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Q
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
presents:
Proceedings
of the
Aging Americans:
Impacts on Ecology and
Environmental Quality Workshop
Photos: Administration on Aging
August 10-12, 2004
USEPA - RTP
Research Triangle Park, NC
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EPA/600/R-05/028
August 2004
Proceedings
of the
Aging Americans:
Impacts on Ecology and
Environmental Quality Workshop
Edited by
Patricia Bradley
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Eric Walbeck
Jennifer Ghiloni
Perot Systems Government Services (PSGS)
August 10-12, 2004
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
701 Mapes Road
Fort Meade, Maryland 20755-5350
Printed on chlorine-free 100% recycled paper with
100% post-consumer fiber using vegetable-based ink.
-------
The workshop was funded by EPA/ORD/NHEERL. These Proceedings have
been subjected to EPA peer-review and approved for publication but have
not been subjected to agency-level review. The views expressed in these
Proceedings do not necessarily reflect the views of the Agency. Mention
of trade names, products, or services does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use. This is NHEERL contribution number AED-04-
151.
The appropriate citation for this report is:
Bradley, P., E.Walbeck, and J. Ghiloni. 2005. Proceedings -Aging
Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and
Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Atlantic Ecology Division,
Narrangansett, RI. EPA/600/R-05/028.
Words and phrases in Glossary are bolded the first time they appear in the
text.
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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The U.S. is undergoing a dramatic demographic transformation toward
older adults, spearheaded by the aging Baby Boomers, but projected to
last beyond the Boomer generation. There has been little discussion in the
environmental community, however, about the impact of the aging society
in relation to natural resource utilization and environmental quality.
In August 2004, EPA held a workshop on (1) the change in aging
demographics overtime, (2) key issues (i.e., socio-economic, geographic)
affecting demographic projections, (3) the potential impacts of an aging
population on natural resources and environmental quality and (4) the
research needed to ensure both the desired amenities for this aging
population and the protection of natural resources.
A diverse group of individuals, including human demographers,
physicians and health officials, Ecologists, risk assessors, private sector
developers, consultants, and representatives from tribes and NGOs were
invited to this workshop in August 2004 to discuss potential environmental
impacts from an aging population and possible research needed to assess
these environmental impacts. This workshop report is the result of these
interactions.
The report is also intended to serve as a foundation for a research plan that
embodies the excitement and holistic approach generated at the workshop
to evaluate the effects of an aging population on the environment.
Key Words: Aging, Baby Boomers, Demographics, Natural Resources,
Built Environment, Carrying Capacity, Ecological Risk Assessment,
Gerontology, Human Ecology, Socioeconomics, Migration, Ecological
Footprint.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop iii
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NOTICE ii
ABSTRACT Hi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
WELCOME viii
CONSTRUCTING A RESEARCH AGENDA 1
MANUSCRIPTS
Introduction: Demographic and Lifestyle Patterns
of an Aging Population - P. Bradley, et al. 17
Preparing for the Aging Explosion: The Impact of "Aging in Place"
on America's Communities - S. Markwood andE. Walbeck 19
Later-life Migration Impacts - C. Longino andD. Bradley 25
FANBY-ism in an Aging Society: In Search of Arcadia
Still Searching for Paradise - S. Wright 33
Introduction: The Built Environment - P. Bradley 53
Impacts of Our Built Environment on Public Health -A. Dearry 55
Baby Boomers' Opinions and Preferences on Retirement,
Health and Fitness, Financial Preparedness and Active
Adult Living Communities - D. Schreiner andK. Thornton 59
Introduction: Regional Case Studies - P. Bradley 63
New York State's Project 2015: Preparing for the Impact
of an Aging, Diverse Population -N. Lane andJ. Rosenbaum 65
Elders' Importance -J. Hook 75
The Pueblo of Acoma's Environmental Vision - S. Paytiamo 77
Introduction: Tools - P. Bradley 89
Ecological Footprint Accounting: Comparing Resource Availability
with an Economy's Resource Demand -M. Wackernagel, D. Moron,
S. Goldfinger and M. Wallace 91
IV
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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Contents
BREAKOUT SESSION SUMMARIES 103
Focal Area Breakout Group A: Projected Demographic and Lifestyle Patterns
of an Aging Population (Sources of Environmental Stress) - M. Holland. 105
Focal Area Breakout Group B: Changing Land-use and
Environmental Stress -K. Thornton 113
Focal Area Breakout Group C: Effects of Aging Americans on Natural
Resources and Environmental Quality - W. Munns 121
Interactions/Linkages Group 1 -M. Holland 131
Interactions/Linkages Group 2 - K. Thornton 133
Interactions/Linkages Group 3 - W. Munns 135
POST WORKSHOP CONSIDERATIONS FOR
RESEARCH AND NEW DIRECTIONS - W. Munns 137
SYNTHESIS -K. Thornton 141
APPENDIX A: WORKSHOP AGENDA 151
APPENDIX B: ATTENDEES 155
APPENDIX C: READING LIST 159
APPENDIX D: GLOSSARY 165
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PLANNING COMMITTEE:
USEPA ORD/NHEERL/MAIA
Patricia Bradley (Chair)
USEPA ORD/NCER
Diana Bauer
Bernice L. Smith
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
Steven Hedtke
Wayne Munns
Jennifer Orme-Zavaleta
USEPA ORD/NRMRL
Heriberto Cabezas
FTN Associates
Kent Thornton
University of Utah
Scott Wright
PEER REVIEWERS
AARP
Andrew Kochera
Florida Dept of Elder Affairs
Lisa Meyer
Revitilization Institute
Storm Cunningham
USEPA ORD
Barbara Levinson
EDITORS
PSGS
Jennifer Ghiloni
Eric Walbeck
USEPA ORD/NHEERL/MAIA
Patricia Bradley
AUTHORS
East Carolina University
Don Bradley
FTN Associates
Kent Thornton
Global Footprint Network
Steven Goldfinger
Dan Moran
Mathis Wackernagel
Mike Wallace
n4a
Sandy Markwood
NIH, NIEHS
Alan Dearry
NY State Office for the Aging
Neil Lane
Jennifer Rosenbaum
PSGS
Eric Walbeck
Mary Holland
Pueblo of Acoma
Stanley Paytiamo
Pulte Homes
David Schreiner
University of Utah
Scott Wright
USEPA ORD/NHEERL/MAIA
Patricia Bradley
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
Wayne Munns
USEPA Region 6
Jonathan Hook
Wake Forest University
Charles Longino
WORKSHOP SUPPORT
PSGS
Layout/Design: Juanita Soto-Smith
Registration/Logistics: Eric Walbeck
Supplies, Notes: Jennifer Ghiloni
USEPA, RTP
Conference Rooms: Treva Bunch
FACILITATORS
PSGS
Mary Holland (Groups A, 1)
FTN Associates
Kent Thornton (Groups B, 2)
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
Wayne Munns (Groups C, 3)
FOOTPRINT VIDEO
USEPA ORD/NHEERL (Funding)
Jennifer Orme-Zavaleta
Global Footprint Network (Production)
Mike Wallace
Mathis Wackernagel
We would also like to thank the following
for their support and leadership:
USEPA, Office of Aging
Kathy Sykes
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
Steve Hedtke
Hal Zenick
Hugh Tilson
VI
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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Acknowledgements
ATTENDEES
CDC
Andrea Neiman
E. Carolina University
Don Bradley
E. Tennessee State University
Tony DeLucia
FTN Associates
Kent Thornton
Global Footprint Network
Mike Wallace
n4a
Sandy Markwood
NC State Cooperative Extension
Lucille Bearon
Sarah Kirby
Sandy Wiggins
NIH, NIEHS
Alan Dearry
NY State Office for the Aging
Neal Lane
Jennifer Rosenbaum
PSGS
Jennifer Ghiloni
Mary Holland
Eric Walbeck
Pueblo of Acoma
Stanley Paytiamo
Pulte Homes
David Schreiner
University of Tennessee
Bruce Tonn
University of Utah
Scott Wright
USEPA OA
Kathy Sykes
USEPA OAQPS
Chitra Kumar
Linda Rimer
Susan Stone
USEPA OPEI
Carlton Eley
USEPA ORD/NCEA
Marsha Marsh
USEPA ORD/NCER
Diana Bauer
Bernice Smith
USEPA ORD/NERL
Megan Mehaffey
Kent Thomas
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
Andrew Geller
Steven Hedtke
Laura Jackson
Hillel Koren
Wayne Munns
John Paul
USEPA ORD/NHEERL/MAIA
Patricia Bradley
USEPA Region 6
Jonathan Hook
Wake Forest University
Charles Longino
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop vii
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An Aging Population:
Human Health and Environmental Effects
The world's population is aging. In 2000, for the first time, over half the U.S.
population was over 35 years old. By 2030, over 20% of the population will be 65 years
or older. In 2009, the first of the Baby Boomer generation will be reaching 65 years old.
In anticipation of this population trend, the U.S. EPA's Office of the Administrator and
Office of Research and Development launched an Aging Initiative in October, 2002 to
develop research, health promotion, and senior involvement programs focused on the
environment in an aging society.
As the American demographic shifts toward an aging society, how will our
resource needs change? Will retirement patterns change; what are the environmental
stressors associated with retirement in-place versus relocation to communities at the far
edges of existing communities, expanding into rural areas and otherwise pristine areas?
In August, 2004, a diverse group of individuals, including human demographers,
physicians and health officials, tribal leaders, ecologists, risk assessors, private sector
developers, nonprofit organizations, and consultants met to discuss potential
environmental impacts from an aging population and possible research needed to assess
these environmental impacts. This workshop report is the result of these interactions.
The workshop generated highly informative presentations and, because of the
energy and enthusiasm of its participants, provided a unique forum for extended
discussions among participants representing different stakeholders. Perhaps it was
because many of the participants are part of the aging population, but we think it was
because of the excitement of moving toward a holistic approach to environmental risk
assessment and management that integrates social, cultural, and economic considerations
with human and ecological health. We plan to use these workshop findings in
conjunction with other information to prepare a research plan to evaluate the effects of an
aging population on the environment that embodies such a holistic approach.
Harold^enick, PhD
Associate Director for Health
Steven Hedtke, PhD
Acting Associate Director for
Ecology
National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
VIM
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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CONSTRUCTING A RESEARCH AGENDA ON AGING
AMERICANS AND THEIR IMPACT ON ECOLOGY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
Patricia Bradley1, Kent Thornton2, Steven Hedtke1,
Wayne Munns1, Scott Wright3, Jennifer Orme-Zaveleta1,
Diana Bauer1, and Bernice Smith1
1U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2FTN Associates, and
3University of Utah
The U.S. is undergoing a dramatic demo-
graphic transformation. In 2000, for the first
time in U.S. history, more than half of the
population (50.5%) was at least 35 years old,
and 12.5% were 65 years or older. By mid-
century, our population over 65 will have more
than doubled. Since 1900, the older population
has doubled every 30 years (Longino, this
publication).
The factors contributing to this increase are
the current reduction in birth rate, a 20-year
increase in the average life span, and the aging
of the Baby Boomers. Baby Boomers
(Americans born between 1946 and 1964)
represent the largest single sustained growth
of the population in the history of the U.S.
(AARP, 2004). Considerable attention has been
paid to the Boomer cohort by demographers,
politicians, marketers, and social scientists
relative to the pervasive economic, social,
and political effects of an aging society. For
example, the Centers for Disease Control have
identified that the growing number of older
adults will dramatically increase the demands
on the public health system, medical and social
services, and pension systems (CDC, 2003).
There has, however, been little discussion
about the impact of the aging society in relation
to natural resources and environmental quality,
or to the reciprocal impact of environmental
conditions on the well-being of aging
individuals, and collectively, an aging society
(Wright and Lund, 2000).
The aging of the U.S. population
represents a long-term change in the
U.S. demographic profile.
In recognition of this fundamental change,
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) is developing A National Agenda on
Aging Americans and the Environment. At
the invitation of EPA's Office of Research and
Development (ORD), scientists, public health
officials and other professionals in the fields
of aging, demographics, health and ecology
met on August 10-12, 2004 to share their
expertise on the potential impacts a growing
legion of older Americans may have on natural
resources and environmental quality. The
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and
Environmental Quality Workshop complements
a workshop conducted by the National
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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Constructing a Research Agenda on Aging Americans
and their Impact on Ecology and Environmental Quality
Academy of Sciences (NAS) in December
of 2002, that identified a number of research
priorities for examining human health
effects focused around types of environmental
contaminants and exposure routes (e.g.,
particulate matter and air quality, water-borne
infections, altered pharmacokinetics, and
neurotoxicity) (USEPA2003).
The Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and
Environmental Quality Workshop provided a
forum for information exchange on topics that
included (1) the change in aging demographics
overtime, (2) key issues (i.e., socio-economic,
geographic) affecting demographic
projections, (3) the potential impacts of an
aging population on natural resources and
environmental quality, and (4) the research
needed to ensure both the desired amenities
for this aging population and the protection of
natural resources.
Ecological research at EPA is structured around
the ecological risk assessment process, which
evaluates the likelihood that adverse ecological
effects may occur as a result of exposure to
one or more stressors (USEPA, 1992). The
process is used to systematically evaluate and
organize data, information, assumptions, and
uncertainties in order to help understand and
predict the relationships between stressors
and ecological effects in a way that is useful
for environmental decision-making (USEPA,
1998). A simplified version of the risk
assessment framework (stressors —>• exposure
—> ecological effects) was used to organize the
workshop.
Simplified Risk Assessment Framework
Stressors—^Exposure—^Ecological Effects
The speakers represented various sectors—
academia, federal, state and tribal organiza-
tions, non-governmental organizations, and
private industry—and had a wide variety of
backgrounds, including ecology, public health,
planning, engineering, community design
and construction, and social sciences. Their
presentations and the subsequent breakout
group discussions captured many different
perspectives and is reflective of the multi-
disciplinary approach that is needed to ef-
fectively understand and respond to the aging
American population.
This chapter will provide an introduction to
subsequent chapters and synthesize the state
of the knowledge, as communicated during the
workshop, of the potential effects of the aging
population on the environment.
Demographic and Lifestyle Patterns of an
Aging Population
Background information on aging Americans
contributes towards better understanding of
the issues. We need to better understand aging
Americans. Key questions include:
• Who fits into the category of an aging
American?
• How many aging Americans are there?
• What are the demographic and lifestyle
patterns of aging Americans?
• Are demographic and lifestyle patterns of
aging Americans distinct from the patterns
of other age groups?
• How are trends expected to differ
regionally?
• Do aging Americans share a common
attitude about environmental issues?
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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P. Bradley et al.
Sandy Markwood, CEO of National
Association of Area Agencies on Aging (n4a),
gave the plenary presentation. In 2000,
12.4% of the population was aged 65 or older.
By 2030, that figure will rise to 30% of the
population. Currently, only 16% of older
Americans are minorities, but the aging of the
Baby Boomers and the growing number of
older immigrants will increase that figure to
25% by 2030.
While conventional wisdom lumped the
Boomers into one homogenous group, a 1998
AARP study revealed that Boomers were
actually quite diverse—they have a wide range
of socio-economic status, are much more
ethnically and racially diverse than preceding
generations, and have widely varying attitudes
and beliefs (AARP, 1999). This diversity
reflects the changing face of American society
as a whole. Our research strategy, policy
decisions, and educational programs must take
this diversity into consideration.
The Aging population is diverse—
socio-economically, ethnically, and
racially, with widely varying attitudes
and beliefs. This reflects the changing
face of American society.
Charles Longino discussed traditional
migration patterns of older Americans as they
retire. Most aging Americans do not migrate to
another geographic location, but rather choose
to retire in place—close to family, friends,
and social support networks. Eighty percent
of older Americans own their own homes, and
89% want to remain in their current homes
for as long as possible. However, there are
increasing numbers of older adults who seek
to improve their lifestyle by relocating to
communities with natural amenities such as
warmer climate and scenic beauty. Generally,
they migrate from cities and suburbs by
moving down the "metropolitan hierarchy,"
a pattern of moving from major metropolitan
areas to smaller towns or cities (e.g., from
New York City to Atlanta, or from Atlanta to
Raleigh/Durham).
Older Americans tend to migrate down
the "metropolitan hierarchy."
There is a breakpoint between younger senior
citizens and the elderly—which occurs gener-
ally around age 75. About 26% of younger
seniors have chronic health conditions. This
increases to 50% by age 75, with a shift from
being active to becoming frail. Scott Wright
defines the two segments: the "young-old"
who remain active and may perhaps relocate
to retirement communities that are typically
located in geographic areas with greater natural
amenities (e.g., "gateway communities" near
National/State Parks and Forests) and pastoral
settings and cultural amenities (e.g., college
towns), and less-active people choosing to
(or with no option but to) remain ("aging-in-
place") in their communities (the "old-old").
The young-old, in general, roughly corresponds
to the 60-75-age bracket. The old-old, in gener-
al, corresponds to the 75 and older age bracket.
Over the past 50 years there has been increas-
ing movement away from urban areas towards
suburban areas. Census 2000 revealed that
more than half the residents in the suburbs of
major metropolitan areas are now age 35-and-
older (Frey, 2003). Suburbs around sun-belt
cities such as Las Vegas, Colorado Springs,
Tucson and Austin are benefiting from the more
affluent retirees, while northern suburbs in
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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Constructing a Research Agenda on Aging Americans
and their Impact on Ecology and Environmental Quality
metres like Pittsburgh, Buffalo and Providence
are likely to face greater economic challenges
in keeping up with demand for medical and
social services (Frey, 2003).
As seniors age, some are forced to move due
to deterioration of health or death of a spouse
(Longino, 1995). Others move away from
retirement communities back to their original
communities or to a state where their adult
children reside. This tendency is stronger for
those who are widowed or over 75 (Liaw et
al., 2002). City centers and inner suburbs
make good destinations for older persons. The
better off and healthy urban professional will
tend to locate on the periphery, while the more
disadvantaged elderly will move closer to city
centers (Frey, 2000).
Seniors can be a significant economic force.
More than 380,000 Americans move across
state lines to retire every year. Retirement
migration generates billions of dollars a year
in sales of everything from real estate to health
care. Florida alone derives a $3.5 billion
income transfer from seniors moving into the
state (Longino, this publication).
Aging Americans tend to have strong envi-
ronmental values and have time to get in-
volved in public policy and to volunteer in
environmental stewardship and restoration
activities (Tonn et al., 2001). Longer life spans
Aging Americans tend to have strong
environmental values and have
time to get involved in public policy
and to volunteer for environmental
stewardship and restoration activities.
allow people to experience the outcomes of
their decisions about the environment.
The U.S. has a $1.6 trillion backlog in infra-
structure restoration (ASCE, 2003). Historical
patterns may not apply to Baby Boomers. Baby
Boomers have catalyzed important sociologi-
cal changes in the communities where they
live—starting in the 1950s when they inflated
the demand for schools, through the 1960s
when they flooded colleges, to the 1970s and
1980s with first jobs, homes and stock market
portfolios (Frey, 2003).
Baby Boomers' Retirement Plans
No plan to move
Plan to move less
than 1 hr away
Plantomove1-3hrs
away
Plan to move more than
3 hrs away
Del Webb, 2003
Figure 1. A 2003 survey by Del Webb revealed
that 6 out of 10 Baby Boomers intend to
relocate in retirement.
According to Dave Schreiner of Pulte Homes,
there are currently two significant impacts on
the home building market: immigrants who are
now buying homes, and the graying population.
Active senior adults are buying 12,000 homes
per year in the U.S.; they have evolved socially,
physically, and financially and are generally
happy, optimistic, and have the time to enjoy
themselves. Pulte Homes' Del Webb specializes
in building adult communities with design
features geared towards an active lifestyle.
Many communities are designed around a golf
course and include walking paths and water
features. The aging process results in a number
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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P. Bradley et al.
of physical changes, including reduced depth
perception, strength and stamina. Residences
and common spaces are designed with safety
as a key consideration and universal access is
incorporated throughout.
Seniors choose a new community based on
a variety of factors. Del Webb found the top
ranked factors to be low maintenance homes,
aesthetic appeal, community security/safety,
recreational amenities, and nearby super-
markets, restaurants, etc. (Del Webb, 2003).
Another trend is that homes are increasing in
size—by about 10% over the last 10 years.
In addition, the number of second homes is
increasing—typically in environmentally
sensitive areas (Tonn et al., 2001).
Unlike younger adults who base their decisions
on their income, seniors are generally living
on fixed incomes, have a fixed portfolio of
assets, including their home, and do not want
maintenance costs to increase. Many new
active adult communities are designed to
provide efficient service delivery, with low
operating costs.
Throughout their lives, many Baby Boomers
have been physically active and as they age,
they continue to want greater access to natural
amenities for recreation and the health benefits
of physical activity. Scott Wright presented
that retiring Baby Boomers would seek high
"quality of life" in geographic areas that
have natural amenities and conditions that
reflect a higher standard of environmental
quality (e.g., less pollution, less congestion
and sprawl). Southern coastal areas (Florida,
North and South Carolina, Virginia, Texas,
and California) and communities that border
the western public lands (Arizona, Colorado,
New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah) are havens for
retirees seeking beautiful locations with high
natural amenities (Wright et al., 2003).
Retiring Baby Boomers will seek high
quality of life in geographic areas that
have natural resources and higher
environmental quality.
Environmental Stressors Resulting from
these Patterns
Preparing for an aging society is closely linked
to Smart Growth, Sustainable Development,
and Restorative Development The location,
configuration and scale of homes and com-
munities within a watershed changes risks to
wildlife and environmental sustainability.
Communities will need to consider the social
and environmental amenities required by the
aging society and how changes in the demand
for these amenities will introduce new and
additional environmental Stressors or influence
the temporal and spatial aspects of existing
Stressors. As the aging population grows, key
questions include:
• How will the aging population impact
demand for housing, health care,
recreation and transportation?
• What Stressors are associated with this
demand?
• What infrastructure issues must
communities address to prepare for
dramatic increases in their aging
populations?
• Are there any Stressors unique to the
aging population?
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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Constructing a Research Agenda on Aging Americans
and their Impact on Ecology and Environmental Quality
Age-related patterns of consumption may
change substantially as Baby Boomers enter
their retirement years. Specific cohorts
may have unique patterns of consumption
(Pebley 1998). Differences in the life styles
of the aging population are likely to have a
regional component, with areas of the country
experiencing substantially different pressures
on environmental resources with respect to
the requirements of young-old and old-old
segments of an aging population.
Specific cohorts of the aging population
will have differences in life styles and
these may differ regionally.
New communities developed to accommodate
the choices of the young-old segment, for
example, may expand sprawl into rural areas
and areas with sensitive ecosystems, such as
forest, wilderness and coastal areas (natural
amenities). Over 50% of the U.S. population
lives by the coast today and by 2025 this figure
is expected to reach 75% (Culliton, 1998).
These retirees also bring with them the expec-
tation of readily available social amenities
such as health care, shopping and recreation
along with the need for transportation, safe
drinking water, wastewater treatment and
solid waste disposal (infrastructure) Meeting
these requirements adds stress to surrounding
environmental systems. An alternative to this
scenario may be to redevelop center city areas
with retirement homes and communities, thus
taking advantage of existing social amenities
and not expanding into previously undeveloped
land. However, this may also require updating,
expanding, or replacing/renewing the infra-
structure. Workshop attendees recommended
that development in regions offering these
natural amenities should be done with an eye
toward sustainability.
The old-old, on the other hand, tend to age in
place. As their health degrades, their health
care needs will change (increased use of
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products
such as adult diapers or hearing aides),
increasing demands on the infrastructure of
existing communities as well as the nature of
stress on the environment.
A converging trend that is impacting where
aging populations will live is the aging of the
Nation's buildings and infrastructure. Failure to
re-use buildings and/or renovate infrastructure
(e.g., roads, bridges, transit, schools, drinking
water systems, wastewater, and waste
disposal) greatly decreases the ability of older
urban and suburban areas to support seniors.
It appears that aging Americans will introduce
few new or unique stressors, but may be the
largest source of some stressors.
One such stressor is mercury from amalgam
fillings. Each year in the U.S. an estimated 40
tons of mercury are used to prepare mercury-
amalgam dental restorations. The average
person with amalgam fillings excretes via
urine or feces over 100 micrograms per day
of mercury (Bjorkman et al., 1997; Ekstrand et
al., 1998). After a person dies, the mercury that
has accumulated in the body is released to the
environment via either cremation or burial.
Aging Americans may tend to use
Pharmaceuticals at a rate higher than that of
the average population. Recent studies suggest
that very low quantities (e.g., parts per trillion)
of some pharmaceuticals, such as antibiotics,
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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P. Bradley et al.
statin drugs, etc. are passing through
wastewater treatment plants and entering
aquatic systems.
Other stressors that may be associated with
aging Americans, particularly those relocating
to active retirement communities and areas
with natural amenities include increased water
usage for homes and golf courses; additional
septic systems; increased pollutant transport
from increased impervious surfaces; increased
habitat fragmentation/loss due to trails, uni-
versal access and development; and increased
emissions from generating increased energy
(heating and cooling).
Ecological and Environmental Effects
Ecological effects are changes in natural
resource and environmental condition result-
ing from exposure to stressors generated or
modified by humans. This workshop focused
particularly on those effects related to an aging
American population. Key questions include:
• How do we balance the social and eco-
nomic needs of older Americans with
the sustainability of natural resources?
• Are the ecological and environmental
effects unique to the aging population?
• Do the ecological and environmental
effects vary for different segments of
the aging population?
Many environmental effects are associated
with the growing American population and
its increased demands for resources and
land-use. Alan Dearry, National Institutes of
Environment Health Sciences (NIEHS) pro-
vided an overview of the built environment
and public health. The built environment is
defined as the physical structures engineered
and built by people, including homes, work-
places, schools, parks, and transit systems. The
built environment has both direct and indirect
impacts on our environment and on public
health.
Land development impacts ecological resourc-
es. Impacts include habitat loss and fragmenta-
tion, and degradation of water resources and
water quality. Building on undeveloped land
destroys and fragments habitat, displacing or
eliminating wildlife communities. Increasing
the amount of impervious surfaces (e.g., roads,
buildings, parking lots) leads to the degrada-
tion of water quality by increasing runoff
volume, altering regular stream flow and
watershed hydrology, reducing groundwater
recharge, and increasing erosion, stream
sedimentation, and water acidity (USEPA,
2001). Unsustainable development may also
result in freshwater scarcity (a major issue
in the western U.S. and an emerging issue
elsewhere).
Patterns of development greatly affect the level
of direct environmental impacts associated
with urbanization. Smart growth employs
environmentally sensitive development
practices, including compact development,
reducing impervious surfaces, improving
water retention, safeguarding environmentally
sensitive areas, designing efficient transit
networks, and enhancing the environment
for non-motorized travel such as walking and
bicycling.
Communities that accommodate more infill
and redevelopment can greatly reduce the
environmental impacts of development.
One study estimates that every acre of
Brownfield developed avoids 4.5 acres of
Greenfield development. Infill can reduce
overall impervious surface in a watershed,
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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cut trip times and distances, provide more
transportation options, help protect human
health and even provide capital to upgrade
infrastructure or clean up contamination
(USEPA, 2004).
A transportation system that supports smart
growth is pedestrian-friendly, increases
accessibility, has well-connected gridded
streets, provides transit opportunities,
maximizes use of existing facilities, and is
coordinated with the surrounding development.
Less environmentally friendly transportation
projects may disrupt animal habitat, damage
ecosystems, degrade wetlands and source
waters, and increase storm water runoff. These
transportation projects may lead to increases in
emissions (resulting from increases in travel),
growth in outlying areas, and impact human
health (USEPA, 2004).
Sandy Markwood pointed out that safer
roads, sidewalks and street crossings benefit
everyone—not only seniors. Communities can
be designed to be elder-friendly and promote
smart growth. Comprehensive master
planning and zoning needs to be changed
to promote health and wellness as part of
community design.
Elder-friendly designs and smart growth
benefit everyone—not just seniors.
Land is static or decreasing. Sustainability
practices (e.g., land-use planning, implementa-
tion of Best Management Practices, and
watershed restoration activities) should begin
in existing cities and urban areas to provide the
quality of life amenities that people seek else-
where (Wright, 2004). Restorative development
involves replacing, renovating and/or reusing
the built environment, and the restoration of
exhausted, contaminated, and damaged natural
resources (Cunningham, 2004).
The concept of ecological carrying capacity
is important in planning for sustainability.
Carrying capacity is the maximum human use
load (capacity) that can be sustained (carried)
by an environment without reducing its future
ability to support a similar load. Carrying ca-
pacity will vary by region due to differences in
resource availability and ecosystem response.
The concept of carrying capacity
is important in understanding the
impact an aging population may
have on the environment.
Carrying capacity is of particular importance
because specific population groups, such as the
Young-Old may be exacting a greater demand
on ecological resources because of both
increasing population in specific regions and
per capita consumption rates. Older persons
who are healthy and active may spend more
of their time getting exercise, hiking, visiting
parks, playing golf and otherwise engaging
in recreational activities. Ironically, as people
move into more fragile ecosystems and natural
areas, the natural features and other quality of
life features that may have attracted them are
lost or diminished (Wright, 2004).
There appear to be few ecological effects
associated with stressors unique to the aging
population. Aging Americans are using differ-
ent types of pharmaceuticals, in different com-
binations, than those used by the population
at large. These pharmaceuticals may enter the
aquatic waste stream, and the effects on aquatic
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Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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biota are currently unknown, but may include
disruption or other chronic effects. The type
and amounts of the pharmaceuticals being used
by aging Americans need to be quantified.
Cremation may lead to significant mercury
pollution from old style amalgam fillings in
seniors. Mercury released into the environment
can get into water systems, and is then
transformed into a more toxic substance called
methylmercury. Methylmercury is more
easily absorbed by bacteria and small plants,
which are eaten by small fish and then moves
up the food chain. By the time fish-eating
animals (e.g., eagles, osprey, loons, raccoons,
turtles, mink and otters) eat the larger fish, the
concentration of methylmercury in the fish
can be up to a million times higher than the
surrounding water. Effects include:
• Growth inhibition and high mortality
of embryos and larvae of rainbow
trout;
• Impaired kidney function and endocrine
disruption in yellow perch and
northern pike;
• 50% fewer young in loons; and
• The possibility of Mercury as a
contributing factor in the decline of the
Florida panther
Despite the apparent lack of unique stressors,
the increased use of natural resources and the
generation of new waste streams by the aging
population may exceed the resiliency and
recovery capabilities of ecological systems.
Identifying the thresholds in stressor levels
or ecological effects associated with the
aging population is essential to the concept of
carrying capacity.
Case Studies and the Ecological Footprint
Concept
Case studies were used to present a holistic
approach to aging and the environment. Neal
Lane presented a unique New York State-wide
effort, which began in 1998 to address the
impact of the aging of the Baby Boomer cohort
on issues such as housing, long-term care,
nutrition, health, care giving, transportation,
and retirement. Project 2015 was broadened
in 2002, to use the idea of "broad population
change" as the basis for involving all 36 state
agencies in preparing for the State's future.
Governor Pataki charged the 36 participating
agencies to construct, over a nine-month
period, briefs that:
• assessed the impact of demographic
change on their mission, products,
services, constituent group, and daily
operations;
• identified and prioritized the major
issues that would arise for them because
of these demographic changes; and
• specified action steps or strategies they
would implement over the next five
years to address their top three impact
areas.
The briefs were organized into a unified policy
document, "Project 2015: State Agencies
Prepare for the Impact of an Aging New York—
White Paper for Discussion" (NYSOFA, 2002).
This document presents a practical framework
for New York to prepare for the future. New
York's new mode of multi-group planning
around a unifying common issue established a
common bond among the participating groups.
It had groups working toward a common goal,
encouraged sharing and collaborating among
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groups, produced ideas and strategies that
would make the most out of the opportunities
presented by the changing demographics, and
promoted creativity in identifying effective
ways of meeting the challenges inherent in
changing demographics. New York's planning
initiative can be replicated or adapted by other
governments or communities that wish to
accomplish these same goals.
New York's Project 2015 is a model
for other states and communities.
Jonathan Hook, EPA - Region 6, spoke about
Native Americans and their broad, holistic
approach to the environment. They employ
strategies that combine traditional Native
practices with contemporary technologies. He
introduced Stanley Paytiamo, who presented
the second case study on the sovereign Indian
nation of the Pueblo of Acoma. The Pueblo
of Acoma is located approximately 55 miles
west of Albuquerque, New Mexico and has a
population of 4,754. The Acoma people have
lived in harmony with the natural environment
for more than 1000 years.
Acoma culture calls for an orderly life within
the natural environment. The Acoma people
believe in preserving the environment so that
it will continue to provide natural resources
necessary for their survival. Clean water and
air, good crops, and peace of body and spirit
are interdependent.
The Pueblo of Acoma is an environmentally
disadvantaged community. It has suffered,
and continues to suffer, the negative
environmental impacts of nearby uranium
mining and other industrial activities that have
depleted and contaminated water supplies;
of faulty natural gas pipelines traversing the
reservation to serve outside sources; and of
sewage effluent and overflow from ineffective
wastewater treatment facilities in neighboring
municipalities. There are few resources to
combat these problems and to correct the
reservation's own waste disposal practices.
The Pueblo of Acoma has developed a 26-
year Practical Vision to provide for a safer,
healthier environment; preserve Acoma
culture and traditional lifestyles; promote
economic self-sufficiency through traditional
agricultural land-use and tourism; foster greater
community, civic and political awareness; and
provide greater employment opportunities
through education.
We must protect the earth for seven
generations to come.
The Pueblo of Acoma believe we must protect
the earth for seven generations to come.
This philosophy makes sustainability an
intergenerational issue.
A tool that may provide insight about the
relationship between sustainability issues and
an aging society is the ecological footprint.
Ecological footprint calculations are based on
two simple facts: we can measure most of the
resources we consume and many of the wastes
we generate; and these measurements can be
converted to corresponding areas of productive
land or sea (Wackernagel, this publication).
The average American uses 24 acres of land
annually. The U.S. has the dubious distinction
of having both the largest ecological footprint
(6.9 billion acres) and the largest ecological
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deficit (3.1 billion acres). Americans consume
84 percent more productive land than we
actually have (Venetoulis et al., 2004).
The ecological footprint is a tool that
can help assess the relationship between
sustainability issues and an aging society.
Currently, humanity's combined footprint is
more than the Earth's capacity. We are using
about a third more than nature can regener-
ate each year. This is undermining nature's
systems, threatening its ability to sustain
us. The Ecological Footprint shows us how
much there is and how much we use, so that
we can make personal and social choices to
become more sustainable. The challenge of
sustainability is to find ways to create fulfilling
lives while reducing our impact on the Earth.
Europeans and the Japanese, with arguably
better quality of life, inspire hope and can serve
as models because they have Footprints that
are half the size of Americans." Dramatically
more efficient use of resources and cyclical
systems are necessary. It must also be realized
that quality of life does not depend on large
resource use (Venetoulis et al., 2004).
Quality of Life does not depend on
large resource use.
Moving Towards a Research Program
The U.S. is undergoing a demographic trans-
formation towards older adults, spearheaded by
the aging Baby Boomers, but projected to last
beyond the Boomer generation. While we can
reasonably estimate the growth of the aging
population, we are less certain about how this
rapid demographic change will affect natural
resource utilization, land-use planning, and
environmental quality.
EPA is developing a research strategy based
on input from this workshop. This proceedings
is the starting point for a framework that links
diverse lifestyles, cultures, and health status
in the aging population to ecological stressors.
Research will be structured along a simplified
ecological risk assessment paradigm. This
comprises sources of environmental stress
(projected demographic and life-style patterns
of an aging population), resulting exposure
regimes (temporal and spatial changes in land-
use patterns and the environmental stressors
resulting from these patterns), and potential
ecological effects. The strategy will also
address issues of spatial and temporal scale.
Workshop participants began to develop a
framework showing the linkages that relate
life style issues to stressors associated with
an aging population. For each life style issue,
related stressors and potential ecological
effects were identified. This framework also
supported inclusion of existing information
and the research needed specifically to fill
gaps in our understanding. The matrix will
be further expanded to address issues of scale
(both spatial and temporal), as well as existing
models and other pertinent information. Further
dialogue is required to flesh out the frame-
work more completely and to develop the
research strategy. Collaborative relationships
and partnerships among local, state and federal
agencies, the private sector, non-government
organizations (NGOs), and stakeholders are
central to the success of the effort, and EPA
will actively pursue these new relationships
and partnerships.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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We need to consider human and ecological
health in an integrated manner.
An underlying assumption for this strategy
includes the necessity to consider human and
ecological health in an integrated manner.
Research will therefore be interdisciplinary,
including natural scientists, ecologists, and
engineers, as well as sociologists, economists,
gerontologists, demographers, behaviorists,
planners, social marketers, and other dis-
ciplines that interact with aging populations.
Collaborative relationships and partnerships
among local, state and federal agencies, the
private sector, NGOs, and stakeholders will be
central to the success of the effort.
Aging Americans are very diverse with respect
Research will be interdisciplinary
and collaborative.
to life styles, income, cultural perspectives, and
health status and susceptibility. Although we
can continue to treat this richness as an "un-
certainty," our understanding of the ecological
effects of the aging population on natural
resources and environmental quality will
ultimately suffer from lack of consideration of
the underlying diversity of aging Americans.
Social science research is needed to understand
the mental models and social mindscapes of
various cohorts.
Another assumption is that impacts from the
aging society are expected to vary regionally.
Research is needed to characterize this variabil-
ity to capture the consumption, waste, trans-
portation, medical needs, and lifestyle patterns
by cohort and geographic area and to overlay
aging population demographic data on an eco-
regional base layer. Research is also needed
to identify built-community planning practices
that can be applied to minimize environmental
stressors and enhance health promotion and
the quality of life for different segments of the
aging population.
Impacts from the aging society are
expected to vary regionally.
Limitations of this work include our under-
standing that ecological effects of the aging
population may not be completely separable
from those associated with increases in the size
of the general population. Given the rapid de-
mographic change, altered patterns of resource
use may present novel challenges with respect
to our ability to forecast those effects. Natural
resource use and the waste streams generated
by the aging population may overwhelm the
ability of ecological systems to compensate
for or assimilate changes in stressor levels.
Research should be conducted to identify
"tipping points"—thresholds in stressor levels
or ecological effects beyond which the ecologi-
cal systems change state—and the possibility
that release rates, magnitudes or combinations
of aging-related stressors may exceed these
thresholds.
We must identify "tippingpoints" in
stressor levels or ecological effects.
EPA will also investigate how tools such as
ecological footprints and emerging fields such
as human ecology could be applied to assess
the impacts of aging Americans on ecology and
environmental quality.
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The Case Study or Demonstration Project
approach will be used to investigate the effects
of an aging population on the environment.
The process used in each Case Study or
Demonstration Project will be thoroughly
documented so the process can be transferred
to other areas or regions with similar issues.
Alternative futures analyses and future
vulnerability analysis will accompany the
assessment of current vulnerabilities.
The Case Study or Demonstration
approach will be used to investigate
the effects of an aging population
on the environment...
EPA will continue this interactive dialogue
addressing all parts of the risk assessment/risk
management process, involving a broad range
of partners, collaborators, and stakeholders.
Impact and Outcomes
Research on the effect of the growing aging
population on the environment will allow the
Agency to provide sound technical information
to local and community-based organizations
to make informed decisions, maximize op-
portunities presented by an aging population,
and minimize the impact of the growing
aging population on the environment. ORD
will partner with the EPA Regional Offices
to facilitate collaboration with regionally
specific stakeholders to develop and initiate
the implementation of appropriate policies and
management actions that emerge from this
research. This will enhance the ability of city,
county, and regional planners to meet the needs
of the growing older adult population, while at
the same time, enhance the quality of the envi-
ronment for the current and future generations
and contribute to "Lifelong Quality of Life."
Lifelong Quality of Life - meeting
the needs of the growing older adult
population while at the same time
enhancing the environment for the
current and future generations.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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American Society of Civil Engineers. 2003. 2003
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Cunningham, S. 2004. Restorative Development:
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Del Webb. 2003. Baby Boomer Report - Annual
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Sandborgh-Englund. 1998. Toxicological
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Frey, W. 2000. The New Urban Demographics
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Frey, W. 2003. Boomers and Seniors in the
Suburbs: Aging Patterns in Census 2000.
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Living Cities Census Series.
Liaw, K., W. Frey and J. Lin. 2002. Location of
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Longino, C. 1995. Retirement Migration in
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New York State Office for the Aging. 2002.
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aging, state, ny. us/explore/project2015/report02/
index.htm).
