&ERA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air and Radiation
(6202J)
EPA 430-R-99-001
September 1999
International Efforts to
Reduce Perfluorocarbon (PFC)
Emissions from Primary
Aluminum Production
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Acknowledgements
This document was prepared by ICF Consulting under Work Assignments 2-22 and 3-04 of
EPA Contract 68-W5-0068. The primary authors of this document were Karen Lawson,
Vikram Bakshi, Michael J. Gibbs, Catherine Leining, Muhib Rahman, and Trevor Yeats of
ICF. The report was prepared under the direction of Eric J. Dolin of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. The authors would like to thank the following individuals for providing
country-specific information as well as review and comment on the report: Robert P.
Stricter, The Aluminum Association (USA); VAIP Task Force; Bernard P. Leber, Kaiser
Aluminum; Jerry Marks, Alcoa; Willy Bjerke, International Primary Aluminium Institute;
David Coutts, Australian Aluminium Council; Eirik Nordheim, European Aluminium
Association; J. Ameeri, Aluminium Bahrain; Jose Domingos Gonzalez Miguez, Ministry of
Science and Technology (Brazil); Christian L Van Houtte, Aluminium Association of Canada;
Michel Labarre, Aluminium Pechiney; Norbert Salomon, Federal Ministry for the
Environment (Germany); Rainer Buchholz, German Aluminium Industry (GDA); Georg
Maue, Federal Environment Agency (Germany); Helen Plume, Ministry for the Environment
(New Zealand); Nick Hunn, Comalco New Zealand; Signe Namdal, Norwegian Pollution
Control Authority; and David A. Harris, Aluminium Federation (UK). Mention of any trade
names or commercial products does in this report not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
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Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iii
1. OVERVIEW 1
2. PFCS, PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION, AND CLIMATE CHANGE 2
2.1 ATMOSPHERIC IMPACT OF RFC EMISSIONS 2
2.2 RFC GENERATION AND MITIGATION 2
2.3 CO2 EMISSIONS FROM PRIMARY ALUMINUM PRODUCTION 3
2.4 GLOBAL ALUMINUM PRODUCTION AND PFC EMISSIONS 4
3. PFC REDUCTION EFFORTS 6
3.1 STAKEHOLDER OBJECTIVES 6
3.2 DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMS 6
3.3 WORLDWIDE PFC REDUCTION EFFORTS 11
3.4 METHODS FOR ESTIMATING PFC EMISSIONS AND REDUCTIONS 12
3.5 CHALLENGES 16
4. CONCLUSION 16
5. REFERENCES 17
ANNEX 1: COUNTRY PROFILES A1-1
ANNEX 2: SMELTER CHARACTERISTICS BY COUNTRY A2-1
ANNEX 3: UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE
(UNFCCC) A3-1
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Executive Summary
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are potent greenhouse gases, characterized by strong
infrared radiation absorption and relative inertness in the atmosphere. PFCs are
significant contributors to global climate change. The potential risks of climate
change have led 179 nations (as of June 1999) to ratify the United Nations Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), a landmark agreement with the
ultimate objective of "stabilizpng] greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmos-
phere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system."
A major source of PFC emissions is primary aluminum production. PFCs are formed
as intermittent by-products during the occurrence of anode effects in the produc-
tion of primary aluminum. PFC emission reduction measures not only reduce PFC
and other greenhouse gas emissions, but can also improve process efficiency. As
a result, both industry and government have an interest in implementing these
measures. This report provides a summary of international efforts by governments
and industry to reduce PFC emissions from primary aluminum production.
Primary aluminum producers are well positioned to meet the challenge of global
climate change. Current activities across many of the major aluminum producing
countries have been successful in reducing PFC emissions from aluminum smelters.
Countries with programs to reduce PFC emissions from primary aluminum produc-
tion accounted for 54 percent of global primary production in 1997. Additional
opportunity exists to make progress in other countries, including Russia and China,
which are major producers of aluminum.
There is a wide range of currently available PFC mitigation technologies and prac-
tices. Among these are computerized controls and point-feeder systems, as well
as improved operator practices that minimize anode effect frequency and duration.
These technologies and practices vary in their cost-effectiveness and ability to
reduce emissions. A promising technology that is currently in the development
phase is the inert anode, which holds the potential for completely eliminating PFC
emissions during the primary production process.
As of the beginning of 1999, 10 countries have undertaken industry-government
initiatives to reduce PFC emissions from primary aluminum production: Australia,
Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, the United
Kingdom, and the United States. All of these countries have achieved significant
reductions in the rate of PFC emissions. The PFC emission rate reductions
achieved by the 10 countries are shown in Exhibit ES-1. It should be noted that a
number of different methods to estimate PFC emissions and reductions are cur-
rently in use, which complicates comparison of emissions reductions across coun-
tries.
Page
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Exhibit ES-1. PFC Emissions Reductions
Country
Australia
Bahrain
Brazil
Canada
France
Germany
New Zealand
Norway
United Kingdom
United States
t C02-e/ t Aluminum*
Start Year End Year
3.9 0.9
1.5 0.8
1.9 1.3
5.4 2.7
7.0 1.9
3.3 1.9
2.5 0.8
3.0 2.0
9.0 2.8
4.4 3.0
Years
Start-End
^90-^97
^95-^98
^94-^96
^90-^95
^90-^97
^90-^97
^go-^s
^90-^93
^90-^96
^90-^97
Reduction
Overall % % per year
78% 19%
47% 19%
31% 17%
49% 13%
73% 17%
43% 5%
69% 21%
34% 13%
69% 18%
32% 7%
* Tonnes of C02 equivalent per tonne of aluminum.
Note: Emissions rates and reductions across countries may not be comparable due to different
methods used to estimate emissions. See Section 3.4 for more detail.
Further action over time by all producers to minimize PFC emissions from primary
aluminum production will give the public and government confidence that the
aluminum industry is aggressively pursuing emissions reductions of greenhouse
gases and minimizing the build-up of long-lived atmospheric chemicals. Expanding
cooperation through the sharing of technical information, partnerships with gov-
ernment and further investigations into the PFC generation process are expected
to result in additional cost-effective emissions reductions that will benefit both the
industry and the environment.
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1. Overview
The aluminum production process has been identified as one of the largest an-
thropogenic source of emissions of two perfluorocarbons (PFCs): tetrafluo-
romethane (CF4) and hexafluoroethane (C2F6). PFCs are potent and long-lived
greenhouse gases (GHGs). They contribute to global climate change due to their
high infrared absorbing capacity and relative inertness in the atmosphere. Conse-
quently, many efforts are underway to reduce emissions of these gases both on
the national and international level.
The objectives of this report are to:
• summarize international efforts to reduce PFCs from aluminum production
through government-industry initiatives;
• describe each producer nation's PFC emission reduction efforts, accom-
plishments, and challenges; and
• discuss future options for reducing PFCs from primary aluminum produc-
tion.
The report is organized into the following sections:
Section 2 provides background on the PFC generation process in the primary
aluminum industry and worldwide GHG emissions from primary aluminum
production.
Section 3 describes ongoing activities, accomplishments and challenges to
reduce PFC emissions from primary aluminum production. Methods to quan-
tify emission reductions are discussed and difficulties in comparing emissions
and reductions across countries are highlighted.
Section 4 presents an outlook for PFC emissions based on the PFC emission
reduction efforts underway at the national and international level.
Annex 1 presents the profiles of individual country efforts to reduce PFC
emissions and other GHG emissions from primary aluminum production.
Annex 2 presents data on individual smelters for each country profiled.
Annex 3 traces the treatment of PFC emissions in the United Nations Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) from the Rio Summit in 1992
to the Kyoto Protocol in 1997.
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2. PFCs and Primary Aluminum Production
This section discusses the atmospheric impact of RFC emissions, the scope of
emissions worldwide, the process of RFC generation, and options for mitigating
emissions.
2.1 Atmospheric Impact of RFC Emissions
CF4 and C2F6 are potent greenhouse gases that are very stable in the atmosphere.
While global annual emissions and current atmospheric concentrations of PFCs are
relatively small compared to carbon dioxide (CCh) and methane (CH4), PFCs are
removed very slowly from the atmosphere due to their long atmospheric lifetimes.
The estimated atmospheric lifetimes for CF4 and C2F6 are 50,000 and 10,000 years
respectively.
The "global warming potential" (GWP) of these compounds, a measure that com-
bines expected atmospheric lifetime and infrared absorbing capacity and provides
a common unit for comparing the relative impacts of gases on global warming, is
relatively high. One tonne of CF4 and C2F6 emissions is equivalent to approxi-
mately 6,500 and 9,200 tonnes respectively of carbon dioxide emissions, when the
warming is considered over a 100-year period.
2.2 RFC Generation and Mitigation
Primary aluminum is produced using the Hall-Heroult electrolytic process. In this
process, aluminum production is carried out in a semi-batch manner in large
electrolytic cells called pots with a direct current input of up to 280,000 amperes
and about 5 volts. The pot is a rectangular steel shell typically 8 to 13 meters
long, and 2.5 to 3 meters wide, and 0.75 to 1 meters high, and is lined with a
refractory insulating shell upon which carbon blocks are placed to form a cathode.
Steel collector bars are inserted into the cathode blocks to carry current away from
the pot.
Molten cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride) is placed in the cavity formed by the
cathode blocks. Anodes, also of baked carbon, are immersed in the cryolite to
complete the electric path. Anodes may be either pre-baked in a separate process
and attached to connecting rods for immersion in the bath (termed prebake cells),
or may be formed through self-baking from coal-tar and petroleum coke paste that
is fed into the top of a steel casing above the cell (termed Soderberg design cells).
Alumina (AI203) is fed in powder form into the pots (by various methods) and is
dissolved in the cryolite bath.
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Molten aluminum is produced while the anode is consumed in the reaction as
follows:
AI203 + 3/2 C => 2AI +3/2 C02 (1)
When the alumina ore content of the electrolytic bath falls below critical levels
optimal for the above chemical reaction to take place, rapid voltage increases
occur, termed "anode effects". During an anode effect, carbon from the anode
and fluorine from the dissociated molten cryolite bath combine, producing CF4 and
C2F6. These gases are emitted from the exhaust ducting system or other pathways
from the cell (e.g., the hood of the cell). The magnitude of RFC emissions for a
given level of aluminum production depends on the frequency and duration of
anode effects.
The frequency and duration of anode effects depend primarily on the cell technol-
ogy and operating procedures. As a result, emissions of CF4 and C2F6 vary signifi-
cantly from one aluminum smelter to the next. As a result, to reduce RFC emis-
sions each smelter must develop a strategy, including some or all of the following
measures1:
• improving alumina feeding techniques by installing point feeders and regu-
lating feed with computer control;
• training operators on methods and practices to minimize the frequency and
duration of anode effects (for example, providing employees with measure-
ment devices to monitor alumina feed rates and anode effects);
• using improved computer controls to optimize cell performance; and
• measuring RFC emissions and monitoring cell operating parameters to de-
termine relationships between them.
A long-term industry initiative, which has significant potential to reduce emissions,
is the development of non-consumable inert anodes. These inert anodes do not
utilize carbon, thereby eliminating the source of carbon for RFC and process-
related C02 generation. This technology is being pursued aggressively through
government-industry research and development (R&D) efforts. Practical results
are expected to require long-term research. For example, in the United States a
joint R&D program has been established between the aluminum industry and the
U.S. Department of Energy, but these efforts are not expected to result in a com-
mercially viable anode design for at least the next ten to fifteen years.
2.3 CO2 Emissions from Primary Aluminum Production
Carbon dioxide emissions also result from primary aluminum production, both
directly from the electrolysis process and indirectly from the production of fossil-
fuel based energy needed for the process. During electrolysis, C02 is produced as
1 The applicability of these measures, as well as their performance, will vary between new and existing facilities.
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a product of the chemical reaction between the carbon anode and the alumina.
Emission factors, measured in metric tons of C02 per metric ton of aluminum
produced, range from 1.5 for pre-baked cell technology to 1.8 for Soderberg cell
technology (IPCC, 1997).
The production of electricity used in the smelting process is responsible for addi-
tional indirect GHG emissions. The level and type of emissions depends on the
fuel or resource used to generate the electricity. Coal-burning power stations emit
approximately 1 kg of C02 per kilowatt-hour (kWh), gas-fired generators will emit
approximately 0.4 kg C02 per kWh, and hydroelectric generation has no associated
C02 emissions (Huglen and Kvande, 1994). The current average electricity re-
quirement for smelting purposes is about 15 kWh per tonne of aluminum (Huglen
and Kvande, 1994). Therefore, C02 emissions per tonne of aluminum can range
from approximately 15 tonnes C02 per tonne of aluminum if coal is used, to ap-
proximately 6 tonnes C02 per tonne of aluminum if gas is used, or zero if hydroe-
lectricity is used. If the aluminum smelter is purchasing electricity from the grid,
the electricity is likely to be generated from a mix of resources.
2.4 Global Aluminum Production and RFC Emissions
In 1997, 21.5 million metric tons of aluminum were produced worldwide (in 45
producer countries). Production has been on the rise through the 20th century,
with an increasing percentage of primary aluminum production occurring in the
developing world. In 1997, however, the majority of aluminum was produced in
industrialized countries and countries transitioning into market economies.
