5
Green Remediation:
Incorporating Sustainable
Environmental Practices into
Remediation of Contaminated Sites
I
T
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Technology Primer
Green Remediation:
Incorporating Sustainable
Environmental Practices into
Remediation of Contaminated Sites
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
April 2008
EPA 542-R-08-002
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Green Remediation: Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of
Contaminated Sites technology primer was developed by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (U.S. EPA) Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation (OSRTI). The
document was prepared in cooperation with EPA's Brownfields and Land Revitalization Technology
Support Center (BTSC) and funded by OSRTI under Contract No. 68-W-03-038 to Environmental
Management Support, Inc. The authors gratefully acknowledge the insightful comments and
assistance of reviewers within EPA and other federal and state environmental agencies.
An electronic version of this primer can be downloaded from OSRTI's and BTSC's websites at
http://cluin.org/greenremediation or http://www.brownfieldstsc.org. To obtain a copy of the Green
Remediation: Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated
Sites technology primer (free of charge), contact:
National Service Center for Environmental Publications
P.O. Box 42419
Cincinnati, OH 45242-0419
Phone: 1-800-490-9198
Fax:301-604-3408
www.epa.gov/nscep/
For additional information about this document, contact Carlos Pachon of EPA OSRTI at
703-603-9904 or pachon.carlos@epa.gov.
As a primer, this document provides topical introductory information rather than guidance. EPA
recommends that users refer to applicable regulations, policies, and guidance documents regarding
selection of cleanup remedies and implementation of cleanup actions; selected references and
additional resources are provided herein. This primer was subjected to the Agency's administrative
and expert review and was approved for publication as an EPA document. Mention of trade names or
commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Cover photo: Ground water remediation at the former St. Croix Alumina Plant in St. Croix, VI,
relies on wind-driven turbine compressors to drive pneumatic pumps in recovery wells; recovered
oil is reclaimed and used as feedstock at an adjacent petroleum refinery.
EPA prints this document using vegetable-based ink on 100% recycled/recyclable paper
with a minimum 50% post-consumer fiber.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Contents
Page
List of Profiles iv
Acronyms and Abbreviations v
Section 1: Introduction 1
Purpose of Primer 1
Overview of Green Remediation 2
Universe of Sites 4
Section 2: Sustainability of Site Remediation 6
Core Elements of Green Remediation 6
Regulatory Requirements for Cleanup Measures 8
Expanded Consideration of Energy and Water Resources 8
Section 3: Site Management Practices 10
Site Investigations and Monitoring 12
Air Quality Protection 13
Water Quality Protection and Conservation 14
Ecological and Soil Preservation 16
Waste Management 1 7
Section 4: Energy and Efficiency Considerations 19
Optimizing Energy Intensive Systems 20
Integrating Renewable Energy Sources 23
Low Energy Systems 32
Section 5: Tools and Incentives 41
Section 6: Future Opportunities 43
Section 7: References 44
Section 8: General Resources 46
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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L/sf of Profiles
Site Name Page
Old Base Landfill/Former Naval Training Center-Bainbridge, Port Deposit, MD 15
California Gulch Superfund Site, Leadville, CO 16
Rhizome Collective Inc. Brownfield Site, Austin, TX 1 7
Havertown PCP Site, Havertown, PA 22
Former St. Croix Alumina Plant, St. Croix, VI 24
BP Paulsboro, Paulsboro, NJ 25
Former Nebraska Ordnance Plant, Mead, NE 28
Operating Industries, Inc. Landfill, Monterey Park, CA 30
Umatilla Army Depot, Hermiston, OR 33
Carswell Golf Course, Fort Worth, TX 34
Upper Arkansas River, Leadville, CO 36
Fort Carson, Colorado Springs, CO 37
British Petroleum Site, Casper, WY 38
Altus Air Force Base, OK 39
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
ARAR
BMP
CERCLA
CH4
C02
CSP
DOD
DOE
EERE
EPA
ET
FY
GHG
IDW
kW
kWh
LEED
LEG
LID
MNA
mph
MW
N2O
NCP
NPL
NREL
O&M
OSRTI
OSWER
P&T
PRB
PV
RCRA
ROD
RSE
SVE
UST
UV
VOC
WTE
applicable or relevant and appropriate requirement
best management practice
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980, as
amended
methane
carbon dioxide
concentrating solar power
U.S. Department of Defense
U.S. Department of Energy
U.S. DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
evapotranspiration
fiscal year
greenhouse gas
investigation derived waste
kilowatt
kilowatt-hour
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
landfill gas
low impact design
monitored natural attenuation
miles per hour
megawatt
nitrous oxide
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan
National Priorities List
U.S. DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory
operation and maintenance
U.S. EPA Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation
U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
pump-and-treat
permeable reactive barrier
photovoltaic
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1 976, as amended
record of decision
remedial system evaluation
soil vapor extraction
underground storage tank
ultraviolet
volatile organic compound
waste-to-energy
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Introduction
Section 1: Introduction
As part of its mission to protect human health and the environment, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA or "the Agency") is dedicated to developing and promoting innovative cleanup strategies
that restore contaminated sites to productive use, reduce associated costs, and promote
environmental stewardship. EPA strives for cleanup programs that use natural resources and energy
efficiently, reduce negative impacts on the environment, minimize or eliminate pollution at its source,
and reduce waste to the greatest extent possible in accordance with the Agency's strategic plan for
compliance and environmental stewardship (U.S. EPA Office of the Chief Financial Officer, 2006).
The practice of "green remediation" uses these strategies to consider all environmental effects of
remedy implementation for contaminated sites and incorporates options to maximize the net
environmental benefit of cleanup actions.
EPA's regulatory programs and initiatives actively support site
remediation and revitalization that result in beneficial reuse such as ^reen Kemea/ar/on. e
commercial operations, industrial facilities, housing, greenspace, Pracf/ce of considering all
and renewable energy development. The Agency has begun env/ronmenfa/ effects of
examining opportunities to integrate sustainable practices into the reme^ implementation and
decision-making processes and implementation strategies that carry mcorpora ing op ions o
forward to reuse strategies. In doing so, EPA recognizes that maximize net environmental
incorporation of sustainability principles can help increase the benef/f of c/eanuP actions.
environmental, economic, and social benefits of cleanup.
Green remediation reduces the demand placed on the environment during cleanup actions, otherwise
known as the "footprint" of remediation, and avoids the potential for collateral environmental
damage. The potential footprint encompasses impacts long known to affect environmental media:
Air pollution caused by toxic or priority pollutants such as particulate matter and lead,
Water cycle imbalance within local and regional hydrologic regimes,
Soil erosion and nutrient depletion as well as subsurface geochemical changes,
Ecological diversity and population reductions, and
Emission of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and other greenhouse
gases contributing to climate change.
Opportunities to increase sustainability exist throughout the investigation, design, construction,
operation, and monitoring phases of site remediation regardless of the selected cleanup remedy. As
cleanup technologies continue to advance and incentives evolve, green remediation strategies offer
significant potential for increasing the net benefit of cleanup, saving project costs, and expanding the
universe of long-term property use or reuse options without compromising cleanup goals.
Purpose of Primer
This primer outlines the principles of green remediation and describes opportunities to reduce the
footprint of cleanup activities throughout the life of a project. Best management practices (BMPs)
outlined in this document help decision-makers, communities, and other stakeholders (such as project
managers, field staff, and engineering contractors) identify new strategies in terms of sustainability.
These strategies complement rather than replace the process used to select primary remedies that best
meet site-specific cleanup goals. The primer identifies the range of alternatives available to improve
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites 1
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Introduction
sustainability of cleanup activities and helps decision-makers balance the alternatives within existing
regulatory frameworks. To date, EPA's sustainability initiatives have addressed a broader scope or
focused on selected elements of green remediation such as clean energy.
The primer strives to cross educate remediation and reuse decision-makers and other stakeholders
about green remediation using a "whole-site" approach that reflects reuse goals. Greater awareness
of the opportunities helps remediation decision-makers address the role of cleanup in community
revitalization, and helps revitalization project managers maintain an active voice during all stages of
remediation decision-making. To maximize sustainability, cleanup and reuse options are considered
early in the planning process, enabling BMPs during remediation to carry forward (Figure 1).
Cleanup,
Remediation,
and Waste
Management
Deconstruction,
Demolition,
and Removal
Sustainable Use
and Long-Term
Stewardship
Figure 1. BMPs of green remediation may be used throughout the stages of land
revitalization, as a contaminated site progresses toward sustainable reuse or new use.
Best practices can be incorporated into all phases of remediation, including site investigation, remedy
construction, operation of treatment systems, monitoring of treatment processes and progress, and site
close-out. Site-specific green remediation strategies can be documented in service or vendor
contracts as well as project materials such as site management plans.
To help navigate the range of green remediation opportunities, this primer provides tools for daily
operations and introductory information on the use of renewable energy resources. Profiles of site-
specific implementation of green remediation strategies are provided throughout the document to
help federal and state agencies, local communities, and other stakeholders learn from collective
experiences and successes. As new information becomes available, additional profiles will be
available online on EPA's Green Remediation web site (http://www.cluin.org/greenremediation). The
document also describes the rapidly expanding selection of incentives for strategy implementation and
provides a list of additional resources [bracketed number resources] in addition to direct
(parenthetical) references.
Overview of Green Remediation
Strategies for green remediation rely on sustainable development
whereby environmental protection does not preclude economic
development, and economic development is ecologically viable today
and in the long run. The Agency has compiled information from a
range of EPA programs supporting sustainability along the categories
of the built environment; water, ecosystems and agriculture; energy
and environment; and materials and toxics. [General Resource 1,
Section 8] Many programs, tools, and incentives are available to help
governments, businesses, communities, and individuals serve as good
environmental stewards, make sustainable choices, and effectively
manage resources.
Sustainable development
meets the need of the
present without
compromising the need
of future generations,
while minimizing overall
burdens to society.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Introduction
Use of green remediation BMPs helps to accelerate the pace of environmental protection in
accordance with the Agency's strategic plan for improving environmental performance of business
sectors. Green remediation builds on environmentally conscious practices already used across
business and public sectors, as fostered by the Agency's Sectors Program, and promotes incorporation
of state-of-the-art methods for:
Conserving water,
Improving water quality,
Increasing energy efficiency,
Managing and minimizing toxics,
Managing and minimizing waste, and
Reducing emission of criteria air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) (U.S. EPA National
Center for Environmental Innovation, 2006).
Increasing concerns regarding climate change have prompted major efforts across the globe to
reduce GHG emissions caused by activities such as fossil fuel consumption. [2] The Agency's current
strategic plan calls for significant reductions in GHG emissions as well as increases in energy
efficiency as required by federal mandates such as Executive Order 13423: Strengthening Federal
Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management (Executive Order 1 3423, 2007). [3, 4]
Accordingly, one category of EPA's evolving practices for green remediation places greater emphasis
on approaches that reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions:
Designing treatment systems with optimum efficiency and
modifying as needed,
Using renewable resources such as wind and solar energy to
meet power demands of energy-intensive treatment systems or
auxiliary equipment,
Using alternate fuels to operate machinery and routine vehicles,
Generating electricity from byproducts such as methane gas or
secondary materials, and
Participating in power generation or purchasing partnerships
offering electricity from renewable resources.
Green remediation strategies also reflect increased recognition of
the need to preserve the earth's natural hydrologic cycle. Best
management of remediation activities includes water conservation
measures, stormwater runoff controls, and recycling of treatment
process water. Techniques for maintaining water balance are
based on requirements of federal and state ground water protection
and management programs and on recent climate-change findings
by government agencies and organizations such as the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, U.S. Geological Survey, and National
Ground Water Association. [5] The strategies build on ground
water and surface water management requirements under the
Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act as well as water
conservation goals set by Executive Order 1 3423.
BMPs of green remediation
help balance key elements
of sustainability:
* Resource conservation
measured by "wafer
intensity, "the amount of
water necessary to remove
one pound of
contaminant, or by "so//
intensity, "the amount of
soil displaced or disturbed
to remove one pound of
contaminant,
* "Material intensity "
measured by the amount
of raw materials extracted,
processed, or disposed of
for each pound of
contaminant treated, and
* Energy efficiency
measured by the amount
of energy needed to
remove one pound of
contaminant.
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Introduction
Universe of Sites
Green remediation promotes adoption of sustainable strategies at every site requiring environmental
cleanup, whether conducted under federal, state, or local cleanup programs or by private parties.
Past spills, leaks, and improper management or disposal of hazardous materials and wastes have
resulted in contaminated land, water, and/or air at hundreds of thousands of sites across the country.
EPA and its state, tribal, and territorial partners have developed a number of programs to investigate
and remediate these sites.
Most federal cleanup programs are conducted under statutory authority of the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA ) of 1 976, as amended by the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of
1984; Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA),
as amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986; and Small Business
Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act of 2001. Most states maintain parallel statutes
providing for voluntary and mandatory cleanup as well as brownfield and reclamation programs. In
addition, most states have attained authority to implement federal mandates under the RCRA
corrective action and underground storage tank programs.
Remediation activities in the United States may be grouped into seven major cleanup programs or
market segments implemented under different federal or state statues. These market segments are
described in Cleaning Up the Nation's Waste Sites: Markets and Technology Trends, along with
estimates of the number of sites under each major cleanup program (U.S. EPA/OSWER, 2004).
Principles and BMPs of green remediation can be applied at sites in each of the market segments,
although administrative, institutional, and remedy-selection decision criteria may vary across
programs. Based on this report and other summary data, EPA estimates the approximate number of
sites requiring remediation under each of the major cleanup programs.
Superfund Sites: As of 2005, nearly 3,000 CERCLA records of decision (RODs) and ROD
amendments had been signed. RODs document treatment, containment, and other remedies for
contaminated materials at approximately 1,300 of the more than 1,500 sites historically listed on the
National Priorities List (NPL), including those delisted over the years. Superfund cleanups also
encompass "removals," which are short-term actions to address immediate threats and emergency
responses. Since its inception, the program has undertaken more than 9,400 removal actions.
RCRA Sites: EPA estimates that more than 3,700 regulated hazardous waste treatment, storage, and
disposal facilities are expected to need corrective action under the RCRA Corrective Action Program.
Underground Storage Tank Sites: Through September 2007, over 474,000 releases of hazardous
substances have been reported at sites with underground storage tanks. Of these, 365,000 cleanups
have been completed, leaving approximately 109,000 sites with reported releases to be remediated.
In recent years, between 7,000 and 9,000 new reports of releases were received annually.
Department of Defense Sites: The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) estimates that investigations
and/or cleanups are planned or underway at nearly 8,000 areas. These areas are located on
hundreds of active and inactive installations and formerly used defense sites.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Introduction
Department of Energy Sites: The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has remediated contaminated
areas at more than 1 00 installations and other locations. The Department has identified
approximately 4,000 contaminated or potentially contaminated areas on 22 installations and other
locations. Most of DOE's remediated areas will require ground water treatment and monitoring or
other long-term stewardship efforts.
Other Federal Agency Sites: EPA estimates that there are more than 3,000 contaminated sites,
located on 700 federal facilities, potentially requiring remediation. These facilities are distributed
among 1 7 federal agencies. Investigations at many of these facilities are not complete. These
estimates do not include an estimated 8,000-31,000 abandoned mine sites, most of which are
located on federal lands.
