irrigation in lieu of using potable water supply; and,
WHEREAS, User is willing to enter into an agreement with Water District for
the purchase of water for irrigation purposes; and,
WHEREAS, Water District has obtained a Waste Discharge Permit, Order No.
. from the Regional Water Quality Control Board on behalf of listed Users
to enable them to use treated wastewater for specific purposes.
NOW, THEREFORE, IT IS HEREBY AGREED:
1. As a condition of potable water service, User agrees to install piping on
his property necessary to accommodate the use of reclaimed wastewater.
2. This agreement is conditioned on obtaining necessary permits relating to
the use of reclaimed water for landscape irrigation. Water District and User will jointly
obtain and maintain all necessary permits as required by the Regional Water Quality Control
Board, San Francisco Bay Region, and other authorized agencies. Water District will act
as lead agency in obtaining, complying with, and maintaining these permits; however, both
Water District and User are responsible, where applicable, to comply with regulations set
forth in these permits.
3. Responsibility for building, managing and operating the reclamation facility
belongs to the Water District.
4. Reclaimed water shall be used solely for landscaping irrigation as the term
applies in Section 8046, Title 17 of the California Administrative Code, and only upon
the property approved in the Waste Discharge Permit, Order No. . User may
use water delivered to it by Water District at and for such other uses as it may desire,
subject to the approval of obtaining necessary permits as required by the Regional Water
Quality Control Board, and other authorized agencies.
: 11
SALE OF RECLAIMED WASTEWATER
5. Water District undertakes and apces that the quality ol water delivered
hereunder shall conform to the requirements proscribed by the Regional Water Quality
Control Board, and other authorized agencies.
6. Water District will, at its own cost and expense, construct necessary mains
and lines from Water District's reclamation facility to the property of User, according
to Water District's wastewater policy and procedures.
7. Water District is responsible for installing and maintaining any metering
devices used in connection with the delivery of reclaimed water to User.
8. Water District and User are jointly responsible for water monitoring,
sampling, analyses, and observations required by the Regional Water Quality Contiol Board
or other authorized agency. Water District will be the lead agency in such monitoring
programs.
9. User agrees to properly maintain any required backflow device, as specified
in Section 11.14.076 of the Water District Code.
10. User agrees to comply with guidelines contained in the State of California
Guidelines for Use of Reclaimed Wastewater for Landscape Irrigation.
> 1. User agrees to pay for reclaimed wastewater at the rate established by Water
District, said rate not to exceed the rate set tor domestic water.
12. As User's failure to meet requirements may lead to suspension of the Waste
Discharge Permit, Water District reserves the right to discontinue User's water service shpuld
User violate the terms of this agreement.
13. Water District will endeavor to satisfy all demands for treated wastewater;
however, Water District is not responsible for its failure to do so.
14. Water District shall, and does hereby agree to indemnify User against and
to hold User harmless from any and all damages, claim for damages or liabilities of .any
nature whatsoever arising out of, or in connection with, Water District's operation
hereunder.
USER
By.
MARIN MUNICIPAL WATER DISTRICT
TJ I
£1> *—«
lO CD
By to x
i—> i—i
o o
I-* IE
—i
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 102
Aquifer recharge is being considered as a water supply alternative in the Vic-
toria State of Australia. (Figure 18) The Koo Wee Rup Plain, an extremely pro-
ductive farmland area, lies southeast of the city of Melbourne. The primary
source of water has been the sub-artesian basin which is connected to the bay
at the city of Western Port. Drawdown due to pumping has caused a reversal of
flow and contamination of the aquifer with salt water.
Two proposals were suggested to remedy the situation:
a. Piping reconditioned wastewater from the Board of Works Southeastern Puri-
fication Plant at Carrum, 25 miles to the plains and thence reticulating
it to farms in order to reduce or eliminate the dependence on groundwater.
Nutrients would be effectively absorbed, but the peak water demand which
occurs in summer does not coincide with peak supply which occurs in winter.
b. Piping the reconditioned water to Koo Wee Rup and charging it directly into
the aquifer which would obviate the complex farm distribution system and
overcome problems created by varying supply and demand. It would, however,
introduce the problems of the complex physical, chemical and biological
reactions between the natural groundwater, the aquifer medium and the
charging water.
FIGURE 18
AUSTRALIA
NORTHERN
1 e»H«
TERRITORY
WESTERN
AUSTRALIA
SOUTH
NEW SOUTH WALES
{.IQtXQ
TASMANIA
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 103
An initial testing program has been undertaken by the Department of Mines on
charging and discharging a similar sedimentary aquifer at Carrum. In other
research performed at the University of Melbourne, a computer model was devel-
oped that purports to predict aquifer response to given input conditions.
An entirely separate proposal for the employment of all or part of the 5 mil-
lion cubic feet per day flow from the Southeastern Plant has been made by
Australian Groundwater Consultants Pty* Ltd. In that proposal, it is envi-
sioned that a substantial part of the water requirements of Mornington and
Western Port could be met by a scheme entailing the spreading of effluent over
the dune limestone deposits of the Nepean Peninsular south of Rosebud.