Exhibit 1 shows aluminum production and the share of global production for the
leading producer nations in 1997. As shown in the exhibit, the USA topped the list
producing 17% of the world's total primary aluminum, followed by Russia with
14% and Canada with 11%.
Global primary aluminum production is projected to increase at a rate of about 1 to
2% per year over the next decade. New primary smelting capacity is expected to
be built in areas with low cost electricity, chiefly from hydro-electric or naturalgas-
fired energy sources, and may be concentrated in developing countries. Marginal
increases in primary production capacity are expected in developed countries
through process improvements. Also, new smelter capacity is expected in Canada,
Iceland, and Australia.
Primary production in North America and Pacific Organization of Economic Coop-
eration and Development (OECD) countries is expected to increase at a rate of
about 1% per year while production in Western Europe is expected to decline at a
rate of about 1% per year. Production in Eastern Europe is expected to increase
at about 1.5% per year. Developing countries are expected to have the highest
growth rates, with a projected increase in production of more than 2%.
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Exhibit 1. Primary Aluminum Producers: 1997
(Data in Thousand Metric Tons and % of Total)
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
12% (<1% each)
Other Producer Countries: Netherlands, Indonesia, Taijikstan, Egypt, Argentina, Italy, Romania, Ghana, Greece,
Iran, Iceland, Sweden, Ukraine, Cameroon, Slovenia, Turkey, Poland, Slovakia, Serbia & Montenegro, Suriname,
Croatia, Switzerland, Hungary, Japan, Mexico, Azerbaijan, Bosnia & Hertzegovina, and Nigeria.
Source: USGS Aluminum Industry Annual, 1998
Exhibit 2 illustrates projected aluminum production for the OECD, Eastern Euro-
pean, and developing countries based on the above assumptions (Victor et al.,
1998, Anthony Bird Associates, 1998, Driscoll et al., 1997).
Despite projected growth in global aluminum production, it is technically feasible
for RFC emissions per unit of product to be stabilized or decline. These reductions
in RFC emission rates are anticipated because of industry-government emission
reduction efforts in producer countries, the diffusion of modernized smelter tech-
nologies resulting from capital stock replacement, and the construction of state of
the art facilities. Given the demonstrated progress of reduction programs, there is
potential for absolute RFC emissions to decrease over time.
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c
o
•D
C
re
V)
Exhibit 2. Projected Global Aluminum Production: 1995 - 2020
40,000 -,
Developing Countries
Eastern Europe
3°<000 J ^OECD Total
20,000 -
10,000 -
1995
Source: Victor etal., 1998
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
3. RFC Reduction Efforts
Efforts to reduce RFC emissions from primary aluminum production include volun-
tary programs between industry and government and in some countries regulatory
programs mandated by government. This section addresses the objectives, re-
sponsibilities, accomplishments, and challenges of stakeholders involved in such
programs. Some individual companies have also independently undertaken steps
to reduce emissions, however these efforts are not documented in this report.
3.1 Stakeholder Objectives
RFC emission reduction options have the potential to not only generate economic
benefits for the aluminum industry, but also result in significant reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions and benefit the global climate. In addition to generat-
ing RFC emissions, anode effects harm current efficiency and reduce productivity in
the electrolytic process. During an anode effect, electricity consumption rises in
the pot and aluminum production decreases thus raising the cost per unit of pro-
duction. Therefore, reducing RFC emissions from primary aluminum production
increases the efficiency of the process and reduces production costs.
3.2 Description of Programs
International RFC reduction programs include voluntary programs between indus-
try and government and regulatory programs mandated by government. Voluntary
partnerships seek to implement cost-effective, technologically feasible emission
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reduction options without government regulation. Existing regulatory programs
mandate best available technology or performance standards.
As of November 1998, ten countries have undertaken industry-government initia-
tives to reduce RFC emissions from primary aluminum production: Australia, Bah-
rain, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, United Kingdom,
and United States. Of these, eight countries, representing over 50 percent of the
world-wide production, have voluntary reduction programs and two, New Zealand
and the United Kingdom, have regulatory programs.
The framework and requirements of voluntary programs vary; however, certain
characteristics are common to all. Typically, stakeholders set emission reduction
targets, either company-specific or industry-wide. Once the targets are set, a
process to monitor and track progress toward achieving these reductions is estab-
lished. Methods include monitoring programs and periodic reporting by industry.
The government is responsible for improving the diffusion of relevant science and
technology research and practices. In addition, the government may highlight the
accomplishments of the program and publicly recognize participating companies.
The scope of emission reduction activities varies from country to country. In some
countries, like the USA, the programs are restricted to RFC emissions from primary
aluminum production. Other countries, such as Australia, Canada, and France,
have included all GHGs and cover the entire aluminum industry, including alumina
refineries and semi-fabrication facilities. In these countries, the programs cover
energy consumption related C02 emissions, as well as direct C02 and RFC emis-
sions associated with the primary aluminum production process.
While the scope of the programs varies across countries, the emission reduction
activities undertaken at the company level are similar. The activities instituted to
reduce RFC emissions can be divided into three categories: best management
practices, technical initiatives, and research initiatives.
• Best Management Practices. These are activities related to operating
practices which minimize the frequency and/or duration of anode effects.
Best management activities include: educating employees on practices that
reduce the frequency and duration of anode effects; supplying employees
with training and the measurement devices to monitor alumina concentra-
tions; and routine involvement of smelter operators to identify, develop and
implement anode effect, voltage, and energy reduction measures.
• Technical Initiatives. These initiatives involve the use of state-of-the-art
RFC emission reduction technologies, or best available technologies that
have been successfully demonstrated in actual production environments.
These technologies include computerized anode effect suppression systems
that reduce anode effect duration and point feed systems that control alu-
mina feed.
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• Research Initiatives. Many countries are engaged in research directed at
advanced technologies and practices that are expected to have a significant
impact on RFC emissions in the next 10 to 20 years. A long-term industry
initiative that is being pursued aggressively through government-industry
research and development efforts in several countries is the development of
the non-consumable inert anode, which would eliminate all RFC emissions.
In countries whose programs include €62 and PFCs, €62 emission reductions have
been achieved largely due to actions taken to improve the energy efficiency of the
production process. The actions include developing more efficient baking furnaces,
improvements in pot-line design that will reduce per unit electricity requirements,
and fuel switching. Exhibit 3 summarizes the country programs to reduce RFC
emissions from primary aluminum production. The methods used by various
countries to estimate emissions and these estimates are provided in Section 3.4.
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Exhibit 3. Summary of International Efforts1
COUNTRY
PROGRAM TYPE
PROGRAM
DESCRIPTION
PROGRAM
COVERAGE
PROGRAM
ACCOMPLISHMENTS
Australia
Voluntary
The Australian aluminum industry signed
a voluntary "Framework Agreement" and
joined the Greenhouse Challenge, an
industry-government partnership, in
1995.
The program sets reduction targets for
RFC and other GHG emissions from
alumina refineries and aluminum smelt-
ers.
From 1990 to 1997, RFC emissions
decreased an estimated 73 percent.
During this same time period, energy
efficiency improvements resulted in a
2.2 percent decrease in total C02 emis-
sions.
Bahrain
Voluntary
Bahrain's sole aluminum producer has
entered into a voluntary agreement to
reduce GHG emissions with Bahrain's
Ministry of Housing, Municipalities and
Environment.
The program aims to reduce RFC and
other GHG emissions from aluminum
smelters.
From 1995 to 1998, Bahrain reduced
the RFC emissions rate by 47%. By
1998, the RFC emissions rate from
aluminum smelters was limited to 0.8
metric tons of C02 equivalent per met-
ric ton of aluminum produced.
Brazil
Voluntary
The Brazilian Aluminum Association
(ABAL) signed a voluntary agreement
with Brazil's Ministry of Science and
Technology (MST) to reduce GHG
emissions.
The voluntary agreement targets RFC
and C02 emissions from aluminum
smelters.
In 1996, the average RFC emission
factor was reduced 31 percent from
1994 levels.
Canada
Voluntary
Canada's Aluminum Industry Association
participates in the Voluntary Challenge
and Registry (VCR) Program initiated by
the Canadian Government and the
voluntary Canadian Industry Program for
Energy Conservation (CIPEC).
The VCR program aims to reduce RFC
and C02 emissions from aluminum
smelting. The CIPEC program aims to
improve energy efficiency in industry.
From 1990 to 1996, PFC emissions
decreased an estimated 30 percent.
Energy efficiency improvements re-
sulted in a 10 percent decrease in
energy consumption per tonne of
aluminum produced.
France
Voluntary
Aluminum Pechiney, the sole aluminum
producer in France, made a voluntary
commitment to reduce its GHG emissions
to the French government.
The voluntary commitment aims to
reduce PFC emissions from aluminum
smelters and C02 emissions from alu-
mina refining, smelting, and recycling
operations.
From 1990 to 1997, PFC emissions per
metric ton of primary aluminum were
reduced by 73 percent. During this
same period, C02 emissions per metric
ton of aluminum (both primary and
secondary) were reduced by 19 per-
cent.
Continued...
In the Netherlands, Iceland, Spain and Sweden, internal discussions on programs to reduce PFC emissions have begun, but no agreements are in place as of November, 1998. The
Netherlands does have a voluntary program on energy reduction in the aluminum industry (Nordheim, 1998). In Iceland, a regulation on the use and emissions of fluorocarbons
and some other persistent GHGs exists in a draft version in the Ministry for the Environment (Iceland, Ministry for the Environment, 1997).
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COUNTRY
PROGRAM TYPE
PROGRAM
DESCRIPTION
PROGRAM
COVERAGE
PROGRAM
ACCOMPLISHMENTS
Germany
Voluntary
The German Aluminum Industry (GDA)
pledged to reduce GHG emissions under
a voluntary agreement with the Federal
Ministry for the Environment, Nature
Conservation, and Nuclear Safety (BMU)
and under the Voluntary Declaration of
German Industry.
The voluntary agreement with the BMU
aims to reduce RFC emissions from
aluminum smelters. The Voluntary
Declaration of German Industry aims to
reduce GHG emissions from the alumina
refineries, smelters, and post-production
processes.
From 1990 to 1997, CF4 emissions per
metric ton of primary aluminum were
reduced by 43% from 0.44 kg CF4 /t Al
in 1990 to 0.25 kg CF4 /t Al in 1997.
New
Zealand
Regulatory
RFC emissions from New Zealand's sole
aluminum smelter (NZAS) are regulated
under the 1991 Resource Management
Act. NZAS also participates in a volun-
tary agreement with the Ministry of
Energy to reduce its C02 emissions.
Regulatory programs set process and
technology standards to reduce RFC
emissions. The voluntary agreement
targets C02 emissions from NZAS.
From 1990 to 1995, New Zealand
reduced RFC emissions from the alumi-
num smelting by 67 percent.
Norway
Voluntary
The Norwegian aluminum industry began
negotiations with the Ministry of the
Environment in 1996 to develop a
voluntary program aimed at reducing
RFC emissions and increasing energy
efficiency.
The voluntary program aims to reduce
C02-equivalent emissions from aluminum
smelters.
From 1985 to 1993, RFC emissions
from aluminum smelters have been
reduced by 43 percent.
United
Kingdom
Regulatory
RFC emissions from the aluminum
industry are regulated in the UK under
the Integrated Pollution Control (IRC)
regime, under the 1990 Environmental
Protection Act.
Regulatory programs set technology
standards to reduce RFC emissions from
aluminum smelters.
From 1990 to 1996, the UK aluminum
industry reduced the RFC emission
rate, in C02 equivalents per metric ton
of aluminum, by 69 percent.
United
States
Voluntary
In 1995, 11 of 12 primary aluminum
producers joined with the US Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) to form
the Voluntary Aluminum Industrial
Partnership (VAIP) to Reduce PFC
Emissions.
The VAIP program aims to reduce PFC
emissions from aluminum smelting
where technically feasible and cost-
effective.
From 1990 to 1997, the PFC emissions
rate decreased an estimated 34 per-
cent. PFC emission levels were re-
duced by 30 percent during this same
period.
2. In the UK, much of the effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has been undertaken voluntarily by the aluminum industry in agreement with regulatory authorities such as the
Environment Agency.
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3.3 Worldwide RFC Reduction Efforts
Exhibit 4 highlights producer nations that have established programs to reduce
RFC emissions and the portion of global production they represent. As shown in
the exhibit, most major producer nations have programs to reduce RFC emissions
from primary aluminum production. Countries with programs accounted for 54%
of total production in 1997. Additionally, internal discussions on programs to
reduce RFC emissions have begun in the Netherlands, Iceland, Spain, and Sweden,
but no agreements are in place as of November, 1998 (Nordheim, 1998).
Exhibit 4. Countries with PFC Reduction Programs
(Data in Thousand Metric Tons and % of Total; 1997 data)
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
I PFC Program
Production
No PFC Program
Number of Countries
22%
United States ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^" 17%
Russia
Canada
China
Australia
Brazil
Norway
South Africa
Venezuela
Germany
India
Bahrain
France
Spain
New Zealand
Jnited Arab Emirates: Dubai
United Kingdom
Other Producer Countries: Netherlands, Indonesia, Taijikstan, Egypt, Argentina, Italy, Romania, Ghana,
Greece, Iran, Iceland, Sweden, Ukraine, Cameroon, Slovenia, Turkey, Poland, Slovakia, Serbia & Montene-
gro, Suriname, Croatia, Switzerland, Hungary, Japan, Mexico, Azerbaijan, Bosnia & Hertzegovina, Nigeria.