State, Brownfields, and Private Sites: Based on data from recent years, EPA estimates that more than
5,000 cleanups are completed annually under brownfields and mandatory or voluntary state
programs. EPA's investment in brownfields, exceeding 1.3 billion dollars through 2007, has
leveraged more than $10.3 billion in cleanup and redevelopment funding and financed assessment
and/or cleanup of more than 4,000 properties.
Cleanups across these market segments involve a wide range of pollution sources and site types such
as neighborhood dry cleaners and gas stations, former industrial sites in urban areas, metals-
contaminated mining sites, and large DOD, DOE, and industrial facilities that are downsized or
decommissioned. Cleanup and reuse of these sites will consume significant amounts of energy,
considerably impact natural resources, and affect the infrastructures of surrounding communities.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Sustainability of Site Remediation
Section 2: Sustainability of Site Remediation
Green remediation focuses on maximizing the net environmental benefit of cleanup, while preserving
remedy effectiveness as part of the Agency's primary mission to protect human health and the
environment. Site-specific strategies must take into account the unique challenges and characteristics
of a site; no single solution exists. At all sites, however, key opportunities for integrating core
elements of green remediation can be found when designing and implementing cleanup measures.
Regulatory criteria and standards serve as a foundation for building green practices.
Core Elements of Green Remediation
Green remediation results in effective cleanups minimizing the environmental and energy footprints
of site remediation and revitalization. Sustainable practices emphasize the need to more closely
evaluate core elements of a cleanup project; compare the site-specific value of conservation benefits
gained by different strategies of green remediation; and weigh the environmental trade-offs of
potential strategies. Green remediation addresses six core elements (Figure 2):
Energy requirements of the treatment system
Consider use of optimized passive-energy technologies
(with little or no demand for external utility power) that
enable all remediation objectives to be met,
Look for energy efficient equipment and maintain
equipment at peak performance to maximize efficiency,
Periodically evaluate and optimize energy efficiency of
equipment with high energy demands, and
Consider installing renewable energy systems to replace or
offset electricity requirements otherwise met by the utility.
Stewardship
^
Materials Core
& Waste Elements
Land &
Ecosystems
Energy
Air
Figure 2. Best management
practices of green remediation
balance core elements of a
cleanup project.
Air emissions
Minimize use of heavy equipment requiring high volumes
of fuel,
Use cleaner fuels and retrofit diesel engines to operate
heavy equipment, when possible,
Reduce atmospheric release of toxic or priority pollutants
(ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and lead), and
Minimize dust export of contaminants.
Wafer requirements and impacts on wafer resources
Minimize fresh water consumption and maximize water reuse during daily operations and
treatment processes,
Reclaim treated water for beneficial use such as irrigation,
Use native vegetation requiring little or no irrigation, and
Prevent impacts such as nutrient loading on water quality in nearby water bodies.
Water
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Sustainability of Site Remediation
Land and ecosystem impacts
Use minimally invasive in situ technologies,
Use passive energy technologies such as bioremediation and phytoremediation as primary
remedies or "finishing steps,"where possible and effective,
Minimize soil and habitat disturbance,
Minimize bioavailability of contaminants through adequate contaminant source and plume
controls, and
Reduce noise and lighting disturbance.
Material consumption and waste generation
Use technologies designed to minimize waste generation,
Re-use materials whenever possible,
Recycle materials generated at or removed from
the site whenever possible,
Minimize natural resource extraction and disposal,
and
Use passive sampling devices producing minimal
waste, where feasible.
Long-term stewardship actions
Reduce emission of CO2, N2O, CH4 and other
greenhouse gases contributing to climate change,
Integrate an adaptive management approach into
long-term controls for a site,
Install renewable energy systems to power long-
term cleanup and future activities on redeveloped
land,
Use passive sampling devices for long-term
monitoring, where feasible, and
Solicit community involvement to increase public
acceptance and awareness of long-term activities
and restrictions.
Green remediation requires close coordination of
cleanup and reuse planning. Reuse goals influence
the choice of remedial action objectives, cleanup
standards, and the cleanup schedule. In turn, those
decisions affect the approaches for investigating a site,
selecting and designing a remedy, and planning future
operation and maintenance of a remedy to ensure its
protectiveness.
Green Remediation Objectives
Achieve remedial action goals,
Support use and reuse of remediated
parcels,
Increase operational efficiencies,
Reduce total pollutant and waste
burdens on the environment,
Minimize degradation or enhance
ecology of the site and other affected
areas,
Reduce air emissions and
greenhouse gas production,
Minimize impacts to water quality
and water cycles,
Conserve natural resources,
Achieve greater long-term financial
return from investments, and
Increase sustainability of site
cleanups.
Site cleanup and reuse can mutually support one another by leveraging infrastructure needs, sharing
data, minimizing demolition and earth-moving activities, re-using structures and demolition material,
and combining other activities that support timely and cost-effective cleanup and reuse. Early
consideration of green remediation opportunities offers the greatest flexibility and likelihood for
related practices to be incorporated throughout a project life. While early planning is optimal, green
strategies such as engineering optimization can be incorporated at any time during site investigation,
remediation, or reuse.
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Sustainability of Site Remediation
Regulatory Requirements for Cleanup Measures
EPA's green remediation strategies build on goals established by federal statutes and regulatory
programs to achieve greater net environmental benefit of a cleanup. Although remedy selection
criteria and performance standards vary in accordance with statutory or regulatory authority, goals
remain common among the cleanup programs. Section 121 of CERCLA, for example, requires that
remedies:
Protect human health and the environment,
Attain applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements (ARARs) or provide reasons for not
achieving ARARs,
Are cost effective,
Utilize permanent solutions, alternative solutions, or resource recovery technologies to the
maximum extent possible, and
Satisfy the preference for treatment that reduces the toxicity, mobility, or volume of the
contaminants as opposed to an alternative that provides only for containment. [6]
Pursuant to CERCLA, the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP)
also identifies nine evaluation criteria to be used in a detailed analysis of cleanup alternatives:
Overall protection of human health and Short-term effectiveness,
the environment, Implementability,
Compliance with ARARs, Cost,
Long-term effectiveness and permanence, State acceptance, and
Reduction of toxicity, mobility, or volume Community acceptance. [7]
through treatment,
Similarly, several evaluation criteria are used under the Agency's RCRA Corrective Action Program to
determine the most favorable alternative for corrective measures: long-term reliability and
effectiveness; reduction in toxicity, mobility, or volume of wastes; short-term effectiveness;
implementability; cost; community acceptance; and state acceptance.
EPA's strategic plan for compliance and environmental stewardship relies on the Agency's cleanup
programs to significantly reduce hazardous material use, energy and water consumption, and GHG
intensity by 2012. In addition, the Agency's strategy regarding clean air and global climate change
calls for collaboration with DOE and organizations to help the United States reduce its GHG intensity
from 2002 levels by 18% by 2012. These partnerships encourage sound choices regarding energy
efficient equipment, policies and practices, and transportation. BMPs of green remediation provide
additional tools for making sustainable choices within this statutory, regulatory, and strategic
framework.
Expanded Consideration of Energy and Water Resources
Site remediation and revitalization decisions also must comply with more recent federal and state
statutes requiring or recommending reductions in energy and water consumption as well as increased
use of renewable energy. The Energy Policy Act of 2005, for example, promotes energy conservation
nationwide and increases availability of energy supplies. [8] The Act recognizes that energy
production and environmental protection are non-exclusive national goals and encourages energy
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Sustainability of Site Remediation
production and demand reduction by promoting new technology, more efficient processes, and
greater public awareness (Capital Research, 2005).
A number of policies are in place to ensure that federal activities meet greener objectives. EPA's
strategic plan recognizes that implementing provisions of the Energy Policy Act is a major undertaking
involving increased partnership with DOE. DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
(EERE) reports that the Act's major provisions, as strengthened by Executive Order 1 3423, require
federal facilities (sites owned or operated by federal agencies) to:
Reduce facility energy consumption per square foot (a) 2% each year through the end of 201 5 or
a total of 20% by the end of fiscal year (FY) 201 5 relative to 2003 baseline; and (b) 3% per year
through the end of 201 5 or a total of 30% by the end of FY 201 5 relative to 2003 baseline
(including industrial and laboratory facilities),
Expand use of renewable energy to meet (a) no less than 3% of electricity demands in FY 2007-
2009, 5% in FY2010-FY2012, and 7.5% in 2013 and thereafter; and (b) at least 50% of the
renewable energy requirements through new renewable sources,
Reduce water consumption intensity by 2% each year through the end of FY 201 5 or 1 6% by the
end of FY 201 5 (relative to 2007 baseline) beginning in 2008,
Employ electric metering in federal buildings by 2012,
Apply sustainable design principles for building performance standards, and
Install 20,000 solar energy systems by 201 0.
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 sets additional goals regarding energy
consumption and associated GHG emissions, including increased use of alternative fuels for vehicles
and new standards for energy efficiency in buildings. [9] The Act also promotes accelerated research
and development of alternative energy resources (primarily solar, geothermal, and marine energy
technologies) and provides grants to develop technologies for large-scale CO2 capture from
industrial sources. To date, 24 states plus the District of Columbia have implemented policies for
renewable portfolio standards requiring electricity providers to obtain a minimum percentage of their
power from renewable energy resources by a certain date. Four additional states have established
non-regulatory goals for adopting renewable energy. [1 0]
Federal agencies such as the EPA, DOD, DOE, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and General
Services Administration are working to develop mechanisms for meeting energy and water
conservation goals and deadlines across both government and private sectors. Voluntary or required
participation in related federal, state, and a growing number of municipal initiatives provides
significant opportunities for integrating green practices into site remediation and reuse.
EPA's sustainability strategy encourages "demand-driven" and participatory decision-making using a
systematic approach and life-cycle perspective to evaluate chemical, biological, and economic
interactions at contaminated sites. Accordingly, EPA is collaborating with public and private partners
to establish benchmarks, identify best practices, and develop the models, tools, and metrics needed
to reach the goals of green remediation. The Agency also is compiling new information to quantify
the net environmental benefit gained by site-specific reductions in fossil fuel consumption and to
estimate related contributions in meeting national climate-change goals. On a local level, EPA
regions are working with business and community partners to identify site-specific opportunities for
demonstrating and applying these practices.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Site Management Practices
Section 3: Site Management Practices
BMPs of green remediation help ensure that day-to-day operations during all cleanup phases
maximize opportunities to preserve and conserve natural resources while achieving the cleanup's
mission of protecting human health and the environment. Opportunities to implement the practices
are not restricted to cleanups involving media treatment; for example, the practices can apply to
removal actions involving primarily institutional controls or short-term soil excavation with offsite
disposal. In these cases, the cleanup approach is similar to one used for sustainable and energy
efficient construction projects.
Many of the strategies already are used to some degree in site cleanup, although the practices are not
necessarily labeled "green." For example, selection of native rather than non-native plants for
remedies such as vegetative landfill covers or soil excavation and revegetation significantly reduces
the need to consume water for irrigation purposes - one of the key BMPs for water conservation.
Each site management plan can incorporate practices addressing core elements of green remediation
with periodic review and update as new opportunities arise. An adaptive approach to site
management planning enables early plans, in many cases initiated during emergency removal
actions, to be expanded throughout remediation and extended into
long-term stewardship controls. Each plan can outline site-specific
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Site Management Practices
energy efficiency, and product or service lifecycles. Efficiency improvements under DOE energy-
savings performance contracts, for example, are estimated to provide federal net savings of $1.4
billion. The savings result from implementing recommendations of energy service companies under
contracts extending up to 25 years (U.S. DOE/EERE, 2007). Site-specific case studies show that BMPs
applicable to green remediation can result in immediate and long-term savings:
Capital costs for a 3-kilowatt (kW) solar system at the Pemaco Superfund site in Maywood, CA,
were recovered after one year of operation. Nine months of solar operations provided sufficient
electricity to cover one month of operating the site's treatment building, which contains controls
for soil heating and ground water pumping and treatment (U.S. EPA/OSWER, 2008(a)).
Recent engineering optimization of the ground water pumping and treatment system used at the
Havertown PCP Site in Havertown, PA, provides a savings of $32,000 each year. Cost reductions
are attributed to lower electricity consumption as well as fewer purchases of equipment parts and
process chemicals (U.S. EPA/OSWER, 2006).
Low impact development strategies involving open space preservation and cluster design result in
total capital cost savings of 1 5-80%, according to the majority of 1 7 case studies conducted by
EPA. The savings are generated by reduced costs for site grading and preparation, stormwater
infrastructure, site paving, and landscaping (U.S. EPA/Office of Water, 2007).
One example of innovative strategies used to incorporate BMPs common across market sectors is
provided by the passive solar biodiesel-storage shed design (Figure 3) developed by Piedmont
Biofuels, a North Carolina community cooperative using and encouraging the use of clean,
renewable biofuels. Green elements of the design include cob walls comprising sand, clay, and straw
to ensure biodiesel storage at interior temperatures remaining above 20ฐ F; a foundation of locally
obtained stone mortared with clay; a low-cost galvanized metal roof for heat retention; and a
southern overhang to prevent excess solar gain in summer. When needed, portable solar systems can
provide electricity to generate additional interior heat. [18]
Incorporating green remediation into cleanup
procurement documents is one way to open the door for
best practices in the field. In accordance with federal
strategies for green acquisition (Executive Order 1 3423,
2007), purchasing agreements supporting site cleanup
and revitalization should give preference to:
Products with recycled content,
Biobased products,
Alternative fuels,
Hybrid and alternative fuel vehicles,
Non-ozone depleting substances,
Renewable energy,
Water efficient, energy efficient Energy Starฎ
equipment and products with the lowest watt stand-by
power, and
All services that include supply or use of these
products.
Roof:
galvanized
metal
V
Walls: -
high themal-
rnass material
Biodiesel Tank.
double-wall
steel with
500-gallon
capacity
Shading:
southern
overhang
Foundation:
local stone
I
Footprint: approximately 100 square feet
Figure 3. Green construction techniques
can be integrated into BMPs for small
structures used to store field equipment or
to house treatment components such as
pump equipment.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
11
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Site Management Practices
Site Investigations and Monitoring
Green remediation builds additional sustainability into practices already used for site evaluations and
encourages development of novel techniques. Removal actions as well as site assessments and
investigations should maximize opportunities for combining field activities in ways that reduce waste
generation, conserve energy, and minimize land and ecosystem disturbance. Site investigation and
monitoring, including well placement, should consider land reuse plans, local zoning, and
maintenance and monitoring of any engineering and institutional controls. BMPs of green
remediation help identify sustainable approaches for field work commonly involving subsurface drilling
and multimedia data gathering.
