United States	Office of	April 1978
Enviromental Protection	Water Program Operations
Agency	Washington DC 20460
•&ERA Symposium on
Recycling
Water Supply Systems
and Reuse of Treated Water
at Industrial Plants
U.S.A.—U.S.S.R.
Working Group
on the Prevention of
Water Pollution
from Municipal and
Industrial Sources
Moscow—U.S.S.R.
September 12-13,
1977

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USA-USSR
WORKING
GROUP on the
Prevention of
Water Pollution
from
Municipal and
Industrial
Sources
Symposium on
Recycling Water
Supply Systems
and Reuse of
Treated Water
at Industrial
Plants
United States
Environmental
Protection
Agency
Moscow-USSR
September 12th
and 13th, 1977

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Preface
The fifth cooperative USA/
USSR symposium on the
Recycling Water Supply
Systems and Reuse of Treated
Water at Industrial Plants
was held in the Soviet Union at
the Moscow headquarters of
Gosstroy on September 12th
and 13th, 1977. This symposium
was conducted in accord with
the fifth session of the Joint
USA/USSR Commission held
in Moscow, USSR from
November 15 through 19,
1976.
This symposium was
sponsored under the auspices
of the Working Group on the
Prevention of Water Pollution
from Municipal and Industrial
Sources. The co-chairmen of
the Working Group are
H.P. Cahill, Jr. of the United
States Environmental
Protection Agency and S.V.
Yakovlev of the Department
of Vodgeo in the Soviet
The United States delegation
was led by Harold P. Cahill,
Union.
Jr., Director Municipal
Construction Division, U.S.
Environmental Protection
Agency.
The fourteen papers that
were presented at the symposium
(seven US and seven USSR)
are reprinted in English in
this volume in accord with
the protocol signed by the
delegation leaders on
September 23, 1977.	Q

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New
Developments
for the Reuse
and Recycling
of Wastewater in
the U.S.A.
Address by Mr. Harold P.
Cahill, Jr.
Municipal Construction
Division
U S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
It is a great pleasure to join
you here. I look forward to
participating in these meetings
with our distinguished Soviet
colleagues, and I regard my
experience working with
this group as one of the most
highly rewarding of my
professional career.
The symposium topic is
very timely and of considerable
interest in the United States
at present. I expect the
contributions to the treatment
field to be especially significant
from our joint efforts. I can
promise that the practices in
the Soviet Union that promote
the recycling and reuse of
wastewater, as they are
presented here, will be very
closely attended by myself and
my colleagues.
The municipal wastewater
treatment control program has
had, as the one of its goals,
the development of systems
and practices that provide for
the reclamation and recycling
of water. That purpose was
written into our basic law,
the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act as amended in
1972.
A good example of the
kind of systems that policy
would encourage is the land
treatment project in Muskegon
County. Michigan, which was
officially dedicated in July,
1976. Some of you have
visited that project, and I
commend your interest.
Our purpose today is to
examine how the potential
benefits from such projects can
be expanded to meet the
varying needs and conditions of
our peoples.
A number of developments
in the United States have
recently been converging to
focus our efforts on greater
encouragement of what we term
"alternative treatment systems"
within our program. That is
a very broad term which
encompasses a number of
systems—employing new and
old technology—which meet
the requirements within our
program resource and
energy conservation, and
cost saving.
As you may know, our
program is reaching the end
of its initial $18 billion in
funds, and obligation are
expected to almost consume
the remainder of those funds.
Further funding for the
program is being considered
by our Congress, and bills
have been prepared in both
the Senate and the House of
Representatives to provide the
needed monies We believe that
this amount, along with
25 percent more in matching
state and local funds, will
fulfill our estimated priority
needs for basic municipal
wastewater treatment facilities.
Extended funding was
recommended earlier this year
by President Carter, who
advocated long term support
for the program, totaling $45
billion to be available for 10
years at $4.5 billion per year.
The President's message
reaffirmed that continued
commitment of heavy public
funding to the program must be
based on meeting the
environmental objectives of
cleaning up and maintaining
the quality of our waters. The
President was concerned that
the program monies be spent
on building those projects
which take care of the highest
priority needs, represent the
most cost effective solution to
the treatment problem, and
will not lead to secondary
impact resulting in even
greater environmental
problems in the water and the
land.
This strong Presidential
support is a development or
major importance to our
program, along with the
President's condition that our
funding priorities be
environmentally formulated
under the law and observed.
The two bills I mentioned,
in the Senate and House of
Representatives, contain
funding provisions of $17
billion for 3 years in the House
version and about $23 billion
for 5 years in the Senate
version. It is impossible to
predict what the outcome
of the joint conference
deliberations of the amendments
would produce, but I believe
it is safe to say that further
funding for the program will
result since we have only
traveled one-third of the
distance toward meeting our
goal of providing secondary
treatment to our municipalities.
There are other program-
impacting provisions in the
two bills that would encourage
and reaffirm the goals of
resource conservation and
recycling in the Senate bill,
for instance:
—State project priority lists,
which list projects in order
of importance for funding,
would include consideration of
recycling, reclamation, and
alternatives to conventional
systems in their development
... all goals of the basic
Act.
—Also, the requirement for
pretreatment to remove
industrial pollutants impairing
the usefulness of municipal
sludge or interfering with
treatment processes, would be
strengthened: and, pretreatment
requirements would be
integrated into federal-state
permits.
There are other such
provisions included in the
Senate bill, as well. But I
mention these because of their
importance. It is likely that
some of these will pass through
the joint conference committee
process and be approved by
the Congress and the
President for incorporation
into our law.
As for the prospects for
projects for reuse and
2

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recycling, there are various
ther factors beating upon the
rogram.
First, we are reaching a
point where we are beginning
to fulfill many of the needs
of our larger communities. The
smaller communities will be
receiving more attention and
funds, but many cannot
sustain expensive capital and
operating and maintenance
costs, nor provide the trained
personnel necessary for
sophisticated advanced systems.
However, many could un-
doubtedly provide suitable
vacant land nearby for siting
land treatment systems. We
are currently funding land
application in about 13.5% of
our projects at the design and
construction stage, but I
believe we are just scratching
the surface of the potential
demand for alternative
solutions.
Second, the increased
demands for water are becoming
increasingly apparent to our
policy makers.
Third, the high incidence of
cancer and its increasing link
to water pollution and the
toxic pollutants is generating
support from the public for
our mandated programs to
pretreat industrial wastes,
enforce the goals of the Act,
and issue standards for toxic
pollutants.
Fourth, the burden of
costs to accomplish such pro-
gram objectives as universal
secondary treatment in our
communities is beginning to
be appreciated. While our
level of obligations to projects
is about $6 5 billion this
fiscal year, our federal
expenditures are approaching
$4 billion, (6 billion plus
total) and we expect them to
exceed $5 billion (i.e.
percentage plus) next year.
This is a considerable sum
of money, I am sure you will
agree In fact, I recently
estimated what $1 billion
would amount to if it were laid
out, end to end, and I concluded
would extend to the moon
.tnd back.
As a nation, we are using
about 400 billion gallons of
water each day, and that
figure is expected to double
by the end of the century.
Drinking water demand is
projected to increase from 30
billion gallons to SO billion
gallons all of which must be
clean, safe and potable.
The impact of toxic pollutants
on public awareness and
general support of environ-
mental initiatives, coupled with
the passage of the legal
deadline for installation of
secondary treatment in
municipalities and best
practicable treatment in
industries by July 1, 1977 has
enabled us (EPA) to sue
several major cities—Los
Angeles, Detroit, and Memphis,
for example—and various other
smaller communities as well as
offending industries. Actually
95% of our industries are in
compliance whereas two years
ago it was thought impossible.
We are just beginning this
effort, but the important
effect to consider from the
program view is the impetus
to construction these federal
enforcement actions will
provide. Our pretreatment
regulations will require
industries discharging to
city systems to treat any
wastes which might harm
municipal plants or pass
through untreated. We expect
the regulations to reach the
stage of promulgation for
implementation within the
next few months, and this
will further encourage
construction and ultimately help
transform our municipal
wastewater flow and sewage
sludge into more acceptable
material for recycling and reuse.
All of these factors are
influencing our policymakers
and will increasingly be
influencing the direction of
our program.
As for the development of
methods to make wastewater
more acceptable to our citizens
and to increase its use,
there are many land treatment
projects of an interesting
nature that are underway in
the United States, some of
which you have visited. We
are currently funding 337 land
application or land treatment
projects scattered among all
but ten of our States, but
most are in the water short
States which are growing
rapidly and supporting major
agricultural activities.
California has 69 of these
projects: Florida 29.
I mentioned the Muskegon
project. Those of you who were
there know that it is a slow
infiltration type of system,
employing underdrains to test
and collect the effluent,
coupled with the cultivation
of corn. Over a quarter million
bushels of corn have been
grown on formerly poor
agricultural land, and sold to
pay over one-third of the
annual operating cost of the
project.
One of the most important
facts about the Muskegon
project is that in treating over
27 million gallons of
wastewater each day, it is
able to effectively handle the
toxic organic pollutants from
paper mills and related
industries.
Further, only 40 persons are
required to manage the
entire system, including the
collection and pumping of
sewage, operation of a
laboratory, farm administration,
maintenance, irrigation,
drainage, and all the other
requirements to operate a
4,000 hectare farm. The
total net cost for treating the
wastewater in 1977 was 25
cents per 1,000 gallons,
about the cheapest wastewater
treatment system in the U.S.
Water is highly renovated by
98% removal of phosphates,
BOD and suspended solids are
reduced to 3 and 7 ppm,
respectively. Various other
land treatment systems are of
interest.
Rapid infiltration systems in
sandy, highly permeable
soils: There are 10-12 such
systems in the U.S. 1 would
refer to the project in
Tempe, Arizona, outside
Phoenix. The Flushing Plains
Project is being funded by
the agricultural research service
and EPA. There is particular
interest in the system in this
water short area because it
seems capable of providing
tertiary treatment at a
significantly lower price than
the conventional systems. It
also appears to be removing
the viruses and pathogens,
necessary to potable water.
An overland flow system is
being operated at Utica,
Mississippi, which the Corps
of Engineers is monitoring, the
advantage of such overland
flow systems is the ability to
remove nitrogen, and it can
be used on tight, clay soil
where other land treatment
systems are ineffective.
I realize all of these land
treatment systems are operating
in Europe; but, these were
generally instituted to obtain
water for farming. We are
trying these systems with the
primary goal of providing
highly-renovated water, year
round for human consumption.
We hope to obtain reusable
water, in short, potable water.
I understand you are
planning to hold an international
symposium on land treatment
of wastewater I further
understand one of the
protocols that was signed
with a U.S. mission from the
Corps of Engineers envisions
your installation of an overland
flow system in the Soviet
Union to study its utility in
colder climates. I will be
examining the results you
obtain from both of these
initiatives, with a view to
possible applications in our
program.
In regard to the problems
of sludge disposal and
management, I know that many
of you have visited the
sludge composting project in
Beltsville, Maryland, outside
of Washington, D.C, jointly
operated by the State of
Maryland, the Department
of Agriculture, EPA, and the
Government of the District
of Columbia. The internal
heat generated within these
composting piles appears to
be sufficient to kill the
pathogens; and further, the
end product is an acceptable
and an esthetic humus that
can be easily handled and
spread on the land with
conventional equipment. This
pilot operation handles up to
200 tons of filter cake sludge
per day without the capital
investment for buildings,
using only portable equipment.
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It has been so successful that
major cities around the U.S.
are adopting the technique,
particularly since it promises
to stabilize raw sludge without
problems of odor. Such a
system when used to
handle about 600 filter cake
tons of sludge per day, will
require less than IS hectares
of land.
As for the more building
and equipment—intensive
advanced wastewater treatment
projects, we currently have
421 underway which, very
generally, use various systems
for nitrification and tertiary
treatment, independent
physical-chemical treatment
and so on.
I began with the statement
that we are emphasizing
systems that utilize reuse and
recycling of wastewater as
the cost effective solution
But as our great American
poet of the 19th century,
James Russell Lowell, once
wrote "New Occasions Teach
New Ideas
I believe we have reached
a new plateau in our program,
and will now be implementing
new treatment technologies.
The future should provide
many opportunities for sharing
the experiences I commend the
strong efforts of my Soviet
colleaques.	~
Fundamentals
of Creating
Closed-Loop
Water Supply
Systems at
Industrial
Enterprises
By Alferova L.A., Nechaev
A.P., Markov P.P. All-
Union Scientific Research
Institute "VODGEO"
In the Soviet Union year by
year problems of the natural
waters protection from
pollution are getting the utmost
significance. In the 10th
Five Year Plan II milliards
rubles will be spent on the
solution of the environmental
protection problem including
8 milliards rubles to be
spent on the water basins
protection from the waste-
waters pollution. In particular,
construction of treatment
facilities with the total
capacity of 48.2 millions
cubic meters per day of
wastewater and putting into
operation recirculating water
supply systems with the
capacity of 150,000,000 m 1 per
day of recirculating water
are now on the planning
stage Average annual incre-
ment of the quantity of
water in the recirculating
systems will rise by a factor of
3 as compared to 1975
Calculating on 1980 the
introduction of recirculating
water supply systems will
result in the water savings
of about 200 cubic kilometers
per year. However at the
present-day state of the
treatment technology the
availability of treatment
facilities at each industrial
enterprise will not permit
the complete prevention of
water basins from pollution.
The most rational in the
solution of the problem of
water basins protection from
pollution is the creation of
closed-loop water supply
systems at industrial enter-
prises involving the effluent
reuse for technological and
recirculating water supply,
fresh water being taken from
water sources mainly for
potable water supply Creation
of such systems is not
possible only at the expense
of the wastewater treatment
methods development or at the
expense of the non-water
processes. It is necessary to
develop technological processes
permitting maximum use of
raw materials, the sharp
reduction of wastes, maximum
possible reduction of water
consumption. It is also very
important to develop both the
rational schemes of industrial
water supply involving reuse
of water in technological
processes and the methods
of local treatment of the
most polluted wastewaters with
the sum of creating recirculating
water supply systems within
shops In this case it is
possible to reduce materially
the quantity of wastewaters
delivered to the treatment
facilities located beyond the
technological site. These
treatment facilities receive
wastewaters containing bio-
degradeable compositions
which permits the reuse of the
treated effluent in the
systems of technological and
recirculating water supply.
The main principles of
creating the closed-loop water
supply systems at industrial
enterprises are the following
1.	Employment of non-water
or consuming little water tech-
nological processess ensuring
more complete use of raw
materials Air coolers, methods
of dry gas scrubbing and non-
water preparation of raw
materials are being introduced
on a large scale
Introduction of air coolers
permits not only to save large
quantities of water but to
reduce the wastewater volume
At present only in petrochemical
and oil-refining indusries there
were installed more than 2500
apparatus of air cooling It is
necessary to exclude the use of
water for gas scrubbing without
recovering and utilization of
valuable components Only in
the iron and steel industry the
employment of dry methods of
gas scrubbing allows to reduce
water consumption by 15-20%
2.	The right choice and
location of miscellaneous
industrial processes at an
enterprise providing successive
water reuse.
3 Improvement of techno-
logical processes which allows
to reduce the quantity and
polluting strength of waste-
waters For example, at
nitrogen producing enterprise
a wide-scale introduction o
consolidated technological
involving the use and utilization
of reaction heat permitted to
reduce the specific water
consumption in ammonia pro-
duction by 67-70%, in nitric
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—id production by 90-95%
1 in ammonium nitrate
r.oduction by 67-70%
respectively Introduction of the
one-stage method of divinyl
production at petrochemical
enterprises reduces the amount
of wastewaters by a factor of
100 In monocorundum
production the amount of
pollutants in wastewaters may be
sharply reduced provided that
generated hydrogen sulfide is
recovered from gas-vapour
mixtures with the help of
carbonic sorbents which can
be used in the melting charge.
Regeneration of wasted acid
and alkaline solutions is a very
important problem It will
result in the sharp reduction
of salts contained in waste-
waters which results from the
process of their neutralization.
4 Rational reuse of water in
all technological processes and
procedures and creation of
closed industrial water supply
systems The development of
physico-chemical methods of
wastewater treatment providing
reuse of effluents in the same
operation and rational use of
water in the most water-
consuming technological
processes such as washing of
primary, semi-processed and
end-products are of a special
importance
In this case the tertiary
wastewater treatment is not
needed and the removal from
wastewaters of the components
producing a negative effect on
the quality of the product to
be washed seems to be quite
sufficient
For example, an efficient
scheme of water use in the
synthetic fatty acids production
developed by VNII VODGEO
together with the Scientific
Research Institute of Sur-
factants provides the acid
concentration of wastewaters
of 180-200 g/1 Treatment of
such wastewaters by the
azeotropic rectification method
permits on the one hand to
recover and obtain commodity
'-molecular fatty acids such
formic, acetic, propyonic
and butyric and on the other
hand to reuse the effluent in
the technological process Thus
a closed-look system of tech-
nological water supply was
created on the basis of acid
wastewaters. It increases the
output of commodity acids by
12% and reduces the quantity
of pollution evaluated by the
COD value and entering the
biological treatment facilities at
a standard synthetic fatty acids
producing plant from 27 to 2
tons per day.
Large amounts of waste-
waters are formed at the vacuum
vaporizers and vacuum
distilling apparatuses where the
volatile compositions are
washed out from gases by
water in barometric condensers.
No doubt that it is more
efficient to recover volatile
compositions immediately from
gas-vapor mixtures with the help
of special adsorbents For
example, the principle scheme
of the system of primary
petroleum refinement installa-
tions allows sharp reduction of
hydrogen sulfide discharge
into wastewaters and the
atmosphere. It also permits the
increase of diesel fuel recovery
from the barometric waste-
waters
5. The next principle is the
classification of wastewaters
according to the character and
the total quantity of pollution
as well as the development of
the rational scheme of their
treatment for reuse The devel-
opment of methods of waste-
waters treatment from separate
classes of organics with the
account of their physical-
chemical properties as well as
the properties of their main
concominant compositions is
of a special importance.
For example, in accordance
with the development of the
authors of classification of
wastewaters containing
hydrogen sulfide, sulfur alcohols
and their salts, organic sulfides
and disulfides and produced in
the process of sulfate pulp,
artificial fibres, monocorundum
production at the sufite
petroleum refining, all sulfur
compounds are divided into
two groups and all wastewaters
are divided into three categories.
Separate methods of treatment
were developed for each
category of wastewaters taking
into account the character of
concominant pollutants
6. Providing such quality of
wastewaters entering the
treatment facilities beyond the
technological site which
provides their treatment at
these installations. Removal of
biologically nondegradeable and
toxic compounds from local
flows of wastewaters prior to
their splicing into the common
flow, entering the treatment
facilities located outside the
technological site is the
obligatory condition for
creating closed-loop industrial
water supply systems.
Optimization of water use
provides a sharp reduction of
the wastewater quantity and
increase in their pollution So
physico-chemical methods of
wastewater treatment have been
widely used lately
However, it will be wrong to
reject the biological wastewater
treatment completely. Each
method must be used in those
cases, when any other method
is less efficient from the
technological and economic
standpoint. Profound investi-
gation of the character and
physical-chemical properties of
wastewaters should preceed the
use of one or another method.
Our experience has shown that
only a certain combination of
methods may be optimum, so
specialists must be good at
finding a rational method and
schemes of wastewater treat-
ment for each case
7 The quality of bio-
chemically treated effluents
should meet both sanitary and
toxicological requirements for
make-up water in recycling
systems of industrial cooling
Either one of the methods or
their combination may be used
in order to achieve this purpose.
Epidemiological safety of
wastewaters is usually achieved
by chlorination. Residual
chlorine content equal to
1-1.5 mg/1 after the contact
time of 30 min. provides
conditions necessary for
desinfection of domestic-fecal
sewage. Coliindex must not
exceed the value of 1000.
Pollution of the atmosphere
during the make-up of cooling
recycling systems by treated
effluents must be eliminated.
Water drops splashing out of
cooling towers must be
minimum and hydro-aerosoles
formed must not be toxic
At present the researches
carried on in the field of the
sanitary and toxicological
evaluation of treated domesUc
sewage, recycling cooling
waters and hydro-aerosoles
around cooling towers are being
completed. As far as industrial
wastewaters are concerned their
toxicological investigations must
be carried out for each case
prior to giving the permission
for their use as make-up water
m recycling industrial cooling
systems after appropriate
treatment
The latter problem is
extremely difficult because of
the prolonged toxicological tests
carried out on animals
Development of the so called
mutatest which can permit to
evaluate the toxicity of treated
effluents within the period of
2-3 days is one of the main
tasks confronting sanitary
inspectors
At the Institute VODGEO
conditions were investigated
under which wastewaters of the
City of Moscow can be used
in through-out and recycling
systems of cooling water supply.
They contain 60% of domestic
sewages and 40% of industrial
wastewaters mainly discharged
from machine-building plants.
The investigations have shown
that after treatment by the
following scheme, mechanical
treatment—biological treatment
—tertiary treatment on grain-
bed filters—chlorination they
can be used in through-out
water supply systems Treated
effluents used in recirculating
systems of industrial cooling
water supply should be con-
ditioned a) when blowing-off
is envisaged they are treated
in order to protect systems
from biological foulings and
carbonaceous deposits; b)
effluents used in systems
without blowing-off undergo
additional treatment aimed at
corrosion protection Recycling
waters are partially clarified
from suspended solids. After
such treatment municipal
wastewaters are absolutely safe
from the sanitary standpoint and
can be reused in water supply
and cooling systems of industrial
enterprises Beginning from
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December 1975 treated sewages
of the City of Moscow are used
at a number of industrial
enterprises in through-out and
recirculating water supply
systems as well as in a number
of technological processes, for
example, at an automobile
plant in electroplating shops
(for washing and stripping, in
Hydro-wartex apparatus), in
paint shops (in hydraulic valves
of some chambers, phosphatic
covering baths), in test shops
(in Spriwax chambers, for
washing of automobiles and in
air-tests)
8 The next principle is the
employment of wastewater
desalination Classification of
wastewaters and development
of a rational scheme of de-
salination are very important
both for desalination and
treatment of wastewaters
Removal of individual salts,
return of treated wastewater
and recovered salts back into
the process, regeneration and
reuse of brines—all this serves
as an ideal solution of the
problem
Development of methods of
analysis and investigation of
chemical composition of
wastewaters at all stages of
treatment is the problem of
special significance Investi-
gation of biochemically treated
wastewater chemical composi-
tion is the most difficult
problem Information about
chemical composition of various
industrial effluents permits the
generalization of data and
forecast the quality of treated
effluents depending on their
initial characteristics and
chosen methods of treatment
Creation of closed systems
of industrial water supply
demands that scientific re-
searches should be directed to
the development of water
economy systems rather than to
the development of various
tieatment methods It involves
optimization of water use in
all technological processes and
operations, regeneration of
wasted solutions, recovery of
valuable components from
wastewaters, development of
the local effluents methods of
treatment, creation of local
closed systems of technological
water supply, solution of all
problems concerning final
treatment of wastewaters,
treatment of make-up waters
recycling in the systems of
industrial cooling, treatment of
recycling water, sludges
disinfection This will promote
development of industrial
water economy systems within
a very short period of time in
regard to known methods
of wastewater treatment
Problems which cannot be
solved now or problems which
solutions are not optimum can
be revealed In other words,
objects of further investigations
both in the field of general
technology improvement and
treatment technique improve-
ment
The following problems need
to be investigated, obtaining
highly efficient sorbents for
tertiary treatment of waste-
waters, survey of effective
enzymes for wastewater
oxidation by atmospheric
oxygen being permitted to carry
on the process at temperatures
below 250°C; survey of
effective enzymes for low-
temperature incineration of
wastewater sludges; creation of
highly effective organic
coagulating and flocculating
agents, development of new
mutatcst for toxicological
evaluation of treated effluents
and aerosols.
Schemes of wastewater
treatment involving treatment
of both local and combined
flows of wastewaters must be
optimum from the engineering
and economic standpoint In this
connection the development of
mathematical models simplify-
ing scientific researches and
reducing the time necessary for
determination of optimum^
schemes and operation
parameters of separate units of
the scheme acquires especial
significance.
In some instances creation of
closed water supply systems
at industrial complexes or in
industnal areas rather than at
individual enterprises will
prove to be the most rational.
In this case treatment of
wastewaters and final treatment
of low contaminated effluents
with the employment of
hydrobotanical method may
appear to be very effective in
the South and in the middle
zone of the USSR This
method permits the removal of
both organic and mineral
compounds from wastewaters.
Institute VODGEO carried out
investigations in the field of
treatment of low-contaminated
wastewater flow discharged
from the industrial complex
formed by eleven industrial
enterprises including a tire
plant, an artificial fibres plant
and a plant for organic
synthesis of synthetic rubber.
In the first step of treatment,
wastewaters come into contact
with hydrocultures of higher
aquatic plants in a channel, at
the second step the contact takes
place in a pond, COD of
wastewaters is reduced from
90-180 mg/1 to 54-86 mg/1,
BOD» is reduced from 25-30
mg/1 to 6.5-14 mg/1, complete
removal of zinc, copper,
methanol, and oil-refinery
products (about 50 mg/1 in the
influent) and almost complete
removal of aniline, toluene and
caprolactan is achieved.
Aquatic life of hydro-bio-
botanical treatment facilities
has a pronounced tendency to
increase in the number of
species from beginning of
the channel to the end of the
pond, inhabited by a great
number of hydrobionts and
Daphnia Magna in particular.
This indicates a successive
reduction in wastewater
toxicity up to the level
required for water in sanitary
reservoirs
Treated wastewaters quality
meets the quality of water used
in recirculating systems of
cooling water supply.
Thus solution of the problem
of creating closed-loop systems
of industrial water supply puts
forward a number of new
problems, introduction of these
systems depends on their
solution
"The Closed-
Loop Cycle fo
Industrial
Wastewater The
Future
Pollution
Solution*
By Dipl-Ing William J
Lacy, P.E.
6

-------
Introduction
When we view the world about
us it becomes evident that a
natural water cycle exists A
process engineering schematic
of this cycle, or process, is
shown in Figure 1 Very simply
it consists of the use of solar
energy to evaporate water
from the ocean, whereupon it
is condensed as rain by a space
cooler Hereafter it becomes
available for use to man via the
drainage avenues of our land
surfaces, lakes, rivers, etc.
During the period of returning
to the sea, the waterways
provide the circumstances for
coagulation-sedimentation, and
bio-stabilization of natural and
man induced pollutants in the
waters In summary, the basic
natural process is a three step
process—a perpetual machine,
a closed water management
cycle
The U S. Department of
Commerce has for years
conducted a Census of Water
Use in Manufacturing (1) This
is a major source of qualitative
water use statistics in the U S.
The last four census show the
extent, use of, and trends of
water use by U S. industries.
Figure 2 reviewing the
statistics of the most intensive
water-using industries (cumu-
lative water use equal to 90
percent of total industrial use,
exclusive of Electric Power
Utilities), the trends of usage
are shown in Table I It is
apparent from the Table that
the water reuse for all the U S
industries and also for the big
four major industrial users,
has been increasing and greater
improvement is possible
EVAPORATION
RAIN
MAN MADE
MAN INDUCED
POLLUTION
SOLAR
ENERGV
NATURAL
RIVERS
POLLUTION?
COAQ-	BIOSTABILIZE
SEDIMENTATION
/ASSIMILATIVE I
\ CAPACITY /
Figure 1
The Natural Water Cycle
* Presentation at The US/USSR
"Recycling Water Supply
Systems and Reuse of Treated
Water at Industrial Plants,
Symposium Moscow, USSR
September 12-16, 1977
** Principal Engineering Science
Adviser, Office Research &
Development, U S Environ-
mental Protection Agency,
Washington, D C 20460
3 9% TRANSPORTATION
3 1% RUBBER & PLASTICS
3 2% TEXTILES
3.9% FOOD
TOTAL 46.900 BILLION GALS
Figure 2
lndustri.il Water Use
2 4*. OTHER
1 2% STONE
B 0% CHEMICAL
*1.6% METALS
Z0.3% PETROLEUM
& COAL
IB 5% PULP ft PAPER
INDUSTRY

DROSS
WATER
PERCENT

AND

WATER1
INTAKE
OF GROSS
REUSE3
CENSUS VEAR
USE X 10" QALS/YR
X1012 GAIS/YR
CONSUMED
RATIO
ALL-
1973
46 9
ISO
1 9
3 1

1368
357
15 5
33
2 3

18S4
21 0
11 6

1 8
PRIMARY
1973
88
4 9
1 1
1 8
METALS
1368
78
50
4 0
1 6

1354
49
38
-
1 3
CHEMICAL
	
11 1
4 2
25
53

1988
94
4 5
3 2
2 1

1354
43
2 7
-
1 6
PULP b
1973
8 1
2 4
1 2
34
PAPER
1968
86
2 3
27
29

1954
42
1 8
-
24
PETRO
1973
82
1 3
1 4
63
REFINING
1968
73
1 4
30
51
ft COAL PROC
1954
42
1 2
-
34
Ju S DEPT OF COMMERCE CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES
INCLUDING RECIRCULATED
3reuse ratio=aaessi^i-
InTflpfc
Tabic 1
lndiisiri.il Wulci Use Trends
in the USA
WATER INTAKE USE
BY FUNCTION. %
INDUSTRY GROUP	COOLING	PROCESS
ALL (U.S. INDUSTRIES)	67	26
PRIMARY METALS	74	22
CHEMICAL	80	15
PULP AND PAPER	30	64
PETROLEUM REFINING	87	6
Table 3
Industrial Water Use
by Function
BOILER
FEED
7
4
5
6
7
7

-------
Also that industry is a
consumer of water to the extent
of about 3 3 percent of its gross
need The significance of this
is that there is no physical need
to have a discharge under
circumstances of complete
reuse of water.
Recycle-Reuse
Before proceeding further,
multiple use, reuse, and/or
recycle need(s) to be defined.
Multiple use of water a method
of reuse implies its use more
than once, but each time for
a different purpose; for example,
the countercurrent use of water
for successively dirtier appli-
cations, but never for the
same applications, until it is
no longer needed This in
contrast to a once-through use
of water (used only once in
any application )
Recycle (also a method of
reuse) implies using water over
and over again for the same
identical application from which
it came By this method, the
total water intake of a plant,
where reuse is practiced ex-
tensively, can be substantially
less than a similar plant using
water on a once-through basis.
Industrial Water Quality
Water use and needs in the
manufacturing industries can
be divided among three major
functions for cooling purposes,
for process use, and for boiler
feedwater used for steam
production (2) Table III show>
the-water intake by function foi
all 'mnd selected industrial
groups These are the makeup
requirements for each function
and do not reflect the extent of
current internal water reuse
which occurs within any one
function Obviously cooling
water needs are greatest,
followed by process demands
and boiler feed make-up This
is a fortunate situation since
the water quality requirements
for these functions are,
generally speaking, less critical
for cooling, than for process,
than for boiler feed
To illustrate the point on
quality, Table|4 is a summaryl
of water quality characteristics
of the various water functions
for the major industrial users
WATER QUALITY
COOUNQ WATER
(ONCE THRU)
PROCESS AND GENERAL INDUSTRIAL WATER
eor
FEEDV



IRON AND STEEL

PULP AND PAPER


CHARACTERISTICS
Ippmk
ii
Sitg
iii
/
i
CHEMICAL
AND ALUED
PRODUCTS
//
J'
PETRO
REFIN.
1150 PSIQI
(PRIOR TO
CHEM.CONDri
TEMPERATURES
lb)
(b)
100
100
(b)
-
-
-
(b)
ph (UNITS)
5-8.3
MJ
6-8
	
5.S-9

	
6-9
7-10






lot
(c)


S S.
5000
2500
100
0.1
10000
100
10
5000
10
D S
1000
35000
lb)
0.1
2500
600
200
3500
700
CHLORIDE
600
19000
lb)
0.1
600
	
	
1600
(b)
SULFATE
630
2700
—
_
650
	
	
900
(b)
SILICA
60
2S
—
—
lb)
100
20
85
30
IRON
(b)
(b)
—
-
10
10
0.1
15
1
HARDNESS
850
6250
lb)
01
1000
200
100
900
350
ALKALINITY
BOO
11B
lb)
0.5
600
150
78
600
350
C.O.D.
78
78
	
	
lb)
. _
_
1000
B
OIL
(d)
(d)
(b)
.02
	
	
	