Source: USGS Aluminum Industry Annual, 1998 and country profiles (Annex 1)
China and Russia are two of the largest producers that do not have programs to
reduce PFC emissions from primary aluminum production. These countries ac-
counted for 23% of total production in 1997. In China, there are currently no
regulations for PFC or other GHG emissions for the aluminum industry; however,
the Chinese National Environmental Protection Agency regulates emissions of
fluoride, chlorine, and other non-GHGs. In Russia, there are no specific programs
to reduce GHG, including PFC, emissions in the aluminum industry at present.
According to the State Committee on Environment Protection of the Russian Fed-
eration (SCEP), all sectors of the industry are involved in restructuring projects at
the enterprise level with government support (SCEP, 1998). It is not clear how
this restructuring will affect emissions.
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3.4 Methods to Estimate RFC Emissions and Reductions
When evaluating the progress reported by different countries in reducing emis-
sions, it should be recognized that emission estimation methods and the technol-
ogy mix of the smelters differ across countries.
RFC estimation methods include continuous monitoring of emissions, the develop-
ment of a smelter-specific relationship between emissions and operating parame-
ters based on field measurements (e.g., the slope method and the Pechiney Over-
Voltage Method) and the use of default emission factors.
• Smelter measurements. Continuous monitoring of emissions is the most
accurate method for measuring emissions. Field measurements have been
conducted in many countries, including Canada, Germany, Norway, and the
USA. Field measurements may be time consuming and expensive relative to
other emissions factor based estimation methods. Consequently, the data
from these measurements are often only gathered to develop and validate
models used to estimate emissions. Direct smelter measurements offer tan-
gible technical and policy benefits by generating more accurate data and
therefore enabling countries to improve their emissions inventory numbers.
• Smelter-specific relationship. Another estimation method is to develop
and use a validated smelter-specific relationship between emissions and op-
erating parameters based on measured data that are representative of long
term operations. This method requires comprehensive measurements and
on-going collection of operating parameter data (e.g., frequency and dura-
tion of anode effects) to develop the smelter-specific relationship.
Slope Method. This method uses a linear relationship between anode effect
(AE) minutes per cell-day and CF4 emissions, expressed as:
kg CF4/tonne of Al = slope x AE Minutes/cell-day
This relationship was first expressed by workers at Hydro Aluminium and Al-
coa based on field measurements at their prebake facilities. Both companies
independently arrived at a slope of 0.12 (IPAI, 1996). Recent field meas-
urements in the USA also indicate a slope of 0.12 for prebake cells (Leber et
al., 1998).
To develop an accurate estimate of the slope, simultaneous measurements
of CF4 emissions and anode effect data are required. These measurements
should be repeated over a range of anode effect minutes to ensure that the
linear relationship holds for a range of anode effect minutes.
The Slope Method is equivalent to one of the methods identified in The 1996
Revised IPCC Guidelines (IPCC, 1997) and proposed by Tabereaux (1994).
This method assumes that the generation of CF4 in an electrolysis cell fol-
lows Faraday's Law. Faraday's Law states that the quantity of PFC gener-
ated depends on the flow of electrical current in the cell. Using this method,
PFC emissions can be calculated using the following equation:
Page 12
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kg CF4/tonne of Al = 1.698 x (p/CE) x AEF x AED
Where p is the average fraction of CF4 in the cell gas during anode effects;
CE is the current efficiency; AEF is the number of anode effects per cell day;
and AED is the anode effect duration in minutes. Limiting the usefulness of
this approach is uncertainty regarding how best to estimate p for various
operating conditions and cell technologies. C2F6 emissions are assumed to
be 10 percent of CF4 emissions.
Pechiney Over-voltage Method. This method uses the anode effect over-
voltage as the relevant process parameter since it integrates the fluctuation
in voltage during an anode effect. The correlation formula was derived from
numerous test measurements of RFC generation at different smelters with
Pechiney technology.
kg CF4/tonne of Al = 1.9 x AEO / CE
Where AEO is the anode effect over-voltage in mV; CE is the current effi-
ciency in percent (Bouzat et al., 1996).
One of the drawbacks of this method is that many smelter process systems
do not have the capacity to collect the data required to compute the anode
effect over-voltage. This limits the application of this method.
Other Methods. In addition to these methods, there are still others that are
unique to certain countries. One such method is based on industry-average
RFC emission factors, which is currently used by the USA (see country pro-
files for more detail).
• Default emission factors. Where a smelter-specific relationship between
emissions and operating parameters has not been developed, but informa-
tion on operating parameters and production is available, default technol-
ogy-specific slope and over-voltage coefficients may be used. When these
data are not available, default emission factors by technology type are pro-
vided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC
is in the process of updating these factors to reflect new measurement data
available in the literature. This method is the most uncertain of the three
approaches.
While each of these methods is useful in fitting measured emission rates to process
parameters, all fall short of providing a robust predictor of emissions from process
parameters monitored during standard production, across producers, across tech-
nologies, and for a range of anode effect durations (IPAI, 1996). Not only do the
estimation methods vary, but the reporting of operating parameters also varies
across smelters. For example, the anode effect duration reported at different
smelters is often not comparable due to: different measurement equipment or
methods and different definitions of process parameters (such as anode effect
start time or end time). Data on the types of smelter technologies used in each
country are presented in Annex 2.
Page 13
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No industry/government consensus on the most accurate ("best") RFC estimation
method has been achieved. However, efforts to define a robust and generally
accepted estimation model are ongoing, and include the work of the IPCC as well
as country-based research programs designed to improve the understanding of the
relationship between operating parameters and emissions. This type of work is
extremely important because if industry and government can come to a consensus
on the accuracy of estimation methods, then it will be easier to confidently com-
pare and contrast emissions estimates developed by different methods.
Exhibit 5 presents RFC emission factors measured in tonnes of C02 equivalents per
tonne of aluminum produced, percent reduction in the RFC emissions factors, and
emission estimation methods reported by the individual countries. Using emission
reductions reported by each country, RFC emissions rates were converted into a
common unit, metric ton of C02 equivalents per metric ton of aluminum produced.
Page 14
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Exhibit 5. PFC Emissions Reductions
Country
Australia3
Bahrain4
Brazil4
Canada
France4
Germany4
New Zealand
Norway
United
Kingdom6
United States
t C02-e/ t Aluminum1
Start Year End Year
3.9 0.9
1.5 0.8
1.9 1.3
5.4 2.7
7.0 1.9
3.3 1.9
2.5 0.8
3.0 2.0
9.0 2.8
4.4 3.0
Years
Start-End
'90-'97
'95-'98
'94-'96
'90-'95
'90-'97
'90-'97
'90-'95
'90-'93
'90-'96
'90-'97
Reduction
Overall % %/year
78% 19%
47% 19%
31% 17%
49% 13%
73% 17%
43% 5%
69% 21%
34% 13%
69% 18%
32% 7%
Estimation
Method2
Slope Method
Pechiney Over-voltage
Faraday's Law
Smelter Measurements
Pechiney Over-voltage
Smelter Measurements
NA5
Smelter Measurements
Other
Other
Data
Source(s)2
Australian National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
(Workbook 8.2) and country contract.
Country contact
Country contact
National communication to UNFCCC and
country contact
National communication to UNFCCC and
country contact
Country contact
National communication to UNFCCC
National communication to UNFCCC
Country contact
Country contact
1. The unit for the PFC emissions factor is tonnes of C02 equivalent per metric ton of aluminum. In general, both CF4 and C2F6 are included. GWPs for CF4 and C2F6 are 6,500
and 9,200 respectively.
2. See individual country profiles for information on the estimation method and country contact.
3. Emission factor estimates are based on 1) a linear regression model of emissions in USA and Norway; 2) IPAI international survey; and 3) an estimating model developed for
an Australian smelter.
4. C2F6 emissions were not reported; for this analysis, it was assumed C2F6 emissions are 10% of CF4 emissions.
5. Not available.
6. Specific method is unknown. Information gathered indicates that emission factors based on anode effect frequency and anode effect duration were developed.
Note: Emissions rates and reductions across countries may not be comparable due to different methods used to estimate emissions.
Page 15
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Ongoing research in the USA as well as other countries will continue to improve the un-
derstanding of the relationship between operating parameters and RFC emissions. The
International Primary Aluminium Institute (IPAI) is collaborating with primary producers to
collect and analyze anode effect data and share information on RFC emissions and meas-
urement methods (IPAI, 1996). Additionally, in coordination with industry and govern-
ment experts, the IPCC is currently working on refining methods to inventory greenhouse
gas emissions, including PFCs.
3.5 Opportunities
Although most companies, countries, and programs have generally been successful in
their PFC emission reduction efforts, further opportunities exist for reducing PFC emissions
and improving our understanding of emissions estimates. Some of these include:
• Making capital investments. Increased process efficiency and reduced PFC emis-
sions can provide additional incentives for companies to invest in new cell technologies
and computerized systems. These technologies are profitable in the long-term, even
though installation requires significant up-front investment. Access to capital is espe-
cially a problem in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. For
example, in Russia, raising capital to make process improvements is difficult due to the
current economic and political conditions.
• Understanding the PFC generation process. Key to identifying and implementing
strategies to reduce PFC emissions is improvement of the fundamental understanding
of the mechanism of PFC production during anode effects. The industry has done ex-
tensive work to understand anode effects. Research programs, such as the US PFC
emissions measurement program, are currently underway to further refine relation-
ships between PFC emissions and operation parameters. This progress will facilitate
our ability to quantify emission levels and help to identify possible means to reduce
these emissions.
• Quantifying emissions and reductions. Efforts to develop consistent and robust
methods to quantify PFC emission rates are underway. With an established framework
to quantify emission levels it will be possible to verify emission reductions and to make
consistent comparisons between country's emission reduction claims. The IPCC good
practice guidelines, expected to be issued in early 2000, will present methods to esti-
mate PFC emissions from primary aluminum production. These good practice guide-
lines are likely to establish accepted methods for estimation and will help to create a
framework to quantify PFC emissions and compare emission levels across countries.
4. Conclusion
The aluminum industry has been proactive and responsive to government initiatives aimed
at reducing PFC emissions from primary aluminum production. PFC emission reduction
Page 16
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measures not only reduce RFC and other GHG emissions, but also improve process effi-
ciency. As a result, both industry and government have an interest in implementing these
measures.
Many of the producer countries are implementing technologies and practices to reduce
RFC emissions. As they continue to do so, emission rates will continue to decline in these
countries. Additional opportunity exists to make progress in other countries, including
Russia and China, which are major producers.
Further advances in RFC emissions reductions depend, in a large part, on the effectiveness
of voluntary and regulatory programs to achieve emission reductions. Information trans-
fer and international collaboration will facilitate and accelerate efforts to reduce RFC emis-
sions internationally.
A key area where international collaboration will prove most useful is in the development
of robust methods to quantify RFC emissions from primary aluminum production. Such
methods will help in the following ways:
• help producing countries inventory their RFC emissions,
• help industry and government to identify strategies to reduce emissions,
• serve as a tool to verify emission reduction efforts, and
• allow for comparisons of RFC emission reduction efforts across countries, which will
help to determine which policies, programs, or practices are most effective.
5. References
Aluminum Association (1998). "The Inert Anode Roadmap," The Aluminum Association,
February 1998.
Anthony Bird Associates (1998). "Aluminium Annual Review 1998," No. 18, March 1998.
Bouzat, G., JC. Carraz, and M. Meyer (1996). "Measurements of CF4 and C2F6 Emissions
from Prebaked Pots," Light Metals 1996.
Cook, E. (1995). "Lifetime Commitments: Why Climate Policy-makers Can't Afford to
Overlook Fully Fluorinated Compounds," WRI Issues and Ideas, February, 1995.
Department of Energy (DOE) (1997). "Energy and Environmental Profile of the US Alumi-
num Industry", DOE/OFT, July 1997.
Dolin, EJ. (1998). "Partnering: EPA's Voluntary Aluminum Industrial Partnership,"
ENVIRONMENTAL technology, Vol. 8, Issue 4, July/August 1998, pp. 40-41.
Dolin, EJ. (1997). "US on target for 40% PFC gas reduction by 2000," Aluminum Today,
Vol. 9, Issue 4, August/September 1997, pp. 54,56.
Page 17
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Dolin, EJ. (1997). "EPA's Atmospheric P2 Division Succeeds with Voluntary Programs",
Pollution Prevention Review, Vol. 6, Issue 4, Autumn 1997, pp. 75-86.
Driscoll, K. J. and D.L Moison (1997). "Capacity Creep -The Hidden Potential Growth of
Aluminum Smelting Capacity," Light Metals, 1997, pp. 259-264.
Gibbs, MJ. and C. Jacobs (1996). "Reducing PFC Emissions from Primary Aluminum Pro-
duction in the United States", Light Metal Age, February 1996.
