EPA-908/1-74-002
FLUORIDE POLLUTION
IN THE FLATHEAD COUNTY,
MONTANA
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION VIII
Air and Water Programs Division
Denver, Colorado 80203
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EPA-908/1-74-002
FLUORIDE POLLUTION
IN THE FLATHEAD COUNTY,
MONTANA
Prepared by
Robert L. Harris, Jr.
PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc.
Suite 13, Atkinson Square
Cincinnati, Ohio 45246
Contract No. 68-02-1343 (2)
EPA Project Officer: Norman A. Huey
Pi cparud for
U S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION VIII
Air and Water Programs Division
Dcn\ rt , Colorado 80203
September, 1974
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This report is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency
to report technical data of interest to a limited number of
readers. Copies are available free of charge - as supplies
permit - from the Air and Water Programs Division, Region
VIII, Environmental Protection Agency, Denver, Colorado
80203, or may be obtained, for a nominal cost, from the
National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal
Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151.
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection
Agency by PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc., Suite 13,
Atkinson Square, Cincinnati, Ohio 45246 in fulfillment of
Contract No. 68-02-1343 (2). The contents of this report
are reproduced herein as received from the contractor. The
report is based upon, and draws freely from, reported work
of the Forest Service, EPA, and the University of Montana.
The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed are those
of the authors and not necessarily those of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency.
Publication No. EPA-908/1-74-002
ii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES V
LIST OF TABLES vii
SUMMARY ix
INTRODUCTION 1
DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA 7
ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM THE ALUMINUM SMELTER 13
The Process 13
Pollutant Emissions 16
METEOROLOGICAL STUDIES 21
AMBIENT FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS 35
VEGETATION STUDIES 47
Forest Service Studies 49
EPA Studies 51
ESL Studies 53
Visible Injury 57
Histological Response 59
Fluoride Content 61
ANIMAL STUDIES 91
Mammals 91
Insects 95
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 101
LITERATURE CITED 113
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued).
APPENDIX A:
APPENDIX B:
APPENDIX C:
APPENDIX D:
APPENDIX E:
APPENDIX F:
FOREST SERVICE VEGETATION DATA,
1970 STUDIES
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES LABORATORY
VEGETATION DATA, 1970 STUDIES
FOREST SERVICE VEGETATION DATA,
1971 STUDIES
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES LABORATORY
VEGETATION DATA, 1971 STUDIES
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES LABORATORY
ANIMAL DATA, 1970 STUDIES
FOREST SERVICE INSECT DATA,
1970 STUDIES
Page
115
127
137
145
149
155
IV
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
9
15
18
24
25
26
30
37
39
42
54
63
85
93
98
LIST OF FIGURES
Orientation Map Showing Major Features
of the Study Area Portion of Flathead
County, Montana
Vertical Stud Soderberg Aluminum
Manufacturing Cell
Estimated Emission Rates and Aluminum
Production at Anaconda Plant in
Columbia Falls, Montana
Wind Rose for the Months of June, July
and August at Kalispell, Montana (1950
through 1959)
Location of Meteorological Observation
Stations
Dominant Wind-Flow Patterns Measured June
through September, 1970.
Simplified Drawing of Typical Midmorning
Wind-Flow Patterns in Upper Flathead
Valley
Location of Fluoridation Plate Exposure
Sites
Distribution of Average Monthly Fluoridation
Rates
Location of Volumetric Fluoride Monitoring
Stations and Plant Exposure Shelters
Map of Study Area and Location of Sampling
Zones
Isopols of Fluoride Pollution in Vegetation
from Forest Service Data, 1970
Isopols of Fluoride Pollution in Vegetation
from Forest Service Data, 1971
Average Bone Fluoride Content
Relation of Numbers of Pine Needle Scales
per 1000 Needles to Fluoride Content, ppm.
Forest Service Studies, 1970
v
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Climatological Characteristics of Glacier National H
Park Region
2. Estimated Fluoride Emission Rates Since 1955, and 19
Projected Rates for 1975
3. Frequencies of Occurrences of Wind Directions in 22
Summer Measured at two National Weather Service
Upper Air Stations Nearest to Columbia Falls,
Montana, 1961 through 1965
4. Southwest to West-Southwest Daytime Winds Over Tea- 31
kettle Mountain
5. Monthly Fluoridation Hates Measured With EPA Plates 38
6. Summary of 12-Hour Gaseous and Particulate Fluoride 44
Concentrations Measured in Glacier National Park and
Surrounding Area, June 26 to October 23, 1970
7. Fluoride Concentration in Ten Coniferous Foliage 58
Samples Analyzed Independently by WARF and by ESL
8. Mean Concentration of Fluoride in Conifer Needles 66
and Grass, ESL Samples
9. Fluoride Concentrations in Washed and Unwashed Conifer 69
Stems
10. Fluoride Concentrations in Washed and Unwashed Tissues 71
from 19 70 Hardwood Stems
11. Fluoride Concentrations in Coniferous Pollen 73
12. Fluoride Concentration in Indigenous Conifer Foliage, 75
EPA Sampling, 1970
13. Fluoride Accumulation in 1969 and 1970 Needles of White, 77
Ponderosa and Scotch Pines Exposed from June 25 to
October 21, 1970
14. Fluoride Accumulation in Alfalfa Leaves and Stems Exposed 78
in 1970 Study
15. Fluoride Accumulation in Chinese Apricot Leaves Exposed 79
in 1970 Study
16. Fluoride Accumulation in Gladiolus Leaf Tissue Exposed 80
from June 25 to September 14, 1970
vii
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LIST OF TABLES (continued).
Page
Table
17. Fluoride Concentration in Soils, Single Samples 81
18. Areas Included Within Estimated Isopols of Fluoride 86
Concentration in Vegetation, Forest Service Data 1970
and 1971
19. Mean Fluoride Concentrations in Coniferous Foliage 89
from Selected Sampling Zones in 1970 and 1971
20. Mean Fluoride Concentration in Femur Bones of Animals 92
from Study Area Sampling Zones, Environmental Studies
Laboratory, 1970
21. Fluoride Concentrations in Femur Bones of Indigenous 95
Wild Animals, Selected Species, Environmental Studies
Laboratory, 1970
A-l Radial and Control Data—First Sampling 116
A-2 Radial and Control Data—Second Sampling 118
A-3 Area Polluted by Fluorides, All Lands Studied 120
A-4 Fluoride Content and Injury Index Values for Special 121
Samples
B-l Fluoride Concentrations in Coniferous Foliage 128
B-2 Fluoride Concentrations in Grass, 1970 135
C-l Radial Sampling and Control Data, 1971 13g
C-2 Summary and Stem Analyses for Fluoride Content 143
D-l Fluoride Content in Vegetation, 1971 Studies 146
E-l Fluoride Concentration in Femur Bones of Indigenous 150
Wild Animals
F-l Fluoride Accumulation Levels in Insects 156
F-2 Populations of Larch Casebearer 157
F-3 Populations of Pine Needle Scales, Lodgepole 158
F-4 Populations of Pine Needle Scales, Ponderosa 159
viii
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SUMMARY
An aluminum reduction plant began operation in Flathead
County, Montana, near Columbia Falls in 1955. A consequence
of the electrolytic reduction process used in the plant is
the generation of gaseous and particulate fluoride air pol-
lutants.
In 1957 foliage injury symptomatic of excessive accumu-
lation of fluoride was identified in the vicinity of the
plant. Expansions of the aluminum plant in 1965 and 1968
resulted in increased emissions of fluorides to the atmos-
phere. following the second expansion, visible injury to
flora was detected in the southwestern part of Glacier Na-
tional Park, which at its nearest point is about 6 miles
northeast of the aluminum plant.
In 1970 the National Park Service, U.S. Department of
the Interior, requested assistance from the National Air
Pollution Control Administration, a predecessor of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, in assessing the effects of
airborne fluorides on flora and fauna of the Park. Much of
the land of Flathead County is National Forest. The Forest
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, which had first
ix
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identified foliar damage in the vicinity of the aluminum re-
duction plant in 1957, had continued its concern for injury
to vegetation in the national forest lands surrounding the
plant. The result of the combined interests of these several
Federal agencies was the initiation in 1970 of cooperative
studies of the distribution of fluoride pollutants and their
effects on flora and fauna in the Columbia Falls-Glacier
National Park region of Flathead County.
Field study projects were undertaken by the Environmental
Protection Agency, the Forest Service, and the Environmental
Studies Laboratory of the University of Montana as contractor
to the EPA. Assistance in the studies was given by the Na-
tional Park Service, the Montana State Department of Health
and Environmental Sciences, and other institutions and indi-
viduals. Reports have been published on the studies of the
Forest Service the Environmental Protection Agency,"* and
4
the Environmental Studies Laboratory. This report summarizes
all of these earlier reports concerning fluoride pollution in
Flathead County.
Meteoroloqical and air quality investigations were con-
ducted by the Environmental Protection Agency. The prevailing
upper-level winds in the area during the summer are from the
southwest. Daytime surface winds passing the aluminum plant,
like the upper-level winds, are generally from the southwest
in up-valley flow; the direction tends to reverse to down-
valley flow during nighttime hours. Air quality was assessed
in the summer of 1970 by measurement of fluoridation rate with
x
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sodium formate papers at almost 40 locations in the study area,
and by companion volumetric measurements of gaseous and parti-
culate fluoride concentrations in air at four locations. In-
dices of fluoride pollution decreased rapidly with increasing
distances from the aluminum plant in all directions except
to the northeast, where elevated fluoridation rates are found
10 or more miles from the aluminum plant; these high rates
probably are due to the prevailing southwesterly daytime winds
and the higher elevations of exposed sites northeast of the
plant.
Extensive investigations of fluoride accumulation in
indigenous vegetation in the study area were conducted in
1970, and limited followup surveys were done in 1971. The
most comprehensive investigations were done by the Forest
Service and by the Environmental Studies Laboratory; the
Forest Service sampled on a radial plot system, and the En-
vironmental Studies Laboratory on the basis of identified
sampling zones. Both investigations yielded very high values,
hundreds of parts per million of fluoride, in foliage col-
lected nearby the aluminum plant, and both demonstrated ex-
cessive levels of fluoride in vegetation representing an area
of more than 300 square miles around the plant (334 square
miles from the Forest Service radial plot system, 375 square
miles from the Environmental Studies Laboratory sampling zone
system). The geographic patterns of location of samples show-
ing excessive levels of fluoride accumulation were similar for
both investigations and were consistent with patterns of fluori
xi
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dation rates as determined by the Environmental Protection
Agency.
Special studies involving the use of plant exposure
chambers were done by the Environmental Protection Agency.
Plants brought from regions remote from Flathead County were
grown for several months in three pairs of chambers located
at selected sites in the study area. One chamber of each
pair was equipped with devices to remove particulate and
gaseous fluoride from the air entering the chamber; in the
other chamber, plants were exposed to unfiltered ambient air.
Plants from the chambers with unfiltered air generally yielded
2 or 3 times more fluoride than did their counterparts in the
clean air chambers. Since the plants were grown without in-
fluence of local soils and rainfall, the differences in fluoride
accumulation can be attributed to fluorides in the ambient
atmosphere.
All agencies, the Environmental Protection Agency, Forest
Service, and Environmental Studies Laboratory, reported de-
tection of visible injury and histological changes in foliage
of indigenous vegetation consistent with fluoride injury. The
Environmental Studies Laboratory identified histological
changes attributable to fluoride injury in conifer needles
that on subsequent analysis yielded only moderate fluoride con-
centrations; this finding demonstrates that histological changes
are not limited to massive accumulations of fluoride.
Although most of the vegetation analyses were performed
on coniferous foliage, all investigations yielded data show-
xii
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ing accumulation of excessive levels of fluoride by other
species of vegetation, including grasses and woody shrubs,
which are foraged by animals.
The studies also revealed that fluorides accumulate in
plant tissues other than foliage. Work of the Environmental
Studies Laboratory demonstrated that fluorides accumulate in
pollen, stems, and terminal buds. Fluorides absorbed from
the air by the foliage of plants do not remain entirely in
the foliage tissue, but a portion moves into other tissues
such as stems and reproductive material.
Indigenous wild animals, including mammals, birds, and
insects, were collected from the study area and examined for
fluoride accumulation. In most cases femur bones of mammals
and birds were analyzed; insects were oven-dried and analyzed
in total. Excessive accumulations of fluorides, up to 30
times greater than concentrations in tissues from control
animals, were found in animals collected throughout much of
the study area. Among the insects, pollinators yielded the
highest levels of fluoride accumulation. Cambium feeders
also demonstrated elevated fluoride content, a further indi-
cation of the translocation of fluorides from leaf tissues to
other portions of plants.
In general, when elevated levels of fluoride were found
in animals, they were relatively higher than those in forage
from areas in which the animals fed. For example, in ore
area in which the concentrations of fluoride in forage were
2 or 3 times greater than those in control vegetation, the
xiii
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concentrations of fluoride in femur bones of snowshoe hares
collected there were almost 20 times greater than those in
controls. This finding illustrates the progressive increase
in the food chain for an accumulative agent such as fluoride.
Emissions from the aluminum plant were reported to have
been reduced by a factor of 2 or 3 between the collections
of 1970 and those of the summer of 1971. Foliage specimens
were collected in 1971 from the same trees or the same
sampling plots that were sampled in 1970. Where reductions
in the fluoride concentrations in coniferous needles of the
same age were observed for the 2 successive years, the de-
crease was generally less than proportionate to the reported
reduction in emissions. This was particularly true at sampling
locations 6 to 8 miles downwind from the plant. This finding
suggests that the accumulation of fluorides by vegetation,
with the associated insult to fauna of the region, will con-
tinue with continuing fluoride emissions at the rates that
prevailed in 1971. Further reductions in emissions from the
aluminum plant will undoubtedly be required if cessation of
fluoride injury to flora and fauna of Flathead County is to
be achieved.
xiv
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INTRODUCTION
An outstanding feature of Flathead County in northwestern
Montana is Glacier National Park. The Park straddles the Con-
tinental Divide from the Canadian border southward for 60
miles. It includes some of the most spectacularly rugged
mountain country in North America. Mountain peaks rise well
above 10,000 feet in the Park; some of these peaks are always
snow-covered, and glaciers are permanent features of some high
slopes. This Park, established in 1910, is ninth oldest of
the 38 National Parks, and with an area of more than a million
acres, is fourth largest. Some 1,400,000 persons visit the Park
each year.
Flathead County, for several miles to the south and west
of Glacier National Park, is largely National Forest. Ranch-
ing and lumbering are major activities in the area.
Some 8 miles southwest of Glacier National Park at its
nearest point is the town of Columbia Falls. Between Columbia
Falls and the Park, about 2 miles northeast of the town, is a
large aluminum reduction plant of the Anaconda Aluminum Com-
pany. In this plant alumina, dissolved in molten cryolite and
calcium fluoride, is reduced electrolytically to aluminum metal.
A consequence of this process is the generation of air pollu-
1
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tants, which include particulate and gaseous fluorides. Vege-
tation absorbs gaseous fluorides from the air. These fluorides
accumulate in plant tissue and even in small excess are toxic
to plants and to the animals in the food chains that utilize
these plants.
The aluminum reduction plant began operation in 1955.
Officials of the Anaconda Aluminum Company asserted then that
injury to indigenous flora and fauna would be negligible. As
early as 1957, however, Ponderosa pine trees in the vicinity
of the plant were dying; after inspecting them, a Forest
Service pathologist expressed his opinion that the injury was
caused by fluorides emitted from the aluminum plant. The
plant was expanded in 1964-65 and again in 1967-68. Following
the second expansion in 1968, dead and dying trees were ob-
served over the entire west face of Teakettle Mountain, which
is directly east of the aluminum plant. Other areas around
Columbia Falls, east of Teakettle Mountain, and even areas in
the southwestern part of Glacier National Park, which at its
nearest point is about 6 miles northeast of the aluminum plant,
also exhibited visible damage to flora.
The Anaconda Aluminum Company reported that fluorides
were emitted during 1969 and early 1970 at the rate of nearly
7600 pounds per day (lb/day), but that emissions were reduced
to about 5000 lb/day by September 1970. By early May 1971,
emissions were reported to be 2500 lb/day.
The Flathead National Forest occupies much of the non-
Park area surrounding Columbia Falls and the aluminum reduc-
2
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tion plant. The Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture, began an evaluation of fluoride damage to flora on these
National Forest lands in 1969. With visible evidence of dam-
age to vegetation within Glacier National Park as well, Na-
tional Park Service officials, in 1970, requested the assis-
tance of the National Air Pollution Control Administration,
now a component of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
in assessing the effects of airborne fluorides on vegetation
and wildlife in the Park. The requested field investigations
were conducted in 1970. As part of its studies, EPA contracted
with the Director, Environmental Studies Laboratory, University
of Montana, to investigate the accumulation of fluoride and its
pathological effects in various flora and fauna in the Columbia
Falls and Glacier National Park area. In cooperation with the
overall study effort the Forest Service extended its investi-
gation to include areas in the southwestern portion of Glacier
National Park nearest Columbia Falls and the aluminum reduction
plant.
The various investigations conducted by the survey parti-
cipants were designed to provide information on several dif-
ferent aspects of the effects of atmospheric fluorides. The
study activities were divided among the participants, and re-
sponsibilities were assigned to prevent duplication of effort
and to ensure as complete an assessment as possible within the
available study resources.
The Forest Service investigations emphasized accumulation
of fluorides in vegetation and insects. A system of plots
3
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located at varying distances on predetermined radii extending
from the aluminum plant was used for the collection oi' vegetation
and insect samples, Visible damage appearing on vegetation
samples was measured, and chemical analysis for fluoride ac-
cumulation was made. Insects were analyzed for fluoride content
and were monitored for discernible differences in population
levels attributable to excessive fluoride exposure. Two reports
1 2
of these studies have been published. •'
The EPA studies involved determining the predominant
patterns of movement of airborne fluorides from the aluminum
plant to Glacier National Park, measuring ambient concen-
trations of fluorides in the Park, and assessing effects of
fluorides on indigenous flora within the Park. In addition,
selected plants that are sensitive to fluorides were exposed
to filtered and unfiltered ambient air in special plant shel-
ters at selected locations within the study area. In the con-
duct of its investigations the EPA was assisted by the National
Park Service, Montana State Health Department, the Environmental
Studies Laboratory of the University of Montana, and other con-
sultants. Results of the EPA studies have been published.^
During the summer and fall of 1970 the Environmental
Studies Laboratory of the University of Montana conducted ex-
tensive sampling of flora and fauna in a 400-square-mile Columbia
Falls-Glacier National Park study area. Approximately 2000
plant tissue specimens were collected and analyzed for fluoride
content. Fluoride analyseB were also performed on femur bones
of almost 400 indigenous wild animals collected from the study
4
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and control areas. Histological examinations were made on
selected samples, and investigation of translocation of fluor-
ides in plant tissues were conducted. The report by the
Environmental Studies Laboratory on this highly compre-
4
hensive work has been summarized and published by the EPA.
The report presented here is based upon, and draws
freely from, the reported work of the Forest Service, EPA,
and the Environmental Studies Laboratory of the University
of Montana. Its purpose is to assemble into a single docu-
ment a summary of results of the cooperative efforts of the
various agencies. Portions of the parent reports, cited
above, are reproduced throughout this report; the original
reports are referenced specifically only for the identifi-
cation of data.
5
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DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA
The geographic area of the studies described here lies
within Flathead County in northwestern Montana. Flathead
County has an area of more than 5000 square miles and a 1970
population of about 40,000 persons. Kalispell, the County
seat, has a population of about 10,000; two other major towns
in the County, Whitefish and Columbia Falls, have populations
of about 3300 and 2700, respectively. Most of Flathead County
lies within the boundaries of the Flathead National Forest
and Glacier National Park. The County's major year-round
economic activities are ranching and lumbering, with their
associated service industries, and operation of the Anaconda
Aluminum Company's aluminum reduction plant at Columbia Falls.
Tourism, a seasonal activity, is also of major economic signi-
ficance. Out-of-state tourists spend an estimated $100,000,000
each year in Montana; Glacier National Park, lying largely
within Flathead County, is one of the State's major tourist
attractions.
The major geographic features of the area are the rugged
mountains, which rise to the Continental Divide along the
eastern boundary of Flathead County, and the Flathead River
system, which drains to Flathead Lake, a natural lake of some
7
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200 square miles area located southeast of Kalispell. These
features are identified in the map of Figure 1.
From peaks well above 10,000 feet, the mountains pitch
down to the river valley at an elevation of about 3000 feet.
The Flathead River system forms the western boundary of
Glacier National Park. Its drainage area is subdivided into
an "upper valley" with narrow tributary canyons and swift
streams, and a "lower valley" more than 15 miles wide, through
which the river meanders to Flathead Lake. The river leaves
the upper valley through Badrock Canyon, which also consti-
tutes the south wall of Teakettle Mountain. The Anaconda
Aluminum Company reduction plant is situated a mile down-river
from Badrock Canyon between the river and the west face of Tea-
kettle Mountain.
Although there are several ranches in the upper valley,
the area is primarily Park and National Forest land with a
limited road system along the main streams. The lower valley
is relatively broad and flat, with a road network that fol-
lows section and quarter-section survey lines. Agricultural
activity is more extensive in the lower valley than in the
upper valley.
The climate of the Flathead River drainage area is classed
as Alpine with a strong maritime modification. The range of
climate extends from that of the permanently snow-covered peaks
to that found along the shores of Flathead Lake, where small
fruit orchards flourish in a 3-month frost-free belt.
The higher mountains are estimated to receive as much as
8
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* c
gjfyloke F.v«l
Upper rfathead)
Vdiiey
0o(frod Cony0n
Anicoaii Ataailmna a
Cefaimbii Falls
Lower fi,uhuati
V.itfey
Fhihood Lofc*
Figure 1.
study
Orientation map showing major features of the
area portion of Flathead County, Montana.
9
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150 inches of precipitation annually, primarily as snow, on
their west-facing slopes. Snow depths in excess of 10 feet
accumulate during the winter, and, while the shores of Lake
McDonald (3100 feet above MSL) are snow-free by May* drifts
may remain on the lower north-facing mountain slopes into
August. Snow-covered glaciers are permanent features of the
high slopes of some peaks.
Significant differences in temperature, precipitation,
and wind flow are associated not only with elevation, but also
with the orientation of the mountainsides, the proximity of
ridgelines, and the location of the larger lakes relative to
a given location. Flathead Lake, because of its size and
depth, normally contains a large open water area throughout
the winter. This heat source exerts a strong modifying influ-
ence on the climate of the lower valley.
Selected climatological summary data for the area are
presented in Table 1. Marias Pass, located at the southern
boundary of Glacier National Park, is included in the Table
because it has approximately the same elevation as the saddle
in Teakettle Mountain and the Apgar Lookout overlooking West
Glacier, both of which are terrain features important in wind
movement over the aluminum plant toward the Park. Although
the Marias Pass is well removed from the area of study, its
climatic data are thought to be representative of these
similarly exposed locations under study. Much of the
mountainous portion of the study area, however, is higher
than Marias Pass and has a correspondingly shorter growing
season and a more severe climate.
10
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Table 1. CLIMATOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GLACIER NATIONAL PARK REGION.
(NORMALS, MEANS, AND EXTREMES BASED ON APPROXIMATELY 30 YEARS OF RECORDS\
Station and
Elevation,
ft MSL
Temperature, *P
Mean No. of Days
that temperature
remained <_32°F
Preci
pitation,
inches
Mean Daily
Extremes of
Record
All
Forms,
mean
Snow and
Sleet
mean
monthly
max.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Kalispell
Apr
il
2965
57
31
81
14
0
20
1.04
2.4
8.1
Wast Glacier
3145
54
30
80
3
a
21
2.00
4.5
24.0
Polebridge
3690
53
25
86
-12
a
26
1.55
4.1
24.8
Marias Pass
5213
45
23
74
-30
3
26
2.93
25.5
87.0
July
Kalispell
84
48
104
32
0
a
1.04
0..0
0..0
W. Glacier
80
47
98
32
0
a
1.48
T5
T6
Pol«bridge
81
41
101
27
0
2
1.18
0
. 0
Marias Pass
73
40
93
26
0
4
1.35
xb
T^
October
Kalispell
56
32
81
15
0
21
1.24
1.1
9.9
W. Glacier
53
33
79
15
a
16
2.57
2.0
28.0
Polebridge
55
27
85
-21
a
23
1.84
3.1
16.5
Marias Pass
49
29
82
-7
2
21
3.14
11.9
61.0
January
Kalispell
28
12
50
-26
17
30
1.37
20.0
34.8
H. Glacier
28
14
49
-37
18
30
2 .99
36.6
74.5
Polebridge
28
7
51
-46
19
30
2.63
32.8
91.2
Marias Pass
23
7
48
-55
23
31
4.17
44.0
123.0
Annual
Kalispell
55
31
105
-35
52
195
15.42
67. 3
49.7
W. Glacier
53
31
98
-37
53
192
29.11
134.2
74.5
Polebridge
54
25
101
-46
56
238
22.32
119.6
91.2
Marias Pass
47
25
96
-55
94
247
38.29
251.3
123.0
a Less than 12 hours
b Trace
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ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM THE ALUMINUM SMELTER
THE PROCESS
The basic process used for producing raw aluminum metal
in all plants in the United States consists of the electro-
lytic dissociation of alumina (AI2O3) dissolved in a molten
bath of cryolite (Na3AlFg) and fluorspar (CaF2). Oxygen re-
leased in this process reacts with a carbon anode to form
carbon dioxide and some carbon monoxide. The molten aluminum
settles to the bottom of the cell, directly above the cathode.