_
_
COLOR (UNIT8)
—
—
—
_
BOO
100
B
2B
_
DO.
SOME
SOME
SOME
SOME
lb)
—
—
—
2.5
NOTES: (a) REF: WATER QUALITY CRITERIA EPA>R>73*0S»MARCH 1973.
(b) ACCEPTED AS RECEIVED.
(C) AS TURBIDITY.
Id) NO FLOATING OIL
Table 4
Industrial Water Quality
in Use (a)
11
JL
11
	1
EVAPORATIVE
1CONCINTRAT10I
ALKALINITY
ADJUSTMENT
SALINITY HARDNESS ALKALINITY
S0.1
I
I
I 4
I
X
CONVENTIONAL
TREATMENT
SOI
OROANie MATTER
«0.1 UNIT
SUSPENDED SOU03
SU	WASTE RESIDUES
¦ fMUMT
Figure 3
Reuse/Recycle Industrial
Water System
8

-------
as reported (3) It should be
vident from examining Table
^ that industry has use for
low quality water and could
use waters of various qualities.
Further, that if we exclude the
bacterial consideration that the
quality criteria parameters are
less stringent than those for
desirable potable water. These
are important points to note
when planning an industrial
water management system,
since they would allow the
reuse of water in a counter-
current manner for successively
dirtier applications In fact,
combining reuse with a water
recycle system (one that allows
the use of the water over again
tor the same identical applica-
tion from which it came) can
close an industrial water circuit
to the point of essentially '"zero
discharge " This latter concept
is shown schematically in
Figure 3 Here it is assumed all
intake is for process use, that
treated process effluent is reused
lor cooling water makeup,
and that cooling water blow-
down is regenerated for boiler
feed-cooling—or recycle for
process water makeup The
relative flows shown are in
proportion to the intake needs
of the various use functions
as previously shown in Table
3 for all U S. industries
If the ratio of gross water to
water intake is an index of
reuse, the once-through system
would have a reuse ratio of
. 1 00 The multiple use system
| would be 1 50, and the reuse-
recycle system would be 15.00.
In a total reuse system the
ratio would be infinite.
In practice, this can never be
achieved due to water con-
sumption (evaporation and drift
losses, leaks, etc ) and the final
fluid blowdown requirements
imposed by salinity buildup
and sludge removals Some
water intake will always be
necessary
Rather than discuss
economics with typical costs
based on amount of water
•reated or on the specific
rocesses employed it may be
. simpler to look at total cost.
Water treatment costs are
related to volume of water
treated, amounts of ss, alka-
linity, hardness, organic matter,
dissolved salts removed. The
controlling factor and their
approximate cost of removal
from a hypotheUcal waste
waters system are shown in
Table 2.
In poor water quality areas
the total water recycle method
may provide minimum cost
for pollution control as these
water supplies bring into a
plant several of the same
materials whose removal is
required for use or discharge.
The net effect is that more
suspended solids, organic
materials, and dissolved salts
would be handled on a once-
through basis than if only net
increases due to internal (closed
loop) plant functions were to
be treated This point should
be kept in mind when in-
dustrial wastes pollution control
plans arc being made
All this is fine in concept,
but the question is will it be
practical for industry to im-
plement, in a realistic manner,
closed water management
systems by 1985 or soon
thereafter The answer to this
is simply yes, but only if the
technology is properly devel-
oped. Technology as referred
to is meant to mean "a technical
method of achieving a
practical purposes" as
Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
defines it. In other words,
technology does not mean can it
be done—but rather can it be
done in a practical manner.
Research and Development
Needs
The R&D needs to achieve
realistic "zero discharge" of
water pollutants, for the diver-
sity of industrial water
problems are many. A detailed
listing of needs is not practical
to present at this time. However
if the approach is "aero dis-
charge" is related to intergraded
supply and wastewater
management then at least the
major areas for R&D can be
identified.
Figure 4 depicts a current
water management system of
a hypothetical self-sufficient
industrial plant. It also shows
various alternative possibilities
to reuse-recycle water, to
manage sludges (i.e. residues),
and the general areas where
R&D may provide for a better
way to reduce water pollution
external to an industrial plant.
A detailed study of the
Figure should reveal that the
previous system shown in
Figure 3 is "built into" this
more complex model as one
' alternative It will also indicate
the major industrial water use
and handling activities (i.e.
cooling, process operations,
water treatment, and steam
production) should be viewed
individually for opportunities
to improve pollution control
performance and'/or reduce
pollutants, as well as in an
intergraded fashion to conserve
energy and duplicative treat-
ment For example in process
operations, improved house-
keeping, revised operating
procedures, and process
changes in themselves may
produce significant gains in
reducing water management
costs while improving pollution
control. Since most industrial
water is for cooling purposes,
R&D in cooling techniques,
water quality limitations, corro-
sion control, and the effective-
ness of the cooling process itself
as a method of treating pol-
lutants (other than heat) should
be undertaken in great depth.
The pay-off of R&D has always
thereby allowed greater latitude
or choices for accomplishing
objectives. New and improved
water pollution control methods
are a likely fallout of R&D
investigations when directed to
the achievement of specific
goals.
The challenge of achieving
"zero discharge" from the
major water use is primarily
one best suited to the chemical
engineering profession. The
problems of the four large water
users are not sanitary in the
classical sense but rather
chemical, or more specifically
one of chemical separation of
of pollutants in water to a
desired level which will allow
reuse or discharge if needed.
Finally, one of optimizing and
intergrading water conditioning
and treatment steps to result in
a minimum of operations.
This system also includes
consideration for environmental
factors other than water pollu-
tion control. These factors,
also to be considered in the
future, concern use of waste
water for air and thermal
pollution control functions and
waste residue usage for heat
and power production and/or
water treatment (ash and
sludges). However, even an ideal
plant system will have a net
discharge of waste material In
the system discussed, this
includes excess ash from
thermal power production and
a wastewater blowdown of
high salinity, hardness, and
toxicity. These wastes may be
blended for some beneficial
purpose, to ease proper han-
dling, or for controlled assimila-
tion by the environment in
appropriate disposal sites. These
areas have to be given
consideration as man proceeds
to meet future environmental
demands
The industrial water manage-
ment concept of closed-cycle
operation to achieve "zero
discharge" appears to be his-
torically, economically, as well
as theoretically, a sound
approach to industrial pollution
control. The excessive or
unreasonable energy demands
for industrial water pollution
may be more conjecture than
apparent fact For it is difficult
to conceive how a water
conservational approach to pol-
lution control, properly
developed, would not also be
energy conserving
The R&D needs are many
and challenging, and the long
term need for water conserva-
tion in an industrially expand-
ing world justifies resolving
these needs.
Progress in water reuse and
recycle is being made and
promises to be practical from
an overall water management
cost point of view
Selected Industrial Example of
Reuse, others could be cited
(for details see the appendix)
1. Chemical Industry
Reuse of chemical process
water via external and internal
recycling.
2	Steel Industry
Reuse of wastewater in a steel
pickling plant by neutralization
3	Concrete Industry
Reuse of wastewater in a
ready mixed concrete plant
9

-------
MM PON MIIIWATU TXATMOT
; *«	 y	,•
i 	/
•rtAM ako romn
WB7THi¥£iW£STffTft.
eoouno MTU * * % *
CUAHMVOAia ««••••••••
MtTtWATIM TttATVpTT
— mmm AiTfnurrvi
••••«••••«• IM KITMO
4/ f f f MlfTIOMt
4	Oil Refinery
Reuse of wastewater by treat-
ment of an oil refinery effluent
plus some comments on the
subject
5	Pulp and Paper Industry
Reuse of wastewater from
kraft pulping, bleaching and
paper machines operations.
Future demands
Closed-loop industrial waste
water and water systems are
vitally necessary to maintain
continuity in future industrial
expansion The huge water
demands and high water usage
growth rate of American
industry cannot continue to rely
solely on traditional water
rwouno* amo otm una
Figure 4
Industrial Wastewater
Management R&D Needs
UHDfSmABU COMPONENT
SUSPENDED SOUD8w
ORGANIC MATTfRw (AS
BOO)
TOTAL DISSOLVED 8AIT8W
IINCLUDINO HARDNESS)
ALKALINITY (AS C« CO,1141
ASSUMED METHOD or REMOVAL
SEDIMENTATION
BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION
MULT1 EFFECT EVAPORATION
AND SOLAR EVAPORATION
ACID ADDITION
APMtOX.
COST.
REMOVED
A
2
3J
ui PRimahy TpiATMnrr at ueroos oal with 200 mi removal and sluoos disposal or mo/lb.
(b) SECONDARY TREATMENT AT H/TSOO OAL. WITH 400 PPM RIMOVAL AMD fujDO! DISPOSAL AT It/IB.
(a) mo AT SX PPM. HARDNESS OS PPM. ONI MOD PULfT WITH TOTAL COSTS AT nCQ/WOO OAL.
ADO NO CMOIT FOK PRODUCT WATCH PRODUCED
WJ TOTAL COST AT TWO TIMES CHEMICAL COST. SULFURIC ACID AT W/L9.
Table 2
Water Treatment Costs
supply sources Even in water-
abundant areas, intake watr
supplies for industrial use au
fast becoming restrictive. Trends
toward water reuse have already
been started and must be
accelerated now—if an adequate
base for future industrial
expansion is to be provided.
Current and future environ-
mental standards for waste
water discharges are expected
to increase the pressure on
industry to reduce both the
pollution discharge loads and
the magnitude of effluent
volumes in order to minimize
environmental impact Industrial
water qualtity requirements for
reuse are less demanding, as a
general rule, than for municipal
supplies Accordingly, industrial
water reuse should be tech-
nically and economically
achievable earlier than
comparable municipal water
reuse systems
Wastewater reuse is not only
a resource conservation measure,
but also a method of pollution
control a step in tune with
future demands. Adequate
R&D activity in this area is the
key to accelerating im-
plementation of extensive
wastewater reuse systems and,
eventually, the total closed-
loop cycle The latter, with no
effluent discharge, would comply
with any quality standards
now or in the future	~
References
1	U S Department of Com-
merce, Bureau of the Census
—1954, 1958, 1963, 1967,
Census of Manufacturing—
Water Use in Manufacturing.
2	Rey, George, William J. Lacy,
and Allen Cywin, "Industrial
Water Reuse. Future Pollution
Soulutton, Environmental
Science and Technolooy,
September 1971.
3	Environmental Protection
Agency, Water Quality
Criteria 1972, R.73.033,
March 1973.
10
4.	V. Reinhart, Some Economic
Aspects of Water Re-Use in
Czechoslovakia, 5th Inter-
national Water Pollution
Research Conference, July-
August 1970.
5.	News of EPA, NERC Cin-
cinnati, Ohio, January 11,
1974.
6.	Hirst, E , The Energy Cost of
Pollution Control, Environ-
ment 14 (8).
7.	Pfenning, H. W., A Success
Story; Reuse of Chemical
Process Water, The Third
National Conference on Com-
plete Water Reuse, American
lnsti(ute Chemical Engineers,
June 27-30 1976. Cincinnati,
Ohio.
8.	Bell, John P. Water Reuse in
a Steel Pickling Operation,
The National Conference.
9.	Parker, C. L. and Michael W.
Slimak, The Reuse of Water
from the Ready-Mixed Con-
crete Industry The Third
National Conference.
10. Carnes, B. A., Davis L. Ford
and Sidney O. Brady, Treat-
ment of Refinery Wastewater
for Reuse, National Confer-
ence on Complete Water Re-
use sponsored by American
Institute Chemical Engineers
and U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, April 23-27,
1973.
11.	Rice, James K„ Water Reuse
in Petroleum Refinery, Na-
tional Conference on Com-
plete Water Reuse sponsored
by American Institute Chemi-
cal Engineers and U.S.
Environmental Protection
Agency, April 23-27, 1973.
12.	Gehm, Harry W. An Over-
view of Water Reuse Potential
in Pulp and Paper Manufac-
turing, National Conference
on Complete Water Reuse
sponsored by American
InsUtute Chemical Engineers
and U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, April 23-27,
1973.

-------
euse of
chemical
Process Water*
H.W. Pfenning
Merichem Company,
Houston, Texas
* condensed by William I. Lacy
External Recycling
At first glance, the chlor-alkali
industry, the petroleum industry,
and the pulp and paper industry
seem to have little in common.
They start with radically
different raw materials, use
entirely different manufacturing
processes, and produce com-
pletely unrelated finished
products. All three, however,
use water that becomes contami-
nated by direct contact with
chemicals and that must be
disposed of in some acceptable
way.
Electrolysis of the brine
produces chlorine gas and
caustic soda (NaOH) with
hydrogen as a by-product. Since
for every pound of chlorine
produced, chemistry dictates
that there is also produced
about two pounds of SO percent
caustic soda solution in water. If
the demand for chlorine is
significantly greater than that
for caustic soda over an
extended period (as has
occurred in the past), then
unsold caustic soda inventories
can build up to such a high
level that some must be dis-
carded. This would represent a
serious pollutant
The petroleum refining
industry uses caustic soda in the
production of gasoline and
heating oil. It carries along
with it process water from the
chlor-alkali industry, the con-
centration is so high that
refineries must normally dilute
it with fresh water prior to use.
Refineries mix the caustic soda
solution with gasoline and
heating oil to wash out
undesirable sulfur compounds
or to change their chemical
nature to less objectionable
forms (The process is said to
"sweeten" the gasoline.) After
settling, the caustic solution is
withdrawn and reused again
many times. Eventually, how-
ever, it is no longer effective as
a washing solution, and it must
be disposed of as waste (or
"spent") caustic. Since it
contains dissolved organic acids
such as phenols and mercaptans
in addition to the caustic soda,
it is an even more serious
potential pollutant than when
it left the chlor-alkali industry.
The pulp and paper industry
uses large volumes of process
water to make up chemical
solutions that dissolve the glue-
like lignin holding the wood
fibers together. Most of this
water leaves the pulping process
as evaporator condensate that
contains organic contaminants
requiring treatment before
discharge.
The recycle plant eliminates
two potential sources of
pollution from chemical process
water
1.	Refinery waste caustics are
no longer a disposal problem.
2.	The likelihood of surplus
caustic soda is reduced. More
are able to use caustic as a
treating chemical now because
they have a reliable outlet for
the waste caustic.
As a result, a typioal gallon
of process water beginning in
the chlor-alkali industry would
by-pass the effluent discharge
and move on to the refining
industry. It is joined by other
process waters and exit the
refinery as waste caustic. Now
it no longer requires treatment
and discharge, but rather is
collected and shipped to the
recycle plant. The value of the
recovered products is usually
sufficient to support a modest
payment to the refineries, so
part of that gallon of water
winds up in the sodium sulfide
solution sold as a raw material
to the pulp and paper industry.
After carrying chemicals
through a series of pulp-making
units, it is removed from the
process as steam in an
evaporator and condensed back
into liquid water. Traditionally,
it has been discarded as an
effluent requiring treatment
because of the presence of
organic contaminants. More
recently, however, pulp mills
are recognizing the advantage
of recycling this condensate
back into the process. It reduces
the amount of make-up process
water needed, but, even more
important, it eliminates a dis-
charge stream completely and
saves the cost of treating.
Internal Recycling
"Internal recyling", refers to
the reuse of wastewater by the
industry that generates it The
most essential prerequisites for
a successful reuse program are:
1) an internal need for a
sufficient volume of water to
balance its production and 2)
a process that can accommodate
it.
Waste caustic solutions are
collected from refineries and
are used as chemical raw
materials. A purification unit
removes dissolved organic
sulfur compounds extracted
from gasoline and heating oil
along with cresylic acids. Next,
caustics are neutralized (with
sulfur acid back then), springing
the cresylic acids out of solution
and causing them to float to
the surface. This organic layer
is withdrawn and further
processed in a series of
fractionation units where the
various classes of cresylic acid
products are separated and
purified prior to marketing.
Products include high purity
phenol, cresols, xylenols, cresylic
acid mixtures, and alkylated
phenols. They are used as raw
materials by other chemical
and plastic producers in the
manufacture of fire retardant
vinyl plastics, nonflammable
hydraulic fluids, electrical wire
insulation, and molded
laminants to name a few of the
major end uses.
The plant water system is
characterized by four types of
effluent: a sulfate brine from
neutralization, boiler water
blowdown, cooling tower draw-
down, and rainwater runoff.
These were discharged into a
brackish tidal stream.
Sulfuric acid neutralization
was abandoned because it
produced a sulfate brine that
presented a disposal problem.
By switching to hydrogen sulfide
(recovered as a waste product
from local refineries), the
neutralization product emerged
11

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as sodium sulfide (Na2S) or
sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS).
This chemical is the active
ingredient in the kraft process
for making paper pulp and was
a salable commodity. An
evaporator was installed to
remove some of the water to
reduce the cost of shipping the
solution to pulp mill customers.
More recently, sodium sulfide
has proven very useful as a
precipitating agent to remove
dissolved mercury and other
heavy metals from industrial
effluents (such as those from the
chlor-alkah industry).
The net effect, as far as
effluents were concerned, was to
eliminate the sulfate brine and
replace it with a smaller volume
of evaporator condensate This
was essentially distilled water
that sometimes carried over
trace contaminants of sodium
sulfide from the evaporator It
was an improvement over the
sulfate brine, however, and
reduced the effluent discharge
load to an acceptable level.
Rainwater runoff was eliminated
as a contaminated effluent, the
plant was surrounded with a
series of dikes and curbs around
all process and storage areas.
Drains and sumps were installed
within the diked areas to collect
any accidental spills or leaks
and pump the material back
into the process. Any rainwater
that falls onto these areas is
also collected in a special tank
and used as process water in
such a way that all contaminants
arc recovered The stormwater
runoff system and tankage are
designed to accommodate a 50-
year statistical rainstorm Q
Wastewater
Reuse in a Steel
Pickling
Operation*
John P. Bell
The Mogul Corporation,
Chagrin Falls, Ohio
Two essentially identical pickling
lines are operated by the Eaton
Corporation, Engineered
Fasteners Division, in Massillon,
Ohio Each pickling line
contains a sulfuric acid
pickling bath, a caustic-
potassium permanganate
solution for removal of smut
after annealing, a zinc phosphate
dip, proprietary neutralizing
solutions, a rinse tank, and
finally, a lime slurry. Alloy and
high carbon steel wire is
processed in the operations prior
to drawing Depending on the
type of steel and its stage in the
drawing operation, a wire coil
is treated with various
combinations of chemical
solutions, rinsed, and coated
with lime that is allowed to dry
on the metal surface. Each coil
of wire may be processed
through the pickling operation
as many as five times during the
the sequence of drawing and
annealing.
Discharge of contaminated
water comes from the rinse
tanks that utilize a combination
spray and flowing rinse
Combined flow from the two
rinse tanks averages 200 gpm.
Major contaminants are the
result of solution drag-out from
the sulfuric acid and caustic-
potassium permanganate tanks.
Alternatives for disposal of
the effluent were complete
treatment with discharge to a
nearby stream, partial pre-
treatment and discharge to the
municipal sanitary sewer, or
wastewater treatment and
recycle Discussions with city
officials confirmed that the local
treatment plant was hydraulic-
ally overloaded and that dis-
charge of large volume of
additional industrial wastewater
would not be acceptable.
Effluent limitations for dis-
charge to the stream were
so stringent that treatment
to an acceptable level would
result in water of a quality
satisfactory for reuse. The
decision was made to install a
system employing the water
reuse principle.
First stage of the system is a
6,000 gal equalization sump.
This sump receives discharge
from the rinse tanks and is
* condensed by William J. Lacy
equipped with an agitator
thoroughly to blend incoming
wastewater. Thirty minutes
detention time is provided ir
the sump at the average flo
of 200 gpm. Equalization
diminishes pH variations in the
waste stream through mutual
neutralization of acid and
alkaline materials, thus
minimizing the need for
chemical additions Equalization
also aids in removal of
permanganate by blending
ferrous salts carried out of the
acid pickling tanks with the
excess permanganate Ferrous
iron reduces the permanganate
to manganese dioxide that
precipitates and is removed in
the settling process. At the same
time, the iron is oxidized from
a ferrous to a feme state,
making it less soluble.
Wastewater is pumped from
the equalization sump into a
neutralization tank. The
neutralization provides 20 min
detention time and is equipped
with an 
-------
Clarifier wastewater over-
flows from the clarifier to a
lear well From the clear well
.he water is pumped through a
pressure sand filter for final
polishing and into a small
holding pond. Water from the
pond is pumped by a high
pressure pump into a pressure
tank which feeds the two rinse
tanks
Build-up of dissolved con-
tamination of the closed-loop
system makes it necessary to
bleed-off a portion of the water
in the system and replace it with
fresh make-up water. In the
Eaton installation, a conductiv-
ity controller monitors the
dissolved solids level of the
solution returning from the
polishing filter At a preset
conductivity level, the controller
opens a solenoid valve to allow
bleed-off to the sanitary sewer.
Bleed-off is approximately 10%
of the total flow City officials
agreed to accept the bleed-off
because it is small in volume
and contains nothing detrimental
to the sewage treatment process.
Make-up water is provided by
discharge into the pond of
noncontact cooling water from
the other areas of the plant.
When additional make-up is
needed, a low water level switch
opens a solenoid valve, adding
well water directly to the
system.
It is necessary from time to
time to dispose of sludge from
the bottom of the clarifier—
containing 1-2% solids and
consisting mostly of ferric
hydroxide. One option was
dewatering of the sludge with a
centrifuge or vacuum filter and
removal to a sanitary landfill.
Since the city sewage system was
already processing solids, it was
felt that the sludge could be
discharged into the system
without creating an overload
Samples of the sludge
analysis, and discharge data
were submitted to the city.
City officials agreed to accept
the low volume sludge discharge
into the sewer system. The
sludge is discharged periodically
by a timer-controlled valve. The
timer is set to maintain a pre-
determined sludge blanket level
in the clarifier. Periodic filter
backwash also is discharged to
the sewer
Control and monitoring of
the entire treatment operation
is done from a central control
panel which contains electrical
controls, instrumentation and
recorders, and alarm
systems	~
The Reuse of
Wastes from the
Ready-Mixed
Concrete
Industry*
By C. Leon Parker and
Michael W. Slimak
Hittman Associates, Inc.,
Columbia Maryland
Versar Inc., Springfield,
Virginia
Waste Characterization
The waste stream from the
ready-mixed concrete industry
consists of returned concrete
that for one reason or another
has not been, or could not be,
delivered to the customer and
plant washwaters If the returned
concrete cannot be immediately
used (typical methods of use
are discussed below), it is often
combined with the spent
washwater into a single waste
stream. This waste stream can
be separated into four
components: water (treated or
untreated), coarse aggregate
(gravel and/or stone), fine
aggregate (sand), and cement
fines, each of which can be
recycled within the plant, sold,
given away, or simply disposed
of.
Returned concrete On the
average, 1 of 4% of total
concrete production does not
get delivered to the customer
who ordered it. Reasons
include' off-specification
concrete, over-ordering, forms
or other installations not ready,
equipment failures, and ram,
cold, or other weather
considerations. The typical
composition of a cubic yard
of returned concrete is: coarse
aggregate (sand), 1,275 lbs ;
cement, 500 lbs.; and water, 300
lbs.
Since returned concrete
usually has already been paid
for by the customer, it does
not represent a loss to the
concrete company. However,
returned concrete must be
removed from the trucks
before it hardens To this end,
it may simply be dumped on
the ground as waste, it may be
cast into products, or it can be
recovered as sand, gravel, and
other cement components in
the washwater treatment system.
If returned concrete is to be
used to maximum advantage,
plans are usually made before
the concrete is returned For
example, some plants keep lists
of customers willing to accept
concrete on short notice, others
have molds available for the
casting of simple objects such
as blocks, benches, and highway
dividers, and often there is a
need for construction work
condensed by William J Lacy
13
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(such as yard paving) at the
ready-mixed plant itself.
The latest treatment methods
direct all wastewaters and solid
wastes to useful ends. Two
such systems have been chosen 1
for discussion here. One system1
is designed for total inplant
reuse of the waste components, i
The other is referred to as a
symbiotic system because its
output oan be used as a feed fo'
some other industry. Wastewater1
and returned concrete are
passed through a screen to
separate coarse aggregate. The
remaining slurry of cement fines
is agitated to keep the solids in
suspension; then it is used in
the mixing of new concrete.
Separated aggregates may be
reused in new concrete, or they
may be sold.
Symbiotic system. Is a system
designed for the recycling of all
solid wastes, with zero discharge
of wastewater. The basic
element is a drag chain clarifier.
Mixed aggregate and dried
cement sludges are mechanically
mixed to produce a material
suitable for roadbed construc-
tion, floors, and driveways.
Depending on the degree of
separation and the available
market, aggregates are sold (or
sometimes given away) for use
as fill material, road and drive
way bases, and almost any other1
use for which aggregates are
normally sold. Cement fines,
on the other handi-are so much
altered from their original .
(i.e., prior to mixing) properties
that they are no longer
functional as cement. These
fines have little economic value,
though efforts are being made to
find new ones. However,
transport costs are high and,
therefore, distance to the site of
use is an important
consideration.
Treated water is usually
recycled and reused within the
plant. Its alkaline nature may
someday make it useful as a
neutralizing stream for acid
wastes from adjacent industries.
Systems that cleanly separate
coarse and fine aggregate and
reduce cement sludge to easily
manageable or reusable forms
are becoming available. The
present incentive for recovery,
and reuse is largely the result
of disposal regulations, but in
the future profitability may
become an incentive.	Q
Treatment of
Refinery
Wastewaters for
Reuse*
By Billy A. Carnes, Davis
L. Font and Sidney O.
Brady
Engineering Science, Inc.
It has been estimated that the
petroleum and petrochemical
industry of the United States
would require in excess of 12
billion gallons of water daily
for once-through usage
Because of reuse-recycle,
make-up requirements are
slightly in excess of 20 percent
of this amount with cooling
water recycle accounting for
approximately 90 percent of
the reused water.
Today's refinery produces
waste effluents; therefore,
treatment processes are required
for disposal and/or reuse-
recyde. Recent legislation calls
for "zero discharge" by 1983
and although this stringent
requirement is not practical or
necessarily beneficial for all
plant looations, many inland
refineries have already initiated
bold water use policies.
Compared with most industries,
costs for complying with more
restrictive water pollution
control regulations should affect
petroleum refining the least
because of their comparatively
high reuse ratio.
By 2020, all industrial reuse
of 54 percent of total
municipal and manufacturing
effluents would meet the
entire projected increase in
industrial water requirements
Therefore, industry not only
finds itself in a race against
time to reduce pollution but also
in a competitive market with
other water users.
Contaminant Effects
The classification of pollutants
into categories such as organics
or inorganics has it deficiencies.
In some cases, these
contaminants cause similar
problems, while in other
situations, organics may be
broken down to form inorganic
residuals. Some of the TDS
concentrations of 3000 mg/1
are acceptable and 50 percent
COD removal is achieved by
employing weak anion resins,
lime softening and finally weak
cation resins. Silica removals
are only achieved by using high
basic anion resins.
14
* condensed by William J. Lacy
-------
Apparently, ion exchange is
most efficient hardness
val process based on water
jvery These data were
developed from pilot studies on
brackish weil water.
Brine Treatment
The blowdown from any
desalination process consists of
a concentrated solution of the
the salts contained in the feed
Methods, including dilution into
flowing streams, deep well
injection and solar evaporation
have been considered for
ultimate disposal of other
brines.
On-site reduction of the brine
to dry solids is possible through
the application of current
technology. Reportedly,
evaporation is the only
technically and economically
feasible process for dewatering
brines. Furthermore, multiple-
effect evaporation followed by
direct contact drying, exempli-
fied by fluid-bed incineration,
appears to be the most suitable
process For some wastewaters,
fluid-bed drying alone may be
acceptable.
Bicarbonate hardness must be
removed to prevent scaling in
the evaporator. Acidification
and degasification of carbon
dioxide will accomplish this
Calcium and magnesium
removal are also required to
prevent sulfate precipitation.
Silica may also cause problems
in the evaporator, therefore, it
should be removed in the water
pretreatment step. Sulfate scal-
ing may be reduced by recycling
a slurry of sulfate crystals
throughout the evaporator to
provide nuclei for growtl
Although scaling problems can
be overcome with direct-contact
evaporators as opposed to
multiple-effect, high thermal
efficiencies cannot be reached,
no converted water is produced
and heat recovery is not
possible.
Additionally, since one of the
products of brine dewatering
will be magnesium chloride, its
cementing tendencies must be
considered in the selection of a
drying process. A fluidized bed
dryer fulfills this requirement
quite well.
Treatment for
"Zero Discharge"
Treated effluents may be
acceptable for reuse within the
refinery; however, something
must eventually leave the system
whether in the form of a liquid
blowdown, bnne or dry solids.
Common practice has been to
maintain a recycle system in
economic balance by wasting a
portion of the recycle. However,
as water becomes more scarce
and disposal criteria more
stringent, additional treatment
will be employed to reuse the
blowdown or remove the
contaminants from the make-up
supply.
To make the most of effluent
reuse, a total systems approach
must be pursued, which
considers treatment of make-up,
recycle, inplant treatment and
effluent treatment. If "zero
discharge" is the objective,
demineralization processes must
be employed at one or more
points within the overall scheme.
This immediately leads to
ultimate disposal problems for
salt brines or slurries. At this
point, ion exchange is the most
advanced form of demineraliza-
tion, but reverse osmosis appears
to have the most promising
future.
Methods for concentrating
demineralization blowdowns are
certainly in an infant stage of
development in the wastewater
treatment field. However, a
study by DOW indicates that a
flowsheet is feasible using bits
and pieces of current
technology.
The DOW report proposes
vertical tube evaporation
followed by bed drying as the
best candidate for transforming
brines into a final dry salt
product.
A candidate for an advanced
refinery water management
system is a scheme where both
freshwater and stormwater
supply the plant's make-up
requirements. The only liquid
effluents, except for drift, are
sanitary wastewaters and ballast
water Filtration followed by
reverse osmosis is proposed for
' treating the cooling tower blow-
I down to maintain zero
I discharge. Highly contaminated
1 streams are contained within
the stream generation facilities
1 to conserve thermal energy and
reduce organic contaminant
concentrations. The treatment
philosophy proposed here is a
departure from conventional
I centralized effluent collection
i and treatment processes,
! normally designed for disposal
rather than total reuse The
| conventional approach has
(many disadvantages for it
does not optimize the use of
refinery heat, hydraulic pressure,
inplant oxidation and
adsorption or point source
concentrated treatment. If
"zero discharge" of refinery
effluents is to be achieved;
these principles must be
adhered to and conventional
"treat and dispose" effluent
management discouraged. Q
15
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An Overview of
Water Reuse
Potential in
Pulp and Paper
Manufacturing*
By Harry W. Gehm
Wapora Inc.
* condensed by William I Lacy
16
Kraft Pulping
The kraft process with its
highly efficient recovery system
has lent itself well to water
recirculation Process improve-
ments in pulp washing and
refining and in the evaporation
of spent liquors, allowing
condensates to be reused, have
lowered the fresh water usage
to a point where kraft pulp mills
can be built to operate with less
that 10,000 gallons per ton
of product. While this low level
is difficult or impossible to reach
in older operations, these too
have made substantial
reductions in fresh water usage.
It appears that the limit of
internal water reuse in kraft
pulping is approached in modern
mills and that further recycling
will be dependent upon external
effluent treatment. This con-
clusion is supported by papers
by associates of the Swedish
Steam Users Association who
studied the unit processes of the
kraft pulping and recovery
system.
Economic limits for pulp
washing systems have been
established in relation to sewer
losses. Condenstate losses were
the subject of investigations
including the improvement in
their quality achievable by steam
stripping. A rundown on the
entire process on the basis of
unit process capacity vs losses
which also supports this
contention
It can also be concluded that
external treatment of mill
effluent can extend reuse and
reduce the process water
requirement to a very high
degree However, streams
rejected from such treatment
will remain to be disposed of.
Kraft Bleaching
Excellent progress has been
made in recycling water in the
kraft bleaching process as well
as in reducing the quantity if
process water is used Reuse of
the weak effluents from the
latter stages of bleaching in the
initial chlonnation and caustic
extraction steps has accounted
for the former and improved
washing techniques in the latter
The quantity of water required
depends upon the degrees of
bleaching and the number of
stages employed but, for
example, the quantity of water
employed in a five stage
bleachery can be reduced from
30,000 gallons/to as low as
10,000 with little difficulty. It
has been suggested by Reeves
and Rapson that such effluents
be further reduced in volume
and disposed of by addition to
the kraft recovery systems.
Chlorides would be removed
by crystallizing sodium chloride
from the white liquor. The
recovered salt would be
employed to produce chlorine
and alkali for use in the process.
Appreciable recycfe oi
bleachery effluents will depend
largely upon external
treatment. Methods for
accomplishing this by removal
of color, BOD and COD by
lime precipitation. Further
removal of dissolved organics
can be achieved by biological
oxidation and activated
carbon adsorption. Chloride
reduction can be accomplished
by ion exchange. Costs for
the removal of the dissolved
organics are estimated to
amount to somewhat less than
three dollars per ton of pulp
bleached to produce a water
suitable for limited reuse in
the bleach plant but not the
pulp mill.
Oxidative pulp-bleaching
could conceivable lead to a
system discharging very low
volume effluent streams.
However, development of a
commercial size plant applying
this technique is still under
study.
It can be stated that as
in kraft pulping, further
appreciable water recycling is
contingent upon external water
reclamation rather than
additional m-plant alterations
or unit improvements.
Paper Machine Waters
Spent process waters form the
manufacture of the major
unbleached kraft pulp
products namely linerboard,
wrapping and bag papers can
be readily returned to the
pulping process after passing
through a vacuum filter type
save-all This accounts to a
considerable degree for the
low effluent volume from
mills producing unbleached
kraft mills manufacturing f
papers have been unable ii
most cases to recycle machinv
water to the pulping or
bleaching operations due to
the presence of dispersions and
other paper making additives
remaining after the usual
clarification processes. Hence,
bleached kraft fine paper mills
frequently require from 32,000
to 40,000 gallons of water per
ton of product. Assuming that
12,000 gallons of this is
diverted to bleaching, then
20,000 to 28,000 gallons per ton
is employed in pulp and paper-
making as compared to 10,000
to 12,000 for unbleached kr&ft
pulp and paper manufacture
when good conservation
practices are in effect.
Presently, extensive studies of
the problem of reuse of the
white water from fine paper
manufacture in both the
pulp and papermaking
processes is underway in the
industry.
Conclusions
It can be concluded that the
pulp and paper industry has
made considerable progress
in recycling process water
particularly in respect to
kraft pulping, bleaching and
papermaking which are
responsible for a very large
percentage of the total paper
produced in the United States.
Research and development
efforts are directed toward
further reduction in process
water usage and effluent
volume. However, it appears
that the limit is being
-------
approached and that the
application of external treatment
-------
1 Evaporative cooling
(mainly in cooling towers)
contributes to salt and
nonvolatile matter concentra-
tion in circulating water and
simultaneous evolution of
dissolved gases and lower
boiling organics from water
that are air pollutants.
2. Increasing salt and
foreign matter concentrations
in circulating water intensifies
corrosion, scale-and-sludge
formation m heat exchangers
3 Large circulating water
discharge to industrial sewers
(bleeding of circulating water
systems)
In the USSR petroleum
refineries the following main
trends in the improvement of
circulating water supply are
now observed maximum use
of air cooling and development
of circulating water systems
without bleeding
Over the past ten years
apparatuses of air cooling
have found wide application
at all the technological plants,
and this tends to reduce
circulating water consumption
at these plants.
The forecast of the future
water consumption is based
on the assumption that
60-70% of the circulating
water that is used for cooling
petroleum products heated
at least to 50-60°C could be
transferred to air cooling The
remaining 30-40% of the water
should be left in the circulating
system for aftercooling the
air cooled petroleum products
The consumption of
circulating water for cooling
is known to depend on the
condition of heat transfer
surfaces which in its turn
depends on the performance
t naracti ristics of the above
watc, ire studies have shown
that svith no water treatment the
circulating water exhibits the
following technological
¦iropcrties-
t. .:io .n rate 0 2 to 1 mm/yr
i ilirc rate 3000 to 6000 g/mayr
ogieal growth 8 to 25 g/m* d .
According to the USSR
standards, corrosion rate
should not exceed 0 1 mm/yr,
scaling rate 2200 g/m2yr,
biological growth 1 7- g/m2d
The attainment of the desired
technological properties of
the circulating water requires
its conditioning. Some
petroleum refineries remove
suspended solids from fresh
water through filtration, mainly
with the use of pressure and
gravity sand filters, which
prevents the inflow of large
amounts of river silt
(especially over high water
periods) into the circulating
system.
Until recently, acidifying,
phosphatization, chlorination,
and the addition of blue
vitriol were considered to be
the main methods of the
circulating water treatment
As experience has shown,
the water stabilization treat-
ment does not sufficiently
protect coolers and condensers
from corrosion and scaling
Besides, the phosphatization
intensifies biological growth in
the circulating water systems,
necessitates bleeding and leads
to additional contamination
of receiving waters with
phosphates
It is necessary to create
conditions for the circulating
systems to operate with no
bleeding However, this type
of operation contributes to the
increase in salt concentrations
of the circulating waters and to
the intensification of
corrosion and scaling
processes All this necessitated
the development of a more
efficient method for the
complex treatment of circulating
cooling water The scheme of
such a complex treatment has
been developed in BashNII
NP, and now it is included
in the designs of the
reconstruction of operating
water systems and the
construction of new ones
In addition to oil traps, cooling
towers and pump stations
these systems include
filtration, inhibition, and
chlorination plants
To clean all the fresh
water from suspended solids
in high water periods and a
portion of circulating water
(10% of an hourly flow
rate) from suspended solids
and petroleum products,
quartz sand and petroleum coke
pressure filters are used (filter
bed depth 1 m, particle size
0 5 to 1 mm, filtration rate
8 m/hr). It is possible to
use other types of filters as
well.
The IK.B-4 is recommended
as a corrosion inhibitor, which
makes it possible to reduce
corrosion and scaling rates
in heat exchangers on the
average by 80%
As a rule, chlorine is
introduced into the cooled
water in summer During the
operation the chlorine dose is
established with due regard
to the fact that chlorine
residual content after the
most remote exchanger should
not exceed 0 2 mg Clo/l.
Simultaneously blue vitriol is
introduced into the hot water
(once per 7 to 10 days), the
dose being 4 mg Cu/1 based
on an hourly water flow
rate
Such a complex water
treatment provides purity,
normal heat exchange in
heat exchangers, and
considerably reduces cooling
water consumption
The forthcoming transition
to operating water
circulating systems without
bleeding necessitates the
standardization of water
qualities The recently
developed standards consider
a remarkable increase in
salt concentration (up to 2000
mg/1) of circulating water
when operating circulating
systems without bleeding
compared to the present
level (200 to 1000 mg/1)
Over the past 10 years, to
reduce the bleeding as well as
the fresh water intake, both
operating plants and those
under construction envisaged a
maximum use of the treated
industrial and storm
runoffs
An experience has shown
that when using mechamca""
treated industrial and sto
runoffs, the circulating wg'^
largely contaminated witl^
dissolved biodegradable
organics, BOD total reaching
100 to 180 mg 0o/l. Cooling
towers as well as heat
exchangers prove to be silted
due to an intensive
biological growth and need
frequent shut-downs for the
purpose of cleaning Therefore,
most refiners have given up
the idea of using mechanically
treated wastes and changed to
a fresh water make-up
As results of pilot plant
investigations in BashNII
NP have shown, one-stage
activated sludge treatment of
industrial and storm runoffs
originating from petroleum
refineries makes it possible
to reduce BOD total to
10 mg 02/l The biochemical
treatment of industrial and
storm runoffs is performed
without dilution with
domestic wastes, with an
aeration period of 6 hours.
Activated sludge concentration
is maintained at 2 to 3
g/1, oxidation capacity of air
tanks being 900 to 1000
g/m1 day Phosphorus is
added as a biogenous element
(up to 3 mg/1) There is no
need to add ammoniacal
nitrogen as these salts are
present in wastes Biochemical
treatment effluents fully meet
the standardized circulating
water quality
As it was found during the
pilot plant investigations,
industrial and storm runoffs
that underwent biochemical
treatment improve technological
properties of the circulating
water They reduce the
corrosion and scaling rates
by 35 and 65% respectively,
in comparison to the
mechanical treatment alone
A valuable experience in
the biochemical treatment
and reuse of industrial and
18
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storm runoffs in the Polotsk
refinery confirmed the
alidity of our recommenda-
iOns. At the «ame time it has
been established that
under large-scale conditions
suspended solids are observed to
be brought out from secondary
settling tanks (over 25
mg/1), that is the treated
wastewaters need an
aftertreatment before their
recirculation. For this
purpose it is quite possible to
use granuldr or mesh
filters.
Sand filters with filtration
rates of 10 m/hr are most
efficient in aftertreatment
operations (activated sludge
removal 93 to 97%).
When operating filters, a
progressive biological growth
is observed leading to a
decrease in filtration rates.
To prevent this biological
growth, a periodical treatment
of filter beds with chlorine
water is envisaged.
The recirculation of
biochemically treated industrial
and storm runoffs makes it
possible to considerably reduce
the fresh water intake, not
excluding it completely,
however, at the present
circulating water flow rates.
In some areas with i bright
outlook for the const > ction
of new refineries, th«: lack
of fresh water is felt. Hence,
we are faced W'
-------
Recycling - Key
to One Steel
Mill's Pollution
Control
Program
By Eugene J. Peltier,
Donald F. Cairns, and
James C. Buzzell, Jr.*
* E J Peltier is a consultant to
Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates,
Inc of St Louis, Missouri;
D. F. Cairns is Vice President,
Granite City Steel Division of
National Steel Corporation; J. C.
Buzzell, Jr is Chief Engineer,
Environmental Division of
Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates,
Inc.
Recycling proved to be a key
element in the water pollution
control program at Granite City
Steel Division of the National
Steel Corporation. This mill is
a medium sized, integrated
facility producing flat rolled
steel products, and is located
in Madison County, Illinois,
just north of St. Louis,
Missouri. As of July 1, 1977,
Granite City Steel completed
the latest step in its water
pollution control program by
placing a wastewater recycling
system into operation. With
this step the Company is able
to meet both its immediate and
long-range water pollution
control goals.
Background
Granite City Steel manufactur-
ing facilities include a coke
plant and blast furnace facility
and, on a separate tract of land,
the steel works. Wastewaters
originate from the following
major production facilities:
by-product coke plant; two
blast furnaces; sintering plant;
basic oxygen furnace (BOF)
shop; blooming mill; 80-inch
hot strip mill; 72-inch hot rolled
coil processing and slitting
lines; continuous coil pickling
line; 56-inch, four-strand, cold
strip reducing mill; three con-
tinuous galvanizing lines; batch
pickling unit; and steam
generating facilities.
The mill currently uses
approximately 72 million
gallons of water a day (mgdj
most of which is withdrawn
from the Mississippi River.
Ranney-type wells are available
for supplemental uses when
needed. Municipal water is used
for the potable supply.
Mississippi River water is
pumped to a 10-million-gallon
reservoir for distribution
throughout the plant. Approxi-
mately 8 to 10 mgd are lost
through evaporation and other
losses so that the net discharge
from the mill is about 62 mgd.
In-plant oil/water and water/
solids separation units provide
primary treatment for the
wastewaters associated with th4
byproduct coke plant, blast
furnaces, BOF shop, blooming
mill, hot strip mill, cold strip
mill, and miscellaneous other
operations. The mill long
practiced extensive water reuse
in various departments, but did
not provide overall recycling.
The treated effluent flows into
Horseshoe Lake, a 2200-acre
ox-bow lake that was, in pre-
historic times, a section of the
Mississippi River, and thence
to the Mississippi River via a
man-made drainage channel.
The previous major water
pollution control step was taken
by Granite City Steel in 1965,
as described by Cairns (1). A
350-acre stabilization lagoon
system was designed and
constructed; one cpll of the
lagoon system provided 3 5
days detention for the waste
waters from the steelworks
area, and the other cell provided
approximately 10 days detention
for the flow from the blast
furnace area. This secondary
treatment system has functioned
as designed since 1965 with
very few problems. Table 1
provides a comparison of the
1965 values reported by Cairns
with the 1974 average values
for the principal pollutant
parameters The 1974 data
provided the basis for the
design of the subject project.
Table 1 illustrates two important
aspects of the total water
recycle and pollution control
program The first is that the
stabilization lagoons have
continued to function as they
did in 1965, producing an
effluent of consistent good
quality. The apparent increases
in the 1974 phenols and
cyanide values may be due to
the use of improved analytical
techniques in recent years.
Both parameters are effectively
reduced by the lagoons, and the
effluent levels remain below
the desired concentrations.
Influent levels in the Mississippi
River water are approximately
the same as the lagoon effluent
levels for these two parameters
Table 1 also shows that the
overall quality of the lagoon
effluent does not differ greatly
Intake Water