Harnisch, J., R. Borchers, P. Fabian, M. Maiss (1995). "Tropospheric Trends (1980- 1995)
for CF4 and C2F6 from Stratospheric Data," Int. Soc. Opt. Eng./Europ. Opt. Soc. Europto-
Series, 2506, 384-393, 1995.
Huglen, R. and H. Kvande (1994). "Global Considerations of Aluminum Electrolysis on
Energy and the Environment", Light Metals 1994. 373-380.
IPAI (International Primary Aluminum Institute) (1996). "Anode Effect and PFC Emission
Survey 1990-1993". International Primary Aluminum Institute, London, UK. 1996.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1997). "Revised 1996 IPCC Guide-
lines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories."
Leber, B.P., AT. Tabereaux, J. Marks, B. Lamb, T. Howard, R. Kantamaneni, M. Gibbs, V.
Bakshi, and EJ. Dolin (1998). "Perfluorocarbon (PFC) Generation at Primary Aluminum
Smelters," Light Metals, pp. 277 - 285, February 1998.
Nordheim, E. (1998). Personal communication with Eirik Nordheim, European Aluminium
Association, November 1998.
SCEP (State Committee on Environment Protection of the Russian Federation) (1998).
Personal communication with SCEP by A.N. Syrach, ICF/EKO, April 28, 1998.
Tabereaux, A. (1994). "Anode Effects, PFCs, Global Warming, and the Aluminum Indus-
try," Journal of Metals, November 1994.
USGS (US Geological Survey), (1998). "Aluminum", US Geological Survey- Minerals Infor-
mation.
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), (1998). National
Communications. Available online at: http://www.unfccc.de
Victor, D. and G. MacDonald (1998). "Future Emissions of Long-lived Potent Greenhouse
Gases: Sulfur Hexafluoride and Perfluorocarbons", IIASA Interim report, July 1998.
Page 18
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Annex 1: Country Profiles
Annex 1 profiles each producer country that has undertaken industry-government initiatives
to reduce RFC emissions from primary aluminum production. In order to identify and collect
information on international efforts to reduce RFC emissions, the following steps were taken:
• Identified the top 25 aluminum producing countries. From this list, countries that have
or were thought to have RFC emission reduction programs through industry network-
ing and literature searches, were identified. Established industry or government con-
tacts in each country were identified.
• Submitted questionnaire and/or conducted interviews with country contacts. Collected
additional information from National Communications, industry literature, press re-
leases, and other sources.
• Compiled information into a country profile. The information in each country profile
represents that government/industry's interpretation of the RFC emission reduction
efforts. Emission reductions are reported in the measure provided.
• Submitted the country profile to individual countries for review. In an iterative proc-
ess, refined the profiles by incorporating new information and comments from the
country contact.
Page A1-1
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Australia
Aluminum Industry Profile
Australia is the world's largest producer of
bauxite and alumina. In 1997, Australia
produced 1.5 million metric tons of alumi-
num making it the 5* largest producer in
the world. Production is projected to in-
crease to 1.7 million metric tons by 2000.
There are 6 companies that produce alumi-
num in Australia:
Owner
Alcoa & JVPs
Alcoa AUS
Capral
Comalco
Comalco & JVPs
Tomago Al
% of Total Capacity
_
10%
9%
8%
29%
24%
Note: JVPs means joint venture patters
Source. Anthony Bird Associates, 1998
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National RFC Programs
Regulatory
Jnyentory^
_
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
PFCs
Other GHGs
Sector
[Alumina Refineries
[Aluminum Smelters
Post-Production1
i. Includes semi-fabrication to distribution
GHG Reduction Achievements
Total PFC emissions decreased an esti-
mated 73 percent from 1990 to 1997. The
PFC emissions rate is estimated to have
decreased from 3.9 to 0.9 tonnes of CO2
equivalent per tonne of aluminum over this
period, a reduction of 78 percent.
Energy efficiency and process management
improvements resulted in a 2.2 percent
decrease in total CO2 emissions from 1990
to 1997, even though production rose by
20 percent.
National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Initiatives
Australia became the 9th country to ratify the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change on December 30, 1992.
Australia signed the Kyoto Protocol on April 28, 1998. Australia's
primary framework for addressing climate change is the Green-
house Office, established in 1997, an outgrowth of the National
Greenhouse Response Strategy, which was endorsed by Com-
monwealth, State and local governments in 1992.
To reduce emissions from the industrial sector, the Greenhouse
Challenge, a government-industry initiative, was launched in 1995.
This voluntary program, coordinated by the Australian Greenhouse
Office (AGO), encourages industry to take a voluntary approach to
reducing GHG emissions through improvements in energy effi-
ciency, process efficiency, sink enhancement and effective use of
resources.
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
The aluminum industry, represented by the Australian Aluminum
Council, signed a voluntary "Framework Agreement" and joined
the Greenhouse Challenge industry-government partnership in
1995. The Framework Agreement provides for aggregate fore-
casts of greenhouse gas emissions for the entire industry. Sectors
of the industry make separate voluntary agreements under the
Framework Agreement. Aluminum smelters and alumina refineries
have already made such agreements.
The Framework Agreement targets all GHGs. Alumina refineries
have agreed to reduce GHG emissions mainly by improving energy
efficiency. Smelters are focusing on reducing PFC and other proc-
ess emissions as well as improving energy efficiency.
Program Implementation
The agreement to reduce emissions from aluminum smelting,
known as the Smelter Supplementary Agreement, was signed by
all smelters in September 1996.
The agreement is implemented through individual action plans
signed by industry partners with the support of the Australian
government. Industry partners customize their goals based on
facility-specific conditions, and these goals are reviewed periodi-
cally and revised if necessary. Industry partners identify options
for reducing GHG emissions from the aluminum industry that are
technically feasible and cost effective. Each industry partner sub-
mits an annual report to the Australian government detailing emis-
sion-reduction activities and estimated reductions achieved, along
with a GHG inventory.
Page A1-3
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For its part, the Australian government agrees to overall program responsibilities and makes
specific commitments to individual industry partners. The government agrees to streamline
government policies to improve energy and process efficiency, provide technical material, run
workshops and training programs on GHG reduction technologies and practices, and provide
public recognition to partner companies.
Outcomes
The following emissions reduction initiatives were undertaken by Australian aluminum smelters
and alumina refineries:
RFC reduction initiatives. Major improvements in equipment performance and reliability;
job redesign; and training of smelter operators. As a result, RFC emissions decreased an
estimated 73 percent from 1990 to 1997. Emission estimates are based on a method devel-
oped by the Australian aluminum industry, which incorporates (1) a linear regression model
of emission measurement data from the USA and Norway; (2) an international survey by
International Primary Aluminum Institute; and (3) an estimating model developed specifi-
cally for the technology used by one of the Australian smelters.
Energy efficiency initiatives. Investment in modernization of pot line design and opera-
tion; employee training; technology transfer; improved management of compressed air; and
investments in upgrading the carbon bake facilities and operations. As a result, the energy
and associated GHG emissions associated with processes other than direct smelting were re-
duced. Total C02 emissions decreased 2.2 percent from 1990 to 1997. Even though pro-
duction rose by over 20 percent over the same period, RFC and C02 emissions, in C02
equivalents per tonne of aluminum, decreased 18.7 percent from 1990 to 1997. In addition
to energy efficiency improvements in aluminum smelting, alumina refineries have invested in
energy efficiency and other actions and have reduced €62 emissions by ten percent per met-
ric ton of alumina between 1990 and 1997.
Next Steps
Australia's aluminum industry is considering a number of future actions that could result in GHG
abatement, including:
• continued improvements in control of anode effects through the refinement of automated
control systems and further improvements in operator training to manage the systems;
• improvements in pot line operation and pot design to further reduce the consumption of
electricity per tonne of aluminum produced;
• improved design and materials for carbon anodes and improvements to the anode baking
operations, including more efficient baking furnace gas consumption;
• reduction of energy consumption in auxiliary systems such as the dry scrubbers and
compressed air reticulation;
• fuel switching in non-electricity energy consuming operations;
• long-term research into new low-energy cells, which could achieve 15 to 20 percent
reductions in power consumption;
• investment in modernizing pot lines at older smelters, which would yield substantial
greenhouse benefits due to the greater efficiency of more modern technology;
• further efforts to achieve greater powerhouse efficiency at alumina refineries including
cogeneration; and
• measures to reduce energy requirements in the alumina refinery process.
Page A1-4
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Contact Information
For more information on Australia's efforts to abate GHGs (including PFCs) from aluminum
smelting and alumina refineries, contact:
Mr. David Coutts
Australian Aluminium Council
P.O. Box 3761
Manuka, ACT, Australia 2603
Tel: 612-695-7300 Fax: 612-695-7514
aac@aluminum.org.au
References
Australian National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Committee (1996). "Workbook for Industrial Pro-
cesses and Solvent and Other Product Use," Commonwealth of Australia, 1996.
Commonwealth of Australia (1994). "Climate Change: Australia's National Report Under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change/" Commonwealth of Australia,
September 1994.
Greenhouse Challenge WWW Site, "Cooperative Agreement: Australian Aluminum Council,"
ac.html
Coutts, D. (1998). Personal communication with Mr. David Coutts, Australian Aluminum Coun-
cil, January and June 1998.
Page A1-5
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Bahrain
Aluminum Industry Profile
In 1997, Bahrain produced 493,000 metric
tons of aluminum, making it the world's
11th largest producer. Aluminum produc-
tion is expected to increase to 500,000
metric tons by the year 2000.
There is one company that produces alu-
minum in Bahrain:
Owner
i% of Total Capacity
ALBA
100%
Source-. Anthony Bird Associates, 1998
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National PFC Programs
i Voluntary Regulatory j Inventory !
7 ; :
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
Sector i PFCs i Other GHGs
Alumina Refineries i
Aluminum Smelters / i /
Post-Production1 i
i. Includes semi-fabrication to distribution
GHG Reduction Achievements
By 1998, PFC emissions from aluminum
smelters were limited to 0.8 tonnes of C02
equivalent per tonne of aluminum. From
1995 to 1998, Bahrain reduced the PFC
emissions rate from aluminum smelting by
47%.
National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Initiatives
Bahrain ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Cli-
mate Change on December 28, 1994. The treaty entered into
force on March 28, 1995. Bahrain has not yet signed the Kyoto
Protocol (as of November 1998).
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
Bahrain's sole aluminum producer, Aluminium Bahrain, is imple-
menting a voluntary program for PFC and CCh emissions reduc-
tion. The Ministry of Housing, Municipalities, and Environment
through the Directorate of Environmental Affairs coordinates ac-
tivities with Aluminium Bahrain.
Program Implementation
As part of the voluntary agreement, Aluminium Bahrain periodi-
cally measures its GHG emissions, implements measures to reduce
emissions, and reports them to the Ministry of Housing, Munici-
palities and Environment.
For its part, the Government of Bahrain oversees overall environ-
mental control responsibilities and provides public recognition to
program participants.
Outcomes
The focus of PFC emissions reduction efforts is to reduce the fre-
quency and duration of anode effects through automated control
systems and improvements in operator training to manage the
systems. Emissions are calculated every four weeks and refine-
ments to the control systems and operations are subsequently
made in order to improve system efficiency and reduce PFC emis-
sions.
By 1998, PFC emissions from aluminum smelters were limited to
0.8 tonne of C02 equivalent per tonne of aluminum produced.
From 1995 to 1998, Bahrain reduced the PFC emissions rate by
47%. The PFC emission levels are estimated using the Pechiney
over-voltage model, which uses anodic over-voltage as the process
parameter to predict PFC emission rates.
Next Steps
Bahrain's aluminum industry plans continued GHG reduction ef-
forts, including:
• following international efforts to reduce GHG emissions;
PageA1-7
-------
• complying with any new international standard protocols for measuring and reducing
emissions; and
• adopting proven technologies for reducing emissions.
Contact Information
For more information on Bahrain's efforts to reduce GHGs (including PFCs) from aluminum
smelting, contact:
Mr. J. G. Ameeri
General Manager, Aluminium Bahrain
P.O. Box 570
Manama, Bahrain
Tel: (0973) 830-000 Fax: (0973) 830-083
Directorate of Environmental Affairs
Ministry of Housing, Municipalities and Environment
P.O. Box 26909
Bahrain
Tel: (0973) 293-693 Fax: (0973) 293-694
References
Ameeri, J.G. (1998). Personal communication with Mr. J. G. Ameeri, March and June 1998.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Status of Ratification. Available on-
line at:
Bouzat, G., J.C. Carraz and M. Meyer (1996). "Measurements of CF4 and C2F6 Emissions from
Prebaked Pots", Light Metals 1996, p. 413-417.
Page A1-8
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Brazil
Aluminum Industry Profile
In 1995, Brazil produced 1,188,000 metric
tons of aluminum, making it the world's 6*
largest producer.
There are 6 companies that produce alumi-
num in Brazil:
i Owner :%
; Albras ;
; Alcan i
; Alcominas ;
i Alumar ;
CBA
Valesul i
Source. Anthony Bird Associates
of Total Capacity:
28%
9%
7%
29%
18%
8%
National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Initiatives
Brazil ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Cli-
mate Change on February 28, 1994. Brazil signed the Kyoto Pro-
tocol on April 28, 1998. Brazil's framework for addressing climate
change is a multi-institutional team, under the coordination of the
Ministry of Science and Technology (MST).