Modeled on schemes overseas at Santee and Tel Aviv, effluent would be injected
into the ground and pumped out some distance away, having been relieved of its
BOD, bacterial and phosphate loads. The water would mix with the natural
groundwater and, when removed, be blended with waters from the Tarago and Bun-
yip Rivers north of the Mornington Peninsula to produce a potable supply.
****
20. The Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory at Port Hueneme, California is developing
a wastewater reclamation system for producing potable water at water-short bases
world-wide that presently rely on desalination for water supply.
Pilot investigations have been completed with a 25,000 gpd demonstration plant
to be completed in 1978.
The objectives of the demo work will be:
a. to investigate fail-safe characteristics and reliability of the
systems operation
b. to determine the cost-effectiveness
c. to establish on-line real time system efficiency monitoring methods
d. to demonstrate to prospective consumers, as well as management, the
safety, economics and reliability of direct reuse
New development in unit processes/operations for water purification, water
quality monitoring equipment, sample concentrations, and virus and toxic
chemical analyses methods are of significant interest to the Navy.
****
21. Community utility service at the present time involves independent large-scale
facilities for the generation of electricity, water and wastewater treatment
and solid waste disposal. The customers are usually served through extensive
and costly transmission and distribution systems while space heating, space
cooling and potable water heating are normally accomplished at the home level.
In contrast, the Modular Integrated Utility System (MIUS) which is being
researched by the U.S. Housing and Urban Development Department (HUD), provides
a single facility on a community basis.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 104
In a long-range program to develop, demonstrate and encourage integrated facil-
ities, HUD has set the following performance goals for the MIUS system:
1. Conserve fuel and other natural resources
2. Reduce environmental degradation
3. Reduce total public cost
4. Match the reliability of existing service
5. Be capable of installation in phase with community development
6. Permit greater flexibility in intensive land development
Studies of multi-family housing demand indicate that 16-35% of new residential/
commercial construction is a candidate for application of an MIUS.
Mass production of MIUS components also offers modern utility service to isolated
communities that cannot afford conventional technology. Perhaps the largest
market lies in the new cities of developing countries.
The MIUS program is now a multi-agency effort under the direction and sponsorship
of HUD. Other program participants are ERDA, NASA, HEW, EPA, FEA and the Depart-
ment of Defense. The National Bureau of Standards serves as technical program
advisor and lead agency for review and evaluation of the proposed MIUS demonstration.
The MIUS system would be located near the center of a medium density residential
community with perhaps 2500 dwelling and associated commercial units. Thermal
energy from the internal combustion engines on the electrical generators and
auxilliary boilers is used for space and potable water heating throughout the
community. It also serves as a heat source for an absorption chiller in the
air conditioning cycle. Excess heat from the steam loop could be used to warm
the influent wastewater.
Solid waste handling may consist of vacuum collection and incinerator with heat
recovery.
Early MIUS modeling studies indicated a 50% savings in fuel energy over conven-
tional methods. Energy is the key which ties the electrical, thermal and solid
waste elements into an integral entity. Wastewater and potable water treatment
are more loosely bound and it is unlikely that those systems will be energy
producers. Anaerobic sludge digestion appears viable economically only for
communities of more than 10,000 people, but new techniques of methane production
are being investigated. Both water and wastewater treatment systems will become
integral elements and contribute to effective energy utilization by serving as
controllable electric loads. This will be evident in the proposed ozonation
process.
Probably the most salient feature of the MIUS concept is the potential for water
conservation through reuse. Wastewater receiving AWT will be reused in appli-
cations compatible with the protection of public health and welfare. The
possible applications via a dual-distribution system include home lawn watering,
fire fighting, industrial uses and recreational purposes. Potable reuse may be
considered as technology advances.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 105
An actual demonstration of the MIUS concept will take place on an 130-acre
planned development in southern Maryland in the late 1970's. The specific waste-
water treatment sequence is being developed at this time.
HUD announced, in 1976, a $400,000 grant to Interstate Land Development, Inc. for
preliminary planning and design work on installing an MIUS in the Company's new
town of St. Charles in Charles County, Maryland, 25 miles southeast of Washing-
ton D.C. Two thousand dwelling units have been completed with a goal of 24,000
by 1990.
Interstate has contracted with United Technologies Corporation for a 6-12 month
study to determine how many housing units and what size shopping center one
MIUS unit could serve.
A companion program, IUS, funded by the National Bureau of Standards and admini-
stered by HEW is moving ahead rapidly. Under a $136,000 contract, Reynolds, Smith
and Hills, Inc., is completing a feasibility study on installing IUS at the Uni-
versity of Florida, Gainesville, and Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant
for the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW).
IUS provides the same basic utility service as MIUS, but is designed for use
where expansion is expected to be slight.
****
A similar yet further advanced concept is being developed in Canada for the Cen-
tral Mortgage and Housing Corporation. The system, entitled CANWEL, refers to
Canadian Water Energy Loop with the basic research being conducted by the Ontario
Research Foundation.