At Superfund sites, for example, sampling and analysis plans are required to contain an investigation
derived waste (IDW) plan that describes how all ARARS for waste generation and handling will be met,
and the best approach for minimizing waste generation, handling, and disposal costs. IDW
requirements also apply to projects involving offsite disposal of hazardous waste under other cleanup
programs such as RCRA. Typical IDW includes:
Drilling fluids, cuttings, and purge water from test pits and well installations,
Purge water, excess soil, and other materials from sample collection,
Residues such as ash, spent carbon, and well purge water from testing of treatment technologies
and aquifer pumping tests,
Contaminated personal protective equipment, and
Solutions used to decontaminate non-disposable protective clothing and equipment. [19, 20]
Personal protective equipment is usually changed on a daily basis; fewer days in the field result in a
smaller quantity of contaminated equipment needing disposal. When cleaning field equipment such
as soil and water samplers, drill rods, and augers to prevent contaminant transfer between sample
locations, consider using steam and non-phosphate detergent instead of toxic cleaning fluids.
Organic solvents and acid solutions should be avoided in decontamination procedures but may be
required when addressing free-product contaminants or high concentrations of metals.
Where technically feasible, collection of subsurface soil and ground water samples can rely on direct
push drilling rigs rather than conventional rotary rigs. Direct push techniques employ more time-
saving tools (particularly for subsurface investigations extending less than 1 00 feet below ground
surface), avoid use of drilling fluids, and generate no drill cuttings. Total drilling duration is estimated
to be 50-60% shorter for direct push systems. In addition, direct push rigs can be used to collect soil
and ground water samples simultaneous to the drilling process. This approach results in reduced IDW
volume and field mobilization with related fuel consumption and site disturbance.
Larger push rods now available on the market enable a direct push rig to be used also for placement
of monitoring wells with pre-packed screen sizes. This approach provides an alternative to the
conventional, energy intensive method involving use of a direct push rig to determine only the location
of a long-term monitoring well, and subsequent placement of the well through use of an auger rig.
Although some states have not approved wells placed through direct push techniques, this approach
to monitoring well installation provides additional fuel and waste savings and significantly reduces the
extent of site disturbance. Regardless of drill technique, many rigs operate with diesel engines that
can use biodiesel fuel. Site investigations should avoid use of oversized equipment and unnecessary
engine idling to maximize fuel conservation.
12 Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
-------
Site Management Practices
Geophysical techniques such as ground penetrating radar could be used at some sites to reduce the
need for direct measurement of stratigraphic units. Feasibility of using geophysical methods for these
purposes depends heavily on site conditions and the nature of contamination. Geophysical surveys
result in much smaller environmental footprints than invasive techniques for site investigations,
including cone penetrometer test rigs.
BMPs include use of passive sampling techniques for monitoring quality of air, sediment, and ground
or surface water overtime. In contrast to traditional methods involving infrequent and invasive spot-
checking, these methods provide for steady data collection at less cost while generating less waste.
Passive techniques for water sampling rely on ambient flow-through in a well without well pumping or
purging, avoiding the need for disposal of large volumes of water that require management as
hazardous waste. For some contaminants, however, passive devices for obtaining ground water
samples are ineffective. [21]
Remote data collection significantly reduces onsite field work and associated labor cost, fuel
consumption, and vehicular emissions. For example, water quality data on streams in acid mine
drainage areas can be monitored automatically and transmitted to project offices through solar
powered telemetry systems. This approach can be used for site investigations as well as site
monitoring once treatment is initiated. Renewable energy powered systems with battery backup can
be used to operate meteorological stations, air emission sensors, and mobile laboratory equipment.
Remote systems also provide quick data access in the event of treatment system breakdown.
Green remediation builds on methods used in the Triad decision-making approach to site cleanup:
systematic planning, dynamic work strategies, and real-time measurement systems. The approach
advocates onsite testing of samples with submission of fewer samples to offsite laboratories for
confirmation. The need for less offsite confirmation saves resources otherwise spent in preserving,
packing, and shipping samples overnight to a laboratory. The number of required field samples also
can be lowered through comprehensive review of historical information. The Triad approach allows
for intelligent decision-making regarding the location and extent of future sampling activities based on
the results of completed analytical sampling. This dynamic work strategy significantly minimizes
unnecessary analytical sampling. [22]
Air Quality Protection
Green remediation strategies for air quality protection build on
requirements or standards under the Clean Air Act, Energy Policy
Act, and Energy Independence and Security Act. Cleanup at many
sites involves air emissions from treatment processes and often
requires use of heavy diesel-fueled machinery such as loaders,
trucks, and backhoes to install and sometimes modify cleanup
systems (Table 1). BMPs for operation of heavy equipment as well
as routine on- or off-road vehicles provide opportunities to reduce
emission of GHG and criteria pollutants such as sulfur dioxide.
These practices encourage use of new user-friendly tools becoming
available from government agencies and industry to help managers
estimate and track project emissions.
Contracts for field service
can include specifications
regarding diesel emissions
and air qualify controls.
Sample language may be
drawn from EPA's Clean
Construction USA online
resource. [23]
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
13
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Site Management Practices
Overall efforts should be made to minimize use of heavy equipment and to operate heavy equipment
and service vehicles efficiently. Site contracts for service vendors or equipment should give preference
to providers able to take advantage of air protection opportunities:
Retrofitting machinery for diesel-engine emission control and exhaust treatment technologies such
as particulate filters and oxidation catalysts,
Maintaining engines of service vehicles in accordance with manufacturer recommendations
involving air filter change, engine timing, and fuel injectors or pumps,
Refueling with cleaner fuels such as ultra-low sulfur diesel,
Modifying field operations through combined activity schedules as well as reducing equipment
idle, and
Replacing conventional engines of existing vehicles when feasible, and purchasing new vehicles
that are equipped to operate on hybrid systems or alternative fuel and meet the latest engine
standards. [24, 25]
Table 1. Mobile sources
typically employed during
a five-year multi-phase
extraction treatment
project could consume
nearly 30,000 gallons of
fuel, equivalent to the
amount of carbon annually
sequestered by 62 acres of
pine or fir forests. [26]
Field Machinery and Vehicles Used for
a Typical Multi-Phase Extraction Project
Site Preparation: One Bobcat with
intermittent use of flatbed trailer-truck
or dump truck operating for 26 weeks
Well Construction: Truck-mounted
auger system installing ten 75-foot
extraction wells over 30 days
Routine Field Work: Two pickup trucks
for site preparation, construction,
treatment system monitoring, sampling,
and repair over five-year duration
Total for Project Life:
Fuel
Consumption
(gallons)
8,996
612
19,760
29,368
CO2
Emission
(pounds)
199,711
13,586
383,344
596,641
Site management plans should specify procedures for minimizing worker and community exposure to
emissions, and for minimizing fuel consumption or otherwise securing alternatives to petroleum-based
fuel. Plans also should contain specific methods to avoid dust export of contaminants, such as using
simple wet-spray techniques, and to control noise from power generation.
Water Quality Protection and Conservation
Best practices for stormwater management limit the disruption of natural
water hydrology by reducing impervious cover, increasing onsite
infiltration, and reducing or eliminating pollution from stormwater runoff.
Green goals used in industry-based programs such as LEED can be
applied to cleanup construction; sample targets include:
Implementing a management plan that results in a 25% decrease in
runoff at sites with impervious cover exceeding 50%,
Capturing 90% of the site's average annual rainfall, and
Removing 80% of the average annual total load of suspended solids
based on pre-construction monitoring reports.
Site "fingerprinting" is
an ecology-based
planning tool focused
on the protection of
natural resources during
site development.
14
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Site Management Practices
Site management plans can describe BMPs for reducing and controlling stormwater runoff in manners
that mimic the area's natural hydrologic conditions, otherwise known as low impact design (LID).
Cleanup at sites undergoing redevelopment could introduce best practices to be used during later
stages:
Conservation designs for minimizing runoff
generation through open-space
preservation methods such as cluster
development, reduced pavement widths,
shared transportation access, reduced
property setbacks, and site fingerprinting
during construction,
Engineered structures or landscape features
helping to capture and infiltrate runoff, such
as basins or trenches, porous pavement,
disconnected downspouts, and rain gardens
or other vegetated treatment systems,
Storage of captured runoff in rain barrels or
cisterns, green (vegetated) roofs, and
natural depressions such as landscape
islands, and
Conveyance systems to route excess runoff
through and off the site, such as grassed
swales or channels, terraces or check dams,
and elimination of curbs and gutters. [27]
BMPs reflect maximum efforts to reclaim treated
water for beneficial use or re-inject it into an
aquifer for storage, rather than discharging to
surface water. Where treatment processes
result in wastewater discharge to surface water
or municipal sewage treatment plants (publicly
owned treatment works), green remediation
strategies build on criteria of EPA's effluent
guidelines. The guidelines rely on industry-
proven performance of treatment and control
technologies. Best practices for wastewater
treatment, including any resulting in pollutant
discharge significantly below regulatory
thresholds, can be recorded in associated
permits for national pollutant discharge
elimination systems. [28]
BMPs could include estimates of the anticipated
demands for potable and non-potable water ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^~
and substitution of potable with non-potable water whenever possible. One goal might be to replace
50% of the potable water used at a site with non-potable water. Targets can be met by using high
efficiency water fixtures, valves, and piping, and by reusing stormwater and greywater for applications
such as mechanical systems and custodial operations.
Profile: Old Base Landfill, Former Naval
Training Center-Bainbridge, Port
Deposit, MD
Cleanup Objectives: Contain an unlined
landfill containing nearly 38,000 cubic
yards of soil contaminated by waste such
as pesticides and asbestos debris
Green Remediation Strategy: Employed
BMPs for controlling stormwater runoff and
sediment erosion during construction of a
landfill cover
- Installed a woven geotextile silt fence
downgradient of construction to filter
sediment from surface runoff
- Added a "super-silt fence" (woven
geotextile with chain-link fence backing)
on steep grades surrounding the landfill
- Constructed berms and surface channels
to divert stormwater to sediment ponds
- Emplaced erosion control blankets to
stabilize slopes and channels until
vegetation was established
- Hydroseeded the landfill cover with
native seed to foster rapid plant growth
Results:
- Effectively captured sediment at super-
silt fence despite heavy rain of Hurricane
Floyd
- Avoided damage of infrastructure used
in site redevelopment
- Reestablished 100% vegetative cover
within one year
Property End Use: Redevelopment for
office and liaht industrial space
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
15
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Site Management Practices
Green remediation practices potentially help cleanups not only meet but exceed water-quality and
drinking-water standards set by federal and state agencies. In turn, the benefit of higher water quality
can be passed to future site users. Broader
strategies for managing a cleanup project's
impact on local watershed conditions can
complement regional water and waste
programs for watershed restoration. [29]
Ecological and Soil
Preservation
Green remediation practices provide a whole-
site approach that accelerates reuse of
degraded land while preserving wildlife habitat
and enhancing biodiversity. BMPs can provide
novel tools for measuring a site's progress
toward meeting both short- and long-term
ecological land reuse goals involving:
Increased wildlife habitat,
Increased carbon sequestration,
Reduced wind and water erosion,
Protection of water resources,
Establishment of new greenspaces or
corridors,
Increases in surrounding property values,
and
Improved community perception of a site
during cleanup. [30]
Site management plans can describe an
approach to ecological preservation that
considers anticipated reuse as well as the
natural conditions prevailing before
contamination occurred. BMPs address daily
routines that minimize wildlife disturbance,
including noise and lights affecting sensitive
species. On previously developed or graded
sites, goals for habitat restoration might include
planting of native vegetation on 50% of the
site. Native plants require minimal or no
irrigation following establishment and require
no maintenance such as mowing or chemical
inputs such as fertilizers. Invasive plants or
noxious weeds are always prohibited.
Profile: California Gulch Superfund Site,
Leadville, CO
Cleanup Objectives: Address metals-
contaminated soil at a former mining site
Green Remediation Strategy: Constructed
a recreational trail serving as a cap for
contaminated soil
- Conducted a risk-based assessment to
confirm trail interception of exposure
pathways for waste left in place
- Demonstrated the trail would not harm
adjacent wetlands and streams
- Completed a cultural resource inventory
and mitigation plan to meet historic
preservation requirements
- Consolidated slag-contaminated soil
into a platform running along the site's
former rail and haul-road corridor
- Covered the soil platform with a six-inch
layer of gravel spanning a width of 12
feet with additional three-foot shoulders
- Installed six inches of asphalt above the
gravel layer
Results:
- Avoided invasive soil excavation and
costly offsite disposal
- Reduced consumption and cost of
imported construction material through
use of contained waste-in-place
- Increased user safety and remedy
integrity through trail restriction to non-
motorized use
- Relied on an integrated remediation
and reuse plan involving extensive
community input, donation of land and
construction material by the property
owner, and long-term trail and remedy
maintenance by Lake County, CO
Property End Use: Recreation
16
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Site Management Practices
Ecological restoration and preservation at sites anticipated for full or partial reuse as greenspace are
best managed through site surveys and careful master planning. BMPs for greenspace could include
targets such as confining site disturbance to areas within 1 5 feet of roadways and utility trenches or
within 25 feet of pervious areas of paving.
BMPs include development of an erosion and
sedimentation control plan for all activities
associated with cleanup construction and
implementation. Objectives include:
Preventing loss of soil by stormwater
runoff or wind erosion,
Preventing topsoil compaction, thereby
increasing subsurface water infiltration,
Preventing sediment transport to storm
sewers or streams, and
Preventing dispersion of dust and
particulate matter.
Potential strategies for erosion and
sedimentation control include stockpiling of
topsoil for reuse, temporary and permanent
seeding, mulching, earth dikes, silt fencing,
straw-bale barriers, sediment basins, and
mesh sheeting for ground cover.
Waste Management
Green remediation practices for waste
management encourage consumers to
consider lifecycle cost (including natural
resource consumption) of products and
materials used for remedial activities. BMPs
build on requirements set by municipal or
state agencies and those formalized in various
construction and operating permits. A site
management plan should include waste
planning practices that apply to all cleanup
and support activities. For sites involving
construction and demolition or requiring
diversion of landfill waste, stakeholder
collaboration plays a significant role in
sustainable cleanup.
Profile: Rhizome Collective Inc. Brownfield
Site, Austin, TX
Cleanup Objectives: Clean up illegal
dump containing 5,000 cubic yards of
debris
Green Remediation Strategy: Constructed
a four-foot-thick evapotranspiration cover
- Salvaged wood scraps and concrete for
erosion control
- Chipped or shredded wood to create
mulch for recreational trails
- Recycled 31.6 tons of metal
- Salvaged concrete for later use as fill for
building infrastructure
- Powered equipment through use of
biofuel generators and photovoltaic
panels, due to lack of grid electricity
- Extracted 680 tires through use of
vegetable oil powered tractor
- Inoculated chainsaws with fungi spore-
laden oil to aid in degradation of
residual contaminants
- Constructed floating islands of
recovered plastic to create habitat for
life forms capable of bioremediating
residual toxins in an onsite retention
pond
- Planted native grasses, wildflowers, and
trees
Results:
- Reestablished wildlife habitat for native
and endangered species
- Gained community help to restore the
property within a single year
Property End Use: Environmental
education park
BMPs for waste management during site
cleanup are borrowed from the construction industry. Demolition concrete, for example, is often re-
used onsite as road base, fill, or other engineering material. Reducing and recycling debris such as
concrete, wood, asphalt, gypsum, and metals helps to:
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
17
-------
Site Management Practices
Conserve landfill space,
Reduce the environmental impact and cost of producing new materials, and
Reduce overall project expenses through avoided purchase and disposal costs.