Pebley, A. 1998. Demography and the
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Roper Starch Worldwide, Inc. 1999. "Baby
boomers envision their retirement: an AARP
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http://research. aarp. org/econ/boomer_seg_
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Roper Starch Worldwide, Inc. 2004. "Baby
boomers envision their retirement II: survey
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(February 13, 2004: http://research.aarp.org/
econ/boomers _envision.html).
Tonn, B., G. Waidley, and C. Petrich. 2001. Policy
and Practice - The Aging U.S. Population
and Environmental Policy. Journal of
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Our
Built and Natural Environments, EPA 231-R-
01-02, Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004. EPA
Smart Growth Strategy. 2004. (February 14,
2005: http://www. epa.gov/smartgrowth/pdf/EPA
%20Smart%20Growth%20Strategy.pdf).
Venetoulis, J., D. Chazan and C. Gaudet.
2004. Ecological Footprint of Nations
2004. Redefining Progress, Oakland CA.
March 2004. (February 13, 2005: http://
www. rprogress. org/newpubs/2004/footprintnati
ons2004.pdf).
Wright, S. and D. Lund. 2000. Gray and Green?:
Stewardship and Sustainability in an Aging
Society. Journal of Aging Studies 14: 229-249.
Wright, S., M. Casertaand D. Lund. 2003. Older
adults' attitudes, concerns, and support for
environmental issues in the New West. The
International Journal of Aging and Human
Development, 51'(2): 151-179.
Wright, S. 2003. "Gray and Green? The
Environmental Impact of the Aging Baby
Boomer Cohort and Social Vulnerability of the
Aged to Environmental Hazards." Presented
at the American Public Health Association
Meeting, San Francisco, CA. November 15-19,
2004. (Abstract: http://apha.confex.com/apha/
13 lam/techprogram/paper_55695.htm)
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 15
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INTRODUCTION: DEMOGRAPHIC AND
LIFESTYLE PATTERNS OF AN AGING POPULATION
Patricia Bradley
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
This section focuses on the demographics of an aging American society. By 2030,
the number of older Americans is expected to double to 70 million, largely as a result
of the aging of the Baby Boomers. Human population size and consumption patterns
are major stressors on ecosystems. Equally important is the spatial distribution of
the population (where they live), since the extent of ecosystem loss and alteration is
closely related to population density. Sustainable land-use planning must consider
the implications of current and likely future trends in aging migration patterns.
Chapters in this section provide an overview of aging Americans, including social
and economic status, migration patterns, and factors that influence or motivate aging
Americans to migrate. Key questions include:
• Who fits into the category of aging American?
• How many aging Americans are there?
• Can aging Americans be grouped into distinct cohorts?
• What are the demographic and lifestyle patterns of aging Americans?
• Are demographic and lifestyle patterns of aging Americans distinct from the
patterns of other age groups?
• How are trends expected to differ regionally?
• Do aging Americans share a common attitude about environmental issues?
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 17
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PREPARING FOR THE AGING EXPLOSION:
THE IMPACT OF "AGING IN PLACE"
ON AMERICA'S COMMUNITIES
Sandy Markwood
National Association of Area Agencies on Aging (n4a)
(Written by Eric Walbeck, PSGS)
AGING OF THE U.S. POPULATION
The following presentation will be a broad
overview to characterize the aging population
in the U.S. There is what some call an "Aging
Explosion" or an "Age Wave," reflected by the
growth of the population older than 65 from
one-in-eight in 2000 to one-in-five in 2030.
There are currently 655 Area Aging Agencies
to assist this growing population, many of
whom do not want to admit they are getting
older. Some basic statistics include:
• Since 1900, the percentage of
Americans age 65 and older has
more than tripled from 4.1% of the
population to 12.4% in 2000.
• In 2000, there were 35 million people
over the age of 65—representing one in
every eight Americans.
• As the Baby Boomers age, by 2030,
70 million Americans—twice their
number in 2000—will be 65 and older.
At that point, older Americans will
comprise 20% of the U.S. population,
representing one in every 5 Americans.
And, the older population is getting older. In
2000, the 65 to 74 age group was eight times
Counties Exceeding the U.S
and Over by Region: 2000
Region
United States
Northeast
Midwest
South
West
Total
Counties
3,141
217
1,055
1,424
445
. Proportion 65 Years
Counties exceeding
U.S. proportion
#
2,263
170
869
980
244
%
72.0
78.3
82.4
68.8
54.8
1 U.S. proportion 65 years and over was 12.4%
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Summary File 1. (For
information on confidentiality protection, nonsampling error, and definitions,
see www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/docs/sf1.pdf)
larger than in 1900 but the 74 to 84 age group
was 16 times larger and the 85 and older group
was 34 times larger. The National Institute
on Aging predicts that centenarians could
increase their numbers to more than 1.2 million
by the middle of the century.
PROFILE OF OLDER AMERICANS
In addition to a growing aging population,
there is a growing diversity of that population.
Currently, 16.4% of the older population is
comprised of minorities. By 2030, the minority
populations are projected to represent 25.4%
of the total 65 and older population. Between
1999 and 2030, the "white" population 65 and
older is projected to increase by 81% compared
to 219% for older minorities—this includes
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 19
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Preparing for the Aging Explosion:
The Impact of "Aging in Place" on America's Communities
Hispanics (328%), African Americans
(131%), American Indians, Eskimos and
Aleuts (147%) and Asian and Pacific
Islanders (285%)
Income and Poverty
Currently, older Americans control the
majority of wealth in the U.S. However,
not all older Americans are economically
well off, in 2000 nearly 17% of older
adults lived in or near the poverty level.
The Baby Boom generation as a whole has
not planned for its retirement— average
savings of Baby Boomers is $30K.
The median family income of older
homeowners was $23,409 in 2001, while
the median family income of older renters
was $12,233.
WEALTH PROFILES BY AGE
1.5
I
c
BJ
0)
0.5
ratio to overall mean
-
<35 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 >74
Age
1983 • 1992 1998
D 1989 D 1995
Health Status
With advances in medical care, older
Americans are living longer and healthier
lives. However, in 1999, 26.1% of older
persons assessed their health as fair or
poor (compared to 9.2% of all persons).
Minority elders were most likely to rate
their health as fair or poor (African-
Americans 41.6% and Hispanics (35.1%).
Limitations on activities of daily living due
to chronic conditions increase with age. In
1998, 28.8% of 65-74 year olds reported
limitations due to chronic conditions
whereas over half (50.6%) of 75+ year olds
reported limitations.
Housing Status
Of the 21.8 million households headed by
older persons in 2001, 80% were owners
and 20% were renters. About 73% of older
homeowners in 2001 owned their home
free and clear. In 2001, the median value
of homes owned by older persons was
$107,398, compared to a median home
value of $123,887 for all homeowners.
The median year of construction for
homes occupied by older householders in
2001 was 1963, while it was 1970 for all
householders. Eighty-nine percent of older
adults report that they want to remain in
their homes for as long as possible.
Work and Retirement
In 2000, 4.2 million (12.8%) of older
Americans were in the labor force. Studies
indicate that Baby Boomers want (and
may need) to continue working. Many
Baby Boomers report that they want to
retire from their current jobs and return to
work in other fields—creating markets for
lifelong learning and job retraining.
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Volunteerism and Civic Engagement
Forty-five percent of older adults volunteer
annually, donating 1.8 billion hours of their
time at an estimated value of $22.7 billion.
Baby Boomers report different interests
in volunteering than the current older
generation—they want more meaningful
work, flexible hours, expect professional
management.
Arts and Cultural Activities
The arts and cultural activities are very
important to older adults and there are
many social benefits associated with their
participation in these activities.
WHAT DOES THE AGING OF THE
POPULATION MEAN FOR U.S.
COMMUNITIES?
The dramatic rise in the numbers of older
Americans will impact on every aspect of U.S.
communities. The entire social, physical and
fiscal fabric of communities will be affected by
the coming age wave.
REDEFINING AGING...
REDEFINING COMMUNITIES
By their sheer numbers, the aging of the Baby
Boomers is resulting in:
• A new DEFINITION of aging (55 is
now becoming the definition of old);
• A new ATTITUDE towards aging
(older Americans control the majority
of the wealth in the U.S., but many want
to and may need to continue to work
past what was considered retirement
age; because of their numbers, they
have political clout and use it);
• A new INTEREST in aging (health
care, housing, and advertisements—
including political campaigns—are now
being aimed at older Americans).
BABY BOOMERS AS CITIZENS
Baby Boomers have changed the face of
U.S. society since they were in diapers and
will continue to do so as they age. They are
a generation that demands service; they want
what they want and they want it now!
IMPACTS OF THE AGING POPULATION ON
COMMUNITIES
Health
Because of the increasing numbers of aging
Americans, the communities they live in
are faced with providing access to health
care services and consumer directed care.
Long-term care will have to be redirected
from institutional care to home and
community-based services and promotion
of health and wellness will become part of
the community design. Health disparities
within these changing communities must
also be addressed.
Housing
Housing will also be impacted. Existing
homes may need modifications such as the
addition of ramps, chair lifts, safety/grab
bars, etc. Zoning changes may need to be
made to allow different types of housing
units within existing neighborhoods.
Affordable housing options as well as
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
21
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Preparing for the Aging Explosion:
The Impact of "Aging in Place" on America's Communities
assisted living facilities will have to be
developed. There is also a new specialized
market (niche) for the development of
active adult communities.
Transportation
Highway engineers need to consider the
increase of older drivers when designing
streets and roads to make them safer for
the older driver, including such things as
larger signs, smoother curves, and less
obstacles. Sidewalks and street crossings
may also need to be redesigned to make
them more accessible for older pedestrians.
And, mobility options—transit, Paratransit1,
volunteer drivers—may need to be
provided.
Workforce Development/Education
As the population grows older many
individuals have indicated that they want
to, and may need to, continue to work past
what was considered "normal" retirement
age. This will provide a challenge to labor
and education departments to provide/
promote job retraining opportunities, job
flexibility, lifelong learning, and retirement
planning.
Volunteerism/Civic Engagement
Volunteer opportunities will need to be
restructured to meet changing demands,
capitalizing on the expertise of an older
population.
Land-Use Planning
Local and state planning and public works
departments must now consider the older
population when reviewing documents such
as the master plan, zoning and subdivision
requirements, building codes, the capital
improvements plan, and the transportation
plan.
Public Safety
Departments of public safety may need to
revise some of their priorities to include
"elder" abuse and neglect, senior scams,
emergency evacuations (Homeland
Security) of older and sometimes disabled
adults, and emergency medical services for
older Americans.
Parks and Recreation
Parks and recreation departments should
also revamp their programs to promote
and include intergenerational fitness and
exercise and wellness activities.
Arts and Cultural Activities
Older adults value the presence of com-
munity arts and cultural activities and seek
out opportunities for civic engagement, self
expression and maintaining social
interaction. This may be a challenge for
some communities to provide.
Economic Development/Fiscal Impact
The aging population must be considered
when governmental budgets are developed.
Older adults require/desire/demand/deserve
more services, but an increasing percent-
age is on fixed incomes and generally
contribute less in taxes. Property tax relief
programs and senior discounts may impact
future budgets resulting in the revision
of the tax structure at the local, state, and
national level.
1 Paratransit organizations expand mobility options by advocating for a fully accessible,
usable, and integrated public transportation system and providing innovative community
transportation services. They are usually private, nonprofit transportation companies,
specializing in transportation call-center management and public transit operations.
They provide accessible transportation services to those who need it the most—persons
who are elderly or disabled or who live in rural areas without personal means of
transportation.
22
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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S. Markwood/E. Walbeck
AGING IN PLACE/SMART GROWTH
N4A/PLC AGING IN PLACE PROJECT
Making communities "elder friendly" is a key
element of Smart Growth Planning.
Aging in Place
Eighty-nine percent of older-adults report
that they want to remain in their homes
for as long as possible. Communities
that become good places for people to
grow up and to grow old result in better
communities for all ages.
Preparing for aging in place results
in better communities for all ages.
Aging
In Place
Initiative:
Program
Layout
AGING IN PLACE PROGRAM
18-months
Evansville, I
Syracuse, NY
Lexington, KY
Colorado Springs, CO
Battle Creek Ml
Washington, DC
Ft. Wayne, IN
Jacksonville, FL
Martinsville, VA
Rochester, NY
FLIGHT 2 CANDIDATES
Memphis, TN
Cleveland, OH
Kansas City, MO
St. Paul, MN
Seattle, WA
Milwaukee, Wl
Cincinnati, OH
Atlanta, GA
Howard County, MD
Flagstaff, AZ
The National Association of Area Agencies
on Aging and the Partners for Livable
Communities (PLC) are working together on
an aging in place initiative, which emphasizes
"elder friendly" growth. This initiative will:
• Target 20 communities;
• Facilitate community dialogue on
Aging in Place;
• Assist communities develop blueprints
for Aging in Place;
• Provide technical assistance to move
blueprints into action; and
• Develop peer networks of community
leaders to lead the challenge on Aging
in Place.
Aging is diverse and dynamic and
the aging in place initiative will,
by necessity, have to change/adapt
over time.
PUBLICATION OF
'NATIONAL BLUEPRINTS'
A publication of the twenty
communities that can be
adapted, changed and ratified
for any community in America.
COMMUNITY ASSISTANCE
PROGRAM
This program is designed to
give any community in the U.S.
assistance on elder-friendly
community design. Materials
and knowledge will already
have come from work with the
first 20 communities.
AGING IN PLACE
CLEARINGHOUSE
A website that will inform
people on Aging in Place in
general and partners/n4a's role
in the process.
TAKE IT ON THE ROAD
With the help of national
organizations like ICMA and
Volunteers of America, we will
be able to go to each
community under their umbrella
and do conferences on 'how to
be elder-friendly'. As aging
demographic grows, this may
become mandatory in cities,
states, and regions.
EXPERT SUPPORT
Be able to utilize the large
network of colleagues that
Partners and n4a has created
over the years. With this tool,
Partners/n4a wil be able to sub-
contract someone who has
more experience in a specific
field such as housing.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
23
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Preparing for the Aging Explosion:
The Impact of "Aging in Place" on America's Communities
ISSUES DISCUSSED AFTER PRESENTATION
• The difficulty of aging in place in the
inner suburbs due to the tax structure;
• The difficulty of obtaining participation
by all of the agencies involved—health,
housing, transportation—and having
everyone use the same terminology;
• The stages of need of those older
Americans aging in place, from
assistance with chores to personal care
to health care.
24 Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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LATER-LIFE MIGRATION IMPACTS
Charles Longino, Ph.D.
Wake Forest University
Don E. Bradley, Ph.D.
East Carolina University
INTRODUCTION
For nearly thirty years I have studied
geographical mobility in later life.
During this time my work has focused on
theories and patterns of migration more than
on the impacts of migration on the community
or environment. Over the past two decades,
however, some state governments have
become very interested in understanding the
economic impact of later life migration on their
destination communities and destination states.
If retirees move in large numbers to a state and
spend their retirement income in that state, it
could provide strength to the state economy.
The money they spend would circulate and
generate tax revenue for the states, as well
as jobs for the local community.
Before the topic of impact can be
understood, however, it is necessary to
provide some background on the general
phenomenon of later-life migration.
We are so accustomed to thinking of
geographical mobility as a labor force
equilibration mechanism, getting labor
redistributed as areas of the country rise
or decline economically, that it is difficult
to understand the function of later-life
migration. In an economic context,
geographical movement after retirement seems
epiphenomenal
When age and retirement are considered
simultaneously, demographers have been
quick to point out that geographical mobility is
dominated by young people moving away from
their parent's home and establishing a home
of their own, motivated primarily either by
education, jobs or marriage. When comparing
age-based rates of migration, it is among
young adults that mobility comes alive. In this
context, later-life migration has been relatively
invisible.
Percent of Interstate Mover
o
6
S
35
s
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Later-Life Migration Impacts
We were interested to discover that although
less than 5% of the population of persons age
60+ make interstate moves during the 5 years
before each census, it is their tendency to
concentrate that sets them apart from migration
in the general population. Channelization is
the term given to this phenomenon. Nearly
a third of all interstate migrants move to just
three states, Florida, Arizona and California,
and 54% move to the top ten states out of 50,
one fifth of the states. Within these states there
are further concentrations so, for example, if
one visits a shopping mall in some parts of
Florida it seems that over half the population is
over 60.
The second characteristic of later-life migration
discovered in our earlier work is that retirees
tend to move down the metropolitan hierarchy,
from larger to smaller places. Young people
tend to move up the metropolitan hierarchy in
search of economic opportunity. Older people
do not all move to fragile, rural environments;
most move to smaller metropolitan areas.
With this as background, we can turn to the
issue of migration impact.
Table 1. Ten states receiving most in-migrants age 60+ in five-year periods ending in
1980, 1990 and 2000.
~
Rank State
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total
Interstate
Migrants
% of Total
10 States
FL
CA
AZ
TX
NJ
PA
NC
WA
IL
NY
1
in Top
1980
#
437,040
144,880
94,600
78,480
49,400
39,520
39,400
35,760
35,720
34,920
,622,120
1990
%
26.3
8.7
5.7
4.7
3.0
2.4
2.4
2.2
2.1
2.1
59.5
State
FL
CA
AZ
TX
NC
PA
NJ
WA
VA
GA
451
131
98
78
64
57
49
47
46
44
1,901
#
,709
,514
,756
,117
,530
,538
,176
,484
,554
,475
,105
%
23.8
6.9
5.2
4.1
3.4
3.0
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
56.3
State
FL
AZ
CA
TX
NC
GA
NV
PA
NJ
VA
2000
# %
401,
134,
127,
101,
77,
63,
62,
60,
54,
53,
2,096
052
183
693
446
720
120
155
082
425
776
,841
19.1
6.4
6.1
4.8
3.7
3.0
3.0
2.9
2.6
2.6
54.3
26
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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C. Longino/D. Bradley
MIGRATION IMPACT
There are several non-age based impacts.
Whether or not a new resident is young or old,
her presence increases the local demand for
public safety and public health. In addition,
population congestion increases the "hassle
factor."
The issue of the impact of migration on
fragile environments falls into the category of
non-age based impacts. The age of migrants
therefore is less important than their presence.
Later-life migrants become relevant to fragile
environments primarily in their ability to make
a move independent of an earned income,
thereby expanding the population over and
above the jobs that are available to support it.
ECONOMIC IMPACT
The decade of the 1990s began with a spate of
articles considering the economic impact of
retirees at their destination. A sizable amount of
annual income is transferred to and from states,
concentrating in major destination states, due
to retirement migration (Longino and Crown,
1990; Crown and Longino, 1991; Sastry, 1992;
Serow, Friedrich and Haas, 1992).
Simultaneously, 515 rural counties where
the older population was growing through
migration, outperformed nonmetropolitan
area averages for job growth (Reeder and
Glasgow, 1990; Glasgow, 1991). These studies
argued that older migrants had not been an
excessive burden on local public service
expenditures, which tended to be low in any
case (Glasgow and Reeder, 1990; Glasgow,
1995), a point echoed by Joseph and Cloutier
(1991) concerning rural Canadians. Voss
and Fuguitt (1991) showed that in rural low-
income counties in the South, new income
from migrants only replaced that taken out
by out-migrants. These were not the same set
of counties, however, that Glasgow called
"retirement counties." Hodge (1991) reported
data supportive of Glasgow's analysis in his
study of smaller communities in the province
of British Columbia, Canada. Bennett (1992,
1993, 1996) offered strong support for
Glasgow's observations in his study of high-
amenity retirement counties on the Atlantic
seaboard. Schneider and Green (1992)
however, noted that the economic success of
the retirement counties cannot be attributed
simply to retirement migration alone. Rural
counties, when accessible to heavily traveled
transportation corridors and abundant with
amenities, are attractive to young people as
well. Deller (1995) used a regional economic
model to simulate the impact of a policy of
retirement recruitment on the state of Maine,
showing a significant beneficial short-run
economic impact. Serow (2003) warns of
possible negative future long-run impacts.
Local Political Activism
and Support for Public Services
The positive economic impact must be
balanced against a negative political
effect. Local voting studies have tended to
examine the results of local school budget
referenda. Using the results of school
district bond elections in Florida, Button
(1992) and especially McManus (1997)
found that a higher percentage of elderly
residents and voters in a school district are
associated with lower support for schools.
This finding is consistent with recent
research by Simonsen and Robbins (1996),
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
27
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Later-Life Migration Impacts
who found that citizens and senior citizens,
in particular, were much less supportive of
public services that they do not expect to
use. This would include schools.
Impact on Community
Social Structure and Values
Longino (1990) argued that retirement
enclaves in rural counties tend to be worlds
unto themselves, relatively unattached
to local social structure. McHugh and
Gober (2002) call them "common interest
developments." Cuba (1992) even argued
that on Cape Cod, the distinguishing
characteristics of older migrants make them
susceptible to scapegoating by nonmigrants
and younger migrants.
Later studies have seen migrants as
more proactive, as change agents in their
communities. Rowles and Watkins (1993),
for example, provide case studies of three
contrasting Appalachian communities
at different stages of development as
retirement destinations (emergence,
recognition, restructuring, and saturation).
This study is refreshingly insightful
because it analyzes retirement migration
in a broader social context. For example,
middle-class retirees are likely to band
together to protect the environmental
ambiance of the community. The lure of
economic development through retiree
recruitment, in some small towns, could
have disappointing consequences for local
boosters as the size and power of the older
population increases.
PROJECTING IMPACT FACTORS INTO THE
FUTURE
One can assume that the rates of interstate
migration will be stable over time. The current
rates have been stable since 1980. During this
period, about 4.5% of persons age 60 and older
made interstate moves in any 5-year period.
At the time of the census in each of those
three decades essentially the same proportion
indicated that they had lived in a different state
five years earlier. If the rates of migration are
stable, then the factor that would cause the
number of migrants to rise or fall would be
growth in the age group. In this regard, the
older population has been growing, relative
to the rest of the population, for decades. In
addition, in 2008 the oldest Baby Boomer
will take early retirement at age 62 and begin
drawing a social security retirement income.
Over the next 18 years, the Baby Boom will
pass through the retirement years. The
number of later-life migrants will increase
Table 2. Migration during five-year periods
ending in 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000.
Interstate Migrants
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
#
%
#
%
#
%
#
%
#
%
Age 5+
14,141,000
9.2
16,081,000
9.3
20,358,000
9.9
21,585,000
9.4
22,089,460
8.4
Age 60+
931,000
4.1
1,079,000
3.9
1,622,000
4.6
1,901,000
4.5
2,096,841
4.6 J
28
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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C. Longino/D. Bradley
2.2
1.3
2.8
0.7
n
1970-1990 1990-2010 2010-2030 2030-2050
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census
Figure 2 Average Annual Growth Rate of the
Elderly Population: 1970-1990 to 2030-2050
during this time, as well as their economic and
social impact.
Add to this growth, the fact that there will be
a shift in destinations. Florida will continue
to benefit from the growth in important ways.
However, the growing number of migrants will
cause much smaller destinations to become
visible, perhaps for the first time. There are
beautiful vistas in this country that attract
retirees. Some of these are in ecological regions
that require a delicate environmental balance. It
is possible that the construction of new homes
to accommodate the increasing retirement
population will threaten the environment.
The short-term impact of retirement migration
is positive. Certainly the economic impact
pumps dollars into the local economy, primarily
creating service jobs. The human and social
capital that is produced through volunteering
and other community activity is positive as
well. Older migrants often wish to preserve the
environmental beauty of their destination, thus
protecting their investment, so to speak. This
makes them easy allies of environmentalists
seeking to preserve environmental integrity.
Longer-term impact, however, may be
negative. The growth in the numbers of later-
life migrants between 2008 and 2030 can be
expected to put pressure on the health delivery
system, on the housing industry, and on the
environment. When the Baby Boomer cohort
has passed through the early retirement years,
there will be opportunities to convert retirement
housing to other purposes, as well as a change
in the service mix in retirement destinations.
During this time there will not be the ever-
increasing flow of retirees into the area, but a
declining number. The decline in the arrival of
recent retirees will make the older population
seem to age more rapidly. With its aging, there
will be a shift from the recreation needs of the
"young old," to the health and service needs of
the "old-old."
Of course one should not forget the mediating
factors that may change this picture. Since
the 1980 census, researchers have been
aware of counterstream migration. That is,
for every major stream of older migrants, for
example, from New York to Miami, there is
a counterstream, for example, from Miami to
New York. This counterstream carries away
some of the service demand generated by the
aging of the older population.
Also, it should be recognized that the much
larger geographically stable population will
also age, so that the aging of the older migrants
will not stand out and create a separate cause
of alarm. The demand for health and social
services for the older population will be
widespread. It will be a national issue, not just
a local issue.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
29
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Later-Life Migration Impacts
CONCLUSIONS
The impact of older persons who migrate is
complex and goes far beyond their impact on
fragile environments. They have economic,
political and social impacts as well. Also,
their environmental impacts must be weighed
against their tendency to support environmental
protection in their new locations, when they
become aware of such issues. Like the Dr.
Seuss character, the Lorax, long-distance
migrants in late life "speak for the trees."
REFERENCES
Bennett, D.G. 1992. The Impact of Retirement
Migration on Carteret and Brunswick Counties,
N.D. North Carolina Geographer 1: 25-38.
Bennett, D.G. 1993. Retirement migration and
economic development in high-amenity,
nonmetropolitan areas. The Journal of Applied
Gerontology 12(4): 466-481.
Bennett, D.G. 1996. Implications of retirement
development in high-amenity nonmetropolitan
coastal areas. The Journal of Applied
Gerontology 15(3): 345-360.
Button, J.W. 1992. A sign of generational conflict:
The impact of Florida's aging voters on local
school and tax referenda. Social Science
Quarterly 73(4): 786-797.
Crown, W.H. and C. F. Longino Jr. 1991. State
and regional policy implications of elderly
migration. Journal of Aging and Social Policy
3: 185-207.
Cuba, L.J. 1992. The Cape Cod retirement
migration study: A final report to the National
Institute on Aging. Wellesley, MA: Wellesley
College.
Deller, S.C. 1995. Economic impact of retirement
migration. Economic Development Quarterly
9(1): 25-38.
Glasgow, N.L. 1991. A place in the country.
American Demographics 13(3): 24-30.
Glasgow, N.L. 1995. Retirement migration and the
use of services in nonmetropolitan counties.
Rural Sociology 60(2): 224-243.
Glasgow, N.L. and R.J. Reeder. 1990. Economic
and fiscal implications of nonmetropolitan
retirement migration. The Journal of Applied
Gerontology 9(4): 433-451.
Hodge, G. 1991. The economic impact of retirees
on smaller communities. Research on Aging,
13(1): 39-54.
Joseph, A.E. and D.S. Cloutier. 1991. Elderly
migration and its implications for service
provision in rural communities: An Ontario
perspective. Journal of Rural Studies 7(4): 433-
444.
Longino, C.F., Jr. 1990. Geographical distribution
and migration. In Handbook of aging and the
social sciences, third edition, by R.H. Binstock
and L.K. George (Eds.), 45-63. San Diego, CA:
Academic Press.
Longino, C.F., Jr. and W.H. Crown. 1990.
Retirement migration and interstate income
transfers. The Gerontologist 30: 784-789.
McHugh, K., P. Gober and D. Borough. 2002. The
Sun City Wars. Urban Geography 23(7): 627-
648.
McManus, S. 1997. Selling school taxes and bond
issues to a generationally diverse electorate:
Lessons from Florida referenda. Government
Finance Review April: 17-22.
Reeder, R.J. and N.L. Glasgow. 1990. Non-metro
retirement counties' strengths and weaknesses.
Rural Development Perspectives 6(2): 12-17.
Rowles, G.D. and J.F. Watkins. 1993. Elderly
migration and development in small
communities. Growth and Change 24: 509-538.
Sastry, M.L. 1992. Estimating the economic
impacts of elderly migration: an input-output
analysis. Growth and Change 23(1): 54-79.
Schneider, M.J. and B.L. Green. 1992. A
demographic and economic comparison of
nonmetropolitan retirement and nonretirement
counties in the U.S. Journal of Applied
Sociology 9: 63-84.
30
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C. Longino/D. Bradley
Serow, W.J. 2003. Economic Consequences of
Retiree Concentrations: A Review of North
American Studies. The Gerontologist 43(6):
897-903.
Serow, W.J., K. Friedrich and W.H. Haas. 1992.
Measuring the economic impact of retirement
migration: The case of western North Carolina.
The Journal of Applied Gerontology 11(2):
200-215.
Simonsen, W. and M. Robbins. 1996. Does it make
any difference anymore? Competitive versus
negotiated municipal bond issuance. Public
Administration Review 56(1): 57-64.
Voss, PR and G.V. Fuguitt. 1991. The impact of
migration on southern rural areas of chronic
depression. Rural Sociology 56(4): 660-679.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 31
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FAN BY-iSM IN AN AGING SOCIETY:
IN SEARCH OF ARCADIA'
STILL SEARCHING FOR PARADISE
Scott Wright, Ph.D.
University of Utah
"The search for environmental quality is as fundamental as the search for a
higher material standard of living: in fact the former is an outgrowth of a further
development of the latter. "
Samuel P. Hays (1998). Explorations in Environmental History, p. 11
PREFACE
When examining the prospect of increased
longevity in the U.S. and concomitant issues
(e.g., political, economic, social) associated
with demographic aging, it is de rigueur
to bring the aging of Baby Boomers into
the equation. There is already a plethora of
literature on the impact and profiling of aging
Baby Boomers. For the purposes of this paper,
I would like to highlight two examples. In
one example, Munnell (2004) has provided
a contextual analysis of the Baby Boomer
cohort in perspective with broader and long-
term demographic trends in fertility rates
and increased longevity. In short, Munnell has
correctly identified that our nation is facing a
permanent change in its demographic profile
(toward population aging) and not simply
a temporary "wave effect" of aging Baby
Boomers. In other words, the traditional "pig
in a python" metaphor may be a graphically
provocative way of describing the "passing
though" of the cohort, but it also implies
that life will return to normal once the last
"Boomer" dies. Instead, Munnell (2004)
indicates that long after the Baby Boomers
are gone—2080 appears to be the date when
virtually all Boomers will have ceased to
exist—an aging society will be here to stay
for the long-term—well into the 22nd century.
The point here is that while the Baby Boomer
cohort will be the cause of rapid aging in
the U.S. in the coming decades, the ultimate
outcome and end result is a transformation
toward a sustained aged society. Thus, any
discussion of aging and environmental
issues will not just be a "passing through"
issue associated with the aging of the Baby
Boomer cohort; rather, the nexus of aging and
environmental issues will be a social and public
health concern for all subsequent cohorts as
well.
In the other example, Coughlin (1999)
highlights the technology needs of aging
Boomers and presents a convincing argument
for considering the power and potential of
technology to address the challenges of the
aging process for increasing numbers of older
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 33
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FANBY-ism in an Aging Society:
In Search of Arcadia Still Searching for Paradise
adults. However, Coughlin (1999) argues
that after witnessing the advancements of life
expectancy in the 20th century and spending
billions to achieve longevity, we have not
made equitable investments in the physical
infrastructure necessary to ensure healthy
independent living for aging individuals. In
other words, living longer may not inevitably
assumed to be matched by living better or
simply living well. Coughlin (1999) is one
of many scholars who highlight the need
for addressing the qualitative dimensions
of living longer in an aging society. Thus,
we have to consider the pragmatic and
ethical prospects of diminishing resources
(economic and environmental) that may not
sustain increasing numbers of people with a
meaningful level of well-being and quality
of life. In effect, I propose that we are at the
crossroads where demographic aging, human
ecology and environmental issues converge
in a "drama of the commons" (Dietz et al.,
2002; see also Freyfogle, 2003)2. In this case,
the "commons" are represented by the "other"
infrastructure which is the array of natural
resources and ecosystem services that support
and sustain human functioning3. While assorted
publications have begun to address pervasive
economic, social and political effects of an
"aging society" (e.g., Morgan, 1998), there has
been little discussion about the impact of the
"age wave" (Dychtwald, 1990) in relation to
natural resources and environmental quality.
Likewise there is scant literature paid to the
reciprocal impact of environmental conditions
(i.e., environmental quality and environmental
hazards) on the well-being of aging individuals
and collectively, an aging society (see Wright,
2000; Wright, 2003). However, progress is
becoming more evident, especially as EPA
has begun to address the intersection of these
issues. Although my research has examined
many factors associated with environmental
issues and aging, this paper specifically focuses
on the nuances of demographics, elderly
migration patterns and environmental impact.
These nuances reflect the need to closely
examine the diversity within aging cohorts in
relation to environmental issues. As Coughlin
(1999) has noted, "The aging Boomers are not
the first generation to grow old; however, their
absolute number will move issues associated
with their aging to the top of the policy
agenda." Thus, the behemoth-like profile (the
quantitative dimension) of the age wave will
have significant ramifications for contemporary
and future environmental policy (Tonn et al.,
2001). Yet, it is not just the absolute number
of aging Boomers (the sheer magnitude) that
demands our undivided attention, it is also
the variation within the aging Boomers (the
qualitative dimension) and all aging cohorts
that will be the touchstone by which any and
future environmental policy (i.e., the "aging
initiative") should be differentiated. While
it is tempting to profile the aging Boomers
into a collective block and then prognosticate
accordingly, this is bound to be misleading
and potentially reckless. Policy directives,
research projects and educational programs
related to environmental issues and aging must
take into account the prospective variability
and novel emerging patterns within the Baby
Boomer cohort in order to effectively target
prevention and intervention measures. For the
purposes of this paper, I examine one specific
pattern—retirement migration—(one of many)
in relation to environmental resources.
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THE EMERGENCE OF 21ST CENTURY
RETIREMENT HOT SPOTS—NOT YOUR
FATHER'S OLDSMOBILE
The increased attraction of the western U.S. as
a relocation and retirement destination has been
demonstrated in recent U.S. Bureau of the
Census data and in other recent publications
(see Wright, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2004). For
example, over the next 30 years the West is
projected to grow nearly twice the national
average, while the Northeast and Midwest will
grow at one-half the U.S. total rate. During the
1995 to 2025 period, the South and West are
expected to increase by more than 29 million
persons. California is expected to be the fastest
growing State from 1995 to 2025 (65%). Out
of the top 10 fastest growing states, eight are
in the western region. They are: California,
New Mexico, Hawaii, Arizona, Nevada, Idaho,
Utah, Alaska (U.S. Bureau of the Census,
1996). The Census Bureau projects that in
2020 California would have the nation's largest
elderly population, with 6.6 million persons 65
and over, a 100% increase from 1993 (although
it is projected Florida will continue to have the
nation's highest proportion of state population
aged 65 years and over).
The regional relocation of the elderly to the
South and West has been occurring among the
younger elderly since the 1960s and among the
older elderly since the 1970s. In addition to the
older adult migrants to these areas generally
tending to be among the young-old, they have
also tended to be relatively well educated and
relatively well off financially. As a result, such
migrants tend to rejuvenate and enrich the older
population of the receiving states (Hobbs and
Damon, 1996; see also Longino, 1995).
Over the decade of the 1980s, the largest
percentage increases in elderly population
(65 years and over) were mostly in the West,
particularly the Mountain States and in the
South. For example, the Mountain Division of
the West region (Montana, Idaho, Wyoming,
Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and
Nevada) experienced a 42.9% increase in
population 65 and over between the years 1980
to 1990 (Hobbs and Damon, 1996).
The population 65 and over is expected to
double in the top seven states with the fastest
growing elderly population. The States with the
most rapid growth of the elderly population in
rank order are Alaska, Utah, Idaho, Colorado,
Nevada, Wyoming and Washington. These
states are projected to have an average annual
rate of growth of change for the elderly that
ranges from 5.1% to 6.9% between 1995 and
2025. The Mountain region is expected to
have 11.4% of their population in the elderly
category by the year 2000, 12.4% by the
year 2010 and 16% by the year 2020 (Hobbs
and Damon, 1996). Seven states in the West
region are projected to experience 100%
or more change in population 65 years and
over between the years 1993 to 2020 (Utah =
102.4%; Nevada = 115.6%; Arizona = 111.9%;
Colorado = 108%).
While select southeastern states (e.g., Florida
and Georgia) continue to draw a substantial
number of migrant retirees each year, there
has been an increased interest in other major
destination spots in the U.S. For example,
Longino and Bradley (2003) have examined
preliminary estimates of the number and
proportion of retirement migrants (based on
Census 2000 data) and have found that the
traditional leading destinations, like Florida,
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have declined slightly in its position over
the past two decades. Thus, Longino and
Bradley (2003) have stated that "the leading
destinations were spreading out, becoming
slightly less concentrated." For example,
Longino and Bradley (2003) noted that the
"New West" is a rising retirement region
(see also Frey, 2000). They point out that
while Arizona has anchored the regional area,
other states, such as Nevada, have emerged
as leading destinations for older adults. It
is proposed that the 21st century will be
exemplified by the emergence of new areas
for relocation and retirement, and that the
"New West" states will become a primary
site for aging Baby Boomers who decide to
relocate (see also Ribesame & Robb, 1997).
For example, Limerick (1997), a contributor
to the Atlas of the American West., offers an
interesting psychological motivation (with
recreational opportunities and landscape
ecology as amenities) for the allure of the
"New West" for aging Baby Boomers:
"In the outdoor sports of the
New West, the dreams of the
Baby Boomer childhood and the
dreams of Baby Boomers middle
age coincide. Performed in the
landscape associated with televised
western adventure, the vigorous
outdoor exercise associated with
the New West seemed to provide
a postponement of aging and an
extension of life itself... even if
those years are going to add up
anyway, Baby Boomers hold on to
the option of behaving as if they
are not over thirty, an option for
which the New West provides an
essential setting to play hide-and-
go-seek with time. As much as
they provide the center of the New
West's economy, hiking, mountain
biking, skiing, rock climbing and
rafting provide the ritual by which
people of a certain age have been
putting up determined battle against
aging.... The very term "New West"
remains a Baby Boomer's dream
come true.. .the West has received
special dispensation, an option to
reverse the rules of the universe.
Time passes; ordinary logic
reverses; and the Old West ages into
the New West."
Traditional geographic areas will still attract
retirees over the next several decades, but the
new emerging areas will offer key amenities
to aging Baby Boomers that are associated
with the broad term of "quality of life," and
more specifically with natural amenities (or
"natural capital") that are associated with
environmental resources (e.g., water, air, land)
and conditions that reflect a higher standard
of environmental quality (e.g., less pollution,
less congestion and sprawl)4. The emerging
pattern of greater numbers of people seeking
geographic areas that fulfill these conditions
can also create stressors and strains on the
very natural resources that were the primary
attraction to begin with—and as a result, can
lead to a "Find a New Backyard—FANBY"
dynamic of "searching for paradise" (see
Rasker & Hansen, 2000). It is proposed
that this dynamic will become more acute
especially in the New West states and in other
areas of the U.S. In effect, it points to one of
many emerging intersections between an aging
society and environmental issues (see Tonn et
al., 2001).
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In summary, the western U.S. are experiencing
rapid demographic growth and this growth
is projected to continue for the next three
decades. In addition to the overall demographic
growth in the West, several states, including
Nevada and Arizona, have been recognized as
prime retirement migration destinations. Many
retirement migration sites are characterized as
fulfilling the need for amenity-seeking older
adults who place a premium on quality-of-
life indicators, recreational opportunities and
scenic beauty of the natural landscape (Bennett,
1996). These sites are also known as "gateway
communities." Howe et al. (1997) have
described these Arcadian areas this way:
"Gateway communities—the towns
and cities that border these public
lands—are the destinations of
choice for much of the country's
migrating populace. With their
scenic beauty and high quality of
life, gateway communities have
become a magnet for millions of
Americans looking to escape the
congestion, banality and faster
tempo of life in the suburbs and
cities. Estes Park Colorado, gateway
to Rocky Mountain National Park
and St. George, Utah, gateway to
Zion National Park, have become
havens for retirees looking for a
picturesque place to spend their
golden years. During the 1980s,
the population of Estes Park grew
by more than 35%, St. George's
population doubled."
However, rapid growth in certain geographic
areas that are ecologically sensitive may not
be conducive to the sustainability of natural
resources and the resulting impact can be
detrimental to the very qualities that would
draw migrants to the area in the first place.
MIGRATION PATTERNS AND "PULL"
FACTORS: THE IMPORTANCE OF "QUALITY
OF LIFE"
There have been a substantial number of
research publications addressing elderly
mobility and the interstate migration patterns of
older adults in the U.S. (Bennett, 1993; Clark et
al., 1996; Hass & Serow, 1993, 1997; Newbold,
1996; Longino, 1990; Longino & Marshall,
1990). One of the major representatives
of the amenity-seeking population (versus
"dependency migrants") in the U.S. is
associated with older adults who are involved
in interstate (and intrastate) migration activities
during the retirement years (see Clark et al.,
1996; Hass & Serow, 1993, 2002; Longino
1995; Longino et al., 2002; Newbold, 1996;
Valerio, 1997).