Again, as in MIUS, the broad objectives of CANWEL are to conserve natural resources,
reduce the cost of urban development and reduce pollution of water, soil and air.
Reclamation of wastewater has taken precedence over energy research and recycling
for sub-potable use is planned.
The three sub-systems are for sewage treatment, water polishing and solid waste
handling. The sewage system consists of an absorption bio-oxidation (A-B) reactor
where raw sewage is contacted with activated sludge and powdered carbon. Follow-
ing nitrification and denitrification in the same tank, the flow reaches a sludge
separator for recirculation back to the A-B. In the following chemical reactor,
phosphorus compounds and excess biological solids are removed. Sludge is thep
thickened and combined with municipal solid waste for incineration. Thermal
recovery allows for heating a development or apartment complex of perhaps 500
persons. An interim ozonation step oxidizes residual organics in the effluent and
makes the water suitable for surface discharge or utility usage.
Higher orders of reuse will require additional treatment as provided in the water
polishing sub-system. Mixed media filtration will remove the remaining suspended
solids. Where required, the two optional processes of pH control and reverse
osmosis can be incorporated. Additional ozonation will be used to destroy patho-
gens. The polished water would then meet the Canadian Drinking Water Standards.
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 106
A working prototype of the sewage unit at 90 kilo!iters per day has been oper-
ating for more than a year. But a full scale unit (250 KPD) for 500 persons
will be operating in a Toronto apartment building in 1977 to demonstrate the
long-term efficiency and reliability of the system.
Design work is also complete on another 250 KPD experimental unit for exposed
environment municipal wastewater plants to be installed near Montreal. That
system will supply information required for scale-up to an initial community
plant size of 5000-person capacity and for the conversion of existing conven-
tional plants to the CANWEL technology. By designing components modularly,
these units could be linked together to service communities of about 20,000
people.
In terms of cost and economics of the recoverable water product, CANWEL is expected
to be less than any conventional system.
Again, the direct potable reuse option is left open while sub-potable demonstra-
tions are made and technology advances.
Dr. Besik of the Ontario Research Foundation was one of the pioneers in the CAN-
WEL water reclamation system. His years of pilot plant work with the following
treatment sequence (see Figure 19) yielded the results as shown in Tables 12, 13,
14 and 15. That data was used to develop the present recycling system.
FIGURE 19
PILOT TREATMENT PROCESS
bav» waste water coagulant a polvelectrolyte
RETURN SLUDGE
EXCESS SLUOO^
DRAIN
SOLIDS
PRODUCT
=SCARBON =
-ADSORPTION-
AERATION -
=£ OZONE =
"OXIDATION
FILTRATION;
-AFTER -
-.AERATION
TABLE 12
WATER QUALITY AT VARIOUS POINTS OF THE TREATMENT
(minimum-maximum values)
Raw
Clarlffer
Filter bed
Break-point
Dechlor.
R.O.
Final
Qua 11 ty
waste water
effluent
effluent
chlor.eff.
effluent
effluent
effluent
parameter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
T.0.C.(mgl*')
64-110
13-38
6-15
6-13
2-7
<1.0
<1.0
S.O.C.fmgr1)
27-49
9-17
5-12
6-11
2-5
<1.0
<1.0
P04(mgl'1)
22-42
2-9
<1.0
<1.0
<1.0
<1.0
<1.0
KjeldahT N(mgl_1)
20-50
14-30
5-27
1.0-13
0.5-12
0-3
0-3
Ammonia N(mgl*')
13-30
13-30
13-30
0.0-12
0.0-13
0.0-5.0
0.0-5.0
N02 + NOjNfmgl"1)
0.1-1.2
0.4-1.8
1.3-2.7
O.l-l.i
0.1-0.3
0.0-0.8
S.S.fmgr1)
96-236
16-73
0.5-5.0
0.6-5.0
—
0.0
0.0
D.S^mgl"1)
413-530
440-560
, 460-560
690-1020
€90-980
55-140
65-140
Turbfd(mgl"')
57-95
12-40
1.0-5.0
1-5
1-3
<0.2
<0.2
Conforms per 100 ml
15 X 106
8 x 106
0.5 x 106-1.5 x 106
0
...
—
0
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 107
TABLE 13
TOTAL REMOVAL EFFICIENCY AT VARIOUS POINTS OF TREATMENT
(maximum achieved)
Parameter
Clari fication
(2)
Filtration
(%)
Break-point
chlorination
(«)
Dechlorination
(%)
Reverse
Osmosis
(%)
T.O.C.
82.5
91.8
91.8
97.5
99
S.O.C.
73.4
81.6
86.0
88.4
99
P04
93.7
97.2
97.2
98.5
99.6
Kjeldahl N
3.7
45.0
94.2
97.9
98.5
Ammon i a
20*
27*
100
--
--
S.S.
84.9
98.9
98.9
98.9
100
D.S.
5.2*
7.0
49*
49*
77.8
Coliform
46.6
96.6
100
--
~Concentration
increased by 5
i.
Element
Ag
As
8
Ba
Ca
Cd
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mg
Mn
Pb
Se
Zn
TABLE 14
TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF THE RENOVATED WATER
Method of
analysis
(AAS)
*Not detectable.