(MUiiislppI River)
lajoon Effluent *


Averages
Averages


1965
1974
1965
1974
Suspended solids —
mg/l
62
65
18
16
5-day BOD —
mg/1
8
3.4
5
4
Oil & grease —
mg/l
5
5
5
5
Ammonia-N —
mg/1
1
0.5
3
28
Phenols —
mg/l
0.010
0013
0 005
0016
Cyanides —
mg/l
0.005
0.016
0 002
0016
Zinc —
mg/l
.
0.16

0.26
Iron —
mg/l

3.5

39
Sulfates —
mg/l

50

85
Chlorides —
mg/I

22

105
Temperature —
•c

17.6

18.9
* Cross values, I c » without deduction
of background concentrations
from the
Miuissippi River water intake
Table 1
Comparison of Mill Intake
Water with Stabilization
Lagoon Effluent
20
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in many respects from the in-
take water, illustrating the
~Tectiveness of the overall
ranite City Steel wastewater
treatment system in removing
net additions by the steel mill.
Some parameters are con-
sistently reduced by passage of
the water through the mill,
e g , suspended solids. Other
parameters show little or no
net change between the intake
and the lagoon effluent,
specifically, BOD, oil and
grease, phenols, cyanide, and
total iron The parameters that
are increased are ammonia,
sulfates, chlorides, and
temperature.
Since the stabilization
lagoons were placed in opera-
tion in 1965, much activity
has occurred in the regulatory
requirements for water pollution
control at both the state and
federal levels. More stringent
effluent limitations and water
quality standards were adopted
by state and federal authorities
for the waters of the state.
Granite City Steel undertook
steps to define its legal
responsibilities under the new
regulations as they were
developed in the late 60's and
early 70's At the same time,
the Granite City Steel Mill and
Sverdrup & Parcel undertook a
series of studies of means to
upgrade and improve the mill's
water pollution control
system These studies were part
of the mill's overall environ-
mental quality program.
It was finally determined
that, despite the overall fine
performance of the stabilization
lagoon system, additional steps
would be required to meet the
new regulations as interpreted
by the authorities As noted
previously, Horseshoe Lake
receives the Granite City Steel
effluent. This Lake is covered
by water quality limitations of
the State of Illinois Pollution
Control Board. Despite its
relatively shallow depth,
approximately 4 feet, the Lake
provides some year-round
recreational use and some
commercial fishing The area
around the stabilization basins
is controlled by Granite City
Steel, in its natural state,
and is a wildlife refuge. The
State has started to acquire
shoreline land and convert the
Lake and its immediate sur-
roundings into a state park.
For this reason water quality
standards instead of effluent
limitations were used as the
goals in development of the
new treatment program.
In evaluating the performance
of the stabilization lagoon
system over the 1965 to 1974
period, it was determined that
four parameters would control
the design of the new treatment
facilities. The four parameters
were phosphorus, suspended
solids, iron, and ammonia-
nitrogen. The stabilization
lagoons provided adequate
control of the other important
pollutant constituents in the
mill discharge
Table 2 provides a com-	add phosphorus. The effluent
panson between the Illinois	reflects the levels in the intake
water quality standards for the	Mississippi River water
critical parameters and the Because Horseshoe Lake is
average and maximum values	normally very turbid due to
during 1974 in the lagoon	wind mixing, algal blooms do
system effluent.	not occur, and phosphorus is


Water Quality
Lagoon Effloent—1974


Limits
arg.
max.
Phosphorus
— mg/1
0.05
0.07
021
Suspended solids
— mg/1
•
16
34
Total iron
— mg/1
1.0
3.9
12.4
Ammonia-N
— mg/1
1.5
28
7.4
• Dally average concentration allowed by NPDES permit—12 mg/1
Table 2
Illinois Water Quality Limits
and Stabilization Lagoon
Effluent Critical Parameters
Approach
Several alternative water
pollution control programs
were evaluated, including
removal of the discharge from
Horseshoe Lake to another
outlet. Prior to 1965, the Lake
periodically dried up during
drought periods, and it was
recognized that removal of the
discharge would seriously
reduce the utility of the Lake as
a recreational asset. It was
necessary to consider leaving
the Lake, however, because of
the water quality standard for
phosphorus. At this time, there
is no demonstrated technology
by which the phosphorus
content of the Granite City
Steel mill effluent could be
reduced to 0 05 mg/1.
Ironically, the mill does not
not a critical element in the
Lake's ecosystem. In light of
this, plus the technical problem
of removal, the Pollution
Control Board granted a
variance to Granite City Steel
permitting discharge of
phosphorus at previous levels.
With this obstacle removed,
it was possible to include
continued use of the Lake as a
receiving water in the polluuon
control programs under
consideration.
Of the several alternative
approaches evaluated, those
involving recycle of the
stabilization lagoon system
effluent to the mill reservoir
were the most attractive from
21
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the standpoint of treatment
system design. The reduced
volume of water to be treated
would result in proportionately
reduced costs for the tertiary
stage treatment facility prior
to discharge to Horseshoe Lake.
An evaluation was carried
out to determine the blowdown
volume necessary to control
the buildup of materials in the
recycled water Such materials
could impact the system in
three ways 1) the concentra-
tion of a specific parameter
could be too high in the
effluent, 2) the total dissolved
solids limitation for the effluent
could be exceeded; and 3)
materials, e g . calcium, could
be problems in boiler water
systems, cooling spray nozzles,
etc in the manufacturing areas.
The minimum required blow-
down volume was determined
to be 25 mgd to control
effluent concentrations of over
20 chemical constituents under
extreme loading conditions. The
recycle flow would then be 37
mgd with 35 mgd intake from
the Mississippi River and an
evaporation loss of 10 mgd.
The basic system is shown
schematically in Figure 1.
HLSlHViMH
f
Ml 1 1
WOllKk
Allf A
1 SI All |
HI COVI HT | Ml |
lJL
OIL | lllNDIt |

111 AM I
1 lIHHAf t I
Alii A 1
nutouti
| pomo nicoviMT
rivJ
| PUMI | Ul
ill 1 1 WllHHS
IAIHI1/AIIOM
(AlrfOON
UlA*t IURNAC(
SIAOlll/AltON
lAGOU**
SfMIINT. 1 PtIHP
POmO 1 st
Minn bio*
OACftWASH n
r>o*
IVDOWN
TMENt
ANT