Brazil's efforts related to GHG emissions reduction include research
and development in the area of ethanol fuel derived from sugar-
cane, the development of hydro, wind, solar and thermal power
plants, energy conservation, and suppression of forest fires.
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
The Brazilian Aluminum Association (ABAL) made a voluntary
agreement to reduce GHG emissions. Their efforts are supported
by Brazil's Ministry of Science and Technology (MST). The volun-
tary agreement targets RFC (CF4 and C2F6) and CCh emissions
from aluminum smelters.
Program Implementation
The aluminum industry has improved process control and up-
graded technologies.
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National RFC Programs
Regulatory
Voluntary
/
Inventory
/
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
ISector
lAlumina Refineries i |
Aluminum Smelters i
-------
Next Steps
Brazil's aluminum industry plans to continue efforts to reduce GHG emissions.
Contact Information
For more information on Brazil's efforts to reduce GHGs (including PFCs) from aluminum smelt-
ing, contact:
Mr. Jose Domingos Gonzalez Miguez
Ministry of Science and Technology - MTC
Esplanada dos Ministerios, Bloco E sala 398
70067 - 900 Brasilia - DF - Brazil
Tel: (+55) 61-317-7923 / 7562 Fax: (+55) 61-317-7657
References
Miguez, J. and V. Lima (1998). Personal communication with Jose Domingos Gonzalez Miguez
and Valeria B. Lima, Ministry of Science and Technology - MTC May and July, 1998.
ABAL (1998). The Brazilian Aluminum Association. Correspondence, July 1998.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
Page A1-10
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Canada
Aluminum Industry Profile
In 1997, Canada produced 2.3 million met-
ric tons of aluminum, making it the 3rd
largest producer in the world. Production is
projected to increase to about 2.8 million
metric tons by 2001-2003.
There are 5 companies that produce alumi-
num in Canada:
Owner
AB!
Mean
Alouette Al
Alumax
Reynolds
% of Total Capacity
15%
48%
10%
9%
17%
Source. Anthony Bird Associates
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National PFC Programs
Voluntary Regulatory
Inventory
_
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
Rector PFCs Other GHGs
[Alumina Refineries
[Aluminum Smelters / /
post-Production1
i. Includes semi-fabrication to distribution
GHG Reduction Achievements
PFC emissions decreased an estimated 30
percent from 1990 to 1996. The PFC emis-
sions rate is estimated to have decreased
from 5.4 to 2.7 tonnes of CO2 equivalent
per tonne of aluminum over this period, a
reduction of about 50 percent. Energy
efficiency improvements resulted in a 10
percent decrease in energy consumption
per tonne of aluminum produced from 1990
to 1996.
The industry objective is to reduce PFC
emissions by 50 percent from 1990 levels
by the year 2000 and reduce energy inten-
sity by 0.3 percent per year until 2010.
National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Initiatives
Canada ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Cli-
mate Change on December 4, 1992. Canada signed the Kyoto
Protocol on April 29, 1998. Canada's primary framework for ad-
dressing climate change is the Task Group on Climate Change, a
multi-stakeholder group of government, business, labor, consumer
and environmental members.
Canada's efforts to reduce GHG emissions include a range of pol-
icy instruments, including information and education initiatives,
voluntary programs, research and development, and economic
instruments. The majority of measures in Canada have been
aimed at increasing energy efficiency and energy conservation or
encouraging a switch to energy sources that are less carbon inten-
sive.
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
The Aluminum Industry Association, which represents 100 percent
of primary aluminum production in Canada, participates in the
Voluntary Challenge and Registry (VCR) Program initiated by the
Canadian Government (Natural Resources Canada and Environ-
ment Canada).
The VCR Program aims to reduce PFC and CCh emissions from
aluminum smelting. The aluminum industry also endorses Eco-
geste, a Quebec action plan for the implementation of the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
The aluminum industry also participates in the voluntary Canadian
Industry Program for Energy Conservation (CIPEC), aimed at im-
proving energy efficiency. (However, it is important to note that
Canadian aluminum smelters operate entirely on hydroelectric en-
ergy, which is not a source of GHGs).
Program Implementation
The VCR Program is implemented through individual action plans
designed by industry partners with the support of the Canadian
government. Industry partners customize their goals based on
facility-specific conditions, and these goals are reviewed periodi-
cally and revised if necessary. Industry partners identify techni-
cally feasible options for reducing GHG emissions from the alumi-
num industry, and implement only those options that promise to
be cost-effective. Along with a GHG inventory, each industry part-
ner submits an annual report to the Canadian government, detail-
ing emissions and reductions.
Page A1-11
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For its part, industry regularly reports their GHG emissions to the VCR (specifically, Environment
Canada and Natural Resources Canada) and Eco-geste (initiated by the Quebec Government).
Each year, companies submit an action plan for energy efficiency to the Canadian Industry Pro-
gram for Energy Conservation (CIPEC).
For its part, the Canadian government agrees to overall program responsibilities and partially
funds research for energy efficiency.
Outcomes
Measures to reduce PFC emissions were identified through a large-scale measurement and re-
search program financed by Canada's aluminum industry and by Environment Canada. The
measures identified include improvement in the controls of processes to reduce the frequency
and duration of anode effects. Due to implementation of these measures, PFC emissions from
Canada's aluminum industry decreased an estimated 30 percent from 1990 to 1996. Emissions
are calculated using average emission rates based on field measurements from a number of
plants, representative of four types of aluminum-smelting technologies.
Additionally, energy efficiency improvements have resulted in a 10 percent decrease in energy
consumption per tonne of aluminum produced from 1990 to 1996.
Next Steps
The aluminum industry's objective is to reduce PFC emissions by 50 percent from 1990 levels by
the year 2000 and reduce the energy input per kilogram of aluminum produced by 0.3 percent
each year until 2010.
While marginal efficiency can be made through process improvements, achieving energy effi-
ciency within the aluminum sector is closely tied to the construction of new smelters and the
replacement rate of old smelters. Thus, the major challenge facing the aluminum sector is to
secure funding or investments to underwrite replacement of old, less energy-efficient smelters,
and to expand existing new smelters.
The most important innovation on the horizon is the graphite cathode block, which will replace
the carbon cathode block. While the replacement of carbon blocks by graphite blocks does not
reduce emissions of PFC, it reduces the energy consumption per tonne of aluminum. Where
electricity is generated from fossil fuels, C02 emissions would also be reduced. In Canada,
however, the electricity grid is hydro based.
Canada is also making the recycling of aluminum a priority, as recycled aluminum requires only
5 percent of the energy used for primary aluminum.
Contact Information
For more information on Canada's efforts to reduce GHGs (including PFCs) from primary alumi-
num production, contact:
Mr. Christian L. Van Houtte
President, Aluminum Industry Association
1010, Sherbrooke St. West, Suite 1600
Montreal (Quebec) Canada H3A 2R7
Tel: (514) 288-4842 Fax: (514) 288-0944
Page A1-12
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References
Van Houtte, C. L (1998). Personal communication with Mr. Christian L. Van Houtte, President,
Aluminum Industry Association (Canada), March 1998.
Aluminum Industry Association (Canada), "The Canadian Aluminum Industry and the Environ-
ment." Third Quarter, 1997.
Environment Canada, "Executive Summary of the National Communication of Canada." October
26, 1994.
Page A1-13
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France
Aluminum Industry Profile
In 1997, France produced 399,000 metric
tons of aluminum, an increase of 22 per-
cent from 1990 levels. It is the world's 13*
largest producer. Primary aluminum pro-
duction is projected to increase to 447,000
tonnes by 2000. Secondary aluminum pro-
duction is projected to increase from
107,000 tonnes in 1990 to 118,000 tonnes
in 2000.
There is one company that produces pri-
mary aluminum in France:
i Owner !% of Total Capacity!
Aluminium Pechiney j 100% j
1997 data
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National RFC Programs
i Voluntary j Regulatory i Inventory !
_^....^
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
Sector
Alumina Refineries
Aluminum Smelters
Post-Production;
Recycling1
iPFCsiOtherGHGsl
i S i
i / / i
i / i
1. Includes one secondary refining plant and two
primary remelting plants.
GHG Reduction Achievements
Between 1990 and 1997, CF4 emissions per
metric ton of primary aluminum were re-
duced from 7 to 1.9 tonne of CO2 equivalent
per tonne of aluminum, a reduction of 73
percent, and CO2 emissions per metric ton
of aluminum (both primary and secondary)
were reduced by 19 percent. This is in line
with the 2000 targets in terms of specific
emissions.
The goal is to reduce its emissions of CO2
and CF4 by a total of 34 percent (on a CDs-
equivalent basis) by the year 2000 relative
to 1990 levels.
National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Initiatives
France ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Cli-
mate Change on March 25, 1994. France signed the Kyoto Proto-
col on April 29, 1998.
France's efforts to combat climate change include regulations
aimed at encouraging energy savings (including regulation of
heating in dwellings), economic instruments (including a fuel
duty), public awareness activities, and the further development of
nuclear power.
The French government has also worked with energy-intensive
industries to develop voluntary commitments to reduce GHG emis-
sions. As of November 1997, voluntary commitments had been
signed by six partners (branches of industries).
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
In 1996, Aluminium Pechiney, the sole primary aluminum producer
in France, made a voluntary commitment to reduce its emissions
of C02 and CF4 by a total of 34 percent (on a CC^-equivalent ba-
sis) by the year 2000 relative to 1990 levels. Between 1990 and
1996, Pechiney reports a 19 percent reduction in C02 emissions
from refining, smelting, and recycling operations, and a 73 percent
reduction in CF4 emissions from smelting, per tonne of aluminum
(both primary and secondary) produced.
This reduction target is based on three assumptions: (1) primary
aluminum production will increase 37 percent between 1990 and
2000; (2) secondary aluminum production will increase 10 percent
between 1990 and 2000; and (3) the global warming potential
(GWP) of CF4 is 5100. However, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change has since revised the GWP of CF4 from 5100 to
6500. Aluminium Pechiney will adjust its commitment to reflect the
revised GWP of CF4, and is also likely to expand the commitment
to include emissions of
Program Implementation
To achieve its commitment to reduce C02 and CF4 emissions, Alu-
minium Pechiney is implementing measures to (1) reduce the spe-
cific consumption of thermal and electric energy by 7% and 2.4%
respectively compared with 1990, which is part of its commitment;
and (2) reduce direct emissions of C02 and CF4. These measures
include:
• Improving the energy efficiency of aluminum production op-
erations, including optimizing combustion equipment and in-
vestigating opportunities for fuel switching and cogeneration;
PageA1-15
-------
• Implementing electrolytic control measures;
• Improving fabrication processes;
• Improving alumina feed practices; and
• Conducting employee training and total quality management.
Aluminium Pechiney will fund the implementation of these measures, and will submit annual
progress reports to the French government.
Outcomes
To reduce CF4 emissions, Aluminium Pechiney has implemented point-feeding mechanisms that
reduce the frequency and duration of anode effects. They report that between 1990 and 1997,
CF4 emissions per tonne of primary aluminum were reduced by 73 percent, which is matching
the 2000 target. Reductions of CF4 emissions are calculated using anode effect over-voltage as a
process parameter and a formula based on test measurements of CF4 and C2F6 emissions at four
different pot lines.
To increase the energy efficiency of its operations, Aluminium Pechiney has upgraded its smelt-
ing production capacity with improved high-amperage electrolysis pots that reduce the electricity
and carbon intensity of aluminum production. The company has also implemented process
controls in anode baking and casthouse furnaces to reduce fuel consumption. Aluminium Pechi-
ney reports that between 1990 and 1997, C02 emissions per tonne of aluminum (both primary
and secondary) were reduced by 19 percent. Reductions of C02 emissions are determined by
monitoring relevant process and energy consumption parameters, including electricity consump-
tion through the average carbon intensity of power generation in France.
Next Steps
Aluminium Pechiney will continue to implement the measures described above to reduce emis-
sions of C02 and CF4. New additional steps are going to take place in 1999-2000 including im-
plementation of electricity cogeneration in alumina production and restructuring of remelting
activities. They are likely to provide additional improvements in terms of CC^-specific emissions.
However, the company reports that in France, the most significant emission reductions from im-
plementing best-available technologies are likely to have been achieved by 2000, and that post-
2000 emission reductions are unlikely to be significant unless aluminum production decreases.
Contact Information
For more information on France's efforts to reduce GHGs (including PFCs) from primary alumi-
num production, contact:
Mr. Thierry Berthoud, International Affairs Division
Mr. Laurent Chabannes, Energy Division
Mr. Michel Labarre, Environment and Industrial Risks Division
Aluminium Pechiney
7 place du chancelier Adenauer
75218 Paris Cedex 16
Tel: 33 1 56 28 23 12
Fax: 33 1 56 28 33 72
Mlabarre@amt.pechiney.fr
Page A1-16
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References
Labarre, M. (1998). Personal communication with Mr. Michel Labarre, Aluminium Pechiney,
May and July 1998.
Republique Francaise. "Second National Communication of France under the Climate Conven-
tion." Republique Francaise, November 1997.