Detection
limit (ppm)
flameless
AA
Ren. water
(15/5/73)
Element concentration in samples (ppm)
Permissible
levels
Ren. water
(23/5/73)
Tap water
(23/5/73)
Flameless
0.0006
NO*
ND
ND
Flameless
0.006
ND
ND
-CO.04
Flameless
0.300
<0.5
<0.5
<2.5
Flameless
0.02
<0.075
<0.075
<0.075
Flame
1.5
1.5
40.0
Flameless
0.00003
<0.0001
<0.0003
<0.0002
Flameless
0.0008
<0.003
<0.002
<0.005
Flameless
0.005
<0.150
<0.175
<0.015
Flame
--
--
--
Flame
0.35
0.70
8.3
Flameless
0.00004
<0.002
<0.002
<0.005
Flameless
0.0005
<0.002
<0.002
<0.004
Flameless
0.001
<0.005
<0.003
<0.007
Flame
0.47
0.20
<0.05
TABLE 15
BIOCIDES IN THE RENOVATED WATER
0.05
0.05
1.00
1.00
200.00
o.oi
0.05
1.00
0.30
150.00
0.05
0.05
0.01
5.00
Biocide concentration
in samples (ppb)
Detection
Permissible
1 imit
Ren. water
Tap Water
(ppb)
(23.5.1973)
(24.5.1972)
levels
0.03
ND
ND
17
0.03
ND
ND
42
0.03
ND
ND
*
0.03
ND
ND
*
0.03
ND
ND
17
0.03
ND
ND
1
0.03
ND
ND
18
0.03
ND
NO
18
0.03
ND
ND
56
0.03
NO
ND
35
0.03
ND
ND
it
0.05-0.8
ND
ND
#
0.05-0.8
ND
ND
*
0.05-0.8
ND
ND
*
0.05-0.8
NO
ND
*
0.05-0.8
ND
ND
•k
0.05-0.8
NO
ND
*
0.05-0.8
NO
ND
*
0.05-0.8
ND
ND
A
0.05-0.8
ND
ND
*
0.05-0.8
NO
ND
•k
0.05-0.8
ND
ND
¦k
0.09
ND
ND
100
Biocide
Aldrin
DDT
ODD
DDE
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
lleptachlor epoxide
Lindane
Methoxyrhlor
PCBs
Disyston
Diazinon
Ronnel
Dursban
Malathion
Sumithion
Parath ion
Ethion
Methyl parathion
Trithion
Dasanit
Acid herbicides
Hot listed in Canadian Drinking Water Standards.
****
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 108
23. The Ministry of Water Resources and Water Supply of the Victorian State Govern-
ment, Melbourne, Australia, established a Reclaimed Water Committee to promote
and coordinate reuse throughout Victoria.
Since its establishment in 1973, the Committee has concentrated its attention
on investigations relating to health aspects, agricultural trials and aquifer
recharge studies.
The object of the Committee is to insure that, by the end of this century, the
necessary knowledge and expertise is available to enable reclaimed water to be
used for any purpose (including domestic use) if required.
Notwithstanding this basic aim, it is the general philosophy of the Committee
that in the foreseeable future, reclaimed water should be used for "secondary"
purposes wherever possible, thus releasing high quality surface and groundwater
to meet domestic requirements.
Apart from carrying out investigations into various aspects of the reuse of
water, the Committee believes that it has an important role to play in inform-
ing interested individuals and organizations of the latest developments in the
field of research and also of investigations being carried out by other groups.
To this end, a number of reports have been produced and circulated widely
throughout the State. Attempts are currently being made to reach more people
by publishing articles in technical journals, etc., but this work is restricted
due to a lack of staff.
While the Committee was originally set up to carry out investigations, etc. in
Victoria, it is obvious that the results of many of the investigations can be
applied to other areas of Australia. Much interest has been generated in other
states, in particular Western Australia, South Australia and New South Wales,
and close liaison is maintained with experts from these states. Efforts are
currently being made to make more formal arrangements with these organizations
and to expand the role of the Committee to encompass other states of Australia.
Some 20 reports on reuse activity have been completed or are being planned by
the Committee composed of eight senior representatives from state governmental
departments.
****
24. At its Plenary Session in Dusseldorf, Germany on February 8-9, 1977, the NATO
committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (COMS) approved a proposal sub-
mitted by the U.S. for a new pilot study on drinking water. The objective of
the comprehensive study would be to achieve a better understanding of the
drinking water problems that industrialized countries share and to seek solu-
tions to them. The research would include evaluation of existing technology
and practice from the point of view of effectiveness, public health protection,
practicality, costs, general availability and associated by-product hazards.
The work program to develop a state-of-the-art document includes the following
areas:
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 109
a. analytical chemistry arid data handling
b. advanced treatment technology
c. microbiological assessments
d. health effects
e. groundwater considerations
f. energy conservation
g. data sources
With respect to water reuse, the project will look at epidemiological aspects,
appropriate treatment technology and the composition of recycled waters.