The electrolysis is performed in a device known as a pot,
which consists of a carbon crucible housed in a steel shell.
The carbon crucible serves as the cathode and another carbon
mass serves as the anode. The configuration of the anode dis-
tinguishes the type of pot; there are three types in use, the
pre-baked anode, the vertical stud Soderberg anode, and the
horizontal stud Soderberg anode. In the pre-baked confi-
guration the anode consists of blocks of carbon paste that
are pre-baked in an oven prior to use. These anodes are re-
placed as units as they are oxidized in the cell. The Soder-
berg configurations use continuous carbon anodes. In these,
carbon paste is added periodically to the anode assembly and
bakes as the anode is oxidized and the assembly moves down-
ward into the hot cell.
13
-------
The Columbia Falls plant of the Anaconda Aluminum Company,
with a design capacity of 180,000 tons of aluminum per year,
has five pot lines consisting of 120 vertical stud Soderberg
(VSS) pots or cells in each line. These five pot lines are
contained in 10 large buildings approximately 1123 feet long,
87 feet wide, and 39 feet high. Each pot operates at a bath
temperature of approximately 960*C and with a current of
107,000 amperes. Average power consumption at the plant is
approximately 8,800,000 kilowatt-hours per day. In addition
to the cell rooms, the plant includes an anode paste mixing
process, an aluminum casting area, and an alumina receiving
area.
The VSS type of cell is illustrated in Figure 2. Steel
studs carrying the electrical current project vertically into
the anode through the green or unbaked paste down into the
baked portion of the anode. The cathode consists of the
lower carbon cell lining with a steel bar embedded in it to
carry the current. Long rows of cells connected electrically
in series form a production "line".
The cell cavity contains the molten bath consisting of
approximately 90 percent cryolite, 5 to 6 percent fluorspar,
and 2 to 7 percent alumina. The molten bath is covered by a
crust of frozen electrolyte and alumina. This crust diminishes
heat loss from the top of the cell, reduces atmospheric
emissions, and protects the carbon anode from oxidation.
Periodically part of the crust is manually broken and stirred
into the bath, and fresh alumina is added to form a new crust.
14
-------
anode rod
ANODE BUS
TO PRIMARY EFFLUENT
COLLECTION SYSTEM
2/POT
STEEL ANODE STUD
ANOOE CASING
GAS COLLECTING SKIRT
FLUID PASTE
MOLTEN ELECTROLYTE
PARTIALLY BAKEC
ANODE PASTE '
//, '/////
BURNER
CRUST
MOLTEN ALUMINUM CATHODE
ALUMINA
FULL BAKED CARBON
v vv v v w\.
RAMMED CARBON
FLOOR LEVEL
CARBON BLOCK LINING
STEEL CATHODE COLLECTION BAR
CATHODE BUS
STEEL CRADLE
Figure 2. Vertical-stud Soderberg aluminum manufacturing cell.
The electrical current decomposes the alumina in solution
in the bath. Aluminum is deposited as molten metal on the
bottom of the cell and the oxygen is liberated at the surface
of the anode, where it reacts to form carbon oxides, which are
released in the cell gases. The aluminum at the operating
temperature of the cell is slightly more dense than the molten
bath and forms a metal pad on the bottom of the cell.
As the anode carbon reacts with oxygen at the bath surface,
additional anode material (green paste) is added manually to
the top of the cell to replenish the anode.
Approximately once every 24 hours, molten aluminum is
siphoned from the cell into an insulated steel container and
15
-------
is transferred to the cast house.
POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
Hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, gaseous and particulate
fluorides, and other particulate matter are emitted during the
electrolytic reaction. Fluorides, both gaseous and particulate,
and other particulate matter are the primary pollutants emitted
from the cells. Total fluorides released from a cell amount to
approximately 50 pounds per ton of aluminum produced, or about
44 pounds of fluoride per cell-day. Approximately 90 percent
of this fluoride is reported to be in the gaseous form. Emis-
sions of total particulate matter, including particulate
fluorides, have not been reported, but are estimated to be
about 100 pounds per ton of aluminum. An estimated 90 percent
of the pollutants generated in a cell is captured by the pri-
mary cell ventilation system. Condensible organic matter (tar)
escapes from the top of the anode. Additional fluoride pollu-
tants and particulate matter escape to the atmosphere through
breaks in the crust around the gas collecting skirt.
As shown in Figure 2, each cell is equipped with two
vertical risers through which are exhausted 300 cfm of gases
each to an air cleaning system. Atmospheric emissions from
the bath that escape this primary control system are vented
into the cell room and then out-of-doors through roof open-
ings. Openings in the room walls and floor enable air to
flow through the building.
Rates of air pollutant emissions from the Columbia Falls
plant have varied during the life of the plant as new lines
16
-------
were brought into production arid as control equipment was
added or modified. Summaries of fluoride emissions from the
plant since its startup in 1955 are given in Table 2 and
Figure 3. A peak emission rate of approximately 7500 pounds
of fluoride per day occurred during the interval 1968 to 1971.
This peak resulted from the startup of new lines, associated
operating problems, and the use of only a medium-efficiency
scrubber on the primary control system. Starting in 1971, a
more efficient primary control system was installed and is
reported to have reduced total fluoride emissions from all the
cells to 385 pounds per day. The emissions escaping into the
room are reported also to have been reduced because of better
operating practices and better fume control around each cell.
The remaining emissions of 2200 pounds per day currently
escape through roof monitors. Projected emissions shown for
1975 are those expected if a control system is installed to
reduce emissions from the roof monitors. Total plant emissions
at that time would be about 12 35 pounds of fluoride per day,
consisting of 38 5 pounds per day from the 30 primary systems
and 850 pounds per day from the roof monitor controls.
Emissions of total particulate matter from the plant
for the year 197 2 are estimated to have been approximately
8000 pounds per day. Of this total, an estimated 500 pounds
per day was discharged from the primary cell ventilation and
scrubber systems, and the remaining 7500 pounds per day
escaped through the roof monitors.
Gases and particulate matter captured by each primary
17
-------
10.000
8000 —
I
i
i 8000 —
a
s
a
8 mL
•J 4000 -
ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
FLUORIDE EMISSIONS
less
1969
1962
1965
VEAR
1971
1974
Figure 3. Estimated emission rates and aluminum production
at Anaconda Plant in Columbia Falls, Montana.
cell ventilation system pass through an afterburner, a multi-
cyclone, and a venturi scrubber followed in series by a packed
bed (plastic saddles) scrubber. Each scrubber system serves
20 cells with a gas flow of 600 cfm per cell, yielding a total
flow of 12,000 cfm per scrubber system. Each scrubbing system
has a total pressure drop of 40 inches of water. Water is the
scrubbing medium in the venturi unit and the packed bed scrub-
ber. This water is treated with lime to control pH and remove
fluorides. Scrubbing water is clarified and the overflow is
recycled to the scrubbers. No waste water leaves the system.
Wet sludge from the clarifier is removed periodically and
18
-------
Table 2. ESTIMATED FLUORIDE EMISSIONS
AND PROJECTED RATES FOR 197 5
Aluminum
produced,
Number of
Total fluoride emissions
Control
system
Primary emissions
Secondary
Emissions
from roof.
Years
tons/day
pot lines
lb/day
lb/ton A1
controls lb/day
controls
lb/day
1955-
1964
200
2
1900
9 . 5
Multiclone and 1200
wet scrubber
None
700
1965-
1967
300
3
3600
12 .0
Multiclone and 1800
wet scrubber
None
1800
1968-
1970
500
5
7500
15.0
Multiclone and 3000
wet scrubber
None
4500
1971-
1974
500
5
2585
5.17
Venturi 385
scrubbers
None
2200
1975-
500
5
1235
2.47
Venturi 385
scrubbers
Roof
scrubbers
850
-------
disposed of on site. Dust collected in the multiclones is
recycled to the electrolytic cells. The after burners incin-
erate carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the vent gas stream.
The total scrubbing system has an estimated efficiency
of 98 to 99 percent in removing total fluorides.
Pollutants that escape from the cells and then through
roof monitors during anode stud replacement and crust breaking,
and from the green paste in the anodes are not now controlled
at the Columbia Falls plant. A number of plants, including
VSS type installations in this country and abroad, have in-
stalled low-pressure-drop water spray systems to treat
emissions from roof monitors. These systems, which consist of
a set of water sprays and a low-pressure-drop demister, can
reduce emissions of particulate matter by possibly 50 percent
and of gaseous fluorides by approximately 80 percent. Various
configurations of this basic type of scrubbing system have been
used. In one configuration spray and demister sections are
contained in large ducts located adjacent to the plant build-
ing with connecting ductwork running to the inside of the roof.
Roof strength and vent opening configurations largely determine
the location of the scrubbing system.
20
-------
METEOROLOGICAL STUDIES
A major factor in the identification and description of
source-receptor relationships in air pollution problems is
the movement of air in the geographic area of interest. For
this study the EPA examined wind records applicable to the
study area and also made surface wind measurements from mid-
June until late December 1970 at three sites in the area.
In mountainous terrain, two air flow patterns, the upper
level and the lower level winds, are of interest. The upper
winds, as influenced by major geographic features, reflect
the general motion of the atmosphere near mountaintop level.
Low level wind patterns are influenced by interaction of upper
winds with the localized mountain and valley winds.
Upper winds are monitored by the National Weather Service
from a nationwide network of stations. The measurements are
made with free-flight balloons normally released at midnight
and noon Greenwich time. Upper wind stations nearest the
study area are at Spokane, Washington, 200 miles to the west-
southwest, and Great Falls, Montana, 80 miles to the east-
southeast of the study area. Data on frequency of upper wind
directions for the years 1961 through 1965 at these two sta-
tions are summarized in Table 3.
21
-------
Table 3. FREQUENCIES OF OCCURRENCES OF WIND DIRECTIONS
IN SUMMER MEASURED AT TWO NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE
UPPER AIR STATIONS NEAREST TO COLUMBIA FALLS, MONTANA,
1961 through 1965a
(Frequencies in percent)
Great Falls, Montana
2,000 m MSL
Spokane, Washington
1/500 m MSL
Direction
4 a.m.
4 p.m.
4 a.m.
4 p.m.
N
4.3
4.2
2.5
4.3
NNE
2.7
3.3
4.9
3.8
NE
2.7
4.9
3.8
4.5
ENE
4.0
5.4
7.4
3.2
E
4.5
4.7
3.6
2.7
ESE
3.4
5.1
2.9
0.2
SE
4.5
2.5
2.5
1.8
SSE
2.0
1.3
2.0
0.9
S
6.3
2.7
2.9
3.4
SSW
6.7
4.2
7.4
11.5
SW
7.2
7.6
26 .8
28.4
WSW
16.1
14.5
15.4
18 .3
W
19.7
19 .0
8.7
8.4
WNW
8.9
7.8
4.3
2.9
NW
4.7
8.0
3.1
2.9
NNW
2.2
4.2
1.6
2.3
Calm
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.5
From the available tabulations, the level closest to the flow over
Columbia Falls and Teakettle Mountain is presented for each station.
Values given are means over the 5-year period.
22
-------
The upper winds appear to follow expected meteorological
patterns for regions along the Continental Divide. The most
frequent direction for Spokane is northwesterly, while that
for Great Falls is westerly. The usual behavior of large-
scale atmospheric motions when they encounter a mountain
chain is for the winds on the downslope side to be directed
to the right of the wind direction on the upslope side. This
appears to be the case here, with westerly winds more frequent
at Great Falls than at Spokane. In the absence of upper winds
data obtained in the study area, one cannot be certain of wind
behavior at and above ridge level. Available data, however,
along with general knowledge on behavior of winds, suggest
that the prevailing upper winds near ridge level in the study
area should be generally southwesterly.
Surface wind data are recorded hourly at the Kalispell
Airport, about 3 miles southwest of Columbia Falls, by the
National Weather Service. A conventional wind rose derived
from the airport data for the summer months over a 10-year
period appears in Figure 4.
The airport data were supplemented by data obtained from
three EPA wind recording stations whose locations are shown
in Figure 5. Data obtained from these stations, as depicted
in Figure 6, indicate marked differences among the stations,
differences apparently caused by the typical mountain and
valley local wind flow patterns. For example, Station 2 was
located at the confluence of the North Fork and Middle Fork
of the Flathead River. During nighttime and morning hours
23
-------
N
>18
13-18
4-7
MILES PER HOUR
PERCENT FREQUENCY
S
Figure 4. Wind rose for the months of June, July and
August at Kalispell, Montana (1950 through 1959)."*
24
-------
PoltbtklQt OVv
B«'ton Hillf
PARK HEADQUARTERS
ROSE
STATION 3
BLANKtNSHIP
-STATION 2
Lole rivm
Upper Ffathead
Valley
Sotfroch Ctmpon
Anacoau «u mi sura
Conakta Fab
D*M E R RIT
STATION
Uttoifl Airport
Lower f fathead
Vat fey
F!oih*od Lofc»
Figure 5. Location of meteorological observation stations.^
25
-------
, BLANKENSHIP STATION - No. 2
W
N
T
—20 ¦
_L
i r
•20-
1 '•* J--i—"
f
v.
MEAN
SUNRISE
_L
J L
«5
MEAN SUNSET:
-20-
U_
_L
_L
MEAN SUNRISE:
-20
T~
J I i
12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6
h« a.m. p.m. — a.m. m
== E
to
5
0
_i
CO
Q
z
5
x
u
1
5
S
o
oc
LL
2
O
DeMERRIT STATION - No. 5
W
uj N
"i—i—i—r
i—r
i—i—i—r
'20.
_ c
«5
30-
.20 •
—v—'
*5 \
^ )
MEAN SUNSET
r_J I L
MEAN SUNSET
MEAN SUNRISE „—
i *n~r~-±T-~^'-±-s—i-- y\ '
6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
— p.m.—*+« a. m. »+« p.m. w
, ROSE STATION - No. 3
"737
TT
w
N
)
cSiE>
~
«5
MEAN
SUNSET
20 .
40 •
MEAN
SUNRISE
--t —
r <=M
\ _
I
MEAN v-
SUNRISE ~
t~"
_L
_L
_L
m l
«s .
\ '
J h—i I L
2 4 6 8 10 12 24 6 8 10 12 24 68
k- a.m. *+* p.m. a.m.—h
TIME OF DAY
Figure 6. Dominant wind-flow patterns measured June
through September 1970. Isolines show percent
3
occurrence of wind direction at indicated times.
26
-------
downstream drainage flows alternate between the North Fork to
the northwest (20 to 40 percent of the time) and the Middle
Fork to the northeast (more than 20 percent of the time).
During mid-day upslope winds from the southwest toward Lake
McDonald predominate. At Station 5, nighttime drainage through
Badrock Canyon between Teakettle and Columbia Mountains results
in very dominant northeast winds. These winds persist until
about mid-day before being reversed to upslope flow. The per-
sistent west wind at Station 3 is largely attributed to daytime
channeling when southerly or westerly winds in the lower basin
of the Flathead River cause outflow around the north shoulder
of Teakettle Mountain.
The lower Flathead Valley from Columbia Falls south to
Flathead Lake is protected to a large extent from the upper
winds by the mountains that surround it on three sides, leaving
it relatively open only to the south. During nights when radi-
ational cooling at ground level is effective, the air near the
ground cools rapidly, becomes more dense, and begins to flow
along the ground toward lower elevations. Effluents emitted
from industrial operations are warm and rise until they are
no longer buoyant, but remain below the crest of the confining
mountains.
The air from the upper valley drains at night through
Badrock Canyon and passes Station 5 as a northeasterly wind.
This down-valley wind becomes apparent at about 10:00 p.m.,
reaches a maximum frequency of 67 percent near sunrise, and
usually dissipates shortly after noon. The same air current
27
-------
is apparent at the airport, where it is more diffuse and
northerly because of the inclusion of additional air currents
as it spreads over the flat valley floor to Flathead Lake.
At sunrise the west sides of these two valleys with their
east-facing slopes are warmed rapidly while the opposite
valley walls, which remain in deep shadow, are cool. As
vertical currents develop over sun-heated slopes, cooler
replacement air from the down-valley flow is entrained and
wind directions consequently shift. As direct sunshine pro-
gresses onto the broad lower valley floor, the related de-
veloping vertical currents progress upward into the blanket
of stagnant air that accumulated during the night and mix the
air downward to the surface as well as upward. Mixing con-
tinues to deepen until the currents reach mountaintop levels
and the prevailing upper winds begin to entrain the valley air.
The shift of wind direction toward the slopes heated by
the early morning sun is most striking at Station 3. Here a
northeasterly wind appears to blow from the shaded side of the
Apgar Mountains to the sunny side of Teakettle Mountain between
the hours of 7:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m., exceeding 60 percent fre-
quency from about 8:00 to 10:00 a.m. During the morning, this
flow of clean air into the upper valley shields the east face
of Teakettle Mountain from effluents being carried aloft.
Up-valley wind flow develops and the mixing layer deepens
until air from above the top of Teakettle Mountain is mixed
with surface air throughout the upper valley during much of
the afternoon. By this time, the nighttime stagnant air has
28
-------
already been carried away from the lower valley by the pre-
vailing winds, and only current emissions are mixed through
the deep layer of air to the surface in the upper valley so
that the higher concentrations do not reach the floor of the
upper valley.
The overall wind pattern when upper winds are from the
southwest and the lower valley convection has broken through
into the upper flow is shown pictorially in Figure 7. The
viewer looks to the northeast across Teakettle Mountain and
the Upper Flatland Valley to Lake McDonald. Direct sunshine
has not penetrated the valleys in sufficient strength to re-
verse the down-valley winds along the river although upslope
flow occurs on the sunny, east-facing slopes and the down-
valley flow has turned somewhat toward these slopes. In the
upper valley beyond Teakettle Mountain, the clean air flowing
down along the rivers shields the surface from fluoride-laden
air entrained in the upper level winds. This is the prepon-
derant mid-morning wind pattern during the summer.
On days when southwest upper winds prevail, the highest
concentrations of fluoride are carried into Glacier National
Park in the forenoon. At sunrise the previous night's accumu-
lation of effluents plus current emissions from the plant are
being held within the lower valley and mixed in a deepening
layer until this layer reaches and is entrained by the upper
flow. The lower valley effluents are then carried in the up-
per flow over the upper valley and into the Park where they
intercept terrain elements common to the height of the effluent
29
-------
Figure 7. Simplified drawing of typical midmorning wind-flow
patterns in upper Flathead Valley.3
-------
plume. As convective activity increases, more complete mixing
occurs to higher levels of the atmosphere and dilutes the con-
centration of the remaining effluents.
With the increase in surface heating, the typical up-
valley wind pattern develops in both the upper and the lower
valleys and is augmented by a lake-to-land breeze from Flat-
head Lake.
Predominant southwest through west-southwest daytime
winds above Teakettle Mountain apparently carry the effluents
from the aluminum plant at Columbia Falls toward Glacier
National Park. Frequencies of these transport winds, esti-
mated from information available on upper winds, are given in
Table 4.
Table 4. SOUTHWEST TO WEST-SOUTHWEST DAYTIME
WINDS OVER TEAKETTLE MOUNTAIN3
Summer
Fall
Winter
Spring
Fre-
quency,
%
Average
speed,
mph
Fre-
quency,
%
Average
speed,
mph
Fre-
quency,
%
Average
speed,
mph
Fre-
quency ,
%
Average
speed,
mph
47
17
40
24
46
28
41
25
The highest frequency of wind direction that would carry
effluents into the Park, and also the lowest average wind
speed, occur in summer. Both factors would lead to relatively
high fluoride levels at receptors in the down-wind direction.
The long summer days average 15.2 hours between sunrise and
sunset; thus, because the winds tend to blow toward the Park
during daylight hours, emissions are carried into the Park
over longer periods in summer than in other seasons.
31
-------
An effort was made to estimate the relative seasonal
impact of the aluminum plant on the Park. Dispersion calcu-
lations were performed assuming constant fluoride emission
rate and diffusion parameters for the four seasons. Calcu-
lating on the basis of seasonal wind direction frequency,
average wind speed, and duration of sunlight, the relative
seasonal impacts are 100 for summer, 43 for fall, 38 for
winter, and 54 for spring. These calculations, however, did
not consider the impact of accumulated pollutants transported
into the Park as a result of the local wind stability pattern
discussed earlier. The conditions most conducive for develop-
ment of this local pattern are generally light wind flow to-
gether with essentially cloudless skies. These conditions
normally are most frequent in late summer through early fall.
The analysis offered here suggests that the potential for
damage within the Park is greater in summer through early
fall than at other seasons of the year.
To learn whether weather conditions during the 1970 study
period were similar to those of other years, EPA investigators
compared records for 1970 at the Kalispell Airport with the
means for that station over the past 30 years. This comparison
indicates that the month of April 1970 in the study area was
somewhat cool and dry with strong surface winds and the follow-
ing 3 months were slightly warmer and wetter than normal. The
fall months were somewhat cooler and drier than normal. Since
these observed differences were not major deviations from the
normal weather patterns, the 1970 data can be considered
32
-------
rr|>rosont.iti vc> of normal years. Vegetation growth may have
been uomcwhot better than normal because of the relatively
warm, wet summer..
33
-------
AMBIENT FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS
Measurements of fluorides in air in the study area were con-
ducted by the EPA and cooperating agencies in the summer of 1970.
Two types of air sampling were performed. One involves impaction
of air on a chemically treated surface and yields a measure of
fluoridation rate or "dosage", ordinarily recorded as weight of
fluoride collected per unit surface area per unit time of exposure.
The other involves a dynamic sampling method and yields values for
the concentration of fluorides in air, reported as weight of
fluoride per unit volume of air sampled. For convenience of
reference, the first method is designated an "impact" method,
and the second a "volumetric" method.
The impact measurements are made by exposing chemically
treated filter paper to the air. The impact samplers are
inexpensive and require no power source; they are thus readily
placed at any accessible site and are useful in delineating
spatial distributions of fluorides in a study area. Since the
amount of fluoride taken up by the treated paper surface cor-
relates reasonably well with the amount of fluoride that ac-
cumulates in vegetation with the same exposure, the fluoride
dosage rate data yielded by this method are useful indicators
of potential long-term or chronic fluoride damage to vegetation.
35
-------
The volumetric measurements are made with sequential samp-
lers that arc capable of collecting gaseous and particulate
fluorides separately. Since these samplers require electrical
power, volumetric measurements in the study were limited to
sites in the area where such power was available.
Impact measurements were made at 36 sites in the study
area; site locations are shown in Figure 8. Fluoridation
rates obtained for the months July through November at each
sampling site, along with elevation of each site, are listed
in Table 5. The geographic distribution of these rates is
depicted in Figure 9. For this Figure the locations of iso-
dose lines were estimated from the average monthly fluori-
dation rates obtained at the various sampling sites. A
significant degree of judgement is involved in such con-
struction because sampling data were not obtained for the
entire area and because the mountainous terrain is uneven.
Nevertheless, the values clearly decrease as distance from
the aluminum reduction plant increases, except in the north-
east quadrant where prevailing winds and higher ground ele-
vations cause an elongation of the pattern in that direction.
That higher fluoride dosage is related to higher ground ele-
vation is indicated by comparing data from the two Teakettle
Mountain sites (34 and 35) and from the Apgar Lookout site
(19) with data from other sites nearby at lower elevation (1
and 8). Closed isodose lines appear on Teakettle Mountain
and in the Apgar Lookout area of Glacier National Park, some
10 miles northeast and downwind from the plant.