Waste management practices should consider every opportunity to recycle land-clearing debris,
cardboard, metal, brick, concrete, plastic, clean wood, glass, gypsum wallboard, carpet, and
insulation. Site preparation can include early confirmations with commercial haulers, deconstruction
specialists, and recyclers. A convenient and suitably sized area should be designated onsite for
recyclable collection and storage. Requirements for worker use of cardboard bailers, aluminum can
crushers, recycling chutes, and sorting bins will facilitate the waste management program. In
addition, stakeholders can help identify local options for material salvage that may include donation
of materials to charitable organizations such as Habitat for Humanity. To document BMPs, site
managers are encouraged to track the quantities of waste that are diverted from landfills during
remediation.
Investigation derived waste such as drilling fluids, spent carbon,
and contaminated personal protection equipment must be
appropriately contained and stored outside of general recycling
or disposal areas. Preference should be given to building- and
equipment-cleaning supplies with low phosphate and non-toxic
content.
Green waste management
practices rely on recycling,
reusing, and reclaiming
materials to the greatest
extent possible. [31 ]
18
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Section 4: Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Energy requirements constitute a core element of green remediation. Significant reductions in fossil
fuel consumption during treatment processes can be achieved through (1) greater efforts to optimize
treatment systems, and (2) use of alternative energy derived from natural, renewable energy sources.
"Active energy" systems use external energy to power mechanical
equipment or otherwise treat contaminated media. These systems
typically consume high quantities of electricity, and to a lesser extent
natural gas, although duration of peak consumption varies among
cleanup technologies and application sites. In 2007, approximately
70% of the U.S. electricity supply was generated by fossil fuel-fired
plants.
EPA's Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER) is
analyzing the extent of energy use, CO2 emissions, and energy cost of
technologies used to treat contaminated media at NPL sites. The
analysis will help the Agency to:
Establish benchmarks regarding the energy consumption of
technologies with high energy demand,
Examine operational and management practices typically used to
implement these technologies, and
Identify methods for reducing energy consumption during
treatment processes and optimizing the systems.
CO2 is one of several
gases with potential to
contribute to climate
change. CO2 is
produced from a variety
of sources including
fossil fuel combustion
and industrial process
emissions. Electric
power production is the
largest source of CO2
emissions in the U.S.
energy sector,
representing
approximately one-third
of the total.
The most frequently used energy-intensive treatment technologies used at NPL sites are pump-and-
treat (P&T), thermal desorption, multi-phase extraction, air sparging, and soil vapor extraction (SVE).
Using data from cost and performance reports compiled by the Federal Remediation Technologies
Roundtable and other resources, OSWER estimates that a total of more than 14 billion kilowatt-hours
(kWh) of electricity will be consumed through use of these five technologies at NPL sites from 2008
through 2030 (Table 2).
Table 2. Technologies used
for Superfund cleanups often
involve energy intensive
components such as ground
water extraction pumps, air
blowers, or ultraviolet lamps
(U.S. EPA/OSWER, 2008(b).
Technology
Pump & Treat
Thermal Desorption
Multi-Phase Extraction
Air Sparging
Soil Vapor Extraction
Technology Total
Estimated Energy
Annual Average
(kWh*103)
489,607
92,919
18,679
10,156
6,734
678,095
Total Estimated
Energy Use
in 2008-2030
(kWh*103)
11,260,969
2,137,126
429,625
233,599
154,890
74,216,209
DOE estimates that 1.37 pounds of CO2 are emitted into the air for each kWh of electricity generated
in the United States. Accordingly, use of these five technologies at NPL sites in 2008 through 2030 is
anticipated to indirectly result in CO2 emissions totaling nearly 9.2 million metric tons (Table 3) (U.S.
EPA/OSWER, 2008(b)).
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
19
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Technology
Pump & Treat
Thermal Desorption
Multi-Phase Extraction
Air Sparging
Soil Vapor Extraction
Technology Total
Estimated
CO2 Emissions
Annual Average
(Metric Tons)
323,456
57,756
12,000
6,499
4,700
404,411
Total Estimated
CO2 Emissions
in 2008-2030
(Metric Tons)
7,439,480
1,328,389
276,004
149,476
108,094
9,301,443
Based on the average electricity cost of $0.091 4/kWh in December 2007, consumption of fossil fuel
energy at NPL sites during operation of these five technologies is anticipated to cost over $1.4 billion
from 2008 through 2030. Use of these technologies under other cleanup programs such as RCRA,
UST, or brownfields could produce similar results. Trends in the use of active energy treatment
systems often vary among the various cleanup programs due to the type and extent of contamination
and cleanup practices commonly encountered within each program.
Table3. Estimated CO2
emissions from use of five
types of cleanup technologies
at NPL sites over 23 years are
equivalent to operating two
coal-fired power plants for
one year. [26]
General assumptions used in these estimates are dependent on and sensitive to factors such as site
size or setting. The estimates do not include variable demands of additional electricity consumed
during site investigations, field trials, remedy construction, treatment monitoring, and other activities.
The Agency's online Power Profiler can help estimate air emissions attributable to electricity
consumption at specific sites based on geographic power grids. [32]
Optimizing Energy Intensive Systems
Significant reductions in natural resource and energy consumption can be made through frequent
evaluation of treatment system efficiencies before and during operations. Opportunities to optimize
systems and integrate high performance equipment begin during feasibility studies, when potential
remedies are evaluated and the most appropriate and cost-effective cleanup technology is selected.
In accordance with green remediation strategies, feasibility studies could include comparison of the
environmental footprint expected from each cleanup alternative, including GHG emissions, carbon
sequestration capability, and water drawdown (lowering of the water table or surface water levels).
The subsequent design phase involves planning of the selected technology's engineering aspects such
as equipment sizing and integration. Energy consumption of remediation technologies ranges
considerably, from soil excavation that requires virtually no mechanical integration or electrical power,
to treatment trains involving media extraction and aboveground exposure to a series of electrically
driven physical or chemical processes. In contrast to a "bottom up" approach, most cleanup
technologies are designed through a series of equipment specifications requiring adjustment when
components are integrated. Project solicitations for equipment and services should contain
specifications regarding product efficiency, reliability, fuel consumption, air emissions, water
consumption, and material content.
20
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
-------
Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Selection of equipment and
service providers must meet a
project's performance and
cost requirements, giving
preference to products and
user techniques working
together to reduce
environmental footprints.
Equipment and vendor selection can maximize use of alternative
fuel and renewable energy sources. Where alternatives are
currently unavailable or infeasible, designs can document the
project's baseline energy demand for future reconsideration.
Energy efficiency can be gained relatively simply by techniques
such as insulating structural housing and equipment used to
maintain certain process temperatures; installing energy recovery
ventilators to maintain air quality without heat or cooling loss in
treatment buildings; and weather-proofing system components that
are exposed to outside elements. Electronic data systems for ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
controlling and monitoring operations also provide significant opportunity to conserve energy,
particularly in the multi-step processes commonly used for P&T. EERE has identified specific
opportunities to identify and quantify energy efficiencies that might occur during pumping operations.
Inefficiency symptoms include use of throttle-valve controls, cavitation noise or damage, continuous
pumping to support a batch process, open bypass or recirculation lines, and functional changes of a
system. [33]
Treatment system designs also should compare the environmental footprint left by alternate methods
of managing process water, whether through re-injection to an aquifer, discharge to surface water, or
pumping to a publicly owned wastewater treatment plant. Effective designs maximize every
opportunity to recycle process fluid, byproducts, and water; reclaim material with resale value; and
conserve water through techniques such as installation of automatic shut-off valves. To reduce
impacts on water quality, construction designs can follow LID practices helping to infiltrate,
evapotranspire, and re-use stormwater runoff in ways mirroring the site's natural hydrology.
Green remediation relies on maximizing efficiencies and reducing natural resource consumption
throughout the duration of treatment. Upon process startup, tests are conducted to ensure the system
is functioning as designed. For a technology such as in situ chemical oxidation, testing primarily
involves ensuring that an injected material is reaching the target treatment zone. For a complex multi-
contaminant P&T system, however, numerous tests are conducted to ensure that flow rates for each
process step are appropriate and that equipment is properly sized.
Remedial system evaluations (RSEs) provide examples of BMPs already in place. EPA is conducting
RSEs for operating P&T systems at Superfund-lead sites to:
Indicate whether the original monitoring or treatment system design is fully capturing the target
contaminant plume,
Determine whether new monitoring or extraction wells are needed,
Recommend specific modifications to increase system performance and efficiency, and
Obtain cost savings from direct optimization or project management improvements. [34]
RSEs often find that energy intensive equipment such as pumps and blowers are oversized or set at
operating rates or temperatures higher than needed, resulting in excess energy consumption (U.S.
EPA/OSWER, 2002). Evaluations such as these also help to remove redundant or unnecessary steps
in a treatment process, consider alternate discharge or disposal options for treated water or process
waste, and eliminate excess process monitoring.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
21
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Standard operating procedures for treatment systems should include frequent reconsideration of
opportunities to increase operational efficiencies. System optimization should carry forward to long-
term operation and maintenance (O&M) programs that ensure system components are performing as
designed. Poorly operating or broken equipment should be repaired immediately to avoid treatment
disruption and energy waste.
Subsurface remediation generally changes dynamics of the natural system as well as distribution of
contaminants. Changes might occur slowly, not becoming evident for several years. Periodic RSE
helps to identify any subsurface changes, prompting modification to long-term treatment operations.
Many years of P&T operations, for example, could change dynamics of plume behavior to the point
where an outside extraction well that originally pumped contaminated water is later capturing clean
water. In this case, shutdown of the
extraction well will result in significant energy
and cost savings.
Most remedies for soil and sediment (in situ
oxidation, thermal treatment, and
solidification/stabilization) are short-term in
nature but require continual optimization
throughout operations. Optimization of a
biological system ensures that geochemical
conditions such as reduction/oxidation,
electron donor availability, and oxygen
content are maximized.
In contrast to other soil and sediment
technologies, SVE treatment results in
contaminant loading that is initially high but
decreases overtime, prompting the need for
frequent system modifications. Key
opportunities for SVE optimization include
(1) determining if any well in a manifold
system is not contributing contaminants, and
if so, taking the well offline, (2) operating
pulsed pumping during off-peak hours of
electrical demand, as long as cleanup
progress is not compromised, and (3)
considering alternative technologies with
lower cost and energy intensity once the bulk
of contamination is removed. The EPA, U.S.
Air Force Center for Engineering and the
Environment, Federal Remediation
Technologies Roundtable, and Interstate
Technology and Regulatory Council continue
to develop tools such as checklists and case
studies to help project managers optimize
cleanup systems for all environmental media.
[35-38]
Profile: Havertown PCP Site, Havertown, PA
Cleanup Objectives: Remediate shallow
ground water containing metals, chlorinated
volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
benzene, and dioxins/furans
Green Remediation Strategy: Conducted
RSE evaluation of a 12-acre treatment area
encompassing
- Four recovery wells
- One collection trench
- A pre-treatment system to break oil/water
emulsion, remove metals, and remove
suspended solids in extracted ground
water
- An aboveground system employing three
30-kW ultraviolet/oxidation (UV/OX)
lamps, a peroxide destruction unit, and
two granular activated carbon units to
destroy or remove organic contaminants
Results:
- Removed two UV/OX lamps from the
treatment line, based on RSE
recommendations
- Reduced annual operating costs by
$32,000, primarily due to lower electricity
consumption
- Continues to meet cleanup criteria for
ground water
Property End Use: Undetermined
22
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Integrating Renewable Energy Sources
Incorporation of alternative, renewable energy sources into site cleanup may reduce a project's
carbon footprint while offering other benefits:
Hedge against fossil fuel prices, with the potential for near- and long-term cost savings,
Lower demand on traditional energy sources,
Reduced need for emission controls related to onsite fossil fuel consumption, and
Opportunities for new energy markets and job creation when combined with site revitalization.
Renewable energy sources can be used to meet partial or full demand of a treatment system. When
meeting partial demand, a renewable energy system can be designed to power one or more specific
mechanical components or to generally supplement grid electricity supplied to the entire treatment
process. EPA's Green Power Equivalency Calculator could be used to better understand and
communicate the environmental benefits of directly or indirectly using electricity produced from solar,
wind, geothermal, biogas, biomass, and low-impact small hydroelectric sources, otherwise known as
\\ " roni
green power, [oyj
Energy alternatives already available for remediation and revitalization
include solar, wind, landfill gas, and waste-to-energy sources.
Emerging technologies such as geothermal and tidal power also
could be used for site-wide applications or as means to optimize
treatment system components. Potential integration of renewable
energy sources considers:
Natural resource availability, reliability, and seasonal variability,
Total energy demand of the treatment system,
Proximity to utility grids, and associated cost and time needed to
connect to the grid,
Back-up energy sources for treatment or safety,
Cost tradeoffs associated with cleanup duration and economy of
scale, and
Long-term viability and potential reuse.
Renewable energy
industries estimate a
current renewable
energy capacity of
550-770 gigawatts in
the United States, with
growth sufficient to
meet at least 25% of
the country's electricity
needs by 2025.
(ACORE/ABA, 2008)
Renewable energy provides significant opportunities at sites that require long-term treatment, are
located in remote areas, or involve energy intensive technologies such as P&T. Renewable energy
systems can operate independently without connection to a utility grid (off-grid) or as interconnected
systems tied to the utility power grid (inter-tie). Energy management tools can be used to monitor
supply and demand, automatically shutting off or initiating grid power as desired. Hybrid systems
combining capability of two or more renewable resources often provide the most efficient and cost-
effective option in rural areas or to achieve total energy independence.
Off-grid systems are best suited to mechanical or infrastructure components with low or intermittent
energy demands such as small pumps, communication systems, or the interior of small buildings.
Cost effectiveness of off-grid systems significantly increases at remote sites, where extension of utility
lines might be cost prohibitive or otherwise infeasible due to difficult access. As in all optimized
engineering systems, effective renewable energy systems include climate control measures to minimize
energy loss throughout the mechanical network.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
23
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Interconnection of renewable energy systems with the utility grid allows use of utility power when
availability of a natural resource is low, without disruption to site cleanup operations. Excess energy
produced by a small renewable energy system could be stored in batteries until needed or transferred
to the grid for consumption by other users. Most states now require electric utilities to offer net
metering, a service that enables renewable energy generators to receive utility consumption credit.
The amount of excess electricity transferred to the grid could be directly measured through installation
of an additional meter or generally monitored through visual observation of the primary utility meter
"spinning backward." DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is working with other
government agencies and private industry to develop consistent standards for grid interconnection,
system engineering, and power production market rules.
Capital costs for renewable energy systems
continue to decrease as technologies
advance and as demand steadily increases
but might prohibit their use in some
projects. Costs can be lowered by taking
advantage of federal and state rebates or
tax credits or shared through reuse of
equipment in other cleanup projects.
Project decision-makers are encouraged to
capitalize on 1 0-year renewable energy
incentives now available to help capture
long-term savings while strengthening
community economics.