I
The process design for the
blowdown water treatment
plant was aimed at reduction
of the suspended solids, total
iron, and ammonia with the
water quality standards as goals.
It was recognized from the
outset that filtration would be
required in order to adequately
reduce the suspended solids
and iron concentrations. The
dissolved iron in the stabiliza-
tion lagoon system effluent is
normally very low, and most of
the iron is in an oxidized,
suspended or colloidal state. In
fact, approximately 40 percent
of the suspended solids are
iron, much of which is bound
in the solids in the intake
water from the Mississippi
River It was essential,
therefore, that suspended solids
in the treated blowdown be
very low in order to maintain
the total iron concentration at
or below 1 0 mg/1
The suspended solids levels
in the lagoon effluent was found
to be low enough to permit
direct filtration, and clarifiers
were not required. The decision
was made, therefore, to provide
direct filtration with standby
equipment for the addition of
polyelectrolyte filter aid to
assist suspended solids removal
by the filters.
For ammonia removal, the
available treatment processes
include biological nitrification/
dcnitrification, air or steam
stripping, ion exchange, and
breakpoint chlorination.
After study of the alterna-
tives, breakpoint chlorination
was determined to be the most
dependable year-round system
for ammonia control. In this
process ammonia is converted
to nitrogen gas, a natural and
harmless constituent of the
atmosphere. When ammonia
levels are low, breakpoint
chlorination need not be used
thereby saving chemicals and
reducing costs. It would also
tend to remove trace amounts
of free cyanide, phenols, and
sulfides in the blowdown water.
The effect of breakpoint
chlorination on the removal of
iron and emulsified oil could
not be quantitatively predicated,
but it was believed that any
effect would be beneficial.
For dechlorinating the
treated blowdown prior to
discharge to the Lake both
activated carbon and sulfur
dioxide injection were con-
sidered. It was decided to use
sulfur dioxide for dechlorina-
tion due to system flexibility,
and lower capital and operating
costs. The feeding and
metering equipment for sulfur
dioxide would be identical to
that used for chlorine. Close
control of the treatment system
would be required,-however, to
limit effluent ammonia levels
generated by the action of sulfur
dioxide on combined chlorine
residuals.
A three-step system was
developed, as shown in Figure
2. The first step is breakpoint
chlorination with sodium
hydroxide added to maintain
the pH at or near 7.0. The
second step is granular media
filtration with standby capability
to add polyelectrolyte filter
MOHkl bHOC (ARC
Figure 1
Schematic Water Use and
Wastewater Treatment System
at Granite City Steel (New
facilities are shaded)
aid. The third step is
dechlorination with sulfur
dioxide. The selected sequence
provides for control of
biological slimes on the filter
sand.
The breakpoint chlorine
dosage is based on influent flow
and ammonia concentration
levels, providing between 8
to 10 parts of chlorine per part
of ammonia. The chlorine feed
rate is trimmed by a signal
indicating the free chlorine
, POimectnoirTi
-	iiiniim
Figure 2
Process Diagram of
Blowdown Treatment Plant.
residual at the end of the
contact period. The sulfur
dioxide dosage is controlled to
maintain an effluent chlorine
residual concentration of less
than 0 05 mg/1. The treated
water flows from the water
treatment plant to Horseshoe
Lake in a 1500-foot long open
channel to assure adequate
dissolved oxygen levels Because
22
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the rate of flow through the
blowdown treatment plant is
nstant, and changes in the
jality of the influent occur
gradually due to the long
detention times in Ihe stabiliza-
tion lagoon system, the plant
can normally be operated
automatically.
Granite City Steel completed
its submissions to state and
federal agencies, and approval
for this treatment concept was
received in the fall of 1975.
Design was started immediately.
New Facilities
As shown in Figure 1, the new
facilities include a recycle
pump station, new pipelines,
the blowdown treatment plant,
and an outfall channel.
Recycle Pump Station
Effluent from the stabilization
lagoon system is diverted to a
new recycle pump station.
Baffles and screens prevent
logs, leaves, and other debris
from entering the wet well
feeding ihe pumps. Four
vertical, mixed-flow, 450-hp
pumps were rated at between
23 and 31 mgd, depending
upon head conditions. Normal
operation of the pump stations
is to have two pumps running
with 25 mgd going to the
blowdown treatment plant and
37 mgd going to Ihe mill
reservoir.
Pipelines
Three major transmission
pipelines were constructed in
the recycle and treatment
system.
48-inch Recycle Line—The
48-inch recycle line consists of
approximately 9000 feet of
prestressed concrete cylinder
pipe with rubber and steel
joints. The joints received
interior and exterior mortar
grouting for corrosion protec-
tion. The entire pipeline is
electrically bonded, and
cathodic protection inspection
stations were installed at four
locations where the pipeline
crosses utility lines. Eight air
relief valves were installed at
the high points of the pipeline
to prevent air binding. The
pipeline design includes slow-
closing check valves on the
pump discharge and a pressure
relief/surge tank system to
eliminate water hammer
problems.
30-inch Treat men! Plant
Supply Line—The 30-inch-
diameter line supplying the
treatment plant is approximately
7S0 feet long and is of the
same material and construction
as the 48-inch recycle line.
This pipeline is also electrically
bonded for cathodic protection.
36-tnch Gravity Line—A 36-
inch gravity line runs from
the treatment plant lo the
steelworks stabilization lagoon
This provides an outlet for
the treatment plant effluent
during startup operations and
can serve in the future as an
emergency outlet during upset
periods.
Blowdown Treatment Plant
The treatment sequence in the
blowdown plant includes
breakpoint chlonnation, filtra-
tion, sulfonation, and the
associated instrumentation
Breakpoint Chlorination—
Control of pH during the
breakpoint chlonnation reaction
is achieved by addition of 50
percent sodium hydroxide prior
to addition of the chlorine to
a side stream of the influent
water The control system
maintains the pH at or near 7.0.
The caustic soda is stored
indoors in a 15,000-gallon
tank and metering pumps
provide a peak feed rate of
1,320 gallons per day. The
chlonnation system uses gaseous
chlorine with storage in 55-ton
railroad cars on separate spurs
constructed as part of the
project. There is also provision
for storage of one-ton chlorine
cylinders as an emergency
supply. The three chlorine
evaporators are each rated at
8,000 pounds per day, and
three chlorine feeders each
have capacities ranging from
400 to 8,000 pounds per day.
The detention time in the
breakpoint chlorination
reaction tank is S minutes.
Filtration—The filters are
gravity units with 36 inches of
sand as the filter media. There
are two units with four cells in
each unit. Each cell measures
20 ft x 27 ft x 20 ft in depth.
The total available filter
surface area is 39,000 square
feet, and the filtration design
rate for seven cells in operation
is 5 gpm/sq ft The backwash
flow rate can be varied from
15 to 20 gpm/sq ft with an
air scour providing 3,500 cfm
at 5 to 7 psig. Control of the
filters may be manual or
automatic with the influent
flow distributed to the other cell
when one cell is being back-
washed The polyelectrolyte
filter aid system can function
with either powder or liquid
forms at an average dosage
rate of 21 pounds per day,
and a maximum rate of 420
pounds per day. Filter aid,
when used, is added to the
water just prior to filtration.
Sulfonation—The liquid sulfur
dioxide is stored in one-ton
cylinders with space provided
for 16 cylinders Two evapora-
tors are each rated at 4,500
pounds per day, and two sul-
fonators are each rated at from
70 to 1,425 pounds per day
The sulfur dioxide feed rate
is designed for a 1*1 ratio with
the chlorine residual in the
filter clear well.
Instrumentation—The instru-
mentation system includes
flow meters in the treatment
plant influent and effluent lines,
and an influent ammonia meter.
Amperometric chlorine re-
sidual meters record the free
chlorine residuaI at the outlet
of the breakpoint reaction tank
and the combined chlorine
residuals in the clear well and
in the final effluent There is
also a pH meter at the head
end of the breakpoint reaction
tank and a turbidity analyzer
for the final effluent Samples
of raw wastewater breakpoint
reaction tank effluent, clear
will contents, and final effluent
are pumped continuously to a
sink in the treatment plant
laboratory.
Results and Conclusions
Although the blowdown
treatment plant involves a
relatively sophisticated chemical
process, the operators have
been able to learn how to
manage it quickly and success-
fully The construction was
completed on schedule so that
(here was a two-month penod
available to bring the system on
line before the deadline
specified in the NPDES*
permit. The operating period
has been too short to gather
* NPDES refers lo the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System provided for in the
Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972 adopted
by the U.S. Congress.
23
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extensive effluent data for this
paper, but the results to date
have been excellent with all
parameters below the permit
requirements.
Recycle of treated wastewater
permitted Granite City Steel to
achieve significant savings in
both capital and operating
costs while meeting the State
of Illinois water pollution
control regulations, both im-
mediate and for the foreseeable
future.
Another advantage of the
recycling approach is that it
permits Granite City Steel to
continue to supply Horseshoe
Lake with water of high
quality to support a year-round
recreational base in a State
park and thus prevent the threat
of the Lake becoming dry due
to inadequate water supply.
Secondary benefits of the
program include retention and
continued use of the existing
treatment systems. Recycling
from the stabilization basins
provides the mill with a water
source containing lower solids
content than that withdrawn
from the Mississippi River.
In conclusion, Granite City
Steel Division of National Steel
Corporation is committed to
environmental quality and
water pollution control. The
new treatment system has no
by-pass In other words/all
water discharged to Horseshoe
Lake must pass through the
blowdown treatment plant The
new facilities involved a large
capital investment and will
have substantial operating and
maintenance costs; however,
these costs are considerably
lower than they would have
been without recycling. Q
Reference
1 Cairns, D. F , Stabilization
Lagoons Successfully Treat Steel
Mill Wastes, II. Water Poll. Con-
trol Fed'n , Vol 38, No. 10,
p. 1645 (Oct 1966)
Utilization of
Sea Water in a
System of
Recycling Water
Supply of
Industrial
Enterprises
By S.P. Sukach, Yu.D.
Klovatskly, I.B.
Shenderovich, Kharkov
Devision of
VNIIVODGEO
The problem of supply of
service water for industrial
enterprises located in coastal
areas where there is a shortage
of fresh water may be resolved
either through transportation
of water for a considerable
distance from fresh water
sources or by desalting sea
water and lastly through
utilization of sea water for
industrial water supply without
desalination. The first of the
three methods demands
considerable material and
financial expenditures.- The
second one at the present stage
of elaboration of methods for
sea water desalting is also
economically unfeasible.
Utilization of sea water without
desalting for ah industrial
water supply not requiring
water of special quality'at
present should be considered
as the most feasible and
economically acceptable.
The subject of the report
includes questions concerning
peculiarities of utilization of
sea water, without desalination,
in the systems of recycling
water supply of industrial
enterprises The report is based
on results of scientific research
works, publications and patent
data, as well as on the experi-
ence of operation in the Soviet
Union of water supply systems
using sea water
Sea and ocean water is
characterized by high degree of
mineralization, constancy of
pH value and salt content as
well as by strictly determined
relations of components, low
carbonate hardness, which does
not exceed 2 8-3 4 mg-equiv/'
and by considerable value <
total hardness.
Major part of sea water salt
content is represented by
chlorides while carbonates make
up only 0 4% However, from
the point of view of stable
properties, when using sea
water for supply of cooling
systems carbonic acid equilib-
rium plays the same main role
as in fresh waters where
carbonates prevail. Of all low-
soluble components present in
sea water calcium carbonate
is that component which may,
when crystallizing, form
deposits on heat exchanger
walls, i.e. scale deposits. This
sharply reduces heat conduction
of heat exchanges and increases
hydraulic resistance of pipelines.
Presence in sea water of
comparatively high amount of
highly soluble salts, the total
concentration of which in
different seas and oceans may be
within a range of 7-35%, with
predomination of chlorides,
facilitates increase of hardness
salts solubility as compared to
their solubility in fresh water.
On the other hand, high degree
of sea water mineralization
leads to intensification of
metals corrosion processes.
In order to determine
optimal conditions of sea
water utilization for recycling
water supply of various indus-
trial installations, the Kharkov
Division of the VNIIVODGEO
institute has carried out
researches on pilot installations
located on the Black and Azov
seacoasts. Main attention has
been paid to study of the changes
in composition and properties
of the water during its
utilization in recirculating
cooling systems The experi-
ments have been performed
under operational conditions
analogous to the industrial
ones. Heating temperature was
equal to 40 + 60°C, evapora-
tion factor—1 5-3.0, velocity of
water flow in pipes of the
heat-exchanger—1 5-2.5 m/se/-
Reynolds number (Re) was i
the range of 30-75.10", Nusst.
number (Nu)—180-280, heat
load was equal to 40-60 10° kilo
cal/m'.hr
24
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Investigations have demon-
strated that the change of
arly all components of salt
jntent of recycled sea water
depends upon the evaporation
factor and was similar in all
studied regimes The only
exceptions are alkalinity and
concentration of dissolved gases.
It is shown by the experi-
ments that the increase of
evaporation under the same
temperature causes the growth
of alkalinity, but with the
increase of water heating
temperature, at the same degree
of evaporation, alkalinity
decreases Increase of total
alkalinity not in accordance
with evaporation degree but to
a somewhat lower value takes
place due to partial decay of
bicarbonates and their trans-
formation into carbonates on
one hand and heterogenous
process of equilibrium between
solid and dissolved phases of
carbonate calcium on the
other Preservation of constant
limiting value is a result of the
dynamic equilibrium between
bicarbonates decay and intro-
duction of their new portions
with make-up water for the
system
Evaluation of recycled sea
water stability according to
Langellie, experimental deter-
mination of its stable properties
according to GOST—3313-46
as well as calculations of the
degree of its supersaturation by
calcium carbonate showed that
under all operation regimes it
was supersaturated by calcium
carbonate and was inclined to
produce carbonate deposits
Supersaturation grows with the
increase of temperature and
degree of evaporation
In addition to chemical
analysis, during experimental
researches on pilot installations
in accordance with methodology
of statistical planning of
experiment observations were
carried out as well as monitor-
ing of the processes of low-
temperature scale formation
and metals corrosion under
conditions of recycled and
'irect-flow water supply.
Processing of obtained data
made it possible to design
mathematical models of
processes of scale formation
ancj metals corrosiorr rate ' -*¦
depending on parameters of
water supply .systems .operation.
These dependencies were
approximated by corresponding
curves enabling in a simple-
way "to make a selection of
optimal modes of water supply
systems operation with utiliza-
tion of sea water.
Generalizing results of per-
formed researches makes it
possible to conclude that
when the heating temperature
is up to 45°C and the evapora-
tion degree is equal to 1.5-3.0
sea water is sufficiently stable
and may be used in cooling
systems of recycled water
supply without any stabilizing
treatments.
Stability of supersaturated
solutions of carbonic acid
compounds under these condi-
tions may be attributed to
combined action of several
factors decrease of bicarbonate
and carbonic ions activity due
to increase of ion force of water
solutions, depending on degree
of water mineralization,
availability of complexes or ion
pairs causing decrease in con-
centration of scale-depositors
free ions as well as influence
of micropurities which, being
adsorbed on the surface of
microcrystals, are inhibiting
their growth.
When sea water is utilized
in the systems of recycling
water supply operating at higher
temperatures of water heating
or under higher heat loads of
heat exchangers, its stability
is lost To ensure scale-free
conditions of operation it is
necessary to carry out stabilizing
treatment of make-up water by
the same methods which are
recommended for this purpose
in fresh water systems, for
example by acidification, re-
carbonation, magnetic treat-
ment
Corrosion tests included
determination of corrosive
activity of sea water in the
systems of recycled and direct-
flow water supply in respect to
metals (steel, cast iron, copper,
brass), depending on tempera-
ture of heating, water flow
velocity, degree of evaporation
and duration of metals sub-
mersion into sea water.
Investigations demonstrated
that direct-flow water at the
temperature up to 4S°C has
higher corrosive effect (ap-
proximately 2 times higher) on
all tested metals than the
corrosive effect produced by
water of recycling water supply
systems Reduced corrosive
activity of recycled water
may be explained by combined
action of several factors,
dominant of which are the
following ones:
•	lower concentration of
dissolved oxygen due to
higher mineralization and
temperature of recycled
water.
•	presence of a very thin layer
of carbonate film on the
surface of metal contacting
with water.
Increases of water heating
temperature up to 60°C causes
more intensive growth of
corrosive activity of direct-flow
water. On test samples, fixed in
heat exchangers of recycled
water supply systems, at the
same temperatures appear some
scale deposits.
In addition to the above
considered investigations, some
experiments for determination
of conditions of sea water
utilization in the systems of
recycling water supply of gas
purifiers of blast furnaces have
been performed As a result of
the study of stability and
corrosive activity indices of
recycled water and comparison
of these indices with ones for
direct-flow water it was found
that at heating temperatures
up to 55°C and evaporation
factors up to 3 0, the sea water
is sufficiently stable and may be
utilized in the systems of
recycling water supply of gas
purifier without special
stabilizing treatment
Corrosion tests showed that
the speed of steel and cast iron
corrosion in the water of the
system of recycling water supply
is 7-8 times lower than in
direct flow water. All this,
alongside with prevention of
pollution of sea water areas
adjacent to plants, enables
preference to be given to
recycling systems as compared
to direct-flow ones.
Alongside with the investi-
gations carried out on natural
sea waters, mineralization of
which did not exceed 18%,
special experiments were
performed in order to deter-
mine conditions of use of
highly mineralized sea
water in recycling water
supply systems They were
performed on pilot installations
incorporating all elements of
operating systems of water
supply typical for TPS using
water similar in its composition
to water of the Aden Gulf of
the Red Sea.
Such water has been prepared
by dissolving in drinking water
natural sea salts up to the
concentration equal to 45%
Experiments made it possible
to draw a conclusion about
the possibility of using this
water in recycling systems with
a heating temperature up to
50°C, degree of evaporation
up to 1.5, velocity of water
flow in heat exchangers pipes
equal to 1 5-2 0 m/sec with
stabilizing treatment of the
water for scale deposition
prevention being unnecessary
Corrosive activity of the re-
cycled water, due to avail-
ability of thin, hardly percepti-
ble film, is approximately 2-3
times lower in comparison to
corrosive activity of direct-flow
water However, it does not
eliminate the necessity of
anticorrosive protection of
metals.
At present, a large number
of corrosion control methods
are known, among which the
dominant place belongs to the
following ones, use of
corrosion-resistant materials,
application of special protective
coatings, arrangement of
cathodic and anodic protection,
treatment of water by inhibitors.
Under conditions of enterprises
of power-producing, metallurgi-
cal, chemical, machine-building
branches of industry, where
the water consumption reaches
the highest amounts, the first
three methods should be
considered as the most accept-
able ones It is also necessary
to take into account the possi-
bility of utilization of such
methods as replacement of
direct-flow water supply by
recycling one and temporary
25
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increase of circulating water
heating temperature for forma-
tion of protective carbonate
film on metal surfaces
contacting with water.
Advantage of recycling
water supply over a direct-flow
one is also confirmed by such
an important fact as insignifi-
cant or complete absence of
biological growths Control of
this phenomenon when large
amounts of water are consumed
is of considerable difficulty
during certain seasons of the
year. In the systems of recycling
water supply as a rule only
those sections are subject to
biological growth, which are
connected with supply of addi-
tional "fresh" water from sea.
However, this does not cause
especially appreciable com-
plications since usage of
make-up water does not exceed
3-5%	of total water con-
sumption.
For control of biological
growths in supplying pipelines
bringing make-up water to
recycled water supply systems
it is better to use reagentfree
methods. Among them it is
possible to recommend back
washing by used water heated
up to 45°C at least once per
two weeks with a duration of
4-5	hours Such washing should
be done when there is a
stand-by pipeline and short
length pipelines for make-up
water delivery which are laid
down with reverse gradient.
This control can also be per-
formed by emptying pipelines
every 15 days for the period of
7-8 days
In low-capacity systems it
is possible to use reagent
methods, for example, chlonna-
tion of make-up water in such
a way as to provide concentra-
tion of residual chlorine equal
to at least 0 25-0 50 mg/1.
One of the sufficiently
effective methods for reduction
of biological growths intensity
is also filtering of fresh sea
water For these purposes one
may use water intake facilities
of filtration type, revolving
nets made of capron fibre,
nickel or steel non-corrodible
threads
Expedience of sea water
utilization in the systems of
water supply of industrial
enterprises of the southern
areas of the USSR, located on
the Black and Azov seacoasts
is proved by performed techni-
cal and economical calculations.
So, at certain conditions
sea water may be successfully
utilized in the systems of
recycling water suppy without
its desalination or other com-
plicated special pretreatment.
It enables prevention of
pollution of sea water areas by
wastewaters.
Use of sea water for in-
dustrial water supply makes
it possible to economize fresh
water which is in short supply
in many seaside areas and as a
result of it to receive
appreciable technical and
economic benefits.
Municipal and
Industrial
Wastewater
Treatment and
Reuse
By Frank P. Sebastian
Senior Vice President
Envirotech Corporation
M' lo Park, California
atii. Dennis S. Lachtman
Environmental and
Occupational Health
Analyst
Envirotech Corporation
Menlo Park, California
Introduction
The opportunity to particip?
as a member of the USA-
USSR Working Group for the
fifth Symposium appearance
with this prestigious group of
American and Soviet scientists
is an honor for which I am
deeply appreciative. As sug-
gested by the title, this paper
will highlight several types of
current water reuse systems.
In my own California
community where there is a
drought, water reuse is a
question of vital importance.
Since the growth of population
and industry in countries like
the United States and the
Soviet Union requires ever
increasing amounts of water,
availability of water is critical
In the U.S. we are faced with
the problem of providing
sufficient amounts of an
acceptable quality water in
addition to maintaining the best
environmental quality.
Water reclamation, although
previously not terribly popular,
widely used or understood, is
a means to alleviate this
problem. As the subject of this
discussion is principally waste-
water, wastewater treatment,
wastewater reuse and repurified
wastewater as a potential
untapped resource, let's think
about wastewater that's
presently in our tap water
resources Frequently, the
mention of reusing wastewater
brings a certain emotional
barrier to our minds, and so
I'd like to just go through
some examples to show that
this isn't as off base as many
have normally believed.
In Nassau County, New
York, septic tanks are used as
the principal means of treat-
ment, and this water, the
overflow water, actually re-
enters the underground water
supply which then enters the
drinking water supply system.
Nitro, West Virginia, draws its
wastewater from the Kenawha
River and this is a well known
source of industrial and
municipal waste.
A U S. Government survt
of 155 cities over 25,000 in
population using surface ^ater
showed that 145 of them have
sewage constituents in their
26
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water sources that may consist
of up to as much as 17 to 18V4
ercent by volume in the dry
eason The Denver area,
which was visited by a Soviet
delegation in 1974, happens to
be one of those communities
having these higher sewage
volume levels in their water
supply
Cleveland gets its drinking
water trom Lake Erie, which is
known to contain industrial
and municipal sewage London
gets 19 percent of its metro-
politan drinking water supply
from the River Lee, 10 miles
downstream from the Rye
Meads Treatment Plant, the
highest quality wastewater
treatment plant in the U.K
Paris draws its tap water
from the River Seine, but
France is a bottled water
society As I was told on a
U S environmental trade
mission to Paris, no self-
respecting Frenchman would
drink tap water!
In summary, a recent U.S.
Public Health survey showed
25% of some 3,500 samples
from communities indicate tap
water of a lower quality than
the high quality effluent from
some of the treatment plants
that I'll be discussing Projected
nationally, this was equal to
about 50 million people in the
U S drinking tap water of a
quality lower than that which
is received from an advanced
waste treatment plant
Accordingly, water reuse is
not a novel or new concept,
but merely one that has not
been popularly recognized and
has been overlooked in long
range planning
Water Reuse
In the United States, there are
approximately 360 projects
operating to reclaim municipal
wastewater1 Eighty percent of
these projects are located in
California and Texas.' Present
municipal reuse volume in the
US is 5 x lCm'/yr (136
billion gallons per year), which
¦s less than 2% of the total
mnicipal waste volume.1
Of this municipal reuse
volume, 40% or 2 x 10*ma
(54 billion gallons) is utilized
by industry and 57% was used
for agricultural purposes. The
majority of industrial uses are
included within the categories
of cooling and boiler feed
water, although, as mentioned
previously, unintentional water
reuse occurs widely in various
river and lake basins. Figure 1
illustrates some of the variety
of purposes that treated wate-
water can serve.
Separate from municipal
wastewater treatment systems,
industrial process water reuse
occurs primarily in the form
of water regeneration or
recycling Examples of
municipal and industrial
recycling systems will be
discussed below
Municipal Water Reuse
Systems
In areas undergoing drought
circumstances, such as Cali-
fornia, water reuse can no
longer be neglected In Cali-
fornia, the supply of water is
expected to fall short of
demand by 2 to 4 million acre
feet (2 5 to 5 x 10° m1) in
1990 and a shortage of 3 to
10 million acre feet (3 7 to
12 3 x 10" ms) by 2020' 2 2
million acre feet (2 7 billion
m1) of groundwater is
depleted from groundwater
basins every year in California *
These predictions in conjunction
with such variables as below
normal rainfall should lead to
the recognition for the need
to develop increased water
resources While conservation
can help alleviate supply
deficits, industrial and popula-
tion growth can be stifled
when water resources are in
short supply Water reuse,
where appropriate, can offer
to reduce water shortages
Some examples of advanced
municipal treatment systems
that purify water for reuse are
shown in Figure 2 Since a
more detailed discussion than
will follow of such advanced
treatment processes is beyond
tne scope of this paper, I
have appended to this paper
more detailed information on
this subject for those who are
so inclined
The flowsheet in Figure 3
is the Windhoek, Namibia,
wastewater treatment plant
which is the only advanced
waste treatment installation in
the world that directly inte-
grated purified wastewater
into the city's domestic water
supply on a continental basis.
The facility played a vital role
in alleviating the water
shortages during the 1969-1971
acute drought. This installation,
consisted of a conventional
wastewater treatment plant
which had algae lagoon and
physical-chemical treatment
stages added. The effluent met
the United Nations World
Health Organization (WHO)
standards and was used to
supplement up to 50% of the
tap water for this community
of approximately 70,000
people.1 4
A more modern reclamation
plant in Pretoria, (Daspoort)
South Africa reclaims 4927
m7day (1.3 x 10° gallons) of
effluent that also meets WHO
drinking water standards. The
flowsheet for this physical
chemical treatment plant is
shown in Figure 4 In 1976,
the Windhoek plant was further
modernized to enable it to
achieve operating efficiency
levels similar to those being
achieved in Pretoria.
At South Lake Tahoe,
physical-chemical treatment was
added to conventional or
secondary treatment and that
water also meets the United
Nations WHO standards This
water has been used to form
Indian Creek Reservoir, a trout
lake, for swimming and for
grazing areas This biological
plus physical-chemical advanced
wastewater treatment flowsheet
is shown in Figure 5.
Colorado Springs is one of
the most recent advanced
waste treatment plants in the
U S , again a conventional
plant to which physical-chemi-
cal treatment was added, (see
Figure 6) The levels of
oxygen-demanding substances
and suspended solids are low
enough that tertiary quality
water, some two million gallons
a day capacity from this
treatment plant, could be sold
to the next door public utility
for industrial cooling water
make-up.
The Rye Meads Treatment
Plant in the U K which I
mentioned earlier, has an
extended conventional bio-
logical treatment plant It has
two standards 10 parts per
million of oxygen-demanding
substances and suspended solids
in the wet season, and only
half that amount in the dry
season, and it, as I mentioned,
flows into the River Lee that
supplies about 19 percent of
London's tap water Figure 7
is an aerial view of this
treatment plant which shows
the processes all the way from
the sand filtration through the
solids handling units
Another water reclamation
plant that is about to start
operating is the 113,500 m'/day
(30 million gallon/day) Central
Contra Costa Sanitation Dis-
trict (CCCSD) Water Reclama-
tion Plant in Concord, Cali-
fornia. This plant flowsheet,
as shown in Figure 8, is
designed for a possible expan-
sion to handle up to 455,000
m7day (120 million gallons/
day)." The influent characteris-
tics are expected to average
220 mg/1 BOD, 240 mg/1
suspended solids, 30 mg/1
nitrogen N, 11 mg/1 total
phosphorus as P After treat-
ment, the effluent values will be
3 5 mg/1,60 mg/1,20 mg/1
and 0.5 mg/1, respectively " The
effluent will be used by the
following five industries
Phillips Petroleum, Shell Oil,
Stauffer Chemical, Monsanto
and the Pacific Gas and Electric
power station. Reclaimed water
in excess of industrial needs
will be discharged into receiving
Bay waters Fortunately, these
discharge waters will have
little if any deleterious effect
on receiving waters as the
effluent would be virtually free
of oxygen demanding materials,
nutrients and toxicants So far,
a minimum of 72,000 mVday
(19 million gallons/day) have
been purchased by the five
named industrial concerns.
Approximately 25% of the
reclaimed water will be used for
process purposes with the
remainder allocated for cooling.
Included in the general area
of water reuse are systems that
add water of high treatment
quality for recharge into
27
-------
underground waters. Numerous
examples exist of such systems
that are designed to augment
subterranean water supplies
and stop salt water intrusion
into underground fresh water
supplies. However, discussion
of such sy:tems is beyond the
scope of this presentation.
Industrial Water Reuse
Systems
Industrial facilities demand
large quantities of process
waters to supply their manu-
facturing processes. According
to a 1968 study of the Great
Lakes Basin the U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce, based on
an Office of Business Economic
Growth prediction plus an
assumption of achievement in
water conservation by industry,
water depletion in the Great
Lakes Basin could become
a serious constraint to industrial
expansion. By the year 2000
the vast Great Lakes Basin,
including metropolitan Chicago,
could be evaporating more
water through its industries
than the metropolis now
withdraws from Lake Michigan
for all its uses/
As a result of heavy indus-
trial demands, recycling or
reclamation of wastewaters
should become a critical factor
in population and industrial
growth. Methods that serve to
reduce the ever increasing
demand for water supplies will
become necessary to allow
industrial growth.
An industry that traditionally
requires vast supplies of water
has been bleached kraft pulp
milling. A new innovation, the
closed-cycle mill with salt
recovery (SRP) promises both
to reduce water consumption
and to alleviate the problems
of environmental degradation
that have previously been asso-
ciated with bleached kraft pulp
mills. The closed-cycle-mill was
first developed by W.H.
Rapson and D.W. Reeve in
their research efforts at the
University of Toronto1 \
Erco-Envirotech, a joint venture
of American and Canadian
business interests, continued
the development of the closed-
cycle concept for commercial
applications, as was reported at
last year's joint symposium
in Moscow."
The closed-cycle mill com-
bines a number of innovative
procedures providing a process
design that eliminates dis-
charges through internal re-
cycling and reduces water
consumption by 83%. The
system also recovers fibers,
chemicals, organics and heat
normally lost to external
treatment systems in conven-
tional kraft mills.
Located in the heavily indus-
trialized Great Lakes area, this
closed cycle mill with SRP has
begun operations this year and
produces 250,000 tons (227,273
metric tons) per year of
bleached market grade pulp.
Many of the process techniques
for this plant have either been
demonstrated or are being used
in mills throughout the world
today. Those process tech-
niques already used elsewhere
and contained in the Thunder
Bay flowsheet are the follow-
ing:
1.	Countercurrent washing in
the bleachery;
2.	chlorine dioxide substitution
for chlorine in the first
bleaching stage;
3.	steam stripping of con-
taminated condensate; and
4.	a closed screen room and
spill tanks to accommodate
temporary process upsets
and allow subsequent
recycle.
The unique aspect of the
Thunder Bay flowsheet is the
total recycle of bleachery
effluent, as shown in Figure 9,
to the unbleached portion of the
mill. Normally, the problem
with such a recycle procedure
would be the build-up or
introduction of sodium chloride,
which must be removed at the
same rate it is introduced. The
Erco-Envirotech SRP System
was developed to solve this
problem.
Economics
It must be recognized that
economic data vary greatly
between different processes and
their locations. However, some
consideration as to the value
of reclaimed water should be
compared to the differential
between secondary and tertiary
treatment systems. In a
previous symposium paper10
evaluating the costs of tertiary
treatment plants and inde-
pendent physical chemical
treatment plants, I found that
the cost of tertiary quality water
was approximately 604/1000
gallons (164/m1) and that the
difference between the cost of
producing secondary and ter-
tiary quality water ranges from
6 to 141/1000 gallons (14-
34/m*) for a 30 million gallon/
day plant (133,550 m'/day).
Since the price of potable water
is on the order of 40 to 804
per 1000 gallons (16 to 194/m*),
tertiary quality water when used
as a substitute or alternative
for fresh water supplies can
yield substantial savings. In
South Africa the estimated cost
of tertiary treated water from
a 50,000 m'/day (13,000,000
gallons/day) treatment plant is
approximately 154 per m* (574/
1000 gallons), which is of a
magnitude similar to the total
cost of fresh water supplies in
the U.S. However, these prices
whether they occur in the U.S.
or in other countries are most
likely a very small fraction of
the full price of fresh water
when one considers the cost of
reclaimed water to merely reflect
the cost difference between
secondary and tertiary
treatment levels. Considering
that reclaimed water for cooling
purposes is valued between 26-
404/1000 gallons (about 84/m*),
the 64 to 144/1000 gallons
(1-34/*) added cost of reclaimed
water (tertiary water from
secondary treatment) is of
positive economic benefit.
The economics of the closed-
cycle mill with SRP are quite
favorable Figure 10 illustrates
a theoretical model of a 900
short ton per day (TPD)
(818,000 kg/day) coniferous
bleached kraft pulp plant similar
to the Thunder Bay flow-
sheet." The data from Figure
10 show the estimated annual
savings in operating costs for
the closed-cycle mill in
comparison to conventional
bleached kraft pulp mills are
in excess of $5,000,000
(3,785,000 rubles) or approxi-
mately one-half the capital
costs. These savings mean that
the capital costs would be
recovered in about two years.
Additionally, these statistics
exclude such factors as the
value of the salt (NaCl)
recovered or the potential value
of heat that could be recovered
from the clean cooling water
makeup."
Health Implications
In the U.S. wastewater treat-
ment performance data are
not available for every
parameter included in existing
drinking water contents1
Current data indicate that where
information is available the
types of processes previously
discussed can conform to all
standards being measured.
The present tertiary quality
treatment systems deliver waste-
water effluents that are equal
to or surpass the quality of
many suitable water supplies
However, such treated effluents
often have small residuals, as
that extensive testing has
shown that viruses do not
appear to have been a
problem." During 1976,
studies at Daspoort also
confirmed the Windhoek
sampling data, showing that
viruses and bacteriological
contaminants were present in
treatment plant influent, but
absent from the treated effluent.
Epidemiologic studies looking
at the long-term health
consequences of trace organics
and other trace residuals in
tertiary treated wastewater of
the Windhoek municipal popula-
tion were unable to detect any
change in disease or morbidity
patterns that could be associated
with the consumption of
tertiary wastewater. While
more epidemiologic data in the
U S. and other countries an"
needed to provide better
assurances of safety, the So^
28
-------
African work is an initial
positive data point indicating a
-obable lack of adverse chronic
alth effects associated with
consumption of high quality
reclaimed wastewater,
do fresh potable water sources,
of organic carbon and
chlorinated organics. How
important or critical from a
health standpoint are these
substances? We do not presently
know the answer to this
question, but some research
on this subject is underway
in this Country.
Yet, we can look to Windhoek
for further information on the
health implication of drinking
reclaimed water. It turns out
Summary
We have discussed the need and
importance for maintaining
adequate water supplies. The
use of reclaimed water, where
appropriate, is clearly a means
of alleviating water shortages
and insuring adequate water
supplies.	'
Tahoe, Windhoek, Daspoort,
Colorado Springs, Rye Meads,
and Thunder Bay are all
examples of existing technology
to purify virtually any waste-
water to a high quality reclaimed
water at a reasonable cost, and
possibly a saving, when
References
1	Planned Wastewater Reuse
F M Middleton, News op
Environmental Research in
Cincinnati, USEPA, July 1977.
2	What is the Role of Waste-
water Reclamation in the Use of
Our Water Resources O. H.
Horder, The Commonwealth,
V 71(19) May 9, 1977
3	Tapping Wastewater for
Human Consumption R DeWolk,
Los Angeles Free Press, April
29-May 5, 1977.
4. Purified Wastewater—The
Untapped Water Resource
F Sebastian, JWPCF, V46(2)
February 1974.
5 Water Research Commission
Annual Report Hanaway 31
December 1976. Republic of
South Africa.
Design of Integrated Approach
j Nutrient Removal JOURNAL OI
the Environmental Engineer-
ing Division D. L. Eisenhower,
R. P. Sieger, D. S. Parker.
compared to alternate sources
and the damage done to the
environment by the discharging
of less, purified effluents. Addi-
tionally. processes such as the
one at Thunder Bay, Ontario,
actually return enough savings
to be considered profitable after
only two years.
While health data are sparse,
the presently available studies
have shown no adverse long-
term or other health problems
associated with drinking or using
hiah quality effluents as such
efforts have been reported in
the U.S. and South Africa. ~
MUNICIPAL
wastewater
INDUSTRIAL
WASTEWATER
MUNICIPAL
NONPOTA8LC
j | PWMHMG J
RECREATION
FISH
CULTURE
AGRICULTURE
| SWUMNO"! | BOATING | | FISHING |
T
| INTRA-PLANT | | GENERAL [
STOCK
WATERING
ORCHARDS

F0OCER. FIBRE
AND

CROPS AND
VINEYARDS

SEEO CROPS
CROPS CONSUMED
AFTER PROCESSING
'Figure 1
Intentional reuse of waste-
waters. From the World Health
Organisation Technical Report
No. 517, 1973 (3).

CROPS
CONSUMED
raw
Windhoek, South
West Africa
Lake Tahoe
California
Colorado Spgs,
Colorado
Biological-algae-
physical-chemical
Biological-physical-
chemtcal
Biolopical-physical-
chemical
Rye Meads, U.K. Extended-biological
Central Contra
Costa Sewage
Treatment Plant
Figure 2
Lime plus
Biological
Rglomt Quality
WHO Standard
WHO Standard
BOD 11 ppm*
SS 1.5 ppm
BOD 10-3 ppm
SS 10-S ppm
BOD 2.0 pp,
SS 1.0 ppm
Effluent Ufe
Tap Water
Trout lake,
swimming
irrigation
Industrial
cooling water
Up to 20% of
London tap water
Industrial
Cooling and
Processing
Examples of Advanced Waste-
water Treatment Technology
7.	The Long Hard Road to the
Effluent-Free Mill Chemistry in
Canada, D. W. Emerson, p. 11,
April 1976.
8.	Salt Recovery Process Alloys
Reuse of Pulp-Bleaching
Effluent Chemical Engineering,
C. F. Cornell, p. 136, November
10, 1975.
9)	Rapping with Rapson Pulp
and Paper, October 1973.
10)	Cost Benefits of Physical
Chemical Treatment, U.S./USSR
Working Party Seminar on
Physical Chemical Treatment
Fall, 1977.
11)	Economic Advantages of
Closed-Cycle Mill, Erco-Enviro-
tech Study, December IS, 1975.
12)	Improvements for Kraft Pulp
and Municipal Treatment
Processes, Symposium Intensi-
fication of Biochemical
Methods of Wastewater
Treatment, F. Sebastian, D.
Lachtman, USSR/USA Environ-
mental Agreement, August-
September 1976.
crruanT raoM
•UTUUTKM PONOl
MM MTkUfMn IM
mccimo meM MioecM.
IKUWM wait.
	, «.
Z	J » / AIS*( » 1 1 I / UlNn 1, _DOSI
I tnoraroi ! I I (himowl) 5
-------
LLPs:
IWT
ruriTM oar
cum uwmiw/trwiim
u» OTII
c»MK comrttrmm tmt
Figure 4
Flowsheet of water reclamation
plant installed at Daspoort,
South Africa.
LIME
ACTIVATEO
SLUDGE OR
TRICKLMO
FILTER
EFFLUENT
RECYCLE
LtUE
LME
CLAUDI-
CATION
I CO,
I RgcARflommBW
WASTE SOLOS
LIME
RECALCINATION
BEOQCZN*
TAT KM
1
WRATOI

CMMH
TANK
1




1




TO
RECALCMATlON
CM SO*
netmiuTiM
Figure 6
Colorado Springs treatment
plant section, producing an
effluent quality that is accept-
able as power plant makeup
water, (a) It contains 11 mg.
per liter BOD, 17 mg. per liter
COD, 1.5 mg. per liter Ss and
3 mg. per liter PO/*. (16).
l«i im
•MlIF
LOU
ITQMAOC
IMIIML
rice	TO
LIMt '{to TO

Hcmmwoi
immat
Figure 5
Public utility district water
reclamation plant at South Lake
Tahoe, California, (a) Carbon
dioxide is added to water in
reaction basin after it has
passed through ammonia-
stripping column, (b) Thermal
disk is a processing unit with a
heat-transfer medium. The
solid, reclaimed lime is cooled
by the disks as it passes be*
tween them.
I
30
-------
*>IdfiJoq
iilsiuouo-
'Cit.yt,

Htq&VJ0
			 7-r
¦m\a tob^n,';/, /(&$}*
ujScH" m»M
SOL ID*
1*M TO
OlttOSti.
Ma-]
~~F"~
h	H
|*T|A«
TVfttlftC
^•LOwtm
T
«t mi*
SLU06C
-MtTMAMOL.
' •tITHOiCN •** '	'' i**—'	MtT*«NOl
^L1—
Of
TlOW
rp+9 )> to
v*mmlo«
3
IMOUtTMlM. (TfTIH
~ UMPlNS
hcliino htii
TO MSU«T»T
Figure 8;
Central Costa Ctota1 Swag*
Liquid • Process FtowSheet'
Treatment! ®Jant< ?. Concord, CA.
31
-------
To the Question
of Municipal
Treated Sewage
Use in
Industrial Water
Supply of the
Apsheron
Peninsula
By Gasanov M.V.,
Amirova S.M.
Baku branch of the All-
Union Research Institute
"VODGEO", 67 Tbilisskly
prospect, Baku, USSR
The treated wastewater use
for the needs of industrial
enterprise obtained wide
spreading for the last year?
Steel-casting and oil com
panies of the USA use
municipal treated wastewaters
for technical water supply and
for circulating-water supply
system feeding. 150.000 m*/
day of water is circulated in the
chemical plants, producing
spirits, glycerine, fatty acids,
nitriles and amines, without
discharging into the ponds. The
industrial water-pipe stations,
using municipal treated waste-
waters, as a water source are
built in Japan. Water, after
coagulation and clarification
processes, is supplied in a
special mains of technical water,
from which it's spread into
463 factories and plants. The
municipal treated sewages are
used for industrial water supply
purposes in Mexico, England
and South-African Republic.
In the USSR municipal treated
sewages are used in a number
of enterprises: in the Northern-
Donetsk group of chemical
enterprises, Kachkanarsk and
Knvoy Rog groups of mines,
in Reftensk and Nizhni-
Turinsky hydroelectric power
stations, in Chelyabinsk and
New-Lipetsk group of metal-
lurgical enterprises; in
Zelenograd aeration station
(Moscow) wastewater after
total biological treatment,
additional treatment in grained
filters and chlorization is used
for streets and plants watering,
and also as a technical water
in the plant of reinforced
products, automobile bases. The
system of technical water
conduit is designed for the
south-eastern industrial region
of Moscow, where Kuryanov-
skaya aeration station sewage
will be used.
At present, the design
institutions developed the
majority of industrial water
conduits projects, with
municipal sewage use as a
water supply source.
The oil-producing, petroleum-
refining, oil-chemical, chemical,
electro-technical, mechanical-
engineering, wood-working,
structural-materials production
and other kinds of industries
are the most widely used on the
Apsheron Peninsula.
Many of the industrial enter-
prises use the municipal conduit
water in such processes of
production when there is no
need of potable water and there
is no systems of circulating
water supply at all. All this
leads to the unorganized use of
scarce fresh water. On the other
hand, even treated sewage
effluent in the ponds with the
low self-cleaning capacity, leads
to the quality change.
Therefore, the use of the
treated municipal sewage in
such industrial branches of the
Table 1
Sanitary-chemical indices of the
Indlea
Temperature, *C
COD, mg Oi/l
BOD , mg/0=/1
total
pH
Suspended materials, mg/1
Nitrogen: ammonium, mg/1
nitrates, mg/1
nitrates, mg/1
Phosphates, mg/1 P
Carbonate hardness, mg-equiv./l
Non-carbonate hardness, mg-equiv.
Total alkalinity, mg-equiv,/1
Cll, mg/1
S04u, mg/1
Salt content (according to the
tempered residue, mg/1)
Ether-solubles, mg/1
Hexsane-solubles, mg/1
Apsheron Peninsula where water
is widely used, will promote
not only the sharp fresh water
usage reduction but the ceasing
of the following pollution of
the Caspian Sea, as well. The
possibility of municipal treated
sewage usage for industrial
needs is determined by three
factors:
1.	Technical,
2.	Sanitary,
3.	Economic
1. The technical factor is
determined by the role of water
in the processes of production.
At present, the main trend in
the municipal treated sewage
usage, mainly in the circulating
water supply systems, is
determined already rather clear.
One can say the same about
the number of technologir
operations, where water
demands nearly corresponu rf>
the fresh water indices in the
open sources.
The treated sewage demands
turn mainly into the definite
sewage temperature, thermal
stability, corrosion resistance,
exception of biological growth,
and definite suspended materials
and organic materials content.
The composition of
biologically treated municipal
sewage in Baku is given in
Table 1.
municipal sewage
Content, mt/i
untreated blologtcall)> treated
water
water
30
30
300-480
120-150
150-280
15-20.0
6.6-7.1
7.2-7.6
90-150
20-30
28-35
12-19
no
0.5-1.0
no
7.0-8.9
2.1-3.3
1.0-1.8
2.5-4.5
3.5-4.5
3.0-5.7
3.0-5.7
4 0-5.5
4.0-5.5
160-400
160-400
350-500
350-500
1100-1500
1100-1500
20-35
10-15
5-8
3.5-6
The technical water
temperature must not often be
more than 25-30°C. Treated
municipal sewage satisfy these
demands. Quantities of pH
active reaction, alkalinity and
carbonate hardness are the
indirect indices of the water
thermal stability. According to
the demands of technical water
pH=6.5-8.4, carbonate hardness
is of 1.5-2.0 mg-equiv./l.
According to the norms for
industrial and circulating water
supply pH-7-8.5, carbonate
hardness is not more than 5
mg-equiv./l, alkalinity of *-
5 mg-equiv./l. In the trear
municipal sewage (Table
pH=7.2-7.6, carbonate hardness
is 3.5-4.5 mg-equiv./l,
alkalinity is 4-5.5 mg-equiv./l.
32
-------
So, the indirect indices of the
'hernial stability satisfies the
jchnical_ water demands. The
water corroding characteristics
were determined by the
saturation index J, when J=ph—
pH,=7 4—7 34=0 06, where
pH, is the quantity of the
calcium carbonate balance
saturation in the examined
water, which is determined by
the sewage temperature data,
calcium concentration, alkalinity
and total salt content This
saturation index quantity points
to the fact that water is not
aggressive and corroding The
intensive formation of biological
growth may be prevented by
the chlonzation of the treated
sewage with such doses of
chlorine which allows to support
the content of sedimentary
chlorine not less than 1 5 mg/
1, and use of such prophilactic
measures as (hot water washing
and mechanical dressing of
pipes)
According to the technical
water demands, the content of
the suspended materials, BOD,
COD, salt content makes up
10-20 mg/1 (which water
movement velocity in hcat-
exchanging apparatus is 0 01-
0 02 mg/scc), 75 mg 071,
10 mg 0./1 and 2000 mg/ 1
The content of the sus-
pended materials in biologi-
cally treated municipal sewage
(Table 1) is of 20-30 mg/1,
COD—120-150 mg 0 71,
BOD..i.i of 15-20 mg 0.-/1,
the salt content of 1500 mg/1.
Therefore, biologically
treated water in Baku .should be
additionally treated, according
to the suspended materials
indices, COD and BODi.m
Among all the presented
methods of additional treatment
of biologically treated sewage—
sorption, coagulation, flotation,
ozonization and so on, the
filtration by means of grained
loadings is the most simple
and extended method, and it
gives a great effect Natural
method of additional treatment
in the biological ponds may
"ie the most effective one in the
Juth climatic conditions That's
why the experimental investiga-
tions on additional treatment
of biologically treated municipal
sewage in Baku were carried
out in the biological ponds and
on the rapid sandy filters, both
in laboratory and semi-
commercial structures