36
-------
PoUbridg* OU
Upper Flathead
Valley s***
60^roc k Conyon
IUIkp«fl Afrpon
Ltrwrr Fl.1t/1ead
Vfifley
F(orh»od Lofc«
Figure 8. Location of fluoridation plate exposure sites
-------
Table 5. MONTHLY FLUORIDATION RATES MEASURED
WITH EPA PLATES3
Jul
Fluoridation rate, nq F/cm -day
August
September
October
"B
Novemb
er
Average
monthly
rate
Average
Calcium
Formate
Equivalent,
ug/cm -28 da.
11
14S
10
15
29
15
14
15
10
9
9
7
10
13
17
12
38
23
20
13
10
8
13
9
24
10
6
10
13
13
10
23
30t
10
9
8
5
5
8
12
19
12t
83
30
29
16,
18
81
24
7
6
lf!
«»
37
2 or
10
11
321
7
8
7
4
4
3
3
4
14?
43
21
48
8,
13
>1;
6
5
5
411
50
10
12
7
6
4
2
2
2
4
5,
43
25
22
5.
8
n!
4
3
8
10,
91
10
13i
13
10
23?
37
5
161
18*
11
14
8
15
27
9
10
9
6
5
6
4
6
9
14
9
46
27
30
9
6
5
14
6
21
7
6
6
8
12
5
5
39
71
9
9
0.19
0.25
0.14
0.26
0.48
0.16
0.18
0.16
0.11
0.09
0.11
0.07
0.11
0.16
0.25
0.16
0.81
0.48
0.53
0.16
0.11
0.09
0.25
0.11
0.37
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.14
0.21
0.09
0.09
0.69
1.25
0.16
0.16
a) Exposure sites located in or near Glacier Park.
b) Value is average of two or more duplicate readings.
38
-------
Polttortdp OVv
Upt> f f fathead
sifev
Badjotk Co«ro"
3
Figure 9. Distribution of average monthly fluoridation rates.
2
(Isoline values in ng F/cm -day)
39
-------
As previously stated, fluoride impact data were not ob-
tained to cover the entire study area. One can extrapolate,
however, from information developed on the channeling of
winds and from data that show higher fluoride pollution at
higher elevations on Teakettle Mountain and Apgar Lookout
than at nearby lower elevations; these data suggest some de-
partures from the distribution pattern shown in Figure 9. It
may reasonably be supposed that the upper elevations of the
Belton Hills and adjacent mountains and peaks in the Flathead
Range, the Whitefish Range, and the Swan Range, which com-
prise the Flathead National Forest area are exposed to higher
fluoride levels than are nearby sampling sites at lower ele-
vations. Data on the geographic distribution of fluoride con-
tent of sampled vegetation support this supposition.
The Montana ambient air quality standard for fluoridation
2
rate (0.30 ngF/cm -28 days) is based upon a specified measure-
ment technique involving exposure of calcium-formate-impreg-
nated paper in a louvered shelter. The EPA method uses filter
paper discs impregnated with sodium formate, mounted with one
side exposed in small dish-shaped plates and exposed face down-
ward. Eighteen simultaneous exposures of the calcium formate
and the sodium formate devices at selected study area sites
over monthly intervals from July through December yielded
fluoridation rates for calcium formate papers which average
0.68 the rate for sodium formate plates. The final column of
Table 5 lists the average monthly fluoridation rate for the
sodium formate plates adjusted by the factor 0.68, and for a
40
-------
28-day interval, for comparison with the Montana standard.
The average rate exceeded the State standard at 7 of the 36
exposure sites over the period of measurement. The fluori-
dation rate measured by the EPA method equivalent to the
Montana standard is 17 ngF/cm -day. Of the 140 site-months
of measurement, the rates for 29 exceed this index. Further,
one may conclude that the geographic area depicted within the
20 ngF/cm^ day isoconcentration lines of Figure 9 was sub-
jected to average fluoride contamination in excess of the
State standard over the study period.
Volumetric measurements of gaseous and particulate
fluoride concentrations were made at three locations in the
study area from June 26 to October 23, 1970 (Stations 1, 2,
and 4). These monitoring stations were located at sites
ranging from 7 to 11 miles northeast of the aluminum plant,
as shown in Figure 10. Availability of electrical power was
one determining factor in locating the stations. A fourth
sampler was operated at Station 3 from June 26 through August
11, then was moved to Station 17, the Dehlbom residence about
1.5 miles north of the aluminum plant, where it was operated
from August 17 to October 21.
Sequential samplers capable of separating gaseous and
particulate fluorides were used for these measurements. Air
entered a sampler through a bicarbonate-coated glass tube,
which selectively absorbed gaseous fluorides. After removal
of the gaseous fluoride component, particulate fluorides were
collected on a chemically treated filter mounted at the outlet
41
-------
/ 8+hon Hill a
FIRE WEATHER
. STATION!
BLAMKEMSHIP /
>tati6n 1 J
Lok* Fi*ef
Upper flatheod \
MUDIAKE STATION 4
ROSE STAflON 3
OEHLBOM STATION 11 •
Ltmf f intfwxf
Valley
Figure 10. Location of volumetric fluoride monitoring
stations and plant exposure shelters."'
42
-------
end of the tube in each sampler. Glass tubes and filters
were analyzed for fluoride in an EPA laboratory. Fluorides
retained in the tubes and on the filters were determined by
the specific fluoride electrode method.**
An interval control timer built into the sampler enabled
continuous collection of samples over 12-hour intervals from
9:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. (daytime), and 9:00 p.m. to 9:00 a.m.
(nighttime). Samples adequate for analysis were obtained
about 70 percent of the time that the samplers were operated.
The 24-hour period beginning with the daytime sampling
interval, which starts at 1:00 a.m., is taken to represent
a calendar day. Average and maximum concentrations of gaseous
and particulate fluorides measured during daytime and night-
time intervals and averaged for calendar days at the five
sampling sites are summarized in Table 6. The values for indi-
vidual samples are presented elsewhere.^
The Montana State standard limits the concentration of
gaseous fluoride over a 24-hour period to 0.8 pgF/m^. This
value was exceeded at the Dehlbom site on three successive
days during the period of sampling. The standard was not
exceeded for any of the arbitrarily defined calendar days at
any of the other four sites, but was exceeded for a 24-hour
period from 9:00 p.m. September 5 to 9:00 p.m. September 6 at
Station 2, the Blankenship Station, where a mean value of
3
0.83 ygF/m was measured for that time interval.
On the average, gaseous fluorides represent approximately
one-third of the combined concentrations of gaseous and parti-
43
-------
Table 6. SUMMARY OF 12-HOUR GASEOUS AND PARTICULATE
FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS MEASURED
IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK AND SURROUNDING AREA,
JUNE 26 to OCTOBER 23, 1970
(ug F/m3)
Fluoride
Daytime
Night
:time
24-houra
Station
component
Maximum
Average
Maximum
Average
Maximum
Average
1
Gaseous
parti-
culate
0.34
0.84
0.09
0.18
0.25
1.18
0.05
0.13
0.25
0.91
0.07
0.15
2
Gaseous
parti-
culate
0.65
0.73
0.12
0.22
1.02
0.98
0.07
0.12
0.66
0.64
0.10
0.17
3
Gaseous
parti-
culate
0.16
0.51
0.06
0.12
0.12
0.32
0.06
0.11
0.14
0.36
0 .06
0.12
4
Gaseous
parti-
culate
0.48
1.12
0.14
0.27
0.20
1.33
0.06
0.17
0.28
0.84
0.10
0.21
l7b
Gaseous
parti-
culate
3.65
2.70
0.48
0.79
1.05
2.41
0.18
0.55
2.11
1.57
0.33
0.65
aAverage of daytime and nighttime values.
^Special sampling station operated from August 17 to October 21,
1971 at Dehlbom residence about 1.5 miles north of the
aluminum plant.
44
-------
culato fluorides measured. In situations of high gaseous
fluoride concentration, however, such as those wherein the
State standard was exceeded, gaseous fluoride concentrations
approached or exceeded the particulate fluoride concentrations.
At all but one sampling site (Station 3), daytime gaseous
fluoride levels averaged about twice the nighttime concen-
trations. Differences in airflow patterns during daytime and
nighttime are thought to account for the higher daytime con-
centrations. It is noted, too, that gaseous fluoride data
generally showed a trend toward lower values as the study
progressed. Several explanations of this trend are possible:
(1) daylight hours were reduced 25 percent from summer to
fall, (2) aluminum production may have been reduced, (3)
more efficient fluoride emission controls were installed at
the plant, and (4) a combination of the above or other factors.
The mean ratio of results from monthly sodium formate
plate impact sampling to those from gaseous fluoride volumetric
sampling for the five stations where companion sampling was
done indicates that 1 ngF/cm -day was equivalent to about 0.006
3 9
ygF/m . This suggests that the area within the 10 ngF/cm'1- day
isoline of Figure 9 was subjected to an average gaseous fluoride
concentration of about 0.06 ygF/m^ over the entire 4-or 5-month
period of impact sampling.
45
-------
VEGETATION STUDIES
Phytotoxicity of airborne gaseous fluoride is well docu-
mented in the literature. Several reports relate specifi-
cally to investigations in areas near aluminum reduction
plants. Foliar necrosis and retarded diameter growth in
Ponderosa pine near the Kaiser Aluminum Company aluminum
reduction plant at Mead, Washington, was reported; injury
could not be attributed to insects, fungi, or climate, but was
highly correlated with foliar fluoride concentrations.® In
another study a nearly sixfold decrease in diameter growth
rate in Ponderosa pine near the same reduction plant, attri-
buted to fluoride, was reported."' Findings of foliar necrosis
attributed to elevated fluoride levels and not to fungal,
climatic, or insect agents were reported for a study done in
the vicinity of the Harvey Aluminum Company reduction plant
O
at The Dalles, Oregon. Ponderosa pine has been specifically
studied as an indicator of fluoride pollution, and was found
Q
to exhibit foliar necrosis with fluoride insult.
Fluoride is an accumulative toxicant, and development of
plant injury is usually associated with fluoride buildup in
the leaf over a relatively long period of time in contrast to
short-time exposure that normally causes injury with atmos-
47
-------
pheric phytotoxicants. Also, the fluoride ion is relatively
stable in contrast to the structure of many pollutants that
break down or change chemically within a leaf. Leaves on the
same plant can differ considerably in fluoride content because
leaves differ in age or exposure time.
Fluorides enter needles and leaves mainly through stomata.
Once in the foliar tissue, they are soluble, free-flowing, and
tend to accumulate at conifer needle tips or broadleaf margins,
causing tip or margin necrosis. Because particulate fluorides
are readily adsorbed to dust particles, dust on the leaf sur-
face may aid in accumulating fluorides.
A wide variation in sensitivity is recognized; some
species of plants may accumulate more than 100 parts per mil-
lion (ppm) of fluoride on a dry weight basis without displaying
symptoms of injury, whereas other species may develop extensive
areas of dead tissue when much less fluoride has been accumu-
lated. It is generally accepted that fluoride concentrations
in plants up to 10 ppm may be considered normal occurrence and
that some plants, particularly those closely related to tea,
may accumulate much larger amounts in the absence of atmos-
pheric contaminants. In a plant community such as that found
in Flathead County, concentrations exceeding 10 ppm in grasses
and pine needles are probably associated with atmospheric con-
tamination.
The aluminum reduction plant at Columbia Falls began
operation in 1955. By 1957 Ponderosa pine trees in the vicin-
ity of the plant were dying. After inspecting the trees a
48
-------
Forest Service pathologist reported by memorandum his opinion
that the injury was caused by fluorides emitted from the re-
duction plant. In the summer of 1969 an EPA botanist investi-
gated vegetation in the Columbia Falls area for possible damage
from fluoride. Tip damage and leaf margin burn characteristic
of injury by fluoride were found in pine, apple, and willow
trees and in gladiolus. Chemical analysis of leaf specimens
from these species demonstrated fluoride accumulation (pine,
70 ppm; apple, 150-190 ppm; willow, 70-210 ppm; gladiolus,
*3
90-170 ppm) . In further evaluations later in 1969, Forest
Service officials found tissue necrosis and elevated fluoride
levels in 26 of 35 vegetation samples representing Ponderosa
pine, lodgepole pine, western white pine, and Douglas fir
from the vicinity of the aluminum plant.
FOREST SERVICE STUDIES
The comprehensive studies initiated in 1970 included
systematic evaluation of vegetation injury by fluorides in
Flathead County. The Forest Service adopted a radial
sampling system. Ten radii were established extending from
the aluminum plant into adjacent forested lands, as illus-
trated in Figure 9. On each radius, basic plots one-hundredth
acre in size (6.6 feet wide by 66 feet long, oriented longi-
tudinally) were established at distances one-fourth, one-half,
one, two, four, six, and eight miles from the plant. Addi-
tional plots were established at 10, 12, and 14 miles on radii
4 and 5, and at 14 miles on radius 6 to sample vegetation in
Glacier National Park.
49
-------
In the Forest Service studies two areas were selected
for control sampling, one 30 miles south of Columbia Falls near
Fork, Montana, and the other about 15 miles west of Kalispell.
The locations were upwind of the aluminum plant in terms of the
general prevailing southwesterly winds. Three plots, each
one-hundredth acre in size, were established in each area.
All conifer and shrub species on the plots were sampled, and
also representative herbaceous plants and at least one
grass species.
Control and radial plots were sampled twice in the 1970
Forest Service studies, once during June-July and again in
October-November. The June-July collection is identified as
the "first sampling" and the October-November collection the
"second sampling". Separate foliage samples from one or
more conifer species, one representative each of two shrub
species, and one representative of each of one herbaceous and
one grass species were collected from each plot. Foliage
collected from each grass, broadleaf plant, and deciduous
conifer was considered a separate sample. Foliage collected
from other conifers was separated by year of origin, and
foliage of each year was considered a separate sample. Gen-
erally only 1969 and 1970 needles were collected.
In addition to sampling within the systematic radial
design, the Forest Service collected a supplemental series of
special samples in areas deemed most likely to sustain high
fluoride exposures. Because fluorides are transported in the
atmosphere, vegetation on ridges and prominent topography down-
50
-------
wind from the aluminum plant may be more likely to intercept
fluorides than is vegetation in valleys or other more protected
areas. Special sampling was conducted in the following loca-
tions: (1) near Columbia Falls, (2) Columbia Mountain, (3)
Teakettle Mountain, (4) Southwest Glacier National Park, (5)
Coram Experimental Forest near Desert Mountain, and (6) north-
east edge of Hungry Horse Reservoir. Samples were not collected
on a plot basis as described for the systematic radial collec-
tions; rather, vegetation representative of the area, with
emphasis on coniferous species, was collected in June and
October 1970.
In the Forest Service studies needles of each conifer
sample were sorted by year of origin, 1969 or 1970, and the
proportion showing foliar burn on visual examination was re-
corded. The average length of burn on affected needles was
estimated as well. For shrub foliage, the proportion of
leaves showing burn was recorded and the fraction of area
affected was estimated. Subsamples of conifer needles, shrub
foliage, grass, and herbaceous tissue were sent to the Wisconsin
Alumni Research Foundation Institute, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin,
(WARF) for fluoride analysis by a specified method.Histo-
logical analysis of conifer specimens was done in Forest Ser-
vice laboratories.
EPA STUDIES
In the EPA investigations of 1970, indigenous vegetation
was examined for visible foliar damage, and foliage specimens
were obtained for chemical analysis for fluoride and for histo-
51
-------
logical examination. In addition, studies were made with
selected vegetation species grown under controlled conditions
in plant shelters located at various places in the study area.
Field examinations for visible injury were made in the vicinity
of Columbia Falls and to the south toward Flathead Lake, on
the north and south slopes and the top of Teakettle Mountain,
and at various sites in Glacier National Park.
Plant shelters that permit exposures limited to ambient
air for a known interval of time without influence of local
soils were operated from June 25 to October 21, 1970, at
stations 1, 2, and 3. Station locations are identified in
Figure 10; companion control shelters were operated at
stations 1 and 2. The plant shelters, which were small
cylinder-shaped fiberglass greenhouses, were equipped with
exhaust fans that drew ambient air through the units at a
rate of about one air change per minute. Control shelters
were identical to the exposure shelters except that they were
equipped with an inlet blower and filters to remove particu-
late and gaseous fluorides from the incoming air.
Plants exposed in the shelters included Ponderosa pine,
Scotch pine, white pine, Chinese apricot, Snow Princess glad-
iolas, and alfalfa. All trees were obtained from outside the
study area; the Ponderosa pines from Potomac Valley, Missoula,
Montana; the Scotch pines from St. Regis, Montana; the white
pines from Coeur d'Alene, Idaho; and the Chinese apricots from
Denver, Colorado. The pines were 3 to 4 years old, and the
apricot trees were 5 to 6 years old; all trees were kept in the
52
-------
soil in which they were delivered by the nursery.
Gladiolus and alfalfa were grown hydroponically in a
vermiculite support medium. Plastic pots containing the
plants were placed in shallow plastic trays to which a de-
ionized water nutrient solution was added twice a week. On a
weekly schedule, all plants were flushed with distilled water,
and the trays were cleaned to rid them of algae. In the latter
stages of the study, heaters were placed inside the shelters
to prevent freezing.
The selected plant varieties were also grown in garden
plots near the shelters at sites 1, 2, and 3. An additional
garden plot was established at the air sampling station near
Mud Lake at Site 4. Gladiolus and alfalfa were planted in
native soil at each of the garden plots, but the trees were
left in their containers with the original soil. The garden
plots were watered about every other day with deionized water
and once a week with nutrient solution.
ESL STUDIES
A most extensive sampling of vegetation was conducted in
the study area by the Environmental Studies Laboratory (ESL)
of the University of Montana. Vegetation samples for fluoride
analysis were collected in the 1970 studies from 19 sampling
zones encompassing an area of more than 400 square miles.
Zone boundaries were established on the basis of fluoride con-
tent of coniferous foliage from initial collections made in
June and early July 1970. Although the zones vary in size, the
concentrations of fluoride in samples in the initial collec-
53
-------
tions within a zone were fairly similar. Zone boundaries are
shown on the study area map of Figure 11. Each zone was given
the name of a prominent feature such as a mountain, lake, or
town within its boundaries; names and approximate sizes of
zones are as follows:
10G«N PASS
ARK
MILLS
LONCMAN
COLUMBIA
FALLS A
10
DORIS RIDCJ
FIRfFICHltR NT
WILOUT NT
4
Figure 11. Map of study area and location of sampling zones.'
54
-------
1.
West Face of Teakettle Mountain
-
12,670
acres
2.
Columbia Falls
-
36,860
acres
3.
Coram
-
11,520
acres
4.
Lake Five
-
9,220
acres
5.
Columbia Mountain
-
5,890
acres
6.
Desert Mountain
-
7,680
acres
7.
South Fork (of the Flathead River)
-
18,180
acres
8.
Middle Fork M
-
26,880
acres
9.
North Fork " " "
-
17,410
acres
10.
Doris Mountain
-
4,100
acres
11.
Headquarters Hill
-
2,880
acres
12.
Belton Hills
-
9,360
acres
13.
Apgar Ridge and Middle Fork
Ranger Station (MFRS)
-
12,800
acres
14.
Apgar Lookout
-
3,330
acres
15.
Boehm's Bear Den
-
2,880
acres
16.
Lake McDonald
-
57,860
acres
17.
Camas Creek
-
8,960
acres
18.
Huckleberry Mountain
-
6,400
acres
19.
Loneman Mountain
-
7,680
acres
>ling
stations numbered 11 through 19 are
located
in
Glacier National Park, and those numbered 1 through 10 are
outside the Park.
For controls, vegetation samples were obtained from
locations in Montana 40 to 150 miles distant from Columbia
Falls. These control areas included:
Elk Creek Many Glacier
55
-------
St. Regis
Swiftcurrent
Rogers Pass
Twin Creek
Upper St. Mary's Lake
Swan Valley
Most vegetation samples collected in the ESL studies were
coniferous foliage. These accounted for some 1600 fluoride
analyses in the 1970 studies alone. In addition to foliage,
pollen from some coniferous species was collected and analyzed
for fluoride. Stems and terminal buds from both coniferous and
hardwood species were also collected and analyzed, as was grass
from all but one of the sampling zones and from a number of
control locations.
With the exception of larch, coniferous trees growing in
the Flathead County area of Montana generally retain three
years of needle growth. Thus, it was possible to collect
needles from the years 1968, 1969, and 1970 from most of the
trees sampled. A sample of conifer foliage having 3 years of
growth yields more information than vegetation samples from
deciduous trees and shrubs, which lose their leaves each year.
For example, a conifer sample with 3 years' growth collected
early July 1970 can indicate how much fluoride has accumulated
in the 1970 foliage during the few weeks it has been exposed,
how much has accumulated in the 1969 needles in 13 or 14
months of exposure, and how much in 1968 needles over a period
of 25 or 26 months.
All fluoride analyses of vegetation samples in the ESL
studies were done by the Orion ion specific electrode method;
some duplicate analyses were done with the Autotechnicon semi-
56
-------
automated method.^ As previously mentioned, the fluoride
analyses for samples obtained in the 1970 Forest Service
studies were performed by WARF. Portions of each of 10
conferous foliage samples collected by ESL were analyzed
separately by ESL and WARF. Results of these analyses ap-
pear in Table 7. For the values in Table 7 the least squares
relationship is:
C. = 0.87 C - 0.67
b a
and the coefficient of linear correlation is 0.89. The mean
value of the ratio of WARF to ESL results is 0.79. Results of
this experiment suggest that WARF results are fairly consis-
tently 20 to 25 percent higher than those of the ESL.
VISIBLE INJURY
Observation of indigenous vegetation by an EPA botanist
in 1970 revealed visible injury in the form of needle tip
necrosis on various species of pines in the study area.-*
Such damage, primarily to 1968 needles, was identified in and
around Columbia Falls, nearby Lake Five, at the eastern base
of Apgar Mountain, at Glacier National Park Headquarters, and
at the Lake McDonald Ranger Station. It was found as far dis-
tant from the aluminum reduction plant as 10 miles southeast
of Columbia Falls along the Columbia Falls-Bigfork highway,
and 6 miles north of the north shore of Lake McDonald in
Glacier National Park. Severe needle necrosis was seen on
pines on the south slope and at the top of Teakettle Mountain,
where many young trees were severely defoliated, or partially
or entirely dead; damage observed on the north slope was less
severe.
-------
Table 7. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN TEN CONIFEROUS
FOLIAGE SAMPLES ANALYZED INDEPENDENTLY BY
WARFa AND BY ESLb
(ppm by weight)
Sample
WARF
ESL
1
87.0
74.0
2
35.5
30.0
3
24.0
28.0
4
t-*
(-¦
•
00
5.1
5
10.5
7.2
6
10.4
8.4
7
10.3
11.0
8
8.5
6.4
9
8.5
3.2
10
3.5
3.3
a Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation Institute
b Environmental Studies Laboratory, University of Montana
58
-------
Foliage specimens obtained in the systematic radial plot
sampling program conducted by the Forest Service were examined
for visible damage. Needles from each conifer sample were
sorted by year of origin; the fraction showing visible injury
was determined for each year sub-sample, and for this damaged
fraction the average fraction of needle length of burn was
estimated. The product of the fraction of needles showing
injury and the average fraction of needle length of this
injury was identified as the Injury Index (I.I.). The results
of this systematic assessment of visible injury are tabulated
in Appendix A. In its classification of visible injury, the
Forest Service identifies light injury as an I.I. greater than
0.006 and severe injury as an I.I. greater than 0.10. In the
first sampling of radial plots in 1970, light injury was iden-
tified at distances as great as 4 to 8 miles northwest, north,
and southeast of the aluminum plant, and 14 miles toward the
northeast. Injury Indexes greater than the severe damage level
were determined for samples from radial plots 2 miles north and
northeast of the plant, and generally 4 miles northeast. One plot
located in the Belton Hills of Glacier National Park, 12 miles
northeast of the plant, yielded an I.I. showing severe damage.
HISTOLOGICAL RESPONSE
Solberg and Adams^ and Gordon^ in controlled studies
described histological responses of conifers to fumigations
by fluorides. Protoplasmic and nuclear hypertrophy of paren-
chyma cells resulting in death of foliar phloem tissue were
regarded as symptomatic of fluorosis in conifer tissue. The
59
-------
Environmental Studies Laboratory of the University of Montana
obtained burnt or necrotic needles from pine species at 40
different sites in the study area. More than half of these
sites were in Glacier National Park at distances greater than
6 to 10 miles from the reduction plant. Histological study
of every needle collection selected showed the specific di-
sease syndrome that is manifested by conifer needle tissues
damaged by atmospheric fluorides. At the time of selection,
information on fluoride content of the needles was not avail-
able. Subsequent analysis of selected specimens exhibiting
the fluoride-caused disease syndrome gave the following re-
sults for each of the three major species of pine:
a. Ponderosa pine, 1969 needles, Apgar Ridge and
MFRS zone, 27 ppm fluoride.
b. Lodgepole pine, 1969 needles, Headquarters Hill
zone, 17.5 ppm fluoride.
c. White pine, 1969 needles, Belton Hills zone,
12.5 ppm fluoride.