****
25. The California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) is sponsoring several
water reclamation projects in that state with plans to increase needed research
demonstration and monitoring activities. Highlights of the seven programs from
1976-78 are as follows:
a. A $1.3 million, 3-year project will be completed by December 31, 1978 on
groundwater injection of reclaimed wastewater in Palo Alto, California.
The study by the Santa Clara Valley Water District and Stanford Univer-
sity will look at the effects of recharge on groundwater quality with
emphasis on trace organics, bacteria, virus, hydraulics and treatment
plant performance.
b. In a $36,000, 6-month project, the SWRCB is assisting the Los Angeles
County Sanitation Districts in evaluating the feasibility of an epidem-
iological study in the Montebello Forebay area of Southern California
which has been receiving recharged effluents for the last 15 years. The
preliminary study, to be completed in December of 1977, will evaluate
the feasibility of toxicology, monitoring and health effects research.
c. Orange County Water District received $60,000 in 1977 to evaluate the
effectiveness of its new 5 mgd reverse osmosis plant in removing stable
organics, reliability of the equipment, and long-term performance. The
work will be completed in April of 1979.
d. The University of California at Berkeley will receive $57,000 for a
1-year study of the mutagenic and carcinogenic potential of selected
wastewaters in the state using the Ames test.
e. A $100,000, 1-year grant was given to the State Department of Health to
establish capability and technical expertise in water virology including
occurrence, health significance and treatment removals,
f. To be completed in 1984 is a 7-year, $2.4 million study on food crop
irrigation with wastewater in Castroville, California. The benefits
and problems of agricultural reuse will be analyzed along with moni-
toring, soil degradation and epidemiological work.
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 110
g. An 8-month, $15,000 feasibility study of agricultural reuse in the Morro
Bay Area of California in 1977 indicated the lack of a suitable market
for reclaimed water.
****
Estimates are that by the year 2000, Californians will have a water deficit of
4.6 million acre-feet a year requiring an increased overdraft of groundwaters.
In Orange County, a recent report indicated that in 1976, an all time high
amount of groundwater was pumped from the basin, levels dropped 5.1 feet during
the year to 0.8 feet below sea level and storage decreased by 94,000 acre-feet.
To ease the expected shortage, a comprehensive policy statement and plan of
action for encouraging the development of water reuse was adopted on January
6, 1977 by the State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB). California will
implement the program through the administration of the State and Federal
Clean Water Grant Program and State Board's authority over water right allocations
A 55- member task force was formed to assist the SRWCB in the development of the
policy and action plan which met over a one-year period to establish the neces-
sary guidelines. The policy states specifically that the State and Regional
Boards shall encourage and consider or recommend for funding, water reclamation
projects which meet the three conditions below and which do not adversely impact
vested water rights or unreasonably impair instream beneficial uses:
1. Beneficial use will be made of wastewaters that would otherwise be
discharged to marine or brackish receiving waters-,
2. Reclaimed water will replace the use of freshwater or better quality
water;
3. Reclaimed water will be used to preserve, restore, or enhance instream
beneficial uses, which include but are not limited to, fish, wildlife,
recreation and aesthetics associated with any surface water or wetlands.
The Boards will also encourage other agencies to assist in implementing the
policy, recognize public health aspects and recommend legislation.
With respect to action, expansion of 208 grants will be encouraged to emphasize
water reclamation in planning studies. In reviewing applications for state
monies, the SWRCB shall give added consideration to reuse projects. As the
SWRCB administers the Water Rights Program, it may, after evaluation of a sup-
ply contract, approve or disapprove it subject to conditions requiring reuse.
The State Board could also adopt guidelines for regulating water reclamation
in order to assist Regional Boards in the adoption and enforcement of reuse
requirements. A combination of research, demonstration and monitoring pro-
jects shall be initiated to provide information necessary to develop reclama-
tion criteria and guidelines, evaluate concerns regarding health and environ-
mental impact, and to assess the statewide marketability of reclaimed water.
Public involvement and reuse information is to be stressed with close coordi-
nation by the state agencies.
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 111
Copies of the formal Policy and Action Plan may be obtained from:
Office of Public Affairs
Calif. State Water Resources Control Board
P.O. Box 100
Sacramento, California 95801
****
Located on the arid south rim, the Grand Canyon Resort Village has always had
a critical water supply. Potable water (0.3 mgd) is lifted 3200 feet over a
distance of 12 miles from springs at the Canyon's bottom as no natural source
exists at the 7000 foot rim.
In 1926, a rather innovative approach by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Rail-
way led to the construction of a dual distribution system which served reclaimed
wastewater to the community. Dual media filtration and heavy chlorine doses
following secondary treatment now result in a product water as follows:
BOD 10 mg/1
SS 10 mg/1
TDS 616 mg/1
Chlorides 200 mg/1
Coliforms-MPN 0
pH 6.9-7.2
Effluent is stored in a 300,000 gallon and 100,000 gallon tank for use. An
average of 30,000 gpd of wastewater is used which represents only 7% of the
total water demand. The remaining secondary effluent goes to evaporation
ponds or is sold to farmers for cattle watering.