Biologically
Indices treated tnunldps

sewage
Temperature. *C
no > 30
PH
7 2-7 5
COD, mg 0j/1
120-150
BOD tolal
15-20
Suspended materials,
20-30
mg/1

Ammonia Nitrogen.
12-19
mg/l

Nitrites, mg/l
05-1 0
Nitrates, mg/I
7 0-8 0
Phosphates, mg/IP
1 0-1 8
Carbonate hardness,
3 5-4 5
mg-equiv t\

Non-carbonate hardness.
3 5-5 7
mg-equiv / I

Total alkalinity.
4 0-5 5
mg-equiv /I

Chlorides, mg/l
160-400
Sulphates, mg/l
350-550
Salt content, mg/l
U 00-1500
Fthcr-soKibles. mg/l
10-15
Dissolved Oxigen, mg/l
5-8
Biological	Rapid Sandy Filters
pond with		¦	;	¦
die natural	without	with
addition	aeration	aeration
no >25	no > 25	no > 25
7.5-8 5	7.5	7 5
JO	60	55
4 5	8	5.0
8-10	5-10	5.6
5	15	15
0	6	0 8	0.7
1	5-3	4.0	5.0
0 6	1.0	10
4	5	4 5	4.5
5	8	5 8	5.8
5 2	5.0	5 0
160-400	160-400	160-400
350-550	350-550	350-550
no 1500	no 1500	no 1500
5	8	6
3	6
Table 2
Sanitary-chemical composition
of additionally treated sewages
The results of the experi-
mental investigations on the
additional treatment of the
biologically treated effluent are
given in Tabic 2
As it is seen from Table 2
according to the technical water
demands the residual pollution
reduction in the additional
treatment structures for
suspended materials is of 5-10
mg/1. COD—of 50-60 mg/1,
BOD....; 4 5-X mg 0./1, ether-
soluble materials is of 5-8
mg/ I on average, it allows to
use the additionally treated
municipal sewage in industrial
enterprises water supply
The carried out investigations
allowed to define the main
parameters of additional
treatment structures They are-
residence time, depth, water-
plants applying, the effect of
organic pollutions reduction,
etc —for ponds, height, loading,
the filtration velocity, the
filtration cycle, filter washing
and so on—for filters All this
is given in Table 3 where
the comparison between quality
and demands for different
waters is given too
From the sanitary point of
view, additionally treated
municipal sewage must be
decontaminated, under the
condition of the residual active
chlorine content is not less than
1 5 mg/1, in this case the
quantity of the intestinal bacilli
group bacteria reduces to
99 1-100%
Carrying out the special
experiments on sanitary value of
additionally treated sewage, the
specialists from the Institute of
Microbiology, Virusology and
Hygiene after Musabekov of
the Azerbaijan Health Depart-
ment came to the conclusion
about the possibility of addition-
ally treated sewage usage for
needs of industry in the
Apsheron Peninsula They
recommended using additional
treated sewage after the decon-
tamination for needs of
enterprises of different industrial
branches in the Apsheron
Peninsula, except for food
industry, meat and milk
industry, light and medical
industry, in this case medical
examination for the service staff
is necessary, and it must L?
supplied with overalls The
water conduit must have a
preventive specific coloration
and tables, pointing that water
is not potable
At present, the repeated
usage of treated sewage is
considered to be as one of the
most important national-
economic measures The
economical factor of the
additionally treated sewage re-
peated usage for industrial needs
must be determined by stages
The discharge of the municipal
conduit is the defining criterium
on the first stage However,
considering the possibility of the
repeated usage of the all volume
of municipal sewage in Baku,
an economic factor is estimated
by the reduction of damage,
caused by municipal sewage
effluent to the Caspian Sea
33
-------
Conclusions
1	The municipal sewage
treatment in Baku for the
industrial water supply of the
Apsheron Fjninsula will allow
reduction of the consumption of
deficiency fresh water and to
stop the further pollution of the
Caspian Sea
2	The treated municipal
sewage will be used as a water
supply source in circulating
water systems and technological
processes of such industries
branches of the Apsheron
Peninsula, where water is widely
used oil-refining, oil-chemical,
chemical, in the production of
constructural materials etc.
3.	For treated sewages to be
used for industrial needs, they
must correspond to technical
water demands. According to
the suspended materials
demands, COD and BOD total,
biologically treated municipal
sewage must be additionally
treated.
4.	The experimental investiga-
tions were carried out on
additional biologically treated
sewage in Baku in biological
ponds and in the rapid sandy
filters (with and without
aeration), which allows the
determination of the main tech-
nological parameters of the
above-said constructions.
5.	Specialists from the Institute
of the Microbiology, Virusology
and Hygiene of the Azerbaijan
Health Department, studied
sanitary fitness of additionally
rapid sandy filters and they
recommended using the
decontamination of sewage
under the condition of the
residual active chlorine content
is not less than l.S mg/1.
6.	The economic factor of the
additionally treated sewage
usage on the first stage will be
determined by the damage,
caused to the Caspian Sea by
municipal sewage effluent. n
Water Quality Indices
Temperature, #C
PH
Suspended materials,
mg/1
Carbonate hardness,
mg-equiv./l
Alkalinity, mg-equiv./l
Salt content, mg/1
BODs, mg/O-./l
BOD total mg/Os/1
COD, mg/1
Ammonia nitrogen, mg/1
Phosphates, mg/1 P
Iron, mg/1
Ca. nig-equiv /I
mg/1
Mg" nig-equiv /I
mg/1
SO",, mg-equiv /1
Additionally treated sewage
in Bako
CI', mg-equiv /I
* Council of Mutual Economic Aids
In biologi-
cal ponds
no 30
7.5-8 5
8-10
4.5
5.2
no 1500
4.5
50
5
0.6
0.1
3-4
60.12-80.16
3.8-4.4
46.2-53 5
7 3-10.4
350-500
4 5-112
160-480
oa sandy
filters
no 30
7.5
5-10
45
5.0
no 1500
5-8
55-60
15
1 0
0 I
3-4
60.12-80.16
3.8-4 4
46 2-53.5
7.3-10.4
350-500
4.5-11.2
160-400
Sea water
no 28
7.5
30-50
3.5
3.9
12600
10-30
20-100
0 1-0.5
traces
17
340
60
750
65
3080
147
5400
l*mti techni-
cal water
20
7.4
20-30
3.7
no determ.
12500
5
8
28
8
1 2-5.5
24-100
0 7-3 7
8 45
0 63
28-128
4-11
130-370
Coollnt water
qntUr standard
according to
CMEA •
25-28
6.5
10-20
1.2-2.5
no determ.
up to 2000
5
30
4
1.4
up to 7
140
up to 10 4
500
up to 9 8
350
Circulating
water supply
system standard
In USA
abnormal
HCOaO, 4 mg-equiv
500 24 mgl
75
05
2.6
50
abnormal
4 1
200
14.1
500
Table 3
The comparison between different kinds of water quality and technical demands
34
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Water
Rfflamtthrti as
a New
DuncMioa fai
Growth iar Lot
Angifa
By DonaldCTHkHM
Qiy Fwaiwwi.CityoHm
Angeles, CfcNfavafa, USA
tataodactioo
Throughout history the greater
dties of the world have been
located on rivers or near major
sources of fresh water. The
exception to this general rule
appears to be the cities in
Southern California, particularly
my City of Los Angeles.
Located essentially in an arid,
desert-Uke area, Los Angeles
somehow grew from a small
village to the third largest city
in the United States. I was
there because I was a native
son; however, millions of others
came because of the attraction
of growth in a new land rich in
resources, agriculture, and living
conriittom That is why
California became the most
populated State in the United
States, and Los Angeles
qnrawled dimensionally outward
into ¦ major metropolitan
region. How this happened
without a nearby water supply
source and the dependency of
growth on the development of
water reclamation are the bask
ideas to be discussed in this
paper.
Hktosy of Water Sappty in
Los Angeles
The Los Angeles River has
served as a flood control
channel, rather than provide
water for the people of a
growing Los Angeles because
it Is conorete-Uned and dry most
of the year. It reaches from the
Pacific Ocean to the western
edge of the San Fernando
Valley. Groundwater resources
proved inadequate and civic
leaders at the turn of the
century realized that water was
the key to survival of economic
progress and creation of a
major city. A dream to bring
water from the snows of the
Sierra Nevada Mountains wai
a reality by 1913. The Los
Angeles Aqueduct System now
brings water of excellent quality
about 338 miles (544 km)
from the Owens Valley. Today
the quantity exceeds 410 million
gallons per day (1,550,000 cubic
meters per day) or 80%
of the total supply.
Groundwater sources account
lor over 14% of the City's
supply. The central basin in
the metropolitan area contains
23 smaller cities which obtain
a substantial portion of thefe
required water by pumping
directly from the Basin.
Overdraft of groundwater
twenty years ago caused
recession of groundwater luvaK
resulting sea water intrusion, and
resulted in a control being
placed on groundwater with-
drawals.
In 1927, the California
State Legislature authorfaed
the formation of the Metro-
politan Water District oI
Southern California. It was
initially comprised of Los
Angeles and twelve other cities
to construct and operate an
aqueduct to import Colorado
River water. In 1931, the
thirteen cities approved a
S220.000.000 bond issue to
finance construction of the
aqueduct In 1941, after
approximately eight years of
construction, the 300-mile (483
km) Colorado River Aqueduct
system was placed in operation. ,
The District serves approxi-
mately 120 cities and many
unincorporated areas in sis
Southern California counties.
The total delivery to the
southern California Coastal
Rain is approximately one
billion gallons per day
(3,800,000 cubic meters daily).
The City of Los Angeles
receives approximately 42
million gallons per day (159,000
cubic meters/day) at Colorado
River water which upresenil
only 11% of the City's
preferential water right,
leaving a substantial reserve
entitlement. However, it has
become apparent that the
average flow of the River is
insufficient to meet future de-
mands of planned water projects'
of States in the Colorado
River Basin, such as Arizona.
The U.S. Supreme Court case
of Arizona versus California
in 1964 resulted in the long
range reduction in California^
right to Colorado River watsr
from the original
1,200,000 to 550,000 acre fast
per year. Los Angeles it only
2.5%
In 1951, the California
Legislature authorized the
California Department of
Water Resources to construct
the Feather River Project, later
called the State Water Project
The purpose of the project was
to convey surplus water supplies
in the northern portion of the
State to areas of deficiency in
central and southern California.
The project was also designed
to provide flood control
capabilities, power generation,
recreation, salinity control in
the Sacramento River Delta
and enhancement of fish and
wildlife habitat
Construction of the approxi-
mately $2.8 billion State Water
Ttaject was begun in 1957 end
is presently nearing completion.
Major facilities of the project
include 21 dams, 6 hydro-
electric power plants, 22
pimping stations, and
tunnels and pipelines totaling a
length of about 700 miles (1127
km).
The first water from the State
Water Project was delivered in
1972 to Castaic Lake, a
terminal reservoir of the Project,
located about 15 mHes north of
the Los Angeles northwest city
limits. This has amounted to
over 3% of the water imported,
until this year of the northern
California drought
Weather conditions in the
United States have been
extremely unusual. Heavy snows
of the winter and rainfall
throughout the year have been
severe on the East Coast
Meanwhile, the West Coast has
been experiencing the wont
drought conditions in decades.
Water conservation measures
have been put into effect by
many of California cities,
including Los Angeles.
Therefore, we have reached our
limit in expecting increased
quantities of water import from
die described distant sources—
the High Sierra, Colorado River,
and Northern California—
which are as far away as Los
Angeles dare search for water
without depriving other areas of
of their water and their right to
grow. A great deal of energy
must be expended in the
transport of our water supply.
Between the southern
California coastal baain and
two of the major water supply
sources for Los Angeles stand
35
-------
mountains that nse high above
sea level. Before it reaches our
basin, water from these
faraway sources has to be
pumped over those mountains.
The job lifting our water as
high as 2,000 feet (610 meters)
at a time is done by giant pumps
located at strategic points
along our aqueducts. Running
these pumps takes the energy
equivalent of five million barrels
of oil a year, enough to meet
the needs of a city of 250,000
for one year. Regrettably, after
all this effort to bring the
precious water resource to the
people of Los Angeles, it has
been used once, processed
through sewage treatment
plants and wasted in the Pacific
Ocean. It was obvious that water
reclamation from our readily
available wastewater sources
was the next important step and
new dimension for the future
of Los Angeles water history.
Major interceptor sewer systems
within the Hyperion system
36
The Los Angeles Sewerage
System and the Reclamation
Potential
An understanding of the present
City sewerage system is
important to the development
of a reclamation plan that would
support wastewater reuse. The
potential for this use is also
discussed herein
The City's major wastewater
treatment facilities are the
Hyperion Treatment Plant, the
Terminal Island Treatment Plant
and the Los Angeles-Glendale
Water Reclamation Plant, the
locations which were shown in
Figure 1 The City also operates
two minor facilities, the Los
Angeles Zoo Treatment Plant
and the Valley Settling Basin
In addition, the City of Burbank
owns and operates the Burbank
Water Reclamation Plant, which
is tributary to the Los Angeles
System
The existing Hyperion
Treatment Plant (HTP) is by far
the largest treatment facility in
the City area and can provide
primary treatment for an
average flow of 420 mgd
(1,587,600 mVday). In
addition, secondary treatment
is provided for approximately
100 mgd (378,000 mVday) The
plant basically consists of pre-
treatment. primary and partial
secondary treatment, sludge
treatment and discharge to
Santa Monica Bay.
Pretreatment consists of
mechanically-raked bar screens
and horizontal flow grit
chambers After pretreatment,
headworks effluents enter the
primary sedimentation tanks
The plan has 12 primary
sedimentation tanks which are
equally divided into three
batteries East, Central and
West The average detention
time is approximately one hour
and twenty minutes
The activated sludge process
in the secondary treatment
system treats 100 mgd of
primary effluent There are 32
aeration tanks in the system
providing an average detention
time of eight hours
All primary sludge, waste
activated sludge, grease and
other flotables are pumped to
the digestion system which
consists of 18 tanks, 12 primary
and 6 secondary Following
digestion, the digested sludge is
screened and pumped through
the seven mile, 20-inch-diameter
(50 8 cm) outfall The outfall
extends to the head of a
submarine canyon at a depth of
320 feet (97 5 m)
The primary and secondary
effluent is pumped through the
five-mile long, 22-foot diameter
ocean outfall. The outlet consists
of two identical 4,000-foot long
diffuser legs in 200 feet of
water (61 0 m)
The Terminal Island Treat-
ment Plant (TITP) is located on
Terminal Island in the Los
Angeles Harbor area. The plant
is presently being upgraded. The
treatment processes consisted
of pretreatment, primary
sedimentation, sludge digestion
and drying, and discharge of
the effluent to the Los Angeles
Outer Harbor to a point
approximately 450 feet (lv'm)
offshore via a 39-inch (1.'
diameter outfall.
The secondary treatment
facility at TITP, currently under
construction, is now partially
operational and will provide
secondary treatment with an
average capacity of 30 mgd
(113,000 m'/day) Sludge will
will be discharged to sludge
drying beds for subsequent
disposal to a sanitary landfill.
The TITP will be equipped with
a remote monitoring and control
system. The system will make it
possible for the operator(s) to
monitor and/or perform many
functions from one location
The plant will also be supplied
with flow metering systems,
dewatenng equipment controls,
automatic sampling system and
stand-by power.
Before a reclamation project
is implemented, a number of
factors must be examined
In a study conducted by the
California Department of
Water Resources and included
in its Bulletin No 80-5
entitled, Reclamation of Water
from Wastes in Southern
California, several important
factors were summarized in
the following questions.
a How much wastewater is
available9
b Does the effluent meet the
quality requirements that
have been set for the
intended beneficial use?
c.	What will be the impact
upon the environment on the
use of this water?
d.	Is this water reasonably
competitive in cost with other
supplies?
e What are the legal con-
straints governing appropriation
of reclaimed water?
f.	Will the public accept use
of the reclaimed water for
the intended beneficial
purposes9
g.	Can reclamation be
handled by existing agenc
Keeping the above factors
under consideration, the
City's intent is to construct
only those facilities necessary
to provide for confirmed
> NCOS-NOS
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COASTAL INTCUCCP TOR
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-------
cost-effective and financially
feasible reuse projects and only
tfter the demand develops
provide for the required
treatment of any remaining
wastewaters which are to
be discharged to receiving
waters.
Water quality does give
Los Angetes some important
advantages toward reuse.
The water delivered from
the Owens River area is of
excellent quality. The average
total dissolved solids (TDS)
from this source is
approximately 214 mg/1. In
1974, the TDS averaged
171 mg/1 while the total
hardness was 78 mg/1. This
high quality of water is
expected to remain relatively
constant in the future.
The TDS of the Colorado
River supply averages 743
mg/1. Water quality from
this source is expected to
decline in the future.
The quality of water
obtained from the Feather
River lies midway between
that of the Owens River and
Colorado River supplies
During 1973-74, TDS from
this source averaged 322
mg/1 while hardness
averaged 160 mg/1. It is
expected that this water
quality will improve in the
future.
The major groundwater
basins in the study area
provide water of moderate
quality Although some wells
yield hard to very hard water
with TDS values approaching
1,000 mg/1, generally,
groundwater lies within
United States Public Health
Service limits for drinking
water.
Water consumption varies
greatly from the coastal
communities to the inland
valleys The present consump-
tion in the City of Los
Angeles is 181 gal /capita/day
(685 litres/capita/day).
Future water consumption may
depend on the amount of
sewer service charges,
""ater pricing, and possibly
jislative actions restricting
./ater use.
Water imported to the study
area in the future will
probably improve in
quality as State Water
Project water is increased
while Colorado River water
supply is reduced It is
estimated that TDS values
for groundwater will increase
in the future in the San
Fernando Basin
An ongoing study by the
City's Department of Water
and Power (DW&P) indicates
that a reuse potential of 177
mgd exists that could
hypothetically be supplied
by the Hyperion system The
categories of reuse proposed
in the study include ground-
water recharge, industrial
cooling and other industrial
uses, landscape irrigation,
seawater intrusion reduction,
and miscellaneous recreational
uses The 177 mgd figure
may be somewhat of an
over-estimate since some of
the potential reuse sites are
located outside of the
City of Los Angeles and,
therefore, may be served
with reclaimed water from
the Los Angeles County
Sanitation Districts, which
surrounds Los Angeles A
decision as to who will
serve these markets has not
been made
As shown in Figure 2, the
potential reuse sites are not
confined to the City limits of
Los Angeles Potential
industrial markets, for the
most part, are located outside
the City limits The DW&P
would plan to sell reclaimed
water to local water purveyors
currently supplying those
users with domestic water who
in turn would supply the
particular industries The
evaluation of the cost of
reclamation would have to
consider the negative impact
on the revenue of the water
retailers. In addition, any
reclamation activities planned
would also have to be
compatible with the
reclamation proposals of
the Sanitation Districts of
Los Angeles County, since
the same markets are being
considered by both
The identified potential
users of reclaimed water from
the various treatment plants
are:
Groundwater Replenishment by Spreading on Surface
Department of Water and Power Headworks
45 mgd (171,000 m'/day)
and Tujunga Spreading Grounds
Subtotal
Seawater Intrusion Hairier Supply
West Coast Basin Barrier Project1" >
Subtotal
Industrial Water Supply
Standard Oil Refinery(b)
Southwest Los Angeles Area Industries"1'
Vernon Industries^)
Glendale Steam Plant
Subtotal
Recreational Area Irrigation
Griffith Park
Sepulveda Basin Recreation
Subtotal
Total
45 mgd {171,000 m'/day)
35 mgd (133,000 m'/day)
35 mgd (133,000 m'/day)
8 mgd (30,300 m'/day)
52 mgd (197,000 m'/day)
20 mgd (75,800 m3/day)
3 mgd (11,400 m'/day)
83 mgd (315,000 m'/day)
J mgd (19,000 m'/day)
9 mgd (34,000 m'/day)
14 mgd (53,000 m'/day)
177 mgd (671,000 m'/day)
(a)	Imported water now being used
(b)	Industry primarily outside Los Angeles City limits
JUI tUn
SI ItAU'-r GnOUJlDS 	i{45HGD TOTAL)
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it OflRHrtR	I I
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THCWitN" PLA»VT
Potential uses of reclaimed
water
37
-------
The plans for reclamation
finally resulted in an upstream
plant. The Los Angeles-
Glendale Water Reclamation
Plant (LAGWRP) will be the
City's first operational water
reclamation facility and is
designed to provide
tertiary treatment for a
flow of 20 mgd (75,600 m3/
day). The processes will
consist of pretreatment,
primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment
(chlorination and filtration).
All settled solids and waste
activated sludge will be
returned to the North
Outfall Sewer (NOS) for
centralized solids processing
at the HTP. The facility will
normally be operated on a
constant flow basis utilizing
the standard rate activated
sludge process. The design of
the plant allows operation
of discrete blocks of process
units. In-plant process
by passes are not provided for
the primary, secondary or
aeration units since all of the
units would not be out of
operation concurrently.
Computerized instrumentation,
incorporated in the design,
will control the flows, flow
measurements, process
regulation and record vital
data The plant will also
utilize data logging systems,
remote monitoring and
control, flow metering
systems, conductivity. pH,
turbidity and dissolved oxygen
monitoring systems, and
automatic sampling system
Tertiary treated effluent, a
high quality effluent, can be
used for park irrigation,
cooling waters for steam
plants and other suitable
uses
The proposed Sepulveda
Water Reclamation Plant
has been designed and is
ready to go to construction.
It is located in the San
Fernando Valley in a residential
area and will use the
reclaimed water in an
extensive Japanese Garden and
park complex. Other uses of
the reclaimed water will be
on golf courses and other
recreation areas.
The plant would be designed
to handle diurnal flows
averaging 40 mgd (151,000
mVday) and a dry weather
peak flow of 71 mgd
(268,400 mVday). In
addition to primary and
secondary treatment, the
effluent to be discharged to
the Los Angeles River and
also would receive tertiary
treatment consisting of
filtration and chlorination
Solids removed during the
treatment process would be
returned to the sewer system
for processing and disposal
at the HTP.
The plant would be
designed to withstand
inundation from a 100-year
flood stage in the Sepulveda
Basin. The capability of
bypassing flows would be
incorporated in the event of
plant failures.
Construction of the 40
mgd (151.000 mVday) plant
should commence in 1977.
With the major population
growth in the City projected
to occur in the San Fernando
Valley, a 30 mgd (113.400
m'/day) modular addition
could be constructed in
1980, and a 15 mgd (000,000
m'/day) addition in 1993.
There are two unique uses
proposed for the reclaimed
water of Los Angeles The
first is found in the West
Coast Basin Barrier Project
located near the Los Angeles
International Airport. The
water use was estimated at
30 mgd (113.700 m'/day)
to hold off the intrusion of
seawater into the subsurface
coastal plain water supply.
The feasibility project was
abandoned in 1974 when the
Replenishment District
decided that the monetary
requirements of a reclaimed
water supply totaled $44 to
$50 per million gallons
(3,780 ms/day) could not
compete with the use of
imported fresh water.
However, present fresh water
shortages may cause another
try at this use.
The second proposal is
theoreticallv sound, but it
will be difficult to organize all
the agencies and factors
involved It involves the
TITP at the Los Angeles
Harbor and the use of its
treated water to heat the
cold discharge from a proposed
Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG) plant. The blending
of the two discharges would
provide an environmentally
protective solution. Also,
the nearby fish canneries
discharge 3 3 mgd (12,500
m3/day) of water used in
their processes. It is believed
that a combination of
discharge needs could
produce a common solution
of benefit to all.
Los Angeles must approach
the future on this note
of maximizing benefits, if the
water needs of our growing
population are to be met.
The application of reuse for
industrial purposes may not
be as rapid as elsewhere,
however, it is inevitable, and
we shall make our professional
contribution to new designs as
we advance in our "new
dimension" of reclamation. ~
References
1	California Administrative
Code, Title 22, Chapter 4, Sec-
tions 60303-60319, Wastewater
Reclamation Criteria.
2	Los Angeles Department of
Water and Power, The Effect of
the City of Los Angeles Waste-
water Management Plans on
Potential Water Reclamation.
March 1977.
3 City Engineer, City of Los
Angeles, Draft Wastewater
Facilities Plan, 1977.
4. Engineering-Science, Inc.,
Ecosystem Management Alterna-
tives 1971.
5. Engineering-Science, Inc,
Proposed Pre-Treatment and
Transmission Facility for the
City of Glendale, Environment-
al Impact Report No. 394, June
1975
6 City Engineer, Bureau of Sani-
tation, Department of Water and
Power, Department of Recreation
and Parks, City of Los Angeles,
Reclamation of Wastewater, 1968.
The
Peculiarities of
Municipal
Sewage Effluent
Utilization in
Industrial
Plants
By Dr. Eng., prof. Lukinih
N.A.
38
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The limited supplies of fresh
water and its uneven
distribution on the territory
of this country in
conditions of continuous
common water consumption
increase determine a necessity
of looking for ways of
economical and rational
fresh water utilization.
One of the directions of
solving this problem
is utilization of municipal
sewage effluent in technical
water supply of industrial
plants. Such an utilization of
municipal sewage is
undoubtedly particularly
important for areas, already
suffering from sharp water
deficiency. However, lately,
in connection with the
development of so-called
"endorheic" system of
industrial complex water
economy, the necessity of
municipal sewage effluent
inclusion for filling up
irretrievable water losses is
arising
It goes without saying,
that requirements on
municipal sewage treatment
degree are determined by
technology of the plants
where that is made from, which
in turn causes a variety of
possible flow sheets, methods,
and buildings of this sewage
treatment. There will prove to
be a number of cases that re-
quirements on quality of
water, making for water reuse,
can be far lower than that of
discharging this water in a
water body In spite of the
fact that industrial plants are
permanent and large water
consumers, utilization of
municipal sewage effluent in
technical water supply
poses certain difficulties,
connected with its
composition changeability,
bacterial contamination and
inclusion of biogenous elements
in quantities
Bacterial contamination may
be characterized by b.coli
index, which usually does not
exceed 10,000 units for
lunicipal sewage secondary
effluent. It proves principal
possibilities of utilization such
as sewage on condition its
after-treatment, based on
principals used in water supply
technique with obligatory
disinfection.
The most expedient is
municipal sewage effluent
utilization in recirculating
cooling water systems In this
case the water must have
definite temperature and does
not cause formation of salt
sediments on heat exchanger
surface and in pipelines,
does not cause metal and
concrete corrosion and does not
promote biological growth
development. The absence of
direct indices of chemical
composition of water,
characterizing thermal and
corrosion stability and to j
certain degree an ability tO\.
biological growth and also
mutual influence of separate
components to indicated water
properties do not allow direct
estimation of a composition of
municipal sewage effluent in
this relation. Indirect indices of
such an estimation can be
carbonate hardness, alkalinity,
pH, BOD, oxydability, total
salt content data.
The analyses of aforesaid
indices of municipal sewage
after its biological treatment
proves that natural water
composition after public
utilization changes in first
tum at the expense of BOD,
oxydability, phosphorus and
nitrogen compound contents,
suspended solids, mineral
salts increase, while pH.
alkalinity and carbonate
hardness may be kept at the
previous levels. That is why
corrosion and thermal stability
of municipal sewage
secondary effluent, in
general, are determined by
natural water initial properties1.
Moreover, the practice of
municipal sewage secondary
effluent utilization in cooling
systems of industrial plants
indicates that presence of
organic substances in it,
small concentrations of
surfactants and ammonium
salts in concentrations
according to stechiometric
equilibrium with calcium
bicarbonate causes stabilizing
action. However the presence
of soluble phosphorus
compounds in municipal
sewage and also ammonium
nitrogen in higher
concentrations, than indicated,
particularly, at BOD loading
higher than in natural water
may promote biological
growth increase.
By VNII VODGEO data
(2), not free chlorine, but
chloroamines being developed
by chlorination are the most
efficient from the point of
view of biological growth
prevention and, consequently,
on condition of good suspended
solids and organic pollutants
removal, municipal sewage may
be successfully used as
additional water in recirculating
water systems of industrial
plants
There are requirements on
cooling water quality of
recirculating water systems,
developed by water authorities
of countries-participants of
Council of Economic
Assistance in the table (3).
The experiments by
Municipal Water Supply,
Water and Sewage Treatment
Research Institute of the
Academy of Municipal
Economy showed that these
requirements can be
satisfied if municipal
sewage secondary effluent is
additionally filtered through
sand filters and is
chlorinated in the completion
stage. The chlorination is
simultaneously the means of
sewage disinfection and of
struggle against biological
growth (4).
The dual-layer filters and
upflow filters are practised
in this country for tertiary
treatment of municipal
sewage. The upper layer is
crushed antracite with
particle size 1-2 mm, and
the lower layer is quartz
sand with particle size
0,8-1.4 mm with height of
Tcnpcratnc of product being cooled
or of wan 'C
lodkca of cooJlna
wuter quality
uNin»
to 10
•0-400
above 400
(with fir*
beating)
temperature
•c
25-28
28-40
40-45
suspended solids
in additional water
mg/l
10-20
10-20
10-20
ester soluble solids
mg/l
to 20
10-20
10-20
odour
points
to 3
to 3
to 3
colour
platinum-
-cobalt
scale

no rates

PH

6,5-8,5
6,5-8,5
6,5-8,5
total hardness
of additional water
mg-eq/l
to 7
to 5
to 5
carbonate hardness
of additional water
mg-eq/l
to 1,5-2,5
to 1-2
to 0,5-1,:
salt content of
recirculating water
mg-eq/1
to 2000
to 1300
to 8800
chlorides in
recirculating water
mg/t
to 350
to 350
to 150
sulfates in
recirculating water
mg/l
to 500
to 600
to 250
total iron in
recirculating water
mg/l
1-4
0,5-2
0,5-1,5
permanganate
oxydability in
additional water
mg/l
to 20
to 20
to 20
BODi in additional
water
mg 0,/l
to 5
to 5
to 5
phosphates (P.O.)
in additional water
mg/l
to 4
to 2,5