These sampling zones are located at successively greater
distances from about 6 to about 12 miles northeast of the
aluminum plant. The analysis were made on whole needles,
not just the necrotic tip; the results demonstrate that
tissue necrosis is associated with whole-needle fluoride
concentrations only a few times greater than those found in
normal healthy needles. (Control samples of conifer foliage
in ESL studies yielded fluoride concentrations averaging
about 2 ppm, with a maximum value slightly over 5 ppm.)
60
-------
Histological examination of necrotic conifer needles
(9 micra thick sections) in the Forest Service studies is
described as follows:^"
"Microscopic examination of conifer tissue in the
early stage of necrosis (green-yellow part of tran-
sition zone) revealed that phloem and transfusion
parenchyma and albuminous cells hypertrophied exten-
sively, crushing and causing collapse of transfusion
tracheids and phloem elements.... Enlarged nuclei
were always associated with the hypertrophied cells....
Often the mesophyll cell immediately interior to the
stomatal opening had been killed before fixation and
sectioning. Epithelial tissue and nuclei hypertro-
phied extensively, often occluding resin canals....
"In the later stage of fluorosis (necrotic portion
of transition zone), many of the hypertrophied cells
had collapsed, leaving a void in the tissue. Granu-
losis of the chloroplasts in mesophyll cells was
obvious.
"This disease syndrome is unlike any caused by
fungi or adverse weather conditions, and is very
distinctive for fluorosis of conifer tissue."
In its histological studies of conifer needle specimens
from the study area, the EPA took sections from the green
portion of the needles immediately preceding the demarcation
line between injured and uninjured tissue. Microscopic
examination revealed that the parenchymatous tissues of pali-
sade and spongy cells were collapsed and some chloroplasts
had lost their integrity. The epithelial cells of the resin
canal showed swelling and expansion. The vascular bundles
were distorted, and adjacent cells had collapsed. The EPA,
too, concluded that the causative agent of the needle necrosis
was chemical rather than biological or meteorological.
FLUORIDE CONTENT
Of all the vegetation work undertaken in the study pro-
61
-------
gram, that which most effectively demonstrates levels of
fluoride pollution in the study area involved measurement
of fluoride content of foliage from indigenous plants.
During 1970 the Forest Service collected for fluoride
analysis 1254 vegetation samples from its radial plots,
175 such samples from special sampling sites, and more than
100 from control sites. Summaries of the Forest Service data
resulting from analysis by WARF appear in Appendix A. The
1970 studies of the Environmental Studies Laboratory, University
of Montana, involved some 1600 fluoride analyses of coniferous
foliage, and about 600 additional analyses of conifer and hard-
wood stems, conifer pollen, and grass. Summaries of the ESL
vegetation data appear in Appendix B.
Values for fluoride content of vegetation collected in the
Forest Service radial sampling system were averaged on a plot-
by-plot basis irrespective of vegetation type. This procedure
is considered valid for comparison of plots because nearly the
same amounts and types of vegetation were collected from all
plots. For every radius in the Forest Service sampling
analysis indicates a trend of very high fluoride content in
samples taken near the aluminum plant, with concentrations
decreasing to near control levels at the most distant plots.
The tables of Appendix A show the same general trend for
separate types of vegetation as for the averages over entire
plots.
Figure 12 shows the geographic distribution of average
fluoride concentrations in vegetation as indicated by the
62
-------
Trout La*
GLACIER NATIONAL PARK
Harmon L*kt
HOORS
WEST GLACIER
13) //
Lake Five
DESERT MT
MT PENROSE
FLATHEAD NATIONAL FOREST
/
HUNGRY HORSE
ANACONDA ALUMINUMXOMPANi^^cS
COLUMBIA FALLSfltf V- f '
'lOJ *
COLUMBIA MT
SCALK miles
Figure 12. Isopols of fluoride pollution in vegetation from Forest
Service data, 1970.^ Circled numbers are sampling zone
means of fluoride content of coniferous foliage, ESL
4
data, 1970. All concentration values ppm by weight.
63
-------
Forest Service studies, depicted in the form of isopols,
or lines of equVl fluoride concentration in vegetation.
From graphs of .luoride concentration versus distance from
the aluminum pl\mt for all the radial profiles (second
sampling), the distance at which average fluoride concen-
trations equalled the arbitrarily selected levels of 10,
15, 20, 30, 60, ji.00, 300, and 600 ppm were estimated.
Those distances filong the radii were plotted on a map of
the study area, A;nd points of equal pollution (fluoride
concentration) leivels were connected by lines. Data from
the first sampling gave a similar pattern, as did data for the
separate categories of vegetation. The distribution of fluor-
ides generally corresponds with the prevailing southwesterly
winds, and the shapfes of the isopleths are similar to those
for fluoridation rates as depicted in Figure 9. The total
area within each isopol, i.e. the total area sustaining fluor-
ide levels equal to or greater than the given isopol value,
and the incremental areas between adjacent isopols are tabu-
lated in Appendix A. Vegetation on approximately 214,000
acres had accumulated more than 10 ppm fluoride, on about
69,000 acres had accumulated 30 ppm or more, and on more than
7,000 acres had accumulated 100 ppm or more. The isopols for
the area southwest of Columbia Falls were constructed from
special sample data and may not be as reliable as those esti-
mated from radial-plot data. They are, however, indicative
of the general pattern in a southwesterly direction. Much
vegetation in the area within the 30-ppm isopol has been
64
-------
affected to various degrees by fluorides from the aluminum
plant.
As stated earlier, the sampling zones for the ESL studies
were selected on the basis of fluoride concentrations in vege-
tation samples taken in the initial sampling of 1970; each
zone represents an area having fairly consistent values of
fluoride concentration among the various samples. A summary
of results of fluoride analyses of conifer foliage samples
obtained by ESL in its 1970 studies appears in Appendix B.
The mean fluoride concentrations of conifer foliage samples,
irrespective of species, collected in the 19 ESL sampling
zones are given in Table 8. Sampling zones numbered 11 and
higher are inside Glacier National Park, those numbered 10
and lower are outside the Park. As with the Forest Service
data, the concentrations of fluoride in vegetation as deter-
mined in the ESL studies decrease with increasing distance
from the aluminum reduction plant, and the concentration pat-
tern is elongated in the northeasterly direction from the
plant. This pattern is consistent with the prevailing south-
westerly winds. The mean fluoride concentrations (ppm) in
1969 conifer needles collected by ESL are shown in Figure 12
in circles placed in the general locations of the sampling
zones and superimposed on the isoconcentration lines yielded
by the Forest Service studies. When one considers that the
ESL and the Forest Service samples were collected at different
times and places and that species included in the samples are
distributed differently, the agreement in concentration values
65
-------
Table 8. MEAN CONCENTRATION OF FLUORIDE IN
CONIFER NEEDLES AND GRASS, ESL SAMPLES
(ppm by weight)
Sampling Zone
No. Name
Conifer Needles
Year of Origin
Grass
1970
1968
1969
1970
1 Teakettle Mountain
244
120
18.6
87.4
2 Columbia Falls
102
54 .8
28.9
149.1
3 Coram
73.6
39.7
7.6
14.7
4 Lake Five
24.3
13.0
4.8
5.4
5 Columbia Mountain
16.8
9.6
5.0
14.0
6 Desert Mountain
15.9
7.9
3.8
5.6
7 South Fork
13.7
8.1
3.6
7.1
8 Middle Fork
11.4
5.9
3.5
4.0
9 North Fork
10.5
6.0
4.6
6.3
10 Doris Mountain
7.6
4.5
3.3
3.8
11 Headquarters Hill
30.2
15.9
4.9
7.7
12 Belton Hills
27.0
12.4
4.8
10.2
13 Apgar Ridge and MFRS
26 .3
12.0
4.7
7.8
14 Apgar Lookout
19.0
9.8
4.8
4.8
15 Boehm's Bear Den
12.5
7.2
4.0
2.8
16 Lake McDonald
12.2
7.1
4.0
10.4
17 Camas Creek
7.9
4.8
3.1
5.1
18 Huckleberry Mountain
7.0
4.7
3.5
-
19 Loneman Mountain
6.0
4.3
2.4
4.6
Controls
2.2
2.4
2.0
4.4
66
-------
is extraordinarily good.
A summary of data on fluoride concentrations in grass
obtained by the ESL in its 1970 studies appears in Appendix
B. Mean values for fluoride concentration by ESL sampling
zone are given in the final column of Table 8. About half
of these mean values are near values for control grass sam-
ples; 40 percent of the mean values range from about 2 to
more than 30 times greater than control values. The two
highest values, as would be expected, are for samples nearest
the aluminum plant. These results are not unlike those yield-
ed by grass samples from the Forest Service radial plot system.
Of the some 70 plots from which grass, samples were obtained,
about 60 percent yielded fluoride concentrations ranging from
2 to 50 times greater than the mean for control samples. In
comparing results of the ESL and Forest Service studies, however,
one must keep in mind that some 30 of the Forest Service plots,
including most of those within 2 miles of the aluminum plant,
lie within Zone 1 of the ESL study. The mean fluoride concen-
tration in grass from ESL zone 1 and the mean for Forest Ser-
vice plots within that Zone are both about 20 times greater
than control values. Of grass samples from the remaining ESL
zones and Forest Service plots, between 35 and 40 percent showed
mean fluoride concentrations in the range of 2 to 25 or 30 times
greater than control values.
The ESL studies included innovative investigations into
fluoride content of plant tissues other than conifer needles
and grass. Samples of conifer stems for fluoride analysis
67
-------
were collected in the late fall and winter of 1970 after
seasonal rains and snowfall had occurred in the study area.
Results of the analyses are presented in Table 9. For the
15 samples from three southwestern zones of Glacier National
Park the difference between average fluoride concentrations
in coniferous stems that were washed and average concentra-
tions in and on coniferous stems left unwashed was 1.2 ppm
of fluoride. This slight difference indicates that very
little or no particulate fluoride, such as aluminum fluoride,
cryolite, or sodium fluoride, was being retained on conifers
growing in Glacier National Park. Similar analyses of washed
and unwashed conifer stems from control areas yielded an
average difference in fluoride concentration of about 0.5 ppm.
Slight differences between concentrations in washed and un-
washed stems of control vegetation may be attributed to soil
particles containing fluoride being blown by winds and lodg-
ing on the rough bark surface of conifer stems. Such parti-
cles are expected to be dislodged by the agitation and washing
procedures and to account for the 0.5 ppm difference in fluor-
ide readings.
The difference between fluoride concentrations of washed
and unwashed stems from Columbia Falls, Zone 2, suggests that
some particulate fluoride does accumulate on the surface of
stems in locations near the aluminum plant.
In every case, stem samples from the study area yielded
higher fluoride concentration values than did control samples.
In samples from the Glacier National Park zones the values
68
-------
Table 9. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN WASHED AND UNWASHED CONIFER STEMS4
Fluorides, ppm by weight
1968 Stems
1969
Stems
197 0 Stems
Sampling zone
No.
samples
washed
Un-
washed
washed
Un-
washed
washed
Un-
washed
Columbia Falls
Zone 2
12
8.0
13.0
9.3
14.2
11.0
14.0
Coram, Zone 3
8
6.3
7.0
' 6.0
7.7
7.2
8.5
Glacier Park
Zones 11, 12, 13
15
5.2
6.5
5.8
7.1
6.0
7.0
Controls
11
3.7
4.1
4.0
4.6
4.0
4.6
-------
were not remarkably higher than the controls, but in those
from the Columbia Falls zone the values exceeded control values
by factors of 2 to 3. The data demonstrate that fluoride is
being retained in and on the various years' stem growth, and
that the concentrations tend to decrease slightly each year.
This yearly decrease may result from leaching caused by ex-
posure to weather or from the increase in the volume of older
tissues, or both.
Because bark cannot be removed from coniferous stems
without removing large portions of the active tissue of the
inner stem, separate analyses of the outer bark and of the
inner bark and cambial tissues of conifers were not undertaken.
Because such separation is possible in hardwoods, samples of
various hardwood species were obtained and separate analyses
were performed on these tissues. Table 10 shows the average
fluoride concentrations of washed and unwashed tissues from
the stems of three species of hardwoods collected from selected
ESL sampling zones of the study area and from control areas.
Results are presented for three different series of stem tissues.
1. Bark and cortex
2. Phloem, cambium, and outer xylem
3. Core (xylem and pith).
Results of the fluoride analyses of unwashed bark demon-
strate that high concentrations of fluoride particulate were
present on hardwood stems obtained on the West Face of Tea-
kettle Mountain. Concentrations of fluoride particulate on un-
washed hardwood stems were lower in samples from the Columbia
70
-------
Table 10. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN WASHED AND UNWASHED
TISSUES FROM 1970 HARDWOOD STEMS4
(ppm by weight)
Bark and cortex
Phloem, cambium,
outer xylem
Xylem and pith
Sampling zone
HC1
washed
un-
washed
HCL
washed
un-
washed
HC1
washed
un-
washed
Teakettle Mountain
Zone 1
8.5
44 .0
7.2
8.4
2.8
3.6
Columbia Falls
Zone 2
7.9
25.3
6.8
7.1
3.2
3.1
Coram
Zone 3
7.5
8.2
6.2
6.5
3.1
2.8
Glacier Park
Zones 11, 12, 13
6.4
8.5
5.8
8.5
2.9
3.2
Controls
3.2
4.6
2.9
4.6
3.0
2.6
-------
Falls zone 4 1/2 miles west of the plant, and much lower in
samples from the Coram zone 6 1/2 miles to the east. Very
little fluoride particulate was found on hardwood stems from
the Glacier National Park zones; concentrations were compar-
able to those found on coniferous stems.
The average fluoride concentrations found in the washed
bark and cortex were similar in hardwood samples collected
from the Teakettle Mountain, Columbia Falls, and Coram zones
(8.5 to 7.5 ppm). The average fluoride concentrations in
washed samples from the Glacier National Park zones were
slightly lower, but still were twice as high as the average
in washed samples from the control areas.
Fluoride concentrations in the inner active tissues of
hardwoods (phloem, cambium, and outer xylem) from the study
area were about 2 times greater than concentrations in similar
inner-stem tissues of hardwoods from control areas. Average
fluoride concentrations in the core tissues (xylem and pith)
of stems of all samples taken from the study area and from
the control areas were similar and quite low (2.6 to 3.6 ppm).
Samples of conifer pollen collected from control areas
and from 14 of the 19 ESL sampling zones were analyzed for
fluoride content. Results of pollen analyses are summarized
in Table 11.
The mean fluoride concentration for seven pollen samples
from control areas is 3.8 ppm. The mean fluoride concentrations
in pollen samples from 9 of the 14 study area zones sampled are
greater than the mean value for control samples by a factor of
72
-------
Table 11. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN CONIFEROUS POLLEN4
Sampling zone
No.
samples
Fluoride, ppm by weight
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
1. Teakettle Mountain
4
23.2
32.0
13.7
3. Coram
8
12.0
16.0
8.0
4. Lake Five
3
15.6
19.8
11.0
5. Columbia Mountain
2
6.2
7.3
5.1
6. Desert Mountain
1
19.5
8. Middle Fork
8
5.6
8.0
1.7
9. North Fork
3
8.1
9.2
6.4
11. Headquarters Hill
6
14.3
18.0
10.0
12. Belton Hills
1
13.3
13. Apgar Ridge and MFRS
3
12.0
17.8
6.1
15. Boehm's Bear Den
3
5.6
8.4
3.0
16. Lake McDonald
4
7.8
10.0
6.0
17. Camas Creek
2
4.8
5.7
3.8
18. Huckleberry Mountain
2
4.2
6.6
1.9
Controls
7
3.8
5.5
1.7
73
-------
2 or more.
Sampling zones 1, 4, 5, and 6, which gave relatively
high values of fluoride in pollen, are generally near the
aluminum plant. Zones 11, 12, and 13, also with high values,
are located at distances of 6 to 10 miles from the plant.
Because pollen is not directly exposed to ambient air during
microsporogenesis within the staminate cone, one may reason
that fluoride probably comes to the pollen via leaf tissues.
For the same reason, one may suspect that the fluoride con-
tent is unlikely to be greatly affected by direct deposition
of particulate fluoride. This latter supposition is supported
by the relatively high values for fluoride in pollen from
Zones 11, 12, and 13, zones for which data on washed and un-
washed conifer stems indicate that fluoride content is not
surface particulate.
In two separate visits to the study area, in July and
October 1970, EPA investigators obtained samples of foliage
from indigenous conifers. Needles of these samples were separ-
ated by year of origin and cut in approximate halves represent-
ing tip and base; the sub-samples were analyzed separately for
fluoride content. Results of these analyses appear in Table 12.
Samples obtained 4 miles southwest of Glacier National Park
Headquarters and at the Middle Fork Ranger Station yielded
fluoride concentrations somewhat higher than those obtained
in larger samplings by the Forest Service and ESL in the same
general areas. Otherwise, the results of these samplings are
consistent with results of the more extensive samplings, show-
74
-------
Table 12. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN INDIGENOUS CONIFER
3
FOLIAGE, EPA SAMPLING, 1970
(ppm by weight)
Location
and
Species
Year of Origin
1967
Ti£_
Base
1968
Tip
Base
1969
Tip
Base
1970
Tip
Base
Teakettle Mountain
Lodgepole Pine
Ponderosa Pine
Site 4, Mud Lakea
Lodgepole Pine
Ponderosa Pine
4 miles Southwest
Park Headquarters
Ponderosa Pine
Middle Fork Ranger
Station
Douglas Fir
4 miles West
Park Headquarters
Lodgepole Pine
Glacier Park
Headquarters
White Pine
6 miles North
Lake McDonald
White Pine
83
30
12
328
295
37
101
72
68
141
63
36
19
32
13
260
213
61
122
46
56
14
9
50
74
16
15
28
54
18
34
15
39
10
20
11
11
a Samples taken 10/22/70; all others taken 7/16/70.
75
-------
ing the trend of decreasing fluoride concentrations with
increasing distance downwind from the aluminum plant.
Separate analyses of tip and base show marked differences
in levels of fluoride accumulation in these two portions of
needles, results consistent with findings of tip necrosis.
Foliage from plant specimens grown in EPA controlled-
exposure chambers and in special garden plots for varying
intervals of time during summer 1970 were analyzed for fluor-
ide content. Results of these analyses are presented in
Tables 13 through 16. In nearly every case, fluoride concen-
trations in foliage from plants grown in the ambient air of
chambers or in garden plots were greater than those in foliage
of comparable plants grown in the cleaned air of the control
chambers. Concentrations in exposed plants generally were 2
to 3 times greater than in control plants. These differences
are attributed to atmospheric fluorides rather than to fluor-
ides in soil or rainfall. They represent exposures for only a
portion of the year; air quality data for that season at the
same exposure sites demonstrate that the plants encountered
relatively low atmospheric concentrations of fluorides.
In the course of their studies, the ESL investigators con-
sidered the matter of fluorides in soils. They collected and
analyzed samples of soils from 11 of the 19 sampling zones and
from one control area. Results of these fluoride analyses are
presented in Table 17. The sample from the control area, Mac
Donald Pass, yielded a fluoride concentration of 250 ppm, higher
than, or similar to,concentrations in samples from 9 of the 11
76
-------
Table 13. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN 1969 AND 19 70 NEEDLES OF
WHITE, PONDEROSA, AND SCOTCH PINES EXPOSED FROM
JUNE 2 5 TO OCTOBER 21, 19703
(yg F/g)
Exposure/location
White
pine
Scotch
pine
Ponderosa pine
1969
1970
1969
1970
1969
1970
Plant shelters
Site 1
16.5
10.6
34.5
12.6
36.1
9.8
Site 2
8.3
16.7
12.4
39.6
10 .7
Site 3
18.3
25.3
23.5
8.7
46.1
10.5
Garden plots
Site 1
7.3
7.8
10.0
5.5
19.1
7.1
Site 2
11.4
9.1
7.1
14.3
6.9
Site 3
12.7
6.2
6.3
5.0
16.6
6.8
Site 4
18.5
14.2
14.3
8.2
19.0
9.4
Control shelters3
6.1
5.1
9.2
4.2
15.5
5.6
aFluoride content of the plants in both control shelters.
77
-------
Tabic 14. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN ALFALFA LEAVES AND
STEMS EXPOSED IN 1970 STUDY3
Exposure/location
Fluoride content, pg F/g
July 24 through
September 14
September 14 through
October 21
Plant shelters
Site 1
13.9
13.6
Site 2
12.5
11.5
Site 3
11.1
15.1
Garden plots
Site 1
21.3
Site 2
19.3
Site 3
24.7
Site 4
32.1
Control plant
4.4
5.0
shelters
78
-------
Table 15. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN CHINESE APRICOT LEAVES
EXPOSED IN 1970 STUDY3
Exposure/location
Fluoride
content, ug F/g
July 14 through
September 14
September 14 through
October 21
Plant shelters
Site 1
6.7
15.9
Site 2
8.4
24.3
Site 3
10.7
19 .7
Garden plots
Site 1
10.2
14.6a
Site 2
9.9
Site 3
9.6
Site 4
12.8
Control plant
2.6
2.0
shelters
aDate of exposure was July 14 to September 26.
79
-------
Table 16. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN GLADIOLUS LEAF TISSUE
EXPOSED FROM JUNE 25 TO SEPTEMBER 14, 19703
Exposure/location
Fluoride content,
yg F/g
0 to 2 inches
from tip
2 to 4 inches
from tip
4 to 6 inches
from tip
Plant shelters
Site 1
20.6
6.7
8.1
Site 2
24.0
12.4
9.3
Site 3
23 .9
9.9
10.2
Garden plots
Site 1-
26.8
10.1
7.5
Site 2
43.6
9.1
8.9
Site 3
28.2
10.9
9.0
Control plant
12.0
8.9
5.2
shelters
80
-------
Table 17. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN SOILS, SINGLE SAMPLES4
Sampling zone Fluoride, ppm
1. Teakettle Mountain 54 0
2. Columbia Falls 168
3. Coram 217
4. Lake Five 408
7. South Fork 245
8. Middle Fork 235
9. North Fork 113
11. Headquarters Hill 235
12. Belton Hills 245
13. Apgar Ridge and MFRS 118
14. Apgar Lookout 275
Control (MacDonald Pass) 250
81
-------
All sample collections were made in late August 1971, to cor-
respond with the second sampling of 1970. Two pounds of foliage
were collected from each of two conifer species, one or two
shrub species, one forb, and one grass species on each plot.
Conifer branches were cut to include three years' foliage from
each tree sampled. Although tree species were not constant
from plot to plot, the species were basically the same as
those collected in 1970. Each sample was placed in a clean
plastic bag and taken to the Forest Service laboratory in
Missoula, Montana, for examination and analysis.
Conifer foliage was sorted by year of origin (1969, 1970,
or 1971), and the injury index (I.I.) was measured separately
for each year's foliage. Foliage of each year was then dried,
ground, and analyzed chemically for available fluoride. The
1971 foliage of shrubs, herbs, and grasses was chemically
analyzed for available fluoride, but injury index was not measured.
Fluoride analyses of Forest Service samples collected in the
1970 studies were performed by WARF. All samples collected in
1971 were chemically analyzed in the Forest Service laboratory
in Missoula, Montana. Samples were not washed; thus the deter-
minations reflect accumulation in the plant tissue of particulate
as well as gaseous fluoride.
The ion specific electrode method, using Orion fluoride and
reference electrodes was used by the Forest Service for analysis
of 1971 samples. In additionffluoride analyses by this method
were performed on 110 samples analyzed by WARF in 1970. This
experiment demonstrated that results from the two laboratories
83
-------
were comparable; linear regression analysis of paired data
o
yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.98.
A summary of results of the 1971 Forest Service investi-
gations appears in Appendix C. The tabulation compares 1970
and 1971 results obtained from those plots that were resampled
in 1971. Data for injury index and fluoride accumulation demon-
strate that vegetation in the study area was being affected by
fluorides in 1971. Vegetation from all plots sampled in 1971
contained concentrations of fluoride higher than those in con-
trol samples. Even visible injury was detected in vegetation
collected as far as 6 miles from the aluminum plant. On the
whole, however, both fluoride accumulation and injury index
were lower in samples collected in 1971 than in those collected
in 1970. Estimated isopol lines constructed from the 1971 data
appear in Figure 13. A comparison of the areas included within
the 1970 and 1971 estimated isopols is presented in Table 18.