Increasing numbers of regional
partnerships are forming to help property
owners install large utility-grade systems
that can meet energy demands of onsite
operations such as remediation, while
receiving production tax credit and
allowing sale of excess energy to the utility
at wholesale price. Another mechanism is
the power purchase agreement, which
enables owners of large properties to lease
land to a utility for installation and
operation of a renewable energy network
(typically solar or wind systems) while
purchasing electricity at a considerably
lower rate. These partnerships add to
renewable energy portfolios maintained by
state agencies and authorized utilities to
help meet national goals. Accordingly,
new generators of renewable energy are
actively solicited by states working to meet
the goals of renewable portfolios. [40]
Profile: Former St. Croix Alumina Plant, St.
Croix, VI
Cleanup Objectives: Recover hydrocarbons
from ground water at a RCRA site
Green Remediation Strategy: Uses a hybrid
system employing solar and wind energy
- Began operating four wind-driven turbine
compressors in 2002 to drive compressed
air into hydraulic skimming pumps
- Installed three 55-watt photovoltaic
panels in 2003 to power some recovery
wells
- Added three 110-watt photovoltaic
panels and two wind-driven electric
generators in 2006 to power a total of
nine submersible total-fluid pumps and
the fluid-gathering system
- Recycles recovered petroleum product by
transfer to an adjacent oil refinery for use
as feed stock
Results:
- Recovered 228,000 gallons of free-
product oil (approximately 20% of the
estimated volume) by the end of 2006
- Avoids offsite transfer and disposal of
petroleum product
Property End Use: Industrial operations
(U.S. EPA/OSWER, 2008(c))
24
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Solar Energy
Solar energy can be used in site cleanups through one or more methods involving photovoltaics (PV),
direct or indirect heating and lighting systems, or concentrating solar power. PV technology easily
lends itself to applications involving remote locations, a need for portability, or support for long-term
treatment systems. This technology is already in place or under design at numerous sites.
PV cells consist of absorbing, semiconducting
material that converts sunlight directly into
electricity. Typically, about 40 PV cells are
combined to form a module, or panel.
Approximately ten of the modules are
combined on a flat-plate PV array that might
range several yards in size. An array could be
mounted at a fixed angle facing south, or on
a tracking device following the sun to allow
maximum capture of sunlight over the course
of a day. Six to 1 2 modules might meet all or
part of a treatment system with low energy
demand. In contrast, 10-20 arrays could be
needed to power systems on the order of a
small industrial facility or hundreds of arrays
can be interconnected to form a single
system.
Use of solar energy at the Pemaco Superfund
site in Maywood, CA, demonstrates the
flexibility and capability of solar technology in
helping to meet energy demands of above-
ground treatment operations. Four PV panels
with a total generating capacity of 3 kW were
installed on the existing building, which
houses a soil and ground water treatment
system employing high-vacuum pumps,
controls for electrical resistance heating, a
granular activated carbon unit, and a high-
temperature flameless thermal oxidizer. The
PV system contributes a total of 375 kWh of
electricity to the building operations each
month, avoiding more than 4,300 pounds of
CO2 emissions per year. After the first nine
months of operation, solar energy had
generated enough power to cover one month
of the building's electricity expenses for system
controls and routine operations. Payback for
PV capital costs is estimated at one year.
Profile: BP Paulsboro, Paulsboro, NJ
Cleanup Objectives: Remove petroleum
products and chlorinated compounds from
surface and ground water near a Delaware
River port
Green Remediation Strategy: Uses a solar
field to power P&T system extracting 300
gallons of ground water per minute
- Installed a 275-kW solar field
encompassing 5,880 PV panels in 2003
- Uses solar energy to operate six recovery
wells including pump motors, aerators,
and blowers
- Transfers extracted ground water into a
biologically activated carbon treatment
system
Results:
- Supplies 350,000 kWh of electricity each
year, meeting 20-25% of the P&T system
energy demand
- Eliminates 571,000 pounds of CO2
emissions annually, equivalent to
avoiding consumption of 29,399 gallons
of gasoline
- Prevents emission of 1,600 pounds of
sulfur dioxide and 1,100 pounds of
nitrogen dioxide each year
- Provides opportunity for reuse and
expansion of the PV system, with potential
capital cost recovery if integrated into site
reuse
Property End Use: Port operations
(U.S. EPA/OSWER, 2007(a))
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
25
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Aboveground treatment processes also can use solar thermal methods. These methods employ solar
collectors such as engineered panels ortromb walls to absorb the sun's energy, providing low-
temperature heat used directly for space heating. In contrast, solar water heaters use the sun to
directly heat water or a heat-transfer fluid in collectors. Industrial-grade solar heaters can be used to
provide hot water and hot-water heat for large treatment facilities.
Passive (non-mechanical) methods also could be used to heat treatment buildings, potentially
reducing structural energy consumption by up to 50%. Buildings can be designed to include large
spans of windows with southern exposure or constructed of materials with high mass value (high
absorbency but slow heat release). Passive solar designs also include natural ventilation for cooling.
Daylighting of treatment buildings can be enhanced through installation of conventional skylights or
smaller "tubular skylights" constructed of reflective material. Also, parabolic solar collectors could be
used to supplement electricity demands of fiber optic systems for treatment monitoring or data
transfer.
The potential for using active or passive solar energy to meet the energy demands of treatment
processes throughout the year can be calculated using the site's estimated insolation. An
insolation value indicates the rate at which solar radiation is delivered to a unit of horizontal
surface. Insolation values indicate radiation reflection or absorption by (1) flat-plate collectors
facing south at fixed tilt (Figure 4), (2) single-axis (north/south) flat-plate collectors tracking from
east to west, (3) two-axis flat-plate collectors tracking the sun in both azimuth and elevation, or (4)
concentrating collectors using multiple axes to track direct solar beams. Technical assistance and
more information is available from NREL and the American Solar Energy Society to help site
managers determine whether the energy demands of site remediation as well as anticipated reuse
could be met by solar resources. [41, 42]
U.S. Solar Radiation
(Latitude Tilt, Annual)
kWh.'m'/Day
>6.5|
Figure 4. Estimates of
U.S. annual solar
resources indicate
highest potential in the
Southwest; in areas with
lowest potential,
resources remain
equivalent to those of
Germany, where solar
energy is used routinely
across business sectors.
(U.S. DOE NREL,
2008 (a))
Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems provide significant opportunities at large sites undergoing
cleanup and revitalization. CSP systems use reflective materials such as mirrors or parabolic troughs
to concentrate thermal energy driving an electricity generator, or concentrated PV technology to
directly provide electrical current. Large-scale CSP systems are under consideration at sites in
southwestern portions of the United States.
26
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
-------
Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Wind Energy
Determining the potential for using wind energy to meet energy demands of a cleanup requires a wind
resource assessment. The assessment involves collection of climatic data from an onsite or local
weather station over the course of one year, although DOE's wind resource data might be sufficient
for small applications on relatively flat terrain. Wind speed is critical but wind shear and turbulence
intensity also impact assessment results. Generally, the amount of power available by wind is
proportional to the cube of wind speed; for example, a two-fold increase in wind speed increases the
available power by a factor of eight. Wind energy is best suited to resource areas categorized as
"Class 3" or higher on DOE's scale of 1 -7 (Figure 5). [43]
Wind Power Classification
Resource Wind Speed
Potential (at 50 meters,
(annual) miles/hour)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Poor
Marginal
Fair
Good
Excellent
Outstanding
Superb
0.0-12.5
12.5-14.3
14.3-15.7
15.7-16.8
16.8-17.9
17.9-19.7
>19.7
Figure 5. NREL annual wind
resource mapping shows excellent
potential in portions of the Great
Plains, and outstanding potential
in coastal areas or at high
altitudes common to many mining
sites requiring cleanup and reuse
(U.S. DOF/NRFL, 2008(b)).
U.S. Wind Resources
Results of the wind resource assessment are compared to the cleanup's anticipated energy demand to
determine whether wind energy would meet full or partial demand. Demands of low energy
components such as small generators might be met by wind speeds of 6 miles per hour (mph), while
activities such as ground water pumping generally require a wind speed above 9 mph. At sites with
wind speeds averaging 12 mph, a small 10-kW wind turbine can generate approximately 10,000
kWh annually (equivalent to avoiding CO2 emissions resulting from consumption of 882 gallons of
gasoline).
In addition to wind speed, output of a wind turbine significantly depends on a turbine's size. Most
small turbines consist of a rotor (encompassing the gearbox and blades) with diameters of less than
1 0 feet, mounted on towers 80-120 feet in height. Due to the low number of moving parts, most
small turbines require little maintenance and carry an estimated lifespan of 20 years. Small systems
cost $3,000-5,000 for every kilowatt of generating capacity, or approximately $40,000 for a 1 0-kW
installed system.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
27
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Treatment systems requiring compressed air
could be powered by wind-driven electric
generators. This type of generator employs a
small turbine or windmill to capture,
compress, and direct air to equipment such
as hydraulic pumps. The generator typically
is designed to allow blade rollup and
repositioning during excessive wind, and can
easily be lowered to the ground for routine
maintenance.
Increasing numbers of communities are
examining opportunities for integrating
renewable energy production into a
contaminated site's long-term viability and
reuse. Site revitalization involving production
of electricity for utility distribution requires
installation of co-located utility-scale (100-
kW or more) turbines to form a wind farm
(wind power plant). A wind farm is best
suited to areas with wind speeds averaging at
least 13 mph. A one-megawatt (MW)
turbine can generate 2.4-3 million kWh
annually; a 5-MW turbine can produce more
than 15 million kWh annually. Capital and
installation costs range according to factors
including economy of scale and site-specific
conditions such as terrain.
Integration of utility-scale energy production
in site reuse considers efficiencies as well as
economic factors. Commercial wind turbines
average a mechanical and electric
conversion efficiency of approximately 90%,
and an aerodynamic efficiency of
approximately 45%. In contrast, the average
efficiency of electricity generating plants in
the United States averages approximately
35%; over two-thirds of the input energy is
wasted as heat into the environment.
Over the last 20 years, the cost of electricity
from utility-scale wind systems has dropped
more than 80%, from an earlier high of
approximately 80 cents per kWh. With the
use of production tax credits, modern wind
power plants can generate electricity for 4-6
cents/kWh, which is competitive with the cost
of new coal- or gas-fired power plants.
Profile: Former Nebraska Ordnance Plant,
Mead, NE
Cleanup Objectives: Remove
trichloroethene and destroy explosives in
ground water
Green Remediation Strategy: Uses a 10-kW
wind turbine to power ground water
circulation wells for air stripping and UV
treatment
- Calculated a total demand of 767 kWh
each month for the circulation wells
- Determined electricity demand could be
met by site conditions including wind
speed of 6.5 meters/second
Results:
- Provides sufficient energy for continued
trichloroethene removal and explosives
destruction by the aboveground treatment
system during grid inter-tie operation
- Reduces consumption of utility electricity
by 26% during grid inter-tie operation
- Decreases CO2 emissions by 24-32%
during off-grid operation of the system's
230-volt submersible pump
- Returns surplus electricity to the grid for
other consumer use
- Results in no observable impacts on
wildlife
- Provides electricity cost savings expected
to total more than $40,000 over the next
15 years of treatment
- Estimated that cost recovery time for
turbine capital and installation could be
cut in half by improved freeze-proofing of
wells
Property End Use: Continued agricultural
research and development, residential, and
commercial use
(U.S. EPA/OSWER, 2007(b); University of Missouri-
Rolla, 2005)
28
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Design of a small wind system includes consideration of horsepower across the entire system to
maximize efficiency. Ground water pumps, for example, typically operate at 50% efficiency, while
turbine efficiency typically exceeds 90% and grid efficiency averages about 91% (U.S. DOE/EIA,
2007). Efficiency can be enhanced by grid interconnection allowing higher start-up current to be
drawn from the grid and by avoiding the need for storage batteries.
Wind plants typically are designed in modules allowing for addition or subtraction of individual
turbines as electricity demand changes. Construction of a 50-MW wind farm can be completed in six
months, beyond the initial 12-18 months commonly needed for wind measurements and construction
permits.
For maximum efficiency, installation locations should be sufficiently distant from trees or buildings that
potentially reduce speed of wind entering the turbine. Selection of turbine sites also considers
potential impacts on sensitive environments made by turbine noise (commonly compared to a
domestic washing machine) and public perceptions regarding aesthetics of turbine sizes. Atypical
1 00-kW turbine contains a rotor approximately 56 feet wide, while rotor width of a 1,650-kW turbine
averages 233 feet. Height of a utility-scale tower ranges according to site conditions but generally is
similar to rotor width.
EERE estimates wind energy is the fastest growing energy generation technology, expanding 30-40%
annually. NREL and the American Wind Energy Association offer technical assistance on evaluating
and implementing wind systems. [44]
Landfill Gas Energy
Landfill gas (LEG) generated through decomposition of solid waste provides a potential source of
energy at numerous sites across the country with abandoned or inactive landfills. LEG typically
contains about 50% CO2and 50% CH4. LFG-to-energy systems use extraction wells to capture gas
before it enters the atmosphere or is burned as part of the landfill management process. Captured
gas can be converted to an alternate fuel, to electricity for direct use, or to both electricity and thermal
energy (co-generated heat and power, or CHP) for dedicated mechanical operations. [45]
Conversion of LEG to electricity is possible through a number of technologies, depending on the scale
of generation. Proven technologies include microturbines, internal combustion engines, gas turbines,
external combustion engines, organic Rankine cycle engines, and fuel cells. Microturbines range in
power from 30 kW to 250 kW (not exceeding 1 MW), internal combustion engines range from 100
kW to 3 MW; and gas turbines range from 800 kW to 1 0.5 MW. Although combustion of LEG
converts CH4 to CO2, the global warming potential of methane is 23 times higher than that of carbon
dioxide. Increasing numbers of LEG applications involve development of aerobic digesters that rely
exclusively on anaerobic bacteria to break down organic substances.
Effective design of an LEG energy system includes adequate conditioning that ensures converted gas is
free of vapor and remaining contaminants or impurities, and operational practices that minimize
liquid waste streams. Performance and lifespan of a system depend on long-term availability and
reliability of the methane as an energy resource.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites 29
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Profile: Operating Industries, Inc. Landfill,
Monterey Park, CA
Cleanup Objectives: Remediate soil and
ground water contaminated by a 145-acre
inactive landfill
Green Remediation Strategy: Convert LFG
to electric power for onsite use
- Installed six 70-kW microturbines in 2002
as part of the LFG collection system
- Converts a LFG flow rate of 5,500
standard cubic feet per minute, with a
CH4 content of approximately 30%
- Returns microturbine emissions to the
existing gas treatment system to ensure
contaminant removal
Results:
- Generates sufficient energy to meet
approximately 70% of onsite needs
including thermal oxidation, a 40-
horsepower gas blower, refrigeration
units, and air-exchange systems
- Saves up to $400,000 each year in grid-
supplied electricity expenses
Property End Use: Commercial/industrial
operations or open space, pending
Superfund close-out
(U.S. EPA/OSWER, 2007(a))
LFG energy systems benefit from economy
of scale. For example, EPA estimates that
the total installed cost for an LFG
microturbine project falls from $4,000-
5,000 per kW for a small (30-kW) system to
a cost of $2,000-2,500 per kW for systems
rated 200 kW and higher. As of early
2007, 424 LFG energy projects operated in
the United States, producing a total 1,195
MW of electricity. EPA estimates that an
additional 560 landfills hold potential for
converting LFG to productive use, with a
total production potential of 1,370 MW of
electricity. [46] This technology brings
significant potential for reducing GHG
emissions from landfills. The community of
Shippensburg, PA, for example, anticipates
that operation of its 6.4-MW LFG electricity-
generating system will prevent emission of
39,000 tons of CO2 each year (an
equivalency of one coal-fired power plant
generating electricity for nearly 660,000
homes).