total nitrogen
mg/l
to 30
to 30

39
-------
each layer of 0,5 m in dual-
layer filters. The filtration
rate is 9-11 m/h. The
backwashing is carried out
by filtrated sewage liquor with
intensity of 15 1/sec. m2.
The filter are equipped with
surface washing systems for
prevention of deposit
formation.
The upflow filters are
usually bedded with quartz
sand of 1,2-2 mm particle
size on height about 1,5 m
and are equipped with
water-air backwashing system
of lower (horizontal) water
draining. The intensity of air
feeding is set in a range of
18-22 1/sec. m=, and of
water (at the end of
backwashing) - 6-7 1/sec m
The filtration rate is 9-10 m/h
The definite difficulties
arise on chlorine dose
appointment Proceeded from
experience of recirculating
water supply system exploita-
tion (without use of good
treated municipal sewage)
it is recommended to
sustain residual chlorine
concentration in water at a
level of 1 mg/1 for struggle
against biological growth (5)
The same concentration of
residual chlorine was
confirmed by VNII VODGEO
experiments (2) when using
secondary treated and
additionally treated in sand
filters sewage of Moscow for
supplement of recirculating
systems. For all that, by
changing a multiplicity of water
evaporation and its
temperature in recirculating
system, by controlling bacterial
contamination of additional
and recirculating water by
quantity of saprophytes and
b.Coli-index, it was shown
that by increase of
multiplicity of evaporation
of recirculating water the
* saprophyte quantity grew
1 while that diminished by water
I temperature increase. The
viability of bacillus Coli fell
by increase of multiplicity
of evaporation and temperature
increase. At residual chlorine
content of 1 mg/1 the
chlorination guarantees
lowering of b.Coli index less
than 1000.
It was shown by Municipal
Water Supply, Water and
Sewage Treatment Research
Institute of the Academy
of Municipal Economy (6) that
effect of sewage disinfection
considerably depends on
continuance of contact with
chlorine So, at residual
chlorine content of 0,45-0,5
mg/1 in sewage secondary
effluent and at contact time of
1 hour, the more high efficiency
of disinfection was achieved,
than at residual chlorine content
of 1,5 mg/1 and at contact
time of 30 min. Nevertheless
the specialists in hygiene of
water (7) recommended to keep
quantity of residual chlorine in
water not less than 1,5 mg/1
with contact time 30 min., that
is they maintain requirements
analogous to that to disin-
fection of municipal sewage
discharge into open basins.
In some cases, especially in
southern areas of this country,
the additional treatment of
sewage secondary effluent is
carried out in oxidation ponds,
mainly with natural aeration.
The advantages of the method
are evident from the point of
view of disinfection, but
nevertheless when using such
water in recirculating water
supply the necessity of sus-
pended solids removal and
chlorination remains. The latter
is required for biological
growth control. In this case
both granular bed filters and
microstrainers can be used for
suspended solids removal.
Considerable public use of
synthetic surfactants leads to
increasing of easily absorbed
by microorganisms phosphorus
compound content in municipal
sewage secondary effluent.
Approximate increase of
phosphorus compound content
is 1,6 g/24h per capita on PiO>
at the expense of surfactants
in domestic sewage. The
phosphorus content in muni-
cipal sewage secondary effluent,
undoubtedly, is considerably
ranged and depends both on
water draining rate, correlation
between domestic sewage and
industrial wastewater, and on
flow sheets of aeration tanks.
At an average it is equal to
8-15 mg/1 on PiO.,
The phosphorus removal
from sewage can be carried out
by "simultaneous" sedimenta-
tion method or by introducing
the chemicals (ferric sulphate,
aluminium sulphate) before
secondary clarifiers or directly
before filters. In the last case
the filtration rate must be
lowered to 6-8 m/h.
The economy of municipal
sewage reusing is determined
in general by costs for after-
treatment and for transport
to consumer.
When reusing aftertreated
municipal sewage in industrial
water supply the attention
should always paid to
creation of conditions,
guaranteeing prevention of
possible infection transmission.
It necessitates setting of regime
and control of aftertreatment
units processing at sewage
treatment plants close to regime
and control of domestic and
drinking water-supply and at
industrial plants—creation of
conditions when water contact
would be minimized for
workers.	Q
Reuse of Process
Water from a
Large Steel
Plant
By Ramond R. Rimkus,
Earl W. Knight, Bart T.
Lynam
Metropolitan Sanitary
District of Greater Chicago
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
40
-------
The Metropolitan Sanitary
District of Greater Chicago is
a Municipal Organization that
ervices an area of approxi-
mately 2243 sq. kilometers
(866 sq. mi.), all in Cook
County, Illinois The District
serves the City of Chicago and
124 other outlying municipali-
ties including a population of
approximately 6,000,000
people The primary service
performed by the District is
the collection and treatment of
combined municipal and
industrial wastewater which
averages 5.1 million cu. meters
each day (1350 MGD) The
area includes in excess of
13,000 business and industrial
concerns. At the present time
it is estimated that industrial
waste constitutes less than
15% of the load on the
system
On September 18,-1969,
Chicago Sanitary District
Officials passed an Ordinance
which prohibited the discharge
of sewage, industrial waste,
or other waste of any kind into
the waters of Lake Michigan
As a result of this
Regulation, seven potable water
plants on Lake Michigan in
the jurisdiction of the District
were required to cease
discharge of their sludge to
the Lake and all industries
were required to stop waste
discharge to the Lake
The most significant industrial
dischargers were five steel
mills. One of the five mills
discharged directly to the Lake,
the remaining four discharged
into the Calumet River which
normally flows away from
the Lake but can flow into
the Lake during any heavy
rainfall
Studies were made of water
quality and lake bottom
characteristics The studies
revealed gross water pollution
caused by discharge of oils
and greases, cyanides, phenols,
iron, suspended solids and
ammonia. These polluting
materials were also present
in lake bottom sediments in the
vicinity of plant outfalls.
As a result of court action,
/ur of the steel plants have
installed or are committed to
the installation of water reuse
systems and the fifth, while
still discharging into the
waterway system has installed
rapid sand filters and cyanide
destruction systems. Efforts
are continuing to eliminate all
discharges from the waterways.
The amount of wastewater
discharged from the steel plants
has been reduced to 450,000
cu. meters (119 MG) a day
from the 2.1 million cu
meter (546 MG) daily total
in 1969.
The number of sewers
discharging wastewater from
the steel plants has beea
reduced from 45 to 13 as well.
Due to the Sanitary District's
Sewage and Waste Control
Ordinance enforcement activities
and the area steel plant's
cooperation, the discharge of
major pollutants has been
significantly reduced—by more
than 90%, see Table I.
232 hactare (573 acres) of
land. It has 3.6 km (2.25
miles) of lake and river frontag.
and 2.25 km (1.4 miles) of
dock space provided by its
north and south vessel slips.
The north slip runs east and
west and connects on the
east with the Calumet Harbor
portion of Lake Michigan.
The south slip connects with
the Calumet River approxi-
mately 760 m (2500 feet)
west of its mouth.
It is the largest steel
producer in the State of
Illinois, the second largest
plant owned by United States
Steel Corporation and the
sixth largest in the United
States. In the same general
industrial area the plants of
Interlake Steel, Wisconsin
Steel, Republic Steel, and
Commonwealth Edison State
Line Generating Plant are
PARAMETER
Suspended Solids
Iron
Ammonia
Oil & Crease
Phenols
Cyanide
PRIOR TO
RECYCLING
75,300(166,000)
11,300 (25,000)
2,300 (5,150)
17,900 (39,500)
122
171
(268)
(376)
AFTER
RECYCLING
1220 (2690)
57 (235)
43 (95)
156 (343)
3 (7)
17 (37)
RED
OPTION
98
99
98
99
97
90
Table I.
Pollutants Discharged—kg/d
(lb /d)
This paper will describe
the recycle system installed
by the United States Steel
Corporation, South Works,
the only Chicago steel mill
that discharged directly into
the Lake. The system, costing
approximately 30 million
dollars, is typical of the recycle
systems installed by the other
mills except that South Works
does not have a coke plant
at this location. Annual
operating expenses of the
system are approximately four
million dollars with approx-
imately 1/3 of this cost being
for energy.
Production Facilities
U.S. Steel Chicago South
Works is located on the
shores of Lake Michigan at
the mouth of the Calumet
River in Chicago, approximately
21 km (13 miles) south of the
downtown area It occupies
located. Farther to the south,
in Gary, Indiana, are the
steel making facilities of
Youngstown Sheet and Tube
Company, Inland Steel
Company and another plant
of United States Steel
Corporation.
Construction of this plant
began in 1880 and the first
blast furnace operation
commenced in 1881. There
are now two groups of blast
furnaces, the south line and
north line. The south line
consists of three older operable
furnaces and the north line
consists of four operable
furnaces. There is a three-
vessel Basic Oxidation Process
(BOP) shop, two of which
operate while the other is
relined. It has three operating
electric furnaces and no
operating open hearth
furnaces.
Primary mill facilities are
a slabbing mill and two
blooming mills. Finishing
mils are a 244 cm (96 inch)
plate mill, a 76 cm (30 inch)
Universal plate mill, a beam
mill, a structural mill, an
alloy bar mill, and a four
strand continuous bloom caster
with in-line rolling to billets.
The plant's latest addition is a
modern high speed four-strand
rod mill.
To support these steel
producing facilities and rolling
mills there is a sintering
plant, a roll shop for making
and redressing mill rolls, an
air separation plant which
produces oxygen for steel
making processes and general
mill use, three power stations
generating electrical power
and mechanical power for
supplying blast air to the
blast furnaces and pulping


U.S. Steel South Works
Chicago
41
-------
plant service water, ingot
stripping facilities to remove
steel ingots from molds, a
foundry for casting ingot
molds, and complete mainte-
nance facilities consisting of
a machine shop, carpentry,
welding, blacksmith, pipe,
pattern, electrical repair,
locomotive repair, masonry,
and rigger shops Although
electrical power is generated on
the site, by far the largest
share of power is purchased
from Commonwealth Edison.
There are 42 km (26 miles)
of sewers in the plant,
considering only those which
are 15 cm (16 inches) in
diameter and larger, and 750
manholes There are four
unloading bridges on the north
dock and three on the south
These facilities handle a total
of about 5500 million kg (6
million tons) of raw materials
per year. On an average day
15.9 million kg (17,500 tons)
of ore and 3.0 million kg
(3,300 tons) of limestone are
used Coke is delivered by
railroad. Approximately 150
carloads of coke enter the
plant each day, and 3 4 million
kg (3,700 tons) of scrap are
used every day.
The plant has three water
intakes and prior to the
recycle system pumps on an
average annual basis 1.5
million cu meter (400 MG) of
process and cooling water
per day.
General Water Quality
Control Program
South Works has separate
sanitary sewers, none of
which discharge into the lake
or the Calumet River.
Treatment facilities for process
water are constructed as close
to the source as possible
All rolling mills were equipped
with scale pits and the 244
cm (96 inch) Plate mill, 76
cm (34 inch) Structural Mill
and Alloy Bar mill are
equipped with belt type oil
skimmers. There are two 49
m (160 feet) diameter clanfiers
to process blast furnace flue
dust scrubber water from the
North line furnaces.
Production facilities which
required water recycle systems
include: Blast furnaces, Basic
Oxygen Process, Continuous
Casting, Sintering Plant,
Pig Casting, Electric Furnace,
Structural Mill, and an Alloy
Bar Mill. To remove and
collect oil at the Structural
Mill an American Petroleum
Institute separator was
installed to solve the past
oil problems.
Construction of the recycle
system was staged over a
five-year period from 1971
until the end of 1975.
Pollution Control work
performed prior to 1971 had
succeeded in substantially
reducing both the volume and
weight of pollutants contained
in the waterway discharge as
shown in Table II.
Suspended
Year
1969
1970
1971
1974
1975
1976
Table II.
U.S. Steel South Works Waste-
water Discharge to the Water-
way Average Annual kg/d
Ob./d)
Completion of Step II on
December 31, 1970, eliminated
all waste discharge directly to
the Lake but 378,500 cu m
(100 MG) of treated water
was discharged to the Calumet
River daily.
Specific Abatement Steps
Taken to Reduce Pollutants
The first step of the construc-
tion of the Recycle System
was to eliminate all cross
connections that permitted
process water to mix with
cooling water. Cooling water
recycle systems with cooling
towers were then completed.
Blow-down from the cooling
water recycle systems was used
for slag quenching or was
added to the clean process
water reuse system.
The second step was a
review of production facilities
to reduce or eliminate the
release of pollutants to the
process water system A new
lubrication system called
"Minimum Lube" was initiated
at the rolling mills which also
helped to reduce the oil
control problem. A total of
9 oil skimmers were installed
at strategic locations in the
rolling mill scale pits to remove
oil from process water.
The following Alterations were
made to the plant sewer
system to prevent the
discharge of oil and other
pollutants. The plant layout
dipicts certain key facilities
and flow streams.
Nos. 2 and 3 Outfalls
Approximately 213 m (700
feet) of 120 cm diameter
(48 inch) sewer and 61 m
(200 feet) of 76 cm diameter
(30 inch) sewer were cleaned
and a bulkhead installed to
divert water from the 244 cm
(96 inch) Plate Mill which
formerly discharged to the
North Slip through Outfalls 2
and 3, to the No. 5 diversion
sump where it is now
discharged into a recirculation
basin. The twin outfalls, 2
and 3, now discharge only
Power Station condenser
cooling water.
Before the 244 cm (96 inch)
Plate Mill water was diverted,
a belt type oil skimmer was
installed at this mill's scale
pit to remove oil from scale
flushing water.
No. 5 Outfall
Treatment facilities were con-
structed which divert the
water formerly discharged at
this outfall to the new central
treatment plant, described
below. These facilities now
handle the process water from
the No. 2 electric furnace
shop, all rolling mills, BOP
Shop, research facilities,
foundry, and the sinter
plant.
Some of the treated water
from the central treatment
plant is discharged as
blowdown to the municipal,
sewer system. As the process
water is recycled a build-up of
dissolved solids occurs which,
if not diminished, may
hamper or prevent the
operation of both production
and waste control facilities.
To avoid such build-up,
relatively small amounts of
a "once through" discharge
system known as "blowdown".
must be removed from the
Discharge
Ammonia	Volume
1000 cujn/d (MGD)
1113 (294)
988 (261)
379(100)
227 (60)
132 (35)
0
system and replaced by fresh
water.
Treatment of blowdown by
reverse osmosis/electrodialysis,
ion exchange and evaporation
was originally considered.
Since technology has been
demonstrated in the saline
water conversion programs,
multiple effect evaporation was
given the most careful
consideration. It was assumed
that the brine produced,
approximately 6600 cu m/day
(1.75 MGD), would be
disposed of by deepwell
injection at 42 kg/sq. cm
(600 psi) well head pressure.
Due to the large area and
energy requirements for this
distillation plant and the
belief that the climate and
geology in northern Illinois
are unfavorable to deep we"
disposal, discharge of tt
blowdown to the municip—
sewer was ultimately approved
The blowdown to the
municipal sewer is restricted
42
SoUdi Pbeaoli Cyanide	Oil Nitrogen-
30,389(66,995) 47(104) 104(230)	7582(16,717) 1491(3287)
22,621(49,869) 24(52) 122(268)	6669(14,703) 601(1325)
6,078(13,400) 4(8) 4(8)	1905(4,200) 200(440)
CONSTRUCTION OF RECYCLE SYSTEM
SS = 16 mg/1 Oil = 5 mg/1
0 0 0	0 0
-------
to 230 1/s (3,700 GPM) and
can contain no more than
"*0 mg/1 of suspended solids,
0 mg/1 of oil, and 2,000
mg/1 of dissolved solids The
annual average blowdown
of the completed system is
132 1/s (2,100 GPM)
The blo'vdown must also
comply with limits established
for all trade waste discharged
into the sewers as shown in
Table III
diversion sump. Prior to this
change, efforts were made to
reduce and improve the
quality of the discharge flow
to the inner harbor The
No. 10 sewer served the Alloy
Bar Rolling Mill where a
belt type oil skimmer was
installed to recover oil from
the scalepit The No 10
sewer also served the research
facilities, Foundry and part of
the South Line Blast Furnaces
Waile (Chemical)
Boron
Chromium (Total)
Chromium (Hexavelent)
Copper
Cyanide (Total)
Iron
Lead
Nickel
Temperature not over 150°F(65°C) pH
Zinc
Cadmium
Concentration (mg/1)
1 0
25 0
10 0
3.0
10.0
50 0
05
100
4 5 - 100
150
20
(Volatile, toxic, malodorous and radioactive materials are also pro-
hibited )
Table III.
Regulatory Limits for Pollutant
Discharge to M S D Sewer
With the changes outlined
above, Outfall No 5 now
discharges only overflow storm
water to the North Slip
North Slip
An air curtain was installed
across the mouth of the Slip
to contain any oil discharged
during the construction period
This facility consists of a
7 6 cm (3-inch) diameter pipe,
on the bottom of the slip,
drilled at spaced intervals to
release the air forming the
curtain Two portable air
compressors of 55 1/s (900
CFM) capacity each, supply
the air, one of which is in
service, while the other is on
c'andby Visual observation
indicated that this facility is
e; . successful in containing
. •!) oi' present in the North
i,lip dcriiig the construction
i eriod from flowing into the
ike
The discharge from No 10
Outfall to the inner harbor
was stopped by diverting the
flow in its sewer to a new
Approximately 274 m (900
feet) of 122 cm diameter
(48 inch) sewer was cleaned
and a portion of the No 10
sewer flow was diverted to
the two existing 49 m (160
foot) diameter Dorr clanfiers,
reducing the discharge at No
10 Outfall The entire flow
from No 10 Outfall was then
diverted by building a diversion
sump and converting an exist-
ing concrete basin into a
retention reservoir
A major feature of the
program was the construction
of two 34 m (110 foot) diameter
clarifiers to process the blast
furnace flue dust wash water
from the South Line Blast
Furnaces before discharge to
the Calumet River and massive
piping changes to accommodate
these new facilities Vacuum
filters were installed to further
concentrate the underflow
from the clarifiers
Additional new facilities
included a central pumping
station, a central treatment
plant, cooling towers and
massive changes in inter-
connecting piping to
accommodate the facilities.
The process waters from the
North Line Blast Furnaces are
cleaned, cooled and recycled
All remaining process
wastewaters except from the
South Line Furnaces are
pumped to the Central
Treatment Plant After treat-
ment in this plant, they are
discharged to the clean process
water system or to the
municipal sewer The Central
Treatment Plant consists of
three high rate reactor clarifiers
with a high solids recirculation
rate Chemicals, e g,
polyelectrolyte, which aid in
the settling are added Each
clanfier is 38 m (125 feet) in
diameter and 7 6m (25 feet)
deep at the sides The minimum
detention time provided in
the clarifier is 96 minutes at
379 thousand cubic meters
per day (100 MGD) The
underflow from the reactor
clarifiers goes to a thickener
20 m (65 feet) in diameter
where the solids are further
concentrated There are four
pumps to carry the wastes to
the Central Treatment Plant,
each with a capacity of 840
1/s (13,300 GPM) Three
run at one time and the fourth
is in reserve In order to
further assure against escape
into the Calumet River of
any oil which might be in the
South Slip, an air curtain
similar to the one described
for the North Slip, was put
into operation across the
mouth of the South Slip
3660 L/S
^38.000 GPM)
10 NORTH Si IP
t orth Side mills
bop & tvecratc FCts
Discharge of 11,000 to 19,000
cu meter/day (3 to 5 MGD)
from the Central Treatment
Plant to the municipal sewer
is the only process water
dscharged by the plant.
A new surge tank to receive
the treated effluent by
gravity flow from the three
reactor clarifiers was installed
to account for various operation
irregularities.
Effect of Steel Mill Blow-
down on the Municipal Plant
The success of this recycle
system depended completely
on the ability and willingness
of the local municipal treat-
ment plant to accept blowdown
from the system The
municipal plant is located on
the Calumet River and is
separated from the Lake by
Locks As a result, all munici-
pally treated waste discharges
to the Illinois River system
and then down the Mississippi
River to the ocean
While the discharge of blow-
down to the municipally
owned Calumet Sewage
Treatment Plant solved the
problem for the steel mills, it
caused a problem for the
municipal plant
All of the District's Plants
have daily concentrations of
cyanide in their effluent
which exceed the Illinois
Pollution Control Board
(IPCB) effluent limit of 0 025
mg/1 part of the time
The Calumet Plant had the
highest total cyanide effluent
CENTRAL PLMP
STATION
SOUTH SIDE Mil I
X
COOLING 0
PHOCESS
•ftST SIOC MIL! S
COOLING 6
PROCESS
NORTH SIDE BLAST FCES
GAS CLEANING
6LOWOOWN TO
DRY SLAG PITS ISIOL/S
A	(24.000GPM)
	J	TO LAKE
TREATMENT
B COOLING
Z—
3
NO I PUMP
STATION
SOOTH Stoe BLAST fCES


COOLING

CENTRAL
T RE ATMENT
PLAN!
J.rtOl
l*ih IO11 oPM 1
TOMER

gas cleaning
-from calumet river
blowdown to
DRY slag pits 570L/S
4	19000GPM)
X to calumet rivep
l-C
TREATMENT
a cooling
Bl OWOO#N(2IOOGPM I
TO MUNICIPAL SEWER
U S Steel South Chicago Works
Wastewater Recycle System
-------
concentraton of the three
major plants which received
industrial waste. Frequency
data for daily effluent cyanide
concentration are shown in
Figure I
| 	 ?
rA \
i-* \ \	-s
L. --A \ i
I \\ ^ j
I »¦	^ \	I
-	v.	_ 	 I
*	T	— M-r I I	- —. CO«
o 03 oe- oo* oc* o«s oi <** :*
Cionar car*r"ra'*' "HI
Figure I.
The Metropolitan Sanitary
District of Greater Chicago.
Cumulative Frequency Dis-
tributed for final Effluent
Concentrations of Cyanide
The District's small treatment
plants having no known
industrial waste load, showed
occasional cyanide effluent
values which exceed the
IPCB limit (Figure II)