As Longino (1995) indicated in his benchmark
book, "Retirement Migration in America" most
older adults do not move to another geographic
location (migrate) as retirees, rather "most
people stay put when they retire." However,
a significant number of older adults, seek to
change their lifestyles is such a way that a
change of territory is required (Longino, 1995),
and most "amenity-migrants" are looking
for settings that will afford a new and better
lifestyle. Longino (1995) states:
"Communities located on or near
lakes, beaches or mountains, and
those in temperate climates, have an
advantage in attracting this type of
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migrant, who tends to be recently
retired, and therefore younger,
usually married and economically
better off than many other retirees.
Interstate migration streams to the
Sun Belt are laden with amenity
retirees."
What is the primary amenity that migrant
retirees seek when considering relocation
to a new geographic area? Longino (1995)
indicated that "quality of life" is at the heart
of the process in deciding where to relocate
in retirement migration. Longino (1995)
elaborated upon the concept "quality of life" as
a motivator in migration patterns:
"When we pull from the bookstore
shelf one of those reference volumes
that offers advice about places
to retire we are only examining
the most recent packaging of an
old concept, quality of life. A
geographic definition of quality
of life incorporates the concept of
individual well-being but focuses
more onplaces than individuals...
Some of the subjective goals of
older migrants can be discerned
from the data we have already
observed. We know, for example,
that climatic conditions favor Sun
Belt locations. We know that there
is a movement out of the most
populous, presumably the most
crowded, states. Moving to a place
with less congestion and fewer of
the problems that big cities tend
to have must be attractive to many
retirees. The fact that people tend
to move to the rim states, most of
which are on water, must imply
that there is more than climate that
is attractive about the physical
environment. Water and mountains,
and scenic beauty in general, are
traditional pulls" (Italics added)
What we can surmise from Longino's (1995)
interpretation is that quality of life is very much
connected to and represented by the aesthetics
of natural environment characteristics., such as
climate and scenic beauty, or as Pitt and Zube
(1987) refer to as, the "noncommodity values"
of natural environments. Although there are
"push" factors such as urban congestion
and crime as motivators for leaving a certain
geographic area, the "pull" factors of the
natural environment (Longino refers to this as
the "physical environment") toward a specific
geographic area may be more influential in the
decision-making process (see also Savageau,
1995). Howe et al. (1977) also elaborate on
the relationship between quality of life and the
natural environment:
"Quality of life is a catchall term
used to describe the noneconomic
amenities a community has to offer,
including clean air and water, safe
streets, good schools and scenic
views. Although the definition of
quality of life may vary from person
to person, people of every ethnic
and economic background place a
high value on it. Surveys indicate
that quality of life weighs heavily in
decisions people make about where
they want to live and work. Indeed,
throughout the country Americans
are fleeing blighted suburbs and
cities in search of cleaner, greener,
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smaller, safer and more neighborly
communities. Gateway communities
are leading destinations."
The importance of the natural environment
is further corroborated by Carslon et al.
(1998) who conducted a study to determine
factors that affect retirement migration of
older persons, using Hass and Serow's (1993)
"amenity" model as the framework. They
focused on older migrants to the state of Idaho.
Consistent with the findings of Hass and Serow
(1993, 1997), they found that attraction or
"pull" factors, such as lower cost of living,
lower population density, amenity opportunities
and better quality of life, etc., explained
more about why persons chose to immigrate,
than did push factors or negative forces. For
example, Carlson et al. (1998) indicated that,
"The pull of Idaho, or their
perception of what their lifestyle
might be like in a predominant non-
metropolitan state, was an important
factor in their decision. Amenities
such as scenic beauty and outdoor
recreation were more likely to have
attracted retirees than the presence
of family members. The locations
chosen were often areas that have
outdoor amenities such as Kootenai
County, which includes a resort
community built around a mountain
lake."
Valerio (1997) also found that when older
adults are considering post-retirement moves,
potential migrants weigh the amenities and
disamenities, i.e., place characteristics, of
their present location against those of other
possible residential sites. Valerio (1997) has
indicated that retired in-migrants are seeking
areas characterized by the potential for a high
standard of living in terms of "quality" and that
economic factors are secondary considerations.
Specific geographic areas that have warm
climate areas are also important as this allowed
the "pursuit of pleasure" and maximizing
enjoyment year round. Valerio (1997) stated
that,
"By seeking out nonurbanized
areas the retiree further enhances
his total welfare by freeing himself
from the congestion and crime
potential of urban life. The rationale
behind water and park amenities
is obvious: more opportunities for
pleasure! The retirees probably are
not insisting on ocean front views
and mountain vistas but are rather
responding to the greater potential
for enjoyable activities associated
with natural resources."
Based on the works of Bennett (1996),
Longino (1995), Carlson et al. (1993) and
Valerio (1997), it appears that quality of
life is an important variable for older
adults in deciding where they will move, or
"FANBY," in the U.S. (see also Wheeler,
1996). Furthermore, quality of life appears to
be defined by retired migrants as a mosaic of
amenities which include the perceptions of
increased personal space, toward geographic
areas that are less congested, aesthetics of the
natural environment., climate and the potential
for recreation within or nearby these natural
environment areas when seeking retirement
relocation sites. It is interesting to note that
Hays (1998) provided a historical perspective
in the role of the natural environment as
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a provider of amenities within our social-
cultural system. Hays proposed that originally
the conservation movement in the U.S. was
dominated by the perspective of "efficient
production" but in the 1960s the environmental
movement superseded the conservation
movement by focusing on "quality" or
"amenity" rather than efficient economic
development. The following statements by
Hays (1995) reflect the historical transition
toward the natural environment as an amenity
that reflected the quality-of life-standards for
most middle-class Americans.
"New concepts arose that went
beyond production to the enjoyment
of life and concern for the quality
of the environment necessary for
that enjoyment. Air, water and land
each came to be conceived of not
as a commodity to be molded into a
material product or as public facility
for the disposal of waste, but as the
environment in which people work,
live and play. The "environment"
was not a thing to be used for
material purposes, but as the context
of life and the enjoyment of life
requires that the context be of one
kind rather than another."
"The large scale suburbanization of
the 1920s and beyond is one of the
first major expressions of the search
for environmental amenities, for less
congested surroundings, clean air
and less noise,.. .the outward thrust
from the city... led to the use of the
wider countryside and remaining
wildlands, the enjoyment of the
environmental quality of even less
congested and less environmentally
degraded area. This use was usually
confined to nonoccupationally
times of one's life, either vacations
or in retirement years, but it gave
even more extensive expression
to the search for clean, quiet,
less developed and more natural
surroundings." (Italics added)
FAN BY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The same quality of life amenities that served
as attractions or "pulls" can suddenly diminish
as growth transforms the natural landscape
and brings with it the congestion of increased
road-building, housing developments, services,
light-industries and of course, more people
to a specific area that was at one time, "less
congested, safer and cleaner" (see Bennett,
1996). This evolutionary transformation has
been described by Longino (1995) along
with discussions of how the changes affect
migration patterns:
"So long as there is a perceived
quality of life difference in
the environments at origin and
destination, the better quality of
life will attract new residents who
are retired. Retirees who moved
into and have lived in a Sun Belt
community for 10 or 15 years will
often complain that the quality of
life has declined since they arrived,
and they often blame the decline on
the retirees who followed them and
those who keep coming. The reason
they keep coming is that even in its
decline, as viewed by migrant old-
timers, there is still a quality of life
advantage as compared with where
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the new migrants originated. When
the difference narrows, however, it
begins to choke off in-migration and
generate new pressure for retirement
out migration from the destination.
People who retire in Sun Belt cities
sometimes subsequently move to
less crowded places with greater
scenic beauty, too, and feel that they
have traded up on their quality of
lifer (Italics added)
As Longino (1995) and Limerick (see
Ribesame & Robb, 1997) have suggested, the
traditional destination sites for retirement are
beginning to serve as origin sites for secondary
migration moves in order to upgrade in quality
of life amenities found elsewhere ("still
searching for paradise," see Brooks, 2004). The
end result is that many small-town geographic
areas (e.g., exurbs, boomburbs, zoomburbs
or micropolitan areas) are being identified,
previously "undiscovered," as retirement hot
spots because they still maintain (at least for
the time being) the quality of life amenities
that migrant retirees are seeking. Power (1996)
elaborated on this trend in the following
description of magnet areas:
"The economic geography
of the United States has been
transformed during the second
half of the twentieth century as
a result not of people passively
relocating for work but, rather,
actively seeking particular
residential environments. How
else to explain the suburbanization
of U.S. metropolitan areas into
World War II? For several decades
suburbanization represented a move
away from both employment and
commercial centers. Certainly the
negative aspects of living in the
city—congestion, pollution, crime,
ethnic conflict—spurred relocation,
as did the positive aspects of
suburban and exurban living: lower
density, parklike settings, less
social conflict. Similar motives
lay behind the settlement of the
desert Southwest and the Sunbelt
in general. During the 1980s,
while most of nonmetropolitan
America suffered a depression, the
economies of many rural counties
with attractive landscape features
experienced ongoing growth,
testimony to the powerful draw
of desirable living environments.
During the first half of the
1990s, recreation and retirement
communities continued to lead both
metropolitan and nonmetropolitan
areas in economic vitality.'" (Italics
added)
Of course, the evolutionary transformation of
retirement "hot spots" also leads to a "domino-
effect" where traditional-dominant retirement
sites lose their appeal due to declining
subjective and objective measures in quality of
life, then putting pressure on other geographic
areas to serve as re-location sites. Thus, the
retirement hot spot development cycle all over
again. In other words, the Arcadian dreamland
then becomes a "victim of success" where
economic growth and development transforms
the natural environment and the previous
amenities are mentioned nostalgically as "what
it once was and used to be" (see Bennett,
1996).
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Rowles and Watkins (1993) examined
intraregional elderly migration patterns in the
Appalachian regions of North Carolina and
Kentucky and identified potential benefits
and costs of migration-based development.
They proposed that one of the potential costs
of elderly migration-based development
centered on environmental concerns. Bennett
(1996) found that although there is a growing
awareness that attracting retirees can be a
beneficial economic force in high amenity
nonmetropolitan counties, there are many other
implications of retirement growth that needs
to be understood for strategic planning for the
future. For example, Bennett (1996) noted
that planners and several of those retirees who
have lived along the South Atlantic for 25 to
39 years stated that when many older adults
started moving to these coastal counties during
the 1960s, these areas represented most of the
remainder of the pristine coastal environments.
Bennett (1996) said that:
"Indeed, a large percentage of those
who moved to these counties to
retire during the past three decades
did so primarily because of the
beauty of the environment. Although
few of these newcomers have seen
themselves as altering—however
slightly—the environment that
lured them, the sum total of the
impress on nature by all the retirees,
tourists and developers has been
substantial." (Italics added)
Perhaps one of the most important pieces
of literature to address FANBY-ism and
environmental impact is the publication,
"The Promise of Paradise: Recreational
and Retirement Communities in the United
States since 1950" (Stroud, 1995). This book
provides, from a geographical perspective,
information about the location and size of
large recreational-retirement communities and
their environmental and economic impacts,
beginning with the 1950s. As Stroud (1995)
notes in his introduction,
"The impact of recreational land
development can be both positive
and negative. Positive features
include putting to use land that
might otherwise be only marginally
productive, thereby boosting rural
economies by generating new
tax revenues and consumer sales,
stimulating the housing construction
industry and providing recreational
opportunities. These benefits
must be weighed against the
serious problems amenity-seeking
populations bring as they move into
rural areas, including the reduction
of land resources, the environmental
devastation of ecologically fragile
land and the overtaxing of local
public services." (Italics added)
However, as mentioned previously, the magnet,
the natural environment, that draws people
to new destinations is, ironically, often in
jeopardy of being negatively transformed
by the inherent developmental processes of
"sprawl." Increased numbers of people, more
traffic and more congestion are the results
associated with rapid growth, construction
and growing infrastructure of services
required to support the growing industry (the
economic context) of retirement living (see
Bennett, 1996; Davis, 1998a, 1998b; Gersh,
1996; Romme, 1997; Stroud, 1995). In other
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words, these preferred Arcadian sites are
often overwhelmed with increased numbers
of others seeking the same amenities and
the same ideal space. The dilemma in this
evolutionary process is that the Arcadian
site is then transformed into a living space
that becomes reminiscent of the site-of-origin
that the migrants left behind. Thus, there is
the potential for the FANBY process to begin
again. Power (1996) described the process:
"The phenomenon of economic
activity following and supporting
people as they relocate is not
necessarily positive change. At
the extreme, it represents the
Daniel Boone syndrome: people
abandon the decaying urban areas
of the Northeast for the fresh
environments of California, which
they proceed to "trash" before
fleeing to the Pacific Northwest and
from there, to the small towns of the
inland West. One can interpret such
shifts as a collective shunning of
the social problems associated with
modern urban living. Rather than
confronting and solving problems,
people move on and spread them."
(Emphasis added)
Without a sustainable philosophy to guide
individuals and communities in growth and
land-use planning, many who select ideal
retirement areas often experience a reduction in
the quality-of-life indicators and the problems
of unchecked growth and development have
followed the older migrants to their new
Arcadian destinations. In the never-ending
quest for Arcadia (FANBY), humans are in
danger of not only permanently transforming
natural landscapes, but also disconnecting
themselves from any degree of responsibility
to the land or to their community of citizens
(see Romme, 1997). In order to accommodate
the influx of new arrivals, many natural
environments are also targeted as space for new
building developments. This encroachment
process of sprawl leads to difficult decisions
regarding the limitation of development and
implementing land-use planning. Hays (1998)
has addressed the issues of limited space and
overuse in the following statement:
"The process of suburbanization
and the search for leisure and
recreational experience in more
natural surroundings reflect the
desire to seek a higher quality of
space, where natural forces are
more in evidence than in developed
and congested areas of settlement.
In both cases the initial search for
quality of space soon becomes
threatened by others who seek the
same amenities. At some point the
experience of "too many" begins
to take shape, and the concept of
the carrying capacity of the land,
air and water begins to form. This
generates the belief that overuse can
destroy the resource that one wishes
to enjoy and leads to a sense of
limits. If space is encroached upon
by development there is less space
as natural environment."
Natural environments that are protected from
development are also vulnerable to increased
human encroachment in the form of over-
loading and heavy usage as recreational and/or
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tourist areas. Power (1996) has also made this
an issue in his research on "lost landscapes and
failed economies":
"Herds of tourists can degrade the
very landscape or culture to which
they are drawn. America's national
parks are a good example of this
phenomenon. To cope with crowds,
roads, lodgings and services can
lead to water and air pollution as
well as disrupt the landscape and
its wildlife. When resort towns (or
gateway communities) take off,
surrounding open space tends to
get swallowed up by condominium
developments, "trophy" homes,
golf courses, shopping malls and
trailer parks. All of these come at
a cost to the natural and cultural
environments. Wildlife habitat is
fragmented. The flow of effluents
into the environment rises. The
landscape that once drew people
to the area is loved to death. Some
natural areas are very fragile
ecosystems that can tolerate only
little human use."
As discussed earlier, many elderly migrants
may use the tourist experience as a precursor
to assist in the decision-making process
toward permanent relocation (see Bennett,
1996; Longino, 1995). After moving to
the new location, these new residents are a
part of the pressure placed on local natural
environments. This is not an indictment on
any one age group as the culprit in creating
the sprawl pattern, but there is a need to
examine more closely the impact of retirement
communities on natural environment resources,
especially in the context of an aging society.
Retirement communities, especially the ones
that offer recreational opportunities, and are
in relative proximity to public and private
open space, and located in favorable climates
offer a microcosm to examine the impact
of a concentrated demographic population
in a specific geographic area. In effect, I am
proposing more research effort in the area of
aging and environmental impact—in addition
to and beyond the dominant template of
examining economic factors and consequences
(see Crown & Longino, 1991; Fagan &
Longino, 1993). Rowles and Watkins (1993)
have provided one of the foundational studies
that broadened the scope of the impact of
elderly migration beyond the economic focus
and into the social and environmental domains.
Bennett (1996) also considered the impact
of retirement communities on environmental
resources, but on a limited scale.
Similar to Bennett (1996), Rowles & Watkins
(1993) and Stroud (1995) found that the
impact of recreational and retirement land
development can be both positive and negative.
For example, Stroud (1995) identified several
positive outcomes such as putting to use land
that might otherwise be marginally productive,
thereby boosting rural economies by generating
new tax revenues and consumer sales,
stimulating the housing construction industry
and providing recreational opportunities.
However, Stroud (1995) proposed that the
negative impact of these projects can far
outweigh any positive benefits, especially
if these developments are poorly planned
and designed resulting in environmental
damage, social and economic problems and
overtaxing of public services. Stroud (1995)
indicated that there are serious problems when
amenity-seeking populations move into areas
when the natural environment represented by
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Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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S.Wright
ecologically sensitive areas and where there are
few land-use regulations in place. Stroud states:
"Much of the serious impact of
recreational subdivisions can be
linked to their development methods
and their location. Unfortunately,
these subdivisions are concentrated
in ecologically fragile locations, in
places with aesthetically pleasing
features, or in places that can be
promoted for their amenities. One
of the worst aspects of recreational
land developments is the
environmental degradation it creates
in water and air resources, fish and
wildlife habitat, and the aesthetic
quality of large tracts of land. In
addition, it creates erosion and
siltation and solid waste disposal
problems."
Stroud (1995) also corroborated many of the
concerns that Bennett (1996), Hays (1998),
Howe et al., (1997), Power (1996) and Romme
(1997) have discussed in relation to changes in
the ecology of the landscape due to the impact
of rapid growth and development in retirement
hot spot areas:
"Recreational subdivision is
concentrated in some of the
nation's most aesthetically pleasing
landscapes. The construction of
a dense network of roads and
the removal of vegetation for
construction can destroy a marsh
vista, intrude upon a skyline, scar
a mountainside and totally disrupt
the aesthetic quality of a region.
Aesthetic disruption can range
from the invasion of a wilderness
by development to what Nantucket
Islanders call loss of "charm," as
small villages are transformed by
growth and development (Stroud,
1995).
When many people are searching for Arcadia,
discover it, and then decide to move to it, the
Arcadian site is inevitably and irrevocably
transformed into a "pseudo-rural landscape"
(see Romme, 1997) with rapid growth and
development and suburban sprawl (see also
Bennett, 1996; Gersh, 1996). People find
Arcadia, but over time, it can lead to "paradise
lost" (see Davis, 1998; Schrag, 1998). Romme
(1997) described this process, which is
common in many regions of the southwestern
U.S., in a geographic area in southwestern
Colorado (La Plata County):
"The present uncontrolled pattern
of growth in the mountain West can
be viewed as a modern "tragedy of
the commons." The "commons"
are resources that are used by all
members of the community but
are owned and protected by no
one. In this sense, the commons
in La Plata County consist of the
sense of open space, unobstructed
views, biodiversity, and a rural
pace of life—all of which attract
people to this beautiful region. At
the moment, because each person is
pursuing his or her own self-interest
without regard for the needs of the
whole community, we are rapidly
and probably irreversibly destroying
the things that make this part of
the West a unique and satisfying
place to live. The government by
itself cannot prevent a tragedy of
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FANBY-ism in an Aging Society:
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the commons. Ultimately, a great
deal of responsibility falls on
individual people, land owners, land
developers, realtors, purchasers of
new homes and others—to make
individual decisions about what they
do with the land that enhance and
sustain the whole community rather
than degrade it. That community...
would be recognized as including
the plants, animals, soils and waters
as well as the human residents and
visitors." (Italics added)
The "tragedy of the commons" has been
identified throughout the U.S. (Power, 1996),
in the Rocky Mountain region (Wright, 1993),
specifically with Colorado's "Front Range"
(see McCormick, 1998), Utah's Wasatch Front
and "Wasatch Back" (see Ringholz, 1996),
and in many of the gateway communities that
are located near public lands (see Howe et al.,
1997). For example, Bennett (1996) notes in
his research:
"The serenity and beauty of these
nonmetropolitan areas has been the
primary factor leading retirees to
settle here (South Atlantic coastal
region). Yet, over the course of
their retirement years, they have
witnessed such an explosion of
tourism and population growth that
traffic usually has far outrun road
improvements. In addition, these
new developments and roads have
often had negative environmental
impacts. Thus, the natural beauty
that initially attracted them to the
area has been sacrificed."
What the general public may not appreciate is
that even if the scenic beauty is preserved and
the recreational opportunities maintained, the
ecological health and integrity of the biotic
communities may be in jeopardy due to human
activities within and around vita environmental
resources. What is missing from discussions
at the local, community, regional and national
level is the general impact of an aging
population and in particular, the demographic
trends for migrant retirees to specific
geographic areas of the U.S. and the resulting
effects on the natural environment or "natural
capital" (see Prugh, 1995). There is a need to
consider moving the "national conversation
on aging" beyond the economic, utilitarian
"market perspectives" and anthropocentric
framework, and into other areas of dialogue
that include ethical duties, morals and values
toward the natural environment. The fact
that gerontologists need to better understand
environmental issues is ironic because it is the
natural environment that serves as not only
the fundamental context for human life, but is
also the primary amenity that developers use
to market and attract older adults. It appears
that nature itself is a very important criteria in
determining where many seniors will relocate.
Perhaps one of the most powerful strategies to
reduce environmental impact in these Arcadian
communities is to prevent sprawl and the ills
of urbanization from ever emerging (Gersh,
1996; Moe & Wilkie, 1997; Platt, Rowntree,
& Muick, 1994). In other words, sustainability
practices should begin in the cities and urban
areas so that the very quality-of-life amenities
that people seek "somewhere else" can be
found right in their backyard, if only there
was the commitment and dedication to keep it
that way. The process of FANBY is certainly a
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S.Wright
strong motive for many older adults to search
for Arcadia., but in an aging society we will
need to discuss the implications of rebuilding
communities in the age of sprawl, and how
to address the sustainability of existing
communities, instead of constantly searching
for new ones. Bennett (1996) described migrant
retirees' efforts to control further deterioration
in the following way:
"With adequate planning, much of
the environmental damage could
have been avoided. The high-
income, well-educated retirees have
increasingly become an influence
in local government by serving
on appointed committees. Some
have been elected to county and
municipal offices in order to try to
solve traffic problems, to keep taxes
from skyrocketing, and to prevent
further environmental deterioration.
They are more aware of the
importance of the natural beauty
of the area in attracting retirees
and are thus more committed to
balancing economic development
with environmental preservation.
Although some of the retired
migrants would like to "pull up the
bridge behind them," most realize
that both resort and retirement
developments are likely to continue
in these areas. But they insist that
this must be accompanied by sound
environmental planning."
ENDNOTES
The title of this paper is inspired by the work
of Evan Eisenberg (1998) who captured the
historical essence of the human quest for the
"middle landscape"—the mean between the
ideal city (El Dorado) and the ideal wilderness
(Eden)—which is represented by "Arcadia"—a
term reflecting the desire to search for and
find a geographic landscape that captures the
selected qualities of both nature and culture.
In Arcadia., the bridge between humanity and
nature is established with ideal pastoral settings,
and in contemporary U.S. this is typically
made manifest through the dwelling space
of small town suburbia, exurbs, or "gateway
communities." These idyllic communities are
often promoted and marketed as prime location
sites that feature quality of life amenities
such as recreational and leisure opportunities,
scenic beauty, cultural opportunities, less
congestion from traffic, minimal construction
activities and favorable climatic patterns. The
pastoral landscape is what the Romans called
a locus amoenus, an "agreeable place" (with
the word "amenities" from amoenus; see
Wills, 1998). Many of these communities are
in close proximity to federal and state public
lands that are represented by parks, forests,
rangelands, monuments, and acreage designated
as "wilderness" or protected "green space" (see
Culbertson, 1997; Howe et al., 1997). Sites that
reflect the ideal of Arcadia are also typically
surrounded by large tracts of private property
that create "open spaces" in the traditional
suburban and newer "exurbs." These natural
environments are primary attractions for both
tourists and people wishing to relocate and
become permanent residents in proximity to
such high quality environmental conditions. A
significant number of elderly relocate in their
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FANBY-ism in an Aging Society:
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retirement years and migrate to community
settings that offer amenities reflective of an
Arcadian middle landscape.
There is a need to more closely examine the
evolutionary process of Arcadian sites before,
during, and after significant development and
growth takes place because, over time, the
influx of more people and construction at the
Arcadian site, due to its popularity, transforms
it into a landscape with less amenities than
before and places continued stress on the
natural environment and its resources.
In this context, "commons" refers to natural
resources (or "natural capital," see Prugh,
1995) to which a large number of people have
access (see Dietz et al., 2002). Boyce (2001)
uses the interchangeable term of "natural
assets." For further discussion in relation
to privatization and fragmentation of the
"commons," see Freyfogle (2003).
Dasgupta (2001) elaborated on the notion
of "ecosystem services," "Producing as it
does a multitude of ecosystem services, a
large part of what the natural environment
offers us is a necessity. The services include
maintaining a genetic library, preserving and
regenerating soil, fixing nitrogen and carbon,
recycling nutrients, controlling floods, filtering
pollutants, assimilating waste, pollinating
crops, operating the hydrological cycle and
maintaining the gaseous composition of the
atmosphere. A number of services filter into a
global context, but many are local."
Amundson (2003) offers additional insight
to the profile of "young-old and restless" aging
Baby Boomers and lifestyle preferences. He
proposes that for many Boomers there is a
cult following of the concepts of "strenuosity"
and "primitivism." "With dual-incomes
and smaller families providing discretionary
spending money, suburban Baby Boomer
couples had the time, money and location
to take up the new sport (e.g., mountain-
biking). In addition, more and more of them
participated in an active lifestyle to gratify
ideas of self-presentation and to overcome
inadequate satisfaction, in work, consumption
and personal relationships." I also recommend
Wrobel (2002) for a historical review of
the promotion, memory and creation of the
American West.
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INTRODUCTION: THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Patricia Bradley
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
This section focuses on the built environment. Human use of land alters the
structure and functioning of ecosystems, and it alters how ecosystems interact
with the atmosphere, with aquatic systems, and with surrounding land. Impacts
include habitat loss and fragmentation and degradation of water resources and water
quality. Building on undeveloped land destroys and fragments habitat, displacing or
eliminating wildlife communities. An increase in the amount of impervious surfaces
(e.g., roads, buildings, parking lots) leads to the degradation of water quality by
increasing runoff volume, altering regular stream flow and watershed hydrology,
reducing groundwater recharge and increasing erosion, stream sedimentation and
water acidity. Unsustainable development may also result in freshwater scarcity (a
major issue in the western U.S. and an emerging issue elsewhere). Aging Americans
rely heavily on the amenities of the modern built environment.
Preparing for an aging society is closely linked to Smart Growth, Sustainable
Development and Restorative Development, as the location, configuration and
scale of homes and communities within a watershed can change risks to wildlife
and environmental sustainability. Communities will need to consider the social
and environmental amenities required by the aging society and how changes in
the demand for these amenities will introduce new and additional environmental
stressors or influence the temporal and spatial aspects of existing stressors. As the
aging population grows, key questions include:
• How will the aging population impact demand for housing, health care,
recreation and transportation?
• What stressors are associated with this demand?
• What infrastructure issues must communities address to prepare for dramatic
increases in their aging populations?
• Are there any stressors unique to the aging population?
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 53
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IMPACTS OF OUR BUILT ENVIRONMENT
ON PUBLIC HEALTH
Allen Dearry
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
National Institutes of Health
Allen Dearry is associate director for Research
Coordination, Planning and Translation,
NIEHS.
We spend more than 90% of our lives indoors
(National Research Council [NRC], 1981),
yet we know much more about ambient
environmental factors and health than we do
about the "built environment" and health.
Conceptually, the built environment includes
all of the physical structures engineered
and built by people—the places where we
live, work and play. These edifices include
our homes, workplaces, schools, parks and
transportation systems. How we design and
build where we live has changed dramatically
over the past century. In the early 1900s, urban
areas tended to be compact and communities
were walkable, with a central business district
and a mix of housing and services. Then,
connections between urban design and health
and disease were more clearly recognized and
planners and public health practitioners often
worked together to deal with problems related
to poor sanitation and housing conditions.
Increasing movement away from such urban
locales over the last 50 years led to lower-
density developments, segregation of land uses
and extensive roadway construction. Today,
this trend, sometimes referred to as "urban
sprawl," is characterized by huge increases in
urbanized land area and vehicle miles traveled
(USEPA, 200la). These changes have both
direct and indirect impacts on our environment
and on public health.
Changes in land-use and development patterns
have contributed to habitat loss and declining
water resources and quality (Soule, 1991;
USEPA, 1992). Increases in impervious
surfaces and attendant surface water runoff
contribute to deterioration in availability
and use of safe, clean water supplies for
both recreation and consumption. For
example, suburban development is associated
with a rising load of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in nearby surface water (Van
Metre et al., 2000).
Increases in vehicle travel affect our
environment and our health in multiple
fashions. As neighborhood density decreases,
vehicle miles traveled (VMT) increase
(Holtzclaw et al., 2002). With more driving
comes more vehicle crashes as well as
pedestrian injuries and fatalities. Moreover,
further VMT contribute to overall releases
of air pollutants (Kennedy and Bates, 1989),
which are associated with numerous adverse
health outcomes (Samet et al., 2000).
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 55
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Impacts of our Built Environment on Public Health
Additionally, carbon dioxide and other vehicle
emissions contribute to accumulation of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (USEPA,
200Ib), which may ultimately impact public
health by affecting the transmission and spread
of infectious diseases (Epstein, 2000).
Our built environment also affects individual
mental health as well as population-wide well-
being. Housing type and quality, neighborhood
quality, noise, crowding, indoor air quality and
light have all been linked to personal mental
health (Evans, 2003). Indirectly, the built
environment may influence development and
maintenance of socially supportive networks
within a community. Higher levels of this type
of "social capital" are associated with lower
levels of morbidity and mortality (Kawachi
et al., 1999). Although the connection
between the built environment and social
capital remains to be well established, both
walkability and mixed use of neighborhoods
have been reported to be related to an enhanced
sense of community and social capital (Glynn,
198 l;Nasar and Julian, 1995).
Perhaps the most recently publicized link
between the built environment and public
health relates to the occurrence of overweight
and obesity in the U.S. The built environment
influences weight management by affecting
both food intake and energy expenditure.
Communities characterized by less-dense
development are associated with more vehicle
travel and less walking and biking than are
more densely developed communities (Frank
and Pivo, 1995). Physical activity has been
shown to have a salubrious effect on health
and quality of life (Lee and Paffenbarger,
2000). However, only recently have
investigators expanded such work to address
more specifically the impact of community
design not only on physical activity but also
on obesity and associated comorbidities.
One study reported that, after controlling
for individual differences, those living in
sprawling counties are more likely to walk less
in their leisure time, weigh more and have a
greater prevalence of hypertension than those
living in more compact places (Ewing et al.,
2003). Similarly, a more walkable environment
has been found to be associated with higher
physical activity and lower obesity levels
(Salens et al., 2003). In addition, the likelihood
of obesity apparently declines with increases
in mixed land-use, but rises with increases
in time spent in a car per day (Frank et al.,
2004). To date, such work addresses important
relationships but does not establish causation.
In fact, Frank et al. (2004) pointed out that
mixed land-use, while being the most important
variable of the built environment related to
obesity, may not exert its effect via physical
activity. Hence, significant methodologic and
etiologic research remains to be conducted to
clarify such issues.
The built environment may also play a role
in controlling weight by shaping food access
and availability. Recent research suggests
that supermarkets are more likely to be
located in wealthier and predominantly white
areas and that fruit and vegetable intake is
positively associated with the presence of a
supermarket, even after controlling for personal
socioeconomic factors (Morland et al., 2002a,
2002b). Although the relationship between
different types of eating places and dietary
consumption has not been well examined, the
availability, type and distribution of restaurants
and the diffusion of food advertising represent
other means by which the environment may
affect weight homeostasis.
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A. Dearry
Additional research will be necessary to enable
us to understand the complicated pathways
and intersections linking community design,
transportation and a variety of health outcomes.
Such information will permit us to develop
communities that promote health for both
people and ecosystems rather than dealing
with the health-damaging repercussions of a
poorly designed built environment (Srinivasan
et al., 2003). In pursuit of this goal, it will be
important to reestablish the unity of health
practitioners and public planners—not only
to carry out needed research at the interface
of these disciplines but also to ensure that the
results of such research are properly translated
and applied in order to lead to tangible
improvements in our living arrangements and
in public health.
REFERENCES
Epstein, P. 2000. Is global warming harmful to
health? Scientific American 283: 50-57.
Evans, G.W. 2003. The built environment and
mental health. Journal of Urban Health 80:
536-555.
Ewing, R., T. Schmid, R. Killingsworth, A. Zlot,
S. Raudenbush. 2003. Relationship between
urban sprawl and physical activity, obesity,
and morbidity. American Journal of Health
Promotion 18: 47-57.
Frank, L. and G. Pivo. 1995. Impacts of mixed
use and density on utilization of three modes
of travel: single-occupant vehicle, transit, and
walking. Transportation Research Record
1466: 44-52.
Frank, L., M. Andresen, and T. Schmid. 2004.
Obesity relationships with community design,
physical activity and time spent in cars.
American Journal ofPreventative Medicine,
2004. (lune 29, 2004: http://www.ajpm-
online.net/webfiles/images/journals/amepre/
special.pdf).
Glynn, T. 1981. Psychological sense of community:
measurement and application. Human
Relations, 34: 789-818.
Holtzclaw, I., R. Clear, H. Dittmar, D.
Goldstein, and P. Haas. 2002. Location
efficiency: neighborhood and socioeconomic
characteristics determine auto ownership and
use-studies in Chicago, Los Angeles, and
San Francisco. Transportation Planning and
Technology 25:1-27.
Kawachi, I., B. Kennedy and R. Wilkinson (Eds.).
1999. Income Inequality and Health. New
York, NY. The New Press.
Kennedy, D. and R. Bates (Eds.). 1989. Air
Pollution, the Automobile, and Public Health.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Lee, I. and R. Paffenbarger. 2000. Associations
of light, moderate, and vigorous intensity
physical activity with longevity: the Harvard
Alumni Health Study. American Journal of
Epidemiology 151: 293-299.
Morland, K., S. Wing, A. Diez-Roux, and C.
Poole. 2002a. Neighborhood characteristics
associated with the location of food stores
and food service places. American Journal of
Preventative Medicine 22: 23-29.
Morland, K., S. Wing and A. Roux. 2002b. The
contextual effect of the local food environment
on residents' diets: the Atherosclerosis Risk
in Communities Study. American Journal of
Public Health 92: 1761-1768.
Nasar, I. and D. lulian. 1995. The psychological
sense of community in the neighborhood.
Journal of the American Planning Association
61: 178-184.
National Research Council. 1981. Indoor Air
Pollutants. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
Salens, B., I. Sallis, I. Black and D. Chen. 2003.
Neighborhood-based differences in physical
activity: an environment scale evaluation.
American Journal of Public Health 93: 1552-
1558.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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Impacts of our Built Environment on Public Health
Samet, J., F. Dominici, F. Curriero, I. Coursac and
S. Zeger. 2000. Fine participate air pollution
and mortality in 20 U.S. cities, 1987-1994. The
New England Journal of Medicine 343: 1742-
1749.
Soule, M. 1991. Land use planning wildlife
maintenance. Guidelines for conserving
wildlife in an urban landscape. Journal of the
American Planning Association 57: 313-323.
Srinivasan, S., L. O'Fallon and A. Dearry. 2003.
Creating healthy communities, healthy homes,
healthy people: initiating a research agenda
on the built environment and public health.
American Journal of Public Health 93: 1446-
1450.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001a.
Our Built and Natural Environments.
USEPA 231-R-01-002, Washington, DC:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Development, Community and Environmental
Division.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001b.
Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and Sinks: 1990-1999, USEPA 236-R-01-
001. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Atmospheric
Programs.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992.
Environmental impacts of storm water
discharges-a national profile, USEPA 841-R-
92-001. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water.
Van Metre P, Mahler B, Furlong E. 2000. Urban
sprawl leaves its PAH signature. Environmental
Science and Technology, 34: 4064-4070.
58 Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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BABY BOOMERS' OPINIONS AND PREFERENCES ON RETIREMENT,
HEALTH AND FITNESS, FINANCIAL PREPAREDNESS AND
ACTIVE ADULT LIVING COMMUNITIES
David G. Schreiner
Pulte Homes, Inc.
(Written by Kent Thornton, FTN Associates)
BACKGROUND
Pulte Homes is a publicly-owned company
that specializes in developing active adult, life-
style centered, communities. In 2001, Pulte
Homes merged with Del Webb Corporation
to become the largest home developer in the
U.S., building about 12,000 homes a year. Pulte
Home communities have been developed in
45 municipalities throughout the U.S., with
additional communities being planned. The
first Del Webb community, Sun City, AZ, was
developed in the 1960's and has served as a
model for the development of active adult
communities. Pulte Homes recently received
the J.D. Power and Associates Platinum Award
for Excellence in Customer Satisfaction among
the largest home-builder corporations.
Pulte Homes focuses on home market sector
for adults in the 50-70 age bracket. About one
quarter of all homes purchased each year are
bought by individuals 50 years or older. The
two most significant trends in the housing
market are immigrant home buyers and home
buyers over 50 years of age.
ACTIVE ADULT ATTRIBUTES
The terms, "elder," "older," "aging," are
not used by Pulte. Their customers consider
themselves active adults and are interested in a
live-work-play setting. These individuals have
evolved socially, physically, and financially,
are time-rich, and are interested in maintaining
their social, physical, and financial status. As
part of our emphasis on customer satisfaction,
we interview about 100 couples living in our
active adult communities each year. About 3
hours are spent with each couple. Based on
over 500 interviews, some of the attributes or
characteristics we have identified with active
adults are:
Social Attributes
Active adults are characterized as being
happy and optimistic. They are time-rich
and interested in volunteering to improve
their environment. Many of the residents
of our communities do not have children
living with them any longer and have
selected their life style by choice.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 59
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Baby Boomers' Opinions and Preferences on Retirement,
Health and Fitness, Financial Preparedness and Active Adult Living Communities
Physical Attributes
Active adults no longer have the stamina
or physical strength of their earlier years,
but they are interested in maintaining their
health so they can continue to enjoy their
life style. Their eye sight is not as acute,
nor are their reflexes as quick as in their
earlier years. These, of course, are some of
the natural processes associated with aging.
Financial Attributes
Nearly all of our active adults previously
owned homes before moving to our
communities. In general, their finances
have moved from an income base to
asset management. Homes represent a
lifelong investment or asset. Because of the
emphasis on asset management, there is a
bias against any additional expenditures.
Concerns
The two greatest fears of these active adults
are a debilitating disease and outliving
their income or financial assets. These two
fears, and their interest in sustaining their
social, physical, and financial status are
considered in the designing and planning of
every Pulte active adult community.
SATISFYING THE NEED
Pulte Homes is driven not only to satisfy
customer needs, but also to provide equitable
returns on the investment of its shareholders.
The social, physical, and financial desires of
its community residents, therefore, are used in
designing and sustaining its communities.
Pulte Home communities are designed around
sidewalks and golf courses. Both sidewalks
and golf course offer recreational and physical
exercise opportunities. The communities are
buffered from highways, both for safety and
for noise and air quality. Natural amenities,
particularly water features, are also designed
into these communities because these features
are desired, aesthetically pleasing and add to
property values. However, wherever possible,
these water features are also designed to
address stormwater runoff, recycling and
reuse of wastewater and similar regulatory
issues. Wetland creation contributes to
environmental amenities on golf courses and
within the community. Wetlands can be used
to reduce stormwater flooding and improve
stormwater quality, as well as serve to attract
marsh and wetland birds for bird watching.
Efficient service delivery is an important
design criteria. Managing energy, water and
wastewater effectively and efficiently reduces
the cost to individual homeowners, which is
important for fixed income families. In general,
active adult homes use less water and generate
about one-third less wastewater than an average
family dwelling so efficiencies can be obtained
in treatment plant design.
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The physical attributes of active adults are
designed into each home. For example, only
lever fixtures, no knobs, are used on doors so
that wrist rotation is not required. Wall outlets
are raised so that you do not have to bend to
plug in lights or appliances. Every change in
elevation within a home, such as going up or
down steps is accommodated by transitioning
from one floor covering to another, such as
from hardwoods to carpets, or carpet to tile, so
the change in height of the floor is evident.
Internet access, educational opportunities and
classes and volunteer organizations are an
integral part of all active adult communities.