Page A1-17
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Germany
Aluminum Industry Profile
In 1995, Germany produced 575,000 metric
tons of aluminum (3 percent of global pro-
duction), making it the 9* largest producer
in the world. Production is expected to
remain constant through 2005.
There are 4 companies that produce alumi-
num in Germany:
Owner
Essen Al
Hamburger Al Werke
Hoogovens
VAW
|% of Total
j Capacity
| 22%
] 20%
] 13%
1 45%
Source: Anthony Bird Associates
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National PFC Programs
Voluntary
/
Regulatory
Inventory
/
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
Sector
i
[Alumina Refineries
[Aluminum Smelters
fast-Production1
PFCs
Other GHGs
i. Includes semi-fabrication to distribution
GHG Reduction Achievements
The aluminum industry reports that be-
tween 1990 and 1996, the PFC emissions
rate decreased from 3.3 to 2.5 tons of COz
equivalent per tonne of aluminum, a re-
duction of 23 percent.
National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Initiatives
Germany ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change on December 9, 1993. Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol on
April 29, 1998. Germany's primary framework for addressing climate
change is the C02 reduction Inter-ministerial Working Group, estab-
lished in June 1990. Working parties have been established for the
following areas: energy supply, transport, buildings and structures,
new technologies, and agriculture and silviculture.
Many German industries have pledged to reduce C02 emissions as part
of the Voluntary Declaration of German Industry, a voluntary govern-
ment-industry initiative.
From 1990 to 1995, German emissions of C02 decreased 12 percent,
CH4 emissions decreased 16 percent, and N20 emissions decreased 7
percent, as reported by the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Na-
ture Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU).
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
On June 17, 1997, the industry trade association German Aluminum
Industry (GDA) signed a voluntary agreement with the BMU to reduce
PFC emissions from aluminum smelters. They have also agreed to the
Voluntary Declaration with the BMU, which aims to reduce GHG emis-
sions from the alumina refineries, smelters, and post-production proc-
esses. In addition, individual smelter-specific voluntary agreement
targets PFCs (CF4 and C2F6).
Program Implementation
The voluntary agreement is endorsed by the Primary Aluminum Smelt-
ers Group, which represents all German primary aluminum producers.
German aluminum producers have voluntarily set a target of reducing:
• the PFC emission rate per kg of aluminum produced by about
50 percent from 1990 levels by the year 2005, and
• total PFC emissions from Germany's aluminum smelters by at
least 50 percent from 1990 levels by the year 2005. This
means reducing CF4 emissions from 316 metric tons in 1990 to
158 tonnes or less in 2005, and reducing C2F6 emissions from
32 to 16 tonnes or less.
Germany's aluminum industry will voluntarily modernize aluminum
smelters using the best available technology and will educate smelter
operators on improved process management. The Primary Aluminum
Smelters Group will submit annual progress reports to the BMU. A
neutral institute will measure PFC emissions. The German Environ-
ment Ministry will recognize aluminum companies for participation and
offer consultation support.
Page A1-19
-------
Outcomes
In 1996, a neutral measuring institute, in agreement with the authorities, measured emissions in all
German primary aluminum smelters. From 1990 and 1996, CF4 emissions per metric ton of primary
aluminum were reduced by 23 percent from 0.44 kg CF4/ t Al in 1990 to 0.34 kg CF4/ t Al in 1996.
In 1997, actual efforts reduced CF4 emissions further to 0.25 kg CF4 /t Al. This reduction brings
Germany closer to their short-term target of reducing 1990 emissions by 50% by 2005.
The measuring institute determined the CF4 emission factor in the following way:
• measuring the mean CF4 concentration of an anode effect;
• determining the mean duration of an anode effect;
• multiplying the overall flow rate and the mean duration of an anode effect to yield the CF4
flow rate per anode effect;
• multiplying the total number of anode effects (from documentation) and the CF4 emission per
anode effect to yield the total CF4 emissions; and
• dividing the total CF4 emissions by the tonnage of aluminum produced to yield the CF4 emis-
sion per tonne aluminum.
Next Steps
According to the agreements, the aluminum industry will continue RFC reduction efforts to reach its
target CF4 emission factor of 0.22 kg CF4/t Al by 2005. In 1999, the aluminum industry plans to
evaluate the progress of the Voluntary Agreement and reassess target levels of GHG reduction.
Contact Information
For more information on Germany's efforts to reduce GHGs (including PFCs) from primary aluminum
production, contact:
Dr. Norbert Salomon Mr. Rainer Buchhoz
Federal Ministry for the Environment, German Aluminum Industry (GDA)
Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety PO Box 105463
PO Box 120629 Duesseldorf, Germany 40045
Bonn, Germany 53048 Tel: +49-221-4796-130
Tel: +49-228-3052-426 Fax: +49-221-4796-415
Fax: +49-228-3053-524
References
Germany's Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, "Second
Report of the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany Pursuant to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change." April 1997.
Gesamtverband Der Deutschen Aluminiumindustrie e.V. (German Aluminum Industry, GDA), June
17, 1997, "Voluntary Self-Commitment of the Primary Aluminum Smelters group of the GDA and
its Member companies to Reduce CF4 and C2F6 Emissions."
Salomon, N. (1998). Personal communication with Dr. Salomon, Federal Ministry for the Environ-
ment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, February and July 1998.
Page A1-20
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New Zealand
Aluminum Industry Profile
New Zealand produced 273,000 metric tons
of aluminum in 1995, making it the world's
14* largest producer.
There is one company that produces alu-
minum in New Zealand:
I Owner | % of Total Capacity i
i NZAS i 100% i
Source. Anthony Bird Associates
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National PFC Programs
! Voluntary ! Regulatory I Inventory ;
i i / ; / ;
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
ISector
lAlumina Refineries I i
lAluminum Smelters i / i
-------
Outcomes
NZAS significantly reduced RFC emissions from its aluminum smelter through changes in process
control procedures, including upgrades to the reduction cell control system and changes to con-
trol strategies to reduce the frequency and duration of anode effects. RFC emissions were re-
duced from 89 metric tons in 1990 to 29 metric tons in 1995, a 67 percent decrease.
Additionally, energy efficiency improvements are projected to decrease energy consumption per
tonne of aluminum produced by 4 percent from 1990 to 2000.
Next Steps
RFC emissions are projected to rise slightly to 34 metric tons in 2000 due to an increase in alu-
minum production and then stabilize at that level through 2010. New Zealand's aluminum in-
dustry plans continued GHG reduction efforts.
Contact Information
For more information on New Zealand's efforts to reduce GHGs (including PFCs) from the alumi-
num industry, contact:
Helen Plume
Ministry for the Environment
Grand Annex Building,
84 Boulcott Street
PO Box 10-362
Wellington, New Zealand
Tel: 64-4-917-7400 Fax: 64-4-471-0195
Nick Hunn
Comalco New Zealand, Ltd.
PO 1665
Wellington, New Zealand 6004
Tel: +64-4-471-1527 Fax: 64-4-472-8041
References
Hunn, N. (1998). Personal communication with Nick Hunn, March 1998.
Plume, H. (1998). Personal communication with Helen Plume, March 1998.
New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, "Climate Change: The New Zealand Response. New
Zealand's First National Communication under the Framework Convention on Climate
Change." September 1994.
New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, "Climate Change: The New Zealand Response II.
New Zealand's Second National Communication under the FCCC." June 1997.
Page A1-22
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Norway
Aluminum Industry Profile
In 1996, Norway produced 800,000 metric
tons of aluminum making it the 6* largest
producer in the world. Production is pro-
jected to increase to 1 million metric tons
by 2000.
There are 3 companies that produce alumi-
num in Norway:
i Owner ; % of Total i
i i Capacity \
\ Hydro Al i 69% i
; Elkem Aluminum ANS ; 21% ;
; Soer-Norge ; 11% ;
Source: Anthony Bird Associates and S. Namdai
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National PFC Programs
i Voluntary i Regulatory ; Inventory ;
i 7i 7I
National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Initiatives
Norway ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Cli-
mate Change on July 9, 1993. Norway signed the Kyoto Protocol
on April 29, 1998. Norway's nationally established target to stabi-
lize C02 emissions at 1989 levels by 2000 is an important guiding
principle for Norwegian climate policy.
Norway's climate policy includes market-based incentives and vol-
untary government-industry partnerships. A C02 tax on oil, natu-
ral gas, and coal for energy use implemented in 1991 together
with industry partnerships have lead to increased energy efficiency
and reduced GHG emissions in the industrial sector.
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
In June 1997, the Norwegian aluminum industry entered into a
voluntary agreement with the Ministry of the Environment and In-
dustry aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The volun-
tary agreement has been signed by only the smelting portion of
the aluminum industry. Under the agreement, the smelters agree
to implement activities to reduce PFC emissions by reducing anode
effects and reduce CCh emissions through increased energy effi-
ciency.
Even prior to the establishment of the voluntary agreement with
the government to reduce greenhouse gases, Norway's aluminum
smelters have been implementing activities to reduce PFC emis-
sions. These activities have included improving process controls
and replacing older inefficient smelter technologies with the newer
pre-bake technology.
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
Sector i PFCs i Other GHGs
Alumina Refineries ;
Aluminum Smelters ; / /
iPost-Production1 ;
i. Includes semi-fabrication to distribution
GHG Reduction Achievements
Total emissions of PFCs from aluminum
smelters have been reduced by 43 percent
between 1985 and 1993. From 1990 to
1993, the PFC emissions rate has de-
creased from 3 to 2 tonnes of C02 equiva-
lent per tonne of aluminum, a reduction of
34 percent in this period.
Norway aims to reduce the PFC emission
rate by 50 percent from 1990 levels by the
year 2000 and 55 percent from 1990 levels
by the year 2005.
Program Implementation
In the agreement, the primary aluminum producers have voluntar-
ily set a target of reducing the PFC emission rate (PFC emissions
per metric tonof aluminum produced) by about 50 percent from
1990 levels by the year 2000 and 55 percent below 1990 levels by
the year 2005.
The agreement is on an industry basis rather than a smelter basis.
Within the overall industry agreement, each smelter sets targets
and produces an action plan. Smelters customize their goals
based on facility-specific conditions. The goals are reviewed peri-
odically and revised if necessary. Smelters identify technically fea-
sible options for reducing GHG emissions and implement only
those options that promise to be cost-effective. At the end of each
year, an annual report detailing emission reduction activities and
estimated reductions achieved is submitted to the Ministry of Envi-
ronment and Industry.
Page A1-23
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Outcomes
It is too early to report on the progress of activities undertaken under the 1997 voluntary
agreement. Among emissions reduction actions identified are the installation of point-feed sys-
tems, improvement of existing point-feed systems, and refinement of process control systems
and routines.
As a result of ongoing efforts to reduce RFC emissions (prior to the agreement), aluminum
smelters have reduced total RFC emissions by 43 percent between 1985 and 1993. Measure-
ments and calculations performed by Norwegian production plants indicate that emissions per
unit produced have been reduced from about 0.6 to 0.3 kg PFCs per metric ton aluminum dur-
ing this period, a reduction of 50 percent.
A method to estimate GHG emissions has been set for both Soderberg and pre-bake technology
and for anode production. Equation forms and constants have been agreed upon between in-
dustry and the government based on smelter measurements. The emission estimation method-
ology requires that industry report the following parameters to the government:
• C02 in metric tons for each plant and technology;
• CF4 and C2F6 in kg or metric tons and in CC^-equivalents for each plant and technology;
• Current intensity;
• Anode effect frequency; and
• Number of cell days and number of upstart cells for each plant and technology.
Norway's aluminum industry anticipates that RFC emissions can be reduced by 80-90 percent
compared to the 1990 level by the year 2005. From 1990 to 2005, the potential reductions
could be in excess of 1.5 million tonnes of CCh equivalents per year, or about 3 percent of the
total emissions of GHGs in Norway.
Next Steps
The aluminum industry plans to evaluate the progress of the voluntary agreement in 2000. A
reassessment of the target levels of GHG reduction will be discussed in 2005. The industry ex-
pects an increase in aluminum production of about 20% per year from 1995 to 2005. Emissions
of C02 are expected to rise in conjunction with the production increases. Efforts to reduce GHG
emissions on a plant-by-plant basis include the following measures: installation of point feeders,
improvement of existing point feeders, and improved data equipment/control systems and rou-
tines.
Contact Information
For more information on Norway's efforts to reduce GHGs (including PFCs) from primary alumi-
num production, contact:
Ms. Signe Namdal
The Norwegian Pollution Control Authority
P.O. Box 8100 Dep.
N-0032 Oslo
Tel: 47 22 57 3536 Fax: 47 22 67 6706
E-mail:
Page A1-24
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References
Namdal, S. (1998). Personal communication with Ms. Signe Namdal, April and June 1998.
Ministry of Environment, Norway, "Norway's National Communication Under the Framework
Convention on Climate Change," Norway, September 1994.
Elkem Aluminum, Environmental Report 1997. Available online at:
http://www.elkem.com/miljoe_e.htm
Page A1-25
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United Kingdom
National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Initiatives
The United Kingdom ratified the United Nations Framework Con-
vention on Climate Change on December 8, 1993. The United
Kingdom signed the Kyoto Protocol on April 29, 1998. The De-
partment of the Environment is responsible for UK policy on cli-
mate change, however, other agencies have the lead on specific
policies and measures. The UK Climate Change Programme in-
cludes economic instruments (including a road fuel duty), regula-
tory and deregulatory measures, voluntary action and public
awareness programs.