Figure II.
The Metropolitan Sanitary
District of Greater Chicago
Cumulative Frequency Dis-
tributed for final Effluent
Concentrations of Cyanide
Complex forms of cyanide
in the effluent averaged 75%
with 25% being simple forms
of cyanide The low concen-
tration of simple cyanide
contained in waterway samples
downstream of the Calumet
Plant are not considered toxic
to existing or indigenous
aquatic life Regulatory
. ?ferences
.hrens. G J , U S Steel Works
i ogruiii jt»r Process Water
Quality Control, Iron & Steel
Lngineer, May, 1977
Uramer. H C (July, 1970)
Wastewater Treatment, Reuse,
and Disposal at South Works,
U S Steel Works (Not published)
agencies are considering a
revision of the effluent limit
from total cyanide to a new
limit based on the simple or
more toxic form of cyande.
Additionally, the recycle
systems have contributed to a
higher than normal effluent
concentration of ammonia and
phenols from the Calumet
Sewage Treatment Plant (see
Table IV) It is believed that
tighter controls, together with
a two-stage nitrification system
scheduled for construction in
the near future, will resolve
these problems.
Faculty
Calumet	max.
avg.
jnin.
West Southwest	max.
avg.
mm.
Northside	max.
avg.
mui.
John Egan	max.
avg.
min
Table IV.
Treatment Plant Effluent—1976
Data (mg/1)
Conclusion
Since the end of 1975, the
plant has operated successfully
while recycling all process
water The only discharge to
the waterway is uncontaminated
cooling water and storm
water overflow These flows
are monitored regularly to
insure that they do not become
contaminated
Elimination of all wastewater
discharge to a water from a
fully integrated steel plant has
been demonstrated Disposal
Lanyon R , Whitebloom S,
Lue-Hing C , Reduction of
Wastes Discharged from Steel
Mills in Metropolitan Chicago
through Local Ordinance En-
forcement—Ninth Mid-Atlantic
Industrial Waste Conference,
Bucknell, III , Lewisburg,
Pennsylvania, August 1977
of blowdown to a municpal
wastewater plant is feasible
provided the municipal plant
is large enough and the
blowdown quality is
controlled.
It is technically possible to
treat and dispose of blowdown
through evaporative systems
followed by deep well disposal
of brine. In the Chicago
area, this type of disposal
system was not considered
either economically or
environmentally practicable. Q
Phenol	Oil
27.4	0.107	79.
16.0	0.010	15.
4 4	0 000	1.
8 0	0 014	56.
2 0	0.002	17.
0	0	0.000	2.
13 3	0 043	19.
7.1	0005	3.
1	2	0 000	0
8 2	0 027	15.
0 4	0 003	3.
0 0	0 000	0.
Rimkus, R , Knight, E (Sept.
1976) Effluent Standards for
Treatment Plants and Storm
Water Overflows—Prog. Wat
Tech, Vol 8, No 6 Pergamon
Press
US-EPA, Federal Guidelines
Stale and Local Pretreatment
Program MCD-43, GSA, Denver,
Colorado
Conditions of
Municipal
Effluents Use
for Making-Up
of Recycling
Water Supply
Systems
By S.P Sukach, A.G.
Kirichenko, I.B.
Shenderovich, J.I.
Antonchuk, Kharkov
Devision of
VNIIVODGEO.
Ammonia
44
-------
One of the ways for solution
of the problem of integrated
lization and protection of
.iter resources against
depletion and pollution is
advanced treatment and
repeated utilization of
biologically treated municipal
effluents for technological
water supply of industrial
enterprises
Possibility of these waters
utilization is determined by
sanitary, technological and
economical factors
For some years the Kharkov
Division of VNII VODGEO
Institute has been elaborating
designs of filters for advanced
treatment of biologically
treated municipal effluents and
conditions of their utilization
in systems of recycling water
supply of industrial enterprises
A filter has been designed
which ensures high degree of
effluents advanced purification
from suspended solids and
pollutants the degree of
concentration of which is
expressed by BOD value
The filter is a tank of
rectangular form divided by j
perforated partition plate into
two tiers Lower tier is intended
for removal of suspended
solids, the upper tier is
equipped with the system for
delivery and distribution in
granular filter media of air
or oxygen So, in the upper,
aerated tier of the filter
favorable conditions arc
created for fixed active forms
of aerobic microorganisms—
nuner.ilizers of organic matters
which remain in treated
effluents in dissolved or
colloidal form
Studies of the filter operation
made under pilot installation
conditions showed that at a
concentration of suspended
solids in initial liquid equal up
to 30 mg/1 and BODs0 equal
to 15 - 20 mg/1, filtering rate -
6-7 m/hr, aeration
intensity for 1 hr - 1 ms/m2,
intensity for I hr I m3/m3,
duration of the filtration cycle
of the lower tier - 24 hours
and that of the upper tier - 70
hr, the filter operated efficiently
and the concentration of
the suspended solids has been
reduced down to 5 mg/1,
BOD20 value down to
3 - 5 mg/1
The developed filter and
method of biologically treated
effluents filtering with simul-
taneous introduction of air
or oxygen into the filtering
media layer can have various
design solutions
two tier aerated granular filter,
described above;
two tier aerated granular filter
in which nonaerated and
aerated parts of the filter are
located near each other in
horizontal plane Direction of
water flow in nonaerated part
"upwards", in aerated one
"downwards",
aerated granular filter combined
with microfilters i e , as the
first stage for trapping of
suspended solids microfilters
arc used with mesh dimensions
equal to 40 - 45 Mm and
filtering rate 25 - 30 m/hr,
All three alternatives of
advanced treatment of effluents
by aerated filters have passed
design development stage and
have been put into operation
by a number of enterprises or
introduced into design projects
When solving the problem
of tertiary treated water
utilization main attention was
paid to cooling systems since
usage of water for cooling ex-
ceeds all other usages of
water in industry
Experimental works have
been carried out on pilot
installations, located at
biological stations of several
cities of the Ukraine.
Pilot installations incor-
porated units for advanced
treatment of biologically treated
effluents Aerated granular
filters designed by the
VNII VODGEO, Kharkov
Division, and three systems of
recycled water supply were
used Each water supply
system of the installation
included all elements of
industrial systems which made
it possible to perform experi-
ments on change of quality
study as well as to study
conditions of municipal
effluents utilization with due
account for difference in the
temperature of water heating,
heat loads of cooling surfaces,
water flow velocities and degree
of water evaporation.
Effluents of bological stations
after complete biological
treatment and advanced treat-
ment on aerated granular
filters had the following
quality indices values.
pH	7 6-7 9
total alkalinity,
mg-equiv/l,—	6 6-8 5
total hardness,
mg-equiv/1,	7 3-8 5
calcium-ion, mg-equiv/1, 5 0-6 2
total salt content,
mg-equiv/1,	670-980
chlorine-ion, mg/1,	150-250
sulphate-ion, mg/1,	100-280
phosphates, (P.Or.-),
mg-equiv/1,	0 7-3 5
ammonium nitrogen,
mg-equiv/1,	12 5-180
nitrites, mg-equiv/1,	trace-0 96
nitrates, mg-equiv/1,	0 8-2.4
surfactants, mg-equiv/1, 0 3-10
suspended solids,
mg-equiv/1,	up to 5 0
BOD.,, mg-equiv/1,	up to 5 0
COD. mg-equiv/1,	60-100
In order to secure sanitary
safety of water it was subjected
to chlorination up to
Coli-titre 300 Chlorine dose
has been determined by
experimental way for water of
each biological station and was
equal to 7 - 10 mg/1 with
residua] chlorine content
being equal to 1 0 - 1.5
mg/1.
The above-given data allow
to conclude that quality
indices of the waters, with
the exception of alkalinity and
hardness, to correspond the
requirements for water used
in cooling systems developed
by water management
authorities of member-countries
of COMECON.
While determining the degree
of these waters suitabnty for
making up of recycling water
supply systems it was
necessary to elucidate the
following questions change of
water composition in a cycle,
tendency and intensity of scale
formation, corrosive and
biological activity
Experiments on the installa-
tions have been done at
operational parameters typical
for water supply systems of
a number of productions with
tubular heat exchanging
45
-------
equipment at metallurgical,
machine-building, power-
producing and chemical
industries plants So, the
temperature of cooled surfaces
made up 100 - 500°C,
temperature of water heating
40 - 60°C, evaporation factor
from 1 5 to 3 0, velocity of
water flow in heat exchangers
pipes from 1 0 to 2 5 m/sec
Analysis of the experiment
results showed that quality
indices values of recycled
water at all investigated
regimes differ from those
for make up water First of
all this difference is expressed
in growth of content, in
accordance with evaporation
multplicity, of nearly all salt
forming components, increase
of organic compounds content,
total mineralization, change of
pH value, alkalinity and
dissolved gases concentration
Calculation of recycling
water saturation with calcium
carbonates indicated over-
saturation, the degree of which
increases with growth of heat
load of cooling surface, water
heating temperature and
evaporation factor However,
availability of organic matters
may facilitate certain deceler-
ation of scale deposits
formation process
At the same time, increase
of concentration of chlorides,
suphates, total salt content, as
well as availability of dissolved
gases indicates that these
waters have certain corrosive
activity
For quantitative evaluation
of the recycling waters stable
properties, observations and
monitoring of the processes
of scale formation and metal
corrosion were carried out on
special samples made of steel
pipes installed in heat exchang-
ers of water supply systems
As a result of execution
of complete experiments on
factors of 23 type, the
following equations were
received which depict the in-
fluence on these processes of
the above-named operational
parameters of recycling water
supply cooling systems
P" = — 3 738 + 1 286V
—	2 290Ef 4- 0 1016t
—	0 0356Vt — 0^0639
Ef
where P" — scale formation rate,
mm/yr
V — water flow velocity,
m/sec
t — water temperature, C*
Ef — evaporation factor
P = — 0 1845 + 0 2848V
—	0 005It — 0 1017Ef
+ 0 0012tEf — 0 0031
Vt
where P — corrosion rate, mm/
yr
These dependences are
suitable for determination of
rate of scale formation and
metal corrosion during
operation of recycling water
supply cooling systems, with
heat loads of heat exchangers
equal up to 60-103Kcal/
m2hr, on biologically treated
effluents analogous in their
composition to the waters
under study, in the temperature
range of 40-60°C, water flow
velocity equal to 1 5 -
2 5 m/sec, and evaporation
factor of 15-30
Since equations (1) and
(2) are nonlinear, single-
valued answer as to the
influence of that or another
factor on intensity of scale
formation or corrosion rate is
difficult to be obtained.
Graphic technological
analysis of the obtained de-
pendences may be done with
help of their diagramatical
interpretation, shown in Fig
1 and 2
In particular, from Fig. 1
it is seen that with the
increase of temperature, scale
formation intensity increases
and the higher evaporation
factor, the more apparently
this dependency reveals itself
With increase of water flow
velocity the scale formation
intensity decreases However,
main influence in the studied
limits of factors fluctuation is
exerted by temperature, there-
fore, in order that with the
increase of water heating
temperature, the scale formation
intensity be unchanged, it is
necessary to increase water
flow velocity or decrease
evaporation factor and, in
some cases, to change both
factors simmultaneously
Graphs on Fig 2 show that,
at constant evaporation
factor, with increase of water
flow velocity and water
heating temperature rate of
corrosion grows up, with the
former factor having higher
influence or»\his process then
the temperature Increase of
the evaporation factor reduces
rate of corroson 1 e , in this
case the relationship is of
inverse type For example, in
order that during increase of
water flow velocity the
corrosion rate value be un-
changed, it is necessary to
decrease water heating
temperature or to increase
evaporation factor
So, developed mathematical
models of scale formation
corrosion processes give m
only qualitative characterise
of factors relationship but
also enable to make quantitative
assessment of the influence
exerted by each of these
factors on the function
Besides that, obtained equa-
tions help to select rational
regime of recycling water
supply systems operation
For prevention of carbonate
deposits formation, stabilizing
treatment of make-up water,
for example, by acidification
method, is necessary. Acid
dosages are determined
depending on parameters of
water supply system operation
and temperature of cooling
surfaces
Results of the corrosive
tests allow to recommend to
employ metals, pump equip-
ment, pipelines and fittings
intended for freshwater systems
of analogous purpose
Dosage of chlorine, generally
accepted for disinfection of
water, secured prevention of
biological growths
Utilization of municipal
effluents for making-up of
recycling water supply systems
facilitates rational use of
water resources, reduces con-
sumption of more expensive
and less available water suitable
for economic and domestic
needs and also assists protection
of water bodies against
pollution	Q
46
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The Role of
Wastewater
Keuse and
Process Loss
-	Control in
Paper Industry
-	Wastewater
Management
By Di Isciuh C.cllman,
L\l( utivf Vkc Picsidcnl
.iihI I c( linwal Dim tot
N'.uiod.iI C.ounc il ol ihc
Paper Industry lot An and
Siicam Impiovniunl, In<
Introduction
The point of departure for
this symposium paper must
necessarily be a brief review of
the geseral objectives and tools
of wastewater management
in the paper industry
Hopefully this will provide a
perspective within which to
sift through the new techno-
logical developments related to
fa) expanded internal reuse of
waste process streams, (b)
modification in production
technology that involve
additional opportunities for
such reuse, and (c) efforts to
minimize loss of process
materials to external control
systems in existing production
technologies Otherwise we run
a risk of reviewing these
developments with only their
technological novelty in mind
and without a proper appre-
ciation of their potential role
in improving wastewater
management practice
A Characterization of Waste-
water Management Objectives
and Tools
(1)	Management objectives —
The wastewater management
objectives .is perceived within
the industry can be simply
stated as follows
(a)	to achieve and to
assure the necessary level
of compatibility between ef-
fluent discharge and
beneficial receiving water
uses, particularly for fish
propagation water contract
recreation, and public
drinking water supply
purposes;
(b)	to allow for the
orderly growth of the
industry at existing produc-
tion sites and at new locations
with progressively more
restrictive water quality
maintenance characteristics
The wastewater management
technology development objec-
tives then are corollary to
these overall objectives
(2)	Management tools — The
tools available for wastewater
management arc multiple and
can be classified into four
categories, including (a) in-
ternal recycle and loss
control, (b) external control
technology applied to the
residual load following internal
measures, (c) recycle to process
or to industrial water supply
of the final product of external
control technology, and (d) the
findings of environmental
science appled to the individual
mill site, including regular
environmental quality moni-
toring to assure that the
beneficial uses are in fact ade-
quately protected The
importance of the latter
cannot be overestimated for
both its problem definition
value as well as its ability to
document the adequacy of the
control measures adopted
Finally, the need for, and
value of, integrating the first
three should be abundantly
made clear to avoid the
hazards of pitting each
control approach against the
others rather than seeking the
optimal combination within
the limits of available capital
resources and with assured
performance as a parallel
objective With this as back-
ground we cas proceed to an
examination of the role of,
and current developments in,
wastewater reuse and process
loss control
B Principal Elements of
Internal Control and Effluent
Reuse
The principal elements of
internal control and effluent
reuse can be differentiated as
follows, recognizing that not
all the technological approaches
necessarily embrace all three
elements
(1)	effluent volume reduc-
tion,
(2)	general load reduction
to external treatment,
accompanied by some changes
in specific composition,
(3)	minimization of efflu-
ent variability both reaching
and leaving external control
facilities
C Objective and Potential
Benefits of Internal Control
and Effluent Reuse Programs
At least four (4) classes of
objectives and potential
benefits can be identified with
these two internalized
wastewater management
approaches, discussed jointly
in this paper They are as
follows
(1)	Optimization of overall
wastewater management costs
and performance reliability —
To the degree that internal
measures reduce the residual
load requiring external
treatment, they result in a
lowering of external treatment
costs This is not accomplished
without incurring significant
costs in internal arrangements,
so that the optimization goal
must remain paramount
Since improvement in system
reliability is also an objective
it is conceivable that some
overall cost increase can be
justified if tangible improve-
ments are realized in this
area as well.
(2)	Avoidance of need for
expansion of existing external
control facilities — Our in-
dustry has recently completed a
major and accelerated pro-
gram of construction of
biological treatment facilities
involving both space-intensive
and high rate systems We
recognize that (a) application
of in-process load control
measures may have lagged be-
sind this construction effort,
(b)	the program has carried a
high price in both available
capital and space resources,
(c)	further industry growth is
anticipated at many of these
mill sites, and (d) more
restrictive site allotments of
effluent load discharge are
foreseen as a consequence of
further regional development
As a result, we can expect
that much future wastewater
management effort at these
sites will involve internal
control rather than additional
external measures
47
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(3)	Reduction of pollutant
discharge not dealt with by
classical technology — The
traditional control technology
has dealt very successfully
with readily oxidizable organic
constituents and suspended
solids arising in the manufac-
turing process. The colored
and more slowly biodegradable
effluent fractions persst through
such control systems Internal
control can be expected to
minimize discharge of both
these effluent fractions. In
addition, prevention of volatili-
zation of selected effluent
components during biological
treatment, capable of con-
tributing to atmospheric odor
levels, can be viewed as a
further objective of internal
controls.
(4)	Reduction in wastewater
management energy require-
ments — A major objective of
wastewater reuse historically
has been energy conservation
through heat economy To this
can now be added energy
savings stemming from reduced
hydraulic through put Where
reuse is accompanied by
organic load reduction, further
energy savings are possible
through diminished bioaeration
power requirements and
increased burning of such
organics in either traditional
or innovative chemical recovery
systems. The latter control
measures may, however, require
energy input as well, so that
an optimization approach
should also guide efforts in
this direction A parallel con-
sideration involves the energy
required to deliver water
supplies to the mill itself,
which can be reduced by
water use economy.
Technological Aspects of
Internal Control and
Effluent Reuse
The current technological
approach involves considera-
tion of both volume and load
reduction which are best
discussed separately, recogniz-
ing that there are significant
interrelations of the two
A Volume Reduction
Considerations
To the present, the more
significant volume reduction
progress has materialized in
the paper mill area, particu-
larly among the non-integrated
waste paperboard, tissue and
fine paper mills We have
recently completed three
studies (1) (2) (3) whose
objective is to further the
reuse of process wastewater in
non-integrated paper mills
The program has proceeded
in three phases as follows,
(1) the collection of informa-
tion related to water reuse
stressing operational limits to
reuse related to changes in
water quality,
(2)	development of a
computerized data retrieval
system capability for entering
new, and assessing existing
information relating water
quality and reuse potential,
(3)	evaluation of the water
renovation capability of new
and proposed process equipment
adapted to inclusion within
the Whitewater system
The program has examined
water reuse in the waste paper-
board, fine papers and tissue/
towelling segments of the
industry with the following
results
(1) Combination waste paper-
board operations — Studies
at thirteen mills indicated that
closure to 3000 gallons/ton
could be readily achieved
without encountering serious
water quality-related problems.
Beyond that point piping
system revisions and material
changes were indicated to
reduce corrosion and abrasion
problems Plugging at such
points as pump packing, gland
seals, cylinder showers, bear-
ing cooling jackets and
machine felts was also en-
countered and attributed to
fibre buildup in the recirculated
water. The remedial approach
has involved use of savealls,
microstrainers, and fibre
fractionators and concentra-
tors In-line slotted strainers
are also graining use
Two recent reports docu-
ment the utility of a 'float-
wash' fractionator for
assisting in achieving boardnmt
water economy According to
Godin (4), water use and TSS
losses at a boardmill were
substantially reduced by in-
stallation of a float-wash
fractionator to allow recycle of
board machine whitevater to
cylinder and felt showers
Holmrich (5) described such a
proprietary device Fractiona-
tion occurs by directing a
stream against a screen and
separating the long fibres from
the fines with recycle of the
separated streams for various
applications
(2) Fine paper manufacture —
Twelve mills were examined
in this study, all discharging
less than 10,000 gallons/ton
effluent Plugging problems at
wire and head box showers,
bearing cooling lines and on
the machine felts have been
dealt with by removal of long
fibre materials as in the board
mills cited above Felt hair
removal is accomplished using
horizontal rotating center-fed
cylindrical screens of either
nylon or stainless steel with a
120 to 140 mesh medium
(6) (7).
48
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In all but one of the
mills visited fresh water was
*d for felt washing This
£ remains as a large user
of fresh water on the modern
paper machine While in the
future it may be possible to
reuse Whitewater clarified by
gravel filt. ation or other
means for felt cleaning, tests
carried out in mills forced to
take this measure in times of
extreme water econcjfny
indicate that prematunp
deterioration of feltsi takes
place (8) In the one! mill
visited which was usury other
than fresh water it was a
50 percent mixture of fresh
water and dual media-filtered
clarificr water and they
reported no loss of felt life
using this mixture In the
use of stronger needled felts
which arc better able to stand
up to high pressure water
jets, the tendency today is to
use high-pressure, low-volume
oscillating needled ji_t showers
for intermittent lelt cleaning
This significantly reduces
water use	1
(3) Tissue and towelling manu-
facture — Twelve tissue and
towelling nulls were studied
to determine current reuse
capability, problem areas and
opportuntics tor lurthei water
use economy Of these,
eight used less than 10 000
gal/ton while two fell' below
2000 gallon The problems
retarding further use were
similar to those reported
previously, namely (a) increased
line, nozzle, wire, and felt
plugging, (b) scale and
corrosion, (c) product color,
and (d) slime accumulation
The corrective measures of
a physico-mechanical nature
have emphasized improvement
in tn-plant flotation saveall
operation, use of in-line
strainers, and cascading of wa-
ter use on vacuum pump systems
to permit further use of
clarified Whitewater The mill
currently achieving the highest
degree of closure, Kimberly-
Cl^rk at Fullcrton, California
(9) accomplishes this through
use of bcntoiutc flocculation-
or lime softening-assisted
diatomacious earth filtration,
with the latter approach
preferred
One effluent reuse approach
that has not as yet been
exploited to the same degree
as direct internal recycle
involves use of final biologically
tieated efiluent as a partial
source of untreated industrial
w.iici supply Some success
in this area benefitting from
the chemical coagulation and
liltration olten accompanying
such water treatment can be
expected to further its
application as reuse programs
become even more intensive
(4) Cascading of bleach plant
water use — The bleach plant
still represents the major
point of water use in the
pulp and paper industry The
most recent extensive examina-
tion of bleach plant water
reuse patterns in North
America was completed by
Histed in 1972 (10) Con-
siderable variation in total water
use was observed ranging from
8000 to 23,000 gallons per
ton Extracts from Histed's
report serve to illustrate the
three main types of counter-
current washing being used in
the most advanced mills
These may be described as
fa) direct countercurrent, (b)
split flow countercurrent, and
(c) jump stage counter-
current At present direct
countercurrent and split flow
countercurrent washing is
restricted to blcacherics using
the CEDED sequence
Jump stage countercurrent
washing is used in blcacherics
using either the CEDED or
CEHDED sequences
(a)	Direct Countercurrent —
Fresh water is applied on all
of the showers of the final
chlorine dioxide stage
washer and on the first half
of the showers of the
chlorination stage washer In
addition, fresh water is applied
for either wire wash or as a
water doctor on all washers
Fresh water added to the seal
pits for level control is
kept to a minimum The total
bleachery effluent from bleach-
eries using this system ranged
from 8100 to 10,300
USG/ADT Differences in
chlorination stage consistency
caused most of the difference
in volume from these
bleacheries There was very
little difference in the amount
discharged to the alkaline
sewer from the first extraction
stage Bleacheries using this
type of countercurrent washing
have 317 ss washers on all
stages
(b)	Split Flow Countercur-
rent — Fresh water is applied
on all of the showers of the
final chlorine dioxide stage
and on half of the showers
of the second extraction stage
The filtrate from the D_, washer
is split into 2 parts Half is
applied on the showers of
E washer and the other
half is applied on the showers
of D, washer Similarly, Ej
filtrate is split between the
showers of the D, and
E, washers and D, filtrate is
split between the showers of
E, and C washers Different
nulls use different positions
for applying the split flows
49
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condenser water and
turpentine decanter under-
flow at an 850 ton per day
linerboard mill were
recycled to a cooling tower
Aeration of these process
streams in this manner
achieved a load reduction
of 10,000 lbs BOD per day
due almost exclusively to
air stripping of methanol
and other volatiles An
inherent drawback lay,
however, in the transfer of
odorous volatiles such as
terpenes and organic sulfides
to the atmosphere
This deficiency has been
met by systems employing
either air or steam^stripping
with the stripped material
being burned at a subse-
quent combustion unit. An
example of such a system is
that in operation at the
Mead Corporation mill at
Escanaba, Michigan
Initially this 800 ton
bleached kraft mill installed
a steam stripper handling
hot water accumulator over-
flow, turpentine decanter
overflow, evaporator con-
densates and miscellaneous
hot odorous streams The
initial objective was to
reduce odor release at the
biotreatment system This
was accomplished using a
fractional distillation column
53 feet high containing 24
trays, and steamed at a
2 5 percent rate, with non-
condensibles and collected
foul air burned in the lime
kiln (13).
In 1973 a program was
begun to determine whether
the mill BOD load could be
significantly reduced as
well Analysis showed that
the stripper bottoms
contained 15 to 18,000 lbs
BOD daily and that 90
percent of this was
accounted for by the
methanol present in the
condensates Modifications
to the system enabled the
steam feed to be increased
to 8 percent so that the
residual BOD was reduced
to 4 to 5000 lbs daily for a
net reduction of 11 to
13,000 lbs daily Total
steam and power
requirements are reported
as 8000 Ibs/hr of 60 psi
steam and 65 HP for
pumping condensates
Kraft mill condensate
stripping is now in use at
seven United States mills A
recent report on this subject
(14) reviews this
technology and reports
capital costs for systems
ranging from air-stripping
through partial to complete
steam stripping at from
1000 to 5000 dollars per
ton daily capacity, with
comparable operating
costs of 1 5 to 7 dollars per
ton Coupled with other
control measures related
to spill prevention,
brownstock washing and
excess paper machine
effluent reprocessing,
condensate stripping has the
potential for achieving
major progress toward
closure of the pulp mill
from an organic effluent
discharge standpoint
The experience at
Southland's Houston mill
also merits reference here
as an example of
condensate stripping being
instituted to permit an
existing activated sludge
treatment system to
successfully accommodate
a major mill expansion
through resultant BOD load
reduction (15)
(b) Sulfite condensate
processing — Currently
underway at the Flambeau
Paper Company, Park Falls,
Wisconsin sulfite mill is a
project directed toward
demonstrating the possibili-
ties for recovering methanol,
furfural, and acetic acid
as ethyl acetate from
sulfite liquor evaporation
condensates The process
being investigated involves
steam stripping and
activated carbon adsorption
to achieve removal and
separation of these
components This
investigation expands on
a project previously
conducted at the Institute
of Paper Chemistry (16)
Another treatment approach
pertinent 'o sulfite liquor
condensates involves the
upward adjustment of
spent liquor pH prior to
evaporation as to retain th
volatile acids in the liquOi
concentrate, permitting
their destruction in the
liquor furnace rather than
allowing their entry into
the condensates Previous
studies have shown that
upward adjustment of liquor
pH from 2 5 to 4 0 could
result in condensate BOD
load reduction from 150
to 200 lbs per ton to 50
lbs per ton (17)
(3) Bleach plant system
closure — Perhaps the most
dramatic recent developments
relate to efforts to close bleach
plant systems and recycle
resultant effluent to the pulp
mill chemical recovery system
Two separate approaches being
pursued include the Rapson
process and the use of tonnage
oxygen in place of the
initial halogen-base bleaching
stage
(a) Rapson process — The
Rapson process (18) is now
receiving its full scale
shakedown trial at Great
Lakes' Thunder Bay,
Ontario mill It involves (1)
substitution of some chlorine
dioxide for chlorine in
the initial stage, (2)
extensive internal recycle
to minimize total residual
flow, (3) recycle of the
residual bleach plant flow to
the pulpnull brownstock
washing system and ultimately
through the recovery
furnace to the causticizing
process, (4) evaporation of
white liquor for
crystallization/separation of
50
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The seal pits are interconnected
in some bleacheries and not
others The total bleachery
¦luent from mills using
split flow couiitercurrent
washing ranges from 9100
to 11,300 USG/ADT
Bleacheries using this type of
countercurrent washing have
317 ELC washers on all
stages
(c) Jump Stage Countercur-
rent — This type of
countercurrent washing is
made necessary by the use of
304 stainless steel in the
construction of the extraction
stage washers and CEHDED
bleacheries by the low
temperature used in the
hypochlorite stage Fresh water
is used on all showers of D2
washer Typically, filtrate
is used on al showers of the
D,	washer and D, filtrate
is used on all showers of the
chlonnation washer Similarly,
fresh water is used on the
showers of Ej washer and
E.,	filtrate is used on the
showers of E, washer The
total bleachery effluent from the
mills using jump stage
counterculrent washing ranges
from 12,300 to 13,700
USG/ADT for the CEDED
sequence and is much
higher for mills using partial
jump stage countercurrent
washing in CEHDED
bleacheries
In subsequent >vn!i' • Hried's
group has srm- . '' •'
further volume i.Ji Ci'jii
possible to .i rcsidn.il flow ot
1600 gallons per ton without
adverse effects on bleached
pulp properties The objectives
in this case was reduction to
a level consistent with total
bleach plant recycle through
the pulp mill recovery cycle
as in the Rapson process
discussed below
(5) Pulpmill wastewater reuse
— A recent report by
Timpe, Lange and Miller (11)
catalogues the varied process
waste streams available for
reuse in a kraft pulp mill These
include digester relief, blow
tank, and evaporator
condensates, turpentine de-
canter underflow, and
brownstock washing system
decker filtrates Specific points
of reuse include the woodyard
where log flumes, hot storage
ponds, hydraulic and wet
drum debarkers all provide
reuse opportunities, particularly
for condensates and excess
paper machine water. Conden-
sate use at such points as
lime kiln scrubbing and
brownstock washing is
possible but limited in most
cases by its odorous character.
This can be mitigated by con-
densate stripping, discussed
below Decker filtrate reuse to
achieve closure of the
pulp washing system is be-
lieved possible with additional
foam control measures and
evaporator capacity. A
major reduction in water use
has been achieved by substitu-
tion of surface for barometric
condensates on the multiple-
effect evaporator system.
The St Regis report suggests
that kraft linerboard can be
produced using only 5000
gallons per ton of fresh
water, supplemented by 3500
gallons each from internal
recycle and process waste
somces The report, further
lists reuse and recycle
possibilities men ting ^additional
study as follows, Some of
which had load reduction
features as well
(a) cooling water, including
vacuum pump seal water,
pump bearing water, and
air conditioning cooling water
to be recycled to cooling
pond or tower.
(b)	Use of activated carbon
adsorption to control
dissolved orgamcs buildup
in closed recycle systems
Use sidestream treatment tc
minimize equipment
size
(c)	Removal of orgasics
from turpentine underflow,
possibly by steam stripping
or activated carbon treat-
ment.
(d)	Reuse of blowdown
stream from Whitewater on
pulp washer.
(e)	Use of evaporator
condensate, after organics
removal, in pulp washing and
as makeup water for paper
machine showers.
(f)	Possibly close the
woodyard water cycle, which
requires solids separation
B Load Reduction
Consideratioss
Volume reduction measures in
the paper industry generally
carry no load reduction
benefits except where (a) filtra-
tion or other particulate
removal devices are used to
enhance reuse possibilities at
such points as felt washing,
(b) condensates are stripped to
remove volatile organic
constituents, (c) system
closure results in cycling
of organic materials to a
combustion point as in
chemical recovery, incorpora-
tion of organic materials in the
product, or is accompanied by
special treatment processes such
as activated carbon or resin
adsorption Some of these
possiblities are reviewed
below.
(1)	Combination waste paper-
board system closure —
Closure of such systems from
previous water use levels of
10 to 20,000 gallons per
ton to 3000 gallons generally
leaves BOD levels relatively
unaffected As water use is
reduced below 1000 gallons
per ton a rapidly increasing
portion of the organic load is
incorporated in the final
product At this point special
care is required in (a) selection
of production grades for
which this practice is acceptable,
and (b) specification of
piping and equipment materials
of construction resistant to
accompanying corrosive condi-
tions. Limited success has
been achieved in total system
closure, aided in some cases
by use of external biotreatment
as well to improve the
quality of the recycled efflu-
ent.
(2)	Stripping of kraft and
sulfite condensates — Progress
has been reported in North
America in this area for both
kraft and sulfite liquor digester
and evaporator condensates as
follows*
(a) Kraft condensate proces-
sing — An early approach to
condensate stripping for
BOD load reduction was
reported by Estridge (12)
in which evaporator con-
densates, barometric
51
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salt, and (5) optionally
discarding the salt or its
elective electrolytic
reprocessing for bleaching
chemicals manufacture
There is good reason to
believe that the problems
common to many new
production technologies will
be solved and that the
full costs and environmental
protection features of this
process will soon be
identified to guide its
selective retrofitting into
the existing pulping industry
(b) Oxygen bleaching —
Our recent studies of the
oxygen bleaching process
(19) provide evidence of the
capability of this process
to reduce sewered organic
load should recycle and
reuse of the first stage
alkali-oxygen dclignification
effluent in the conventional
kraft pulping chemical
recovery process prove
practical Results obtained in
the laboratory comp.nng
softwood bleaching sequences
indicated possible color.
BOD and COD reductions
of 85, 30 and 60 percent
respectively when bleaching
softwood pulp using an
OCEDED sequence in
comparison with the
convention.il CEHDED
sequence
(4) Intermittent process loss
control — The operation of
the chemical and physical
processes for turning wood
into paper represents a
complex blending of batch and
continuous processes In the
case of kraft pulping, current
chemical recovery system
designs call for collection of
an average of 98 to 99
percent of the spent pulping
liquor The effluents from the
unit processes involved vary
with time, causing variations in
mill effluents load which may
have an adverse effect on
control process performance
and final effluent characteristics
as well Aside from those load
variations caused by changes
in production schedules, a
category of non-continuous
variations has been identified
stemming from tank overflows,
process instability (eg
evaporator carryover)
spillage and leakage during
process transfer, and cyclic
operations (e g process
cleanups or maintenance)
Since sources and frequency
of such load variation must
vary substantially from one
mill to another, there is a
need for a management
strategy for dealing with
such losses
We have undertaken the
development of such a
strategy for design of such
loss recycle systems It
involves four distinct phases
including (a) the characteri-
zation of raw waste variability
for selected sources at a
number of mills, (b) the
selection and choice of
suitable loss detection
instrumentation, (c) assembly
of computational programs and
computer hardware for
conduct of a field demonstra-
tion of the application of
this management stratcgv and
(d) installation of the
equipment and conduct of the
field demonstration as a
means of assessing its
effectiveness.
Drawing on several
preliminary studies of this
subject (20) (21) the
program has- proceeded to
its fourth phase at the
Brown Company kraft mill
The actual potential for loss
collection and recycle varies
from one mill to another,
primarily as a result of
differences in marginal liquor
evaporation capacity It is
felt, however, that the
ability to capitalize on that
potential can be materially
enhanced by application of
the evolving management
strategy.
(5) Activated carbon
adsorption — Capability of
activated carbon for upgrading
the compositional quality of
non-integrated paper mill
effluents has been demonstrated
in two major pilot plant
studies discussed previously
(22) (23) These findings'
have however, not as yet
been extended to a point
that would support recycle of
carbon treated effluent as
makeup supply to a mill
water treatment system to
minimize its water requirements
Such further studies await an
assessment of large scale
experience at the Fitchburg.
Massachusetts joint treatment
facility
(6) Resin separation for
recycling pulping effluent
organic constituents — Whil'
this subj'ect continues to
command research attention
using both granular and
membrane-type resins,
practical applications have
been slow in materializing in
the United States The single
reported application continues
to be the Green Bay
Packaging unit where a high
solids concentration semi-
chemical board machine
Whitewater system is
balanced by processing 20
gpm of excess Whitewater The
separated organics are
returned to the chemical
recovery system while the
clear water from this
reverse osmosis unit is used
as fresh water for pump
seals (24)
Economic Aspects of Internal
Control and Effluent Recycle
Two recent studies in this
area merit attention in this
report The first explored the
response of external treatment
capital and operating costs to
incremental changes in pulp
null effluent load from
production processes, while
the second examined the
effluent volume sensitivity of
costs for advanced effluent