Waste-Derived Energy
Waste-to-energy (WTE) systems convert
solid waste into electricity, or in some cases
liquid waste to alternative fuel. Large sites
undergoing remediation provide
opportunities for local communities to
consider reuse options involving WTE
facilities as a means to:
Reduce municipal landfill burdens posed by disposal of non-hazardous waste,
Provide an alternative to onsite landfill construction,
Procure a long-term source of renewable energy,
Decrease export of waste from communities with little or no landfill capacity to other facilities,
often in other states, and
Provide employment opportunities.
An average municipal WTE facility emits 837 pounds of CO2 per megawatt hour; in contrast, coal,
oil, and natural gas facilities emit over 2,000, 1,600, and 1,1 00 pounds of CO2 per megawatt hour,
respectively (Solid Waste Association of North America, 2005; U.S. EPA, 2008 online). DOE's Energy
Information Administration estimates that a total of 299 trillion British thermal units of energy were
consumed by combustion of municipal solid waste in 2005 (U.S. DOE/EIA, 2008). Conversion of
heat produced during this process is used increasingly to produce electricity. For example, Lee
County, FL, recently expanded its existing 4 million-ton WTE combustion system to process an
30
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
-------
Energy and Efficiency Considerations
additional 636 tons of municipal waste each day, resulting in production of an additional 1 8 MW of
electricity.
Capital and operating costs for WTE facilities are significantly higher than conventional landfill costs
and typically are covered through local bonds. To ensure long-term viability, WTE facilities rely on an
infrastructure that guarantees a minimum quantity of incoming solid waste. The estimated lifespan of
a WTE facility is 40 years. [47]
Developing and Evolving Energy Sources
Green remediation relies on novel applications of emerging technologies within the context of site
cleanup. Technologies for producing energy from previously untapped renewable resources are
quickly moving from research facilities into the field, significantly increasing the options available for
site revitalization. Integrated planning for site cleanup and reuse borrows principles used in this "next
generation" of renewable energy technologies but also resurrects past methods for obtaining energy
from natural resources such as "old-fashioned" windmills or small-scale hydropower.
Geothermal power is energy generated by heat stored beneath the earth's surface, whether stored in
shallow ground or in water and rock at depths extending several miles below ground surface.
Temperatures in ground water and rock at subsurface depths up to 1 0 feet remain relatively constant
at 50-60ฐF, bringing potential for geoexchange systems to be used in remediation. Aboveground
treatment methods can use this energy directly through installation of air exchange pumps to heat or
cool building interiors. Heat removed from indoor air also could be used to elevate the temperature
of water required in a treatment process.
In contrast to heat exchange, new technologies for cold energy storage could help cool treatment
processes and structures at sites located adjacent to cold water reservoirs. For example, the Halifax
Regional Municipality began construction of a $3 million energy system retrofit in 2007 to meet peak
air conditioning needs of buildings along the waterfront in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada. The
system employs a borehole exchanger drawing cold air from 1 00 holes extending 600 feet below
ground surface to tap energy from subsurface rock mass.
Geothermal resources at greater subsurface depths could be considered to generate electricity for
long-term cleanup as well as potential sale. Geothermal power plants currently coming into
operation in western states tap reservoirs of water with temperatures of 1 07-1 82ฐF, which are
considerably lower temperatures than needed in past production. New plants operate at lower cost
and greater efficiency, and emit significantly less CO2 than fossil fuel plants (less than 100 pounds per
megawatt hour). Potentially adverse environmental problems posed by geothermal energy production
include process operations requiring deep subsurface drilling and condensed steam re-injections to
draw additional heat; changes in geological stability of a region; and decreasing temperatures of
water reservoirs overtime. [48]
Tidal energy could provide opportunities at coastal sites undergoing long-term treatment. Although
ocean tide has not yet been tapped for remediation purposes, small-scale variations relying on the
flow of ground water and surface water are under evaluation. For example, DOE's Savannah River
National Laboratory field tested a passive siphoning system using a synthetic tube to induce ground
water flow from a contaminated aquifer into a treatment cell containing reactive material. After
passing through the treatment cell, water discharges to nearby surface water. System recharge, when
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites 31
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
needed, can be accomplished easily through use of a solar powered vacuum pump to remove gas
bubbles. This technology provides a passive, in situ alternative to P&T systems and could be used to
improve performance of other low energy technologies such as permeable reactive barriers.
Adaptations of conventional treatment technologies can take advantage of energy produced by other
earth processes. Passive bioventing or passive SVE rely on natural venting cycles of the subsurface to
create atmospheric pressure differences capable of inducing air flow (barometric pumping) for
subsurface removal of nonchlorinated hydrocarbons. Effectiveness is enhanced through simple air-
control equipment such as one-way valves preventing flow of air into venting wells. The U.S. Air Force
Center for Engineering and the Environment is evaluating long-term efficiency of pressure-driven
systems at numerous sites, including Hanford, WA, and Hill Air Force Base, UT. Pressure-driven
systems do not require mechanical pumps or electrical blowers to draw volatile contaminants from soil
and provide a low-cost approach for remediation polishing following use of energy-intensive
remediation technologies. Applications are limited to sites with substantial swings in barometric
pressures and are most effective under aerobic conditions in shallow, unsaturated soil. Passive
pressure systems commonly require more venting wells than conventional systems and often require
longer time to achieve cleanup goals. [49]
The Savannah River National Laboratory is testing low power (20-40 watt) SVE systems powered by
small PV modules, wind generators, or batteries. Pumps used in these applications are small and
relatively unobtrusive (typically four by three inches in size) but might need replacement after one year
of operation. Use of low power SVE is limited to long-term remediation polishing. [50]
Low Energy Systems
Passive energy remediation systems use little or no external energy to power mechanical equipment or
otherwise treat contaminated environmental media. These systems commonly involve technologies
such as bioremediation, phytoremediation, soil amendments, evapotranspiration covers, engineered
wetlands, and biological permeable reactive barriers. Cleanup strategies can combine elements of
these technologies to achieve novel hybrid systems, paving the way for yet more innovative
applications.
To maximize remediation sustainability, passive energy
systems should operate in conjunction with other core
elements of green remediation such as water
conservation and waste minimization; rely on energy
efficient equipment during construction and monitoring;
and consider use of renewable energy sources for
auxiliary equipment. As in all cleanup actions, selection
and implementation of remedies relying on passive
energy technologies must account for short- and long-
term environmental and cost trade-offs. Passive systems
often require more time than aggressive, active energy
systems to meet cleanup goals.
These systems can serve as the primary means for treating
contaminated media or as secondary polishing steps
once the effectiveness of more energy intensive systems
Carbon sequestration is the removal
from the emission stream of CO2 or
other GHG that would otherwise be
emitted to the atmosphere. GHGs
can be sequestered at the point of
emission or removed from air, often
referred to as carbon capture and
storage. Emissions can be offset by
enhancing carbon uptake in terrestrial
ecosystems and subsequent carbon
storage in soil. Vegetation serving as
"carbon storage sinks" adds to the
earth's net carbon storage. [51]
32
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
begins to be outweighed by negative cost and environmental affects. Passive energy systems can
increase terrestrial sequestration of CO2 and other GHG, resulting in a "co-benefit" of site
remediation. Monitoring and controls are required, however, to minimize potential for these systems
to act as atmospheric CO2 sources. For potential application in carbon offset programs becoming
available in government and industrial
sectors, systems must demonstrate
permanence of atmospheric carbon
sequestration as well as the amount of carbon
being newly sequestered.
Profile: Umatilla Army Depot, Hermiston,
OR
Passive energy systems inherently complement
efforts to protect and restore ecological
systems on contaminated lands, one of the
core elements of green remediation. In
addition to enhancing wildlife and vegetative
habitat, ecological land use can provide
features such as commercial riparian zones or
recreational opportunities. Improved soil
stability gained by ecological restoration also
reduces erosion, slows and filters stormwater
runoff, and reduces topsoil lost as dust during
both remediation and reuse activities.
Enhanced Bioremediation
Enhanced bioremediation helps
microorganisms degrade contaminants in
soil, ground water, or sludge. In situ
applications involve subsurface injection of
microbial enhancing substrates, which results
in minimal disturbance to land or ecosystems
and little fuel consumption. Ex situ
bioremediation involves disturbance to upper
soil layers and requires more field activity but
avoids offsite disposal of contaminated soil
and associated consumption of vehicular fuel
for transport. Depending on the selected
technique, ex situ bioremediation can
produce significant amounts of nutrient-rich
material available for onsite or potentially
commercial offsite applications.
In situ aerobic bioremediation typically is
enhanced by injection of oxygen and/or
moisture as well as compounds influencing
media temperature and pH. The end product
comprises primarily CO2 and water. In situ
anaerobic bioremediation processes typically
Cleanup Objectives: Treat 15,000 tons of
soil contaminated with explosives such as
trinitrotoluene (TNT) and
cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX)
Green Remediation Strategy: Composted
with locally obtained feedstock
- Used windrow techniques involving
placement of soil in lengthy piles
- Periodically mixed soil with a mixture of
cattle/chicken manure, sawdust, alfalfa,
and potato waste
- Mixed soil with feedstock inside mobile
buildings to control fumes and optimize
biological activity
Results:
- Treated each 2,700-cubic-yard batch of
soil in 10-12 days
- Destroyed contaminant byproducts or
permanently bound the byproducts to soil
or humus, achieving non-detectable
concentrations of explosives
- Provided $150,000 potential revenue
from sale of humus-rich soil
- Saved an estimated $2.6 million
compared to incineration, a common
alternative for explosives treatment
- Avoided significant fossil fuel
consumption by an incinerator
- Avoided fuel costs and consumption
associated with transporting soil to an
offsite incinerator or transferring ash
generated by an onsite mobile incinerator
Property End Use: Conversion under base
realignment and closure
(U.S. EPA/OSWER, 1997)
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
33
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
are enhanced by injection of an electron donor substrate such as vegetable oil to promote suitable
conditions for microbial growth. If the appropriate contaminant-degrading microbes are not present
in sufficient quantity, additional microbes will be injected (bioaugmentation). Some applications
targeting ground water create flow-through bioreactors or permeable reactive barriers constructed of
organic material.
Ex situ bioremediation of soil may be conducted through a slurry process, whereby contaminated soil
is excavated and mixed with water to suspend solids and provide contact with microorganisms. In
contrast, solid-phase bioremediation involves placement of contaminated soil in a treatment cell or
aboveground structure where it is tilled with water and nutrients. Land farming, biopiles, and
composting are among the solid-phase bioremediation techniques producing enriched soil for
potential use in landscaping and agriculture at revitalized sites. [52]
Ex situ enhanced bioremediation can play a
significant role in green remediation by helping to
rebuild organic content of soil, increase soil
aeration, improve water infiltration, increase
moisture retention, and stimulate vegetation
growth. BMPs of green remediation include
methods to control soil erosion and sediment
transport through strategies such as topsoil
stockpiling, installation of straw barriers, and
placement of permeable ground cover to prevent
soil compaction caused by heavy machinery. The
practices also encourage air protection strategies
such as use of clean fuel in on-road vehicles,
retrofitting of diesel equipment, and minimal
idling of heavy machinery.
Phytoremed iation
Phytoremediation uses plants to remove, transfer,
stabilize, or destroy contaminants in soil,
sediment, and ground water. This technology
encompasses all biological, chemical, and
physical processes influenced by plants, including
the root biomass (rhizosphere). Treatment
mechanisms include:
Phytoextraction (phytoaccumulation and
phytotranspiration) involving contaminant
uptake by plant roots and subsequent storage
or transpiration of contaminants in plant
shoots and leaves,
Enhanced rhizosphere biodegradation,
whereby contaminants break down in soil or
ground water surrounding plant roots,
Phytodegradation, whereby plant tissue
metabolizes contaminants, and
Profile: Carswell Golf Course, Fort
Worth, TX
Cleanup Objectives: Biodegrade
subsurface VOCs through reductive
dechlorination and control contaminant
migration
Green Remediation Strategy: Planted
660 cottonwood trees across 4,000
square meters in 1996 to:
- Establish root biomass promoting
activity of indigenous microbes
- Enhance transpiration of ground water
through the trees, helping to control
hydraulic gradient and downgradient
migration of VOCs
Results:
- Produces virtually no process residuals
- Reduced VOC concentrations in
ground water approximately 65%
within four years after the plantings,
- Demonstrates increased treatment
efficacy over time according to plant
growth
- Incurred costs of only $2,100 for
plants and $10,000 for irrigation
- Supported transfer of property to
community as part of base closure,
without disruption to ongoing activities
Property End Use: Recreation
[U.S. EPA/OSR77, 2005]
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Phytostabilization, whereby plants produce chemical compounds to immobilize contaminants at
the root/soil interface.
Plant communities used in phytostabilization can serve as significant carbon storage sinks. Carbon
uptake during photosynthesis increases plant growth rate, in turn increasing biomass capability to
capture and store atmospheric carbon. BMPs for phytoremediation rely on the use of native,
noninvasive, and non-noxious plants. While selection of suitable plants is site-specific, vegetation with
capability to treat contaminated soil or ground water includes common plants such as hybrid poplars,
Bermuda grass, and alpine pennycress. Phytoremediation systems can be constructed and maintained
at low cost, depending upon site characteristics and goals, and require minimal equipment once
installed.
LEED-based water efficiency goals for phytoremediation could include 50% use of non-potable water
for irrigation, where needed. Methods to minimize water consumption include use of drip irrigation
techniques, greywater reclaimed from industrial or small-scale potable water systems, and high
efficiency equipment or climate-based controllers.
Phytoremediation can be used to treat organic compounds through the process of mineralization, and
heavy metals or other inorganic compounds through the processes of accumulation and stabilization.
The technology can be applied in situ to soil, sediment, or ground water. Applications involving no
accumulation of contaminants (and associated disposal of plants) particularly complement land use
that is dependent on bioversity, such as greenspace. [53]
Soil Amendments
Soil amendments are organic materials that can be applied in situ to enhance contaminant
biodegradation by subsurface microorganisms and to decrease availability of metal contaminants.
Soil amendments help restore degraded lands and ecosystems by:
Improving water retention (resulting in enhanced plant growth and drought resistance) and other
soil properties such as pH balance,
Supplying nutrients essential for plant growth, including nitrogen and phosphorous as well as
essential micronutrients such as nickel, zinc, and copper, and
Serving as an alternative to chemical fertilizers that incur additional project costs and potentially
introduce human health or environmental concerns.
In contrast to the quick release of nutritional elements following application of inorganic fertilizers,
organic nutrients in soil amendments are released slowly, resulting in more efficient plant uptake and
subsequent growth. Nutrients bound in organic matter also are less water soluble, rendering them
less likely to leach into ground water or migrate as runoff into surface water. The process of applying
soil amendments can be completed at a relatively low cost and often produces soil for use in site
redevelopment. Applications must include precautions, however, to avoid potential nutrient- or
metals-loading that contributes to nonpoint pollution of other environmental media.