These individuals are time-rich and want
to make a difference in environmental
conservation, stewardship and restoration.
Many communities have active programs
in these three areas, including recycling
electronic equipment, managing stormwater
and recreational lakes, and periodic litter
pick-up days Stream re-meandering was
accomplished in one community, while wetland
creation, and stream maintenance were projects
undertaken by the Property Owners Association
in other communities.
Pulte Homes is interested in participating
and learning more about the effects of aging
populations on the environment, as well as the
complementary research project to evaluate
the effects of the environment on aging
populations. It's good for our communities; it's
good for business.
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INTRODUCTION: REGIONAL CASE STUDIES
Patricia Bradley
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EricWalbeck
Perot Systems Government Services
Case studies are used to present a holistic approach to aging and the environment.
Case study research is a time-honored, traditional approach to the study of topics
in social science and management. The purpose of the workshop case studies is to
highlight successful approaches to an aging society (and the environment overall)
and encourage meaningful dialog between scientists, managers, developers and
other interested parties.
One of the reviewers pointed out that "net domestic immigration is out of central
cities for all age groups," which is confirmed by New York's experience. But,
another significant finding from the New York manuscript states, "The frail elderly
tend to move back to New York for family and services."
American Native communities continue to honor and cherish their elders as
important contributors to society. One such elder, Stanley Paytiamo, described the
Pueblo of Acoma's environmental vision for the future. This vision is based on the
well-being of all of the Acoma people and their non-Indian neighbors, not just the
aging.
An ancient American Indian Proverb states:
Treat the Earth well.
It was not given to you by your parents,
It was loaned to you by your children.
We do not inherit the Earth from our Ancestors,
We borrow it from our Children.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 63
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NEW YORK STATE'S PROJECT 2015:
PREPARING FOR THE IMPACT
OF AN AGING, DIVERSE POPULATION
Neal Lane
New York State Office for the Aging
(Written by Jennifer Rosenbaum)
BACKGROUND
We are all becoming aware that the demo-
graphic profile of the U.S. is changing signifi-
cantly. An increasingly older and more diverse
population will have major impacts on the
services, products, constituency make-up and
day-to-day work of government, community
agencies and business—presenting both
challenges and opportunities for public policy
makers, planners, and business and community
leaders. How will we prepare for the impact
of the population changes we will face in the
future?
To address this question, the New York State
Office for the Aging (NYSOFA) began Project
2015 in late 1998, forming a partnership with
the State Society on Aging of New York to
write a series of articles and briefs, looking at
the impact of the anticipated increase in the
number of older people within "aging issue
areas"—such as housing, long-term care,
nutrition, health, caregiving, transportation,
retirement, and several other issue areas.
We focused on the impact of the aging of
the Baby Boomer cohort; our intent was to
raise awareness of this impact, and to start a
discussion around New York State about these
impacts. The outcome of this effort was the
publication of a document, entitled: "Project
2015: The Future of Aging in New York State:
Articles and Briefs for Discussion" (NYSOFA,
2000). NYSOFA used this publication as the
basis for discussions and forums across New
York State.
Through these discussions, we realized that we
needed to broaden our approach and look at
the more complex, dynamic effect of "major
demographic changes" on all age groups,
on all sectors of our communities, and on
communities overall, which led to the next
phase of Project 2015.
In 2002, the NYSOFA designed Project 2015 as
a future-oriented planning initiative to enable
multiple state agencies to consider the impact
of our aging, increasingly diverse population.
At the direction of Governor George E. Pataki,
36 New York State agencies were guided
through Project 2015, an ongoing process in
planning and preparing for the future.
For this new phase of the initiative, New York
took the issue of aging and broadened it, to
look at the impact of the overall aging of the
population on all age groups and on all sectors
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New York State's Project 2015:
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of the community and state. We still wanted to
look at "increasing numbers of older people,"
which is certainly a major demographic
change, but also to look at the overall aging
of our population and its cross-cutting impact
on all sectors and age groups within our
communities.
Our changing demographic profile
both aging and increasing diversity -
deserves our attention.
New York State also recognized that there
would be significant impacts on communities
from several aspects of diversity that
are significant and increasing: foreign
immigration, migration patterns of different
groups into and out of the state, ethnic
and racial diversity, non-traditional family
structures and various population groups with
disabilities.
THE DEMOGRAPHIC IMPERATIVE
NATIONALLY
A number of significant, converging trends
illustrate the demographic challenges our
nation will be facing in the coming years—the
overall aging of our population, particularly the
aging of the Baby Boomer generation into the
elder boom, and our population's increasing
diversity.
Age Structure:
Our country's population is
getting older. In New York,
for example, the State's
median age increased from 30.3 years in
1970 to 32 years in 1980 and now exceeds
36 years. This increase is largely due to the
aging of the Baby Boom, the leading edge
of which (those born in 1946) has reached
the early retirement age of 55.
The impact will be felt on all
facets of community life -
especially in the coming years.
The number of older persons and their
lifespan will increase dramatically over
the coming 30 to 50 years. Nationally, the
number of persons 65 and older in 2030
will grow to 20% of the population—one
in five Americans will be over age 65. Of
this group, the oldest old (85 and older)
will grow to 19.4 million, representing
enormous growth from 2000 (4.3 million).
Older Americans also will be living longer.
By the year 2050, older men will live to age
86 on average (compare to age 73 now) and
older women will live to age 92 (compared
to age 79 now).
The Graying of America:
65+ Population, 1950-2030
70 -
60 -
| 50 -
OJ
| 30 -
^ 20 -
10 -
65 Years +
-
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
YEAR
Source: Health, 1999, U.S. Bureau of the Census
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N. Lane/J. Rosenbaum
There will be three times the number of
moderately or severely disabled older
persons in 2040 compared to 1986
(increasing from 5.1 million to 22.6
million).
Baby Boomers:
Research shows that incoming
cohorts of older persons, the
"Baby Boomers," will have
different needs and desires than older
persons today. Boomers will be more
likely than the preceding cohort to enter
old age without spouses and more will be
childless or parents of only children. The
delay in marriage and child bearing for this
cohort will mean a longer span between
the generations than that experienced by
today's elderly. Most women Boomers will
enter old age with, like men, a work history
spanning all their adult lives.
Boomers may not want to retire fully; they
may have more expendable income, time
and energy, and may wish to pursue other
educational or workplace opportunities.
Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural
Profile:
Our country's population is
becoming more racially and
ethnically diverse. Each state—and each
locale—is different, but the trends are
occurring across the country. In New York,
for example, the foreign-born population
increased by more than 35% between 1990
and 2000 due to the continued high level of
foreign immigration. For some areas of the
state (New York City and Nassau-Suffolk
metropolitan areas), the foreign born make
up nearly 30% of the total population. The
foreign born population represents only
5% of the total population in the balance
of New York, but has seen an increase
between 1990 and 2000 of more than 13%
(NYS Data Center, 2002).
For the first time ever, the 2000 Census
allowed for multi-racial identification.
The New York State descriptors that follow
use the 1990 definition of a single race
response compared to the combined 2000
definition of a single race response plus
those responding with other combinations
of races, for all ages.
The non-white population in
2000 was 5.7 million persons or
30% of the total. This population
increased by about 1 million or
more than 20%.
The Black or African American
population increased by 13% to
3.2 million.
The Asian, Hawaii and Pacific
Islander population increased
from 694,000 in 1990 to nearly 1.2
million in 2000. This is an increase
of more than 70% and represents
the most rapid increase of all
major racial groups.
The Hispanic population also grew
rapidly between 1990 and 2000
increasing to 2.9 million persons.
(NYS Data Center, 2002)
The next generation of elderly people will
be very different from that of the current
older population. The younger, working age
population is also increasingly diverse, an
interactive effect with our aging population:
• Older adults, like the U.S. overall,
will become increasingly diverse.
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New York State's Project 2015:
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Racial and ethnic elderly
subgroups will represent 34%
of the older population by 2050
compared to 15% in 1995.
• The number of older Hispanics
will increase 328% between
the year 2000 and 2030, the
number of older Asians and
Pacific Islanders will increase
185% and the number of
older African Americans will
increase by 131%.
Migration:
Foreign and domestic migration patterns
have been significant demographic forces
affecting the size and composition of the
population. For example, New York State
has traditionally been a high turnover state
benefiting from being an entry point for
large pools of foreign in-migrants, but it
also has lost population through heavy
domestic out-migration to other locations
in the nation.
• Most of New York's out-migrants seek
Florida and other Southern states as their
destination (approximately 45% of all
out-migrants).
• The highest rates of net out-migration
occur among young adults (age 20 to 35)
and among the middle and older ages
(age 40 to 75). The frail elderly tend to
move back to New York for family and
services.
PROJECT 2015—NEW YORK STATE'S
INITIATIVE
Given these demographic changes, New
York recognized both the challenges and the
opportunities that will present themselves to
communities because of both the aging and
increasing diversity of our population and that
the effects of these major demographic changes
are intertwined and cannot be thought of
separately. These elements are important if we
are going to keep our communities as dynamic,
thriving places for all people to live.
For the 2002 phase of Project 2015, New York
broadened the scope of its work to consider
the impact of aging and diversity and also
broadened who would be involved in doing the
analysis and planning to include 36 New York
State cabinet agencies.
Project 2015 became a Governor's initiative
in 2002; Governor Pataki charged NYSOFA
to take the lead in managing the project and
charged 36 cabinet-level agencies to actively
participate. New York wanted to use the idea
of "broad population change" as the basis
for involving the state agencies in preparing
for the State's future. These changes would
affect every facet of community life, having an
impact across all government agencies—their
missions, products and services, constituency-
makeup and their day-to-day operations.
Furthermore, this is a critical time for state
government, as well as others, to attend to the
impact of demographic change if we were, in
fact, to be prepared for the future.
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NEW YORK'S PROJECT 2015
36 PARTICIPATING STATE AGENCIES
Advocate's Office for Persons with Disabilities
Aging
Agriculture and Markets
Alcohol and Substance Abuse Services
Banking Department
Budget
Council on Children and Families
Office of Children and Family Services
Civil Service
Consumer Protection Board
Correctional Services
Department of Health
Education
Empire State Development
Employee Relations
Environmental Conservation
General Services
Housing and Community Renewal
Insurance
Labor
Mental Health
Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities
Motor Vehicles
Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation
Public Service Commission
Quality of Care for the Mentally Disabled Commission
Real Property Services
State Emergency Management Office
State Police
State University of New York
Department of State
Taxation and Finance
Technology
Temporary and Disability Assistance
Transportation
Veterans' Affairs
Planning Process
The 36 participating agencies were given a
timeframe of nine months to complete the
planning initiative. The Governor's office
started the process with a kick-off meeting
with the 36 participating state agency
Commissioners in February of 2002.
NYSOFA coordinated monthly meetings
of the 36 agencies' Project 2015 staff,
providing them with instructions, review,
and technical assistance. Throughout the
nine months, each agency completed the
primary activity of this initiative: a written
Brief. NYSOFA compiled the 36 briefs
into a published policy document, and the
document, representing the work of the 36
agencies, was presented to the Governor at
a Symposium in October 2002.
Agency Briefs
To construct their briefs, each agency was
required to:
1. Assess the impact of demographic
change on their mission, products,
services, constituent group and daily
operations, and to identify the major
issues that would arise for them because
of these demographic changes.
2. Prioritize the major impact areas each
agency identified, keeping the top three
major impact areas for action planning.
3. Specify action steps or strategies they
would implement over the next five
years to address their top three impact
areas.
White Paper and Results
The briefs were organized into a unified
policy document (White Paper) titled,
"Project 2015: State Agencies Prepare for
the Impact of an Aging New York—White
Paper for Discussion" (NYSOFA, 2002).
In addition to the briefs, it includes articles
about the most significant demographic
and sociological changes expected in the
State and an analysis and summary of the
briefs. This publication has been distributed
to the governors in all states, as well as to
many agencies and organizations across the
country.
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New York State's Project 2015:
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In the analysis of the briefs, it was found
that each agency's brief can stand alone as a
basis for action, reflecting each agency's own
mission and function. Together, the 36 Briefs
present one unified policy document and a
practical framework for New York to prepare
for the future.
It also was recognized that the approach taken
in New York State's Project 2015 provides
the ability to really do business differently.
Usually, if we are interested in delving into a
topic or an issue of importance to inform our
work, we turn to those traditionally considered
"expert" in the field of study. We often use that
expertise to create the framework for next steps
and the work to come thereafter. For example,
for issues about an aging population, we may
turn to offices for the aging, academicians
and researchers specializing in gerontology
and geriatrics, and the gerontological
literature—and to use those individuals and
the prior research to help us form the basis for
framing the issues and impact areas that will
be considered as we take the next steps. This
approach is important and valuable, but—when
considering the impact of changing population
characteristics, for example—our experience
led us to recognize that this approach, alone,
does not go far enough.
By asking the question differently—How
does our changing population affect all of us
and what we all do? This (1) broadens the
way we may address an issue because non-
traditional others also would define the issue
and impact areas from their own perspectives;
(2) broadens how we define the issue, expands
how we address the issue and who is involved
in addressing it, and (3) changes the way others
may address an issue because the impact of
aging and diversity becomes incorporated into
their work.
Department of Environmental
Conservation (DEC)—Example of Action
Steps
As one of the 36 participating agencies
in Project 2015, New York's Department
of Environmental Conservation (DEC)
identified the following from their internal
scan to assess how changing demographics
may affect their policies, programs and
practices:
"DEC's basic policies will
remain unchanged: protecting
environmental quality; acting as
stewards of land; infrastructure
and natural resources; developing
information systems; and building
partnerships to support the
environment. It is likely that
demographic changes will lead
to new approaches in building
partnerships." (Emphasis added).
DEC has moved forward since the
development of their brief, taking action
steps that include building partnerships
and taking new approaches (see examples
below).
DEC Action Steps - Examples
Collaboration
• Building Public-Private
Partnerships
• International Paper (IP) John
Dillon Park: A Unique Outdoor
Experience for People with
Disabilities
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On April 5, 2004, Governor George Pataki
announced the protection of nearly 16,000
acres of forest lands owned by International
Paper (IP) in the Adirondack Park. Under
the working forest conservation easement,
the property will remain in IP ownership.
The easement will limit new industrial,
commercial or residential development of
the parcel and require sustainable forestry
activities to protect water quality and
other natural resources. The conservation
easement establishes IP John Dillon Park,
in honor of IP's recently retired Chairman
and CEO, John Dillon.
,- -j CONCEPTUAL I (.LUSTRATION
International Taper Jonn billon fark .*-
IP John Dillon Park will provide a unique
outdoor experience for people with
disabilities. The main camp will provide
lean-tos, sanitary facilities, parking, a
canoe and kayak dock and fishing facilities
all accessible to people with disabilities.
NYS DEC staff and its Accessibility
Advisory Committee are assisting IP with
the design of the Park. In addition, Paul
Smith's College will be involved in the
management of day-to-day operation of
the Park that will give students a unique,
hands-on learning experience in managing
outdoor recreation for people with
disabilities.
Governor's April 5, 2004, Press Release:
Governor Announces Protection
of Nearly 16,000 Acres in
Adirondacks. This initiative
incorporates design features
for universal access and creates
options for recreational activity
and enjoyment (and improved
health) for people with disabilities,
elders, and ultimately, for all
citizens.
DEC: New
Approaches—Elders
as Volunteers
The DEC
also has
identified
an array of
opportunities
for older New
Yorkers to
contribute
to the health
and maintenance of our natural resources.
According to DEC, volunteer opportunities
give senior citizens occasion to participate
in recreational activities that promote
physical activity and a healthy lifestyle,
along with a variety of social events.
Examples of volunteer opportunities
through DEC include:
• Nature instructors at the Department's
Environmental Education Centers.
• Greeters at Environmental Education
Centers.
• Adopt A Natural Resource—
organizations and individuals can
volunteer to help conserve a local
natural resource.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
71
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New York State's Project 2015:
Preparing for the Impact of an Aging, Diverse Population
By volunteering, seniors can create a legacy
by giving back to their community while at the
same time their community can return their
"gift of service" with appreciation of their
efforts.
GUIDE TO NEW YORK'S INITIATIVE
Sharing New York's Experience
New York is interested in sharing what we
did with others. Throughout the nine-month
state government action planning initiative,
the process of designing and implementing
Project 2015, and the perceptions of the
agencies' leaders and staff who participated
in the project, were documented in a joint
effort by the NYSOFA and the University
at Albany's Center for Excellence in
Aging Services. Throughout the initiative,
several methods were used by the Center
to collect information for the Guide: (1)
in-depth interviews and focus groups
of selected agency leaders and key staff
who participated in Project 2015; (2) in-
depth interviews of NYSOFAs agency
leaders and members of the Project
2015 Management Team; (3) a personal
interview with the Governor's oversight
staff to Project 2015; (4) observation at
several of the regularly scheduled Project
2015 interagency work group meetings; and
(5) observation at the day-long Governor's
Project 2015 Symposium.
This information was used to develop
"Proj ect 2015: Guide to New York
State Government's Planning Initiative"
(NYSOFA, 2003). The Guide describes
the entire Project 2015 initiative and
identifies the core elements of success
in this initiative. It provides information
about the overall design, management, and
implementation of Project 2015, and can
be used by government and community
leaders who are seeking to engage in a
multi-agency or community-wide planning
process to develop action steps around a
common issue.
PROJECT 2015 GUIDE: CORE ELEMENTS
OF SUCCESS
Analysis by the NYSOFAs Project 2015 lead
staff determined that certain factors assured
the success of Project 2015. Without these core
elements, the initiative would not have been as
successful and could not have been completed
within the allotted time frame. The entire
listing of 19 core elements are included in the
Guide; by way of example, below are several
of the components that can be characterized as
core elements of success of the Project 2015
planning initiative—but all 19 were considered
necessary for the initiative to proceed
successfully:
Executive Leadership
There was ongoing, direct leadership and
involvement of the top executive. For New
York State's Project 2015, this was the
Governor.
Clear Purpose and Goals
The purpose and goals of Project 2015 were
very clearly stated in the initial charge to the
Commissioners. The purpose and goals were
fully defined and described for agencies'
designees to the project and project work staff
at the first interagency work group meeting.
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N. Lane/J. Rosenbaum
Common Issue
While the participating agencies have
disparate missions, products, and consumer
constituencies, the issue addressed by
Project 2015 (the impact of demographic
change) was common across all
agencies and formed a common basis for
deliberation.
Make it Manageable
To complete the work of Project 2015
within the stated time frame and keep
the agencies on track, both the project's
products and time line were divided into
manageable pieces. Specific directions and
an assigned due date accompanied each
piece. This kept participants from feeling
overwhelmed by the total responsibilities
involved and eliminated time slippage.
Technical Assistance Provided
Directions and technical assistance were
provided at monthly group meetings.
However, four members of the NYSOFA
Project 2015 Management Team were
each paired with nine specific agencies
to respond quickly to agencies on an
individual basis regarding any issues and
problems that emerged as the agencies
moved through the initiative's process.
These pairings remained constant
throughout the nine-month period.
Think Outside the Box
When assembling agencies into small
groups for joint activities, agencies
were not grouped by traditional themes/
missions (such as health, human services,
infrastructure, economic development,
etc.). Instead, agencies were randomly
assigned for small-group activities and
multiple work staff from any one agency
were dispersed among tables for large-
group discussions. This resulted in (1)
cross-sharing of information among
agencies that had not generally done so
before, (2) understanding the overlap
that exists among all agencies, and (3)
stimulation of non-traditional collaborative
efforts.
SUMMARY
New York's communities are not alone in
experiencing profound shifts in the make-up
of their resident populations. The populations
of communities, states and countries across
the world are aging, and all are experiencing
a change in the proportion of younger-aged
citizens relative to the proportion of older
citizens. Immigration patterns in the U.S.,
including the in-migration of people from
foreign countries and movement of these
populations between states, have dramatically
increased both the diversity of many states'
populations and the number of residents who
speak little or no English. These shifts in our
demographic profile present opportunities
(skills, talents, a pool of new workers, etc.)
and challenges (fewer caregivers, educational
needs, communication gaps, etc.).
An analysis of the Project 2015 initiative found
that multi-group planning, in concert, around
a unifying common issue, and in a cohesive,
organized manner: (1) established a common
bond among the participating groups, (2) had
groups working toward a common goal, (3)
encouraged sharing and collaborating among
groups that had not occurred before, (4)
produced ideas and strategies that would make
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
73
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New York State's Project 2015:
Preparing for the Impact of an Aging, Diverse Population
the most out of the opportunities presented by
the changing demographics, and (5) promoted
creativity in identifying effective ways of
meeting the challenges inherent in changing
demographics.
New York's planning initiative can be
replicated or adapted by other governments
or communities that wish to accomplish these
same goals.
Manuscript by:
Jennifer Rosenbaum, New York State
Office for the Aging, Project 2015
Coordinator
Presented by:
Neal Lane, Acting Director, New York
State Office for the Aging (August 10,
2004 EPA Aging Americans Workshop)
Photographs:
New York State Office for the Aging
and Erie County (NY) Department of
Senior Services.
New York State Department of
Environmental Conservation: Adopt a
Natural Resource, International Paper/
Universal Access.
REFERENCES
New York State Data Center, Empire
State Development, 2002. http://
www. nylovesbiz. com/nysdc/default. asp
New York State Office for the Aging. 2000. Project
2015: The Future of Aging in New York
State—Articles and Briefs for Discussion.
http://www.aging.state.ny.us/news/letter/
an010409.htm
New York State Office for the Aging. 2002.
Project 2015: State Agencies Prepare for the
Impact of an Aging New York—White Paper
for Discussion, http://www.aging.state.ny.us/
explore/project2015/report02/index.htm
New York State Office for the Aging. 2003. Project
2015: Guide to New York State Government's
Planning Initiative, http://www.aging.state.ny.us
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ELDERS' IMPORTANCE
Jonathan Hook
Office of Environmental Justice and Tribal Affairs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 6
American Indian elders are held in high
esteem in their communities. They are
perceived to be links with the wisdom and
cultural inheritance of many generations of
ancestors. Because Native peoples have a
sacred and reverential relationship with the
environment, indigenous elders provide a
unique resource for better understanding the
world around us. This includes not only the
nurturing gifts provided by the environment,
but also our responsibilities as caretakers.
As Native peoples increasingly interact with
EPA through various tribal environmental
programs, the agency receives glimpses into
the uniquely symbiotic relationship between
American Indians and Mother Earth. The
broad, holistic approach to environmental
protection is apparent in strategies and
activities that intertwine traditional Native
practices with contemporary technologies. For
example, Louie Hena is on the Tribal Council
of the Pueblo of Tesuque. He has developed
a 500 year environmental plan, which forms
the basis for his "permaculture" course. EPA
has provided some funding for this hands-on
educational activity that brings Native youth
from throughout North America together
to study high elevation agriculture and soil
retention in the New Mexico mountains.
Permaculture Course at Picuris Pueblo
Mr. Hena also recently was asked, along with
four other elders, to address EPAs Indian
Program Policy Council in Washington, D.C.
about the necessity of protecting traditional
lifeways. He focused on how everything is
cyclical, and about how we must recognize and
protect the patterns in our environment.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 75
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Elders' Importance
Louie Hena's IPPC
Presentation
Indian environmental
programs struggle
to function on
barebones financial
resources, yet are able
to accomplish amazing results. The comment
most frequently heard from recent headquarters
visitors to Region 6 Indian communities was
"we never knew the extent of the need, nor
can we believe how much is being done with
so few resources." The greatest resource,
however, is one often forgotten by dominant
society bureaucracies: our elders. Native
communities continue to honor and cherish
these communal gems, and EPA would do well
to follow their example.
Another elder
having a profound
impact on
Indian Country
environmental
protection is
Stanley Paytiamo.
Mr. Paytiamo is a
former governor
of Acoma Pueblo.
He is chairman of the Tribal Water Rights
Commission and the Tribal HAZMAT Safety
Committee. For his many years of service,
Mr. Paytiamo was recently awarded the Janice
Stevens Environmental Protection Award by
the 66 tribes in EPA Region 6.
Stanley Paytiamo will address the Pueblo of
Acoma's environmental vision in the next
presentation. He is a persistent advocate for
increased funding of tribal environmental
programs. He recently spoke at New Mexico
Environmental Department's Environmental
Justice Listening Session at Acoma Pueblo.
Embodying the direct link between ancestors
and future generations, Stanley Paytiamo is
a model for all those pursuing environmental
protection.
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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THE PUEBLO OF ACOMA'S
ENVIRONMENTAL VISION
Stanley Paytiamo
Pueblo of Acoma
By 2030, the number of older Americans is
expected to double to 70 million, largely as a
result of the aging of the World War II Baby
Boomers. As the aging population grows,
there are questions on how this population
will change needs for housing, health care,
recreation and transportation and how
communities and states can prepare for these
shifts.
The mission of the Pueblo of Acoma Environ-
mental Protection Office is to safeguard human
health and quality of life by protecting and
enhancing the environment.
"For me it's the challenge—the
challenge to try to beat myself and
do better than I did in the past. I
try to keep in mind not what I have
accomplished but what I have to try
to accomplish in the future.'"
— Jackie Joyner-Kersee
ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
The Pueblo of Acoma is located approximately
55 miles west of Albuquerque, NM; along
Interstate 40. The closest city is Grants, NM
that lies on the western edge of the Pueblo
reservation boundary. The Pueblo of Acoma is
relatively large in comparison to the other 20
pueblos of New Mexico, with a population of
4,754. Approximately 2,000 persons live on the
land grant with a land base of approximately
431,664 acres (674 sq. miles). The original
Spanish land grant given to the Pueblo of
Acoma was made on September 20, 1689.
The Pueblo of Acoma is made up of eight
small villages that include Acomita, West
Village, Mesa Hill, Skyline, McCartys, Anzac,
Alaska, Shutivaville, and the 1,000 year old
Acoma village, "Sky City." Farming occurs
mainly on lands adjacent to the Rio San
Jose. There are approximately 1,014 acres of
irrigated farmland. The remainder, and by far
the greater portion, of the Pueblo lands are
semiarid, at high altitude and on a continental
shelf that passes to the west of the Pueblo of
Acoma. These lands consist of mountains,
valleys, expansive plains and high buttes or
mesas. The lands vary substantially in elevation
and gradient, ranging from high elevations of
8,600 feet to low elevations of 5,800 feet above
sea level. Similarly, the sloping land varies
with abrupt grades that are nearly vertical and
large level expanses of land, with grades as low
as 2-3%.
The Acoma people have practiced ceremonies
for the good of all since time immemorial.
These practices and beliefs are taught and
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 77
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The Pueblo of Acoma's Environmental Vision
pursued only through oratories, prayer, songs
and dance. They call for an orderly life within
the natural environment such as clean water
and air, good crops and peace of body and
spirit. Many believe in a spiritual life and the
natural environment that embraces and nurtures
them. Today, many tribal societies exist within
the Pueblo of Acoma. These societies and their
religious ceremonies coincide with important
celestial time calendars. The religious
ceremonies acknowledge and express gratitude
for nature's gifts of land, water and life.
CLIMATE
Precipitation at the San Fidel National
Weather Service station averaged 9.66 inches
(245.3 mm) per year over 44 years, (New
Mexico State Engineer Office, 1956b; U.S.
Department Commerce [US DOC], 1955-74).
Precipitation measured during this study was
fairly uniformly distributed. About half of the
yearly precipitation results from convective
storms during July, August, September and
October. Mean-annual temperature at the San
Fidel weather station was 51.4°F (10.76°C) for
38 years of record (New Mexico State Engineer
Office, 1956a; US DOC, 1955-74, various
pages). Summer highs occasionally go over
100°F (37.74°C) and winter lows occasionally
drop below 0°F (-17.76° C), at this station. Pan
evaporation on the Pueblo of Acoma probably
averages about the same as that measured at the
National Weather Service Station in Los Lunas,
which is about 50 miles (80 km) to the east.
Here evaporation is usually between 70 to 75
inches (177.8 and 190.5 cm) per year.
TRADITIONAL HISTORY
Traditional knowledge is no longer reinforced
on a daily basis. The language has been a
vital aspect of the Acoma Pueblo since time
immemorial; all members of the Native
Communities must realize its importance to
the community and support intensification of
the Bilingual Program. Formerly, as a rural
community, the Pueblo of Acoma economy
emphasized the need for Pueblo members
to practice traditional ways of cooking,
butchering, hunting, planting, harvesting and
sharing. In the past, there was mutual respect
for one another and our elders, as well as self-
respect. Today, there is a lack of respect for
our leaders, our parents—courteous greetings
and exchanges are less frequent, therefore
traditional means for transmitting stories, songs
and original legends are rapidly fading.
The native way of life is a spiritual way;
staying close to spirit through prayers, sacred
songs and sacred ceremonies. Spirit is through
all of life given by the creator. It is important
to tell the truth. Peoples' lives could depend on
it. Children are taught to be honest. We have
concern for one another—caring what happens
and helping children grow up in a good way.
Why keep on having children when you can't
care for them? Some of our people don't want
to send their parents to Old Age homes. We
have extended families and they take care
of their parents. "When I was a child they
took care of me so I want to take care of my
parents." In the end, some do end up at homes
for the aging. The children and families usually
complain the nursing staff is limited. When
the children make visits the parents want to go
home with them.
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S. Paytiamo
We are grateful for the continued support of
our promising youth to attain their degrees in
higher education for the benefit of their Tribal
communities, now and in the future.
TRADITIONAL CONCERNS
Sadly, traditions and customs are breaking
down. The tribe does not allow members to
speak on certain subjects to allow non-Indians
to better understand the culture. In fact, non-
Indians will never understand, because this
takes a lifetime to learn. Tribes do things and
treat the following differently: Christmas
trees, funeral items, shoes, clothing, ashes,
sale of bottled water, credits for air, air-space,
emergency preparedness, disaster drills, the
future, "ownership" of space and visitation of
Indian shrines (non-Indians and women are
not allowed). Indian people have respect for
all things and believe there are widespread
consequences otherwise. There are strict rules
to follow—things should be left alone. The
"As an Indian person, my view of
the world is that Mother Earth is
Sacred. It's difficult for me to use
the term "environment, " the term
"ecology. " To me, it's Mother Earth
and she is Sacred, if she is not healthy,
if the beings, sustaining from her,
the people, the animals, the wildlife,
the water, the air, everything that
belongs to Mother Earth if that is not
protected, if that is not taken care of
in the proper way with respect; well,
what are we here for then? Mother
Earth is Sacred."
— Unknown young woman
Pueblo of Acoma has existed for over 1000
years—maybe due to obeying and respecting
the laws of Mother Earth.
An understanding of the people is basic to
community development. The Acoma people,
of all the people of this country, have been
able to strongly maintain their cultural,
ethnic and historic characteristics in the
face of Anglo-American domination. It is
these very characteristics that are now often
advocated to the public-at-large as a means
of ending the destruction of our environment
through appropriate respect for our natural
surroundings. The Pueblo of Acoma, rather
than destroying the environment, have lived
in harmony with nature and have preserved
the quality of the environment. The Acoma
people have maintained their traditions and
culture and Anglo-American society has much
to learn from us. Until recently, the American
government never condescended to consider
the environment as a major focal point of
their policy. Instead, the policy has been one
of dominating the environment rather than of
compatibility with it. Today, let us hope that,
in spite of the Anglo-American values imposed
upon us, we will maintain this strong tradition
and appreciation of nature and that this strong
culture of the Indian can, in turn, be absorbed
by non-Indian people so that their appreciation
and respect for nature will grow.
Let us understand that inter-relationships
between the Indian and western Anglo-
American culture have been relatively short
(300-400 years), while Acoma people have
lived in this environment for more than
1000 years. These cultures which have come
together are not only different in language and
racial characteristics, they are diverse to the
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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The Pueblo of Acoma's Environmental Vision
extent that they are on a different continued
existence.. .the western culture based on profit
and domination of the environment.. .the Indian
culture related to the natural environment
which, due to the harsh landscape, requires
deep respect and knowledge of the natural
environment to survive.
The Pueblo of Acoma (Aak'Um'Eetra) heritage
is important, not only to the continued strength
and pride of the Acoma people, but to the entire
country and the western world.
OUR OVERALL GOAL
The overall goal of the Acoma culture is
to encourage and maintain the continuance
of the Acoma cultural, ethnic and historic
characteristics, not only as a point of historic
interest but as a living, viable attitude which
has application to every-day life and to the
well-being of the Acoma people and their non-
Indian neighbors.
The Pueblo of Acoma has developed a 26-year
Practical Vision that includes:
• A safer Acoma,
• Health promotion and maintenance,
• Togetherness through education,
• Preservation of culture through
education,
• Political awareness,
• Economic self-sufficiency through
tourism,
• Promotion of traditional land-use,
• Return to restorative agriculture,
• Preservation of traditional life styles,
• Community and civic involvement,
• Greater employment opportunities
through education.
All of these issues pertain to all of the
people in the Pueblo, but some pertain more
specifically to the aging population, which
will be discussed later. Additionally, there are
underlying contradictions that may be barriers
to obtaining this vision. They include:
• Varied interpretations of private versus
community land-use,
• Alienation from the political system,
• Unwillingness to take risk in economic
ventures,
• Limited personal and community
involvement in education,
• Conflict in values regarding tradition,
• Unwillingness to invest in community
participation and communications.
GOALS PERTAINING TO THE ACOMA VISION
Mental and Physical Health
The Acoma health goal is to provide for
healthy conditions and the good of all
Acoma people through the maintenance
of a pollution-free environment and the
provision of a comprehensive health-care
system available to all Acoma residents.
This includes informational, curative and
rehabilitative mental and physical health
services, available to all Acoma residents.
Facilities and services should be located
on the reservation or nearby wherever
possible.
Human Services (Welfare)
Many Acoma people depend substantially
on welfare. A welfare system must be
convenient, it must be adequate to meet
the needs, it must encourage rather than
destroy initiative, and individuality must be
achieved and maintained.
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Public Safety, Law
Enforcement and Correction
All citizens are entitled to equal and
reasonable protection under the law. This
goal should include the protection of
the rights, property and privileges of all
citizens through efficient and expeditious
administration of justice through the police
and the judiciary system.
Housing
All Acoma people must be allowed to
live in an environment that meets all
federal regulatory housing standards. The
right to a comfortable and stable housing
structure can be achieved by upgrading all
substandard housing.
Parks, Recreation and Open Space
Provision of an interrelated system of
parks, recreational facilities, open-space
and programs for the Acoma people is
a primary consideration. Secondarily,
it should compliment the tourist and
commercial recreation activities of the
Pueblo of Acoma.
Land-Use, Transportation and Utilities
Development of an overall land-use plan to
insure compatibility among various usages
is another necessity. The land-use plan
shall include the natural attributes of land,
such as soils, topography, availability of
moisture and fertility and shall reflect our
concern for our natural resources as part of
the Economic and Cultural Resources of
the Acoma people. The rights of the people
to live as individuals with minimal adverse
effect upon the environment shall be a
major concern of land-use planning.
Cultural, Ethnic and Historic
Continuance of the Acoma culture must
be encouraged and maintained, not only
as a point of historic interest but a living,
viable attitude that has application to
everyday life, and to the well-being of the
Acoma people, as well as their non-Indian
neighbors.
Environment, Ecology,
Pollution and Population
The natural resources of Acoma lands
must be preserved and enhanced through
recognition of the delicate ecological
balance that exists between a person and
his or her environment. Those portions of
Pueblo lands that may be threatened by
development must be preserved.
VISION FOR OUR AGING AMERICANS
Twenty, thirty, fifty and even 150 years from
now, as an Aging American, leader, parent,
grandparent, and citizen of your Tribe, what
kind of society do you want? What to do next?
What are you as an Aging American going to
do the next working day towards fulfilling your
vision?
DECIDE
COMMUNICATE IT (make it known)
ACT ON IT
• Persuade People
• Excite People
• Develop Commitment
• Consistently Act On It
• Evaluate It
• Doit!
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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The Pueblo of Acoma's Environmental Vision
To support the Pueblo of Acoma 26-Year
Practical Vision and the aging population of
Acoma, a comprehensive health plan was
proposed to be developed by 2030. That plan
would include:
Environmental Health Services
Improve the quality of life through reduced
risk factors in the environment that lead to
death, disability or illness.
Community and School Health
Education
Prepare tribal members with knowledgeable
skills and attitudes for decision-making
regarding the protection of their health.
Accidents
Lessen morbidity and morality due to
accidents, expand a total tribal safety
program due to accidents.
Alcoholism
Reduce factors that lead to substance abuse,
especially alcoholism.
Nutrition
• Improve the nutrition status of tribal
members.
• Special supplemental food programs to:
- Reduce the incidents of dental caries by
poor eating habits.
- Provide nutritious meals each day to the
319 Acoma elderly at the center meal
site.
• Establish educational programs that will
reduce the incidence of obesity.
• Encourage the use of natural and
cultural foods.
Contract and Health Services
Maintain the present quality of medical
care service, increasing the variety where
possible.
Elderly Care/Youth Programs
Enhance the status of the elderly and youth
as valuable members of the tribe.
• Increase safety practices, reduce
hazards.
• Develop adequate housing facilities
(50 units).
• Provide needed medical services.
• Provide transportation as needed: two
mini-buses for the handicapped and
staff.
• Develop a multi-purpose center that
will provide nutritional, leisure and
social activities for the senior citizens
and youth.
• Seek employee opportunities for the
elderly.
• Develop an elderly day-care home.
• Develop a local and regional elderly
nursing home to be located north of
ACL Hospital.
PUEBLO OF ACOMA ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY (AEPA):
On October 1, 1994, the Pueblo of Acoma
Environmental Protection Agency (AEPA)
was created within the Tribal Council
and Administration to coordinate waste
management and environmental activities.
AEPAs responsibility has now been expanded
to deal with all environmental concerns
(hazardous waste, air and water quality,
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S. Paytiamo
pollution prevention, etc.) and is in the
process of seeking funding to administer these
programs through the General Assistance
Program (GAP) grant, and any other identified
sources of funding. AEPA is structured to
provide technical assistance on environmental
issues for the Tribe. The traditional Pueblo
perspective of the environment emphasizes the
vital importance of living as one with all the
elements of the earth. It is the mission of the
AEPA to incorporate the values of the Pueblo
way of life as the environmental concerns of
the tribe.
One major concern for the Pueblo of Acoma
is the lack of codes or ordinances to address
environmental violations or prevent pollution.
The Governor of Acoma created a committee
called the Acoma Legislative Committee that is
currently reviewing the Law and Order Codes.
All recommendations will then be made to the
Acoma Tribal Council which will make the
final decisions on what laws to amend or add.
The People of Acoma believe in the
importance of preserving the environment
so that it will continue to provide natural
resources such as clean water and land that is
necessary for their survival. But, like many
other Indian tribes, the Pueblo people do not
have a formal infrastructure to regulate the
environment (Mother Earth). It is important
that the community is educated and aware of
what "regulation of the environment" means
while still encouraging preservation through
spirituality and religion.
With the population expansion of the Pueblo
of Acoma, there is an increased potential
of danger of contamination of the ground
water and surface water because the existing
sewage facilities are inadequate to meet the
growing needs of the Pueblo. Currently there
are no certified Operations and Maintenance
Operators to manage the six wastewater
treatment sites on Pueblo lands. Four of the
lagoons are located close to the Rio San Jose
Basin, and the main facultative lagoon is
overburdened. It has been found that some
homes on Acoma lands are equipped with
septic tanks that are considered substandard.
Leach fields associated with septic tank
systems are a source of pollution in the Rio San
Jose Valley.
Hazardous waste is another concern for the
Pueblo of Acoma. With the assistance of EPA,
the Acoma Tribal Administration, Pueblo
Office of Environmental Protection (POEP)/
Superfund has been able to identify several
sites that qualify for the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and
Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980, also known
as Superfund, investigation. These potentially
hazardous sites may pose a threat to human
health and the environment.
Current solid waste management practices also
pose potential risks to human health and the
environment. The 19 Pueblos of New Mexico
were ordered to close all dumps and landfills
in compliance with Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) requirements, and
to construct a landfill or transfer station that
abides by RCRA standards, by October 9,
1998. The Pueblo of Acoma worked with the
US Indian Health Service (IHS) to construct
a transfer station and to implement a sound
solid waste management system to benefit the
Pueblo people project. It was completed in
1997 and opened on October 9, 1998. It took
the Pueblo one year to open the transfer station
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
83
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The Pueblo of Acoma's Environmental Vision
due to lack of funding. On-site workshops
were held to inform the Pueblo's people of
the closing of the landfills and opening of the
transfer station. Since then, new vehicles have
been purchased and solid waste is picked up
on a regular basis. The Pueblo is still closing
old illegal sites, but the US Congress has never
funded the closings.
IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
It is impossible, of course, to know what all the
impacts of any given decision will be. There
is no easy answer. Every tribe will have to
develop a system for analyzing decisions that
works for it. A basic check list might include
the following elements:
(1) What is the need?
(2) How will proposed actions meet the need?
(3) Are there alternative ways of meeting the
need: what are they?
(4) How does the proposed action relate to the
overall goals of the tribe?
(5) What will it cost? Include all related
costs in the planning. If the tribe decides
it needs an elderly home or museum (a
popular and legitimate need), the cost of
the building itself is only the beginning.
For example, if the Pueblo of Acoma can
estimate the cost for the building, from
the first architectural drawings until its
completion on the site, what other things
should be considered?
a. If grants or contributions are used to
support the elderly home or museum,
will a fundraiser also be necessary?
If tribal funds are used, the merits of
the elderly home or museum must be
weighed against other tribal needs.
b. Related Costs. Will outsiders be
attracted to the reservation because
of the new facility? Will additional
parking be needed? What effect
will this have on roads, traffic,
and the habits of the people in the
community? Who will provide
policing? Will the children of the
community still be safe? Will there be
additional costs associated with trash
removal?
This action would change the
complexion of the reservation. The
Acoma people are not accustomed
to having outsiders in the center.
Many religious activities are closed
to outsiders. If there is federal
funding, everyone would have access
to an elderly home. Is an elderly
center really needed? These are hard
choices.
(6) What is the economic impact of the
proposed action? Will it provide new jobs
for the community? Or will outsiders be
hired? Will the new jobs require skills
or demand salaries out of line with the
current economic structure? With the
increasing number of tribal programs
a tribe is now employing many more
people that are probably better paid than
the majority of the community. The tribal
employees receive all the benefits that the
rest of the community receives.
(7) What is the environmental impact on the
community? What will it do to the air
and water quality? What about the water
quantity? The people in the community
may want and need a new elderly home
84
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
-------
S. Paytiamo
or museum, but if increased water usage
no longer allows flushing the toilets and
requires hauling drinking water, it may not
have been a wise choice.
COST AND BENEFITS
With the extraction of natural resources, the
question of who pays for the benefits is very
crucial and far ranging. Minerals have a way
of showing up on lands which have, in the
past, been used to graze cattle or sheep or
in some cases where villages have stood for
generations. There is no question that the
revenue from the minerals and the jobs that
will come from the mining operations are
badly needed. Several hundred people may be
employed by the mining operation at $6 to $15
an hour. The tribe may receive several million
dollars a year from the revenue. But what
about the sheepherders and cattlemen who are
deprived of making a living? And the homes
where their families lived forever. What about
the people who live in that village? What
about the noise, the traffic, and the air and
water pollution—the health hazards that result
from those activities that we know very little
about? What about the possibility the miners
or the people nearby will develop cancer or that
their children or their children's children will
have birth defects years from now as a result
of the mining? Those are costs, too. And what
about the potential of causing air pollution as
far away as Albuquerque? Mining and milling
of uranium in the Grants mineral belt in New
Mexico is causing air and water pollution and
traffic problems for a hundred or more miles on
either side of it. Where do the responsibilities
begin and end?
What about the tribe where both the timber and
fish are important to the economy? Improper,
un-thoughtful or untimely logging methods
may clog streams where the salmon spawn and
cut off the fishermen's livelihood. Herbicide
use is a very proper part of commercial timber
management that may have a devastating effect
on the fish and animals who share the area.
Or, they may kill plants traditionally used for
medicine, basket-making, or other purposes.
No one can blame administrators for not being
able to answer all the questions or even for
making the wrong decision sometimes. But
future generations will judge harshly those who
never ASKED the questions.
FUTURE
The Pueblo of Acoma is a sovereign Indian
nation, recognized as such by the federal
government of the United States of America,
Mexico and Spain. The Pueblo, in the exercise
of its tribal sovereignty remains organized
in accordance with the oral Pueblo tradition.
Therefore, it is not required to submit annual
reports to the State of New Mexico or any other
government.
The government of the Pueblo of Acoma is
very democratic, and a high percentage of
Pueblo members participate in major decisions
that affect the Tribe. Environmental issues
are integral parts of all efforts to improve
the quality of life. The Tribal Council is the
governing body of the Pueblo. The Council
has the power to develop and enforce tribal
Laws, including laws governing environmental
quality, and to seek financial assistance from
the U.S. government. The Council has the
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
85
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The Pueblo of Acoma's Environmental Vision
authority to request treatment as a State,
be recognized by EPA, and to authorize
appropriate management and protection of the
natural resources (water, land, etc.) within its
lands.
The Acoma People govern in a consensus
manner and have practiced ceremonies for
the good of all since time immemorial. These
practices and beliefs are taught and pursued
only through oratories, prayer, songs, and
dance. They call for an orderly life within the
natural environment such as a call for clean
water and air, good crops, and peace of body
and spirit. The People of Acoma believe in
the importance of preserving the environment
so that it will continue to provide natural
resources necessary for their survival.
The greatest challenge currently facing the
Pueblo is the need to modify past habits and
to develop a confidence in controlling its
own economic future. To accomplish this,
major efforts will be necessary concerning
organizational and systems development,
further Tribal venture development, work force
and vocational training, and development of
community investment and financing strategies.
While it would be premature to expect the
Pueblo to sever its current dependence on
federal dollars to support its own efforts, a
major goal of the Pueblo, over the long-term,
will be to decrease the importance of this
dependency. It is hoped this can be achieved
by establishing a track record of success and
by reinventing the rewards of that success into
expanded economic initiatives on the Pueblo
Land Grant and Reservation.
The reservation is environmentally impacted
by numerous significant threats: contamination
from nearby uranium mining operations;
naturally occurring uranium and radon; sewage
effluent from Grants, NM; open dumps; pueblo
wastewater; and pesticide contamination from
livestock. Human health statistics; fish, frog
and snake kills in rivers and riverbeds; low
flying air craft during cultural activities; and
U.S. trespassing in outer space without tribal
permission all present cause for concern. It is
our natural reaction that the transportation of
all hazardous waste across Indian lands worries
us very much.
The entire Pueblo of Acoma is rightfully
considered an environmentally disadvantaged
community. It has suffered, and continues to
suffer, the negative environmental impacts of
nearby uranium mining and other industrial
activities that have depleted and contaminated
water supplies; of faulty natural gas pipelines
traversing the reservation to serve outside
sources; and of sewage effluent and overflow
from ineffective wastewater treatment facilities
in neighboring municipalities. There are few
resources to combat these problems and to
correct the reservation's own waste disposal
practices. Therefore, the Pueblo itself is the
"disadvantaged community."
The Tribe's annual determination of its
environmental agenda, its Environmental
Needs Assessment, and the resulting follow-
up, require a significant, on-going master plan.
Other overall environmental planning activities
that are occurring include water issues,
wastewater and solid waste management
practices and air quality assessments.
Through the land you can see where the Indian
people have faced the challenge and have
instituted change. Not all change has been
86
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
-------
S. Paytiamo
good. More employment opportunities need to
be developed for people on our lands. Never
again should our people be forced to live
outside our lands because there are insufficient
employment opportunities, or be forced to sit at
home weaving baskets, weaving rugs, making
jewelry, herding sheep, making pottery, etc.,
because of a lack of other skills or knowledge.
We must work hand-in-hand towards Indian
control and development of Indian resources.
Too little has been accomplished so far. Indian
leaders have tried diligently to drive home the
message in Washington and throughout the
country. We have been taken for granted far too
long. Our patience is at an end.
It is time we acted to follow the principles
of our founding fathers who wrote in the
constitution, we must "Promote the General
Welfare." We want to contribute to meeting
America's goals of economic growth and
stability, but not at the sacrifice of that which
we respect: our land and our needs. Because we
compete in a national and even global market,
we must be sensitive to its realities, but we
must insist that those who come from outside
our lands respect our laws, our traditions, our
people and our land.
Treat the earth well.
It was not given to you by
your parents,
It was loaned to you by
your children.
We do not inherit the Earth
from our Ancestors,
We borrow it from our
Children.
- Ancient Indian
Proverb
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
87
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The Pueblo of Acoma's Environmental Vision
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88 Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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INTRODUCTION: TOOLS
Patricia Bradley
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
The Ecological Footprint is one tool that may provide insight about the
relationship between sustainability issues and an aging society. Ecological
footprint calculations are based on the idea that most of the resources consumed
and many of the wastes generated by humans can be measured and these
measurements can be converted to corresponding areas of productive land or sea.
The ecological footprint provides a tool for cities and regions to prepare for an
aging society in a more sustainable manner.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 89
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ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT ACCOUNTING:
COMPARING RESOURCE AVAILABILITY
WITH AN ECONOMY'S RESOURCE DEMAND
Mathis Wackernagel, Ph.D., Dan Moran,
Steven Goldfinger, Ph.D., and Mike Wallace
Global Footprint Network
The Global Footprint Network is advancing the science of sustainability.
It increases the effectiveness and reach of the Ecological Footprint
by strengthening the Footprint community, standardizing the tool and
building wide support for bringing human demands in line with Earth's
limited resources. More on the science behind the Ecological Footprint
and examples of how it has been used to advance sustainability can be
found on the website: www.FootprintNetwork.org.
WHY TRACK RESOURCE CONSUMPTION
AND NATURAL CAPITAL?
Sustainability promises rewarding lives for all,
now and in the future. Natural capital—nature's
goods and services—is not the only ingredient
in this vision. But without this type of capital
—without healthy food, energy for mobility
and heat, fiber for paper, clothing and shelter,
fresh air and clean water—sustainability is
impossible. This is why careful management of
natural capital is central to current and future
human well-being. Sustainability thus depends
on protecting natural capital from systematic
overuse; otherwise nature will no longer
be able to provide society with these basic
services.
How well are we using natural capital? Without
measurements, we are blind and cannot
effectively manage these essential natural
resources. To take care of our natural capital,
we must know how much we have and how
much we use. This is no different from any
financially responsible household, business, or
government using accounts to keep track of its
income and spending. To protect our natural
assets, we need accounts that keep track of
humanity's demands on nature and nature's
supply of ecological resources.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 91
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Ecological Footprint Accounting:
Comparing Resource Availability with an Economy's Resource Demand
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT ACCOUNTS:
CAPTURING HUMAN DEMAND ON NATURE
Ecological Footprint accounts are like
balance sheets. They document for any
given population the area of biologically
productive land and sea required to produce the
renewable resources this population consumes
and to assimilate the waste it generates,
using prevailing technology. In other words,
Ecological Footprints document the extent
to which human communities stay within
the regenerative capacity of the biosphere
and who uses each portion of this capacity
(Wackernagel andRees, 1996).
Such biophysical resource accounting is
possible because resources and waste flows
can be tracked and because most of these
flows can be associated with the biologically
productive area required to maintain them.
Thus, the Ecological Footprint of a community
is the area of biologically productive land
and sea required to produce the resources
this community consumes and to assimilate
the wastes it generates, given prevailing
technology. This area is expressed in global
acres—adjusted acres that represent the
average yield of all bioproductive areas on
Earth. Since people use resources from all over
the world and pollute far away places with their
wastes, the Ecological Footprint accounts for
these areas wherever they happen to be located
on the planet.
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT RESULTS
For each given year, Ecological Footprints
compare human demand on nature with
nature's regenerative capacity. Recent
calculations, published in World Wildlife
Fund for Nature International's (WWF)
Living Planet Report 2002 (WWF, 2002),
show that the average Canadian required
22 global average acres to provide for his
or her consumption. If everyone on Earth
consumed at this level, we would need four
additional planets. The average Italian lived
on a Footprint less than half that size (9.4
global acres). The average Mexican occupies
6.2 global acres, the average Indian lives on
about one-fourth of that. The global average
demand is 5.7 global acres per person (for more
countries see table 1 on following page).
In contrast, the current supply of biologically
productive land and sea on this planet adds
up to 4.7 acres per person. Less is available
per person if we allocate some of this area
to the other species which also depend on it.
Providing space for other species is necessary
if we want to maintain the biodiversity that
may be essential for the health and stability of
the biosphere.
Comparing supply and demand, we see that
humanity's Ecological Footprint exceeds the
Earth's biocapacity by over 20% (5.7 [global
acres/cap] / 4.7 [global acres/cap] = 1.2).
In other words, it takes more than one year
92
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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M. Wackernagel et al.
Table 1. Comparison of the Ecological Footprint and the Biological Capacity of selected countries.
Population
[millions]
Ecological
Footprint
global acres/cap
Biological
Capacity
global acres/cap
Ecological Deficit
(-) or Reserve (+)
global acres/cap
WORLD
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Canada
China
Egypt
France
Germany
India
Indonesia
Italy
Japan
Korea, Rep.
Mexico
Netherlands
Pakistan
Philippines
Russian Federation
Sweden
Thailand
United Kingdom
United States
Combined
5,979
37
19
168
31
1,272
67
59
82
993
209
58
127
46
97
16
138
74
146
9
62
60
280
4,049
5.7
7.4
18.8
5.9
21.7
3.7
3.7
13.1
11.6
2.0
2.7
9.4
11.9
8.2
6.2
11.9
1.5
3.0
11.1
16.6
3.7
13.1
24.0
6.2
4.7
16.6
36.1
14.8
35.1
2.5
2.0
7.2
4.2
1.7
4.4
3.0
1.7
1.7
4.2
2.0
1.0
1.5
11.9
18.0
3.5
4.0
13.1
4.7
-1.0
8.9
17.3
8.9
13.3
-1.2
-1.7
-5.9
-7.4
-0.2
1.7
-6.7
-10.1
-6.4
-2.0
-9.9
-0.5
-1.5
1.0
1.5
-0.5
-9.1
-10.9
-1.5
In the last column, negative numbers indicate an ecological deficit, positive numbers an ecological
reserve. All results are expressed in global hectares, hectares of biologically productive space with
world-average productivity.
Note that numbers may not always add up due to rounding. These Ecological Footprint results are
based on 1999 data. (WWF, Living Planet Report 2002)
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
93
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Ecological Footprint Accounting:
Comparing Resource Availability with an Economy's Resource Demand
and two months to regenerate the resources
humanity consumes in one year. Global
demand began outpacing supply only recently,
beginning in the late 1970s or early 1980s. In
1961, for example, it took only 0.5 years to
regenerate what was used in that year, as shown
in the figure below (Wackernagel et al., 2002).
1.40
1.20
UJ 0.80
"o
<5
• 0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Number of Earths
Used by Humanity
Earth's Ecological Capacity
(One Earth Available)
CO2 Portion of Humanity's
Ecological Footprint
61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99
Year
Figure 1. Today's ecological footprint exceeds
Earth's biological capacity.
OVERSHOOT AND ECOLOGICAL DEFICIT
It is possible to exceed global biocapacity
because trees can be harvested faster than
they regrow, fisheries can be depleted more
rapidly than they restock and carbon dioxide
(CO2) can be emitted into the atmosphere
more quickly than ecosystems can sequester
it. With humanity's current demand on nature,
ecological deficit, or "overshoot," is no longer
merely a local but a global phenomenon. We
are now consuming not only nature's interest,
but also invading the principle.
Overshoot causes the liquidation of natural
capital: carbon accumulates in the atmosphere,
fisheries collapse, deforestation spreads,
biodiversity is lost and freshwater becomes
scarce. Efficiency gains have helped to some
extent: humanity's Ecological Footprint has
grown slower than economic activities. Still,
human demand on nature has steadily risen to
a level where the human economy is now in
global ecological overshoot.
APPLICATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
ACCOUNTS
The Ecological Footprint can be applied
at scales ranging from single products to
organizations, cities, regions, nations and
humanity as a whole. It can be used to help
budget limited natural capital. It also makes
clear the four complementary ways in
which ecological deficits can be reduced or
eliminated:
(1) Use resource-efficient technology that
reduces the demand on natural capital;
(2) Reduce human consumption while
preserving people's quality of life, for
example reduce on the need for fossil
fuels by making cities pedestrian friendly;
(3) Lower the size of the human family in
equitable and humane ways so that total
consumption decreases even if per capita
demand remains unchanged; and,
(4) Invest in natural capital, for example
by implementing resource extraction
methods that increase rather than
compromise the land's biological
productivity, thereby increasing supply.
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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M. Wackernagel et al.
There have been Footprint applications on
every continent. Global and national accounts
have been reported in headlines worldwide
and over 100 cities or regions have assessed
their Ecological Footprint (see Table 2 and
discussion in next section). In California,
Sonoma County's Footprint project Time
to Lighten Up has inspired all cities of the
county to sign up for the Climate Saver
Initiative of the International Council for Local
Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI). Wales
has adopted the Ecological Footprint as its
headline indicator. WWF International, one
of the world's most influential conservation
organizations, uses the Ecological Footprint
in its communication and policy work for
advancing conservation and sustainability.
Government agencies, particularly in Europe,
have studied the implication of Ecological
Footprint results and have reexamined the
significance of carrying capacity. A number
of national ministers have repeatedly used the
concept, including French President Jacques
Chirac in his speech to the World Summit on
Sustainable Development in Johannesburg.
Even larger media outlets are picking up
the ideas: The Economist titled its July 2002
insert on the global environment "How many
planets?", based on a Footprint assessment that
showed it would take three planet Earths if all
people lived Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) lifestyles.
Table 2. Ecological Footprint Applications for Urban Development
Ecological Footprint analysis serves a wide range of urban development projects. The communication
benefits are obvious since Footprint results can be directly compared to national and global
assessments, and thus provide a benchmark for assessing the achievements of policy or design
choices for developments. But it also supports decision-making in support of Footprint reduction
opportunities. The biggest and most cost-effective opportunities present themselves in the design
process. Many strategies enhance the ecological performance of developments, including:
Building design and layout (e.g., North-
South orientation, natural lighting,
ease of pedestrian access);
Energy use (e.g., through technologies,
such as energy efficiency, solar energy
use, and insulation; and by design that
encourages lifestyle changes);
Urban form and density (e.g., closeness
to public transportation, clustering,
integration of recreational, work and
living areas);
Transportation and lifestyle strategies
(e.g., reduction strategies and mode
shift such as to public transportation,
reduced availability of parking spots,
pedestrian and bicycle paths, reduction
in transportation needs);
Material use (e.g., non-toxic, local
construction material, sustainable harvested
and certified timber);
Waste management and material
stewardship (e.g., availability of composting,
reuse, recycling);
Food availability (e.g., provision of growing
areas for community gardens, spaces that
encourage farmers markets and local
shops);
Development costs (e.g., affordability as
a resource saving strategy since every $
additional investment has a Footprint for
generating these financial resources).
(Continued on following page)
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Ecological Footprint Accounting:
Comparing Resource Availability with an Economy's Resource Demand
Table 2 (continued). Ecological Footprint Applications for Urban Development
Well designed developments can achieve energy and resource savings. Using fewer resources
results in less carbon dioxide and pollutant emissions. Considerations include architectural design
that leverages natural lighting and reduces artificial lighting, North-South building orientation,
water collection that re-uses grey water for landscaping, insulation that reduces heating/cooling
needs, energy efficient light bulbs and appliances, etc.
There are many quality-of-life benefits of compact, eco-friendly cities, including advantages for
human health and well-being. For example, increased exercise by residents (in Amsterdam, 25%
of all journeys are by bicycle and levels of obesity are much lower than in London); enhanced
sense of community created by increased public spaces and street life; enhanced sense of
safety which comes from interactive communities; reduction in motor noise; reduction in traffic
accidents (a major cause of death in many cities); reduction in respiratory disease (20,000 deaths
each year in the UK are attributable to air pollution); increased availability of locally produced,
organically grown food; and an improved local economy (James and Desai, 2003).
Specific examples of Footprints applied to urban developments are:
Walker, L. and W.E. Rees, 1997: Urban density and ecological footprints: An analysis of
Canadian households. In: Eco-city Dimensions: Healthy Communities, Healthy Planet, M.
Roseland (ed.), New Society, Gabriola Island, B.C.
John Barrett et al., 2003, Sustainability Rating for Homes—The Ecological Footprint
Component. Report to BioRegional Development Group. Stockholm Environment Institute,
York, United Kingdom.
The sustainable consumption unit of the Stockholm Environment Institute in York
which produced this report has led a number of other studies of cities or regions (http:
//www.york.ac.uk/inst/sei/IS/sustain.html). They also contributed, with BioRegional, to
a WWF-UK report called One Planet Living in the Thames Gateway which identifies
Footprint saving potentials for greener urban developments. The report is available at:
www. wwf. org. uk/filelibrary/pdf/thamesgateway.pdf.
Bill Dunster, UK's leading ecological architect, uses the Footprint as the context for his
designs. More on his work can be found at www.zedfactory.com.
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CASE STUDY: CALCULATING LONDON'S
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
There may well be over one hundred
Ecological Footprint studies for cities, ranging
from student projects to comprehensive
analyses of a metropolitan area's demand
on nature. London, for instance, has already
gone through three rounds. In 1995, urban
sustainability expert Herbert Girardet estimated
that the UK capital's Footprint was 125 times
the size of the city itself. In other words, in
order to function, London required an area the
size of the entire productive land surface of the
UK to provide all the resources the city uses
and to dispose of its pollutants and waste.
In 2000, under the leadership of Mayor Ken
Livingstone, London commissioned a more
detailed Ecological Footprint study called City
Limits. The report, sponsored by organizations
including the Chartered Institution of Wastes
Management, the Institution of Civil Engineers
(ICE) and the Biffaward Programme on
Sustainable Resource Use, was produced by
Best Foot Forward and launched in September
2002. Results for this city and its 7 million
inhabitants are available at:
http://www. citylimitslondon. com
To respond to the challenges identified by the
City Limits report, London Remade, a business
membership organization supported by over
300 of the capital's major businesses and
higher education institutions, wanted to analyze
possible steps for reducing London's Footprint.
In collaboration with London First, a waste
management partnership, it commissioned
consulting companies WSP Environmental
and Natural Strategies to identify the reduction
potential in a project called Toward Sustainable
London: Reducing the Capital's Ecological
Footprint. The first of four reports, Determining
London's Ecological Footprint and Priority
Impact Areas for Action, is available at:
http://www. londonremade. com/lr
footprinting. asp
Performing and Ecological Footprint Analysis
is a well-documented and understood practice.
Table 3 gives an overview of a possible
process.
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Ecological Footprint Accounting:
Comparing Resource Availability with an Economy's Resource Demand
Table 3. Summary of a potential Footprint Campaign for a local government or local group.
Preparations
• Identify budget
• Recruit a project team and a
coordinator (on staff)
• Set the context and write the project
specifications
Communication
<
• Create an e-list of people interested
in the Footprint project including
community activists, academics,
elected officials, media contacts, etc
This list is used for sending out project
updates and invitations to events
• Hold a public meeting to announce
project
• Establish an engaging website
• Work with local media to publicize
project progress and results, providing
them materials
v,
Calculation
s
• Train own staff or contract with qualified
consultant or nongovernmental
organization (NGO) to measure city's
Ecological Footprint in a way consistent
with emerging standards
• Gather local data for the calculations
Explore opportunities for
cross-cutting initiatives
• Start identifying with planning staff
new opportunities for advancing
sustainability strategies in transport-
ation, energy and land-use planning
using the Footprint as a communication
tool
Engage the public
• Hold public working meetings to discuss
the calculations and identify limitations
and opportunities for city
• Write meeting report for participants
and city staff
Publicize Results
• Write a report with project results. Print
copies and distribute to conference
attendees, elected officials, etc. Also,
post report on the web
• Hold a conference to unveil the results
of the calculation and discuss the
results and next steps
• Make presentations about project
results to civic groups, appointed and
elected governmental bodies, etc
When estimating resources needs: include outside support as well as the time and resources used by
city staff for analysis as well as other activities such as organizing events, engaging with local press and
developing mailing lists.
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NATIONAL & REGIONAL APPLICATIONS
A number of national and regional Footprint
studies have contributed to policy discussions,
some in close cooperation with government
agencies. For example:
• Wales (pop. 2,900,000). The National
Assembly for Wales adopted the
Ecological Footprint as their headline
indicator for sustainability in March
of 2001, making Wales the first
nation to do so. The first report
was commissioned through WWF-
Cymru and executed by Best Foot
Forward. This report details Welsh
energy, transportation and materials
management. It can be found at: http:
//www.wwf-uk. org/filelibrary/pdf/
walesfootprint.pdf.
• The State of Victoria, Australia (pop.
4,650,000). EPA Victoria, the lead state
agency responsible for protecting the
environment, established a series of
pilot projects in 2002 in partnership
with a wide range of organizations and
businesses to further investigate the
practical applications of the Ecological
Footprint to promote sustainability. See
www. epa. vic.gov. au/eco-footprint. The
campaign is expanding its reach for
2004.
• Sonoma County, California (30 miles
north of San Francisco, pop. 495,000).
Under a grant from EPA, Sustainable
Sonoma County, a local NGO, used the
Ecological Footprint as the foundation
of a 2002 campaign. By inviting wide
public participation and comment on
the study before it was released, it was
able to generate strong local buy-in.
As a result, the launch of the study
got county-wide media coverage and
built the groundwork for a subsequent
campaign. The latter resulted in all
municipalities of Sonoma County
committing simultaneously to reduce
their CO2 emissions by 20%, making it
the first U.S. county to do so. To meet
this commitment, they established
programs that track progress towards
meeting their reduction goal. The
Sonoma Footprint study is available at:
www. sustainable sonoma. org/projects/
scefootprint. html
AN INDICATOR FOR "STRONG" AND
"WEAK" SUSTAINABILITY
By monitoring human use of renewable natural
capital, Ecological Footprint accounts provide
guidance for sustainability: a Footprint smaller
than the available biocapacity is a necessary
condition for "strong sustainability," a stance
which asserts that securing people's well-being
necessitates maintaining natural capital.
Some argue that "strong sustainability" is too
stringent since technology and knowledge can
compensate for lost ecological assets. While
this can be debated, even managing for "weak
sustainability" requires reliable accounting of
assets. Hence, by measuring the overall supply
of and human demand on regenerative capacity,
the Ecological Footprint serves as an ideal
tool for tracking progress, setting targets and
driving policies for sustainability.
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Ecological Footprint Accounting:
Comparing Resource Availability with an Economy's Resource Demand
WHAT'S IN IT FOR GOVERNMENTS AND
REGIONS?
Ecological Footprint accounts allow
governments to track a city's or region's
demand on natural capital and to compare
this demand with the amount of natural
capital actually available. The accounts also
give governments the ability to answer more
specific questions about the distribution
of these demands within their economy.
For example, Footprint accounts reveal the
ecological demand associated with residential
consumption, the production of value-added
products or the generation of exports; or they
help assess the ecological capacity embodied
in the imports upon which a region depends.
This can help in understanding the region's
constraints or future liabilities in comparison
with other regions of the world and in
identifying opportunities to defend or improve
the local quality of life.
Footprint accounts help governments become
more specific about sustainability in a number
of ways. The accounts provide a common
language and a clearly defined methodology
that can be used to support training of staff and
to communicate about sustainability issues with
other levels of government or with the public.
Footprint accounts add value to existing data
sets on production, trade and environmental
performance by providing a comprehensive
way to interpret them. For instance, the
accounts can help guide "environmental
management systems" by offering a
framework for gathering and organizing
data, setting targets and tracking progress.
The accounts can also serve environmental
reporting requirements and inform strategic
decision making for regional economic
development.
In addition, monitoring demand and supply of
natural capital allows governments to:
• Build a region's competitiveness by
monitoring ecological deficits, since
over time these deficits could become
an increasing economic liability;
• Stay aligned with the business
community's increasing focus on
sustainability as a way to decrease
future vulnerability;
• Manage common assets more
effectively. Without an effective metric,
these assets are typically valued at zero
or less and their contribution to society
is not systematically assessed nor
included in strategic planning;
• Have access to an early warning device
for long-term security that recognizes
emerging scarcities and identifies global
trends;
• Monitor the combined impact of
ecological pressures that are more
typically evaluated independently,
such as climate change, fisheries
collapse, loss of cropland, forestry
overharvesting and urban sprawl;
• Identify local and global possibilities
for climate change mitigation and
examine the trade-offs between
different approaches to atmospheric
CO2 reduction; and
• Test policy options for future viability
and possible unintended consequences.
For instance, it supports urban
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M. Wackernagel et al.
design processes, opens dialogue
with stakeholders, helps manage
expectations, provides a platform for
sustainability management systems,
supports training for sustainability,
allows for ecological risk assessments,
explain past successes more effectively.
Without regional resource accounting,
countries can easily overlook or fail to realize
the extent of these kinds of opportunities
and threats. The Ecological Footprint, a
comprehensive, science-based resource
accounting system that compares people's use
of nature with nature's ability to regenerate,
helps eliminate this blind spot.
REFERENCES
Mathis Wackernagel, and William E. Rees,
Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing
Human Impact on the Earth. New Society
Publishers, Gabriola Island. 1996.
World Wildlife Fund for Nature International
(WWF), UNEP World Conservation
Monitoring Centre, Redefining Progress,
with the Center for Sustainability Studies,
2002, Living Planet Report 2002, WWF,
Gland, Switzerland.
Mathis Wackernagel, Niels B. Schulz, Diana
Deumling, Alejandro Callejas Linares,
Martin Jenkins, Valerie Kapos, Chad
Monfreda, Jonathan Loh, Norman Myers,
Richard Norgaard, & J0rgen Randers,
"Tracking the ecological overshoot of the
human economy," Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA, Vol. 99, Issue 14, 9266-9271, July 9,
2002.
James, Nick and Pooran Desai. 2003. One
Planet Living in the Thames Gateway, A
WWF-UK One Million Sustainable Homes
Campaign Report by the BioRegional
Development Group, SEI and WWF UK,
June 2003. www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/
thamesgateway.pdf
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INTRODUCTION: BREAKOUT SESSIONS
Patricia Bradley
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EricWalbeck
Perot Systems Government Services
Consistent with standard risk assessment approaches, workshop breakout discussions
(Focal Area Breakout Groups) were structured to focus on: A) projected demographic
and life style patterns of an aging population (sources of environmental stress),
B) temporal and spatial changes in land-use and environmental stressors resulting
from these patterns (exposure) and C) likely effects resulting from changing land-
use and exposure regimes on natural resources and environmental quality (effects).
Considerations of expected variation in life styles and regional differences are
important to all three issues. Each breakout group was asked to identify and discuss
existing information important to their respective portion of this simplified risk
paradigm and to identify the significant knowledge gaps in the data, methods and
models needed to address that portion. Bridging these gaps (once prioritized) will be
the primary goal of ORD's ecological research program relative to the impacts of the
aging population.
Workshop participants were assigned to one of the three focal breakout groups. Each
breakout group consisted of both experts and stakeholders, and was led and facilitated
by a workshop representative. One volunteer from each group captured the salient
issues, information, and discussion points on flip charts. This material was used to
support the breakout group's plenary presentation on the last day of the workshop. The
deliberations and plenary presentations of each group were structured to:
• Identify issues salient to the group's focal area,
• Identify known sources of information (data, methods, and models) salient to
the group's focal area,
• Identify significant gaps in that information that are needed to understand the
ecological risks associated with an aging population,
• Suggest research (data collection, method, and model development) to bridge
the significant gaps,
• Provide a sense of priority with respect to research needs.
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Introduction: Breakout Sessions
The original focal area breakout groups were rearranged so that individuals from each
focal group were represented in each of the Interactions/Linkages Breakout Groups.
These sessions concentrated on interactions and linkages among the themes developed in
the focal groups.
The facilitator for each session ensured that the critical issues and discussion points were
captured at the end of each session. These critical captures contributed directly to the
final summary session of the Workshop and to these Workshop Proceedings and provided
input for the "Post Workshop Considerations for Research and New Directions" and
"Synthesis" sections that follow.
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SUMMARY: FOCAL AREA BREAKOUT GROUP A
Mary Holland (Facilitator)
Perot Systems Government Services
PROJECTED DEMOGRAPHIC AND LIFESTYLE
PATTERNS OF AN AGING POPULATION
(SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS)
Charge and Approach
Focal Group A was asked to identify existing
information and gaps in that information
relative to expected trends in the numbers and
life styles of the aging population. Specific
questions addressed included:
• Is there sufficient information to
forecast lifestyle behaviors of an aging
population? If not, what information
is missing and how can we capture
it? Where is the information that does
exist?
• How are trends expected to differ
regionally?
• What research is critically needed to
develop a more complete understanding
of expected demographic and lifestyle
trends?
• In what ways can the young-old
and old-old serve as a resource for
environmental protection and related
research?
Focal Group A included national research
and practitioner experts on demographic and
lifestyle trends of an aging U.S. population,
so the Group drew on its knowledge about
existing information and gaps. It was
also suggested that there might be a more
systematic survey of existing information.
Availability of Information
Focal Group A tackled the fundamental
question: Is there sufficient information
to forecast lifestyle behaviors of an aging
population? The initial conclusion was
"Yes"—a qualified yes. There was some
discussion of how you can ever really know if
there was sufficient information. One recurring
issue throughout the Group and workshop
discussion was whether enough information
exists regarding how tail-end Boomers will
age in the future. It is widely expected that
this cohort will behave unpredictably. This
phenomenon underscores the need for a
dynamic approach to lifestyle research. Ken
Dychtwald was noted as an author (Age Wave}
who has devoted his career to understanding
the lifestyle, marketing, financial, healthcare
and workforce implications of the "age
wave"—or aging Baby Boomers.
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group A
Focal Group A discussed some of the issues
associated with analyzing the demographic
and lifestyle trends of the aging population.
The Group felt that an important element of
understanding demographic and lifestyle trends
is to have an across-the-board look at trends.
Yet, one fundamental issue highlighted by
the group was appreciating the diversity of
cohort behavior; the "aging population" does
not behave in a homogenous fashion. Census
data were cited as an important source for
understanding trends. Focal Group A discussed
the various ways that you could segment the
data. For example, analysis could focus on
income level, consumption patterns, race,
religious and cultural backgrounds, or political
attitudes. The Ecological Footprint (explained
in the plenary session) is likely to differ across
different segments.
Focal Group A considered the analysis that
would examine the full cycle from lifestyle
trend to consequences to project effects. For
example, the Group discussed doing a life-
cycle assessment on different consumption
patterns, such as pharmaceutical use. Focal
Group A also discussed the importance of
understanding the consequences of certain
group behavior, for example, the food chain
impact of subsistence fishing or the rate of
pedestrian accidents related to an increased
number of older drivers.
Missing Information
After a general discussion of the
availability of lifestyle and demographic
data, the Group brainstormed what types
of information are missing. The need for
projections and modeling topped Focal
Group As list. The Group discussed the
"futurist" approach—using the Delphi
method, which is a way of collecting
and distilling the forecasts of a group
of experts while ensuring that neither
individual bias nor "group think" prevails
in the final assessment. A suggested
resource for projections is The Art of the
Long View: Planning for the Future in an
Uncertain World, by Peter Schwartz, which
outlines the use of scenario exercises to
develop future visions upon which to base
decisions.
Modeling could integrate variables such
as income, education, health and the
likelihood of moving. Dynamic systems
modeling was applied in reforming New
York State's long-term care system.
Focal Group A also discussed the
fundamental issue of how to define aging.
Various institutions define and collect aging
data based on different thresholds. New
definitions of aging based on cultural and
ethnic considerations might be useful.
Focal Group A also discussed the potential
value of pinpointing environmental
attitudes to location, in order to better
predict behavior. However, large datasets
are hard to break down geographically.
So the Group felt it would be extremely
valuable to augment those types of
databases with targeted surveys or case
studies that can offer in-depth looks at
various facets of lifestyle trends among an
aging population. For example, this multi-
level research may help to more closely
examine choices related to aging in place or
choosing a retirement community.
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M. Holland
Focal Group A discussed at length how to
capture attitudinal data both to predict
behavior and to educate aging Americans
about the impact of lifestyle choices. As
one ages and moves, does one experience
a loss of concern about environmental
issues—perhaps related to a loss of identity
with place? Do people really not care
about other people and countries? The
Group discussed how to appeal to aging
Americans' potential interest in establishing
a legacy. To that end, research might
examine the overarching psychology and
commonwealth motivation that leads some
to embrace a stewardship legacy ethic.
Research on individuals' civic engagement
over their lifespan may be valuable to
understand how to encourage more choices
that consider the common good.
The Group wanted to better understand
how to market successfully to an aging
population, with a view to "environmental
marketing" to effect behavior changes.
The group felt effective marketing would
appeal to self-interest. For example,
energy consumption demand may be
lowered more effectively by a "low-cost"
versus an "energy-efficient" appeal to
older Americans—same potential result,
but different approach. One challenge
addressed by the Group was how to make
quality more appealing than quantity.
Related research might help to better
understand some consumption practices,
including a preference for outsized
space. The Group discussed some
personal experiences with high-demand
neighborhoods that had smaller homes but
a highly desirable community spirit.
The Group discussed capturing success
stories, by searching for environmental
model cities or developments, such as
Dewees Island, South Carolina, which is
considered one of the best examples of
ecological development. They also talked
about identifying and sharing elements
of retirement communities that have
incorporated environmentally sensitive
practices. Comparative research of
countries with high standards of living—
such as Japan, Sweden and Norway—was
also discussed.
Existing Information
Focal Group A brainstormed some of the
existing data sources and authorities on
demographics and lifestyle trends of an
aging population. Census data are a key
source of lifestyle and demographic data.
William Frey, a visiting fellow at the
Brookings Institution, is well regarded
for his Census extrapolations. Among his
work is an article that was included in the
workshop handouts, published by The
Brookings Institution Center on Urban and
Metropolitan Policy: Boomers and Seniors
in the Suburbs: Aging Patterns in Census
2000.
Focal Group A discussed a number of
surveys and other data sources that focus on
various aspects of demographics relevant
to understanding an aging population. For
some of the surveys, EPA could fund an
add-on module to target data collection
towards the impact of aging Americans on
ecology and environmental quality. Those
sources are listed in Table 1 (see following
page).
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group A
Table 1. Surveys and other data sources that focus on various aspects of demographics relevant
to understanding an aging population.
DATA SOURCE
INVESTIGATOR
DESCRIPTION
EPA National Time Use Surveys
Gerontology Surveys
Americans' Changing Lives Project
Health and Retirement Study
Public Health Information Network
(PHIN)
Summary Health Statistics - health
measures for U.S. population
National Survey of Family Growth
National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES)
National Health Interview Survey
(NHIS)
Consumer Expenditure Survey (CE)
Occupational Employment
Statistics Survey (OES)
Survey of Income and Program
Participation (SIPP)
General Social Survey
Dr. John Robinson, University of
Maryland, College Park
Census Bureau, Administration on
Aging, CDC, and others
University of Michigan
University of Michigan
Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
CDC, National Center for Health
Statistics
CDC, National Center for Health
Statistics
CDC, National Center for Health
Statistics
CDC, National Center for Health
Statistics
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau
of Labor Statistics
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau
of Labor Statistics
U.S. Census Bureau
University of Chicago, National
Opinion Research Center (NORC)
Tracks time spent by individuals on various tasks/
activities.
Collection of surveys regarding all aspects of aging.
Longitudinal study of the relationships between
aging, health, and social conditions, started in 1986.
Biannual survey that paints an emerging portrait
of an aging America's physical and mental health,
insurance coverage, financial status, family support
systems, labor market status, and retirument planning.
Framework to enable consistent exchange of
response, health, and disease tracking data between
public health partners.
Collection of health surveys and data collection
systems, data categorized by health topics and/or
demographics.
Interviews including questions on schooling, work,
marriage and divorce, having and raising children
(including contraceptive use, infertility, and
parenting), and related medical care.
Periodic survey of health and nutrition trends,
including laboratory analyses of select chemicals
in the population.
Continuous nationwide survey; data collected
through personal household interviews; ongoing
and special health topics.
Quarterly interview survey and the Diary survey—
that provide information on the buying habits of
American consumers.
Annual mail survey measuring occupational
employment and wage rates for wage and salary
workers in non-farm establishments, by industry.
Continuing survey, with monthly interviews;
collects source and amount of income, labor force
information, program participation and eligibility
data, and general demographic characteristics;
core section plus topical modules.
Started in 1972. Assesses social changes in contemp-
orary America through a standard core of demographic
and attitudinal variables, plus topics of special interest.
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M. Holland
The Group discussed how to capture disability
data, which may have some correlation
to whether or not older Americans age in
place. Census data capture some measure of
disability. Physicians also capture accessibility
information (e.g., stair use information) which
might be aggregated.
Several market surveys are conducted by
different entities, including, for example,
AARP, social service agencies, and insurance
companies. Pulte Homes Del Webb group,
for example, does extensive research on
preferences and behaviors of aging Americans,
though its research is proprietary information.