Aluminum Industry Profile
The UK produced 238,000 metric tons of
aluminum in 1995, making it the 16* larg-
est producer in the world. Production is
expected to increase to 300,000 tonnes per
year by 1998 and then remain stable at
300,000 tonnes per year through 2010.
There are 2 companies that produce alumi-
num in the UK:
; Owner ; % of Total Capacity ;
I Anglesey AL | 42% ;
I British Alcan ! 58% |
Source: Anthony Bird Associates
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National RFC Programs
Voluntary
7
Regulatory
7
Inventory
7
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
Sector ! PFCs ! Other GHGs
Alumina Refineries I !
jAluminum Smelters I / !
i. Includes semi-fabrication to distribution
GHG Reduction Achievements
Over the period 1990 to 1996, the UK Alu-
minum industry has achieved a 69 percent
reduction in the PFC emission factor, in C02
equivalent emissions per tonne of primary
aluminum produced. The PFC emission
factor decreased from 9 to 2.8 tonnes of
CO2 equivalent per tonne of aluminum from
1990 to 1996.
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
PFC emissions from aluminum smelting are regulated in the UK
under the Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) regime, which was
introduced to regulate industrial pollution under the 1990 Envi-
ronmental Protection Act.
Much of the effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has been
undertaken voluntarily by the industry in agreement with the
regulatory authorities such as the Environment Agency. The pri-
mary smelters in the UK presented a schedule of anticipated PFC
reductions in the 1994 Climate Change Report, and the industry is
planning to meet the targets projected to the year 2000.
Program Implementation
PFC emissions from aluminum smelting are regulated by the Envi-
ronment Agency (EA) in England and Wales and by the Scottish
Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) in Scotland. EA and SEPA
ensure that emissions from aluminum smelting are as low as can
reasonably be achieved through the use of BATNEEC (Best Avail-
able Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost). EA and SEPA also
consult aluminum smelters on improved operation and process
control systems to minimize the occurrence of anode effects.
Outcomes
New computer controls of the primary pot lines at the three mod-
ern primary smelters in the UK have improved process control and
have reduced anode effects. Over the period 1990 to 1997, the
UK aluminum industry has achieved a 69 percent reduction in the
PFC emission factor, in CC^-equivalent emissions per tonne of pri-
mary aluminum produced from 9 tonnes to 2.8 tonnes. The PFC
emissions estimation method is based on the number and duration
of anode effects and emissions relevant to UK primary aluminum
industry.
Page A1-27
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Next Steps
As a result of actions taken to minimize the occurrence of "anode effects" in the aluminum re-
duction cell, RFC emissions from the UK are expected to fall from 300 metric tons in 1990 to 30
tonnes in 2000, a 90 percent reduction. The UK aluminum smelting industry and the UK gov-
ernment plan continued GHG reduction efforts.
Contact Information
For more information on the UK's efforts to reduce GHGs (including PFCs) from primary alumi-
num production, contact:
Mr. Philip Callaghan
UK Department of the Environment
Ashtown House, 123 Victoria St.
London, ENGLAND SW1E6DE
Tel: (+44) 171-276-8657 Fax: (+44) 171-276-8285
Dr. David Harris
Aluminum Federation, Ltd
Broadway House, Cathorpe Road, Five Ways
Birmingham, ENGLAND B151TN
Tel: (+44) 121-456-1103 Fax: (+44) 121-456-2276
References
Aluminum Federation, "The UK Primary Aluminum Industry Reduces Its Emissions of Green-
house Gases by 65%", Press Release, May 13, 1998.
UK Department of the Environment, "Climate Change: The United Kingdom Programme. The
United Kingdom's Second Report under the Framework Convention on Climate Change." Febru-
ary 1997.
Callaghan, P. (1998). Personal communication with Mr. P. Callaghan., UK Department of the
Environment, April 1998.
Harris, D. (1998). Personal communication with Dr. D. Harris, Aluminum Federation Ltd., June
1998.
Page A1-28
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United States
Aluminum Industry Profile
The USA is the world's largest producer of
aluminum. From 1990 to 1997, primary
aluminum production in the USA decreased
from 4 million metric tons to 3.6 million
metric tons. Production is projected to
increase to 4.3 million metric tons by 2000.
As of 1999, there were 12 companies that
produced aluminum in the USA.
Owner ;% of Total Capacity
Alcan Ingot
Alcoa Inc.*
Alumax*
Century Aluminum
Columbia Falls
Goldendale
Kaiser Aluminum
Noranda Aluminum
Northwest
Ormet Corp.
Southwire Co.
Reynolds Metals Co.
Vanalco Inc.
4%
31%
14%
5%
4%
4%
7%
5%
2%
6%
4%
11%
3%
* Alcoa Inc. purchased Alumax in 1998.
Source: Aluminum Statistical Review, 1997
Efforts to Reduce GHGs from the
Aluminum Industry
National RFC Programs
i Voluntary Regulatory i Inventory I
7 i 7 }
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
Sector i PFCs i Other GHGs
Alumina Refineries ;
Aluminum Smelters / ; /
Post-Production1 ;
i. Includes semi-fabrication to distribution
GHG Reduction Achievements
From 1990 to 1997, PFC emissions from
aluminum smelting decreased an estimated
30 percent. The PFC emissions rate de-
creased from 4.4 to 3 tonnes of CO2
equivalent per tonne of aluminum, a re-
duction of 34 percent.
National Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Initiatives
The USA ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change on October 15, 1992. The USA signed the Kyoto
Protocol on November 12, 1998.
The US government is committed to addressing the challenge of
climate change with cost-effective policies that are good both for
the environment and the economy. This approach involves three
main goals: (1) to contribute to a necessary foundation in science;
(2) to base US policies on partnerships with the private sector,
states, localities, and non-governmental organizations; and (3) to
strengthen international responses to the risks of climate change.
Aluminum Industry Initiatives
Eleven of the nation's 12 primary aluminum companies have part-
nered with the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) through
the Voluntary Aluminum Industrial Partnership (VAIP) to reduce
PFC emissions. Launched in April 1995, the VAIP represents 22 of
the 23 smelters and 94% of the nation's production capacity. The
Aluminum Association has been instrumental in facilitating the
work of the partnership.
The VAIP aims to reduce PFC emissions from aluminum smelting
where technically feasible and cost-effective. The program frame-
work includes company-specific emissions reduction targets and
periodic reporting of the progress toward achieving the targets.
The goal is to reduce US PFC emissions from aluminum smelting
by 30 to 60 percent from 1990 levels by the year 2000.
The industry has also formed a partnership with the US Depart-
ment of Energy (DOE) to improve energy efficiency and environ-
mental performance. The aluminum industry is one of the "In-
dustries of the Future" for DOE's Office of Industrial Technology.
A key element of the ongoing research in the DOE-industry part-
nership is the development of the advanced cell technology with
inert anode and wettable cathode components.
Program Implementation
The VAIP is implemented through individual agreements between
the primary aluminum producers and the EPA. Industry partners
work jointly with the EPA to set targets that are based on facility-
specific conditions.
Page A1-29
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Each industry partner agrees to provide information and data used to establish baseline emis-
sion estimate, periodic reports on their activities and estimated emissions reductions achieved.
The EPA agrees to:
• Improve the availability and distribution of information relevant to reducing RFC emissions;
• Encourage other aluminum-producing countries to endeavor to reduce RFC emissions and
share technical information; and
• Provide recognition to companies participating in the VAIP and inform the public, including
other federal agencies and Congress, regarding reductions made by the partner under the
VAIP; and
• Hold any overall program responsibilities and any designated information provided by the
partners confidential.
Outcomes
US PFC emissions from aluminum production are estimated to have declined from the equivalent
of 18 million metric tons of CCh in 1990 to the CCh equivalent of 10.7 million metric tons in
1997, a reduction of 30%. This decline was both due to reductions in domestic aluminum pro-
duction and actions taken by the VAIP partners to reduce the frequency and duration of anode
effects (see Table I). The average PFC emissions rate for VAIP partners is estimated to have
declined from the equivalent of about 4.4 tonnes of CCh per metric ton of aluminum in 1990 to
the equivalent of about 3 tonnes of C02 per metric ton of aluminum in 1997, a reduction of
about 32%. The change in emission rates is based on data on reductions in the frequency and
duration of anode effects reported by the VAIP partners. As of 1997 the VAIP had achieved over
70% of its emission reduction goal (assuming a 45% reduction target and that production levels
in 2000 will be similar to those in 1990).
Table I. Estimated PFC Emissions and VAIP Reductions: 1990 - 1997*
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Primary Production ('000 m tons)
Emissions Rate (m tons COJ ton Al)
Emissions (m tons C02)
VAIP Reductions (m tons C02)
Reduction due to Production Decline
Reduction due to Emissions Reduction Actions
% Change relative to 1990 levels
Primary Production (%)
Emissions Rate (%)
Emissions (%)
4,048 4,121
4.4 4.2
18.0 17.4
0.6
-0.2
0.8
2%
-5%
-3%
4,042
3.8
15.2
2.8
0.3
2.5
0%
-14%
-16%
3,695
3.5
12.9
5.1
1.4
3.7
-9%
-20%
-28%
3,299
3.1
10.3
7.7
2.4
5.3
-19%
-30%
-43%
3,375
3.0
10.3
7.7
2.0
5.7
-17%
-32%
-43%
3,577
3.1
11.1
6.9
1.6
5.3
-12%
-30%
-38%
3,603
3.0
10.7
7.3
1.6
5.7
-11%
-32%
-41%
* The U.S. is currently Devaluating its emissions estimates in line with the soon to be finalized IPCC revised guidelines. It is expected that once
the new tiered approach is applied, the U.S. numbers will improve.
PFC emissions were estimated by multiplying annual primary aluminum production by a PFC
emission rate that changes over time. US industry-average emission rates presented in the Cli-
mate Change Action Plan (CCAP) Technical Supplement - 0.6 and 0.06 kg per metric ton of
aluminum for CF4 and C2F6 respectively - are assumed for all smelters for the base year 1990.
In subsequent years, PFC emission rates are assumed to decline over time as a result of VAIP
progress. The rate of decline in the emission rate is equivalent to the rate of decline in the oper-
ating parameter targeted for reduction by each smelter (e.g., anode effect frequency or dura-
tion). To calculate VAIP reductions, estimated emissions were subtracted from "baseline" emis-
Page A1-30
-------
sions, which are those anticipated in the absence of the VAIP program and assuming that the
CCAP emissions rate remains constant over the period of analysis.
The VAIP has also initiated efforts to improve understanding of PFC production during aluminum
smelting. These efforts include establishing a PFC emissions measurement program and con-
ducting anode effect research.
In the area of energy efficiency, industry has continually improved the smelting process in order
to reduce production costs and remain competitive. The average smelting energy requirement
fell from 112 MMBTUs/metric ton of aluminum in 1990 to 109 MMBTUs/metric ton in 1995 (DOE,
1997).
Next Steps
The VAIP partners plan to continue efforts to reduce PFC emissions to meet the targeted reduc-
tion of 45% from 1990 levels by the year 2000 through continued improvements in control of
anode effects. Efforts to reduce anode effects include refining automated control systems and
improving operator training. Additional PFC emissions measurements are planned at smelters to
better understand and quantify the relationship between emissions and operating parameters.
The industry, in cooperation with the Aluminum Association and DOE, has published the "Alumi-
num Industry Technology Roadmaff in 1997 that presents industry-wide performance targets
for energy, environment, and market share, and describes the research and development strat-
egy for achieving those targets. One of goals for the primary products sector includes reducing
the energy intensity of aluminum production to 13 kWh/kg using retrofit technology. Another
goal, pursued aggressively by industry, is the development of the advanced cell technology, with
inert anode and wettable cathode components. An advanced cell will not only reduce the en-
ergy requirements, but will also eliminate the carbon anode thereby removing the source of car-
bon for perfluorocarbon generation.
Contact Information
For more information on US efforts to abate GHGs (including PFCs) from primary aluminum pro-
duction, contact:
Dr. Eric Jay Dolin
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Atmospheric Programs
Climate Protection Division
Tel: 202-564-9044 Fax: 202-565-2078
References
US Department of Energy (DOE), (1997). "Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Alumi-
num Industry", United States Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technology, July
1997.
Dolin, EJ. (1998). "Partnering: EPA's Voluntary Aluminum Industry Partnership",
ENVIRONMENTAL technology, July/August, 1998.
Gibbs, M. and C. Jacobs (1996). " Reducing PFC Emissions from Primary Aluminum Production in
the United States", Light Metal Age, February,1996.
The Aluminum Association (1997). "Aluminum Technology Roadmap,"The Aluminum Associa-
tion, February 1997.
Page A1-31
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The Aluminum Association (1997). "Aluminum Statistical Review for 1996," The Aluminum Asso-
ciation, 1997.