The largest single use of the effluent is for flushing public toilets in the
older lodges, motels, dorms and cafeterias within the village. This is fol-
lowed by landscape irrigation, watering of the high school football field,
vehicle washing and occasional construction work. Warning signs are posted
wherever reclaimed water is available and high chlorine residuals are main-
tained to discourage human consumption.
The major problem with the dual system has been the deterioration of the now
50-year old distribution piping. If funds become available, the National Park
Service is planning to expand its tertiary system and replace the dual piping
to serve even a greater area. Last year Grand Canyon experienced a record 3
million visitor-days with a full-time population increase of 6% per year.
Economics has become an important factor with potable water costing $2.45 per
1000 gallons. Charges for the reclaimed water are $1.00 per 1000 gallons
when piped to a point of use where potable water is also available, and $1.75
per 1000 gallons in all other areas. Treatment cost of the wastewater is
about $2.77 per 1000 gallons with reclaimed water sales reducing that figure
by only 5%.
The National Park Service is aware that its sanitary facilities and designs are
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 112
always for the most extreme conditions. That is, for the hottest desert, cold-
est climate, highest point, or inaccessible points on the globe. Thus, conserv-
ative approaches have been abandoned to individual systems with unusual
characteristics. Water reuse is a necessity at the Grand Canyon and innovative
approaches are expected. Figure 20 indicates the simple treatment sequence.
On the north rim of the Grand Canyon, which is only open in the warmer months,
a new treatment plant and dual system have been completed to serve growing
water demands. The plant employs secondary treatment, chemical clarification
in tube settlers and centrifugation to produce an effluent for use in public
restrooms, irrigation and fire hydrants.
FIGURE 20
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND RECLAMATION SYSTEM
GRAND CANYON VILLAGE, ARIZONA
Influent
Bar Screen mrm— Solids to Landfill
Comminutor
Parshall Flume
Activated
Sludge
Aeration
(Mechanical)
Clarifier
Lift Station
(Automatic
Flow
Recorder
Return Sludge
SI
udge
^ Effl uent
Lagoons
to
Waste Sludge
Aerobic
SIudge
Digestion
Drying
Beds
Supernatant
Leachate
Dried Sludge
to Landfill
Clarifier
Coal
Filters
.Chlorine
Reclaimed Water
— r>diaimcu nauer
Storage (300,000 gal.)
Pumps
" 100.000 gal
Storage
Reclaimed Water Distribution
****
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 113
28. Scheduled for completion in 1978, the Central Contra Costa Sanitary District's
new AWT plant near Concord, California (see Figure 21) will be the largest
water reclamation plant of its kind in the far West, recycling 30 mgd of
domestic sewage as cooling and process water for major industries in the San
Francisco Bay area. The $47 million plant was designed by Brown and Caldwell
Engineers, following two years of extensive research using a full scale test
FIGURE 21
CENTRAL CONTRA COSTA SANITARY DISTRICT'S WATER RECLAMATION PLANT
facility at the site. As shown in Figure 22, the new plant was to feature lime
clarification, biological nitrification, denitrification, filtration and chlori-
nation. The denitrification requirement was lifted so methanol addition will
not be used.
Lime is added to the primary system for phosphorus removal. Dual media filters
will provide a polished product to the water district at $4.00 per acre-foot.
The CCCSD Water District is currently building a 15 mgd strong-acid-sodium-
exchange (SANEX) plant to soften some of the effluent prior to use. Calcium
and magnesium will be removed because of the scaling problem. In the spring of
1978, 15 mgd of unsoftened AWT effluent will be served to the following industries:
Lion Oil Company Stauffer Chemical Pacific Gas & Electric
Shell Oil Monsanto Chemical (2 plants)
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 114
FIGURE 22
CCCSD AWT FLOW SCHEME
RAW SEWAGE
CHLORINE —m
RAW SEWAGE
F«Clj—^
RECLAIMED
RECYCLE
SOL IDS
ASH TO
DISPOSAL
STEAM
RETURN
SLUDGE
WASTE SLUOGE
TO RAW SEWAGE
METHANOL
NITROGEN
GAS 1
Ml X ING
WASTE SLUDGE
TO RAW SEWAGE
EFFLUENT TO
S U I SUN BAY
CHLORINE
TURBINE
BLOWERS
FINAL
SEDIMENTATION TANK
dual meoia
F ILTRAT ION
FLOCC UL AT ION-
PRIMARY EFFLUENT
PUMPING
0 X IOAT ION -
NITRIFICATION TANK
AERATED
STABILIZ AT ION TANK
FINAL EFFLUENT
PUMPING
SECONDARY
SEOIMENTATION
TANK
RECLAIMED WATER
TO INDUSTRY
Eventual expansion of the ion exchange plant to 30 mgd is envisaged with full
use of the contracted effluent.
Two large BSP furnaces will incinerate organic sludges and recalcine lime for
recycling. Heat recovery as steam is used for the complete heating and cool-
ing requirements of the plant and, in addition, to drive the aeration tank
blowers. There are plans and space for four new pyrolysis incinerators for
future energy self-sufficiency.