Regional Differences
Focal Group A began to address the question
of how trends are expected to differ regionally.
Participants acknowledged regional differences
and similarities in trends. When New York
State looks at trends in New York City versus
Upstate New York, they find that big cities
upstate have comparable trends to New York
City. Immigrants are attracted to urban areas.
Rather than citing specific examples at
length, the Group's focus quickly shifted to
discussing the current availability of regional
data—and the differing definitions of regions
across institutions that capture and analyze
demographic data. Typically, geopolitical
boundaries are used to define regions. The
EPA, for example, administers programs
and often has data grouped according to ten
standard federal region configurations in the
U.S. Those studying aging demographics often
find boundaries that are subsets of, or cross
federal regions most useful in analyzing trends.
For example, based on his analysis of 2000
Census data, William Frey has identified three
regions: The "New Sunbelt" (13 fast growing
states, mainly in the Southeast and West); "The
Melting Pot" (9 states attracting most of the
immigrant population); and "The Heartland"
(28 states and the District of Columbia, which
have the largest share of the nation's older and
blue collar population and experience slower
growth rates).
Further, the focus of this workshop is examin-
ing the relationship between demographic
trends of the aging population and impact
on ecology and environmental quality.
Geopolitical boundaries may not correspond to
ecological issues. Focal Group A discussed the
desirability of collecting or analyzing data by
ecoregion. Bailey or Omernick are sources of
defined ecoregions. Focal Group A suggested
doing a layered regional analysis, using an
ecoregion base foundation—and overlaying
with demographics. Overlay factors could
include percentage growth vs. proportion of
population; waves of immigrants; percent of
older adults migrating; and regional carrying
capacity to respond. Educational translations
would be important for people to digest and use
these ecoregion assessments. It was noted that
in the West, for example, water is the "gorilla"
issue; ecoregion assessments would help
highlight key issues and contributing factors
underscoring this issue.
Focal Group A felt a "region" reflects different
culture, resources, climate, affordability and
"prettiness." Those factors are behind regional
migration trends.
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group A
Research Needs to Understand
Demographic And Lifestyle Trends
Focal Group A prioritized key themes of
its discussion to make recommendations
for research needed to better understand
the demographic and lifestyle trends
of an aging population. Dr. Scott
Wright felt it was important to put the
group's recommendations in context;
he proposed, and the Group adopted the
following preface for Focal Group A's
recommendations.
Preface: We have many good datasets
in regard to demographic and lifestyle
trends of the aging population.
Current forecast data for behavior
and lifestyles of aging cohorts are
available and somewhat accessible—
but may not be reliable or designed to
answer key questions. Proceed with
caution when using such data for
policy decisions—and adjust data over
time.
Focal Area Group A's recommendations
for research are:
• Use multi-dimensional studies—
breadth and depth provide a fuller
understanding, e.g., analysis of large
data sets coupled with case studies.
• Collaborate with others for diverse
points of view, methods, and sources.
Run a "Delphi" (futurist exercise) with
those collaborators.
• Capture consumption, medical needs
and lifestyle patterns by cohort and
geographic area to assess probable
impacts (e.g., energy, water, footprint)
of greatest concern.
• Overlay aging population demographic
data on an ecoregion base layer.
Understand aging population's
motivation/attitudes toward the
environment (why certain choices
are made), with the goal of informing
environmental marketing (education
re: impacts) toward achieving a
"Stewardship Legacy."
Develop models to predict future aging
population migration patterns and
lifestyle choices.
Develop a decision support tool that
integrates different personal factors and
reflects trade-offs of various lifestyle
choices, including environmental
impact. Engage "life coaches" and
agencies for aging, among others, in
this effort.
Explore external factors (e.g., traffic,
air pollution) affecting the choice to
migrate or stay in place.
Identify key add-ons to existing survey
research efforts, including CDC's
research surveys.
Explore collected, but publicly
unavailable data (e.g., gerontology
survey "activities form" administered
by physicians); acknowledge caveats
(i.e., potentially skewed by "in-crisis,"
well-educated, insured sample).
AGING POPULATION AS A RESOURCE
FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND
RELATED RESEARCH
Focal Group A considered some of the positive
ways in which an aging population could
impact ecology and environmental quality by
applying their skills and time to volunteering,
educating and monitoring. In general, the
Group felt that it was important to provide
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M. Holland
for meaningful volunteer engagement—by
matching skills and awareness with better
volunteer roles for environmental protection.
The Group noted several existing programs
that could be better tapped, adapted or
expanded, including:
• Expand EPA's Senior Environmental
Employees (SEE) Program; revamp
the SEE Program for problem-
solving, comparable to the Civilian
Conservation Corps—Environmental
"VISTA" or "Senior Environmental
Corps"; expand to other agencies—U.S.
Department of the Interior (DOI), U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USD A),
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA).
• Institute an older adults environmental
monitoring program based on
GLOBE—a youth education and
science program sponsored by a
governmental partnership.
• Utilize the Environmental Alliance for
Senior Involvement (EASI).
• Develop educators through existing
programs (e.g., tapping Extension
Service Master Gardeners).
• Recruit bird watching organizations to
perform biological surveys.
Focal Group A also suggested that oral and
visual (e.g., family photo archives) histories
from older adults can help characterize
environmental history and trends (e.g.,
visibility). Other suggestions included
establishing peer mentoring and training civic
committee participants.
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SUMMARY: FOCAL AREA BREAKOUT GROUP B
Kent Thornton (Facilitator)
FTN Associates
CHANGING LAND-USE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS (EXPOSURE)
Focal Area Group B focused on identifying
existing information and gaps in that
information relative to predicting how
pressures on natural resources and environment
quality will change as the two population
segments (young-old and old-old) grow.
Consideration was given to the social and
environmental amenities required by these
segments, and how changes in the demand
for these amenities will introduce new and
additional environmental stressors or influence
the temporal and spatial aspects of existing
stressors.
SUMMARY
The original charge for Focal Area Breakout
Group B was to address four questions related
to changing land-use and environmental
stressors:
1. Is there sufficient information to
predict patterns of land-use by the
two population segments? If not, what
information is missing and how can we
capture it? Where is the information
that does exist?
2. What new environmental stresses are
expected as the result of changes in
land-use and the increased demand for
social and environmental amenities?
3. What infrastructure issues must
communities address to prepare for
dramatic increases in their aging
population?
4. What research is critically needed to
develop a more complete understanding
of expected patterns of land-use and
environmental stressors? Are ecological
footprints a useful tool for this
assessment?
Focal Group B focused on the stressor link
between sources and effects in the ecological
risk assessment paradigm. The answers to
the questions posed above were embedded
in the discussion, but it was difficult for
the Group to specifically address stressors
without some understanding of the specific
sources of stressors and specific environmental
effects. The following summary highlights
the excellent discussion that occurred in the
Breakout Group.
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group B
1. Environmental Issues and Information
Sources
Brain-storming was conducted to identify
environmental issues and information
sources. Some of the issues included:
• Use, disposal, and treatment of water
• Vehicle emissions contributing
particulates and ozone precursors
• Development within sensitive coastal
and mountain areas, resulting in
fragmented habitat and increased
impervious area
Additional issues are listed in Table 1.
Many of the issues were not specific to an
aging population, but an aging population
will contribute to these issues. One of
the research areas might be the relative
contribution of an aging population to
various stressors. Some stressors might
be aggravated, while others might be
ameliorated. For example, migration trends
of older adults might result in farmland
in smaller metropolitan areas being
purchased for development. Other effects
may occur if alternative crops are raised
in the future because of preferences of an
aging population. One suggestion was to
investigate future trends in agricultural
markets because agricultural activities
contribute significant loads of sediment,
nutrients, and pesticides to aquatic
ecosystems.
Some of the information sources included:
• Sonoran Institute
• Urban Land Institute
• National Association of Home Builders
(NAHB)
• EPAs Aging Initiative
Additional information sources are listed in
Table 2.
The Group agreed the list of information
sources might be almost endless. Many
of the organizations listed, however, have
evaluated characteristics of an aging
population, investigated or researched
green technology, or can provide
information on specific stressors in different
geographic areas. Intel Corporation, for
example, is investigating the impacts of
technology on an aging population. The
Urban Land Institute has a Council on
Aging to evaluate alternative building
designs and hardware for older adults.
Recommendation: Rather than continue
to brain-storm on multiple issues
and information sources, the group
recommended that a literature search
be conducted and a matrix developed
that cross-references issues, scale,
information sources, models, and other
pertinent information needed to assess
the effects of an aging population on the
environment.
Recommendation: Another recommend-
ation from this discussion was that new
types and forms of partnerships need to
be developed and pursued in the future.
There is no them versus us; there is only
us. These partnerships should include the
private sector, NGOs, and local, state, and
federal agencies.
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2. Scale
The scale at which these studies might be
conducted to maximize the utility of the
results was a topic raised in this Breakout
Group. A national or regional scale was
not considered appropriate for research
because most decisions are not made at this
scale, the tools and techniques to project
the effects of an aging population are too
uncertain, and the issues and processes are
too complex at this scale. Most decisions
are made at a local scale, and there are
multiple techniques, procedures, agencies
and institutions working at this scale.
Recommendation: It was also
recommended that a meta-analysis of
multiple local scale studies on aging,
environmental impacts, ancillary
transportation, energy, infrastructure, etc.,
be conducted to determine if there are
certain factors that are common among all
or most of these local scale issues.
The Sustainable Environment for Quality
of Life (SEQL) initiative was suggested
to be an ideal scale. It is a two-state (North
Carolina-South Carolina), 15 county, 85
municipality area that is considering the
impacts of air and water quality on the
population and environment. This initiative
presents an opportunity to leverage on-
going funds, information, resources, and
researchers, and has many of the population
and environmental issues related to the
effects of an aging population on the
environment.
Recommendation: Because there is
currently considerable research and
emphasis at the local scale, it was
recommended that EPA focus its
research at a scale smaller than a region
(i.e., multi-state EPA Regions), but
large enough to consider the cumulative
impact of local decisions.
3. Case Studies & Demonstration
Projects
The SEQL initiative represented a good
case study or demonstration project with
the right issues and at the right scale.
Recommendation: It was recommended
by the Group that a Case Study or
Demonstration Project approach be used
to investigate the effects of an aging
population on the environment.
It was suggested that additional case studies
and demonstration projects be sought in
other areas, such as the Great Lakes. A
Great Lakes study would not only provide
a northern contrast for the southern SEQL
study, but also incorporate international
considerations. East-West Case Studies
or Demonstration Projects should also be
sought. Two different types of communities
should be considered—new developments
and existing communities with built
infrastructure. The key is to document
the process used in conducting the Case
Studies or Demonstration Projects so the
process can be transferred to other regions
or studies. Each area will have its own
unique characteristics, but the process for
investigating environment effects should
be similar regardless of the region. Each
of these Case Studies or Demonstration
Projects should be viewed as laboratories
for partnerships.
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group B
Recommendation: The process used
in each Case Study or Demonstration
Project should be documented so the
process can be transferred to other areas
or regions with similar issues.
These Case Studies or Demonstration
Projects should assess not just the current
stressors and vulnerabilities of ecological
systems, but should also assess future
vulnerabilities. One option might be
to assume that policies important to an
aging population, such as affordable
prescription drugs or universal access to
natural amenities, will be promulgated
and assess the environmental impacts of
these policies. Other options might be
to evaluate the potential environmental
impacts of wellness programs that sustain
the activities of active adults, greater
mobility, greater use of natural areas, more
golf courses, etc. within existing, built
communities, and new developments.
Recommendation: Alternative futures
analyses and future vulnerability
analyses should accompany the
assessment of current vulnerabilities.
4. Economics and Integrated Studies
A key aspect of all studies is to integrate
the economic costs and benefits of the
environmental impacts and management
actions. One potential approach for
assessing economic costs and benefits
would be to conduct a business model
analysis of each of these communities—
new development and existing
infrastructure. This would provide a link
between environmental and economic
costs and benefits, and contribute a
cost-effective evaluation of proposed
technology, regulations, policies, and
laws. It would provide documentation
that green technology is both cost-
effective and profitable for developers and
planners. This could be accomplished by
developing partnerships with the private
sector or institutions such as the National
Association of Home Builders or Urban
Land Institute, who would have the
information and expertise to conduct these
business model assessments.
In addition, the effects of existing
regulations, policies, ordinances, zoning,
etc. should be evaluated to assess their
relative contribution to promoting sprawl.
For example, some zoning ordinances
and covenants require no more than three
homes per acre and 30% green space
within communities. The EPA Smart
Growth Program has begun to investigate
the contribution of federal, state, and local
policies and regulations to urban sprawl.
Recommendation: A business model
analysis should be considered to establish
economic-environmental linkages
and document the cost-effectiveness
and profitability of various green
technologies. These analyses might also
consider the contribution of regulations
and policies to urban sprawl and assess
the cost-effectiveness of alternative
policies recommended by the EPA Smart
Growth Program.
5. Partnerships and Facilitation
It was recognized that facilitating the
process will be a critical aspect of the
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K.Thornton
Case Studies or Demonstration Projects.
A partnership among EPA ORD, Regional
Offices, and NGOs could significantly
enhance this facilitation process. The EPA
Regions work directly with the States and
NGOs, and could facilitate the process
of gathering the needed information and
identifying the appropriate stakeholders,
as well as contribute insight on specific
social issues of concern. ORD can develop
the appropriate tools and procedures,
and document the process. The Regions
can help facilitate the process and move
toward implementation of the tools,
procedures, and management practices,
as well as contribute directly to the
usability of these tools, procedures,
and practices. Partnerships within EPA
are the first step, but there are existing
vehicles for improving communication
and interaction among stakeholders. Most
active adult life-style communities have a
community association or property owners
association that has a newsletter, periodic
meetings, and networks established within
the community. Partnering with these
Table 1. Potential environmental issues orstressors associated with an aging population.
(For many issues, the relative contribution from an aging population would be considered, as
these are not issues associated solely with aging populations).
Water
Distribution and infrastructure in both
existing and new communities
Change in usage—domestic and
commercial (e.g., golf courses)
Treatment for Pharmaceuticals
Failing treatment systems in rural
communities
Discharge of Pharmaceuticals and by-
products
Water re-use, recycling
Increased number of package treatment
plants
Additional septic systems
Increased pollutant transport from
increased impervious surfaces
Disposal, leaching of hazardous chemicals
from electronic waste
Air
Land
Increased waste-adult diapers,
electronic equipment, disposable
medical equipment
Increased habitat fragmentation—trails,
universal access, development
Urban sprawl
Increased congestion
Increased impervious area
Increased flooding, runoff
Increased waste from domestic pets,
wildlife (e.g., geese on golf courses)
Fragile environment disturbance
(Coastal dunes, shores, barrier
islands, Montane ecosystems, Arid
ecosystems)
Vehicle emissions
Increased emissions from generating increased energy (heating, cooling)
Haze, decreased visibility
Ozone damage to terrestrial ecosystems
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group B
Table 2. Selected sources and type of information.
Source
Urban Land Institute
National Association of Home Builders
Sonoran Institute
National Association of Area Agencies on Aging
National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences
California Center for Land Recycling
Center for Inclusive Design
and Environmental Access
Smart Growth Network
National Park Service
USDA Forest Service
Trust for Public Land
UC-Riverside CE-CERT (College of Engineering
Center for Environmental Research and
Technology)
Brookings Institution
The Nature Conservancy
American Institute of Architects
Texas Transportation Institute
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
Type of Information
Real estate and urban development - councils on
aging
Seniors housing news, information on building
trends
Conservation information and stakeholders in the
West
Information programs on aging adult population
Information on environmental risks, stressors,
hazards to humans
Information on reducing urban sprawl and
repairing fractured communities
Information on designing facilities for universal
access, safety, reducing environmental impacts
from development
Policies, practices to reduce urban sprawl and
promote green technology and environmental
planning
Practices, policies, regulations for low impact trails
and facilities
Information on designing low impact recreational
practices
Information on land management and land
conservation for recreation, spiritual nourishment,
and improvement of health and quality of life for
American communities
Think tank on issues such as traffic, urban
planning, and air quality, including industrial,
academic, and government partnerships
Think tank with interests in cities and suburbs,
demographics, economics, environment, and
social policy
Conservation through design, including targeting
areas, land management, stream restoration,
public-private partnerships
Creation of a better built environment, including
green technology, open spaces, planning, and
economic analyses
Transportation planning and Smart Growth for
improving neighborhood design
Economic benefits from environmental
management of transmission line easements
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Table 2 (continued). Selected sources and type of information.
Source
EPA Collaborative Science and Technology
Network for Sustainability
CERES (Coalition for Environmentally
Responsible Economies)
NICE (Northeast International Committee on
Energy)
Type of Information
EPA grants program for environmental protection
approaches that are systems-oriented, forward-
looking and preventative
Supports and encourages industry and private
sector businesses to embrace corporate-level,
voluntary social and sustainable programs
Conferences, coalitions on energy production
through electric restructuring, natural gas
development, and resource and infrastructure
development
organizations and similar NGOs, such as
watershed associations, can help facilitate
communication and contributions. These
partnerships should be pursued as part of
the Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology
and Environmental Quality research
program.
Recommendation: ORD should enter
into a partnership with EPA Regions
for each Case Study/Demonstration
Project, with the Regions facilitating
the interaction and communication
with stakeholders, contributing to
the development of the process, and
initiating the implementation of
appropriate policies and management
actions emerging from the process.
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SUMMARY: FOCAL AREA BREAKOUT GROUP C
Wayne Munns (Facilitator)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EFFECTS OF AGING AMERICANS
ON NATURAL RESOURCES AND
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
Charge and Approach
Focal Area Group C considered the ecological
effects that aging Americans may have on
natural resources and environmental quality.
More specifically, Focal Area Group C was
asked to identify existing information and gaps
in that information relative to understanding the
effects of an aging population, the associated
changes in land-use patterns and environmental
stressors on the environment, and what this
means relative to critically needed research.
Specific questions addressed included:
• Is there specific information to predict
the environmental effects of changing
land-use and demands for social,
environmental and infrastructural
amenities by different segments of
the aging population? If not, what
information is missing and how can we
capture it? Where is the information
that does exist?
• What do we know about the
environmental effects of land-use and
stressors relative to the life styles of an
aging population?
• What research is critically needed
to develop a more complete
understanding of environmental
effects of aging population-related
land-use and environmental stressors?
• What built community planning
practices can be applied to minimize
environmental stressors and enhance
the quality of life for different
segments of the aging population?
In the context of the simplified risk
paradigm (see figure 1- top row), following
page), ecological effects are considered
to be the changes in natural resource and
environmental condition that result from
exposure to stressors generated or modified
by the aging population. Examples of such
effects might include impacts on aquatic life
and wildlife due to changes in water quality
and quantity, impacts on native wildlife due
to altered habitats, or modification of the
aesthetic quality of landscapes. To facilitate
understanding of the relationships among
sources, stressors and effects associated with
the aging population, the Group considered
a simple conceptual model that helped us
visualize how the expected increase in active
older Americans could affect the quality
of surface waters (Figure 1 - bottom row).
In this conceptualization, new retirement
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group C
communities, perhaps built in the arid
southwest, are considered to be potential
sources of a variety of environmental stressors.
In particular, chemicals associated with lawn
care products (pesticides, fertilizers) might
be expected to increase in surface waters
relative to background levels as these products
are applied to golf courses associated with
retirement communities. Such changes in
stressor (chemical and nutrient) concentrations
might result in the adverse ecological effects of
aquatic organism toxicity or eutrophication
This conceptualization helped us focus
discussion on potential ecological effects, and
clarified informational needs relative to the
sources and stressors components of the risk
paradigm.
To help structure the deliberations, we initially
considered two broad segments of aging
Americans: the "young-old"—individuals
who remain active and perhaps relocate to
retirement communities which are typically
located in geographic areas with greater natural
amenities (e.g., "gateway communities" near
National/State Parks and Forests) and cultural
amenities (e.g., college towns), and the "old-
old"—less active people choosing to (or
with no option but to) remain in their current
communities. While recognizing the potential
dangers associated with the crudeness of this
distinction, it helped the group to explore the
types and levels of effects that might result
from relative extremes in the behaviors and life
styles of the aging population.
SOURCES
STRESSORS
New
Retirement
Community
Chemicals
in Lawn Care
Products
ECOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
Aquatic
Toxicity &
Eutrophication
Figure 1. Simplified risk paradigm (top) and conceptual model (bottom) relating aging-related
sources and stressors to ecological effects. Group C focused on potential ecological effects of aging
population-related stressors.
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Life Style Issues and
Stressors Unique to the Aging Cohort
With an expanded appreciation of the term
"effects" and the categorization of life-style
as background, Focal Group C approached
its charge by first trying to identify life
style issues that are at least somewhat
unique to the aging population. Many
of the environmental effects potentially
associated with the increasing aging
demographic might simply be functions
of increasing numbers of people in the
general population. That is, the growing
total American population in and of
itself will create increasing demands for
resources, expanding uses of landscapes,
and so on. Delineation of effects related to
increases in the cohort of aging Americans
from those associated with the general
phenomenon of increased total population
size helped to sharpen our focus on
issues specific to the aging population.
Recognizing that the other Focal Area
Groups were charged more specifically
with understanding sources and Stressors,
Focal Group C brainstormed aging-related
life style issues with some consideration
of variation among life style segments
(Table 1). Examples of these include
differences in the types and patterns of use
of pharmaceuticals, differences in mobility
and access requirements and transportation
needs (e.g., more sidewalks), and potential
increases in energy use (heating, outdoor
lighting) associated with comfort choices.
The Group used this understanding to
identify the changes in waste streams and
environmental Stressors that might be
attributed to aging Americans (Table 1 on
page 126).
After much discussion, the Group
concluded that almost all considerations
about Stressors associated with these life
style issues reflect changes in magnitude
and quantity—the aging cohort likely will
introduce few Stressors uniquely. There
may be, however, some exceptions to this.
For example, aging Americans are expected
to use different types of pharmaceutical
products, perhaps in different combinations,
than those used by the general population
at large. This may result in novel chemicals
or combinations of chemicals in aquatic
waste streams, with unknown resulting
effects. Older Americans likely also
would utilize different consumer goods in
differing quantities compared to that of the
general population. This use would result
in somewhat unique Stressors entering the
waste stream, including durable (e.g.,
walkers, canes, wheelchairs) and non-
durable (e.g., incontinence garments,
hearing aide batteries) medical goods.
Many communities may not be prepared
for such changes in their waste streams,
or for the increased demand for ancillary
services (transportation, health care, etc.)
imposed by increases in the aging cohort.
Additionally, for young-old Americans,
increases in disposable income and
flexibility with respect to housing location
relative to historic job centers may result in
increasing development pressures in areas
previously unutilized (e.g., the rural west).
Even in these cases, however, the Group
was hard-pressed to identify Stressors that
are truly unique to the aging cohort.
Despite this apparent lack of unique
Stressors, natural resource use and the waste
streams generated by the aging population
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group C
Table 1. Life style issues and stressors associated with the aging population.
Life Style Issue
Relevant Aging Segment
Potential Stressors
Pharmaceutical types
and use patterns
Both young-old and old-old
Unique chemicals, including
potential endocrine disrupters, in
increased amounts and different
combinations in waste water streams
Land development patterns
Young-old
Altered habitats; disruption of
migration corridors; changes in
water quality and quantity
Built environment in-fill
Old-old
Increased sprawl; exacerbation of
"urban heat island" phenomenon
Mobility and access amenities;
transportation infrastructure
Both young-old and old-old
Increased sprawl due to single-level
housing; more sidewalks leading to
more impervious surface; increased
roadways leading to habitat fragment-
ation and road runoff; increased
amounts of transportation-related
chemicals (e.g., golf cart battery
chemicals) in waste streams
Durable and non-durable
medical goods usage
Both young-old and old-old
Increased bulk of durable and non-
durable products in landfills (e.g.,
batteries, eye glasses, walkers,
wheelchairs, canes, adult
incontinence garments); increased
amounts of uncommon metals (e.g.,
titanium, mercury from batteries) in
waste streams; stressors associated
with resource extraction and
manufacturing
Health service usage
Both young-old and old-old
Increased land development (e.g.,
new health care facilities);
increased amounts of non-durable
medical goods in waste streams
Increased disposable
income
Young-old
Increased stressors associated with
recreational patterns and demands
on environment (e.g., land use
disruptions, golf course chemicals)
Energy use related to
comfort choices
Both young-old and old-old
Increased use of resources related
to energy use; light pollution in
newly developed areas
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may overwhelm the ability of ecological
systems to compensate for or assimilate
changes in stressor levels. Group C
discussed the concept of "tipping points"—
thresholds in stressor levels or ecological
effects beyond which the ecological
systems change state—and the possibility
that release rates, magnitudes or quantities
of aging-related stressors may exceed
these thresholds. Although the concept of
"tipping points" is straightforward to grasp,
identifying their existence and importance
as related to aging-related stressors may
add a challenging new dimension to
the research needed to understand the
ecological effects of the aging population.
Not all life style issues necessarily would result
in increased environmental stress and pressures
on natural resources. For example, the Group
considered the possibility that differences in
the environmental ethic of aging Americans
(particularly the young-old) relative to the
population at-large might even result in a net
benefit to the environment. Building from the
belief structures and examples described during
the plenary presentations, it may be reasonable
to assume that portions of the aging population
would act individually and collectively to
minimize environmental impacts or even
enhance environmental quality, at least in their
local communities. Increased volunteerism
and elective changes in consumer patterns
may result in environmental legacies that are
positive relative to those of other age groups in
the general population.
Existing Information and Research Needs
for Understanding Ecological Effects
Focal Area Group B next focused on
ecological effects likely produced by life
style-related stressors. The time available
did not allow comprehensive deliberation of
all possible direct and indirect effects, and it
was acknowledged that our list of stressors
might be incomplete relative to the outcome
of Focal Area Group B's discussion. We also
acknowledged that effects associated with
many of the life style characteristics of the
young-old segment shared commonalities with
those of new community development and
sprawl in general, but that effects associated
with the old-old (aging-in-place) segment
would be much more challenging to elucidate.
This discussion was facilitated by completion
of matrices or tables that relate selected
life style issues, through their associated
stressors, to possible ecological effects.
This structure also supported deliberation of
existing information and the research needed
specifically to fill gaps in our understanding. In
describing research needs, we avoided defining
the specific approaches that should be taken,
considering this more appropriately to be a task
undertaken by Agency research planners (but
see below). Further, our analysis would benefit
from more comprehensive considerations of
the life style issues, stressors and possible
ecological effects related to the aging
population issue. The results of this exercise
are given in Table 2.
Although Table 2 is self-explanatory,
working through one of the "rows" might
be instructional. For the pharmaceutical
types and use patterns life style issue,
primary stressors were considered to be
biologically-active chemicals in surface
and drinking water. A variety of ecological
effects could result from exposure to these
chemicals, given sufficient concentrations
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
125
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group C
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Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
127
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Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group C
or combinations, including changes in the
productivity and health of aquatic life and
wildlife. For example, exposure to endocrine
disrupting chemicals might alter hormonal
processes in individual fish, affecting rates
of development and reproduction. When
sufficiently severe, such effects may impact
the dynamics of the exposed population(s),
changes which could cascade through food
webs such that the chemicals cause indirect
effects on aquatic community structure and
function. Key gaps in our understanding were
identified relative to the types and quantities
of chemicals entering wastewater streams,
the effectiveness of wastewater treatment in
removing or reducing chemical concentrations,
and exposure-response relationships among
those chemicals and relevant biological
responses. In risk language, the first two of
these gaps are issues of exposure, whereas the
last is one of ecological effects. Finally, the
first-order research needed to fill these gaps is
characterization of waste streams before and
after treatment, and quantification of exposure-
response relations for key biological and
ecological responses.
Following completion of Table 2, the Group
developed a common sense of priorities of
research needs. Two factors were considered
relative to priority: 1) the perceived importance
of the ecological effect relative to the overall
issue of the increasing aging population, and
2) the degree to which the research would fill
a critical knowledge gap. The results of this
prioritization are reflected in the order of life
style issues given in Table 2.
Over the course of our discussions, certain
generic projects or approaches were identified
that might be particular effective for filling
key knowledge gaps in application of the
simplified risk paradigm. Specifically,
valuable information about resource and
environmental uses by aging Americans could
be obtained through a "market basket" analysis
of purchased products and environmental
amenity use. Such an analysis might also
contribute information about the waste streams
and stressors generated by individuals and
communities. Latitudinal comparisons,
both between elder communities (say, in
Florida or the west) and those of the general
population, and among societies with differing
demographics (say, between the U.S. and
Sweden, where the aging phenomenon is being
realized today), could provide insights into
differences in resource use and environmental
impacts that would further define these issues
for the aging population. Additionally, such
comparisons might facilitate identification of
approaches taken by other groups and societies
to ameliorate the adverse effects of shifting
demographics. Finally, various ecological
footprint analyses of elder communities and
even individual seniors, when compared with
the results of similar analyses for communities
from the general population and different age
groups, could be instructive about resource
needs and usage.
CODA
In final analysis, the ecological effects of
the aging population may not be completely
separable from those associated with increases
in the size of the general population. Yet,
patterns of resource use and the magnitudes
and combinations of certain aging-related
stressors may present novel challenges
with respect to our ability to forecast those
128
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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W. Munns
effects. Through a structured analysis of life
style issues, stressors and ecological effects,
Focal Area Group C identified some key
areas of research needed to enhance ability
to assess risks associated with the aging of
America. This information will help to inform
development of EPA's ecological effects
research agenda.
Two important insights emerged (or rather, re-
emerged) over the course of our deliberations.
The first was the confirmation that complex
issues such as this one are best approached
through interactive consideration of all aspects
of the risk assessment/risk management
process. We struggled a fair amount with, and
put substantial time into, consideration of the
stressors expected to be associated with aging
population. Further, largely missing from our
discussion was identification of the specific
actions that could be taken to prevent or
mitigate the effects associated with the aging
population, although the results of the research
identified here will help to provide additional
knowledge about the effectiveness of such
actions. A more interactive dialogue addressing
all parts of the process, and involving a
broad range of partners, collaborators and
stakeholders, likely would have yielded more
comprehensive understanding.
The second insight was that aging Americans
are very diverse with respect to life styles,
cultural perspectives, and health status
and susceptibility. Categorization of the
aging cohort into young-old and old-old
segments conveniently facilitated parts of
the deliberation, but we recognized that such
a scheme may miss the richness reflected in
older Americans. Although we can continue
to treat this richness as an "uncertainty," our
understanding of the ecological effects of the
aging population on natural resources and
environmental quality will ultimately suffer
from lack of consideration of the underlying
diversity of aging Americans.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
129
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SUMMARY: INTERACTIONS/LINKAGES BREAKOUT GROUP 1
Mary Holland (Facilitator)
Perot Systems Government Services
Interactions/Linkages Group 1 volunteers
from the three Focal Area Breakout Groups
summarized their prior breakout group's
discussion for Interactions/Linkages Group
1 colleagues. The Group then discussed
interactions and linkages among the themes
discussed by Focal Area Groups A, B and C.
DISCUSSION
Interactions/Linkages Group 1 was inspired
by the work that Focal Area Group C had
done already to make linkages from sources
of environmental stress to exposure to effects
(Group C's initial charge). Focal Area Group C
had found it difficult to discuss effects without
backing into what unique (compared to the
general population) sources of stress might be
introduced by older adults. Focal Area Group
C developed a matrix laying out the simplified
risk paradigm and prioritized its findings (see
Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group C).
Interactions/Linkages Group 1 endorsed Focal
Area Group C's linkage discussion/work and
recommended that EPA should work with
a multi-disciplinary group to review and
add details to Focal Area Group C's matrix
framework.
Visualization was discussed as a tool to add
depth to understanding the matrix framework.
For example, illustrations could help bring to
life and communicate the potential pathways
of effects. EPA could look at, for example,
Pharmaceuticals, in conjunction with the
migration of older adults to Florida, in
conjunction with fragile ecosystem. Another
tool that can add depth to understanding the
pathway of effects is case studies. Florida
could be a fertile ground for case studies. One
possible research model for investigating the
ecological effects of the aging population's
pharmaceutical use and disposal is the
approach to studying the ecological effects
of CAFOs—concentrated animal feeding
operations—by estimating loading of pollutants
and their consequent concentrations in various
media and predicting their effects.
Interactions/Linkages Group 1 discussed the
potential water, soil, and air quality effects of
burials—presumably at higher demand among
an aging population. Different cultural and
religious practices may have varying impacts.
Japan was cited as an example where land is
scarce, so cremation has become a common
practice there compared to the U.S., where
related air quality and ash disposal concerns,
in addition to cultural practices, may make
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 131
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Summary: Interactions/Linkages Breakout Group 1
widespread cremation less viable. The Group
listed a few approaches that may mitigate
potential land burial effects, but would require
further evaluation to assess their overall
environmental and social impact. Those
approaches include: development of a land-
sustaining burial industry; green cemeteries;
and reef creation from burials at sea.
The Group discussed whether all the potentially
affected parties, including the aging population
itself, really understand the implications of the
actions of an aging U.S. population. The Group
wondered if communities were aware of and
ready to manage the impacts of in-migration
trends? Florida was noted as a state that wants
that aging population and is actively marketing
to attract seniors. Redistribution often disrupts
and replaces the existing population (e.g.,
local fishermen in coastal communities live
elsewhere due to escalating coastal living costs
and so travel further to sell their catch). On the
other hand, service demands may create more
jobs.
Interactions/Linkages Group 1 talked about
ways to communicate with older adults about
the resource impacts caused by retirement
communities. The concept of developing
decision support tools to assist with considering
and balancing lifestyle choices to lessen
environmental effects was endorsed. Factors
that could be considered include amenities for
different retirement living circumstances (e.g.,
walking opportunities may lead to reduced car
use). The Group suggested augmenting existing
decision support tools with environmental
considerations for everyone, not just for older
people. The success of decision support tools
requires education to understand their value
and learn how to use them.
The group also endorsed the notion that
volunteerism and environmental stewardship
embraced by older adults could have positive
environmental effects.
Group 1 underscored two key themes:
• As EPA pursues research to
better understand the impact of
aging Americans on ecology and
environmental quality, it should
use multi-disciplinary teams (grant
preference to consortiums), comprising:
• Gerontologists
• Demographers
• Economists
• Sociologists
• Planners
• Geographers
• Ecologists
• Architects
• Citizen-stakeholders
• Many things that are good for the aging
population are good for other groups;
we should embrace a new motto/
paradigm—Lifelong Quality of Life.
An added benefit to this approach is
getting around the aversion of some
aging Americans to identifying with the
label—"aging."
132
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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SUMMARY: INTERACTIONS/LINKAGES BREAKOUT GROUP 2
Kent Thornton (Facilitator)
FTN Associates
The discussion focused primarily on the
conclusions reached in Focal Area Breakout
Groups. Following these conclusions,
Interactions/Linkages Group 2 identified
five questions that will need to be addressed
through research.
1. What stressors are specific to an aging
population?
The Effects Group (Focal Area Breakout
Group C) had identified some stressors that
might be specific to an aging population, but
in many instances, the stressors associated
with an aging population are similar to those
of any other population cohort. The desire for
natural environmental amenities, while not
unique to an aging population, can result in
the development of active adult communities
in fragile environments that are particularly
susceptible to human activities. Studying
aging adults provides information germane
to other population cohorts and increases our
understanding of human activity-environmental
linkages.
2. What proportion of stressors are
contributed by an aging population?
If many of the stressors are similar for an aging
population as compared to other population
cohorts, how important is it to understand the
contribution from this particular population
segment? In many cases, it is the relative
magnitude of a growing adult population that
is needed to assess the potential effects of an
aging population on the environment. The
proportion of the aging adult population is
expected to double by 2030. One question is
whether the relative contribution of stressors
and effects will reflect this population trend.
To understand these differences, it is important
to assess the relative contribution from an
aging population. In addition, one of the needs
of social marketing or other intervention
approaches to reduce these stressors is an
understanding of the relative contribution of
a particular population segment. Different
intervention approaches will be used for
different population segments, such as
teenagers, young adults, or active adults.
3. What effects are specific to an aging
population?
Group C had discussed this question
extensively and identified a few effects that
might be specific to an aging population (see
Summary: Focal Area Breakout Group C).
In general, Group C thought the effects of
an aging population were indistinguishable
from those of other population cohorts. For
example, the effects of development of active
adult communities are associated more with
development than with an aging population.
Many active adult communities are similarly
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 133
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Summary: Interactions/Linkages Breakout Group 2
designed and it might be possible to more
readily modify these designs if cost-effective,
environmentally friendly development
alternatives were identified and demonstrated.
Designing these alternatives requires an
understanding of the environmental effects
from this population segment.
4. What is the value of information on this
issue?
If the stressors and effects associated with
an aging population are similar to those
from other population cohorts, what is
the value of information on one specific
cohort? In general, most of the information
on the effects of various stressors has been
assessed independent of any consideration of
population segment or cohort. If this research
is to complement the human health research,
it will be important to understand not only
the effects of the environment on a particular
sentinel or susceptible population cohort, but
also the effects of that sentinel cohort on the
environment. In most instances, we are not
able to answer this question because we have
not factored demographics into our analyses.
Focusing on the active adult population
segments permits the development of
approaches and methods useful in partitioning
the effects of other population cohorts on the
environment.
5. How will economics interface with
these effects as money is transferred from
income generation to asset management?
One of the differences between aging adult
populations and other population segments that
was stated at the workshop is the transfer from
income generation to asset management after
retirement. We have little insight or information
on what the consequences for environmental
conservation, stewardship, or restoration are
from this economic transition. Emphasis on an
aging population provides an opportunity to
develop not only linkages between economics
and ecology, but also between ecology and
societal beliefs and values and how these
linkages affect environment management and
policy.
134
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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SUMMARY: INTERACTIONS/LINKAGES BREAKOUT GROUP 3
Wayne Munns (Facilitator)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
The original Focal Area Breakout Groups
focused individually upon the separate
components of the simplified risk paradigm—
sources, stressors and ecological effects. As
recognized in those earlier discussions, a
more interactive and comprehensive dialogue
involving all aspects of the risk assessment/risk
management process is necessary to appreciate
the interactions and linkages among its various
components. Understanding these linkages may
be critical to identifying the research needed to
prepare the Nation for the aging population.
Interactions/Linkages Group 3 initiated
dialogue by reviewing both the charge for the
session and the results of the deliberations
of the earlier focal area groups. The ensuing
discussion emphasized the importance of
framing the aging Americans issue with the
broadest of perspectives, and reaffirmed
the desirability to involve a number of
disciplines in that effort. In addition to
ecologists, health scientists and environmental
decision-makers, representatives of the
social sciences, economists, community
planners and others will need to contribute to
the process. Interactions/Linkages Group 3
also acknowledged the value of considering
prevention and mitigation of potential
ecological impacts in thinking through the
problem.
Our deliberations highlighted the importance
of recognizing the diversity of lifestyles, and
requirements for social, health, transportation
and environmental amenities of Americans in
the aging population. Although simplifying
generalizations might help research planners
to frame the issues broadly, clarifying the full
array of potential ecological effects likely will
require that this diversity be acknowledged
explicitly. Given the scope of this issue, and
the expertise generally available to EPA, the
Group felt that collaboration with external
partners will be needed to support further
research planning exercises.
Also acknowledged were the nuances
associated with spatial aspects of the problem.
Regional and local differences in demography,
migration patterns, social values, existing
infrastructure and even the background of
resource availability and condition, all will
influence how stressors associated with the
aging population might affect environmental
quality. Thus, knowledge of national trends
likely will be insufficient to inform the process
of understanding potential local effects, and
therefore identification of outstanding research
needs. In many cases, a national perspective
may even be misleading. This suggests an
important linkage issue to be the interactions
among sources, stressors and potential
ecological effects across spatial scale.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 135
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Summary: Interactions/Linkages Breakout Group 3
While identifying few new research needs
emerging from interactions/Linkages among
sources, stressors and effects, the discussion
in Group 3 did clarify the importance
of understanding the factors that affect
individual decisions to change lifestyle
and living arrangements. Such choices
determine migration patterns, influence
future requirements for both existing and new
infrastructure, and affect local waste streams,
thereby affecting the nature and likelihood of
ecological effects. Substantial research may
be needed to resolve these factors to a level
sufficient to support prediction of future trends
in the lifestyles of aging Americans.
136 Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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POST WORKSHOP CONSIDERATIONS
FOR RESEARCH AND NEW DIRECTIONS
Wayne Munns
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Additional issues and suggestions were
offered during the peer review of the draft
workshop proceedings, sparked by the issue-
defining papers and the reports of the breakout
groups. Although some of these fell outside
the intended scope of the workshop, many
provided further insights and emphasized
specific research needs. These are summarized
following the organizational structure of the
workshop to provide additional input to the
Agency's research planning process. This
section concludes with a brief description
of how the Agency will use the information
communicated in this report to develop its
ecological research program to help prepare
the Nation for the environmental effects of an
aging American population.
ADDITIONAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH
NEEDS
Demographic and Lifestyle Patterns
Patterns of movement by older Americans
and descriptions of their lifestyles may be
more complicated than the "old-old" and
"young-old" dichotomy used to structure
parts of the workshop deliberations.
Evidence suggests that most moves
by elders are local, with up to 75% of
relocations occurring within the same
county or state. Proximity of family,
familiar neighborhoods and convenient
services such as transportation, shopping
and medical centers, city centers and inner
suburbs can be attractive features for
many older Americans regardless of their
level of activity. The importance of these
attractions, and the prevalence of "reverse
migration" (in which older Americans
leave active retirement communities to
"return home"), need to be understood to
predict future demographic and lifestyle
patterns.
Another factor potentially influencing the
residential choices of elders is, ironically,
the aging of the Nation's built environment.
Failure to reuse and renovate buildings,
redevelop brownfields and modernize
urban infrastructure will greatly decrease
the ability of older urban and suburban
centers to entice or absorb relocating
seniors. Deficiencies in the ability of
existing cities to provide the housing and
amenities demanded by aging Americans
could influence future patterns of migration
profoundly. An evaluation of trends
expected in urban decay and revitalization,
perhaps characterized by region of the
country, would inform predictions of
migration patterns of older adults.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 137
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Post Workshop Considerations for Research and New Directions
As a final issue relevant to demographic
and lifestyle patterns, assumptions made
in the workshop about what elders value,
and the amenities they seek, requires
substantiation. For example, alternative
practices of health care and medicine
may become more attractive as elders
experience new ailments associated with
aging. Access to such amenities may be
limited in smaller (or perhaps newer)
communities, influencing decisions about
where to live. Additional information will
be needed to enhance understanding of the
cultural, social, economic and other factors
that influence the lifestyle choices made by
older Americans.
Changing Land-use and Environmental
Stressors
Recent evidence suggests retirees are
seeking self-employment and volunteer op-
portunities with a trend away from new de-
velopment, frontier development and urban
sprawl. Actions taken to slow rates of new
development and its impacts (e.g., smart
designs) may not be effective in the long
run, as land-use change and its damaging
effects are only slowed. Forward-looking
revitalization strategies for urban and
suburban landscapes that focus on adaptive
reuse and brownfield redevelopment may
be better options for providing the housing
capacity and amenities required by the
increasing aging population. The associated
socioeconomic revitalization, based on
restoring natural, built and cultural assets,
could lead to increased capacities and
quality of life in existing communities, as
well as renewal of their natural resources.
Although these issues likely are not unique
to an aging population, research may be
needed to support development of strategies
for renewing capacities of developed land-
scapes and restoring the natural resources
damaged by past activity. Research is also
needed to evaluate changes in land-use and
environmental stressors associated with dif-
ferent options of redevelopment.
Workshop discussions identified the
pharmaceutical uses of older adults as po-
tentially important environmental stressors.
Certain chemicals (perhaps in new combi-
nations) likely will enter surface waters and
groundwater at increasing rates near retire-
ment communities and centers of residence
by elders. Closed water treatment and
supply systems may provide an engineering
solution to help control the introduction
of pharmaceuticals to the environmental.
Consistent with a theme of restoration
and reconstruction, piloting and testing
of closed systems in smaller retirement
communities could inform the engineering
research needed to develop such systems
for larger communities.
In addition to the increased environmental
loading of certain pharmaceuticals posited
during the workshop, a chemical stressor
associated somewhat uniquely with older
Americans is the mercury found in old-
style amalgam fillings. Cremation may
release this mercury into the air, potentially
exposing wildlife as well as humans in
communities with large elder populations.
Research to evaluate this exposure pathway
as a significant incremental source of
ecological risk might focus in areas like the
State of Florida, which is expected to have
large proportion of older Americans and has
an ongoing concern about elevated environ-
mental mercury concentrations. Similarly,
138
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
-------
W. Munns
increased numbers of cremations and the
added pressure for cemetery space may
impact air quality and land-use negatively.
Effects on Natural Resources and
Environmental Quality
The effects of low concentrations (parts
per trillion) of some pharmaceuticals, such
as statin drugs, on aquatic organisms are
virtually unknown. In addition to their
possible endocrine disrupting effects,
exposure to these chemicals may produce
a variety of chronic effects heretofore
unknown. This emphasizes the need
to develop better understanding of the
mechanisms of action and resulting
ecological effects of pharmaceuticals used
by older Americans. Again, Florida, which
has indicated it welcomes such research,
and other states and regions with high
densities of older Americans may provide
good opportunities for case studies and
focused research.
Stressor-response models and relationships
were identified as important research needs
during the workshop. Most often, these
needs were couched in terms of specific
stressors and key ecological responses.
More broadly, however, there may be
predictive and diagnostic value in stressor-
response relationships constructed of
aggregate measures of stress, relating the
intensity of human land-use to adverse
ecological effects. Aggregate measures
like the Landscape-Development Intensity
Index of Brown and Vivas (2004) might
be useful in this regard. Quantitative
descriptions of such relationships could
be used to support development of
mechanisms, models and policies for
implementing changes that will prevent or
mitigate the effects of stressors associated
with the aging population. It has also been
suggested that the Revitalization Institute
may be a source of integrated revitalization
strategies to increase capacity and quality
of life in existing communities, as well as
renewing natural resources.
As a final note, not all ecological effects
associated with the aging population are
expected to be adverse. The apparent
willingness of (at least some fraction of)
retires to contribute to urban revitalization
through self-employment and voluntary
service, when combined with an increased
demand for urban centers, might be
harnessed to effect future redevelopment
of urban brownfields and greyfields
that results in a positive effect on urban
environmental quality. Similar volunteerism
and stewardship by elders in new and
developing communities may help both
to minimize and mitigate the patterns of
adverse effects of the aging population
on natural resources and environmental
quality.
NEXT STEPS
As described in the Introduction, the issues,
information and research needs illuminated
by the Workshop are intended to inform the
Agency about the ecological research needed
to help prepare the Nation for the aging of the
American population. These proceedings will
be delivered to EPA's ORD to support focused
discussions of research goals, priorities,
approaches, measures of performance and
workforce and resource needs. Planning
activities will cross-walk the Agency's research
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
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Post Workshop Considerations for Research and New Directions
capabilities and capacities with the priority
science-based needs to identify the most
significant contributions EPA can make with
our intramural workforce. This planning also
will support communication of research needs
to our partners and collaborators, and may be
used to develop grant solicitations. Similar
planning exercises have been completed for
research supporting understanding of the
effects of the environmental on the health of
aging Americans.
140 Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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Kent Thornton
FTN Associates
BACKGROUND
Three drivers of environmental effects are:
• Population Change
• Climate Change
• Natural Disturbance
This workshop focused on the possible first driver; specifically, the impacts from an aging
population on ecology and environmental quality. The overarching message from the
workshop speakers and participants was that the aging population is a permanent global
trend, not just a bubble from the aging Baby Boomer population in the U.S. Some of the
characteristics of the aging U.S. population are:
• The number of aging Americans is increasing. In 2000, 12.5% were 65 years or
older. By 2030, 20% of the population will be 65 years or older.
• This aging population is very diverse—economically, socially and ethnically.
• Aging attitudes among Latinos, Asians, African Americans, Native Americans,
and Anglos are very different.
• This population is re-defining retirement, with 80% indicating they plan to work at
least part-time in retirement.
• This population enjoys and wants natural amenities.
• Almost half (49%) indicate they plan to devote more time to community service or
volunteer activities after retirement. However, they also expect these activities to
be managed in a professional manner, provide meaningful work and allow flexible
hours.
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Synthesis
FOUNDATION FOR A RESEARCH PLAN
Three foundational principles emerged from presentations and discussion that should
underlie a research effort to assess the effects of an aging population on the environment.
The research effort must:
• Be holistic
• Be integrated
• Emphasize sustainability
It must be holistic in assuming that humans are part of, not apart from, the environment.
Human and ecological health are inextricably linked and this research effort should
complement the EPA ORD Human Health Initiative of the National Agenda on the
Environment and the Aging. It must be integrated from an ecological risk assessment
and management perspective, linking sources—>stressors—>effects—>-management.
Finally, it must emphasize sustainability. It was suggested the project adopt the Native
American philosophy of protecting the environment for seven generations to come.
QUESTION ORIENTATION
A number of questions were raised during the workshop discussions that can be
categorized under a set of five general questions the research initiative might consider
addressing.
1. How big is the problem? (Extent and magnitude)
What are the relative contributions of an aging population to environmental
impacts?
2. Is it getting better or worse? (Trends)
What are the population trends in different areas of the U.S?
3. What is causing it? (Causation)
What factors associated with the aging population are contributing to
environmental impacts?
4. What can be done about it? (Management)
What management practices, policies, ordinances, etc. might be effective in
controlling these impacts?
5. Are the management practices making a difference? (Performance Evaluation)
How effective are these practices in controlling environmental impacts?
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K.Thornton
NEW PARADIGMS FOR ASSESSING AND MANAGING IMPACTS OF AN AGING
POPULATION
The impacts of an aging population will potentially affect every societal sector:
• Housing • Parks and Recreation
• Land-Use • Work Force Development
• Transportation • Public/Private Education
• Safety • Volunteer! sm
• Water Quality • Civic Engagement
• Air Quality • Arts and Culture
• Waste Generation/Disposal • Economic Development
Environmental assessments and management practices will need to focus on indirect,
cascading effects from multiple sources and multiple stressors. There is no magic bullet
or single pathway for controlling and managing environmental impacts and risks. In
addition, the issues are and will be multi-media, not single media, therefore, multi-media
interactions/controls will need to be incorporated into management actions.
New partners and collaborative relationships will be needed to address the impacts of
an aging population. Local, state and federal agencies; the private sector; NGOs; and
stakeholders all need to be included. Greater facilitation and coalition-building will be
required to address future environmental issues.
ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT/MANAGEMENT LINKAGES
Breakout Groups initially discussed the three segments of the ecological risk assessment
paradigm: Sources, Stressors, and Effects. Following these discussions, Focal Area
Breakout Group A, B and C participants were redistributed (so that each letter group was
represented) among Interactions/Linkages Groups 1, 2 and 3 to discuss the linkages and
interactions among Sources, Stressors, and Effects. A preliminary list of research needs
arising from the workshop is shown in Table 1 and briefly discussed in this section.
A. Demographic and Life Style Trends (Sources)
The demographic and life style trends presented and discussed at the workshop
focused on two cohorts of aging adults. Almost 90% of aging adults stated they did
not plan to move from their community in the future, or if they moved, it would be
nearby. Thus we have one aging population cohort living in existing communities
with a built infrastructure. The other cohort of the aging population is interested in
moving to active adult communities that promote active lifestyles. This second cohort
of the aging population lives in new developments, typically in areas with fragile
environments. Both cohorts wanted to enjoy areas with natural amenities.
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Synthesis
Table 1. Research Needs to Better Understand the Effects of an Aging Population on the
Environment.
1. Demographic and Life Style Trends
(Sources)
2. Changing Land Use
and Environmental Stressors
Conduct life cycle assessments of consumption patterns of
various adult cohorts.
Conduct targeted, geographic surveys to identify the factors
and criteria influencing why individuals migrate and how
destinations are selected.
Design targeted, geographic surveys of life-style, behavior
and attitudes, including commonwealth motivation on
environmental stewardship.
Compute population demographics and statistics within an
ecoregional frame.
Perform Delphi exercise to project future life-style trends and
demographic changes.
Develop models to predict future aging population migration
patterns based on socioeconomic attributes to inform social
marketing for a "Stewardship Legacy."
Develop a decision support system that integrates various
personal factors, environmental impacts, and life-style
choices.
Explore effects of infrastructure issues (e.g., roads, water
distribution, etc.), air/water quality and similar factors
affecting choices to stay in place or move.
Coordinate, complement, and supplement on-going surveys,
monitoring networks of other agencies, such as CDC, with
complementary missions.
Conduct literature reviews on multiple issues and develop
a matrix to cross-reference issues, scale, information
sources, models and similar pertinent data.
Project migration patterns and trends for coastal areas and
sensitive natural areas.
Conduct meso-scale (2-3 state area, multiple counties)
studies of multiple stressors and their interactions as a
function of different population cohorts.
Conduct meta-analysis study of local-scale studies to
identify common sources, stressors and effects of different
population cohorts on the environment.
Fund comparative case studies or demonstration projects
of an aging population in different geographic regions.
Conduct alternative futures and future vulnerability
assessments for coastal areas and sensitive natural areas
expected to experience increased population growth.
Use business model analyses to establish economic-
environmental linkages and document the costs and
benefits of various green technologies compared to urban
sprawl.
Assess the effects of current policies, regulations, and
ordinances, particularly those related to land use decisions
(e.g., zoning, covenants), on environmental quality.
3. Effects on Natural Resources
and Environmental Quality
4. Management
Considerations
Identify and assess which effects on the environment are
unique to an aging population.
Assess the effects of increased pharmaceutical use and
their interaction with other stressors.
Develop models for predicting and assessing the effects of
an aging population on the health of aquatic life and
wildlife.
Develop procedures for establishing thresholds or "tipping
points" for ecological effects based on synergistic and
antagonistic interactions among multiple stressors.
Emphasize those stressors associated with an aging
population.
Compare the ecological footprints of different aging adult
cohorts, particularly the "stay in place" versus the "mobile."
Assess the effects of universal access to sensitive or fragile
environments, particularly habitat alteration, on aquatic life
and wildlife.
Assess the effects of Pharmaceuticals and durable/non-
durable medical goods on ecosystem goods and services.
Conduct sociological studies to identify the mental models
of environmental stewardship for different aging cohorts.
Document the costs and benefits of conservation,
restoration and stewardship management activities, and
their relative contribution to Quality of Life metrics.
Develop social marketing approaches for environmental
stewardship comparable to social marketing programs for
improving human health.
Determine the inter-relationships of ecological,
social/cultural and economic factors in achieving EPA's
mission of protecting human health and the environment.
Document the interactions between human health and the
environmental quality.
Assess the effects of social choices and asset (versus
income) management on willingness to support
conservation, restoration, and stewardship of aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems.
Assess the potential for urban revitalization and restoration
to attract an aging population and reduce environmental
effects of urban sprawl and associated factors.
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K.Thornton
Existing Communities, Built Environment
Given that 50% of the current U.S. population lives within 50 miles of the ocean or
the Great Lakes, we expect that a significant portion of the aging population (primarily
those that do not plan to move after retirement) will live in urban, suburban and rural
areas near the coast. These areas are currently experiencing environmental impacts
from congestion, aging or overloaded infrastructure, sea level rise, salt-water intrusion,
eutrophication and similar issues. It will be important to determine which coastal
areas are currently vulnerable, and which areas might become vulnerable in the future,
to effectively manage impacts of the aging population (it was suggested during the
review process that Restore America's Estuaries is an NGO that could help with this
research). Vulnerable areas would include those with natural amenities that have the
potential to be affected by increased use and universal access.
New Developments
Retirement migration patterns for that segment of the aging population that is
planning to move, are part of a decreasing metropolitan hierarchy pattern. In the
decreasing metropolitan hierarchy pattern, individuals who live in large metropolitan
urban/suburban areas generally move to a similar urban/suburban setting, but in
smaller metropolitan areas with natural amenities. In many instances, particularly
in the West, desirable retirement destinations are near fragile environments (arid
or montane ecosystems). These retirement migration patterns could promote urban
sprawl in smaller metropolitan areas that currently do not have ordinances, policies, or
regulations to control sprawl. Ironically, in some instances, city policies, ordinances, or
regulations actually promote sprawl and inhibit implementing green technology (e.g.,
no more than 3 homes per acre; 30% green space). Increased service areas also tend to
develop around new residential developments for retirees, such as facilities to care for
individuals who require assisted living or some other form of permanent care.
General Characteristics of Both Communities
Both aging population cohorts are interested in experiencing and accessing natural
amenities. However, aging adults are transferring their finances from income to
asset management. Under asset management fixed future costs are preferred, with no
surprises or cost increases. Being able to demonstrate and link the cost-effectiveness
and benefits of environmental amenities and green technology will become even
more important for approval of public or private funds for ecosystem conservation,
restoration and management when dealing with large aging populations practising
asset management. Targeted, geographic surveys of life style, behavior and attitudes
toward the environment and environmental stewardship should be considered. These
surveys might be coupled with life-cycle assessments of consumption patterns,
particularly pharmaceuticals. Specific research projects were identified by Focal Area
Group A and are included in their Breakout Group Summary.
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Synthesis
B. Changing Land-Use and Environmental Stressors
Many of the Stressors associated with an aging population are similar, if not identical,
to current Stressors from land-use patterns, development, urban sprawl, and increased
impervious surface contributed by all population sectors. There may be some Stressors
that are unique to an aging population. However, the contribution of an aging population
to these Stressors is unknown. In addition, it is unknown if these Stressors are likely to
change in the future. Given the history of new Stressors emerging, it is likely that new
Stressors will be discovered and the effects of existing Stressors might change. Therefore,
the ORD may need to focus on developing and documenting tools for assessing and
managing existing Stressors, while developing new tools for emerging issues. Multiple
tools will likely be required to address Stressors ranging from coastal to arid ecosystems.
Having a flexible and transferable assessment and management process will ensure that
similar approaches, models, procedures, and tools can be used to assess existing and
emerging Stressors throughout the U.S.
Scale is an issue in prioritizing research and development for assessing and managing
the effects of an aging population. Workshop participants thought a standard EPA region
encompassing five to seven states was too large and complex for developing useful
near-term tools and approaches. In addition, the Regional Vulnerability Assessment
(ReVA) Program is developing tools at this scale. The local scale is where decisions are
being made daily, but there are already many tools, approaches, procedures, ordinances,
etc. available for application at the local scale. Ameta-analysis of multiple, local scale
studies, however, might identify sources, Stressors, or effects that are common among
local communities or municipalities. Working at a scale between the local scale and
the scale of an EPA region would be desirable because it would provide insight into the
cumulative effects of local decisions. Workshop participants considered the scale of
the SEQL initiative to be appropriate for research and development for assessing and
managing the effects of an aging population. SEQL is an interstate initiative between
North and South Carolina, in which 15 counties and 85 municipalities, are addressing
issues of air and water pollution, transportation, energy and quality of life.
Because the SEQL initiative is on-going, involves multiple stakeholders, is multi-
media and is also addressing infrastructure issues of transportation and energy, we
believe research funds could be leveraged quickly to also address the effects of an aging
population on the environment in this region. The SEQL study area is experiencing
retirement migration and new developments for active retired adults, in addition to
having a significant aging-in-place population.
A case study or demonstration project approach should be considered for other areas
of the U.S., such as the Great Lakes region. Working in the Great Lakes would bring in
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K.Thornton
international issues in addition to interstate issues. Florida is another potential location
for a demonstration project or case study. Similar case studies or demonstration projects
should be pursued in the East and the West. For each case study, a business model
to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the management practices (pervious surfaces,
water reuse), existing ordinances, regulations, and policies and provide economic-
environmental linkages needed to demonstrate their cost-effectiveness and profitability.
C. Effects on Natural Resources and Environmental Quality
As with the stressors, the effects of an aging population on natural resources and
environmental quality will likely be similar, if not identical, to current effects. Some of
the effects of an aging population will occur because of development, such as habitat
fragmentation, biodiversity change, invasive species introductions and increased runoff.
Some effects from increased pharmaceuticals might be unique to an aging population, but
the increased medication of adolescents for asthma, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD),
etc., might make it difficult to partition environmental effects of pharmaceuticals by age
cohorts. Differentiation of pharmaceuticals from different population segments and their
effects should be assessed.
Increased development in fragile environments might lead to irreversible changes in
some of these ecosystems. Little is known about ecological thresholds for irreversible
ecological change in many of these ecosystems.
The Ecological Footprint concepts and programs might be useful in partitioning or
assessing changes in resource utilization and life style by age. Workshop participants
thought the ecological footprint concept should be considered in future research and
assessment activities.
D. Management Considerations
In addition to ecological considerations, an aging population is likely to also be a
political, economic and social force that will affect management decisions.
Political
Several presenters noted that the aging population is becoming an increasingly
important voting block in elections. In addition, this cohort has time to become
involved in political activities, and actively support advocacy positions.
Economic
Currently, older adults control the majority of the wealth in the U.S. As stated
previously, many Baby Boomers do not plan to retire, but plan to work at least part
time after they reach retirement age. However, with retirement, funds are typically
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 147
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Synthesis
transferred from income to asset management. Asset management emphasizes fixed
costs, no cost increases and no surprises. Without clear documentation of the cost-
effectiveness and benefits of ecological conservation, restoration and management,
as well as urban revitalization and restoration, it might be difficult to implement
desired management practices if they increase costs for aging Americans. It was
stated by several workshop participants that all sectors benefit from environmental
improvement, even if improvements are aimed at an aging population.
Social
Understanding the mental models and social mindscapes of various aging population
cohorts (including very different attitudes on aging among Latinos, Asians, African
Americans, Native Americans, and Anglos) will be important in being able to
communicate effectively. The overall aging cohort has time available not just for
political involvement, but also volunteer activities that benefit the environment.
Social marketing has been effective in changing behaviors related to smoking,
drunk drivers,and similar social causes. It can also be an effective approach for
increasing awareness about sustainability issues (e.g., conveying the Native American
message that we don't inherit the environment from our ancestors, we borrow it
from our children), and recruiting volunteers from the aging population to work for
environmental causes.
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES
Workshop participants were nearly unanimous in stating that development of
collaborative relationships and partnerships needs to be central to this initiative.
Developing and fostering new partnerships among local, state and federal agencies; the
private sector; NGOs; and stakeholders is a feature that needs to be incorporated in all
future research and management programs.
In addition, this initiative must be interdisciplinary and include not just natural scientists,
ecologists and engineers, but also sociologists, economists, gerontologists, demographers,
behaviorists, planners, social marketers and other disciplinary specialists that deal with
aging populations that have traditionally not be involved in ecological research projects.
This initiative must consider the economic linkages between important ecological and
management endpoints so the costs and benefits of various management practices can be
assessed.
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K.Thornton
This initiative offers opportunities:
• To add humans to the equation and improve risk assessment and management
through demographic and population movement pattern analysis.
• To leverage on-going studies, such as SEQL, that are at an appropriate scale, are
interstate, multi-media, and include other considerations such as transportation
and energy. Adding an aging population assessment to these studies should be
an effective use of funds.
• For ORD to develop and document the process for conducting assessments of
changing demographic and life-style patterns on the environment.
• For ORD to enter into a partnership with EPA Regions for implementation
and facilitation of the process, including engaging and communicating with
stakeholders.
• To utilize existing ORD programs and research that will benefit this initiative:
- Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) can
determine the current status of each region and monitor these regions to
evaluate and assess the performance of implemented management practices.
- ReVA is involved as a partner in the SEQL initiative and can assess current
vulnerabilities and project future vulnerabilities.
- National Risk Management Research Laboratory (NRMRL) is developing
risk management practices that can be implemented and evaluated as part of
this initiative.
In conclusion, the workshop not only accomplished its objectives, but also engaged
participants in lively discussion throughout the workshop. This initiative will
complement the Human Health initiative, both providing and benefiting from
supplemental information.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 149
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APPENDIX A: WORKSHOP AGENDA
Day 1
Tuesday, August 10, 2004
8:00
8:30
9:00
9:45
Registration (Room C114)
Welcome and Goals of Workshop
Patricia Bradley, EPA MAIA, and Kent Thornton, FTN Associates
Plenary Address (Broad Overview)
Sandy Markwood, National Association of Area Agencies on Aging (n4a)
The Built Environment and Public Health - Allen Dearry, National
Institutes of Health
10:30 Break
10:45
Ecological Footprints, Video presentation, Ecological Footprint Network,
Dr. Mathis Wackernagel, Introduction by Mike Wallace, Ecological Footprint
Network
11:45 Baby Boomers Opinions and Preferences on Retirement, Health and
Fitness, Financial Preparedness and Active Adult Living
Communities- Dave Schreiner, Pulte Homes
12:30 Lunch (buffet lunch and film) Gitga'ata Spring Harvest (25 minutes)
Introduction by Bernice Smith
1:30 Criteria used by Aging—Socio-Economic and Nature-Based
Later-life Migration Impacts - Charles Longino, Wake Forest University
FANBY-ism in an Aging Society - In Search of Arcadia—Still Searching
for Paradise - Scott Wright, University of Utah
3:00 Break
3:15 Case Examples for Aging in Place
Preparing for the Impact of an Aging, Diverse Population:
Connections to Environment - Neal Lane, NY State Office for the Aging
Elders Importance - Dr. Jonathan Hook, EPA
How Adults Aging in Place Interact with the Natural Environment
Stanley Paytiamo, Acoma Pueblo
5:00 Adjourn
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Appendix A
Day 2
Wednesday, August 11, 2004
9:00-9:15 Critical Captures from Day 1 (Room C-111C)
Kent Thornton
9:15 Break-out Sessions
Patricia Bradley
Consistent with standard risk assessment approaches, we've structured
workshop breakout discussions to focus on: a) projected demographic and
life style patterns of an aging population (sources of environmental stress),
b) temporal and spatial changes in land-use and environmental stressors
resulting from these patterns (exposure), and c) likely effects resulting
from changing land-use and exposure regimes (effects). Considerations
of expected variation in life styles and regional differences are important
to all three issues. Each breakout group is asked to identify and discuss
existing information important to their respective portion of this simplified
risk paradigm, and to identify the significant knowledge gaps in the data,
methods and models needed to address that portion. Bridging these gaps
(once prioritized) will be the primary goal of ORD's ecological research
program relative to the impacts of the aging population.
FACILITATORS
Focal area A (sources of environmental stress) - Mary Holland/PSGS
Focal area B (exposure) - Kent Thornton/FTN Associates
Focal area C (effects) - Wayne Munns/EPA
9:15-9:30 Instructions to Focal Breakout Groups
Workshop participants will be assigned to one of the three focal area
breakout groups. Each breakout group will consist of both experts and
stakeholders, and will be led and facilitated by a workshop representative.
One volunteer from each group will capture salient issues, information,
and discussion points on flip charts. This material will be used to support
the breakout group's plenary presentation on the last day of the workshop.
The deliberations and plenary presentations of each group should be
structured to:
• Identify issues salient to the group's focal area.
• Identify known sources of information (data, methods, and models)
salient to the group's focal area.
• Identify significant gaps in that information that are needed
to understand the ecological risks associated with an aging
population.
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Workshop Agenda
Day 2 (continued)
Wednesday, August 11, 2004
Suggest research (data collection, method, and model development) to
bridge the significant gaps.
Provide a sense of priority with respect to research needs.
Instructions and specific questions for each Focal Area
can be found on pages 17-20 and will be presented by
the facilitator for each group. For the first two sessions
(morning and early afternoon), each group will address the
questions related specifically to their Focal Area.
9:30 - 11:30 Focal Area Breakout Groups (address questions related
specifically to assigned theme)
11:30-12:30 Lunch (on your own)
12:30-2:00 Focal Area Breakout Groups (continue morning discussions)
2:00-2:30 Summarize Focal Area Group Discussions (to be used for Day
3 Reporting Out)
2:30-3:00 Break
In the last session the groups will be mixed so that individuals
from each Focal Area will be in all of the groups. This session will
concentrate on interactions and linkages among the themes.
3:00-4:30 Interactions/Linkages Breakout Groups
4:30-5:00 Summarize Interactions/Linkages Group Discussions (to be
used for Day 3 Reporting Out)
The facilitator for each session will ensure that the critical issues and discussion
points are captured at the end of each session. These critical captures will
contribute directly to the Workshop Proceedings and provide input for the synthesis/
fusion presentation.
5:00
Adjourn
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Appendix A
Day3
Thursday, August 12, 2004
9:00 Presentations of Breakout Groups
9:00-9:20 Focal Area A - sources of environmental stress
9:20-9:40 Focal Area B - exposure
9:40-10:00 Focal Area C - effects
10:00-10:20 Discussion
10:20-10:30 Interactions/Linkages Group 1
10:30-10:40 Interactions/Linkages Group 2
10:40-10:50 Interactions/Linkages Group 3
10:50-11:15 Discussion
11:15 Synthesis/Fusion
12:00 Summary, Action Items, Wrap-Up
1:00 Adjourn
v J
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Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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APPENDIX B: ATTENDEES
Bauer, Diana *
bauer.diana@epa.gov
202-343-9759
USEPA ORD/NCER
Ariel Rios Building - 8722R
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
Bearon, Lucille
luci_bearon@ncsu.edu
919-515-9146
NC State Cooperative Extension
Dept. of Family & Consumer
Sciences
Campus Box 7605
Raleigh, NC 27695-7605
Bradley, Don
bradleyd@mail.ecu.edu
252-328-4838
E. Carolina University
East 5th Street
Greenville, NC 27858-4353
Bradley, Patricia *
bradley.patricia@epa.gov
410-305-2744
USEPA Mid-Atlantic Integrated
Assessment
701 Mapes Road
Ft Meade, MD 20755-5350
Dearry, Allen **
dearry @niehs .nih .gov
919-541-3068
NIH, National Institute of
Environmental Health Sciences
111 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12233
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
DeLucia, Tony
oneajdone@msn.com
423-439-6202
E.Tennessee State University
Quillen College of Medicine
Box 70571
Johnson City, TN 3 7614
Eley, Carlton
eley.carlton@epa.gov
202-566-2841
USEPA OPEI
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Ave, NW
Washington, DC 20460
Geller, Andrew
geller.Andrew@epa.gov
919-541-4208
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
MDB105-05
RTP,NC 27711
Ghiloni, Jennifer ****
j ennifer.ghiloni@psgs .com
781-544-3063
PSGS
Mill Wharf Plaza
Suite 208
Scituate, MA 02066
Hedtke, Steven *
hedtke. steven@epa.gov
919-541-0479
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
MDB205-01
RTP,NC 27711
Holland, Mary ***
mary.holland@psgs.com
410-551-2799
Perot Systems Government
Services
7929 Barnhill Circle
Severn, MD 21144
Hook, Jonathan **
hook.jonathan@epa.gov
214-665-8069
USEPA Region 6
1445 Ross Avenue
Suite 1200
Dallas TX 75202-2733
Jackson, Laura
j ackson. laura@epa.gov
919-541-3088
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
MDB205-01
RTP,NC 27711
Kirby, Sarah
sarah_kirby@ncsu.edu
919-515-9154
NC State Cooperative Extension
Dept. of Family & Consumer
Sciences
Campus Box 7605
Raleigh, NC 27695-7605
Koren, Hillel
koren.hillel@epa.gov
919-966-9791
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
MD58C
RTP,NC 27711
* Planning Committee
Guest Speaker | *** Facilitator
Workshop Support Staff
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 155
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Appendix B
Kumar, Chitra
kumar. chitra@epa.gov
919-541-2990
USEPA OAQPS
MDC339-01
RTP,NC 27711
Lane, Neal **
neal.lane@ofa.state.ny.us
418-474-7012
NY State Office for the Aging
Executive Offices
Agency Building 2
Empire State Plaza
Albany, NY 12223-1250
Longino, Charles **
longino@wfu.edu
336-758-4665
Wake Forest University
Reynolda Gerontology Program
Wake Forest University
P.O. Box 7808
Winston-Salem, NC 27109
Markwood, Sandy **
SMarkwood@n4a.org
202-872-0888
National Assoc. of Area Agencies
on Aging
1730 Rhode Island Ave., NW
Suite 1200
Washington, DC 20036
Marsh, Marsha
marsh.marsha@epa.gov
919-541-2542
USEPA ORD/NCEA
MD E343-03
RTRNC 27711
Mehaffey, Megan
mehaffey.megan@epa.gov
919-541-4205
USEPA ORD/NERL
MD E243-05
RTP,NC 27711
Munns, Wayne * * *
munns.wayne@epa.gov
401-782-3017
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
27 Tarzwell Drive
Narragansett, RI 02882
Neiman, Andrea
AFN1@CDC.GOV
770-488-6051
U.S. Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention
Mailstop K-46
4770 Buford Highway NE
Atlanta, GA 30341
Paytiamo, Stanley **
tribalepa@puebloofacoma.org
505-552-6604
Acoma Pueblo
Pueblo of Acoma
P.O. Box 309
Acoma Pueblo, NM 87034
Paul, John
paul.john@epa.gov
919-541-3160
USEPA ORD/NHEERL
MDB205-01
RTRNC 27711
Rimer, Linda
rimer.linda@epa.gov
919-541-0785
USEPA OAQPS
MD C539-01
RTP,NC 27711
Rosenbaum, Jennifer
jennifer.rosenbaum@ofa.state.ny.us
518-473-4936
NY State Office for the Aging
Executive Offices
Agency Building 2
Empire State Plaza
Albany, NY 12223-1250
Schreiner, Dave **
dave. schreiner@pulte. com
480-391-6206
Pulte Homes
15333 N. Pima Road
Suite 300
Scottsdale, AZ 85260
Smith, Bernice L. *
smith.bernicel@epa.gov
202-343-9766
USEPA ORD/NCER
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washin
gton, DC 20460
Stone, Susan
stone. susan@epa.gov
919-541-1146
USEPA OAQPS
MD C539-01
RTP,NC 27711
Planning Committee
Guest Speaker | *** Facilitator
Workshop Support Staff
156
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
-------
Attendees
Sykes, Kathy
sykes .kathy@epa.gov
202-564-3651
USEPA, OA
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
Tonn, Bruce
btonn@utk.edu
865-974-5227
University of Tennessee
Ste 108, Hoskins Library
Knoxville,TN 37996-4015
Wiggins, Sandy
Sandy_Wiggins@ncsu.edu
919-515-9155
NC State Cooperative Extension
Dept. of Family & Consumer
Sciences
Campus Box 7605
Raleigh, NC 27695-7605
Thomas, Kent
thomas.kent@epa.gov
919-541-7939
USEPA ORD/NERL
National Exposure Research
Lab
MD E205-04
RTRNC 27711
Walbeck, Eric ****
eric.walbeck@psgs.com or
walbeck.eric@epa.gov
410-305-2760
PSGS
c/o MAIA
701 MapesRoad
Ft Meade, MD 20755-5350
Wright, Scott * **
scott. wright@nurs .utah. edu
801-585-9542
University of Utah
College of Nursing
10 South 2000 East
Salt Lake City, UT 84112-5880
Thornton, Kent * ***
kwt@ftn-assoc.com
501-225-7779
FTN Associates
#3 Innwood Circle, Ste. 220
Little Rock, AR 72211 -2449
Wallace, Mike **
mike@footprintnetwork.org
510-839-8879
Global Footprint Network
1050WarfieldAve.
Oakland, CA 94610-1612
Planning Committee
Guest Speaker | *** Facilitator
Workshop Support Staff
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
157
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APPENDIX C: READING LIST
Bechtel, R. and Churchman, A. 2002. Handbook
of environmental psychology. New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Bennett, G. 1993. Retirement migration and
economic development in high-amenity,
nonmetropolitan areas. The Journal of Applied
Gerontology 12: 466-481.
Bennett, G. 1996. Implications of retirement
development in high-amenity nonmetropolitan
coastal areas. The Journal of Applied
Gerontology 15: 345-360.
Carlson, J.V., F.L. Funk, G. Rudzitis and S. Cann.
1998. Factors affecting retirement migration to
Idaho: an adaptation of the amenity retirement
migration model. The Gerontologist 38: 18-24.
Chambers, N., C. Simmons and M. Wackernagel.
2000. Sharing nature's interest: ecological
footprints as an indicator for sustainability.
London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
Cunningham, S. 2002. The restoration economy:
The Greatest New Growth Frontier: Immediate
and Emerging Opportunities for Businesses,
Communities, and Investors. Berret-Koehler
Publishers, San Francisco, California.
Cunningham, S. 2004. Restorative Development:
How does it Relate to Sustainable
Development, Smart Growth, Green Building,
and New Urbanism? (June 15, 2004: http://
www. revitalizationinstitute. org/Smart_Growth_
& _SD.htm)
Dasgupta, P. 2001. Human well-being and the
natural environment. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Del Webb. 2003. Baby boomer report—annual
opinion survey. Bloomfield Hills, MI: Del
Webb.
Department of Environmental Conservation. 2002.
"State agencies prepare for the impact of an
aging New York White paper for discussion."
2002. (May 18, 2004: http://aging.state.ny.us/
explore/project2015/report02/index.htm).
Department of Health and Human Services, Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003.
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Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52(6).
Directorate General for Research, Division
Industry, Research, Energy, Environment,
and Scientific and Technological Options
Assessment (STOA). 2001. "Ecological
footprinting. Commissioned by the European
Parliament." 2003. (February 13, 2004: http:
//www. europarl. eu. int/stoa/publi/pdf/00-09-
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Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related
Statistics. 2000. Older Americans 2000: key
indicators of well-being. Washington, DC:
Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related
Statistics.
Ferraro, PJ. 2001. Global Habitat Protection:
Limitations of Development Interventions
and the Role for Conservation Performance
Payments. Conservation Biology 15 (4): 1-12.
Frey, W.H. 2003. Boomers and seniors in the
suburbs: aging patterns in Census 2000.
Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution,
Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy.
Fri, R., R. Harootyan and J. Takeuchi (Eds). 1993.
Aging of the U.S. population: economic and
environmental implications. In Proceedings
of an invitational workshop conducted by
American Association of Retired Persons
(Forecasting & Environmental Scanning
Department—Research Division) and
Resources for the Future, Washington, DC.
Henetz, P. 2004. Utah, west lure shifting populace.
The Salt Lake Tribune, 10 March.
Ingman, S., X. Pei, C. Ekstrom, H. Friedsam and K.
Bartlett (Eds). 1995. An aging population, an
aging planet, and a sustainable future. Denton,
TX: Texas Institute for Research and Education
on Aging.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 159
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Appendix C
Kweon, B., W. Sullivan and A. Wiley. 1998. Green
common spaces and the social integration
of inner-city older adults. Environment and
Behavior 30: 832-858.
Klinenberg, R. 2002. Heat Wave: A social autopsy
of disaster in Chicago. Chicago, IL: The
University of Chicago Press.
Lawton, A.H. and T.A. Rich. 1968. Ecology
and gerontology: an introduction. The
Gerontologist, 8: 16-11.
Libby, L.W. 2004. "Federal, State and Local
Programs to Protect Farmland." What the
Public Values About Farm and Ranch Land.
State College, PA: Northeast Center for Rural
Development, 2004.
Longino, C.F., A.T. Perzynski and E.P. Stoller.
2002. Pandora's briefcase: unpacking the
retirement migration decision. Research on
Aging 24: 29-49.
Longino, C.F., Jr. and R. Alan Fox. 1995.
Retirement migration in America: an analysis
of the size, trends, and economic impact of the
country's newest growth industry. Houston, TX:
Vacation Publications, Inc.
Longino, C.F., Jr. 1997. On the move: the new
migration patterns of older Americans.
Innovations in Aging 26: 23-26.
Ngo, E.B. 2001. When disasters and age collide:
reviewing the vulnerability of the elderly.
Natural Hazards Review May: 80-89.
Novella, W.D. 2002. "Helping aging boomers
to age in place." Presented at the National
Association of Home Builders, 2002 Seniors
Housing Symposium, Orlando, FL, May 1,
2002.
Redefining Progress. 2002. "Ecological footprint
accounts: moving sustainability from concept
to measurable goal." 2002. (February 13, 2004:
http://www. redefiningprogress. org/programs/
sustainability/ef/efbrochure.pdf).
Redefining Progress. 2002. "Your ecological
footprint: moving sustainability from abstract
concept to concrete goal." 2002. (February
13, 2004: http://www.redefiningprogress.org/
publications/w ssd_brochure.pdf).
Redefining Progress and Earth Day Network. 2002.
"Sustainability starts in your community—a
community indicators guide." April 2002.
(February 13, 2004: http://www.redefiningprogr
ess. org/publications/ciguide.pdf).
Roodman, M.D. and N, Lenseen. 1995. A building
revolution: how ecology and health concerns
are transforming construction, Worldwatch
paper #124. Washington, DC: Worldwatch
Institute.
Roper Starch Worldwide, Inc. 1999. "Baby
boomers envision their retirement: an AARP
segmentation analysis." (February 13, 2004:
http://research. aarp. org/econ/boomer_seg_
prn.html).
Roper Starch Worldwide, Inc. 2004. "Baby
boomers envision their retirement II: survey
of baby boomers' expectations for retirement."