This comparison reveals that substantial reductions in areas
affected in the midrange of fluoride accumulation (20 to 60 ppm
fluoride) occurred between the 1970 and the 1971 samplings.
The total area affected by fluoride pollution (10 ppm or more),
and the areas affected by extreme values (over 100 ppm), under-
went only modest reductions in the 1-year interval.
The 1971 investigation permitted examination of changes in
fluoride concentrations in conifer needles over the 1-year inter-
val between samplings. In the 1971 sampling, foliage was ob-
tained from trees sampled in the 1970 studies. The indicated
incremental accumulation over the 1-year interval in needles
84
-------
Trout Ltke
GLACIER NATIONAL PARK
Hsrnton LU.
HDQR!
WEST GLACIER
MT
MT PENROSE
ATHEAD NATIONAL FOREST
ANACONDA ALU!
IUM,
HUNGRY H
COLUMI
o
scale. mMc*
Figure 13. Isopols of fluoride pollution in vegetation from
2
Forest Service data, 1971.
85
-------
Table 18. AREAS INCLUDED WITHIN ESTIMATED ISOPOLS
OF FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN VEGETATION,
FOREST SERVICE DATA 19701 AND 19712
Isopol,
ppm fluoride
Area Within Isopol, square miles
Year 1970
Year 1971
10
334
280
15
272
140
20
191
62
30
108
23.8
60
31
12
100
11
5.2
300
2
1.5
600
1
0.75
86
-------
which originated in 1969 was highly variable, ranging from
-116 to 88 ppm fluoride, with a mean value of 3 ppm, for the
14 radial plots sampled. The incremental accumulation in
needles which originated in 1970 was less variable; accumu-
lations over the 1-year interval in the 14 plots ranged from
-31 to 157 ppm fluoride with a mean value of 41.5 ppm in the
1970 needles. Higher values of accumulation generally occur-
red in samples from plots located near the aluminum plant.
Follow-up studies on the impact of fluorides on flora
and fauna in a portion of the study area were conducted in
1971 by the Environmental Studies Laboratory, University of
15
Montana, for the Superintendent of Glacier National Park.
Three sampling zones, Headquarters Hill (Number 11), Belton
Hills (Number 12), and Apgar Ridge and Middle Fork Ranger
Station (Number 13), were selected for the 1971 investigations.
/
The boundary between the Headquarters Hill and Belton Hills
sampling zones was shifted slightly for the 1971 studies;
samples from a small hill nearby Park Headquarters, which was
included in the Belton Hills zone in 1970, were included with
the Headquarters Hill samples in the 1971 studies. The 1971
studies included collection of foliage from many of the same
trees sampled during the 1971 studies.
In the 1971 studies, coniferous vegetation was collected
on the following listed schedule:
11. Headquarters Hill - mid-June, early November
12. Belton Hills - mid-August, mid-October
13. Apgar Ridge and MFRS - mid-July, mid-October
87
-------
Data on fluoride content of foliage from these collections are
presented in Appendix D and are summarized in Table 19. The
results clearly demonstrate the accumulation of fluoride in
vegetation during the intervals from summer 1970 to summer and
fall 1971, and during the intervals between collections in
summer 1971 and fall 1971. The fluoride content of needles
that originated in 1969 typically increased by 25 to 35 per-
cent of the 1970 level between summer 1970 and fall 1971;
content of needles that originated in 1970 increased by 100
to 200 percent over the 1970 values. Increases in mean
fluoride content of new needles, those which originated in 1971,
were mostly in the order of 60 to 70 percent in the interval
from summer to fall 1971; samples from one zone showed an in-
crease of more than 100 percent over the interval. Results of
the 1971 ESL studies demonstrate that fluoride continued to
accumulate in conifer foliage in Glacier National Park from
1970 to 1971 despite reduction of fluoride emissions from the
aluminum plant. The ESL findings are consistent with those of
the Forest Service; 1-and 2-year-old needles yielded fluoride
concentrations of about 10 to 20 ppm, and the sampling zones
from which they came lie generally between the 15 and 20 ppm
isopleths of the Forest Service studies. Further, in both
the ESL and the Forest Service studies, the increase from in
fluoride concentrations in 1970 needles in the period 1970
to 1971 was substantially greater than the increase in 1969
needles from the same trees over the same time interval.
88
-------
Table 19. MEAN FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN CONIFEROUS FOLIAGE FlROM
SELECTED SAMPLING ZONES IN 1970 AND 197115
Fluoride co
ncantr2tions
, DDm
Increase in fluoride,%
S-^nner 1970
Collection
Summer
Collec
1971
tlOTl
Fall 1971
Collection
Sursrer 1970
to Fall 1971
Surj-ier 1971
to Fall 1971
Needle Year
Needle
Year
Needle Year
Needle Year
Needle Year
Zone
Species
1968
1965
1970
1968
r 1969
1970
1971
1559
1970
1971
1969
1970
1971
11
Head-Barters
Lcdgepole
pine
32.6
14 .2
5.4
33.0
19.2
12.1
4.8
19.2
11.5
7.8
35%
112%
63%
Ponderosa
pine
34.0
17.2
4.3
30.2
21.2
11.1
3.8
21.0
12.7
6.5
22%
195%
71%
12
Belto.i
Hi lis
lodgepole
pine
26.4
10 .8
4.0
33.0
16.2
11.3
5.4
18.6
12.8
8.6
72%
220%
59%
13
Apgar R^age
& :'JR£
PonJerofa
pip.e
27.0
12.7
3.6
30.1
19.1
9.5
3.9
16.2
10 .1
8.9
28%
131%
128%
-------
ANIMAL STUDIES
MAMMALS
Approximately 300 animal specimens were collected from
the study area by the Environmental Studies Laboratory in
1970, and bones were analyzed for fluoride content. Seventy-
five control animals were obtained from areas in Montana re-
mote from the study area. A summary of results of fluoride
analyses of femur bones of all animal specimens and controls
appears in Appendix E. Mean fluoride concentrations in femur
bones of six major species collected from the various sampling
zones are given in Table 20, and the means for these species
for the entire study area are depicted in Figure 14.
Only in deer and grouse did the average fluoride concen-
trations in femur bones of control specimens exceed 200 ppm;
the mean value for deer is 225 ppm and for grouse 209 ppm.
With the single exception of deer in the North Fork sampling
zone (Zone 9), the mean concentrations of fluoride in femur
bones of animal specimens collected in the study area exceeded
those in control animals. Further, the ratio of fluoride con-
centrations in bones of animals from the study area to those
in bones of animals from control areas was in all cases greater
than the ratio of fluoride concentrations in vegetation from the
study area to concentrations in vegetation from control areas.
91
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
19
Table 20. MEAN FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN FEMUR BONES
OF ANIMALS FROM STUDY AREA SAMPLING ZONES,
14
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES LABORATORY, 1970
Zone
Fluoride concentrations, ppm by weight
Deer
Deer
Mouse
Snowshoe
Hare
Chipmunk
Squirrel
Grouse
Lower Teakettle Mt.
Columbia Falls
Coram
Lake Five
Columbia Mt
Desert Mt.
South Fork
Middle Fork
North Fork
Headquarters Hill
Belton Hills
Apgar Ridge & MFRS
Apgar Lookout
Boehm's Bear Den
Lake McDonald
Camas Creek
Loneman Mt.
Controls
3933
2007
2270
1768
938
1068
1067
1280
168
1720
541
532
582
1807
837
830
225
107
1020
253
1619
582
625
382
382
83
1000
4666
887
694
613
331
299
462
702
740
3394
295
415
164
367
109
2403
1171
929
627
374
222
324
343
743
480
420
105
1200
1413
209
92
-------
1500
1000
at
TJ
300
STUDY MIA
NORMAL
CHIPMUNK
GROUND
SQUIRREL
DtER
DEER MOUSE
GROUSE
SNOWSHOE
HARE
Figure 14. Average bone fluoride content.
Among all zones in the study area, the highest fluoride
concentrations were found in specimens collected in the Tea-
kettle Mountain, Columbia Falls, and Coram zones, those zones
nearest to the aluminum reduction plant. This parallels
similar findings of high fluoride concentrations in vege-
tation in these three zones. For these zones, mean fluoride
concentrations in femur bones of animal specimens exceeded
those in control animals by factors of 10 to 40.
The highest fluoride concentrations in femur bones of
animals collected from any zone within Glacier National Park
were found in those from the Apgar Ridge and MFRS zone.
93
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Bones from animals from this zone yielded mean fluoride con-
centrations in the range of 7 to 30 times greater than those
of control animals. The average fluoride concentration in
snowshoe hares from this zone was about 20 times greater
than that in controls? the average in chipmunks was 30 times
greater than that in controls.
Results of the fluoride analyses demonstrate that the
amounts of fluoride accumulated can vary considerably among
the species. These differences can be attributed to dif-
ferences in life span, diet, and seasonal activity of each
species.
Additional animals were collected by ESL in 1971 from
three sampling zones in Glacier National Park."^ Data on
fluoride in femur bones from the six major species are pre-
sented in Table 21. The results are consistent with those
from the 1970 samplings of the same zones, except for ground
squirrels in the Belton Hills zone and chipmunks in the Apgar
Ridge and MFRS zone. Five ground squirrels taken in the Bel-
ton Hills zone in 1971 yielded a mean value about 4 times
greater than that from two specimens taken from the same zone
in 1970. Nineteen chipmunks taken in the Apgar Ridge and
MFRS zone in 19 71 yielded a value lower by a factor of 5
than did the 5 chipmunks taken there in 1970. Comparison
of the results from 1970 and 1971 specimens suggests that
any changes in fluoride concentrations in forage consumed by
indigenous animals over the 1-year interval 1970-1971 are
not reflected in changes in fluoride content of femur bones.
94
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Table 21. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN FEMUR BONES OF
INDIGENOUS WILD ANIMALS, SELECTED SPECIES,
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES LABORATORY, 197115
Zone
Species
Number of
specimens
Fluoride concentration, ppm
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
11. Headquarters
Deer
Hill
3
1720
2400
1040
12. Belton Hills
Chipmunk
2
904
954
854
Ground
Squirrel
5
1391
1920
690
13. Apgar Ridge
Chipmunk
19
623
2218
136
and MFRS
Ground
Squirrel
20
655
1422
203
Deer Mouse
15
453
775
272
Grouse
4
819
1360
324
Snowshoe
Hare
4
1771
2940
284
The mean concentrations of fluoride in femur bones for all
six of the major species taken in the Glacier National Park
sampling zones in 1971 exceeded control values for the same
species by factors of 4 to 20.
INSECTS
In the course of its investigations in 1970 the Forest
Service examined both the accumulation of fluorides by in-
sects, and changes in insect populations that might be re-
lated to fluoride accumulation in vegetation in the study area.
Insects covering a broad spectrum including foliage feeders,
cambium feeders, pollinators, and predators were sampled and
analyzed for fluoride accumulation. At least 5 grams of each
95
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species was collected, oven dried, and sent to WARF for analysis
of available fluoride. Insects were collected on June 1, Au-
gust 12, and October 9, 1970. All collections were made within
1/2 mile of the aluminum plant except for eight control samples
taken at least 50 miles from the plant. Results of analyses
for fluoride accumulation in insects appear in Appendix F
In general, at least twice as much fluoride was found in
test samples as in corresponding control samples. Foliage
feeders collected within the areas sustaining fluoride pollu-
tion yielded from 21.3 to 48.6 ppm fluoride, weevils contain-
ing the highest concentrations. The cambial feeding group
gave 8.5 to 52.5 ppm fluoride, engraver beetles sustaining
the largest amount. Highest concentrations in the pollinating
groups were found in bumblebees, 406 ppm, and the lowest in
the wood nymph butterfly, 58 ppm. Bumblebees from the study
area yielded fluoride concentrations greater than control
values by factors of 25 to 50, the highest ratio of all species
sampled. For honeybees the sample-control ratio was more than
20. Fluoride concentrations in predaceous insects ranged from
6.1 to 170 ppm fluoride, ants accumulating the largest amount.
Two forest insects, larch casebearer and pine needle
scale, were sampled in an attempt to relate population numbers
to fluoride accumulations in vegetation. Control samples were
taken 30 miles to the north, south, east, and west of the
aluminum plant. Populations of larch casebearer were measured
using the system described by Bousfield,"^ in which casebearers
per 100 larch spurs are counted. Populations of pine needle
96
-------
scale were measured by a modification of the method reported by
17
Fischer, in which scales per linear inch of "new" and "old"
foliage are counted. In this study the number of scales per
600 needles were counted.
To determine whether insect populations were increasing,
decreasing, or remaining static in relation to distance from
the fluoride source and to foliar fluoride content, sampling
was conducted in mid-April 1970 for populations of larch case-
bearer and pine needle scale along the established sampling
radii. Sample intervals were 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2, 4, and 8 miles
from the aluminum plant. Results of these samplings appear
in Appendix F.
The larch casebearer samples gave no discernible pattern.
Relatively high casebearer counts were found at all distances
from the aluminum plant, with the exception that at the 1/4
mile distance the only larch sample taken had no casebearer.
With the exception of the 8-mile samples, scale counts
on lodgepole pine generally decreased with increasing distance
from the aluminum plant. Scale counts on lodgepole pine were
compared with measurements of foliar fluoride content of coni-
fers on the same plot. Linear regression analysis showed no
significant correlation (r = 0.201, 30 degrees of freedom).
The regression line is shown in Figure 15. An increase in
scale numbers with increasing fluoride concentrations is indi-
cated. Although the correlation is not statistically signifi-
cant, the curve does suggest a trend that might be confirmed
by more extensive sampling.
97
-------
350
300
260
IS
2i
ui
ui
z
200
<
H
IL
o
s
150
100
100
200
300
400
500
FLUORIDE, ppm
Figure 15. Relation of numbers of pine needle scales per 600
needles to fluoride content, ppm. Forest Service Studies, 1970^
Lodgepole pine that had scale counts exceeding 50 per
600 needles contained 23 to 401 ppm fluoride (mean 133 ppm);
for pines with less than 50 scales per 600 needles the range
was 6 to 160 ppm fluoride (mean 36 ppm).
The same pattern appeared for the Ponderosa pine samples,
even though the number of samples was smaller.
In its 1971 investigations the Forest Service repeated
2
collections of insects for fluoride analysis. Nine insect
98
-------
samples, all from within 1/2 mile of the aluminum plant,
were collected m mid-August 1971. The collection included
pollinators, including mixed Hymenoptera, wood nymph butter-
flies, skipper butterflies, and mixed syrphildae; predators,
including robberflies and dragonflies; and foliage feeders,
including Arctridae larvae and Notodontidae larvae. Each was
chemically analyzed, unwashed, for available fluoride by the
same procedure used for vegetation samples collected in 1971.
Results of the analyses appear in Appendix F.
Fluoride accumulations in insects were similar to those
found in 1970. All were greater than accumulations in the
control samples. Pollinators contained the most fluoride,
ranging from 81.3 ppm in Erynnis sp. to 585 in mixed Hymenop-
tera. Predators, such as Asilidae, dragonflies, and damsel-
flies, accumulated from 21.7 to 82.9 ppm fluoride, and foliage
feeders had from 168 to 255 ppm.
99
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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Through the combined efforts of several agencies and
institutions the characteristics and magnitude of a specific
air pollution problem in Flathead County, Montana, have been
identified. The findings of the comprehensive investigations
summarized in this report may give insights into similar air
pollution situations in other locations. In this specific
case, one major source of fluoride air pollutants, the Ana-
conda Aluminum Company aluminum reduction plant near Columbia
Falls, has been shown to cause abnormally high fluoride con-
centrations in the tissues of plants and animals collected in
the surroundings of the plant. The Environmental Studies
Laboratory of the University of Montana demonstrated excessive
fluoride concentrations in coniferous foliage in sampling zones
having a combined area of about 375 square miles surrounding
the aluminum plant. In independent investigations, the Forest
Service found, on the basis of a radial sampling system centered
on the aluminum plant, that the fluoride concentration of coni-
ferous foliage exceeded control levels over an area of about 334
square miles. These two findings show remarkable agreement, and
are consistent with the results of atmospheric sampling con-
ducted by the Environmental Protection Agency in the study area.
101
-------
That the source of excessive concentrations of fluorides
in the vegetation and animal tissues and in the air samples
is the aluminum reduction plant is confirmed by the common
finding of all investigations that fluoride concentrations de-
crease with increasing distance from the plant. The geo-
graphic pattern of contamination of both air and plant tissue
is elongated in the downwind direction of the region's pre-
vailing winds.
Fluoride emissions from the aluminum plant were reported
to have been decreased during the course of the 1970 investi-
gations, with a high value of about 7500 pounds per day in
1970 reduced to about 2600 pounds per day in 1971. The accumu-
lations of fluorides by coniferous vegetation during the course
of the 1970 studies and as reflected in the 1971 collections do
not show proportionate drops. This suggests the possible exis-
tence of a threshold concentration of atmospheric fluoride be-
low which a decrease results in a corresponding decrease in
accumulation by plants, but above which the excess concentra-
tion contributes little to the total accumulation by plants.^"
It is suggested that the accumulation of fluorides by a plant
may be directly related to its physiological activity. Thus, a
plant sensitive to fluorides may accumulate fluorides rapidly
up to a point, at which time phytotoxic effects result in a
decrease in physiological activity and a corresponding decrease
in fluoride accumulation rate with increasing fluoride insult.
Because the fluoride concentration at which phytotoxicity oc-
curs may be higher in some species than in others, the physio-
102
-------
logical activity of the more resistant species would be greater
and their abilities to accumulate fluorides would continue in
the presence of fluoride concentrations above those at which
the physiological activity of the more sensitive species is
inhibited. Apparent differences in fluoride susceptibility in
terms of visual burn symptoms in plants were observed in the
Forest Service studies. Of the conifers, white pines were
most susceptible, followed by Ponderosa pines, lodgepole pines,
and Douglas firs, respectively. In determinations of fluoride
content of foliage, the Environmental Studies Laboratory found
a reverse order of descending concentrations for these species.
When foliage samples of different species were obtained from
the same sampling zones the trends in fluoride concentrations
were: Douglas firs greater than lodgepole pines; lodgepole
pines greater than Ponderosa pines; and Ponderosa pines
greater than White pines. Both the injury and the fluoride
concentrations classifications are based solely on field data
and observations from independent investigations. Together,
however, they show remarkable consistency with the suggestion
of threshold phytotoxic effect.
A general observation can be made about the accumulation
of fluorides in conifer foliage with successive years of ex-
posure to excessive atmospheric concentrations of fluorides.
With exposure to atmospheric fluoride, the highest fluoride
concentrations are found in the oldest needles. Two-year-old
needles show about twice the fluoride concentration of one-
year-old needles. One-year-old needles have about twice the
103
-------
fluoride concentration of current-year needles in summer col-
lections. The concentrations of fluoride in conifer foliage
from locations where there is no discernable fluoride air
pollution do not vary with the age of the needles.
That reduction in fluoride emissions is not necessarily
reflected in proportionate reduction in the accumulation of
fluoride in exposed plant tissue is illustrated by comparison
of analytic results for foliage taken in 1970 and 1971 from
the same sampling plots or the same trees. Fluoride emissions
from the aluminum plant were reportedly reduced by a factor of
2 or 3 in the interval 1970-1971. The fluoride content of
foliage from all Forest Service plots resampled in 1971 showed
a reduction of almost 50 percent from 1970 to 1971; for those
plots 6 miles or more from the plant, however, the reduction
averaged less than 15 percent for the same interval of time.
Similar findings are reported by the Environmental Studies
Laboratory; mean fluoride concentrations of current and 1-year-
old coniferous foliage taken from the same trees in 1970 and
1971 in sampling plots 6 to 8 miles from the aluminum plant
were reduced by 20 percent or less.
The Environmental Studies Laboratory 1971 data also show
that the fluoride concentrations in 1971 conifer foliage grow-
ing 6 to 8 miles from the aluminum plant more than doubled
from summer to fall 1971. The mean concentration in 1970
foliage from the same zones increased by more than a factor of
3 in the 1-year interval between the 1970 and 1971 samplings.
This suggests that excessive concentrations of atmospheric
104
-------
fluorides occurred during the intervening winter months and
that some fluoride accumulated in conifer foliage even during
the season when such foliage may be considered dormant.
During the 1970 study period it was observed that fluoride
concentrations in coniferous vegetation varied substantially
in collections made at different elevations in some sampling
zones; higher concentrations were found in samples taken from
higher elevations. Air sampling data illustrated the same
phenomenon. These observations, coupled with meteorological
observations for the area, lead to the conclusion that fluoride
pollution from the aluminum plant impinges upon prominent topo-
logical features such as mountains and ridges, which are in the
path of the transporting wind currents.
In the report of the Environmental Studies Laboratory in-
vestigations four major points concerning fluoride accumulations
in vegetation are examined in some detail because of their eco-
logical consequences.^ First, excessive fluoride concentra-
tions found in vegetation samples are not attributable to
fluoride particulate, but to gaseous fluorides. Second, the
air monitoring conducted by EPA in the study area in 1970
usually yielded concentrations below 1 part fluoride per
billion parts of air (ppb). Third, after atmospheric fluor-
ides enter the foliage of conifer and broadleaf species, a
portion of the fluoride is translocated to the active stem
tissues of both hardwoods and conifers, and also to the pollen
of conifer cones. Fourth, and last, the fluoride accumulation
in the foliage, stema, and reproductive tissues of conifer and
105
-------
broadleaf species is available for ingestion by the indigenous
wild animals that utilize any part of these tissues in their
normal diets.
With regard to the first point, the data obtained from
unwashed and washed coniferous and hardwood stems collected
from control areas and sampling zones 6 to 8 miles distant
from the aluminum plant demonstrate that ordinarily less than
1 ppm of fluoride in these tissues can be attributed to fluor-
ide particulate. This is further substantiated by the results
of histological studies of needle necrosis in 1969 coniferous
foliage from such zones. In general, necrotic needles con-
tained less than 18 ppm of fluoride and some had less than 12
ppm. The literature on the matter, and other studies by the
Environmental Studies Laboratory around aluminum plants, indi-
cate that when fluoride concentrations of 12 to 18 ppm are
found on and in needles, if any significant portion of the
fluoride is in the form of particulate, then necrosis does
not occur in 12-^ to 14-month-old needles.
This conclusion is also substantiated by data from coni-
fer collections made in sampling zones nearby the aluminum
plant during the early summer of 1970. In these zones the
1970 conifer foliage showed concentrations of 20 to 30 ppm of
fluoride 1 1/2 months after emerging from the terminal bud,
but most of the foliage had not become necrotic at the time
of these early collections. Comparison of data from washed
and unwashed samples showed that more than half of the fluor-
ide had been removed by washing. This finding indicates that
106
-------
the excessive fluoride accumulation in the foliage in the more
remote sampling zones comes from gaseous fluoride, which can-
not be reduced by installation of pollution abatement equip-
ment designed to remove only the particulate fluoride.
The second major point to be discussed concerns the re-
sults of the 1970 air monitoring in the study area. Although
some static fluoride samplers were located in the previously
mentioned "hot belts" of fluoride accumulation (3900 to 4400
feet elevation), most of the monitoring devices were located
at an elevation of about 3100 feet. Regardless of whether the
samplers were located in the hot belts or lower, the results
indicate that atmospheric fluorides seldom exceeded a level of
1 ppb in Glacier National Park during the 1970 study period. I
is known that certain species of pines manifest needle necrosis
when exposed to a fluoride concentration of 1 ppb for 200 hours
Fluoride resulting from exposure to hydrogen fluoride is a cumu
lative substance in plant tissues. When it is present in the
ambient air at concentrations ranging from even 1/10 to 1/40 of
the level of 1 ppb, it has the potential to be detrimental to
the health of some plant species.
The third major point relates to the previously unreported
phenomenon of fluoride translocation from the leaf to other
plant tissues. Even though further investigations are needed
to determine exactly which of the active stem tissues the
fluorides are translocated to, and in what form they are stored
several points can be cited now as a result of these studies.
It has been known for some time that fluorides taken in
107
-------
from the ambient air by the leaves or needles of plants are not
equally distributed throughout the foliar tissues, but migrate
and accumulate in greater concentrations in the outer edges of
the leaves or, in the case of conifer needles, in the apical
or terminal portions of the needles. Thus, the first tissues
to succumb to excessive fluoride accumulation are the outer-
most tissues of the leaves and needles.