Counter-current vertical bowl centrifuges will classify and dewater the chemical
sludges.
Important to the plant operation is the computer control technology employed.
Operators have access to an interactive color graphic light pen control system
which displays flow schematics on a CRT unit shown in Figure 23. Directing
the light pen to specific points on the diagram results in a blow-up and detail
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 115
of the desired section. Primary and secondary computer control handles plant
control and data acquisition, process malfunctions and provides a list of
possible causes and recommended action. Direct-digital-control provides for
fast retrieval of needed information and the optimization of unit processes
is available.
FIGURE 23
ELECTRONICALLY DISPLAYED SCHEMATICS
~ ~~~
In order to minimize the launch weight requirements for water, future long-term
space flights will reuse water reclaimed from various onboard sources including
urine, feces, wash water and/or humidity condensate. NASA's Johnson Space Center
in Houston, Texas has the responsibility of developing that recycling hardware
and accompanying health effects research.
A Space Station Prototype Environmental Thermal Control and Life Support System
(SSP) research program was conducted by NASA from 1970 to 1974 to determine
process selection for recycling of water on manned space flights. The program
imposed upon the evaluated process techniques strict requirements of materials
selection, component commonality, maintainability, fail-safe operational modes,
reliability and modular design. Subsystems were also required to interface with
an onboard data management system.
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 116
The processes selected were of key importance because of the major regenerative
systems needed on extended space missions. Water recycling offered the largest
potential weight savings. All previous flights have used either stored or in-
flight water produced from fuel cells.
Vapor compression distillation (VCD) was selected for the task of water recovery
from crew urine, urinal flush water, atmospheric revitalization subsystem con-
densate and wash water concentrate. The projected flight version treatment unit
for a 3-man crew weighs 150 pounds, consumes 10.5 cubic feet of space and uses
130 watts of power.
A small waste tank can receive up to 40 pounds of wastewater before the system
is automatically activated. Metering pumps feed the liquid at a rate of 16 pounds
per hour into the still for boiling. Condensation takes place on a wall common
with the evaporation for greater heat efficiencies. Remaining evaporator waste
is removed to the recycle tank.
Condensed water leaves the still, passes through the conductivity sensor, the
combined bacteria and activated carbon filter, the silver chloride column and
enters a potable water storage tank. If conductivity of the product water
exceeds 50 ymhos/cm, it is recycled for reprocessing.
Post-treatment is actually accomplished through a series of three beds; a 0.5
micron pore size bacteria filter protected from backgrowth with AgCl a double
pass carbon column and a packed bed of AgCl to provide a sterilization dose of
1.0 to 1.4 ppm Ag+. Replacement intervals for the multi-bed system is 30 days
or more.
A series of tests were run on an actual pilot system to reproduce the spacecraft
waste fluid production profile over a 10-day period. The treated water pro-
duction rate from urine and flush water showed a decreasing rate with increasing
solids concentration. The distillation unit was operated at 59.7% solids con-
centration which corresponded to a 98% water recovery.
NASA has also contracted with Spectrix Corporation to perform the following tasks:
1. Develop a program leading to the formulation of Reuse Water Quality Standards
for aerospace applications that will qualify the water for human consumption,
with particular emphasis on trace organics and potential toxicological
significance.
2. Continue to characterize, identify and quantify potentially toxic and adverse
taste producing organics in the reclaimed water.
The water produced by the treatment system is typically analyzed to determine its
acceptability as compared to existing water specifications. Those specifications,
however, were developed for finished waters whose sources are relatively free of
organics. As a result, the existing terrestrial standards do not sufficiently
consider organics. In particular, a gross total such as T0C or COD is stated
rather than specific compounds which leaves a deficiency for space application.
Spectrix is proposing that a different approach be used in the formulation of
reuse water standards since the program schedule will not permit either the
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 117
time or the cost of the development of years of real use experience.
Several background facts are evident in the overall picture. Water supplies
for long duration spaceflights need to be as wholesome and acceptable as those
provided municipalities conforming to existing standards which are not appli-
cable to NASA.
Interim aerospace standards were proposed in 1964. Prior to that, the only
standards available were those developed by the USPHS in 1946 and 1962. In
1967 an Ad Hoc Committee of the Space Science Board of the National Academy
of Sciences recommended a set of water standards for space applications.
All of the previous standards are insufficient because they were not the product
of a comprehensive program based on the most thorough and up-to-date knowledge
available.
The quality of the raw feedstock for space flight water reclamation systems is
obviously different from municipal supplies. The water will be recycled
through the human body many times providing opportunity for concentration of
trace materials.
On the other hand, a number of EPA or USPHS limits have been based on considera-
tions of potential lifetime accumulated doses or have had reference to complete
populations including infants, aged or infirm persons with minimal resistance.
Presumably, space travelers will be healthy, robust adults and the period of
ingestion will not exceed a few years. The relaxation of a number of existing
requirements for chemical quality can therefore be considered without signi-
ficant deterioration of wholesomeness.