"Biosolid recycling" of stabilized sewage sludge, which is increasingly used by municipalities as an
alternative to incineration, provides a significant source of organic material needed to amend soil at
hazardous waste sites. This approach converts organic wastewater treatment material into products
for beneficial use such as bulk application in agriculture or pellets in commercial fertilizers.
Generation and use of biosolids are subject to federal, state, and local requirements to ensure that
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites 35
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
treatment systems sufficiently sterilize organic material; excess field application is avoided; sufficient
post-application time is allowed before plant harvesting; and metal content is within safe levels. [54]
Profile: Upper Arkansas River, Leadville,
CO
Cleanup Objectives: Restore soil and
ecosystems severely degraded by past
mining activities conducted upstream
Green Remediation Strategy: Introduced
biosolids and assorted soil amendments
- Applied 100 dry tons (pellets) of
biosolids to each of 20 target acres
along an 1 1-mile stretch of the river
- Mixed biosolids with lime to reduce soil
acidity, consequently increasing plant
viability and metal insolubility
- Seeded native plants and quick-growing
ryegrass
- Added compost and woody material as
additional plant nutrients
- Added wood chips to reduce nitrogen
(nutrient) leaching
- Covered amended soil with native hay
to promote plant growth and seeding
Results:
- Revegetated denuded acreages
- Reduced concentrations and
bioavailability of zinc and other metals
through bioremediation,
phytoremediation, and solubility
reduction
- Neutralized soil to levels supporting
healthier ecosystems
- Reduced soil erosion, river channel
degradation, and property loss
- Reestablished communities of native
plants such as white yarrow and tufted
hairgrass
Property End Use: Agriculture and
recreation
Evapotranspiration Covers
Evapotranspiration (ET) covers are waste
containment systems providing an alternative
to conventional compacted-clay covers (caps)
that might insufficiently prevent percolation of
water downward through the cover to the
waste. ET covers use one or more vegetated
soil layers to retain water until it is transpired
through vegetation or evaporated from the
surface of soil. An ET cover also is known as
a water balance cover, alternative earthen
final cover, vegetative landfill cover, soil-plant
cover, or store-and-release cover. These
systems increase vegetative growth, help
establish small wildlife habitat, and provide
significant opportunities for CO2 capture and
sequestration.
Effective cover designs incorporate methods
to control percolation and moisture buildup
and to promote surface water runoff. ET
covers rely on a soil layer's capacity for water
storage, instead of engineered material with
low hydraulic conductivity, to minimize
percolation. Cover designs emphasize use of:
Native vegetation to increase
evapotranspiration, and
Local soil to streamline construction,
minimize project costs, and avoid fuel
consumption associated with imported
soil.
ET cover systems generally are constructed as
monolithic barriers or capillary barriers. A
monolithic cover (or monofill cover) uses a
single vegetated layer of soil to retain water
until it is either transpired through vegetation
or evaporated from the soil surface. A
capillary barrier cover system uses a similar
clay layer typically underlain by sand or gravel
to cause infiltrating water to wick at the layer
interface.
36
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Costs for construction could be 50% lower for
ET covers than for conventional covers. O&M
costs for an ET cover, however, depend heavily
on site-specific factors such as the need for
light irrigation of vegetation, nutrient additions,
erosion and biointrusion controls, and related
field work. Applications often involve higher
energy consumption associated with increased
O&M activity. These systems are anticipated to
cover many small landfills in arid or semi-arid
climates over the coming decade, particularly
on military properties. [55]
Engineered Wetlands
Wetlands serve as biofilters capable of
removing solid or dissolved-phase
contaminants from ground water via passage
of water through the system, while using no
external sources of energy. Engineered
wetlands are semi-passive networks of
constructed cells specifically designed to treat
contaminants in surface and/or ground water.
Engineered systems accelerate cleanup through
use of auxiliary components for increased
control and monitoring of the treatment cells,
and consequently carry higher extrinsic energy
demands.
Wetlands contain rich microbial communities
housed in sediment typical of marsh or
swamps. In addition to biodegrading
contaminants, engineered wetlands can
eliminate discharge to a water treatment plant,
create habitats important to healthy
ecosystems, and enhance visual aesthetics of a
degraded site through addition of greenspace.
Traditionally, natural or engineered wetland applications were limited to treatment of stormwater and
municipal wastewater. Increased demand for wetland-based treatment systems has resulted in
technology advancements enabling applications for acid mine drainage, treatment process
wastewater, and agricultural waste streams. Evaluation and preliminary design of engineered
wetlands as a cleanup remedy requires early assessment of site-specific characteristics and
remediation/reuse goals:
Confirming anticipated site reuse and determining whether use is compatible with a sustainable
wetland,
Estimating the time needed to establish a wetland system,
Profile: Fort Carson, Colorado Springs,
CO
Cleanup Objectives: Contain a 15-acre
hazardous waste landfill
Green Remediation Strategy: Installed a
four-foot-thick monolithic ET cover
- Applied biosolids from an onsite
wastewater treatment plant
- Installed a layer of straw mulch to
prevent erosion
- Revegetated with native prairie grass
resistant to drought and disease
- Provided uncompacted soil more
conducive to plant growth than
conventional earthen covers
Results:
- Reduced potential for desiccation
- Reclaimed sludge otherwise destined for
landfill disposal
- Enhances visual aesthetics contrasting
to adjacent asphalt cover
- Saved nearly $1.5 million in
construction costs compared to a
conventional cover
- Incurs annual O&M costs averaging
$75,000, relatively higher than
conventional covers
Property End Use: Open space
(McGuire, ef. a/., 2001)
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
37
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Profile: British Petroleum Site, Casper, WY
Cleanup Objectives: Remediate gasoline-
contaminated ground water for 50 to 100
years
Green Remediation Strategy: Installed an
engineered, radial-flow constructed
wetland system
- Designed wetland treatment cells for
subsurface location to increase
operational control, reduce offensive
odors and insects, and avoid disruption
of surface activity
- Constructed treatment beds of crushed
concrete reclaimed from demolition of
the site's former refinery
- Insulated each treatment cell with a six-
inch layer of mulch to withstand
temperatures reaching -35ฐ F
- Installed native, emergent wetland
plants such as bulrushes, switchgrass,
and cordgrass in each treatment cell
- Employed "Smart Growth" principles to
complement site conversion for mixed
use
Results:
-Treats up to 700,000 gallons of
contaminated ground water each day
-Achieves non-detectable concentrations
of benzene and other hydrocarbons
-Operates year-round despite cold
climate
-Incurred construction costs totaling $3.4
million, in contrast to $15.9 million for
the alternative P&T system employing air
stripping and catalytic oxidation
Property End Use: Office park and
recreation facilities including golf and
kayak courses
(Wallace, 2004)
Identifying optimal biological and
chemical treatment mechanisms,
Avoiding use of non-native, invasive, or
noxious plants,
Removing certain ground water
contaminants such as mercury prior to
wetland treatment, and closely monitoring
the concentrations during treatment, and
Accounting for seasonal variance in
system performance and maintenance.
Designs need to account for future O&M
needs, particularly for small-scale systems. If
a wetland is used for buffering, rejuvenation is
typically needed overtime. Rejuvenation
involves addition of buffering material such as
limestone and removal of some sediment to
maintain system grade. [56, 57]
Biowalls
A permeable reactive barrier (PRB) is an in situ
ground water treatment technology that
combines a passive chemical or biological
treatment zone with subsurface fluid-flow
management. PRB construction commonly
involves subsurface placement of selected
reactive media into one or more trenches
perpendicular to and intersecting ground
water flow. Passage of ground water through
the barrier is driven by the natural hydraulic
gradient, requiring no external energy.
PRBs employing organic material as reactive
media, otherwise known as "biowalls," are
used to treat ground water containing
chlorinated solvents and other organic
contaminants. Reactive media typically
comprise readily available, low-cost materials
such as mulch, woodchips, or agricultural
byproducts mixed with sand. Enhanced
microbial activity within the organic material
stimulates contaminant biodegradation as
water slowly passes through the barrier.
Sequential breakdown of contaminants results
in both aerobic and anaerobic zones of the
treatment area.
38
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
Profile: Altus Air Force Base, OK
Cleanup Objectives: B/odegrade a VOC
hotspot 10-18 feef below ground surface
in a remote location
Green Remediation Strategy: Installed a
10,000-square-foot subsurface biowall of
organic material
- Filled trenches with woody waste
supplied by a local municipality and
cotton gin trash obtained from the
local cotton industry
- Relied exclusively on power from a
200-watt PV array to recirculate
ground water
- Employed a small submersible pump
designed for solar applications and
suitably sized for low rates of ground
water transfer
Results:
- Demonstrates continued
biodegradation of VOCs
- Transfers 1,300 cubic meters of
carbon-enriched leachate into the
aquifer each year
- Maintains a ground water flow rate of
928 gallons each day
- Avoided significant cost for connection
to the electricity grid
- Incurred capital costs of only $2,300
for the pump/solar system
- Provided a low-maintenance
alternative for potentially extended
cleanup duration
- Provides opportunity of re-using solar
equipment (with 20- to 30-year
lifespan) at other locations or sites
Property End Use: Continued military
operations
(U.S. EPA/OSWER, 2007(c))
Biowall installation involves varying degrees of
soil excavation and field mobilization,
depending on site and contaminant
characteristics. Typical biowall dimensions are
1.5-3 feet in width and 25-35 feet in depth, with
variable length to accommodate width of the
contaminant plume. Configurations could
involve a single continuous trench or a series of
trenches angled for maximum plume capture.
Once installed, biowalls require little field work
beyond routine monitoring. Periodic
replenishment of the reactive medium can be
accomplished by injecting soluble organic
substrate such as common soybean oil. Due to
the low cost of organic materials, biowalls can
be installed for one-fourth to one-third the cost
of PRBs using zero valent iron, a commonly used
reactive medium. [58]
Operating on the same principles as a biowall,
a "bioreactor" additionally integrates a
recirculation system to transfer downgradient
water to the trench filled with organic media.
Nutrient-rich leachate exiting the bioreactor is
transferred continuously to the aquifer. Ground
water pumping from the collection trench can
be powered by renewable energy sources due to
the low rate of water exchange required.
Monitored Natural Attenuation
Monitored natural attenuation (MNA) relies on
nature's biological, chemical, or physical
processes to reduce the mass, toxicity, mobility,
volume, or concentration of contaminants in
environmental media under favorable
conditions. MNA uses an in situ approach
involving close control and monitoring to
achieve remediation objectives within a
reasonable time frame. MNA processes include
biodegradation, dispersion, dilution, sorption,
volatilization, radioactive decay, and chemical
or biological stabilization, transformation, or
destruction of contaminants; degradation or
destruction is preferred.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
39
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Energy and Efficiency Considerations
MNA is suited for sites with low potential for contaminant migration and where application ensures
that all remedy selection criteria are met. MNA can be combined with aggressive remediation
measures such as ground water extraction and treatment or used as a polishing step following such
measures. Advantages of MNA generally include:
Less remediation-generated waste, reduced potential for cross-media transfer of contaminants,
and reduced risk of onsite worker exposure fo contaminants,
Less environmental intrusion and smaller treatment-process footprints on the environment, and
Potentially lower remediation costs compared to aggressive treatment technologies.
When compared to aggressive treatment systems, potential disadvantages of MNA include:
More complex and costly site characterization, longer periods needed to achieve remediation
objectives, and more extensive performance monitoring (with associated energy consumption),
Continued contamination migration or renewed contaminant mobility caused by hydrologic or
geochemical changes, and
Institutional controls to ensure long-term protectiveness and more public outreach to gain
acceptance. [59]
40
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Tools and Incentives
Section 5: Tools and Incentives
Growing numbers of tools and incentives are available to site remediation and redevelopment
managers for planning, financing, and implementing green projects. Several programs within EPA's
Clean Energy initiative provide technical assistance and policy information, foster creation of
public/private networks, and formally recognize leading organizations that adopt clean energy policies
and practices, [http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy]
The Green Power Partnership helps organizations to buy green power designed to expand the
market of environmentally preferable renewable energy sources.
[http://www.epa.gov/greenpower1
State Utility Commission Assistance is offered to utility regulators exploring increased use of
renewable resources for energy production, energy efficiency, and clean-distributed generation
such as co-generated heat and power, [http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-
programs/suca.html]
The National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency engages public/private energy leaders (electric
and gas utilities, state utility regulators and energy agencies, and large consumers) to document a
set of business cases, BMPs, and recommendations designed to spur investment in energy
efficiency, [http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-programs/napee/index.html]
The Energy-Environment State Partnership and Clean Energy-Environment Municipal Network
support development and deployment of emerging technologies that achieve cost savings through
energy efficiency in residential and commercial buildings, municipal facilities, and transportation
facilities, [http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-programs/state-and-local/index.html]
EPA's Environmental Responsible Redevelopment and Reuse ("ER3") Initiative uses enforcement
incentives to encourage developers, property owners, and other parties to implement sustainable
practices during redevelopment and reuse of contaminated sites.
[http://www.epa.gov/compliance/cleanup/redevelop/er3/]
As lead agency for federal energy policy, DOE continues to expand and establish new programs
aimed at reducing the use of non-renewable energy sources and increasing energy efficiency.
EERE offers grants or cooperative agreements to industry and outside agencies for renewable
energy and energy efficiency research and development. Assistance is available in the form of
funding, property, or services. In fiscal year 2004, EERE awarded $506 million in financial
assistance. [http://www1 .eere.energy.gov/financing/types_assistanee.html]
EERE also provides grants to state energy offices for energy efficiency and renewable energy
demonstration projects as well as analyses, evaluation, and information dissemination.
[http://www.eere.energy.gov/state_energy_prog ram/]
State and local mechanisms are evolving quickly to meet national energy goals for the coming
decades. State renewable energy portfolios help meet these goals by offering (1) third-party funding
mechanisms that support public/private partnerships for generation of electricity from renewable
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites 41
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Tools and Incentives
resources, (2) reduced purchasing rates for electricity generated from renewable resources, and (3) tax
credits for energy production from renewable resources. The Dafabase of State Incentives for
Renewab/es and Efficiency (DSIRE) provides quick access to information about renewable energy
incentives and regulatory policies administered by federal and state agencies, utilities, and local
organizations. Information is updated frequently through a partnership among the North Carolina
Solar Center, the Interstate Renewable Energy Council, and DOE. [www.dsireusa.org/]
State authorities are working with commissioned utilities to develop a host of tools and incentives for
using green practices. Programs in Minnesota and California demonstrate some of the mechanisms
becoming available.
The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) Green Practices for Business, Site
Development, and Site Cleanups: A Toolkit provides online tools to help organizations and
individuals make informed decisions regarding sustainable BMPs for use, development, and
cleanup of sites, [http://www.pca.state.mn.us/programs/p2-s/toolkit/index.html]
The Sfate of California Self-Generation Incentive Program (SGIP) provides incentives for
installation of renewable energy systems and rebates for systems sized up to 5 MW. Qualifying
technologies include PV systems, microturbines, fuel cells, and wind turbines.