The data on fluoride accumulation in the tissues of coni-
fer stems and pollen indicate that the fluorides are concen-
trating at much higher levels in the pollen tissues than in
the stem tissues. Although the ecological and physiological
import of this discovery is not known at this time, the know-
ledge that fluoride can inhibit several metabolic processes
that normally occur in these reproductive tissues should en-
courage investigators to study this potentially serious problem.
The fact that fluoride is translocated from the needles
of conifers to the active tissues of stems may explain the
abnormal and excessive stem growth of conifers reported by
Treshow in his study of fluoride pollution in and around a
18
phosphate plant in Idaho. Since excessive fluorides are
known to cause hypertrophy or cell enlargement of thin-walled
cells in conifer needles, there is a possibility that excessive
fluoride concentrations found in conifer stems collected from
the study area could also cause cell enlargement or hypertrophy
of the thin-walled cells of the young, developing stems.
Effects of the translocation of fluoride from the recipient
needles and leaves to the stems and apical meristems should be
108
-------
the subject of further research, since the results of the cur-
rent Environmental Studies Laboratory and Forest Service studies
show clearly that atmospheric fluorides taken in by plants do
not remain solely in the leaf and needle tissues.
The fourth and last point relates to the ingestion by
animals of vegetation containing fluorides. In collections
of vegetation from zones more than 6 or 8 miles from the
aluminum plant, most of the samples of the current year's
growth yielded fluoride concentrations substantially lower
than those found in samples from zones near the plant. Yet
the fluoride concentrations in animals collected from the
remote zones were 1/3 to 1/2 of those found in animals from
the zones nearby the aluminum plant.
Many of the animal species -utilized in this study do not
hibernate and therefore feed on the stems of herbaceous shrubs
and on coniferous browse during the winter months. Winter and
spring months are wet; so most of the fluoride particulate is
probably washed off the vegetation during this time. Thus,
wild animals feeding in the Coram zone, the West Face of Tea-
kettle Mountain zone, and the southwest zones of Glacier Park
are all feeding on a diet of vegetation which, in winter and
spring months, accumulates similar concentrations of fluoride.
This explanation is somewhat substantiated by review of
data on fluoride concentrations found in washed stems of vege-
tation collected from all the different zones of the study area.
Results of analysis of plant tissues other than conifer needles
also indicate that the indigenous wild animals in the south-
109
-------
west zones of Glacier National Park have little access to any
type of vegetation that does not contain excessive fluorides.
The main objective in the animal portion of the studies
was to ascertain whether excessive concentrations of fluoride
were accumulating in the animals living in the study area.
Collections of animals from the study area have confirmed
conclusively that excessive fluoride concentrations were in-
deed accumulating in the animals. To what degree this pro-
blem affects the various animal species, and how extensive
is the area affected could not be fully determined.
Most of the animals taken in Glacier National Park were
not collected where vegetation had accumulated the highest
fluoride concentrations, that is at the elevations of 3800 to
4400 feet in the southwestern sampling zones. Instead, the
animals were taken primarily at the lower elevations between
3100 and 3500 feet. Therefore, data on excessive fluoride
concentrations in the animals collected do not reflect the
upper limits that could be found in animals from the Park.
The accumulation of fluorides by insects collected in the
study area was demonstrated by the Forest Service. Bumblebees
collected in the summer had more than twice the fluoride levels
of those collected in the spring. In two instances where both
larvae and adults of the same species (flathead beetles and
ostomids) were analyzed, accumulation of fluorides was much
higher in the adults than in the larvae. Both cases suggest
that accumulation occurs throughout the life of the insects.
Damsel flies and ostomids are solely predatory in both
110
-------
larval and adult stages. Fluoride accumulated in insects of
these species collected in the study area must have come from
other insects upon which they fed, an indication that fluoride
is passed along the food chain to predators.
Many plants are dependent upon insect pollinators for
seed production. By altering the pollinator complex, i.e.
bumblebees, honeybees, sphinx moths, and others, it is possi-
ble to alter vegetational types, and subsequently much of the
ecology of an area. Studies have shown that fluorides are
devastating to honeybees. If fluorides are harmful pollina-
tors in general, fluoride pollution could have a detrimental
effect on fruit trees, legumes, and many other insect-polli-
nated flowering plants in the area.
It is clear that excessive fluoride concentrations oc-
curred in the flora and fauna of the Flathead County study
area in 1970 and 1971. A comparison of fluoride concentra-
tions found in vegetation and in animal species confirms
that an increase of several orders of magnitude can occur
in the food chain. The apparent tendancy toward concentra-
tion of fluorides in the food chain, as evidenced by results
of these studies, suggests that excessive fluoride accumu-
lation in the carnivores of the study area is a strong possi-
bility .
Ill
-------
LITERATURE CITED
1. Carlson, Clinton E., and Jerald E. Dewey, "Environmental
Pollution by Fluorides in Flathead National Forest and
Glacier National Park", U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Missoula, Montana, October 1971.
2. Carlson, Clinton E., "Monitoring Fluoride Pollution in
Flathead National Forest and Glacier National Park",
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Missoula,
Montana, undated (post-1971) .
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Fluoride in
Glacier National Park: A Field Investigation", EPA-908/
1-73-001, Denver, Colorado, November 1973.
4. Gordon, Clarence C., "Environmental Effects of Fluorides
in Glacier National Park and Vicinity", Environmental
Studies Laboratory, University of Montana, prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Denver, Colorado,
January, 1974.
5. Anal. Chem, 4_0 (11): 1658-1661, September 1968.
6. Shaw, Charles G., et al, "Histological Responses of Some
Plant Leaves to Hydrogen Fluoride and Sulfur Dioxide",
Amer. J. Bot. 43: 755-760, 1956.
7. Lynch, Donald W., "Diameter Growth of Ponderosa Pine in
Relation to the Spokane Pine-Blight Problem", Northwest
Science, 25^: 157-163 , 1951.
8. Compton, O.C., L.F. Remmert, J.A. Rudinsky, and others,
"Needle Scorch and Condition of Ponderosa Pine Trees in
The Dalles Area", Misc. paper 120, Agri. Exp. Sta., Oregon
State Univ., Corvallis, Oregon, 1961.
9. Adams, Donald F., et al, "Relationship of Atmospheric
Fluoride Levels and Injury Indexes on Gladiolus and Pon-
derosa Pine", Agricultural, and Food Chemistry, 4, 64-66,
.1956.
113
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10. Jacobson, J.S., et al, "The Accumulation of Fluorine by
Plants", J. Air Poll. Cont. Assoc. lj>, 412-417, 1966.
11. "Tentative Method of Analysis for Fluoride Content of
the Atmosphere and Plant Tissue", Health Laboratory
Science, 6, 84-101, 1969.
12. Solberg, R.A., and D.F. Adams, "Histological Responses of
Some Plant Leaves to Hydrogen Fluoride and Sulfur Dioxide",
Amer. J. Bot. 43, 755-760, 1956.
13. Gordon, C.C., "Damage to Christmas Trees Near Oakland,
Maryland, and Mount Storm, West Virginia", Special
Report, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, 1970.
14. Marier, J.R., and Dyson Rose, "Environmental Fluoride",
National Research Council of Canada Publication No. 12,226,
1971.
15 Gordon, C.C., "1971 Glacier National Park Study - Final
Report", unpublished report to Park Superintendent,
Environmental Studies Laboratory, University of Montana,
Missoula, Montana, January 1972.
16. Bousfield, W.E., "Sampling Plan for Larch Casebearer",
USDA Forest Service, Div. State and Pri. Forestry,
Missoula, Montana, unpublished report, 1969.
17. Fischer, G.W., "Second Progress Report Spokane County
Ponderosa Pine Blight Investigation", USDA Forest
Service, unpublished report, 1950.
18. Treshow, M., F.K. Anderson, and F. Harner, "Responses
of Douglas Fir to Elevated Atmospheric Fluorides",
For. Science 13, 114-120, 1967.
114
-------
APPENDIX A
FOREST SERVICE VEGETATION DATA,
1970 STUDIES
115
-------
Table A-l. RADIAL SAMPLING AND CONTROL DATA, FIRST SAMPLING
Average tluoride content, ppm dry weight
Injun
Index
Plot
Shrubs
Conifers
Herbs
Grasses
Grand
Ave.
Ave*
High
1969
1970
Control 1
5.65
6.25
9.25
6.67
6.92
0.003
0.006
Control 2
5.0
3.5
7.5
5.0
1.3
4.79
0.0
0.0
Control 3
11.4
7.58
6.28
10.0
9.8
8.02
0.0
0.0
Control 4
7.5
10.0
11.0
8.5
8.5
10.36
0.0
0.0
Control 5
7.17
4.75
6.77
12.0
7.03
0.007
0.014
Control 6
4.77
6.33
3.00
5.50
16.0
5.80
0.005
0.006
Rl-Pla
108.5
300
40.8
188
70.0
122.36
0.138
0.235
R1-P2
106.5
107.8
18.3
45.0
70.72
0.305
0.442
R1-P3
48.8
42.2
11.4
18.8
31.94
0.044
0.090
R1-P4
19.8
18.3
14.7
12.5
2.5
15.46
0.132
0.301
R1-P5
17.0
16.0
8.0
12.88
0.0
0.0
R1-P6
3.0
12. 5
9.0
4.0
8.94
0.0
0.0
R1-P7
6.3
5.8
9.3
4.0
6.80
0.0
0.0
R2-P1
42.4
143.5
17.5
93.8
66.3
91.21
0.075
0.313
R2-P2
112.7
127.5
20.0
90.0
83.3
89.59
0.196
0.528
R2-P3
44.3
77.9
17.8
50.0
49.0
50.21
0.163
0.313
R2-P4
13.2
20.7
8.83
13.0
14.71
0.079
0.200
R2-P5
13.0
9.5
17.3
9.0
32.0
15.86
0.012
0.019
R2-P6
3.6
5.5
2.3
5.5
2.5
3.70
0.0
0.0
R2-P7
7.1
8.9
9.2
7.3
6.0
8.13
0.004
0.008
R3-P1
.166.6
875.5
775
1004.3
0.020
0.027
R3-P2
488
637
229
315
344
411.3
0.107
0.271
R3-P3
149.0
115
3.0
118.6
0.009
0.021
R3-P4
100.0
96.0
16.0
82.5
78.90
0.136
0.136
R3-P5
37. 2
31.5
11.5
22.5
26.31
0.066
0. 334
R3-P6
10.0
10.8
10.9
2.1
9.23
0.0
0.0
R3-P7
14.5
7.0
8.0
3.3
8.20
0.0
0.0
R4-P1
704. 2
628.0
156
604.14
0.025
0.076
R4-P2
778.0
450.5
231
537.60
0.010
0.063
R4-P3
425. 5
681.5
116.5
525
206
397.25
0.072
0.500
R4-P4
120.0
198.4
65.1
96.5
234
130.23
0.150
0.470
R4-P5
21.2
57.2
15.3
34.5
49.0
38.16
0.066
0.215
*R4-P6
14.0
9.77
7. 50
10.0
13.0
10.13
0.003
0.007
R4-P7
13.7
17.8
6.83
17. 8
13.25
0.038
0.051
'r4-P8
15.4
18.0
7.15
9.9
103
19.68
0.003
0.003
'R4-P9
8.0
11.2
6.0
15.5
71.5
16.98
0.0
0.0
'R4-P10
9.27
8.93
4.0
5.7
5.8
6.88
0.008
0.008
a) R » Radius No., P = Plot No.
b) Located on Glacier National Park lands.
116
-------
Table A-l (continued).
RADIAL SAMPLING AND CONTROL DATA, FIRST SAMPLING
Averaae
fluoride content, ppm drv weiaht
Iniurv Index
Plot
Conifers
Herbs
Grasses
Grand
Ave
Ave
Hiqh
Shrub9
1969
1970
R5-P1
1719
1038
250
1181.5
0.288
0.580
R5-P2
653
375
600
597.8
0.029
0.029
R5-P3
173.7
341.0
45.0
281
444
224.2
0.197
0.343
R5-P4
137.5
243.7
68.6
70.0
87.5
130.7
0.086
0.392
R5-P5
25.0
45.9
9.60
22.5
6.0
27.80
0.151
0.344
R5-P6
20.0
30.2
12.7
21.0
19.93
0.007
0.023
R5-P7
16.3
30.5
11.5
23.5
19.60
0.003
0.006
R5-P8
20.50
19.15
10.2
21.0
26.0
17.43
0.006
0.011
R5-P9
20.25
29.75
11.0
13.5
72.5
24.33
0.115
0.115
R5-P10
11.05
10.1
4.10
8.28
5.5
7.46
0.0
0.0
R6-P1
1950
363
313
875.3
0.202
0.442
R6-P2
1125.3
431
581
877.6
0.019
0.089
R6-P3
115.3
292
29.8
163
68.8
138.2
0.019
0.083
R6-P4
57.0
85.0
33.0
63.3
36.0
51.17
0.106
0.209
R6-P5
33.8
20.6
7.5
29.2
24.5
23.0
0.073
0.146
R6-P6
17.1
37.5
8.5
20.8
37.0
21.4
0.0
0.0
R6-P7
7.5
19.0
10.5
11.0
15.0
11.75
0.0
0.0
'R6-P10
14.65
13.5
6.0
18.5
51.5
17.83
0.0
0.0
R7-P1
1073
600
338
871.7
0.065
0.299
R7-P2
881.3
103
233
596.0
0.118
0.230
R7-P3
65,3
168
22.3
62.5
75.0
68.67
0.091
0.225
R7-P4
55.0
111.0
18.9
44 .0
44.0
63.20
0.058
0.111
R7-P5
25.3
25.5
42.0
29.50
0.0
0.0
R7-P6
4.8
16.2
5.3
14.0
20.5
10.87
0.016
0.029
R7-P7
17.3
10.0
4.5
7.0
21.0
12.43
0.0
0.0
R8-P1
399.8
975
175
110
409.8
0.052
0.115
R8-P2
129.
245
136.5
235
65.0
152.3
0.016
0.046
R8-P3
83.3
119.8
22.5
150
85.9
0.176
0.400
R8-P4
25.3
49.0
12.7
41.5
14.3
29.4
0.087
0.152
R8-P5
20.0
31.8
9.8
14 .0
8.0
17.2
0.018
0.049
R8-P6
21.5
14.9
16.0
18.3
17.8
0.0
0.0
R8-P7
11.8
14.2
9.2
13.3
22.5
12.6
0.016
0.018
R9-P1
108.7
110
39.5
51.5
41.0
70.97
0.026
0.026
R9-P3
26.1
10.0
15.0
13.5
20.40
0.0
0.0
R9-P4
43.4
68.7
24.0
23.5
45.31
0.005
0.005
R9-P5
12.5
7.8
11.0
6.0
9.80
0.0
0.0
R9-P6
11.4
9.3
5.37
6.5
9.5
7.72
0.0
0.0
R9-P7
5.6
9.0
10.3
25 .0
5.0
9.98
0.0
0.0
R10-P1
76.5
133
42.5
31.0
38.5
66.3
0.032
0.097
R10-P2
43.3
61.0
14.5
45.0
22.5
38.2
0.070
0.091
R10-P3
23.3
28.8
6.3
20.8
8.5
18.9
0 .013
0 .022
R10-P4
22.8
20.8
9.3
16.0
16.82
0.054
0.054
R10-P5
15.0
23.9
7.8
10.0
7.5
15 .0
0.0
0.0
R10-P6
11.4
11.5
10.8
10.0
10.8
0.003
0.003
R10-P7
6.8
9.2
3.5
11.0
6.5
7.54
0.0
0.0
b) Located on Glacier National Park lands.
117
-------
Table A-2. RADIAL SAMPLING AND CONTROL DATA,
SECOND SAMPLING
Average
f AUO][A
de content, ppm
dry weiqlit
Injury Index
Plot
Shrubs
Con if
ers
Herbs
Grasses
Grand
Ave
Ave
Hiqh
1969
1970
Control 1
8.7
8.5
4.5
10.0
11.5
8.67
0.0
0.0
Control 2
6.8
7.0
5.8
10.5
5.5
6.88
0.0
0.0
Control 3
15.8
11.3
4.75
6.5
7.5
7.91
0.0
0.0
Control 4
10.9
5.9
5.2
17.0
17.0
9.74
0.0
0.0
Control 5
10.5
7.8
5.2
16.0
8.50
0.0
0.0
Control 6
5.7
6.0
4.8
o
•
o
H
12.5
6.46
0.0
0.0
Rl-Pl
323
338
115
' 310
139
258
0.079
0.086
R1-P2
140.5
131.7
38.9
115
102
95.3
0.052
0.143
R1-P3
65.5
40.7
19.3
32.0
20.0
40.9
0.003
0.003
R1-P4
43.3
18.5
12.8
43.5
20.5
23.4
0.024
0.024
R1-P5
11.5
9.0
6.0
5.0
8.60
0.0
0.0
R1-P6
13.8
9.10
6.2
9.06
0.0
0.0
R1-P7
9.0
4.5
5.5
5.0
5.90
0.0
0.0
R2-P1
136
189
64.7
61.5
93.5
111.0
0.063
0.093
R2-P2
147.5
100.8
26.8
146
44.5
92.6
0.211
0.279
R2-P3
110.0
124.7
32.8
104
32.0
85.3
0.093
0.104
R2-P4
29.1
17.3
8.5
18.5
22.2
0.0
0.0
R2-P5
16.0
16.0
9.5
14.5
13.6
0.018
0.032
R2-P6
9.0
9.3
8.5
16.0
8.8
9.48
0.0
0.0
R2-P7
9.8
8.5
5.5
8.8
4.5
7.84
0.0
0.0
R3-P1
1194
488
258
794
600
754.7
0.281
0.348
R3-P2
475
496.5
367.8
463
101
401.2
0.313
0.628
R3-P3
281.5
294.5
70.0
137
168
199.6
0.156
0.313
R3-P4
130
85.5
23
107
68
90.6
0.034
0.043
R3-P5
49.8
42.8
17.5
36.5
31.5
33.9
0.014
0.025
R3-P6
15.0
11.8
7.5
5.5
12.5
11.0
0.008
0.015
R3-P7
7.. 3
12.5
10.0
7.5
4.5
8.2
0.0
0.0
R4-P1
925
1250
469
903.2
R4-P2
1244
638
205
832.8
R4-P3
900.5
390.3
87 .5
363
385
432.8
0.208
0.495
R4-P4
211.5
286 .3
123.2
375
153
215.8
0.119
0.301
bR4-P5
47.5
53.3
22.2
11.5
20.0
35.3
0.075
0.211
JR4-P6
-32.5
11.7
9.3
15.5
17.5
0.0
0.0
bR4-p7
21.3
11.0
9.7
23.5
14.5
15.3
0.007
0.007
. R4-P8
37.8
22.3
8.0
13.5
20.0
0.003
0.003
hR4"P9
14.3
9.8
6.3
10.5
51.5
15.3
0.0
0.0
R4-P10
10.5
6.2
6.1
5.5
4.3
6.3
0.005
0.005
R5-P2
1300
875
200
918.7
R5-P3
294 .5
537.5
80.3
508
332.2
0.132
0.250
R5-P4
202.5
228.7
55
111
128
160.0
0.063
0.114
R5-P5
59.5
56.5
23.3
270
51.0
66.91
0.014
0.014
R5-P6
38.0
35.0
11.7
59.5
32.0
30.3
0.003
0.003
.R5-P7
39.0
28.5
10.0
34.0
19.5
28.3
0.0
0.0
?R5-P8
73.0
18.0
13.0
23.5
24.5
0.0
0.0
?R5-P9
69.0
24.8
14.2
32.5
22.0
26.9
0.014
0.019
R5-P10
12.8
11.9
10.2
9.0
15.5 1
11.6
0.0
0.0
b) Located on Glacief National Park lands.
118
-------
Table A-2 (continued)
RADIAL SAMPLING AND CONTROL DATA, SECOND SAMPLING
Averaae
fluoride content, ppm dry weiqht
Injury Index
Plot
Shrubs
Conifers
Herbs
Grasses
Grand
Ave
Ave
Hiqh
1969
1970
R6-P1
1433
1728
775
2100
469
1339
0.150
0.150
R6-P2
1089
3000
488
1831
R6-P3
169.5
239.6
44.7
171
117
148
0.134
0.144
R6-P4
64.2
140
76.3
113
53.0
83.8
0.182
0.291
R6-P5
67.3
27.0
10.3
47.0
27.5
36.7
0.006
0.006
R6-P6
54.0
32.5
13.8
14.0
21.0
32.2
0.0
0.0
R6-P7
14 .8
18.8
9.8
23.5
27.5
17.2
0.0
0.0
R6-P10
20.5
18.5
9.3
30.5
154
30.9
0.0
0.0
R7-P1
1509
700
375
1120
R7-P2
969
1825
413
56.0
293
754 .2
0.289
0.567
R7-P3
154.5
142.5
31.3
143
160
120.0
0.105
0.154
R7-P4
100.5
104.7
17.5
63.5
76.7
0.064
0.064
R7-P5
47.3
51.5
20.5
28.5
16.5
25.3
0.042
0.042
R7-P6
35.0
37.8
18.9
25.0
13.0
26.2
0.004
0.005
R7-P7
23.0
14.0
10.2
17.2
7.5 .
14.3
0.002
0.002
R8-P1
812.5
906
306
750
131
619.7
0.0
0.0
R8-P2
475 .5
313
209.5
325
70.0
269.9
0.0
0.0
R8-P3
199.0
167.0
41.3
250
97.5
145.2
0.042
0.067
R8-P4
48.5
56.0
55.3
32.5
49.3
0.0
0.0
R8-P5
33.5
28.1
14.5
31.5
14.5
24.1
0.0
0.0
R8-P6
26.3
15.5
8.8
14.5
42.5
19.5
0.0
0.0
R8-P7
16.2
14.0
8.50
12.5
12.7
0.0
0.0
R9-P1
251.5
168
76
198
85
171.7
0.0
O
o
R9-P2
134.7
113
132
129.8
R9-P3
45.0
19.3
12.3
52.5
35.0
30.1
0.0
0.0
R9-P4
68 .0
41.5
14 .0
35.8
33.0
39.0
0.0
0.0
R9-P5
9,0
4.5
4.75
8.5
6.0
5.79
0.0
0.0
R9-P6
17.3
4.7
4.27
14.0
9.48
0.0
0.0
R9-P7
10.5
4.0
6.03
5.5
6.29
0.0
0.0
R10-P1
185 .5
140
62.0
200
76.0
141.5
0.030
0.030
R10-P2
107.7
51.5
23.5
77.5
72.5
78.3
0.0
0.0
R10-P3
30.7
23.0
8.8
26.0
28.5
24.6
0.0
0.0
R10-P4
41.8
16.5
15.5
31.0
24.0
26.6
0.0
0.0
R10-P5
9.5
20.8
10.5
33.8
12.5
17.41
0.004
0.004
R10-P6
12.3
5.0
11.0
10.1
0.0
0.0
R10-P7
4.7
4.4
7.0
8.0
5.74
0.0
0.0
b) Located on Glacier National Park lands.
119
-------
Table A-3. AREA POLLUTED BY FLUORIDES, ALL LANDS STUDIES
Within Radial System
a
Outside Radial System
Total
b
Area {
Area
Area
Area
Greater
Between Isopols
Area Greater
Between Isopols
Area Greater
Between Isopols
Sq.
Sq.
Sq.
So.
Sq.
Sc.
Isopol
Miles
Acres
Miles
Acres
Miles
Acres
Miles
Acres
Miles
Acres
Miles
Acres
10
222
142,080
112
71,680
334
213,760
48
30,720
14
8,960
62
39,680
15
174
111,360
98
62,720
272
174,080
63
40,320
18
11,520
81
51,840
20
111
71,040
80
51,200
191
122,240
39
24,960
44
28,160
83
53,120
30
72
46,080
36
23,040
108
69,120
52
33,280
25
16,000
77
49,280
60
20
12,800
11
7,040
31
19,840
12
7,680
8
5,120
20
12,800
100
8
5,120
3
1,920
11
7,040
6
3,840
9
5,760
300
2
1,280
—
—
2
1,Z80
1
640
1
640
600
1
640
— ~
1
640
aThe area Southwest of Columbia Falls
bTotal area sustaining greater than a given level of fluoride, ppm.
cArea between estimated isopols, i.e., the area between the 10 and 15 isopols, etc.
-------
Table A-4. FLUORIDE CONTENT AXD I1CJURY INDEX VALUES
FOR SPECIAL SAMPLES
Area
Sample
Nuir.be r
Species
Year
of
Foliage
Fluoride content, ppm
I.]