Another important distinction is that municipal standards are operating standards
to be employed on water as it is being distributed. In these circumstances, it
is possible to allow occasional failure and still meet requirements fully, pro-
vided the failure is not of great magnitude and prolonged in time. Possible
adjustments in space flight will be limited, and the same source of water must
be used whether it meets standards or not.
Performance testing of an actual system is required over extended periods to note
any deteriorations in quality or to achieve a steady-state operation.
The severe stresses of a long space voyage in closely confined quarters should
not be increased by any objectionable appearance, odor or flavor in the water
supply. Lack of adequate palatability will tend to discourage normal intakes
of water and subsequently decrease health and vigor.
****
-------
HIGHLIGHTS
Page 118
INDEX TO WATER REUSE HIGHLIGHTS
INTRODUCTION
Background and Purposes of Summary 1 1
AWT RESEARCH
Lake Tahoe reliability-statistical study 1 2
R.O. wastewater treatment at ski resort 3 3
New powdered activated carbon developed 4 4
NASA research on sludge-coal pyrolysis for carbon 4 5
Wastewater ultrafiltration research in Israel 5 6
Laser disinfection of effluents 6 7
UV-Ozone research on organics destruction 6 8
Photodynamic inactivation of infectious agents 8 9
National Sanitation Foundation to test home treatment units 9 10
Aqueonics develops community recycling system 9 11
Pure Cycle Corp.'s closed-loop home AWT process 10 12
Community water reuse from Modular Conceptual Systems 10 13
Waste heat improves AWT-reuse treatment 12 14
Optimizing carbon plus ozone for organics removal 13 15
Water hyacinths - valuable tertiary process 14 16
Texas year-round hyacinth treatment study 15 17
Sonocatalytic oxidation in wastewater 16 18
L.A. AWT alternatives for disinfection-turbidity 17 19
Univ. of Illinois potable reuse AWT system evaluation 19 20
EPA Blue Plains AWT process results 20 21
CONFERENCE CALENDAR
List of reuse-related meetings and sponsoring organizations 24 1
HEALTH EFFECTS RESEARCH
In-vitro toxicity tests for water potability 29 1
U.S. Army proposes rapid toxicological screening methods' 29 2
Battelle Labs develops 5-phase carcinogenic screening test 30 3
Health effects research problems noted _ 31 4
Ames toxicity test advantages-disadvantages discussion 32 5
Health problems associated with water reuse 34 6
WHO establishes international reuse health effects program 37 7
EPA-HERL & MERL research highlights 37 8
Israeli research on effluent spray irrigation health problems 43 9
Health effects and reuse research in the Netherlands 44 10
Reclaimed water-surface supply health comparison in So.Africa 44 11
Netherland's theoretical model for reuse and health analysis 51 12
Physiological effects of trace elements in water 56 13
LEGISLATIVE AND FUNDING ACTIVITIES
1977 Reuse research funding legislation 57 1
MODELING FOR REUSE
Sources of reuse modeling information
58
1
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HIGHLIGHTS
Page 119
SUBJECT PAGE PARAGRAPH
Treatment sequence and cost model developed 59 2
South African linear reuse-supply model 59 3
Decision criteria and modeling factors 61 4
POSITION STATEMENTS
AWWA proposed reuse policy statement 61 1
NWSIA reuse resolution 63 2
EPA land treatment-reuse policy 64 3
PUBLISHED LITERATURE
Proceedings, books and NTIS technical reports available 66 1
REGULATIONS
California's groundwater recharge regulations for effluent
spreading 73 1
WATER REUSE PLANS AND DEMONSTRATIONS
Recreational reuse at Lancaster, California 76 1
Agricultural reuse in Hawaii 78 2
Agricultural reuse in Phoenix, Arizona 80 3
Water reuse in Victoria, Australia 81 4
Closed loop recycling in industrial complex 84 5
NASA Tech House uses water reclamation 85 6
Lubbock, Texas plans for recreational reuse 86 7
Japan's Water Reuse Promotion Center 87 8
Reclamation projects in India 88 9
Singapore begins reuse demonstration 88 10
Wastewater irrigation in Goleta County, California 90 11
New Texas community incorporates reuse 93 12
Aurora, Colorado to include reuse in water supply planning 94 13
Reuse alternative evaluation in Washington, D.C. 94 14
Reuse possible in northeastern United States 95 15
Germany's recharge program in Berlin 97 16
Planned recharge in Capetown, South Africa 97 17
Dual distribution and reuse in Marin County, California 98 18
Aquifer recharge near Melbourne, Asutralia 102 19
U.S. Navy explores reuse at water-short bases 103 20
HUD-MIUS system to contain recycling 103 21
Canada develops CANWEL-reuse concept 105 22
Australia creates reuse coordinating body 108 23
NATO study to include reuse option 108 24
California State Water Resources Control Board's reuse
project funding 109 25
California's Reuse Policy and Action Plan 110 26
Grand Canyon's reuse system since 1926 111 27
Industrial reuse complex at Concord, California 113 28
NASA space flight water reuse technology 115 29
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