[http://www.pae.com/selfaen/]
42 Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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Future Opportunities
Section 6: Future Opportunities
Significant opportunities exist to increase sustainability of site remediation while helping to meet
national, regional, and state or local goals regarding natural resource conservation and climate
change. Decision-makers are encouraged to take advantage of newly demonstrated or emerging
technologies and techniques in ways that creatively meet the objectives of site cleanup as well as
revitalization. Effective green remediation can provide a range of new opportunities.
^- Building Stronger Communities
Renew or form new partnerships among organizations and individuals with common
environmental, economic, and social concerns, including energy independence,
Identify optimal methods that stakeholders can use to influence the direction of remediation and
revitalization and to maintain an active voice throughout a project, and
Work more efficiently with local engineering firms involved in cleanup design, construction, and
operations.
^- Expanding the Options for Site Reuse
Evaluate options presented by a larger universe of potential developers,
Identify new solutions for unresolved site issues, and
Facilitate new incentives for current site owners.
^- Increasing Economic Gains
Integrate new energy-related businesses into local and regional infrastructures,
Demonstrate specific technical needs to be met by commercial product and service vendors, and
Foster government initiatives that reward businesses employing sustainable practices.
^ Increasing Environmental Benefits of Cleanups
Enhance environmental conditions beyond immediate target areas,
Participate in state and local initiatives collectively working to meet goals for natural resource and
energy conservation, and
Showcase more sustainable cleanup and revitalization strategies that readily apply to other sites.
Additional information on opportunities and tools for implementing green remediation is frequently
uploaded to the EPA Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation's CLU-IN Web
page on Green Remediation (http://www.cluin.org/greenremediation). Future electronic updates to
this primer also will be available on CLU-IN to share emerging information on green remediation.
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites 43
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References
Section 7: References
ACORE (American Council on Renewable Energy) and ABA (American Bar Association). January 16,
2008. Renewable Energy Seminar and Teleconference.
Capital Research. 2005. Legislative History Report: H.R. 6 - the Federal Energy Policy Act of 2005.
http://www.capitolresearch.us/reports/2005energy_policy.html#exhibits
Executive Order 13423. January 24, 2007. Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and
Transportation Management, http://www.ofee.gov/
McGuire, Patrick E., John A. England, and Brian J. Andraski. 2001. "An Evapotranspiration Cover
for Containment at a Semiarid Landfill Site," Proceedings of International Containment and
Remediation Technology Conference and Exhibition.
Solid Waste Association of North America. 2005. Jeremy O'Brien, Applied Research Foundation.
Comparison of Air Emissions from Waste-to-Energy Facilities to Fossil Fuel Power Plants.
U.S. DOE/EERE. July 2007. Federal Energy Management Program. Fact Sheet: Super ESPC-Jusf
the Facts: Energy Savings Performance Contracting.
http://www1 .eere.energy.gov/femp/prog ram/eg uip_procurement.htm I
U.S. DOE/Energy Information Administration (EIA). July 2007. Annual Energy Review 2006, Diagram
6: Electricity Flow, 2006. http://www.eia.doe.gov/aer
U.S. DOE/EIA. April 2008. Municipal Solid Waste: Table 7, Waste Energy Consumption by Type and
Energy Use Sector, 2005. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/trends/table7.html
U.S. DOE/NREL. March 2008 (a). Solar Energy Resource Atlas of the U.S.: Annual Average Wind
Resource Estimates. Compiled by Billy Roberts, NREL.
U.S. DOE/NREL. March 2008 (b). Wind Energy Resource Atlas of the U.S.: 50 Meter Wind Power
Resource. Compiled by Billy Roberts, NREL.
U.S. EPA. 2008 [online]. Clean Energy: Municipal Solid Waste.
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/municipal-sw.html
U.S. EPA/National Center for Environmental Innovation. March 2006. Sectors Program:
Performance Report 2006. EPA 1 OO-R-06-002. http://www.epa.gov/ispd/performance.html
U.S. EPA/Office of the Chief Financial Officer. September 2006. 2006-2011 EPA Strategic Plan.
http://www.epa.gov/ocfo/plan/plan.htm
U.S. EPA/OSRTI. November 2005. Cost and Performance Report: Phytoremediation at Naval Air
Station - Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX.
U.S. EPA/OS WE R. October 1997. Innovative Uses of Compost: Composting of Soils Contaminated
by Explosives. EPA 530-F-97-045. http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/compost/explosn.txt
44 Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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References
U.S. EPA/OSWER. December 2002. Elements for Effective Management of Operating Pump and
Treat Systems. EPA 542-R-02-009.
http://clu-in.org/techfocus/defau It.focus/sec/Remediation_Optimization/cat/Guidance/page/3/
U.S. EPA/OSWER. 2004. Cleaning Up the Nation's Waste Sites: Markets and Technology Trends.
EPA542-R-04-015. http://www.cluin.org/market/
U.S. EPA/OSWER. December 2006. Final Report, Pilot Region-Based Optimization Program for
Fund-Lead Sites in EPA Region 3: Site Optimization Tracker, Havertown PCP Site, Havertown,
Pennsylvania. EPA 542-R-06-006J.
http://clu-in.org/search/default.cfm?search_term = Havertown+ PCP&t=a I l&advlit=0
U.S. EPA/OSWER. August 2007 (a). Green Remediation and the Use of Renewable Energy Sources
for Remediation Projects. Amanda Dellens, National Network for Environmental Management Studies
Fellow, Case Western Reserve University. http://cluin.Org/s.focus/c/pub/i/1474/
U.S. EPA/OSWER. May 2007 (b). "Wind Turbine Cost Study Shows Need for Redesigned Ground-
Water Remediation Systems," Technology News and Trends. EPA 542-N-06-009.
http://clu-in.org/products/newsltrs/tnandt/view.cfm? issue = 0507. cfm#1
U.S. EPA/OSWER. May 2007 (c). "Solar Power Recirculates Contaminated Ground Water in Low-
Energy Bioreactor," Technology News and Trends. EPA 542-N-06-009.
http://clu-in.org/products/newsltrs/tnandt/view.cfm? issue = 0507. cfm#1
U.S. EPA/OSWER. April 2008 (a). "Integrated Technology Approach Used to Remediate Site
Contaminated by 56 Chemicals," Technology News and Trends. EPA 542-N-08-002.
http://cluin.org/products/newsltrs/tnandt/
U.S. EPA/OSWER. April 2008 (b). Energy Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Emissions at Superfund
Cleanups, http://www.cluin.org/greenremediation
U.S. EPA/OSWER. April 2008 (c). Green Remediation online. Profiles of Green Remediation:
Former St. Croix Alumina, St. Croix, VI. http://clu-in.org/greenremediation/subtab_d7.cfm
U.S. EPA/Office of Water. December 2007. Reducing Stormwater Costs through Low Impact
Development (LID) Strategies and Practices. EPA 841 -F-07-006.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lid/costs07/
University of Missouri-Rolla. 2005. Ground Water Remediation Powered by a Renewable Energy
Source. In collaboration with EPA and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Kansas City District.
http://clu-in.org/greenremediation/tab_c.cfm
Wallace, Scott. September/October 2004. "Engineered Wetlands Lead the Way," Land and Water.
http://www.landandwater.com/features/vol48no5/vol48no5 1 .php
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites 45
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General Resources
Section 8: General Resources
Expanding numbers of technical, planning, and financial resources for implementing green
remediation are available from federal or state agencies, academic organizations, and sector-specific
trade associations. The following documents and online resources provided key information for this
primer and are readily available to readers interested in learning more about specific topics.
1. U.S. EPA online. Sustainability. http://www.epa.gov/sustainability/index.htm
2. U.S. EPA online. Climate Change, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/
3. U.S. DOE/EERE Federal Energy Management Program. January 2008. 2007 Federal Energy
Management Program (FEMP) Renewable Energy Requirement Guidance for EPACT 2005 and
Executive Order 13423 Final. http://www1 .eere.energy.gov/femp/
4. U.S. DOE/EERE Federal Energy Management Program. January 2008. DOE Supplemental
Guidance to the Instructions for Implementing Executive Order 1 3423, "Strengthening Federal
Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management." Establishing Baseline and Meeting
Water Conservation Goals of Executive Order 13423. January 2008.
http://www1 .eere.energy.gov/femp/
5. National Ground Water Association online. Ground Water Protection and Management Critical
to the Global Climate Change Discussion.
http://www.ngwa.org/PROGRAMS/government/issues/climate.aspx
6. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act: 42 U.S.C. ง 9601-
9675.
7. National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan: 40 CFR 300(e)(9).
8. Energy Policy Act of 2005. August 8, 2005. Public Law 1 09-48. http://thomas.loc.gov/
9. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. December 1 9, 2007. Public Law 1 1 0-140.
http://thomas.loc.gov/
10. U.S. DOE online. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, http://www.eere.energy.gov
1 1. U.S. Green Building Council online. LEED.
http://www.usg be.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CategorylD = 1 9
12. U.S. DOE/EPA online. Energy Star, http://www.energystar.gov/
13. U.S. EPA online. GreenScapes. http://www.epa.gov/greenscapes/
14. Smart Growth Network online. Principles of Smart Growth.
http://www.smartgrowth.org/about/principles/default.asp?res = 1 680
15. National Institute of Building Sciences online. Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers.
http://www.wbdg.org/design/greenspec.php
1 6. General Services Administration online. Go Green: GSA Environmental Initiatives.
http://www.gsa. gov/Portal/gsa/ep/home.do?tabld = 1 0
17. U.S. EPA online. Sector Strategies Program, http://www.epa.gov/ispd/
18. Piedmont Biofuels online, http://biofuels.coop/coop/
46 Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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General Resources
1 9. U.S. EPA/OSWER. May 1 991. Management of Investigation Derived Waste During Site
Inspections. OERR Directive 9345.3-02. EPA 540/G91/009.
http://nepis.epa.gov/EPA/html/pubs/pubtitleoswer.htm
20. U.S. EPA/OSWER. 1992. Guide to Management of Investigation-Derived Wastes. Directive
9345.3-03FS. Triad Resource Center [online], http://triadcentral.org
21. ITRC online. Diffusion/Passive Sampler Documents. http://www.itrcweb.org/gd_DS.asp
22. Triad Resource Center online, http://triadcentral.org
23. U.S. EPA online. Clean Construction USA: Construction Air Quality Language.
http://www.epa.gov/diesel/construction/contract-lang.htm
24. U.S. EPA/Region 9 online. Cleanup Clean Air Initiative.
http://www.epa.gov/region09/cleanup-clean-air/
25. U.S. EPA/National Center for Environmental Innovation. March 2007. Cleaner Diesels: Low
Cost Ways to Reduce Emissions from Construction Equipment.
http://www.epa.gov/sectors/construction/
26. U.S. EPA online. Clean Energy: Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator.
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/calculator.html
27. U.S. EPA. Polluted Runoff (Nonpoint Source Pollution): Reducing Stormwater Costs through Low
Impact Development (LID) Strategies and Practices. EPA 841 -F-07-006.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lid/costs07/
28. U.S. EPA online. Effluent Limitation Guidelines.
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/guide/index.html
29. U.S. EPA/OSWER. August 2007. Integrating Water and Waste Programs to Restore
Watersheds: A Guide for Federal and State Project Managers. EPA 540K07001.
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/integrating.htm
30. U.S. EPA online. Eco Tools: Tools for Ecological Land Reuse.
http://cluin.org/products/ecorestoration/
31. U.S. EPA online. Municipal Waste: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle.
http://www.epa.gov/msw/reduce.htm
32. U.S. EPA online. Clean Energy: Power Profiler, http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-
you/how-clean.html
33. U.S. DOE/EERE online. Industrial Technologies Program: Pumping System Assessment Tool.
http://www.eere.energy.gov
34. U.S. EPA Technology Innovation Office and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. CLU-IN Online
Seminar: Remediation System Evaluations and Optimization of Pump and Treat Projects.
http://clu-in.Org/s.focus/c/pub/i/826/
35. U.S. EPA online. Remediation System Optimization, http://clu-in.org/rse
36. U.S. Air Force Center for Engineering and the Environment online. Remedial Process
Optimization. http://www.afcee.brooks.af.mil/products/rpo/default.asp
37. Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable online. Remediation Optimization.
http://www.frtr.gov/optimization
Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites 47
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General Resources
38. ITRC online. Remediation Process Optimization Documents.
http://www.itrcweb.orq/qd_RPO.asp
39. U.S. EPA online. Green Power Partnership: Green Power Equivalency Calculator.
http://www.epa.gov/qrnpower/pubs/calculator.htm]
40. U.S. DOE/NREL online. Science and Technology, http://www.nrel.gov/
41. U.S. DOE/NREL online. Solar Research, http://www.nrel.gov/solar/
42. American Solar Energy Society online, http://www.ases.org/index.htm
43. U.S. DOE/NREL online. Wind Research, http://www.nrel.gov/wind/
44. American Wind Energy Association online, http://www.awea.org/fag/
45. U.S. EPA online. Combined Heat and Power Partnership, http://www.epa.gov/chp/
46. U.S. EPA online. Landfill Methane Outreach Program, http://www.epa.gov/landfill/
47. U.S. DOE/EERE online. State Activities and Partnerships: Waste-to-Energy Projects Gain
Momentum in the United States
http://www.eere. energy.gov/states/state_news_detail.cfm/news_id=1 0404/state=AL
48. Idaho National Laboratory online. Geothermal Energy, http://geothermal.inel.gov/
49. U.S. DOD Environmental Security Technology Certification Program. March 2006. Design
Document for Passive Bioventing. ESTCP Project: ER-971 5.
http://www.cluin.org/techfocus/default.focus/sec/Bioventing%5Fand%5FBiosparging/cat/Guida
nee/
50. Savannah River National Laboratory online. Tech Transfer: Environmental Remediation.
http://www.srs.gov/general/busiops/tech-transfer/
51. U.S. EPA online. Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture and Forestry.
http://www.epa.gov/seguestration/
52. U.S. EPA online. CLU-IN Technology Focus: Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents.
http://clu-in.org/techfocus/
53. U.S. EPA online. CLU-IN Technology Focus: Phytoremediation.
http://clu-in.org/techfocus/default.focus/sec/Phytoremediation/cat/Overview/
54. U.S. EPA/OSWER. December 2007. The Use of Soil Amendments for Remediation,
Revitalization, and Reuse. EPA 542-R-07-01 3. http://www.clu-in.0rg/s.focus/c/pub/i/1 51 5/
55. U.S.EPA/OSWER. September 2003. Evapofransp/raf/on Landfill Cover Systems Fact Sheet. EPA
542-F-03-015. http://www.clu-in.org/download/remed/epa542f03015.pdf
56. U.S. EPA online. Constructed Wetlands.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/watersheds/cwetlands.html
57. ITRC online. Constructed Treatment Wetlands Documents. http://www.itrcweb.org/gd_CW.asp
58. U.S. Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center, Environmental Restoration Technology Transfer
(ERT2) online. Permeable Mulch Biowalls.
http://www.ert2.org/PermeableMulchBiowalls/tool.aspx
59. U.S. EPA online. CLU-IN Technology Focus: Natural Attenuation.
http://clu-in.org/techfocus/default.focus/sec/Natural%5FAttenuation/cat/Overview/
48 Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites
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