First
Sampling
Second
Sampling
First
Sampling
Second
Sampling
Columbia
la
Larch
69
220
Falls
2a
Ponderosa pine
69
40
3a
Ponderosa pine
68
175
4a
Lodgepole pine
69
85
5a
Lodgepole pine
68
290
6a
Ponderosa pine
68
155
7a
Norway maple
69
150
2aa
Lodgepole pine
69
53.5
2ba
Lodgepole pine
68
71.0
3aa
Lodgepole pine
69
69
3ba
Lodgepole pine
68
60
15aa
Ponderosa pine
69
1.0
15ba
Ponderosa pine
68
29.5
Columbia
12aa
Lodgepole pine
69
19.0
Mountain
12ba
Lodgepole pine
68
86.5
14aa
Douglas fir
69
31.5
14ba
Douglas fir
68
43.0
3
Lily of valley
70
25.5
0.340
4
Douglas fir
70
12.0
16.0
0.011
0.00
Douglas fir
69
31.0
33.5
0.008
0.00
5
Ponderosa pine
70
13.0
0.00
a Collected in 1969; no measurement of injury index. All other samples were collected in 1970.
-------
Table A-4 (continued). FLUORIDE CONTENT AND INJURY INDEX VALUES
FOR SPECIAL SAMPLES
Area
Sample
Nur.be r
Species
Year
of
Foliage
Fluoride content, ppm
1.3
First
Sampling
Second
Sampling
First
Sampling
Second
Sar.plmg
Ponderosa pine
69
35.5
0.16
6
Ponderosa pine
70
6.3
17.0
0.00
0.00
Ponderosa pine
69
41.3
45.5
0.122
.003
Teakettle
20
Lodgepole pine
70
20.5
23.0
0.00
0. 098
Mountain
Lodgepole pine
69
120.0
139
0.512
0.005
21
White pine
70
24.5
52.0
0.00
0.007
White pine
69
118.0
158
0.229
0.216
22
Ceanothus
70
190
0.137
23
Douglas fir
70
45.5
145
0.269
0.150
Douglas fir
69
500
1.105
24
Ponderosa pine
70
30.5
0.123
Ponderosa pine
69
124
0.721
25
Lodgepole pine
70
44.0
91.0
0.000
0.179
Lodgepole pine
69
300
781
0.193
0. 326
26
Ribes Sp.
70
563
0.301
27
Douglas fir
70
86.0
125
0.259
0.00
Douglas fir
69
481
0.00
Douglas fir
68
1163
0.010
28
Pine grass
70
438
14. 0
29
Ceanothus
70
450
244
0.092
30
Lodgepole pine
70
26.0
13.5
0.002
0.00
Lodgepole pine
69
92.5
58.0
0.081
0.014
-------
Table A-4 (co.ltinusd). FLUORIDE CONTENT AND INJURY IHDEX VALUES
FOR SPECIAL SAMPLES
Area
Year
of
Foliage
Fluoride content, pprr.
I.I.
Sapple
K u~i>e r
Species
First
Sarpling
Second
Sar.pling
First
Sampling
Second
Sampling
31
White pine
70
16.8
77.5
0.000
0. 000
White pine
69
99.0
117
0.001
0.000
32
Lodgepole pine
70
11.0
22.0
0.000
0.101
Lodgepole pine
69
156.0
71.0
0.218
0.299
33
White pine
70
56.3
0.104
Wnite pine
69
180
135
0.177
0.196
37-A
Mt. Maple
70
425
38-A
Lodgepole pine
70
57.5
0. 80
Lodgepole pine
69
363
0. 414
40-A
Wnite pine
70
43.0
0 . 006
White pine
69
41.5
0. 003
41
Ponderosa pine
70
16.5
0 .000
Ponderosa pine
69
63.0
0. 000
42
White pine
70
18.0
0. 000
White pine
69
45.0
0. 166
43
Ponderosa pine
70
7.5
0.001
Ponderosa pine
69
25.5
0.000
44
White pine
70
9.0
0.000
White pine
69
27.0
0.000
Glacier
llaa
Lodgepole pine
70
10.0
Park
llba
Lodgepole pine
69
65.0
8aa
Lodgepole pine
70
1.0
8ba
Lodgepole pine
69
29.0
-------
Table A-4 (continued) . FLUORIDE CONTENT AND INJURY INDEX VALUES
FOR SPECIAL SAMPLES
Year
of
Fellage
Fluoride content, ppn
I.I.
Area
Sample
Nunoer
Species
First
Sampling
Second
Sampling
First
Sanplir.g
Second
Sarolmg
¦
9aa
9oa
9
11
12a
15
16
33.5
34
35
46
Lodgepole pine
Lodcepole pine
Oregon Grape
Lodgepole pine
Lodgepole pine
Ceanothjs
Douglas fir
Douglas fir
Douglas fir
Douglas fir
Lodgepole pine
Lodgepole pine
Ponderosa pine
Ponderosa pine
Ponderosa pine
Ponderosa pine
Lodgepole pine
Lodgepole pine
70
69
70
70
69
70
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
11.0
21.0
9.0
3. 3
15.0
11.0
7.3
28.0
13.0
66.3
5.3
21.3
6.3
5.5
10.0
11.5
31.0
11.5
15.0
36.0
12.0
23.5
5.0
17.0
6.5
18.0
10. 5
27.5
0. 102
0.005
0. 175
0.C13
0.000
0.122
0.000
0.330
0.000
0.010
0.000
0.029
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.051
0.000
0.004
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.002
Coram
Experi-
mental
Forest
1
2
3
4
Pine grass
Serviceberry
White pine
White pine
Larch
70
70
70
69
70
15.0
14. 3
6.0
27.5
10.5
12.0
26.3
8.0
18.5
10.0
0.001
0.000
0.023
0.006
0.000
0. 000
0.000
-------
Table A-4 (cor.tir.uedl. FLL'ORIDE CONTENT AND INJURY INDEX VALL'SS
FOR SPECIAL SAMPLES
Year
of
Fluoride content, ppm
I.I.
Sarple
First
Second
First
Second
Area
Nururer
Species
Foliage
Sanpling
Sampling
Sa-plmg
Sarplmg
5
Pine grass
70
11.0
15.5
0.000
6
Serviceberry
70
20.0
21.3
0.004
7
White pine
70
6.0
11.5
0.000
0.000
White pine
69
24.0
7.0
0.055
0.000
8
Larch
70
8.0
8.5
0.000
0.000
9
Pine grass
70
5.0
7.5
10
Serviceberry
70
10.5
12.0
0.005
11
White pine
70
8.0
7.5
0.000
0.000
White pine
69
9.5
9.5
0.000
0.000
12
Larch
70
6.0
7.5
0.000
0.000
13
Pine grass
70
7.8
13.8
14
Serviceberry
70
9.5
12.0
0.005
15
White pine
70
17.5
4.0
0.007
0.000
White pine
69
15.5
7.0
0.007
0.000
16
Larch
70
16.3
10.5
0.007
0.000
Hungry
13aa
Lcdgepole pine
70
2.0
Horse
Reservic
13ba
>r
Lodgepole pine
69
12.0
12b
White pine
White pine
70
69
9.0
5.0
0.000
0.000
13
White pine
70
2.0
7.5
0.000
0 .000
White pine
69
5.0
9.5
0.000
0.000
14
White pine
70
6.0
4.0
0.000
0.000
White pine
69
9.0
8.5
0.000
0.000
-------
Table A-4 (continued). FLUORIDE CONTENT AND INJURY INDEX VALUES
FOR SPECIAL SAMPLES
Area
Sample
Number
Species
Year
of
Foliage
Fluoride content, ppm
I.I.
First
Sampling
Second
Sampling
First
Sampling
Second
Sairplmg
17
White pine
70
6.3
7.5
0.000
0.000
White pine
69
11.5
10.5
0.010
0.000
18
White pine
70
7.5
8.5
0.000
0.000
White pine
69
29.5
24.0
0.062
29.5
-------
APPENDIX B
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES LABORATORY
VEGETATION DATA, 1970 STUDIES
127
-------
Table B-l. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN CONIFEROUS FOLIAGE
(ppm by weight in dry needles)
Lodgepole pine
Ponderose pine
White pine
Douylas fir
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
No. samples
13
13
13
4
5
5
7
7
7
Mean
310 . 3
146.4
19 .4
211.0
116.2
22.2
140.4
75.4
14 .7
West Face
Maximum
668
345
61.8
410
292
43.0
22 5
125
26.0
Teakettle
Minimum
33
13.5
3.9
105
31.0
4.5
37.0
23.0
7.4
Mountain
Std. dev.
212
109
18 .4
138
104
16.4
75.5
33.8
6.3
Zone No. 1
•
95 Percentile
688 a
341
52.3
536
.338
57.2
287
141 .
26.9
99 Percentile
879
4 39
68.7
838
506
83.7
378
182
34. 5
No. samples
6
7
7
28
28
28
22
22
22
Mean
76.5
36.3
16.9
97.1
50.7
24 .0
114.2
65.8
38.9
Columbia
Maximum
116
54.0
31.0
192
96.0
52.4
182
110
78.0
Falls
Minimum
30.6
19.2
10.8
18.2
11.5
5.0
32.8
24 . 8
18. 2
Zone No. 2
Std. dev.
31.8
12.6
6.7
41.3
22.4
10.7
46.5
24 .1
14 . 7
95 Percentile
141
60. 8
29.9
167.4
88.8
42.2
194
107
62.1
99 Percentile
184
75.9
38.0
199
106
50.5
231
126
73
No. samples
32
32
32
12
13
13
16
16
16
2
2
1
Mean
90.0
47.5
7.6
47.0
19.8
4.9
60.9
40.2
10.0
73.5
39.0
3.5
Coram
Maximum
520
260
20.5
120
41.0
13.5
225
90.0
23.0
93.0
49.0
Zone No. 3
Minimum
24.0
13.5
3.9
16.0
10.0
2.6
12.8
14.9
3.9
54.0
29.0
Std. dev .
119.3
56.2
4.1
28.3
9.0
3.3
49.6
24.5
5.6
27.6
14.1
95 Percentile
292
143
14.5
97.8
35.8
10.8
148
83.1
19.8
248
128
99 Percentile
379
183
17.5
124
43.9
13.7
190
104
24 .6
952
488
a) Percentile values calculated using student's t-distribution.
-------
Table B-l (continued). FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN CONIFEROUS FOLIAGE
(ppm by weight in dry needles)
Lodgepole pine
Ponderose pine
White pine
Douglas fir
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
No. samples
15
14
15
8
8
8
1
1
1
Mean
26.3
13.1
5.1
20.6
12.4
4.0
23.0
17.0
7.3
Lake Five
Maximum
38.0
21.8
8.2
26.0
16.5
5.8
Zone No. 4
Minimum
Std. dev.
95 Percentile
99 Percentile
19.0
6.1
37.0
42.3
7.0
4.2
20.5
24.2
3.1
1.3
7.4
8.5
14.0
3.7
27.6
31.7
9.9
2.5
17.1
19.9
2.3
1.3
6.46
7.90
No. samples
5
5
5
6
6
6
9
9
9
1
1
1
Mean
8.6
4.2
2.7
40.5
21.4
9.2
5.9
4.8
3.4
14.0
8.3
6.3
Columbia
Maximum
14.2
5.5
3.7
79. 0
38.5
18.5
14.5
7.3
7.0
Mountain
Minimum
3.4
2.7
2.0
7.9
7.6
4.5
3.5
3.4
1.5
Zone No. 5
Std. dev.
5.0
1.2
0.7
34.2
14.9
5.1
3.4
1.4
1.6
95 Percentile
19.3
6.8
4.2
109.4
51.4
19.5
12.2
7.4
6.4
99 Percentile
27.3
8.7
5.3
155.6
71.5
26.4
15.7
8.9
8.0
No. samples
9
9
9
13
13
13
8
8
8
Mean
17.6
7.8
4.1
17.7
8.3
3.6
11.0
7.5
3.8
Desert
Mountain
Maximum
Minimum
34 .0
6.5
18.0
2.7
7.6
1.5
30.5
7.4
13.0
3.7
7.0
1.9
21.0
4.3
12.0
4.0
5.5
1.8
Zone No. 6
Std. dev.
9.7
4.5
2.3
7.1
3.5
1.5
5.3
2.9
1.2
95 Percentile
35.6
16.2
8.4
30. 4
14.5
6.3
21.0
13.0
6.0
99 Percentile
45.7
20.8
10.8
36.7
17.7
7.6
26.9
16.2
7.3
-
-------
Table B-l (continued). FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN CONIFEROUS FOLIAGE
(ppm by weight in dry needles)
Lodgepole pine
Ponderose pine
White pine
Oouclas fir
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
No. samples
3
3
3
7
7
7
7
7
7
Mean
18.f>
9.2
2.7
16.0
9.6
4.0
9.6
6.2
3.6
South Fork
Maximum
33.0
17.0
4.5
26.0
15.0
7.5
15.0
9.1
6.3
Zone No. 7
Minimum
Std.dev.
6.4
13.6
3.8
6.9
1.6
1.6
3.9
8.2
2.9
4.4
2.7
1.6
3.6
4.7
2.4
2.7
1.6
1.8
95 Percentile
57.7
29.3
7.4
31.9
18.1
7.1
18.7
11.4
7.1
99 Percentile
112.7
57.2
13.8
41.8
23.4
9.0
24 . 4
14.7
9.3
No. samples
10
10
10
3
3
3
Mean
13.5
6.7
3.8
4.3
3.4
2.5
Middle Fork
Maxlmum
29.5
11.0
5.2
5.2
3.7
3.5
Zone No. 8
Minimum
Std. dev.
95 Percentile
99 Percentile
3.2
9.7
31.3
40.9
3.2
2.7
11.6
14.3
2.5
0.7
5.1
5.8
3.5
0.9
6.9
10.6
3.0
0.4
4.6
6.2
1.7
0.9
5.1
8.8
No. samples
11
11
11
2
2
2
10
10
10
Mean
11.0
5.7
4.1
9.5
6.4
3.9
10.2
6.3
5.2
North Fork
Maximum
20.5
9.7
7.2
11.0
7.0
4.0
14.0
9.0
9.0
Zone No. 9
Minimum
Std. dev.
4.8
4.5
3.3
1.9
2.4
1.3
8.0
2.1
5.8
0.8
3.7
0.2
5.6
3.3
4.3
1.7
3.1
1.8
95 Percentile
19.2
9.14
6.5
22.8
11.5
5.2
16. 2
9.4
8.5
99 Percentile
23.4
11.0
7.7
76.3
31.9
10.3
19.5
11.1
10.3
-------
Table B-l (continued). FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN CONIFEROUS FOLIAGE
(ppm by weight in dry needles)
Lodg
epole f
>ine
Ponderose pine
White pine
Douglas fir
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
No. samples
4
4
4
8
8
8
6
6
6
Mean
4.5
2.7
3.5
11.5
6.1
3.7
4.5
3.6
2.7
Doris
Maximum
6.2
3.4
7.8
44 .5
14.5
6.7
5.5
4.1
4.2
Mountain
Minimum
3. 2
2.2
1.5
3.5
2.5
1.7
3.9
2.6
2.0
Zone No. 10
Std. dev.
1.3
0.5
2.9
13.9
4.1
1.6
0.7
0.5
0.8
95 Percentile
7.6
3.9
10. 3
37.8
13.9
6.7
5.9
4.6
4 . 3
99 Percentile
10.4
5.0
16.7
53.2
18.4
8.5
6.9
5.3
5.4
No. samples
13
13
13
10
10
10
5
5
5
2
2
2
Mean
30.8
14.3
5.1
28.9
17.7
4.3
22.7
13.9
4.7
51.0
21.7
8.0
Headquarters
Maximum
42.0
21. 3
9.8
40.0
26.0
8.7
31.0
29.0
6.4
54.0
24.4
12.0
Hill
Minimum
20.5
7.0
2.3
20.5
13.0
2.0
14.0
6.9
- 3.0
48.0
19.0
4.0
Zone No. 11
Std. dev.
7.0
3.6
2.3
6.4
3.9
2.1
6.7
8.8
1.2
4.2
3.8
5.7
95 Percentile
42.9
20.5
9.1
40.6
24.8
8.2
37.0
32.7
4.7
77.5
45.7
44.0
99 Percentile
49.6
24.0
11.3
47 .0
28.7
10.2
47.8
46.9
9.2
L84.6
L42.6
L89.4
No. samples
15
15
15
5
5
5
5
5
5
Mean
30.0
12.7
4.8
29.2
14.6
4.5
15.7
9.5
5.2
Belton
Maximum
40.0
17.5
6.7
39.0
19.0
6.7
22.0
12.5
8.6
Hills
Minimum
16.3
6.4
1.9
16.0
10.4
3.1
8.3
5.0
1.5
Zone No. 12
Std . dev.
7.5
3.9
1.4
8.7
3.8
1.4
4.9
3.2
2.5
95 Percentile
43.2
19.6
7.3
47.7
22.7
7.5
26.1
16.3
10.5
99 Percentile
49.7
22.9
8.5
61 .8
28 .8
9.8
34 .1
21.5
14.6
-------
Table B-1 (continued). FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN CONIFEROUS FOLIAGE
(ppm by weight in dry needles)
Lodgepole pine
Ponderose pine
White pine
Douglas fir
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
No. samples
14
14
14
13
14
14
7
7
7
1
Mean
31.0
12.4
4.6
26.7
13.3
4.2
16.0
8.5
5.8
Apgar Ridge
Maximum
59.0
23.0
7.7
51.0
27.0
7.5
23.0
13.0
8.0
and MFRS
Minimum
10.0
3.3
2.3
15.0
7.1
2.5
9.1
6.0
2.3
Zone No. 13
Std. dev.
15.0
6.7
1.8
9.0
5.5
1.5
4.8
2.3
1.9
1
1
95 Percentile
57.6
24.3
7.8
42.7
23.0
6.9
25.3
13.0
9.5
|
99 Percentile
70.8
30.2
9.4
50.8
27.9
8.2
33.8
17.0
12.8
No. samples
15
15
15
5
5
5
2
2
2
Mean
18.9
9.1
4.4
23.5
13. 5
6.6
8.9
5.5
3.0
Apgar
Maximum
28.0
17.0
15.0
36.5
28.9
16. 4
12.0
6.3
3.3
Lookout
Minimum
11.0
4.6
1.4
18.0
9.0
2.9
5.8
4.6
2.6
Zone No. 14
Std. dev.
5.5
3.1
3.1
7.4
8.6
5.6
4.4
1.2
0.5
95 Percentile
28.6
14.6
9.9
39.3
31.8
18.3
36.7
13.1
6.2
99 Percentile
33.3
17.2
12.5
51.2
45.7
27.6
148.9
43.7
18.9
No. samples
5
5
5
1
1
1
9
9
9
Mean
22.5
10.6
4.2
6.9
4.5
2.7
7.5
5.7
4.1
Boehm* s
Maximum
45.0
22.0
6.5
16.0
7.4
6.2
Bear Den
Minimum
8.2
2.8
3.2
4.3
4.3
1.8
Zone No. IS
Std. dev.
14. 4
7.3
1.4
3.8
1.1
1.6
95 Percentile
53.2
26.2
7.2
14.6
7.8
7.1
99 Percentile
76.4
38.0
9.5
18.5
8.9
8.7
-------
Table B-l (continued). FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN CONIFEROUS FOLIAGE
(ppm by weight in dry needles)
Lodgepole pine
Ponderose pine
White pine
Douglas fir
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
No. samples
11
11
11
29
29
29
Mean
14.1
7.2
3.2
11.5
7.1
4.4
Lake
Maximum
28.0
14.0
5.4
24 . 4
17 .0
8.3
McDonald
Minimum
5.3
2.9
1.8
2.9
2.8
<1.0
Zone No. 16
Std. dev.
7 . 3
4.1
1.2
5.6
3.5
1.5
95 Percentile
27.3
14.6
5.4
21.0
13.1
7.0
-
99 Percentile
34.3
18. 5
6.5
25.3
15.7
8.1
No. samples
6
6
6
1
1
1
3
3
3
Mean
8.3
4.7
3.0
9.1
4.3
2.5
6.7
5.0
3.6
Camas
Maximum
11.0
8.5
3.8
9.3
7.1
4.8
Creek
Minimum
4.8
2.9
1.6
2.8
1.4
1.9
Zone No. 17
Std. dev.
2.1
2.0
0.9
3.4
3.1
1.5
95 Percentile
12.5
8.7
4.8
16.6
14 .1
8.0
99 Percentile
15.4
11.4
6.0
30.4
26.6
14.1
No. samples
6
6
6
Mean
7.0
4.7
3.5
Huckleberry
Maximum
12 .5
8.0
6.4
Mountain
Minimum
3.8
1.4
1.5
Zone No. 18
Std . dev.
3.0
2.4
1.9
95 Percentile
13.0
9.5
7.3
99 Percentile
17.1
12.8
9.9
-------
Table B-l (continued). FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN CONIFEROUS FOLIAGE
(ppm by weight in dry needles)
Lodgepole pine
Ponderose j
sine
White pine
Douglas fir
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
1968
1969
1970
No. samples
3
3
3
2
2
2
6
6
6
Mean
5.6
3.5
2.1
8.8
4.8
2.0
5.3
4.6
2.7
Loneman
Maximum
7.0
4 . 3
2.6
9.6
5.4
2 . 4
8.5
6.2
3.4
Mountain
Minimum
3.6
2.9
1. 5
7.9
4.3
1.6
3.1
2.2
1.7
Zone No. 19
Std. dev.
1. 8
0.7
0.6
1.2
0.8
0.6
2.5
1.4
0.6
95 Percentile
10.9
5.5
3.9
16.4
9.9
5.8
10.3
7.4
3.9
99 Percentile
GO
H
8.4
6.3
47.0
30.3
21.1
13.7
9.3
4.8
No. samples
14
14
14
9
9
9
4
4
4
4
4
4
Mean
2.2
2.6
2.1
2.6
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.9
1.8
2.1
2.6
1.6
ALL
Maximum
3.9
5.2
4.5
5.0
3.7
2.7
3.0
3.0
2.5
2,9
4.1
1.8
CONTROLS
Minimum
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.7
1.5
1.5
Std. dev.
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.3
0.9
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.6
1.2
0.2
95 Percentile
4.2
4.6
3.9
5.0
3.9
3.1
3.7
4.0
3.2
3.5
5.4
2.0
99 Percentile
5.1
5.5
4.8
6.4
4.8
3.7
5.4
6.0
4.5
4.8
8.0
2.5
-------
Table B-2. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN GRASS, 1970
Sampling zone
No.
samples
Fluoride, ppm by dry weight
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
Std. dev.
1. Teakettle Mountain
6
87.4
275.0
16.2
96.3
2. Columbia Falls
19
149.1
410.0
48.0
94.4
3. Coram - grass
12
14.7
64.0
4.5
16.5
- hay
6
12.9
20.0
5.8
5.1
4. Lake Five
3
5.4
7.4
2.7
2.4
5. Columbia Mountain
1
14.0
6. Desert Mountain
5
5.6
11.0
1.8
3.9
7. South Fork
3
7.1
10.0
4.8
2.6
8. Middle Fork
10
4.0
7.3
1.0
2.2
9. North Fork
7
6.3
9.3
2.7
2.3
10. Doris Mountain
1
3.8
11. Headquarters Hill
4
7.7
12.3
4.4
3.4
12. Belton Hills
3
10.2
17.5
6.5
6.3
13. Apgar Ridge and MFRS
3
7.8
12.5
2.8
4.8
14. Apgar Lookout
3
4.8
11.0
1.6
5.3
15. Boehm's Bear Den
4
2.8
5.3
1.0
1.8
16. Lake McDonald
7
10.4
26.5
2.7
8.0
17. Camas Creek
5
5.1
6.2
3.6
1.0
19. Loneman Mountain
2
4.6
5.8
3.4
1.7
Controls
16
4.4
7.8
2.0
1.7
135
-------
APPENDIX C
FOREST SERVICE VEGETATION DATA,
1971 STUDIES
137
-------
Table C-l. RADIAL SAMPLING AND CONTROL DATA, 1971
Fluoride content
, pom
Imurv Index
i-yr cnange3
_ir. average
F ec-centration
Shrubs
Com fers
Herbs
Grass
Grand
Average
2-
Year
1-
Year
Current
Average
High
1959
1970
Control
1970
8 .13
6.61
5.95
9 .50
10.56
8.34
0.000
0.000
1971
8.45
9.05
9.23
8.55
11.20
8.00
8.91
0.000
0.000
+ 2.44
-•¦3.28
Dif f .
+ 0.32
+ 2.62
+ 2.60
+ 1.70
-2.56
+ 0.57
0.000
0.000
%
+ 3 .90
+ 39 .60
+43.70
+ 17 .90
-24.20
+ 0.07
R2-P2
1970
147.50
100.80
26 .80
146 .00
44.50
92.6
0.211
0.279
+33.30
+ 62 .70
1971
111.00
134.10
89 .50
22 .90
121.00
54.40
75.0
0.022
0-029
Diff .