Page A1-32
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Annex 2: Smelter Characteristics by Country
Annex 2 presents the smelter characteristics for each country that has undertaken industry-
government initiatives to reduce RFC emissions from primary aluminum production. The data
presented are mostly extracted from a report by Anthony Bird Associates, "Aluminium Annual
Review 1998'. The data are reprinted with the consent of Anthony Bird.
Page A2-1
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Exhibit A2-1. Smelter Characteristics by Country
Country Owner
Australia Alcoa ADS
Alcoa AUS
Alcoa & Gov
Capral
Capral
Capral
Comalco
Gladstone
Gladstone
Tomago Al
Tomago Al
Tomago Al
Bahrain Alba
Alba
Brazil Albras
Albras
Alcan
Alcan
Alcan
Alcominas
Alumar
CBA
CBA
CBA
CBA
Valesul
Plant
Point Henry 1
Point Henry 2
Portland
Kurri Kurri 1
Kurri Kurri 2
Kurri Kurri 3
Bell Bay
Boyne Island 1
Boyne Island 2
Newcastle 1
Newcastle 2
Newcastle 3
Bahrain 1
Bahrain 2
Belem 1
Belem 2
Saramenha
Aratu 1
Aratu 2
Pocos de Caldas
Sao Luis
Mairinique 1
Mairinique 2
Mairinique 3
Mairinique 4
Santa Cruz
Capacity
COOO metric tons)
80
101
328
55
55
55
138
260
230
240
140
60
255
244
175
175
51
28
30
92
358
105
30
45
45
100
Vintage
1969
1980
1987
1969
1979
1985
1955
1982
1997
1984
1993
1998
1989
1993
1986
1991
1945
1972
1982
1970
1984
1955
1983
1986
1992
1992
Process
Prebake- PF1
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake-SW2
Prebake-SW
Prebake- PF
Prebake-CW3
Prebake-CW
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake-SW
Prebake-SW
Soderberg-HS4
Soderberg-VS5
Prebake-SW
Soderberg-VS
Prebake-PF
Soderberg-VS
Soderberg-VS
Soderberg-VS
Prebake-PF
Prebake-CW
Power Source
Coal
Coal
Coal
Coal
Coal
Coal
Hydro
Coal
Coal
Coal
Coal
Coal
Gas
Gas
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Page A2-2
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Country
Canada
France
Germany
New Zealand
Norway
Owner
ABI
Alcan
Alcan
Alcan
Alcan
Alcan
Alcan
Alcan
Alumax
Alouette Al
Reynolds
Reynolds
Al Dunkerque
Pechiney
Pechiney
Pechiney
Pechiney
Essen Al
Ham. Al Werke
Hoogovens
VAW
VAW
NZAS
Hydro Al
Hydro Al
Hydro Al
Hydro Al
Hydro Al
Hydro Al
Hydro Al
Plant
Becancour
Arvida
Beauharnois
Grande Baie
Isle Maligne
Kitimat
Laterriere
Shawinigan
Deschambault
Alouette
Baie Comeau 1
Baie Comeau 2
Dunkirk
Auzat
Lannemezan
St. Jean 1
St. Jean 2
Essen
Hamburg
Voerde
Norf
Stade
Bluff
Ardal 1
Ardal 2
Ardal 3
Hoyanger 1
Hoyanger 2
Karmoey 1
Karmoey 2
Capacity
COOO metric tons)
362
232
48
200
73
280
214
84
220
229
160
240
220
44
44
35
95
136
125
80
212
70
313
60
140
12
27
47
113
108
Vintage
1986
1972
1943
1982
1953
1958
1991
1940
1992
1992
1982
1985
1992
1973
1979
1980
1986
1970
1973
1971
1984
1973
1996
1963
1971
1998
1915
1981
1967
1982
Process
Prebake-PF
Prebake-SW
Soderberg-HS
Prebake-PF
Soderberg-VS
Soderberg-VS
Prebake-PF
Soderberg-HS
Prebake-PF
Prebake-PF
Soderberg-VS
Prebake-PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake-SW
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake-PF
Prebake-CW
Prebake-CW
Prebake-CW
Prebake-SW
Prebake-CW
Soderberg-VS
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Soderberg-VS
Prebake- PF
Soderberg-VS
Prebake- PF
Power Source
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Nuclear
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Mixed
Nuclear
Mixed
Mixed
Nuclear
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Page A2-3
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Country Owner
Norway Hydro Al
(cont'd) Hydro Al
Hydro Al
Mosal
Mosal
Mosal
Soer-Norge
Soer-Norge
UK Anglesey AL
British Alcan
British Alcan
British Alcan
USA Alcan
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Alcoa
Kaiser
Kaiser
Columbia Falls Al
Plant
Karmoey 3
Sunndalsora 1
Sunndalsora 2
Lista
Moesjoen 1
Moesjoen 2
Husnes 1
Husnes 2
Holyhead
Kinlochleven
Lochaber
Lynemouth
Sebree KY
Alcoa TN 1
Alcoa TN 2
Alcoa TN 3
Badin NC 1
Badin NC 2
(A) Massena NY
Rockdale TX
Warrick IN
Wenatchee WA 1
Wenatchee WA 2
Mt. Holly SC
Frederick MD 1
Frederick MD 2
Bellingham WA
Mead WA
Tacoma WA
Columbia Falls MT
Capacity
COOO metric tons)
45
69
69
85
55
70
92
14
135
11
38
140
180
40
80
80
57
58
131
310
300
85
125
181
100
65
280
200
73
168
Vintage
1997
1954
1969
1988
1988
1988
1965
1998
1987
1907
1981
1972
1974
1975
1975
1979
1961
1965
1976
1970
1960
1966
1966
1980
1970
1976
1966
1942
1942
1955
Process
Prebake- PF
Soderberg-VS
Prebake-SW
Soderberg-VS
Soderberg-VS
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Soderberg-VS
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Soderberg-VS
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake- PF
Prebake-SW
Prebake-SW
Prebake-SW
Prebake-CW
Soderberg-HS
Soderberg-VS
Power Source
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Nuclear
Hydro
Hydro
Coal
Coal
Coal
Coal
Nuclear
Hydro
Mixed
Hydro
Coal
Coal
Hydro
Hydro
Coal
Coal
Coal
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Page A2-4
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Country Owner
USA (confd) Noranda
Noranda
Goldendale Al
Goldendale Al
Northwest Al
NSA
Alcan
Century Al
Reynolds
Reynolds
Reynolds
Vanalco
Plant
New Madrid MO 1
New Madrid MO 2
Goldendale WA 1
Goldendale WA 2
The Dalles
Hawesville KY
Hannibal OH
Ravenswood WA
Longview WA
(R) Massena NY
Troutdale OR
Vancouver WA
Capacity
COOO metric tons)
130
90
109
59
83
190
255
168
205
123
121
115
Vintage
1971
1982
1971
1982
1958
1969
1958
1957
1941
1959
1942
1940
Process
Prebake-CW
Prebake- PF
Soderberg-VS
Soderberg-VS
Soderberg-VS
Prebake-CW
Prebake-CW
Prebake-CW
Soderberg-HS
Soderberg-HS
Prebake-CW
Prebake-CW
Power Source
Coal
Coal
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Coal
Coal
Coal
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Hydro
Note: In some cases, different parts of a smelter have been built or replaced at different times. This produces more than one vintage at the same plant. Those plants followed
by a number (e.g., Point Henry 1, Point Henry 2), indicate different parts of the same plant.
1. PF = Point Feed
2. SW = Side Worked
3. CW = Center Worked
4. HS = Horizontal Stud
5. VS = Vertical Stud
Page A2-5
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Annex 3: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC)
The risks posed by climate change have led virtually every nation to sign the United Nations Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The goal of the UNFCCC is to "stabiliz(e) green-
house gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system." As of June 1999, 179 countries have ratified the UNFCCC.
To further the objectives of the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol was drafted in December 1997 and sets
quantified emission limitations and reduction targets. The Kyoto Protocol will become legally binding
Center into force") ninety days after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention
ratify, and must include at least 55% of the 1990 total CCh emissions from Annex I Parties2. As of
the middle 1999, 84 countries have signed and 14 have ratified the treaty3.
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) commits signatory gov-
ernments to undertake voluntary actions aimed at reducing emissions of greenhouse gases to 1990
levels. The key provisions and responsibilities of this agreement pertaining to PFC emissions include:
• Article 4.1 requires all parties to the UNFCCC to develop national inventories of all anthropo-
genic greenhouse gas emissions and sinks not covered under the Montreal Protocol.4 While
the UNFCCC does not delineate specific GHGs, the definition includes PFC emissions.
• Article 4.2 (a) and 4.2 (b) state that Annex I Parties shall aim to reduce emissions of C02 and
other GHGs not controlled by the Montreal Protocol to 1990 levels by the year 2000. This defi-
nition includes PFC emissions.
• Article 12.1 requires parties to submit national communications, which shall include an inven-
tory of all anthropogenic GHG emissions and sinks not covered under the Montreal Protocol.
This definition applies to PFC emissions.
• Article 12.2 (a) and (b) require Annex I parties to submit a detailed description of the policies
and measures that it has adopted to implement its commitment under Article 4.2(a) and
4.2(b); and a specific estimate of the effects that these policies and measures will have on
anthropogenic emissions by its sources and removals by its sinks of greenhouse gases during
the period referred to in Article 4.2(a).
Emissions Inventories
When the UNFCCC entered into force in 1994, Annex I Parties were required to submit National
Communications to describe their climate change mitigation strategies and to estimate GHG emis-
sions and sinks. The Conference of the Parties (COP) adopted the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
Annex I Parties include Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) member countries, except Mexico, and
countries with economies in transition to market economies.
3 After signing the agreement a government must ratify it, often with the approval of its parliament or legislature. Those that ratified the
protocol by August 1999 include: Antiqua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Cyprus, El Salvador, Fiji, Georgia, Jamacia, Maldives, Micronesia, Niue,
Panama, Paraguay, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu.
4 The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, adopted in Montreal on 16 September 1987 regulates the production
and use of CFCs, halons, and carbon tetrachloride, which in addition to depleting the ozone layer are also greenhouse gases.
Page A3-1
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mate Change (IPCC)5 guidelines on methods for the preparation of national greenhouse gas invento-
ries. The first IPCC Guidelines, published in November 1994, were designed to ensure that emission
inventories submitted to the UNFCCC are consistent and comparable across sectors and between
nations. While methods to estimate emissions from GHGs other than C02, CH4, and N20 were not
originally included in IPCC guidelines, the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse
Gas Inventories include methodologies for estimating emissions from additional sources and sinks,
and additional gases, including PFCs (IPCC, 1997).
The Revised Guidelines include a method to estimate PFC emissions from primary aluminum produc-
tion. Because PFC emissions vary significantly from one smelter to the next, the IPCC encourages
obtaining actual, smelter-specific emissions measurements. Recognizing that this process is re-
source intensive, the IPCC recommends collecting measurements of anode effect frequency and
duration and using an estimation method based on Faraday's law. Where actual measurements of
process parameters are not feasible, the guidelines provide default emission factors, in kg CF4 per
tonne of aluminum produced, for four different smelting technologies: Modern Prebake, Horizontal
Stud Soderberg, Older Prebake, and Vertical Stud Soderberg. In January 1999, the IPCC convened
a group of industry, government, and academic experts to further refine the estimation methodolo-
gies included in the Revised Guidelines. This IPCC Aluminum Expert Group is in the process of
developing good practice guidelines for inventory management of PFC emissions from primary alu-
minum production. This guidance document, expected to be issued in early 2000, will supplement
the Revised Guidelinesand include updated estimation methods and emission factors.
As of the beginning of 1999, thirty-seven countries have submitted inventories of GHGs under the
UNFCCC. Of these 37, eleven national GHG inventories include PFC emissions from primary alumi-
num production. These countries are: Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Nether-
lands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, the UK, and the USA (UNFCCC, 1998).
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol, drafted in 1997, calls for Annex B Parties to prepare inventories, report national
GHG mitigation efforts, and set timetables for reducing emissions.6 The protocol includes six GHGs:
C02, CH4, N20, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), PFCs, and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Emissions targets
for the USA, the EU, and Japan have been set at 7%, 8%, and 6% respectively below 1990 emis-
sions levels for all six gases. Emission reductions will be measured against a baseline, which has
been agreed as the 1990 emission levels. A provision has been made for HFC, PFC and SF6 emis-
sions in which countries can use either 1990 or 1995 as the baseline year for these gases. It is up to
each country to decide which baseline to use based on their specific circumstances. The commit-
ment period for Annex B Parties has been established for the years 2008-2012.
References
IPCC, (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1997). "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories."
5 The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization and the UN Environment Programme. It conducts rigorous
surveys of the world-wide technical and scientific literature and publishes assessment reports that are widely recognized as the most
credible sources of information on climate change. The IPCC also works on methods to estimate GHG emissions from industrial and non-
industrial sources and responds to specific requests from the UNFCCC's subsidiary bodies.
Annex B countries include Annex I countries except Belarus and Turkey (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Czechoslovakia,
Denmark, European Economic Community, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Ukraine, the UK, and the US), Croatia, Liechtenstein, Monaco, and Slovenia.
Page A3-2
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UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), (1998). National Communica-
tions. Available online at: http://www.unfccc.de
Page A3-3
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