treatment directed toward
process closure and effluent
reuse
52
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A Response of External
Treatment Capital and
lerating Costs to Incremental
nanges in Pulp Mill Effluent
Loads
This subject was addressed
by the National Council in
1973 (25) It stemmed from a
recognition that widespread
applicatic/i of costly
biotreatment had created an
additional impetus toward
(a) improved retention of
organic materials in pulping
process systems and (b)
further effluent volume
reduction It sought to
further encourage such
measures by identifying their
incremental economic value
in controlling external
treatment costs
While the findings were
viewed as illustrative only,
they identified the relative
contributions of flow. BOD
and suspended solids to bio-
treatment system capital .mil
operating costs, so lh.it
individual attention could be
focusscd on incremental
sources of these effluent load
elements Analyses ol this
type have been instrumental
inndvancing the application of
the optimization approach
toward successful combination
of internal and external load
reduction measures
B Effluent Volume Sensitivity
of Costs for Advanced
Effluent Treatment
In 1974 the National Council
published contractor-
prepared engineering cost
estimates of overall industry
costs for achieving "zero
discharge of pollutants "
These estimates were
premised on the assumption
for estimating purposes that
desalination program tech-
nology, such as multistage
flash evaporation, could
achieve this objective The
contractor found (26) that
overall industry capital costs
(beyond high-efficiency
biotreatment) could reach
$4 3 billion (in 1972
dollars) and that if industry
water usage were reduced by
50 percent, the estimated
capital costs could be reduced
to $2 5 billion An attempt
was then made to estimate the
costs for achieving such a
degree of water use economy
A preliminary estimate
indicated these costs could
reach $900 million Some of
the technological steps that
were considered arc
summarized below for
specific mill types
(I) Bleached kraft production
(a)	conversion trom wet
to dry debarking
(b)	use ol pressurized
de-knotting and screening
(c)	recycle of chlorination
bleach stage effluent
(d)	conversion of
barometric to surface
condensates
(e)	collection, treatment
and reuse of press and
vacuum pump water
(2) Groundwood and
semichemical production
(a)	conversion from wet
to dry debarking
(b)	use of pressurized
screening
(c)	collection, treatment
and reuse of press and
vacuum pump water
Based on experience with
previous engineering estimates
of this type, it is likely that
practical application of these
measures would entail
considerably more capital
cost than indicated
Summary—Developmental
Trends and Possible Areas
for Cooperative Study
The high cost of biotreatment
and its auxiliaries for
achieving mandated residual
effluent levels represents the
major impetus toward
reductions in mill process
volumetric and organic load
Reductions are being pursued
independently in each area,
within a framework of overall
reduction objectives, since it is
recognized that reduction
in one area does not auto-
matically produce benefits in
the second
The principal process areas
with volume reduction
potential remain the paper
machine and bleach plant,
followed by the woodyard and
liquor evaporation systems
Those with organic load
reduction potential are
pulping liquor separation and
reprocessing, intermittent loss
control (spillage), bleach
plant effluent recycle to
pulpmill chemical recovery
(combustion) and near
complete paper machine
closure.
The major role of new manu-
facturing processes in
achieving further load
reduction is evidenced by
current attention to
condensate stripping, new
pulp washing and screening
procedures, and efforts to
close the bleach plant
through changes in halogen
use, separation of chlorides
from pulping liquor
intermediaries and substitution
of oxygen bleaching
Opening of new routes to
further progress in
papcrmaking volume
reduction awaits more studv
of water quality requirements
at specific reuse points and
selection of means to
produce water of such
quality from individual
Whitewater streams or total
mill effluent (particularly in
non-integrated mills)
There are significant
opportunities for cooperative
investigation under the
US-USSR bilateral
environmental cooperation
program that await further
implementation in the pulp and
53
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paper industry Among these
can be included a number that
bear on effluent recycle and
load reduction technology
development as follows
(I) Determination of water
quality needs for both pulp
and paper manufacture as a
guide to development of
specific effluent treatment
objectives, particularly for
in-process effluent streams
which are candidates for
further reuse
(2) Examination of the
economic and treatment
optimization aspects of
varying degrees of condensate
stepping, stressing the most
economic level of use and
source of stripping steam and
the incremental savings
achieved in use of existing
biotreatment systems, or their
possible future avoidance or
minimization for a new
generation of more highly
closed pulp mills
(3) Development and
implementation of a
management strategy for
detecting, collecting and
reprocessing intermittent
process material losses,
particularly from pulping,
screening and liquor
evaporation stages	~
References
Marshall, D and A Springer,
The Relation Between Process
Water Quality Characteristics and
Its Reuse Potential m Combina-
tion Board Mills. NCAS1 Stream
Improvement Technical Bulletin
No 282 (October 1975)
Marshall, D and A Springer,
The Relation Between Process
Water Quality Characteristics
and Its Reuse Potential in Fine
Paper Mills, NCAS1 Stream
Improvement Technical Bulletin
No 287 (August 1976)
Marshall, D and A Springer,
The Relation Between Process
Water Quality Characteristics
and Its Reuse Potential in the
Non-lntegiated Manufacture of
Tissue and Towelling, Stream Im-
provement Technical Bulletin
No 289 (November 1976)
Godin, K , Float Wash Frac-
tionator Saves Fibie and Water at
Grand Merc, Pulp Paper Mac.
Can 76 (6) 81 (1975)
Holmrich, M , Float Wash—A
Closing-Hp System for the Pulp
and Paper Industry, Paper 182
(8) (1974), Abs Bul.
Inst Papui Chem 45 (9) 9483
(1975)
Rakosh, L , A 6000 Gallon/Ton
Fine Paper Machine Water Sys-
tem, Pulp and Paper Mag Can
75 (3) T69 (March 1974)
Water and Stock Conservation
< t Fowdrtnier Machines, Sum-
i.iary of Annual Meeting Panel
ntation, Tappi 54 (10)
. , 97P
i	J J , A Practical
'proach to Water Conservation
a Paper Mill, Pulp and Paper
ternational 59-62 (May 1973)
Le *mpte, A R , Water
Ret ,'rnation by Excess Lime
Treatment, Tappi 49 (No 12)
11*\-124A (December 1966)
Histed. J A , Water Reuse and
Recycle in Bleacheries CPAR
Project Report 47-1 Canadian
Dept of the Environment (1972)
Timpe, W G , E Lang and
R L Miller, Kraft Pulping Eff-
luent Treatment and Reuse—State
of the Art EPA-R2-73-164 U S.
Environmental Protection Agency
(1973)
Estridge, R B etal, Tieatment
of Selected Kraft Mill Wastes in
ij Cooling Toner, Proc 7th
TAPPI Water and Air Confer-
ence (June 1970)
Ayers, K C and G L. Butryn,
Mead Experience in Steam
Stripping Kraft Mill Condensates,
Tappi 58 (10) 78 (Oct. 1975)
Hough, G and T W Sallee,
Treatment of Contaminated Con-
densates." Tappi 60 (2) 83
(February 1977)
Bishop, F etal, Steam Strip-
ping for Effluent Improvement
and By-Product Recovery, Proc
1975 NCASI Northeast and
Southern Regional Meetings,
P 136, Special Report No 76-09
(December 1976)
Baierl, K W etal, Treatment
of Sulfite Evaporator Condensates
foi Recovery of Volatile Com-
ponents, EPA-66O/2-73-O30
(December 1973)
Blosser, R O and Gellman, I,
Characterization of Sulfite Pulping
Effluents and Available Alterna-
tive Methods, Tappi 56 (9) 46
(September 1973)
Rapson, W H , The Closed-
Cycle Bleached Kraft Pulp Mill,
Chemical Engineering Prog-
ress, p 68 (June 1976)
Carpenter, W L etal, Charac-
teristics of Effluents from Con-
ventional and Oxygen Bleaching
Sequences, Tappi 59 (11) 81
(November 1976)
Gove, G and J J McKeown,
Spill Pre\ entton and Control
Aspects of Paper Industry
Wasteii ater Management Pro-
grams, NCASI Stream Improve-
ment Technical Bulletin No 276
(August 1974)
McKeown, J J and I Gellman,
Charac tenanting Effluent Vari-
ability from Paper Industry
Wastewater Treatment Processes
Employing Biological Oxidation,
Progress in Water Technology
8 (1) 147 ( 1976) (England)
Camp, Dresser and McKee,
Report on Comprehensive Plan
for Domestic and Industrial
Wastcw titer Disposal Supplement
"C" (August 1970)
McCuaig. W B etal., Physicai-
Chemual Tieatment of Combined
Mtiiiu ipal. Pulp and Paper
Waste\ Proc Tappi Environ-
ments Conference (April 1974)
Nelson, W K cud. NSSC Mill
Evperieme with Wastewater
Reverse Osmosis Proc Tappi
Environmental Conference (April
1974)
Quirk, I" etal. Response of
Evtcrnal Treatment Capital and
Operating C oia to hit reinental
Changes in Pulp Mill Effluent
Load Slieam Improvement
Technical Bulletin No 264
(March 1973)
A D Little Inc . An Engineer-
ing Estimate of the Cost to the
Paper huhistrv of Al/iicv mg
Selected EPA National Effluent
Limitation Levels, Stream Im-
provement Technical Bulletin No
270 (January 1974)
Closed Up
Water Supply
Systems and
Reuse of
Treated
Effluents in the
Pulp and Paper
Industry of the
USSR
By C.mtl St i | W Niknni
VNPOlMniinpiom,
Lenin^t.ul. I SSR
54
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Development of effluent-free
water management system in
le pulp and paper industry is
constantly becoming a
more and more acute task
solved within tne scope of the
industry pollution control
program.
An expanded environment
control program is adopted
and put into effect in the
pulp and paper industry of the
USSR Reduction of fresh
water consumption as well as
decreasing the volume of
water required for the main
production processes envolving
the traditional technology
constitute important elements
of this program
Pulp and paper processing
requires considerable amounts
of water of various quality
since most of the
technological processes take
place in equeous mediae in
which the basic chemical
reactions proceed
Heat exchanging, transporta-
tion of fiber and chemicals,
sheet forming procedures
on paper and board machines,
removal of different
impurities and sludge in the
process of production and
effluent treatment, etc are
accomplished with the help
of water
Mills manufacturing one
or a number of product
grades use complicated
combinations of water supply
and water discharge systems.
Characteristic features of
such systems is the application
of different water types
intended for intradepartmental
and inplant recycling as well
as for repeated and
successive usage
The total fresh water
demand of the domestic pulp
and paper mills amounts to
9 5 M cu m/t with the
Whitewater consumption
comprising 7 8 M cu m/t
(1).
Evaluation of the water
management at the domestic
mills shows (2) that water
is supplied mainly from the
flowing surface water
sources Consumption of
groundwater comprises
nearly 1 0% , fresh water
requirement for the mill
economy needs does not
exceed 2.0% of its total
consumption value. The
amount of water recycling
outside the given department.
i e the quantity of white
water returned to the
same department after it
undergoes a special treatment
procedure is insignificant
and does not exceed as a
rule 10%.
Interdepartmental water
reuse—when effluents of
one department replace fresh
water in the other—make
up a greater volume
something around 25%.
Reuse and recycling of
water inside a department is
on the average within 65-70%.
Steam electric stations at
the mills are provided in
general with uniflow water
supply systems and the
consumption of fresh water
for these purposes is
sometimes as high as 50%
of the total water requirement.
This water may then be
applied for processing
purposes and according to
the classification adopted
in the pulp and paper industry
it refers to successively
used water It should be
also pointed out that the
specific water demand as
envisaged by the above
classification is evaluated in
the pulp and paper industry
of the USSR from the total
volume of water consumpted
by the mill That is why the
specific water requirement
increases at the expense of
auxiliary shops of the mill
and therefore it cannot be
compared with corresponding
figures reflecting the
performance of mills in
ether countries.
With the production of
alcohol, yeast, furfurol,
veneer, vanilin. fiber boards,
etc —items not associated
directly with the manufac-
turing of pulp and paper
products—water consumption
makes up on the average
nearly 9%.
Some 18% of the total
volume of water consumed
are accounted for other
needs of the mill economy—
water preparation, boiler
rooms, repair shops,
compressors, oxygen
supply stations, effluent
treatment facilities, etc.
Irreversible water losses at
the removal of recovered
stock, at the evaporating and
burning of liquor, lime
sludge roasting, etc amount
to approximately 6.0%
In this manner the
consumption of fresh water
for the production of main
items in the mill varies
within 24 to 63% of the
total requirement.
With the development of
water closed up systems for
pulp and paper mills it is
necessary at present to
take into account not only
the principle production
processes which are responsible
for the major part of
pollutants in the waste
water of he modern
industrial complexes. The
above objects are also to be
considered. All the problems
associated with the water
economy of a mill when
solved integrilly will permit
the develop of an actual
closed up system as well as
to start solving the final
task—the construcion of a
waste-free mill.
Users of the processing
water with regard to regards
requirements to its quality may
be divided into two groups.
Users of the first group refer to
evaporator and turbine
surface condensers, compres-
sors, oxygen supply stations
and the like where only
physical contamination/
temperature rise/of the water
takes place without
affecting its chemical
composition Such a water
may be repeatedly used
after correction of the
temperature to the required
value
55
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The second group of
users may be represented by
the pulp and paper
principle production processes
where along the physical
changes alterations in its
chemical composition occur:
in this case appear suspended
solids and colloidal particles.
In view of the great diversity
of such users they may be in
their turn divided into two
sub groups
Water of the first subgroup
is contaminated mainly with
suspended solids: fibers,
fillers, etc. It may be used
without retreatment or
clarified in one or a few
stages with the purpose
either to return it to the
production line or discharge
it into a receiving stream.
At the pulp and paper mills
in the USSR water is treated
with the application of the
following equipment:
scraper and conical type
save-alls ("Antuan"); vertical
settling tanks; suspended
solids clarifiers, "Sven
Pedersen", "Adka", FL-3 and
FL-4 flotation type
save-alls; "Vako" and
"Kinzle" revolving gauze
filters and disk filters
Such units or white water
clarifying systems are
applied for water treatment
prior to reuse it in the wood
room, groundwood mill, on
paper and paperboard
machines.
So for reducing the
consumption of fresh water
by 2 or 3 times clarified and
bark containing effluents of
the wood room are returned to
the barking drums. Along with
the application of effluents
from some other departments
this will permit cutting the
consumption of fresh water
in the wood room down to
8 cu m/t of pulp.
Production lines of the
second subgroup associated
mainly with pulp manufac-
turing processes contaminate
water with dissolved organic
and mineral substances.
These effluents may also
contain fibers. They can be
reused without preliminary
treatment—for instance
filtrates of one bleaching
stage may be directed to
another at combined
countercurrent washing flow
sheets; some condensates
from the evaporation can be
used for washing of brown
stock. But nevertheless the
greatest part of the waste
water for this production
subgroup should undergo
complicated multistage
treatment procedures at the
external effluent treatment
systems inclusive prior to be
reused.
The efficiency of a mill
water supply system is
evaluated by two figures: the
specific requirement of
fresh water per ton of
manufactured product and the
water turnover coefficient
which is determined by the
relation of summed up
consumption of white water,
repeatedly and successively
used water to its totally
consumed value
Data illustrating specific
consumption of fresh water at
the USSR mills in comparison
with the I 974 standards as with
regard water requirement and
water discharge arc given in
Table 1.
As seen from the below
figures the pulp and paper
mills in the USSR have
considerable potentials for
the further improvement of
water management systems.
It should be contributed to
the standards effective in
the USSR according to
which the degree of recycling
and repeatedly used water
should not be under the
given below values
expressed in percents:
unbleached kraft pulp . ...	73
bleached kraft	82
printing and writing papers
(from purchased pulp) 	 62
container board
(from purchased pulp) ...	78
A number of mills in the
USSR use treated effluents
for the production of
boxboard from waste paper
(4). So some mills apply a
system developed by the Pulp
and Paper Research
Institute in the Ukraine with
the provision for separating
on fractionators good fiber
followed by treating of
water with proper reagents
in settling tanks prior
returning it to the production
line. Due to the above system
the consumption of fresh
water is considerably lowered
making up to 7-15 cu m/t
of manufactured products.
56
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In view of the considerable
number of external effluent
•reatment facilities available in
e pulp and paper industry of
,nc USSR decisions were
made to use clarified white
water in the production
process.
Some mills follow the path
of increasing the coefficient
of used white water bringing
the fre.-.h water consumption
down to 1 5 - 3 0 cu m/t
At the same time the
production experiences
herewith considerable
difficulties associated with
foaming, equipment corrosion,
intensification of biological
overgrowth, increased number
of paper and paperboard
sheet breaks on the machines,
etc
On the ground of
studies carried out in the
All-Union Pulp and Paper
Research Institute /Lenin-
grad/ it was shown that
most of the above
difficulties can be avoided by
using waste water treated
biologically or in combination
with chemical means
The potentiality of using
biologically treated effluents
instead of fresh water in
the paperboard production
had been investigated
It was established that the
properties of the biologically
treated paperboard production
effluents as well as treated
pulp and board production
mixed waste waters meet the
requirements to the quality of
Description
i
Kraft pulp
unbleached
bleached
Sulphite pulp
unbleached
bleached
rayon
Paper
newsprint
writing and printing
raw corrugating
wrapping
Container board
Table 1
processing water for
manufacturing unbleached
as shown below:
1	Solids matter content,
mg/1	—50
2	Dissolved substances
content, mg/I	==4700
3	BOD-, mgO/l	—400
4	COD, mgO./l	—1200
On the ground of laboratory
and pilot plant studies an
effluent-free paperboard mill
reconstruction project has
been developed Fresh water
consumption of this effluent-
free mill started in June
1975 amounts to about
3 5 cu m/t of board
The obtained results
permit to record the following
items:
•	solids matter content in
the tray water did not change
considerably,
•	increased consistency of
dissolved substances from
860 up to 2400 mg/1 as
well as COD from 1200 up
to 1830 mgO /1 in the tray
water resulted in increasing
the corresponding properties
in the water supplied to the
treatment facilities from 584
up to 1835 mg/1 and from
950 up to 1700 mgO./l
respectively.
Specific consumption of fresh water,
cu m/t
Consumption range : With regard to
according to mill
records
1974 standards
/I975/
2
3
65-354
140
220-766
220
126-520
145
275-705
315
360-809
500
50-90
55
74-164
85
41-145
70
41-207
45
31-140
70
•	effluent contamination
limiting values achieved on
the 8th or 10th day of
the experiment were not
exceeded;
•	some temperature rise—
from 3 to 7°C—of waste
water and treated effluents
supplied to the mill;
•	biological treating facilities
functioned under stable
processing conditions
It should be pointed out
that the processing equipment
was not affected by corrosion
or biological growth.
Promoting of the mill
water closed up system
elements is associated with
considerable capital
investments and operating
costs caused by replacing some
old equipment by new one
including in the flow sheet new
facilities, by laying additional
pipelines, by foam and scale
control, corrosion, increased
biological growth, odor
control, etc It may be also
due to operational problems
and in a number ot cases to
the necessity to collect and
return accidental mill
emissions
Considerable costs associated
with the development of such
water management systems are
to be offset not only by the
general ecological effects
They should also bring to a
certain economy in the
consumption of raw
materials, chemicals and heat
energy as well as result in
the improvement of property
qualities of manufactured
articles and in the performance
of the functioning effluent
control facilities It must
also help to decrease the
expenditures for the
construction of new pollution
control installations.
Proceeding from the above
initial designing data were
worked out in the VNPO
bounprom for the
reconstruction of a functioning
mill It had been done with
the object to develop a
highly efficient water closed
up system for a 280,000 t/y
bleached kraft pulp and
container board mill (a pilot
plant). It should be noted
that this mill is provided with
external facilities for biological
and chemical treatment of
waste waters.
At developing a water
closed up system for the
principle technological
processes the supply of
hot and warm water should
be proceeded through a
57
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water-cooling tower for its
reuse in the heat exchanging
units Intensively clarified
surplus water from the board
null and th; water from the
effluent treatment facilities is
to be also applied It refers
as well to the development of
.1 system for recycling clarified
water with the application
of the water from the power
stations ash removing
installations and the effluents
trom the external treatment
facilities Therewith the
problem had been to avoid
mixing up waters of different
composition
Owing to the necessity to
remove excessive mineral salts
Irom the mill system, provisions
were nude for demineralizing
partly the effluents treated at
the external facilities with the
object to replace fresh water
Provisions were made to have
a separate sewer system and
evaporate the mostly con-
taminated effluents of the
recovery plant as well as of
the cooking/washing depart-
ment Evaporation is to be
carried out integrally with the
highly concentrated effluents
of the dcnuncralization unit
Provisions are also made for
cooling water after water-
cooling towers since its
temperature may be relatively
high especially in summer time
One way of developing such
a system is to use to the
utmost white water in the
production process and to
exclude water completely from
the power departments of the
null .is well as to treat sepa-
rately industrial and municipal
effluents
The system is to incorporate
additional installations for
treating local effluents So
suspended ?>olids filters are to
be applied as a second stage for
clarifying paperboard machines
tray water, centrifuges should
be used for additional separa-
tion of the green liquor sludge,
hydrocyclones are to be applied
for treating ash removing
water from the power stations,
etc
Reconstruction of the wash-
ing department is an important
condition for the development
of a pulp mill water closed
up system The two installations
available at the integrated mill
comprised of three double zone
pressure filters ensure according
to the project 97% bleeding
of the waste liquor But under
new conditions this is to be
considered as insufficient
According to the obtained
test results the optimal
etliciency may be achieved at
installing a high intensity press
unit to be used as an additional
stage Herewith the top con-
sistency of the pulp after the
press is to be within 50% with
the working consistency in the
range of 38 to 40% In this
case the designed liquor
bleeding efficiency at washing
is to amount 99% while the
real value is about 98 5%
It should be pointed out
that the utilization of the
sludge from the effluent
treatment facilities is incor-
porated in the flow sheet for
paperboard production Sludge
treatment processes and recom-
mendations for its use were also
developed and checked under
pilot plant conditions in the
All-Union Pulp and Paper
Research Institute in Leningrad
In this way it is supposed to
make the kraft pulp and
container board production not
only effluent-free but to a
greater extent also waste-free
What is more, design
projects for the utilization of
treated effluents in the produc-
tion of bleached kraft pulp and
rayon pulp grades are checked
at present These projects after
their approval will permit to
have in the USSR mills
featured for possessing highly
efficient water closed up
systems	~
58
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Protocol
jtocol of the fifth Meeting of the USA and USSR delegations
on the problem of Prevention of Wastewater Pollution from
Industrial and Municipal Sources (Moscow, USSR, September
1 1-25, 1977)
In accordance with the Memorandum of the Fifth Meeting of
Joint USA-USSR Commission on Cooperation in the field of
Environmental Protection (Moscow, November 1976) the USSR
and USA delegations Meeting on the problem of Wastewater
Treatment was held in Moscow, September 11-25, 1977
The American delegation was led by Mr Harold P Cahill, Jr,
Director of Municipal Construction Division, US Environmental
Protection Agency
The Soviet delegation was headed by Prof S V Yakovlcv,
Director of the Scientific-Research Institute VODGEO,
Gosstroi USSR
The list of participants is attached in Appendix I.
In the course of the visit the following was accomplished
1	A Symposium on the topic of Recirculating Water Supply
Systems and Reuse of Treated Effluents at Industrial Enterprises
was held in Moscow
2	The results of fulfilment of the 1977 Program of Cooperation
were discussed
3	Coordination of the Working Program for 1978 was achieved
1.
In the course of the Symposium 14 papers were delivered
7 papers from each side (Appendix II)
All papers were received with great interest and were followed
by a lively discussion
The delegations have agreed that each side will publish all
papers in the required number of copies in its own language
prior to February I. 1978 and will distribute them among
interested organuations The sides will exchange 10 copies each
of the published Proceedings ol the Symposium
2.
In the course of the visit the specialists have discussed the
results of scientific work being carried on according to the
Program ot Cooperation, have exchanged opinions on future
trends in the are.i of wastewater treatment became acquainted
with bench-scale units used lor conduct ol scientific research and
have exchanged scientific and technical literature
3.
The delegations discussed and agreed on the 1978 Program of
Cooperation (Appendix III)
Both sides have agreed that in the course ot the delegations
Meeting in 1978 the implementation ot the Cooperation Program
will be discussed and Symposia on the following topics will be held
—	"Advanced equipment and facilities lor wastewater treatment"
(USA, March I9-April 2, 1978)
—	'Facilities for tertiary treatment ot biologically treated effluent
with removal ol biogcnous elements" (USSR. Auiiust 20-Scptembcr
2 1978)
In preparation for the Symposium to be held in the USA the
following was agreed upon
each side will present 5-7 papers in a Symposium.
•	both sides will exchange the titles ot reports to be delivered
prior to January 15, 1978,
•	both sides will exchange the texts of the reports both in
Russian and in English prior to February 15, 1978
59
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Both delegations have agreed that 2 Soviet specialists will
visit the USA for 2 months each in May-June 1978, and 2
American specialists wil visit the Soviet Union for 2 months
each in May-June, 1978
These specialists will have the opportunity to study scientific
research and design work of various organizations as well as
treatment facilities for municipal and industrial wastewater
treatment in both countries The detailed exchange programs
will be agreed upon in March 1978 in the course of the
delegations Meeting in the USA Exchange specialists will be
carried out on the basis of equal and "receiving-side-pays" basis
Both sides came to the conclusion that it would be beneficial
during the next five years to exchange specialists and technical
documentation for the construction of pilot facilities for
wastewater and sludge treatment. These facilities will be utilized
for the conduct of joint research projects
Exchange of technical documentation and research work will
be conducted on the basis of equal and "receiving-side-pays" basis
Certain proposals of both sides on the exchange of technical
documentation for pilot plants construction will be considered
in the course of the delegations Meeting in August 1978.
The delegations have noted that in accordance with the
information given by the American Side.
—	The Soviet specialists in pulp and paper industry will visit the
U.S in late January or early February 1978 and the U.S side
will visit the Soviet Union during the Summer of 1978
—	There will be mutual exchanges in 1978 in the areas of the
chemical and petroleum industries at dates to be decided upon
—	The details of these industries exchange would be presented
for confirmation at the Joint Committee Conference in Washington,
DC in November 1977
In the course of the Meeting delegations visited industrial and
municipal treatment facilities in Moscow, Kiev, Chernigov and
discussed the present time state of the problem of wastewater
treatment with the .specialists of VNII VODGEO, UkrNIIB,
Ukrvodokanalprockt, The Kharl Department of VNII VODGEO
and various organizations in Tbilisi
Information on creation of recycling sewerage system of an
petro-chcmical enterprise being constructed and the exchange
of opinions on the problem of methods of electro-coagulation for
wastewater treatment were of special interest for the American
delegation
The Sides have expressed their satisfaction that the Meeting
w.is conducted on a highly scientific and technical level in an
atmosphere of friendship and mutual understanding thus
contributing to the further development and strengthening of
cooperation in the field of environmental protection
This Protocol was signed on September 23, 1977, in two copies
in Russian and English, both texts being equally authentic.
From the U S Side
Mr. Harold P. Cahill, Jr.
Chairman of the US delcnolion
From the Soviet Side
Prof S. V. Yakovlev
Head of the Soviet delegation
60
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Appendix 1
ist of participants at the
ymposium "Recirculating
Water Supply Systems and
Reuse of Treated Effluents at
Industrial Enterprises"
From the American Side
Harold P. Cahill, Jr.
Chairman of Delegation
Director, Municipal
Construction Division,
US EPA
William J. Lacy
Deputy Chairman of Delegation
Principal Engineering-Science
Advisor, Office of Research and
Development, U S EPA
Andrew Paretti
Consultant, Office of Water
Program Operations, U S EPA
Dr. Isaiah Gellman
Executive Vice President,
National Council of the Paper
Industry, for Air and Stream
Improvement
Donald Tillman
Chief Engineer, City of Los
Angeles, California
—Franklin Sebastian
President Wastewater
Equipment Manufact Assoc
Robert Denbo
Chairman, American Petroleum
Institute on Environmental
Control
Rear-Admiral
Eugene Peltier (U.S.N. Ret.)
Chairman Management
Advisory Group U S EPA
Raymond Rimkus
Chief, Maintenance Operations
Metropolitan Sanitary District
of Greater Chicago
Prof. Alex Malyshev
Colorado College
Interpreter, U S Dept of State
From the Soviet Side
Prof. Yakovlev S.V.
Head of Delegation
Director VNII VODGEO
Slitctsov V.N.
Vicc-dircctor. VNII VODGEO
M>a.snikov I.N.
Head of Laboratory,
VNII VODGEO
Dr. Skirdov I.V.
Head of Laboratory,
VNII VODGEO
Ponomarev V.G.
Head of Laboratory,
VNII VODGEO
Voronina M.A.
Senior Engineer,
VNII VODGEO
vloskvitina E.D.
ienior Researcher,
VNII VODGEO
Lobacheva E.A.
Senior Interpreter,
VNII VODGEO
Appendix 2
List of papers presented at the
Symposium "Recirculating
Water Supply Systems and
Reuse of Treated Effluents at
Industrial Enterprises"
From the U S Side
W. J. Lacy
7 he Closed-Loop Cycle for
Industrial Wastewater The
Future Pollution Solution
I. Gellman
The Role of Wastewater Reuse
and Process Loss Control in
Paper Industry Wastewater
Management
D.C. Tillman
Water Reclamation as a New
Dimension in Growth for
Los Angeles
F.P. Sebastian
Municipal and Industrial
Wastewater Treatment and
Reuse.
R.T. Denbo
Reduction and Reuse of Process
Wastewater in a Petroleum
Refinery
EJ. Peltier
Recycling—the Key to One
Steel Mill's Pollution Control
Program.
R.R. Rimkus
Reuse of Process Water from a
Large Steel Plant
From the Soviet Side
Alferova L.A., Nechaev A.P.,
Markov P.P.
Fundamentals of Creating
Closed-Loop Water Supply
Systems at Industrial
Enterprises
Sukach S.P., Kirichenko A.G.,
Shenderovich, I.B., Antonchuk
J.I.
Conditions of Municipal
Effluents Use for Makmg-Up
of Recycling Water Supply
Systems
Lukinih N.A.
The Peculiarities of Municipal
Sewage Effluent Utilization in
Industrial Plants.
Gasanov M.V., Amirova S.M.
To the Question of Municipal
Treated Sewage Use in
Industrial Water Supply of the
Apsheron Peninsula.
Ioakimis, E.G., Saifutdinov
R.Z., Yefimova A.K.
Usage of Purified Waste Water
in Refinery Circulating Water
Systems
Sukach S.P., Klovatskiy Yu.D.,
Shenderovich I.B.
Utilization of Sea Water in a
System of Recycling Water
Supply of Industrial Enterprises
Nikitin Y.V.
Closed up Water Supply
Systems and Reuse of Treated
Cffluents in the Pulp and Paper
Industry of the USSR
Dr. Alferova L.A.
Head of Laboratory,
Nil VODGEO
61
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Appendix 3
USA-USSR Cooperation of
Working Group on Prevention
of Water Pollution from
Industrial and Municipal
Sources For 1978.
Title
Modernization of existing and
development of new combined
facilities with high efficiency for
wastewater treatment, including
hydrocyclones, multistage settlers,
flotators, facilities with utilization
of technical oxygen, investigation
of usage of flocculants and
coagulants.
Development of tubular and
plate settlers
Development of hydrocyclones
and pressure flotation units
Development of open aeration
tanks ot Marox" type with the
usage of technical oxygen
Development of closed combined
aeration tanks of "Oxitarik" type
wnh the usage of technical oxygen
Development ot multi-media filters
with gradually descending particle
size distribution
Devi lopmcnt of multi-media filters
and facilities with continuing washing
Intensification ol wastewater
ueatmcnt processes in pctro-chcmical
chemical, petroleum refining and
pulp and paper industries
Intensification of wastewater
treatment processes in petroleum
refininu industry
Form of Work
Joint development of
themes, scientific informa-
tion and specialists
delegation exchange
Symposium on
"Advanced equipment
and facilities for
wastewater treatment"
(USA, Cincinnati,
March 19-April 2, 1978,
8 specialists)
Symposium on-
"Facilities for tertiary
treatment of biologically
treated effluents with
removal of nutrients"
(USSR, Moscow, August
20-September 2, 1978,
8 specialists).
Information
and delegation
exchange
Responsible for
From the USSR From the USA Time
VNII	EPA	1978
VODGEO
Gosstroi
USSR
VNII
VODGEO
Gosstroi
USSR
VNII
VODGEO
Gosstroi
USSR
VNII
VODGEO
Gosstroi
USSR
VNII
VODGEO
Gossroi
USSR
VNII
VODGEO
Gosstroi
USSR
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
1980
1980
1980
1980
1979
1979
1979
1979
Expected Results
Improvement of the
efficiency of existing
and development of
new treatment
facilities, reduction
of reagents and cost
of wastewater
treatment
Recommendations for
use of settlers for
wastewater treatment
Recommendations for
designing hydrocy-
clcnes and pressure
flotation units
Development of open
aeration tanks with
the usage of
technical oxygen
Development of closed
aeration tanks with
the usage of
technical oxygen
Recommendations for
designing filters for
treatment and
final treatment of
wastewaters.
Recommendations
construction of
multi-media filters
for
Increasing of waste-
water treatment
efficiency of existing
treatment plants,
introduction of new
treatment schemes,
maximum usage of
treated effluents in
recirculating systems.
Development of
treatment scheme
a petroleum refining
plant using mechani-
cal, physical-chemical
and biochemical
methods
62
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Title
Form of Work
Responsible for
From the USSR From the USA Time
Expected Results
Intensification of wastewater	EPA	1979
treatment processes in petro-chcmical
and pulp and paper industries
1	Joint development of	VNII	EPA	1980
Dc\elopment ot highly efficient	themes information and VODGEO
methods and facilities for municipal delegation exchange	Gosstroi
sewage treatment with removal of	USSR
biogcnous elements usage ot treated
effluents in recycling systems at
industrial enterprises
Development of methods and
facilities tor nitrates and
nitrites removal
Development of optimum schemes
of treatment facilities for
removal of hiogenous elements
Treatment of wastewater
sludges
Information and
delegation exchange
VNII
VODGEO
Gosstroi
USSR
VNII
VODGEO
Gosstroi
USSR
EPA
1980
Stabilizing and dewatering of	VNII	EPA
wastewater sludges	VODGEO
Gosstroi
USSR
Technology and facilities for	EPA
hi_al treatment and utilization
ol wastewater sludges
Visit of 2 Amincac specialists
u> tH<_ U^SR toi 2 months each
on problems ol wastiwater
I real men!
Visit ol 2 Soviet specialists to the
USA for 2 months each an problems
ol wastewater treatment
Acquaintance with rese.irch VNII
work of Soviet orgamza- VODGEO
lions anil research institutes Gosstroi
anil participation in
scientific researches
Acquaint.ince with
research work of
American firms and
organizations and
particiption in
scientific researches
USSR
VNII
VODGEO
Gosstroi
USSR
EPA
EPA
May-
June
1978
May-
June
1978
Development of
treatment scheme of
pulp and paper and
petro-chemical
enterprises using
reagents
Development of new
treatment facilities
for prevention of
water basins eutrofica-
tion; development of
new treatment systems
with maximum usage
of treated effluents
in recycling systems
at industrial
enterprises
Development of
recommendations for
facilities designing
Development of
recommendations for
facilities designing
of wastewater sludge
Reduction of cost
treatment, increasing
of treatment
facilities efficiency
Recommendations for
designing of facilities
for stabilization and
dewatering of
wastewater sludges
Rccomendations for
designing of facilities
for heat treatment
and utilization of
wastewater sludges
Studying of the USSR
experience in the field
of wastewater
treatment
Studying of the US
experience in the
field of wastewater
treatment
63
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Appendix 4
USSR - USA
The Program of the Symposium
Moscow, VNII VODGEO, GOSSTROY, USSR
September 12-13, 1977
10 20 a.m
Monday, September 12
8	45 a m	Registration	9 00 a m
9	15 am.	Opening ceremonies of the Symposium
VNII VODGEO—Yakovlev S V , Director of
Sojusvodocanalproject—Y N Andnanov	9 40 a m
EPA—Cahill, H
"Fundamentals of Creating Closed-loop
Water Supply Systems at Industrial
Enterprises"—LA Alferova, Nechaev A	10 35 am.
(VNII VODGEO)
10 50 am.
10	25 am.	"The Closed-Loop Cycle for Industrial
Wastewaters—The Future Pollution Solution"
—W Lacy (EPA)
11	05 am.	Discussion.	11 30 a.m.
11 20 am. Break
11	35 am	"The Use of Treated Effluents in Recirculating 12 10 p m.
Water Supply Systems"—EH Yoakimis,
K Z Saifutdinov, A K Efimova	P'm'
(BashNIIMP).	13 25 pm.
12	15 p m.	"Recycling and Treatment of Wastewater
at Industrial Plants"—E Peltier (USEPA)
12-55 p m.	Discussion	14 45 p.m.
13	10 p.m.	Break	15 00 p.m
14-10 p m.	"The Recycling of Sea Water in Industrial	^ P'm'
Water Supply Systems"—S P Sukac,
Y D Klovatsky, I B . Shenerovich
(VNII VODGEO)
14	50 pm	"Industrial and Municipal Water Reuse"—
F Sebastian (EPA)
15	30 p.m.	Discussion.
15	45 p m	Break
16	00 pm	"The Application of Treated Effluents to
Industrial Water Supply of the Apsheron
Peninsula"—M V Gasanov, S M Amirova
(VNII VODGEO)
16	40 pm	"Water Reclamation—A New Dimension
Growth for Los Angeles"—D Tillman (EPA)
17	20 pm	Discussion
Tuesday, September 13
"Peculiarities of Using Treated Municipal
Wastewater at Industrial Plants"—N.A.
Lukinych (Nil KViOV)
"Reuse of Process of Water from a Large
Steel Plant"—R Rimkus (EPA)
Discussion.
Break.
"The Use of Treated Municipal Effluent as
Make-up Water for Recirculating Water
Supply"—Y B Shenderovich, S P. Sukach,
Kinchenko AG. (VNII VODGEO)
"The Role of Wastewater Reuse and Process
Loss Control In Paper Industry Management
—I Gellman (EPA)
Discussion.
Break
"Recirculating Water Supply and Reuse of
Wastewater in Pulp and Paper Industry"—
YV Nikitin (VNPO Bumprom).
Discussion
Break
Adjournment VNII VODGEO—
S V Yakovlev, EPA—H Cahill.
64
U U S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1978 0—253-996
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