-36.50
-11.30
-3 .90
-25.00
+ 9.90
-17 .6
-0.189
-.250
o
-24.70
-11.20
-14.50
-17.10
+22.20
-19.0
-89 .600-89.600
R3-P3
1970
281.50
294.50
70 .00
137 .00
168.00
199 .6
0.156
0.313
-54 . 50
+68.00
1971
192.00
240.00
138 .00
58.00
71.80
72 . 20
102.1
0.125
0.258
Diff .
-89.50
-156.50
-12.00
-65.20
-95.80
-97 .5
-0.031
-.055
e
t
-31.80
-53.10
-17.10
-47 .60
-57 .00
-48.8
-19 .900-17 .600
R3-P4
1970
130.00
85 .50
23 .00
107.00
68 .00
90 .6
0.034
0.043
+ 3 . 5C
+ 42 .00
1971
37.00
89.00
65.00
21.20
S3 .50
72.00
62.3
0.035
0 • G66
Diff .
-43.00
-20.50
-1.80
-23.50
+ 4 .00
-28.3
+0.001
+ .023
%
-33.10
-24 .00
-7 .80
-22.00
+ 5.90
-31.2
+2.900+53.500
a Conifers only; year of origin of tissue.
-------
Table C-l (continued). RADIAL SAMPLING AND CONTROL DATA, 1571
Fluoride content, ppm
Iniurv Index
1-yr char.gca
_ m average
F concentration
Shrubs
Com fers
Herbs
Grass
Grand
Average
2-
Year
1-
Year
Current
Average
High
1969 ! 197C
R4-P2
t
1
1970
1244.00
638.0
205 .0
832.80
1
1971
324.00
700 .0
340.0
111.1
240.0
144 .0
241.80
0.066
0.133
1
Diff .
-920 .0
-398.0
-61.0
-591.00
1
1
%
-74 .0
-62.4
-29 .8
-71.00
l
|
R5-P3
1
1970
294 .5
537.5
80 .3
503 .0
332.20
0.132
0-250
t3 2 . 5 1 +157 .2
1971
284 .0
570 .0
237.5
50.6
126 .0
220 .0
172.30
0-048
0.066
i
Dif f.
-10 . 5
-300.0
-29.7
-288.0
-160.00
-0.084
-0-1S4
i
f
1
-3.6
-55.8
-37 .0
-56 .7
-48.20
-63.600 -
-73.600
l
i
R5-P4
i
i
1970
202 .2
228 .7
55.0
111. 0
128 .0
160.00
0.063
0.114
-116.1 ! +15.8
1971
53 .0
112.6
70.8
16.4
12.4
13 .4
36 .20
0.122
0.158
Diff .
-149.2
-157.9
-38.6
-98 .6
-114 .6
-123.80
+0.059
+0.044
1
1
-73.7
-69 .0
-70.2
-83.8
-89 .5
-77 .40
+93.700 +38.600
R5-P5
I
1970
59 .5
56.5
23.3
270 . 0
51.0
66 .91
0.014
0.01'.
+9.6 , +11.9
1971
64.6
66.1
35.2
12.8
32.6
41.8
33.60
0.025
0.031
Diff .
+ 5.1
-21.3
-10.5
-237 . 4
-9.2
-33.30
+0.011
+0.017
%
+ 8.6
-37.8
-45.1
-87 . 9
-18.0
-49.80
<-73 .600-rl21.000
i
1
a Conifers only; year of origin of tissue.
-------
Table C-l (continued). RADIAL SAMPLING AND CONTROL DATA, 1971
Fluoride content, ppm
Injury
Index
. , a
1-yr change
_in averace
F concentracion
Shrubs
Conifers
Grand
Average
2-
Year
1-
Year
Current
Herbs
Grass
Average
High
1969
1970
R5-P6
1970
38.0
35.0
11.7
59 .5
32.0
30 .3
0.003
0 .C03
-0.9
+ 6 . 4
1971
49 .2
34.1
18.1
15.8
56 .2
30.0
29 .0
0.036
0.036
/
Dif f .
+ 11.2
-16.9
+ 4.1
-3.3
-2.0
-1.3
+ &.033
+0.033
%
+ 29 . 5
-48.3
+ 35.0
-5.5
-6.2
-4.3
R6-P3
1970
169.5
239.6
44.7
171.0
117 .0
148 .0
0.114
0.114
+ 88.4
+ 127 .3
1971
112.0
328.0
172.0
43.9
124.0
74.2
106 .0
0.100
0 ¦ 234
Diff .
-57 . 5
-67.6
"0. 8
-47 .0
-42.8
-42.0
-0.014
-0-090
O
-33 .9
-28.2
-2.8
-27.5
-36.6
-28 .4
-12.3C0
-62.500
R6-P4
1970
64 . 2
140.0
76.3
113 .0
53.0
83.8
0.182
0.291
-56.4
-31.0
1971
48.0
83.6
45.3
20.9
46 .0
37 .2
37 .7
0.029
0.033
Dlf f .
-16 .2
-94.7
-55. 4
-67 .0
-15.8
-46 .1
-0.153
-0.258
%
-25 . 2
-67 .6
-72.6
-59.3
-29 .8
-55 .0
-84 .100
-88 .700
R7-P3
1970
154 . 5
142.5
31.3
143 .0
160.0
120 .0
0.105
0.154
+ 77.5
+ 90.6
1971
200 .0
220 .0
121.9
41.4
234 .0
184 .0
134 .9
0.034
0.068
Dlf f .
-r45.5
-20.6
+ 10.1
+ 91.0
+ 24 .0
+ 14.9
-0.071
-0.086
%
+ 29 . 4
-14.5
+ 32.3
+ 63 .6
+ 15.0
+ 12 .4
-67.600
-55.800
aConifers only; year of origin of tissue.
-------
Table C-l (continued). RADIAL SAMPLING AND CONTROL DATA, 1971
Fluoride content, ppm
Injury Index
1-yr change3
_in average
F concentration
Shrubs
Conifers
Herbs
Grass
Grand
Average
2-
Year
1-
Year
Current
Average
High
1969
1570
R8-P5
1970
33.5
28.1
14 .5
31.5
14.5
24 .1
0.000
0 .000
+ 1.1
+ 3.7
1971
25.8
29.2
18.2
10.8
17. 8
9.0
15 .8
0.005
0 .005
Diff .
-7.7
-9.9
-3.7
-13.7
-5.5
-8.3
+0.005
+ 0 .005
%
-23.0
-35.2
-25.5
-43. 5
-37 .9
-34.4
Col. Mt.
1970
38.2
15.3
25. 5
26 .6
0.081
0 .160
+ 11. C
+7 .0
1971
44 .0
49 .2
22.3
19.8
72.2
12.2
28.3
0.014
0 .023
Diff .
-15.9
+ 4.5
+ 46.7
+ 1.7
-0-067
-0.137
%
-41.6
+ 29 . 4
+183.0
+6 . 4
-82.700 -
-85.600
R4-P6
1970
32.5
11.7
9.3
15.5
17.5
0.000
0 .000
+ 14 .5
+ 10.0
1971
18 .1
26 .2
19.3
7.9
28.8
11.8
16 .1
0.006
0-009
Diff .
-14 .4
+ 7.6
-1.4
+ 13.3
-1. 4
+ .006
+ .009
3
-44 . 3
+ 65 .0
-15.1
+ 85.8
-8.0
R5-P9
1970
69 .0
24 .8
14.2
32.5
22.0
26 .9
0.014
0.019
-1.4
+ 9.9
1971
20 .4
23.4
24.1
11.5
29.0
10.1
18.7
0.000
0 .000
Diff.
-43.6
-0.7
-2.7
-3 . 5
-11.9
-8.2
-0.014
-0.019
O.
O
-70 .4
0.0
-19 .0
-10.8
-54.1
-30.5 -100.000 -10C.0C0
1 i
aConifers only; year of origin of tissue.
-------
Table C-l (continued). RADIAL SAMPLING AND CONTROL I
Fluoride content, ppn
Conife rs
2-
1-
Grand
In juj
Shrubs
Year
Year
Current
Herbs
Grass
Average
Avert
Total
1970
2920.40
1963.40
495.7
2000.5
1571.00
2251.9!
. 1.1C
Total
Diff.
1331.30
886.20
-141.8
-831.2
-608.70
1
-1142.11-0.5C
Total
1971
N
1589.10
14.00
2705.5
1077.20
14
353.9
14
1169.3
14
962.30
13
1109 .8C
15
) 0 .6C
1
Average
Diff.
% Diff
..J
-95.10
.-45.60
_..
-63 .30
-45.10
-10.1
-28.6
-59 .4
-41.5
-46.80
-38.70
-76,1C
-49.3C
)-0 .03
1-45.8
aConifers only; year of origin of tissue.
-------
Table C-2. SUMMARY OF STEM ANALYSES FOR
FLUORIDE CONTENT
(ppm dry weight)
Plot
Shrubs
Conifers
Herbs
Grand
average
1969
1970
1971
1969
1970
1971
1969
Control
7.8
9.5
6.9
9.3
11.3
5.9
5.8
8.4
R2-P2
11.6
19.8
12.8
25.5
25.7
24.7
23.8
22.0
R3-P3
10.2
10.4
12.0
24.2
22.7
27.3
16.4
19.7
R3-P4
7.2
7.6
10.8
10.6
16.8
15.8
11.6
13.4
R4-P2
16.6
15.1
37.6
35.0
37.4
41.1
22.6
29.9
R5-P3
19.8
15.2
20.0
19.3
35.5
35.4
26.2
R5-P4
9.4
13.0
19.8
16.6
12.8
17.6
10.8
14.7
R5-P5
11.4
8.4
7.8
13.6
14.6
14.2
11.6
12.2
R5-P6
11.8
9.8
15.1
11.3
10.1
11.2
11.3
R6-P3
15.2
22.8
16.2
20.4
21.0
17.7
21.0
19.3
R6-P4
14.0
11.6
16.6
21.5
14.6
25.5
14.0
18.9
R7-P3
17.0
20.2
29.8
20.2
19.0
18.3
10.2
19.2
R8-P5
14.8
12.6
9.8
13.2
14.2
10.4
11.2
12.4
Col. Mt.
11.3
9.0
9.8
28.4
21.5
13.8
17.2
15.0
R5-P9
8.5
7.6
6.4
8.4
13.9
7.4
10.4
9.2
R4-P6
10.6
6.8
14.8
17.8
8.7
10.4
11.6
11.1
Veg. type
average
12.69
11.57
16.85
19.46
19.74
19.39
14.80
17.10
143
-------
APPENDIX D
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES LABORATORY VEGETATION DATA,
1971 STUDIES
145
-------
Taole D-l. Fl-CRIOl CONTE!.:1: IV, VEGETATION, 1971 STUDI3S
HEADQUARTERS HILL ZONE
GP#
Species
Elev.
Ft.
Fluoride,
ppm
GP#
Date
Collected
Fluoride,
ppm
GP#
Date
Collected
Fluoride,
ppm
•68
'69
' 70
'68
•69
¦70
¦71
'68
¦69
¦70
'71
99
T
Pine
4800
37.C
13.5
4.4
21
6/20/71
30.0
21.2
14.9
8.8
255
L.
Pine
4500
37.5
12.0
5.7
17
6/19/71
44.0
20.0
8.2
4.8
50
11/3/71
17.6
11.8
6.9
254
L.
Pine
4480
21.5
12 .0
4.5
16
25.0
15.4
7.8
4.0
Not collected
257
L.
Pine
4200
38.5
17.2
6.7
18
35.0
16.8
13.4
4.6
Not collected
253
L.
Pine
4160
35.0
15.3
6.3
15
26.8
17.0
10.6
4.8
48
11/3/71
20.6
11.2
8.2
259
L.
Pine
3910
31.0
17.5
4.8
19
41.6
30.4
24.0
4.5
Not collected
252
L.
Pine
3800
33.0
14.5
5.3
14
46.0
20.4
7.8
3.2
47
11/3/71
19.6
12.4
10.6
251
L.
Pine
3530
i
28.5ill.8
j
5.2
13
15.4
12.4
10.2
3.6
46
25.4
14 .4
9.4
6.6
L.
Pine
4300
Not collec
:ted
Not
:olle<
:ted
44
m
24 .0
12.6
6.6
98
P.
Pine
4700
31.0
13.5
2.7
20
6/20/71
32.0
17.6
8.8
3.6
43
21.6
10.2
6.6
P.
Pine
4300
Not collected
Not collected
44
11.6
6.0
102
P.
Pine
3800
32.0
19.0
3.6
22
6/20/71
29.6
29.6
16.6
4.2
45
30.2
23.0
13.8
7.0
251
P.
Pine
3580
39.0
19.0
6.7
13
6/19/71
29.0
16 .4
7.8
3.6
46
16.6
10.0
4.5
P.
Pine
4200
Not colle
;ted
Not collected
51
22 .6
18.0
8.2
101
D.
Fir
4300
!
48.0j19.0
4. 8
Not collected
44
6.7
6.3
D.
Fir
4200
1
Net colle
i
cted
i
Not collected
51
39.0
30.0
22.0
10.4
-------
Table D-l (continued). FLOURIDE CONTENT IN VEGETATION,
BELTON HILLS WINTER RANGE
1971
STUDIES
Species
Elev.
Ft.
Fluoride,
3m
'68
69"
1 70
GPt
Date
Collected
'68
Fluoride,
PP™
•69
'70
•71
GP#
Date
Collected
'68
Fluoride,
_£E£
•69
7To I '71
L. Pine
L. Pine
L. Pine
L. Pine
L. ? me
W. Pine
D. Fir
D. Fir
D. Fir
D. Fir
D. Fir
D. Fir
D. Fir
P. Pine
5980
5600
31.0
22.0
14 .0
7.4
Not collected
5090
5100
4450
5980
5980
5600
5500
5090
5100
4100
At
river
At
river
6.3
3.6
1.9
21.0 7.0
No .sample
31.5 15.0 4.3
16.0 11.5 8.6
No sample .
No sample
Not collected
No sample
No sample
Not collected
Not collected
16.3 10.0 3.1
7
1
1
8/16/71
8/16/71
8/16/71
40.2
28.0
22.0
20.6
13.6
12.6
8/16/71 41.8 18.2
8/16/71 18.4 13.4
8/16/71 62.6 | 34.6
Not collected
Not collected
Not collected
Not collected
Not collected
Not collected
8/16/71 15.8 7.6
13.2
11.8
9.2
11.0
13.4
13.0
6.6
5.7
4.4
4.8
3.9
9.4
3.0
33
34
35
36
38
39
33
33
34
35
36
38
40
42
42
10/15/71
18.0
16.4
18.6
16.4
20.0
22.4
16.2
17.0
20.0
26 .0
18.0
22 .0
22.0
12 .2
12 .4
12.6
15.0
10.6
11.2
13.8 |
13.8
11.6
17.4
16.2
15.6
12.0
13*2
12.2
12.0
6.4
11.0
11.0
8.8
6.6
7.0
7.4
11.6
9.8
11.2
11.6
9.4
7.8
7.8
7.0
4.4
-------
Table D-l (continued). FLOORIDE CONTEST IN VEGETATION, 1971 STUDIES
APGAR RIDGE
CP*
Species
Elev.
Ft.
Fluoride
PDBl
GPi
Date
Collected
Fluoride,
ppm
GPI
Date
Collected
Fluoride,
DPT
'68
•69
'70
'68
'69
•70
•71
'68
'69
•70
'71
165
L. Pine
4190
26 .0
10. 5
2.8
10
7/18/71
31.0
15.2
o
o
H
4.2
29
10/14/71
12.6
11.0
7.1
165
P. Pine
4190
15.0
8.6
2.8
10
26.6
14 .8
8.6
3.2
29
16.6
10.8
6.7
166
P. Pine
3900
38.0
18.5
4.4
11
42.6
30.0
11.6
4.6
30
42.0
24.6
12 .0
7.9
167
P. Pine
3700
28.0
28.0
3.5
12
21 .0
12 .6
8.4
3.8
31
8.6
9.2
16.4
P.P.
At
(big)
road
Not collected
Not collected
32
33.2
18.0
9.8
6.2
P.P.
At
(snail)
road
Not collected
Not collected
32
13.4
8.8
7.4
Doug.
At
Fir
______
road
Not collected
Not collected
32
17 .6
11.2
9.0
-------
APPENDIX E
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES LABORATORY ANIMAL DATA,
1970 STUDIES
149
-------
Table E-l. FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN FEMUR BONES OF
INDIGENOUS WILD ANIMALS
1
No.
F1
ppm
uoride
ay wei<
9
ght
Sampling zone
Species
Specimens
Mean
Max.
Min.
Lower Teakettle
Mountain
Zone 1
Columbian
ground
squirrel
10
2403
4366
457
Deer
17
3933
9400
370
Deer mouse
22
1768
/
4243
588
Flying squirrel
1
1617
Grouse
1
1200
Hairy woodpeckei
c 2
361
483
238
House cat
1
1600
House mouse
4
707
1421
351
Meadow vole
1
1072
Shorttail weasel 1
1422
Sparrow
1
2052
Columbia Falls
Zone 1
Chipmunk
Columbian
ground
squirrel
1
9
1000
1171
3100
363
Deer
5
2007
3495
1100
Deer mouse
10
938
3857
21
Martin
1
465
Meadow vole
41
518
1785
37.5
Coram
Zone 3
Chipmunk
Columbian
ground
squirrel
5
16
4666
929
9863
5199
815
12.4
Deer
2
2270
3700
840
Deer mouse
4
1068
1280
854
150
-------
Table E-l (continued). FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN FEMUR
BONES OF INDIGENOUS WILD ANIMALS
Sampling zone
Species
No.
Fluoride,
ppm by weight
Specimens
Mean
Max.
Min.
Coram (continued)
Zone 3
Grouse
Snowshoe hare
5
3
1413
837
4208
2053
538
87.5
Lake Five
Zone 4
Bushytail
woodrat
1
850
Chipmunk
11
887
2218
265
Columbian
ground
squirrel
12
627
1154
61.4
Deer mouse
1
1067
Red squirrel
3
754
1511
271
Snowshoe hare
6
830
1500
48.3
Columbia
Mountain
Zone 5
Chipmunk
5
694
1542
191
Desert
Mountain
Zone 6
Chipmunk
Golden-mantled
ground
squirrel
2
613
911
315
South Fork
Zone 7
Chipmunk
1
331
Middle Fork
Zone 8
Chipmunk
Columbian
ground
squirrel
Deer
Golden-namtled
ground
squirrel
Snowshoe hare
2
6
1
1
1
299
374
1280
256
1020
454
648
143
227
151
-------
Table E-l (continued). FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN FEMUR
BONES OF INDIGENOUS WILD ANIMALS
Sampling zone
Species
No.
Fluoride,
ppm by weight
Specimens
Mean
Max.
Min.
North Fork
Zone 9
Chipmunk
Columbian
ground
squirrel
Coyote
Deer
1
1
1
1
462
222
268
168
Deer mouse
4
541
688
210
Headquarters
Hill
Zone 11
Chipmunk
Columbian
ground
squirrel
Deer
2
9
1
702
324
1720
784
472
620
88.5
Deer mouse
2
532
640
424
Snowshoe hare
1
253
Belton Hills
Zone 12
Chipmunk
Columbian
ground
squirrel
7
2
470
343
859
508
190
178
Apgar Ridge &
MFRS
Zone 13
Chipmunk
Columbian
ground
squirrel
5
10
3394
735
9863
1670
107
190
Golden-mantled
ground squirrel
2
782
1299
266
Snowshoe hare
24
1619
3450
579
Apgar Lookout
Zone 14
Chipmunk
Columbian
ground
squirrel
3
1
295
480
367
214
-------
Table E-l (continued). FLUORIDE CONCENTRATION IN FEMUR
BONES OF INDIGENOUS WILD ANIMALS
Sampling zone
Species
No.
Fluoride
ppm by weic
jht
Specimens
Mean
Max.
Min.
Apgar Lookout
(continued)
Zone 14
Deer
Snowshoe hare
2
10
582
582
1040
1200
124
234
Boehm's Bear
Den
Zone 15
Chipmunk
Snowshoe hare
1
1
415
625
Lake McDonald
Zone 16
Deer
Snowshoe hare
4
1
1807
382
2400
1220
Camas Creek
Zone 17
Chipmunk
Snowshoe hare
2
1
164
382
212
115
Loneman
Mountain
Zone 19
Chipmunk
Columbian
ground
squirrel
1
1
367
470
Controls
Chipmunk
16
109
304
50
Columbian
ground
squirrel
16
105
146
35
Deer
31
225
635
86
Deer mouse
2
107
113
100
Grouse
7
209
402
110
Snowshoe hare
3
83
166a
35
a) one adult, others juvenile
153
-------
APPENDIX F
FOREST SERVICE INSECT DATA/
1970 STUDIES
155
-------
Table F-l. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN INSECTS
Insect
Date Collected3
Fluoric
ie, ppm
Sample
Control
Pollinators:
Bumblebee-Bombus sp.
August
406 .0
Bumblebee-Bombus sp.
June
194.0
7.5
Sphinx moth-Hemaris sp.
June
394.0
Honey bee-Apis mellifera
June
221.0
10.5
Skipper butterfly-Erynnis
August
146.0
Wood nymph butterfly-
August
58.0
Cercyonis sp.
Foliage feeders:
Weevils-Mixed curculionids
June
48.6
Grasshoppers-Melanoplus sp.
August
31.0
7.5
Larch Casebearer-Coleophora
June
25.5
16.5
laricella
Cicadas-Cicadidae
June
21.3
Cambium feeders:
Engraver beetles-Ips sp.
October
52.5
11.5
Flathead beetle-
June
20.0
3.5
Mixed buprestids
Red turpentine beetle-
June
11.5
4.8
Dendroctonus valens LeConte
Douglas-fir beetle-
October
9.4
Dendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopk.
Flatheaded beetle larvae-
October
8.5
Mixed buprestids
Predators:
Ants
June
170.0
Ostomids-Temnochila sp.
June
53.4
Damsel flies-Argia sp.
June
21.7
9.2
Longlegged fly-Medeterus sp.
October
10.2
Ostomid larvae
October
6.1
Miscellaneous Insects:
Long horned beetles-
August
47.5
Mixed Cerambycids
Click beetles-
June
36.0
Mixed elaterids
Black Scavenger-
June
18.8
Cerambycid
a) Species and control samples collected on same dates.
-------
Table F-2. POPULATIONS OF LARCH CASEBEARER
(Casebearers per 100 larch spurs)
Miles
Radii
from
plant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Ave.
1/4
0
1/2
0
0
0
14.4
17.4
6.4
1
33.4
13.0
0
0.2
16.4
12.6
2
15.8
8.6
0
0.2
0
8.0
5.4
4
27.6
1.4
0.75
0
0
0.4
17.4
1.2
6.95
8
5.0
12.8
8.9
Ave.
25.6
5,8
0.25
0
0
0.4
5.7
4.9
11.2
Checks: No. 1 = 8.6; No. 2 = 0; No. 3 = 0; No. 4 = 27.6
157
-------
Table F-3. POPULATIONS OF PINE NEEDLE SCALES, LODGEPOLE
(Scales per 600 lodgepole needles)
Miles
from
olant
Radii
Ave
•
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
1/4
1/2
1085
229
140
40
612
134
1
1
0
4
1
220
140
75
47
2
55
38
10
0
28
2
99
11
0
3
10
1
0
0
0
0
25
7
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
138
2
0
0
57
3
2
1
1
0
21
1
8
26
11
2
0
0
0
272
149
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
34
18
Ave.
20
12
220
46
97
45
33
4
137
51
6
0.3
28
1
1
0.3
0
0
0.5
1
Checks
: No. 1
= (0-
-0 J ;
No.
2 =
(0-0); No. 3
= (1-
-0)
No.
4 =
- Ave.
= 0.
3
-------
Table F-4. POPULATIONS OF PINE NEEDLE SCALES, PONDEROSA
(Scales per 600 ponderosa needles)
Mi les
from
plant
Radii
Ave
-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
69
70
1/4
365
71
365
71
1/2
29
1
12
0
20
0.5
1
1
0
2
1
6
0
0
0
147
35
37
7
2
0
0
43
0
0
0
14
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
Ave .
183
35
1
0.5
36
in
o
0
0
3
0
0
0
79
17
Checks: No. 1 (6-0 ); No. 2 (-); No. 3 (-); No. 4 (4-0_) Ave (5-0)
------- |