(February 13, 2004: http://research.aarp.org/
econ/boomers _envision.html).
Smart, T. 2001. "Not acting their age." June
10, 2001. (February 13, 2004: http:
//www. usnews. com/usnews/biztech/articles/
010604/retire.htm).
SRI Consulting Business Intelligence. 2002. Aging
boomers: a marketing perspective—marketing
messages and strategies for boomers' later
years. Menlo Park, CA: SRI Consulting
Business Intelligence.
Stoneman, J. and R. Jones. 1997. Residential
landscapes: their contribution to the quality of
older people's lives. Activities, Adaptation &
Aging 22: 17-26.
Stroud, H. 1995. The promise of paradise:
recreational and retirement communities in
the United States since 1950. Baltimore, MD:
Johns Hopkins University Press.
Sustainable Sonoma County with Redefining
Progress. 2002. "Time to lighten up? Report on
the Sonoma County footprint project." April
2002. (February 13, 2004: http:/7www.susta
inablesonoma.org/projects/footprintreport/
scfpweb.pdf).
160
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Reading List
Talbot, J. and R. Kaplan. 1991. Benefits of
nearby nature for elderly apartment residents.
International Journal of Aging and Human
Development?,?,: 199-130.
Thomas, N. and H. Soliman. 2002. Preventable
tragedies: heat disaster and the elderly. Journal
of Gerontological Social Work 38: 53-66.
Tonn, B., G. Waidley and C. Petrich. 2001. The
Aging U.S. Population and Environmental
Policy. Journal of Environmental Planning and
Management 44(6): 851-876.
U.S. Department of Transportation. 2003. Safe
mobility for a maturing society: challenges
and opportunities. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Transportation.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004. EPA
smart growth strategy. Washington, DC: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004. Draft
national agenda for the environment and the
aging. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Aging Initiative.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004.
Aging and the environment: A research
framework, Draft Report. Washington, DC:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Research and Development, National Health
and Environmental Effects Laboratory.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. EPA's
smart growth INDEX in 20 pilot communities:
using GIS sketch modeling to advance smart
growth. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Policy,
Economics, and Innovation, Development,
Community, and Environment Division.
Wackernagel, M. 1997. "Framing the sustainability
crisis: getting from concern to action." October
1997. (May 13, 2004: http://www.sdri.ubc.ca/
documents/Framing_the_Sustainability_
Crisis.doc).
Wackernagel, M. and E.R William. 1996. Our
ecological footprint: reducing human impact
on the Earth. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society
Publishers.
Wackernagel, M., C. Monfreda and D. Deumling.
"Ecological footprint of nations—November
2002 update: how much nature do they use?
How much nature do they have?" November
25, 2002. (February 13, 2004: http://www.red
efiningprogress. org/media/releases/021125_
efriations.html).
Wackernagel, M., N. Schulz, D. Deumling, A.
Linares, M. Jenkins, V. Kapos, C. Monfreda, J.
Loh, N. Myers, N. Norgaard and J. Randers.
2002. Tracking the ecological overshoot of the
human economy. National Academy of Science,
USA, 99 (14): 9266-9271. [online] (February
13, 2004: http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/
abstract/142033699vl).
Wackernagel, M. 2001. "Advancing sustainable
resource management: using ecological
footprint analysis for problem formulation,
policy development, and communication."
(February 13, 2004: http://europa.eu.int/comm/
environment/enveco/waste/w ackernagel.pdf).
Worldwatch Institute. 2004. "Press release:
State of the World 2004: Consumption by
the numbers." (February 13, 2004: http://
www. worldwatch. org/press/news/2004/01/0 7).
Wright, S. 1999. The FANBY dynamic: The
potential and future of retirement "hot spots" in
the West. Sustainable Communities Review 3:
6-11.
Wright, S., M. Caserta and D. Lund. 2003. Older
adult's attitudes, concerns, and support for
environmental issues in the "New West."
International Journal of Aging and Human
Development 51'(2): 153-181.
Wright, S., and Lund, D. 2000. Gray and green?:
stewardship and sustainability in an aging
society. Journal of Aging Studies 14: 229-249.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
161
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Appendix C
Websites of Interest:
• AARP: http://research.aarp.org/general/beyond 50.html
• American Institute of Architects, Committee on the Environment (COTE): www.aia.org/cote
• American Society on Aging: www.asaging.org
• The Brookings Institution: www.brook.edu
• California Center for Land Recycling: www.cclr.org
• Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies (CERES): www.ceres.org
• Earth Day Network & Redefining Progress: http://Myfootprint.org
• Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI): www.epri.com
• Environmental Alliance for Senior Involvement (EASI): www.easi.org
• The GLOBE Program: www.globe.gov
• Institute on Aging & Environment: www.irwm.edu/Dept/IAE
• Landpool Administrators: www.landpooling.com/LandpoolAdministratorsOverview.pdf
• National Association of Area Agencies on Aging (n4a): www.n4a.org
• National Association of Home Builders: www.nahb.org
• National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences: www.niehs.gov
• National Park Service, Rivers, Trails, & Conservation Assistance Program: www.ncrc.nps.gov/rtca
• Nature Conservancy: www.nature.org
• Population Connection: www.KidFriendlydties.org
• Restore America's Estuaries: www.estuaries.org
• The Retirement Living Information Center, Inc.: www.retirementliving.com
• The Revitilization Institute: www.revitilization.org
• Smart Growth Network: www.smartgrowth.org
• The Society for Human Ecology: www.societyforhumanecology.org
• Sonoran Institute: www.sonoran.org
• Texas Transportation Institute: http://tti.tamu.edu
• The Trust for Public Land: www.tpl.org
• University of Buffalo, Center for Inclusive Design & Environmental Access (IDeA):
www. ap. buffalo, edu/idea
• University of California, Center for Environmental Research & Technology: www.cert.ucr.edu
162 Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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Reading List
Websites of Interest (continued):
• University of Chicago National Opinion Research Center (NORC): www.norc.uchicago.edu
• University of Maryland, Scientific Research on the Internet: www.webuse.umd.edu/data des.htm
• Urban Land Institute: www.uli.org
• U.S. Census Bureau: www.census.gov
• U.S. Centers for Disease Control:
- National Center for Health Statistics: www.cdc.gov/nchs
- Public Health Information Network (PHIN): www.cdc.gov/phin
• U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration on Aging: www.aoa.dhhs.gov
• U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: www.bls.gov
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency:
- Aging Initiative: www.epa.gov/aging/index.htm
- Science and Technology Network for Sustainability:
http://es.epa.gov/ncer/rfa/2004/2004 collab science.html
- Senior Environmental Employment Program (SEE): www.epa.gov/epahrist/see/brochure
- Smart Growth Program: www.epa.gov/smartgrowth
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 163
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APPENDIX D: GLOSSARY
AARP (American Association of Retired
Persons) - A nonprofit, nonpartisan membership
organization dedicated to making life better for
people 50 and over.
Adult Communities - Communities designed to
attract active retirees by offering social activities,
recreational facilities, and services of interest to
those of retirement age. These developments
might consist of single-family (detached) dwellings,
manufactured (mobile) home parks, condominiums,
apartments and other types of dwellings.
African Americans -The term "African American,"
as originally coined, refers to only those descended
from a relative handful of black, colonial indentured
servants and the estimated 10 to 11 million Africans
who arrived in the U.S. as slaves. In slightly
broader usage, the term also includes black, West
Indian immigrants, whose African ancestors also
survived the Middle Passage. "African American"
generally does not include Afro-Latinos, who
tend to use the term "Latino" or "Hispanic," or to
recent African immigrants, who usually adopt
country-of-origin identifiers. However, the term can
properly be applied to nearly all black citizens of
the U.S. Despite its literal meaning, the term is not
normally considered to include white Americans of
South African or North African origin; skin color is
considered an essential feature of the definition.
Age Wave - Refers to the transformation of the
massive Baby Boom generation into the largest
proportional elderly population in human history
(Dychtwald, 1990).
Aging Explosion - Refers to the rapidly growing
older population.
Aging in Place - Seniors remaining in the homes
and neighborhoods they have lived in for many
years.
Alternative Futures - Considered by many to
be the core concept of futures studies. Suggests
that individuals, groups, cultures etc., are not
set on a deterministic path to a single unitary
future but, by using their powers of foresight and
decision-making, can select from a wide range of
future trajectories and outcomes (Slaughter, 1996,
Knowledge Base Of Futures Studies).
Amalgam Fillings - Mercury, mixed with gold and
silver and other materials is used as a dental filling.
The mercury in dental amalgams can gently leach
out from the fillings into the body. Mercury released
into the environment is converted into methyl
mercury by bacteria. The methyl mercury will then
build up in the tissues of fish and shellfish. Humans
(and other animals) may also be poisoned by eating
these fish or shellfish.
Ambient - Completely enveloping (e.g., "the
ambient air;" "ambient sound;" "the ambient
temperature").
Amenities - Features that enhance and add to
the value or desirability of real estate although
the feature is not essential to the property's use.
Natural amenities include a pleasant or desirable
location near water, scenic views of the surrounding
area, etc. Man-made amenities include swimming
pools, tennis courts, clubhouses, and other
recreational facilities.
Amenity-Seeking - Individuals who relocate to
areas that offer a new and better lifestyle.
American Indians -The indigenous inhabitants of
the Americas prior to the European colonization,
and their modern descendants. This term
comprises a large number of distinct tribes, states,
and ethnic groups, many of them still enduring
as political communities. Also known as Native
Americans, First Nations, Alaskan Natives, and
Indigenous Peoples of America.
Anglo-American - An American who was born in
England or whose ancestors were English.
Anthropocentric - Human-centered; "our
anthropocentric view of the world."
Arcadia - A term reflecting the desire to search
for and find a geographic landscape that captures
the selected qualities of both nature and culture.
In Arcadia, the bridge between humanity and
nature is established with ideal pastoral settings,
and in contemporary U.S. this is typically made
manifest through the dwelling space of small
town suburbia, exurbs, or gateway communities.
These idyllic landscapes are often promoted and
marketed as prime location sites that feature quality
of life amenities such as recreational and leisure
opportunities, scenic beauty, cultural opportunities,
less congestion from traffic, minimal construction
activities, and favorable climatic patterns.
Architect - Design buildings and other structures.
In addition to considering the way these buildings
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop 165
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Appendix D
and structures look, they also make sure they are
functional, safe, economical, and suit the needs of
the people who use them.
Area Aging Agencies - Nonprofit organizations
established in 1975 by the Older Americans Act.
Each state has area aging agencies that provide
services directly to older persons or contract with
other public or private agencies to administer
programs.
Asian and Pacific Islanders - Persons who call
the U.S. their home and trace their ancestry to
countries from the Asian continent and subcontinent
and islands within the Pacific Rim. Asian and Pacific
Americans come from many national backgrounds,
speak many different languages, and encompass a
wide variety of physical and social characteristics.
Asset Management - Refers to special policies
and programs designed to preserve the value of
assets, such as stock or investments.
Attention-Deficit Disorder (ADD) - A term used
to describe a pattern of behaviors found together
in a significant number of children and adults.
Like other disorders, ADD is associated with mild,
moderate, and severe problems. The behavioral
characteristics of ADD include short attention
span, trouble concentrating, distractibility, and poor
impulse control. Hyperactivity may also be present
in some children, but not all children with ADD are
hyperactive.
Attitudinal - Relating to attitude.
Average Life Span - The average of a group of
individuals' length of life from birth to death.
Baby Boomer - Someone born between the years
1946 and 1964.
Balance Sheet - A statement of the assets,
liabilities, and net worth of a company at a given
point in time. The basic relationship illustrated by
a balanced sheet is that assets minus liabilities
are equal to net worth. Or alternatively, assets are
equal to liabilities plus net worth. This is one of
two financial statements for an entity. The other is
an income statement, which reports the revenues,
expenses, and profit over a period of time.
Base Layer -The first layer in a Geographic
Information System (GIS). Aerial photography or
even high resolution satellite imagery often serve
as the base layer.
Behaviorist - A scientist who investigates the
behavior of animals objectively and who attempts
to relate his observations together in a theoretical
system that does not include concepts borrowed
from introspection and mental philosophy. More
specifically, a psychologist who studies learning
and related phenomena.
Best Management Practices - Structural,
nonstructural, and managerial techniques
recognized to be the most effective and practical
means to reduce surface water and ground water
contamination while still allowing the productive use
of resources.
Biocapacity - The supply or amount of productive
space of land and water.
Biodiversity - The variety and variability among
living organisms and the ecosystems in which they
occur. Biodiversity includes the number of different
items and their relative frequencies; these items are
organized at many levels, ranging from complete
ecosystems to the biochemical structures that are
the molecular basis of heredity. Thus, biodiversity
encompasses expressions of the relative
abundances of different ecosystems, species, and
genes.
Biologically Productive Area - The land and
water area that is biologically productive. A typical
indicator of biological productivity is the annual
accumulation of biomass (the total mass of living
matter in a given unit area) of an ecosystem.
Biosphere - The part of the earth and its
atmosphere in which living organisms exist or that
is capable of supporting life.
Biota -The animals, plants, and microbes that live
in a particular location or region.
Boomburbs - Fast-growing suburban cities with
populations of more than 100,000.
Brainstorming - A group problem-solving
technique in which members sit around and let fly
with ideas and possible solutions to a problem.
Breakout Groups - A term used to describe
the division of a gathering of people into smaller
clusters. It is a means of rapidly and actively
gathering a large amount of newly generated
information that can be reported back to a large
audience. A breakout group may range in size from
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Glossary
4 to 15 people. If the meeting facility is adaptable
and there is sufficient time in the program, there
really is no limit to the number of breakout groups.
Each group needs a scribe, a reporter, and a
facilitator. Once divided, each group responds to
a question or completes an activity. Following an
allocated amount of time, everyone reassembles to
hear all of the small groups present summaries of
their discussions.
Brownfield - Abandoned, idled, or under used
industrial and commercial facilities/sites where
expansion or redevelopment is complicated by real
or perceived environmental contamination. They
can be in urban, suburban, or rural areas. EPA's
Brownfields initiative helps communities mitigate
potential health risks and restore the economic
viability of such areas or properties.
Built Environment -The expression built
environment recognizes that much of the physical
world in which humans function and thrive has been
intentionally created; is something aesthetically and
functionally shared; and functions as an organism in
the consumption of resources, disposal of wastes,
and facilitation of productive enterprise within its
bounds. The built environment includes all of the
physical structures engineered and built by people,
including our homes, workplaces, schools, parks,
and transportation systems.
CAFO (Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation)
- A lot or facility (other than an aquatic animal
production facility) where the following conditions
are met: More than 1,000 animal units (AD) have
been, are, or will be stabled or confined and fed or
maintained for a total of 45 days or more in any 12
month period, and crops, vegetation, forage growth
or post-harvest residues are not sustained in the
normal growing season over any portion of the lot
or facility.
1 AU = 1 slaughter or feeder, or 0.7 mature dairy
cattle (whether milk or dry cows), or 2.5 swine over
55 Ibs., or 0.5 horses, or 10 sheep or lambs, or 30
laying hens, or 100 broiler chickens, or 55 turkeys, or
5 ducks.
Carbon Dioxide - Greenhouse gas produced
through respiration and the decomposition of
organic substances. Combustion of fossil fuels is
primarily responsible for increased atmospheric
concentrations of this gas.
Carrying Capacity - The maximum population size
of a given species that an area can support without
reducing its ability to support that same species
in the future. In the human context, William Catton
defines it as the maximum "load" (population x per
capita impact) that can safely and persistently be
imposed on the environment by people.
Case Study - An exploration of a "bounded
system" or a case over time through detailed, in-
depth data collection involving multiple sources of
information rich in context. Case study research
excels at bringing us to an understanding of a
complex issue or object and can extend experience
or add strength to what is already known through
previous research. Case studies emphasize
detailed contextual analysis of a limited number
of events or conditions and their relationships.
Researchers have used the case study research
method for many years across a variety of
disciplines.
Causation - A "cause and effect" relationship
exists wherever a change in one variable (the
independent variable) induces change in another
(the dependent variable). Causal factors in
sociology include individual motivation as well as
many external influences on human behavior that
often go unrecognized.
Centenarian - A person who has attained the
age of 100 years or more. The term is associated
with longevity due to the fact that average life
expectancies across the world are still far from 100.
CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act)
- Commonly known as Superfund, was enacted by
Congress on December 11,1980. This law created
a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries and
provided broad Federal authority to respond directly
to releases or threatened releases of hazardous
substances that may endanger public health or
the environment. Over five years, $1.6 billion
was collected and the tax went to a trust fund for
cleaning up abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous
waste sites. CERCLA: established prohibitions and
requirements concerning closed and abandoned
hazardous waste sites; provided for liability of
persons responsible for releases of hazardous
waste at these sites; and established a trust fund
to provide for cleanup when no responsible party
could be identified.
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Channelization - The term given to the tendency
of persons age 60+ who make interstate moves
to concentrate geographically. Nearly a third of all
interstate migrants move to just 3 states - Florida,
Arizona and California, and 54% move to the top
ten states out of 50. Within these states there is
further concentration into specific communities. For
example, if one visits a shopping mall in some parts
of Florida, it seems over half the population is over
60.
Chronic Effect - An adverse effect on a human
or animal in which symptoms recur frequently or
develop slowly over a long period of time.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) -A program
created in President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's
first month in office (on March 31, 1933). The CCC
was an interdepartmental work and relief program
that sent young, unemployed men from the cities
to work on conservation projects in rural areas at
a dollar a day. The Labor Department's role was
to recruit participants in the program. To do this,
the employment service was hastily beefed up
and mobilized. Within a week there was organized
within it a National Re-Employment Service to
handle recruitment. In a short time there were
250,000 young enrollees working in CCC camps all
around the country. One of the most successful and
well-received New Deal programs; when the CCC
disbanded in 1942 several million young men had
participated.
Climate Change (also referred to as "global climate
change") - The term "climate change" is sometimes
used to refer to all forms of climatic inconsistency,
but because the Earth's climate is never static, the
term is more properly used to imply a significant
change from one climatic condition to another.
In some cases, "climate change" has been used
synonymously with the term, "global warming;"
scientists however, tend to use the term in the wider
sense to also include natural changes in climate.
Cohort - An aggregation of people having a
common characteristic, (e.g., the time period in
which they were born).
Common Interest Development (CID) - A type of
housing which combines the individual ownership
of private dwellings with the shared ownership of
common facilities. The common facilities can range
from roads and water systems to clubhouses,
swimming pools and even 18-hole golf courses.
CIDs provide a system of self-governance through
a community association, sometimes called a
homeowner association. The association has the
authority to enforce special rules called CC&Rs
(covenants, conditions and restrictions) and to raise
money through regular and special assessments.
Commons - Refers to natural resources to which
a large number of people have access. Each of us
has the obligation to keep the commons in good
shape—we all have a "permanent" stake in it. This
does not preclude personal profit, but personal
profit is no longer the focus. Each of us must focus
on his responsibility to others—regardless of what
others are doing. An individual is not allowed to say,
"Since I'm only one of many people contributing
to the problem, I'm not responsible. After all, even
without me, the damage would have occurred and if
I was the only one doing the activity it wouldn't have
been enough damage to have mattered." When
each individual recognizes his true place in the
world and assumes personal responsibility for his
actions, there need never be another tragedy of the
commons.
Community -The assemblage of populations
of plants and animals (including humans) that
interact with each other and their environment.
The community is shaped by populations and their
geographic range, the types of areas they inhabit,
species diversity, species interactions, and the flow
of energy and nutrients through the community.
Comorbidity -The condition of having two or more
diseases at the same time.
Compact Development - A pattern of land
development with sufficient density of development
and proximity between uses and activities to
encourage pedestrian movement and efficient
provision of public facilities and services. Lot sizes,
typically, are much smaller; can be clustered or
grouped, requiring far less infrastructure, including
impervious (paved) surfaces; and, more recently,
are designed to look like more traditional concepts
of neighborhoods (new urbanism).
Composting - The controlled biological
decomposition of organic material in the presence
of air to form a humus-like material.
Comprehensive Master Plan - A plan prepared
by a planning commission to guide future land
use and infrastructure decisions in the community
according to the procedures and requirements of
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the applicable planning enabling act. A Master Plan
has a long-term focus of at least twenty years; is
required to be reviewed periodically; and includes
analysis, recommendations, and proposals for
the community's population, economy, housing,
transportation, community facilities, services, and
future land use.
Concentration - The relative amount of a
substance mixed with another substance. An
example is five parts per million of carbon monoxide
in air.
Conservation - Preserving and renewing, when
possible, human and natural resources. The use,
protection, and improvement of natural resources
according to principles that will ensure their highest
economic or social benefits.
Conservation Easement - A voluntary binding
legal agreement between a private landowner and a
municipal agency or qualified non-profit corporation
to restrict the development, management, or use
of the land in order to protect conservation values
such as biodiversity, water quality, wildlife habitat
or carbon sequestration. The agency or non-profit
corporation holds the interest and is empowered
to enforce its restrictions against the current
landowner and all subsequent owners of the land.
A perpetual conservation easement usually grants
conservation and management rights to a party in
perpetuity.
Consumption - Refers to all the goods and
services used by people. This includes purchased
commodities at the household level (such as food,
clothing, and utilities), the goods and services paid
for by the government (such as defense, education,
social services, and health care), and the resources
consumed by businesses to increase their assets
(such as business equipment and housing).
Contaminant - Any physical, chemical, biological,
or radiological substance or matter that has an
adverse effect on air, water, or soil.
Continental Shelf - The zone around the
continents extending from the low-water mark
seaward, typically ending in steep slope to the
depths of the ocean floor.
Convective Storms (also thunderstorms) - In
general, a local storm, invariably produced by a
cumulonimbus cloud and always accompanied by
lightning and thunder, usually with strong gusts
of wind, heavy rain, and sometimes with hail. It is
usually of short duration, seldom over two hours for
any one storm. A thunderstorm is a consequence of
atmospheric instability and constitutes, loosely, an
overturning of air layers in order to achieve a more
stable density stratification. A strong convective
updraft is a distinguishing feature of this storm in
its early phases. A strong downdraft in a column
of precipitation marks its dissipating stages.
Thunderstorms often build to altitudes of 40 000-50
000 ft in midlatitudes and to even greater heights
in the Tropics; only the great stability of the lower
stratosphere limits their upward growth. A unique
quality of thunderstorms is their striking electrical
activity. In U.S. weather observing procedure, a
thunderstorm is reported whenever thunder is
heard at the station; it is reported on regularly
scheduled observations if thunder is heard within 15
minutes preceding the observation. Thunderstorms
are reported as light, medium, or heavy according
to 1) the nature of the lightning and thunder; 2) the
type and intensity of the precipitation, if any; 3) the
speed and gustiness of the wind; 4) the appearance
of the clouds; and 5) the effect upon surface
temperature. From the viewpoint of the synoptic
meteorologist, thunderstorms may be classified by
the nature of the overall weather situation, such as
airmass thunderstorm, frontal thunderstorm, and
squall-line thunderstorm.
Correlation - The relationship between two
variables in which they vary together-say a
correlation between the income of parents and
reading ability among primary school children.
Statistical correlation can vary from -1 to 1 (a 0
indicates no correlation between the variables). A
positive correlation between two variables exists
where a high score on one variable is associated
with a high score on the other. A negative
correlation is where a high score on one variable is
associated with a low score on the other.
Covenant - A signed written agreement between
two or more parties to perform some action.
Daniel Boone Syndrome - A psychological
syndrome where an individual feels trapped when
their existence becomes routine. They need to
escape, and go in search of something better,
believing that they will find it over the next hill. An
extreme example is that of people abandoning
the decaying urban areas of the Northeast for
the "fresh" environments of California, which they
proceed to "trash" before fleeing to the Pacific
Northwest and from there, to the small towns of
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the inland West. Once can interpret such shifts
as a collective shunning of the social problems
associated with modern urban living. Rather than
confronting and solving problems, people move on
and spread them.
de Rigueur - Strictly required by the current
fashion or by etiquette.
Debilitating Disease - A disease that impairs an
individual's strength and vitality.
Delphi Method - Based on a structured process
for collecting and distilling knowledge from a group
of experts by means of a series of questionnaires
interspersed with controlled opinion feedback (Adler
and Ziglio, 1996). According to Helmer (1977)
Delphi represents a useful communication device
among a group of experts and thus facilitates the
formation of a group judgment.
Demographer - A scientist who studies the growth
and density of populations and their vital statistics.
Demographics - Statistics representing the
composition and range of a given population.
This may include such elements as age, gender,
education, income, computer experience,
occupation, nationality, and migration patterns.
Demography - The scientific study of human
population-including size, growth, movement,
density, and composition.
Demonstration Project - A relatively self-
contained, small-scale capital investment or
technical assistance project which is implemented
in order to "demonstrate" in practice how a
particular type of problem can be addressed in
a participatory way. It is an effective mechanism
to forge partnerships between public, private and
(especially) community sectors, developing new
ways of working together, and learning by doing
whilst generating tangible results on the ground.
Dependency Migrants - Typically forced to
move due to deterioration of health and financial
resources or the loss of a spouse.
Disamenities - Covers a wide range of potential
negative economic impacts on residential and other
properties. Environmental disamenities include
superfund and hazardous waste sites, solid waste
landfills, overhead power lines, pipelines, storage
tanks, and railroad tracks.
Disposable Income -The amount of income left to
an individual after all necessary expenses are paid
(e.g., taxes, mortgage or rent, car payment and
insurance).
DOI - U.S. Department of Interior.
Durable Goods - Manufactured items with a
normal life expectancy of three years or more.
Automobiles, furniture, household appliances
and mobile homes are examples. Because of
their nature, expenditures for durable goods and
generally postponable, consequently, durable goods
sale are a more volatile component of consumer
expenditures.
Dynamic Systems Modeling - Mathematical
models that analyze and predict a system's
behavior that evolves over time, often in a manner
that can be represented by differential equations.
Ecological - Relating to the inter-relationships of
organisms and their environment.
Ecological Assets -Tangible commodities (e.g.,
planted city trees, forests, wetlands, streams,
riparian corridors and species, shrub beds, and turf
grass areas) that have greater inherent value than
traditional real estate valuation.
Ecological Deficit -The amount by which the
ecological footprint of a population (e.g., country or
region) exceeds the biological capacity of the space
available to that population. The national ecological
deficit measures the amount by which the country's
footprint (plus the country's share of biodiversity
responsibility) exceeds the ecological capacity of
that nation.
Ecological Effects - Changes that alter
valued structural or functional characteristics of
ecosystems or their components.
Ecological Exposure - Exposure of a non-human
organism to a stressor (such as toxic chemicals).
Ecological Footprint - The land and water
area that is required to support a defined human
population and material standard indefinitely, using
prevailing technology.
Ecological Process -The actions or events
that link organisms (including humans) and their
environment such as disturbance, successional de-
velopment, nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration,
productivity, and decay.
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Ecological Reserve - A sanctuary consisting of
contiguous, diverse habitats, within which uses are
subject to conditions, restrictions, and prohibitions.
These restrictions are intended to minimize human
influences and to sustain unique or representative
parts of the natural environment.
Ecological Risk Assessment - The application of
a formal framework, analytical process, or model
to estimate the effects of human action(s) on a
natural resource and to interpret the significance of
those effects in light of the uncertainties identified
in each component of the assessment process.
Such analysis includes initial problem formulation,
characterizations of exposure and ecological
effects, and risk characterization.
Environmental Sustainability - Maintenance of
ecosystem components and functions for future
generations.
Ecologist - A scientist who studies inter-
relationships between living things and their
environments.
Ecology - The study of the inter-relationships
between organisms and their natural environment.
Economist - An individual who has received
extensive training in economic theories,
applications, and analysis and whose primary
employment involves the research, teaching,
consulting, and other applications of this economic
training.
Ecoregion - A relatively homogeneous geographic
area perceived by simultaneously analyzing a
combination of causal and integrative factors
including land surface form, soils, land-uses,
and potential natural vegetation. Ecoregions
are generally considered to be the regions of
relative homogeneity in ecological systems or
in relationships between organisms and their
environments.
Ecosystem -The plant and animal communities
in an area together with the non-living physical
environment that supports them. Ecosystems
have physically defined boundaries, but they are
also dynamic; their boundaries and constituents
can change over time. They can import and export
materials and energy; and thus can interact with
and influence other ecosystems. They can also vary
widely in size.
Ecosystem Services - The transformation of a
set of natural assets (soil, plants and animals, air
and water) into things that we value. For example,
when fungi, worms and bacteria transform the
raw "ingredients" of sunlight, carbon and nitrogen
into fertile soil this transformation is an ecosystem
service. Some examples of ecosystem services that
come from nature include: pollination; fulfillment
of people's cultural, spiritual and intellectual
needs; regulation of climate; insect pest control;
maintenance and provision of genetic resources;
maintenance and regeneration of habitat; provision
of shade and shelter; prevention of soil erosion;
maintenance of soil fertility; maintenance of soil
health; maintenance of healthy waterways; water
filtration; regulation of river flows and groundwater
levels; and waste absorption and breakdown.
Effluent - Any material that flows outward from
something; examples include waste water from
treatment plants and water discharged into streams
from abandoned coal mines.
Elder - An older person. In many cultures
the elders are seen as chiefs or heads of the
community and are treated with respect and honor.
EMAP - ERA's Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program.
Embryo - This term is applied to the earliest stages
of development of a plant or animal. The embryo is
generally contained in another structure, the seed,
egg, or uterus.
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals - Chemical
substances, sometimes called environmental
estrogens, both from natural sources and man
made, that if present in the body at the right
concentration and at the right time, can adversely
effect hormone balance or disrupt normal function
in the organs that hormones regulate. By ERA's
working definition, endocrine disrupters "interfere
with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding,
action, or elimination of natural hormones in the
body that are responsible for the maintenance
of homeostasis (normal cell metabolism),
reproduction, development, and/or behavior."
Many endocrine disrupters are thought to mimic
hormones. They have chemical properties similar
to hormones that allow binding to hormone
specific receptors on the cells of target organs.
However, endocrine disrupter chemistry varies
greatly, as does potency—the effectiveness in
binding and "turning on" the response. Most
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endocrine disrupters have very low potency, as
their chemistry is significantly different from the
hormones they mimic. Lower potency means that
a greater amount of endocrine disrupter is required
to elicit the same response of the hormone they
mimic. In addition to potency, the potential for a
hormone-like effect depends on dose. For all known
endocrine disrupters there is some dose, below
which there will be no effect. At doses slightly above
this threshold some endocrine disrupters elicit a
beneficial effect, whereas at higher doses the effect
is adverse (harmful).
Endocrine System - The group of organs that
produce hormones and excrete them into the blood
stream through which they travel to the tissues
that use them. The major organs that make up the
human endocrine system are the hypothalamus,
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal
body, and the reproductive glands, which include
the ovaries and testes. The pancreas is also part
of this hormone-secreting system, even though it is
also associated with the digestive system because
it also produces and secretes digestive enzymes.
Although the endocrine glands are the body's main
hormone producers, some non-endocrine organs
—such as the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver,
thymus, skin, and placenta—also produce and
release hormones.
Engineer - A person who is trained in and uses
technological and scientific knowledge to solve
practical problems. The discipline is divided into a
number of specialties, such as civil, mechanical,
chemical, electronic, environmental, aerospace,
electrical, and industrial engineering.
Environment -The sum of all external conditions
affecting the life, development and survival of an
organism.
Environmental Alliance for Senior Involvement
(EASI) - Founded in 1991 through a partnership
with The American Association of Retired People
(AARP) and EPA. In the ensuing years it has
begun to fulfill its mission of building, promoting,
and utilizing the environmental ethic, expertise,
and commitment of older persons to expand
citizen involvement in protecting and caring for our
environment for present and future generations.
Through establishment of its EASI Senior
Environment Corps (SECs) across the country,
in partnership with such groups as AmeriCorps,
Retired and Senior Volunteer Programs, and
various state, federal, corporate, and foundation
organizations, EASI enables and encourages
senior volunteer participation in enhancing their
communities environmentally.
Environmental Management System (EMS) -
The part of an overall management system
which includes structure, planning activities,
responsibilities, practices, procurements, processes
and resources for developing, implementing,
achieving, reviewing and maintaining an
environmental policy. Such a System is the
procedure put in place to ensure the control of the
environmental impact of a company's products
and services. Many companies have informal
Environmental Management System in place with
an increasing number choosing to go through
the process of formal recognition to achieving
certification such as ISO 14001.
Environmentally Disadvantaged - An area within
two miles of the borders of a site on which a waste
management facility is proposed to be constructed
and that meets specified criteria concerning
minority populations, poverty, and existing
hazardous or solid waste facilities or hazardous
waste sites.
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) -
Particular parts of the countryside where the
landscape, wildlife and historic interest are of
national importance. ESAs are highly valued, for
their scenic beauty, for the habitats they provide
for plants and wildlife, and for the many important
ecosystems services they provide.
Environmental Stewardship - Initiatives that rely
on responsible use, self- restraint and cooperation
between stakeholders, as opposed to legislated
measures. The voluntary programs establish
incentives to stimulate the development and
implementation of programs that use pollution
prevention and innovative approaches to meet and
exceed regulatory requirements. These programs
seek to reduce the impact on the environment
beyond measures required by any permit or rule,
producing a better environment, conserving natural
resources and resulting in long-term economic
benefits.
EPA Regional Offices - EPA has ten regional
offices, each of which is responsible for several
states and territories. A Regional Office is
responsible for the execution of the Agency's
programs in its states.
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Epiphenomenal - 1) A secondary phenomenon
that results from and accompanies another:
"Exploitation of one social class or ethnic group by
another [is] an epiphenomenon of real differences
in power between social groups" (Harper's). 2)
Pathology. An additional condition or symptom in
the course of a disease, not necessarily connected
with the disease.
Erosion - The process of soil and nutrient loss
that leads to a decline in the ability of the land to
support life. Can also be used metaphorically to
refer to depletion (e.g., of natural capital).
Eskimos and Aleuts - Are Native Americans.
Both peoples are racially similar to Siberian people,
and their languages are from the same language
family. In their migrations from across the bridge
that connected Asia and North America, Eskimos
settled in the Arctic region of the continent. The
Aleuts inhabited the Aleutian Islands, a chain
of rugged, volcanic islands west of the tip of the
Alaskan Peninsula.
Ethnicity -The classification of a population that
shares common characteristics, such as religion,
traditions, culture, language, custom, social
viewpoint, and tribal or national origin.
Etiology - The causes or origin of a disease or
disorder; the study of the factors that cause disease
and the method of their introduction to the host.
Eutrophication -A condition in an aquatic
ecosystem where high nutrient concentrations
stimulate blooms of algae (e.g., phytoplankton).
These excess nutrients can lead to a condition
in which prolonged blooms of algae deprive
light and oxygen from other organisms while
turning waterways green and foul smelling. Algal
decomposition may lower dissolved oxygen
concentrations. Although eutrophication is a natural
process in the aging of lakes and some estuaries,
it can be accelerated by both point and nonpoint
sources of nutrients.
Evolutionary Process - The process of change
in the traits of organisms or populations over time.
Evolution, through the process of natural selection,
can lead to the formation of new species.
Exposure - The amount of radiation or pollutant
present in a given environment that represents a
potential health threat to living organisms.
Exposure Route -The way a chemical or pollutant
enters an organism after contact; i.e. by ingestion,
inhalation, or dermal absorption.
Extension Service Master Gardeners - A
program and training are conducted by county
extension offices. The training provides gardeners
with the opportunity to improve their horticultural
knowledge and skills and then share their
experience with the public through organized
volunteer activities. The program topics covered
include: botany, plant problem diagnosis, soils,
ornamentals, pest management, fruits, vegetables,
and plant propagation.
Exurbs - The expression "Exurbs" was coined
in the 1950s to describe the ring of prosperous
rural communities beyond the suburbs that, due to
availability via the new high-speed limited-access
highways, were becoming dormitory communities
for an urban area. Earlier exurbs had been reached
through commuter rail and parkway systems, with
classic examples towards the end of Philadelphia's
Main Line and in Upper Westchester County, New
York.
FANBY (Find a New Backyard) - The
phenomenon of people seeking geographic areas
that are associated with high quality of life (e.g.,
natural amenities, less pollution, less congestion
and sprawl). As greater numbers of people relocate
to these areas, they create stressors and strains
on the very natural resources that were the primary
attraction to begin with.
Farmers Markets - Markets usually held outside
where farmers can sell their produce to the public.
Products at such markets are renowned for being
locally grown, very fresh, and sold directly to
the public, without going through a middleman.
Farmers' markets often feature additive-free and
organic produce.
Fertility Rate -The average number of liveborn
children produced by women of childbearing age in
a particular society.
Fixed Costs - In general, cost that does not
change with changes in the quantity of output
produced. Fixed cost is incurred whether of not any
output is produced. The same fixed cost is incurred
at any and all output levels.
Florida Panther -The Florida panther is a highly
endangered subspecies of mountain lion. The
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Florida panther was once common in western
Texas and throughout the southeastern states, but
is now found only in Florida. Their habitat includes
cypress swamps, pine, and hardwood hammock
forests. Only 30 to 50 individuals survive today.
Food Chain - A succession of organisms in
an ecological community that constitutes a
continuation of food energy from one organism to
another as each consumes a lower member and in
turn is preyed upon by a higher member.
Foreign Born - Foreign by birth; not native to the
country in which one resides.
Fossil Fuel - Fuel derived from ancient organic
remains; e.g. peat, coal, crude oil, and natural gas.
Freshwater Scarcity - Occurs when the amount of
water withdrawn from lakes, rivers or groundwater
is so great that water supplies are no longer
adequate to satisfy all human or ecosystem
requirements, bringing about increased competition
among potential demands. Scarcity is likely to
occur sooner in regions where the per capita
availability of water is low to start with, and with
high population growth. It becomes more serious if
demand per capita is growing owing to changes in
consumption patterns.
Future Generations - Refers to the future people
who will come after us who presently have no voice
but who are directly affected by our actions and
lack of action. The focus of a developing, world-
wide effort to redress numerous oversights created
by short-term thinking.
Future Vulnerability - Future susceptibility to
degradation or damage from adverse factors or
influences.
Gateway Communities - The towns and cities that
border public lands.
Geopolitical Boundaries - Regional boundaries
based on geology and/or politics (e.g., state,
county, municipality).
Geriatrics - A branch of medicine devoted to the
study, understanding and treatment of illnesses and
diseases associated with aging.
Gerontologist - A specialist in the study of aging.
Gerontology - The multi-disciplinary study
of aging that encompasses the biological,
psychological, sociological, health, and economic
aspects of aging.
Global Acres - Acres that have been adjusted
according to global average biomass (i.e., total
mass of living matter within a given unit of
environmental area) productivity so that they can be
compared meaningfully across regions.
GLOBE -A worldwide hands-on, primary and
secondary school-based education and science
program. GLOBE encourages students to measure
aspects of their local environment and report their
results over the Internet. Data from schools around
the world are then available for students to use
in a wide range of projects and activities. GLOBE
is a cooperative effort of schools, led in the U.S.
by a Federal interagency program supported by
NASA, NSF and the U.S. State Department, in
partnership with colleges and universities, state
and local school systems, and non-government
organizations. Internationally, GLOBE is a
partnership between the U.S. and over 100 other
countries.
Gradient - Ratio of change, such as the rate of
change of temperature with height. Also the slope
of a line on a graph. A steep gradient exists when
the rate of change is rapid.
Great Lakes - The five connected lakes along
the border of the U.S. and Canada. They are Lake
Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Superior, Lake Michigan,
and Lake Huron.
Green Cemeteries - Help conserve land, water
and other resources. Embalming, metal caskets
and concrete burial vaults are prohibited. Instead,
biodegradable caskets, usually made of wood or
cardboard, or burial shrouds of natural fibers are
used. Green cemetery graves are placed randomly
throughout a woodland or meadow, and marked
only in natural ways, with the planting of a tree or
shrub, or the placement of a flat indigenous stone,
which may or may not be engraved. Burial locations
are mapped with a GIS (geographic information
system), so future generations can locate an
ancestor's final resting place.
Green Infrastructure - Urban, suburban and rural
natural areas, such as greenways, parks, trails,
waterways, wetlands, woodlands, and wildlife
habitats. These areas support native species,
maintain ecological processes, sustain air and
water resources, and contribute to the health and
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Glossary
quality of life of people and the sustainability of
communities.
Green Technology - A technology that offers a
more environmentally friendly solution compared to
an existing technology
Greenfield - Those sites, in both rural and urban
areas, which have not experienced previous
development. It also includes forestry and
agricultural land and buildings, as well as previously
developed sites that have now blended into the
natural landscape over time.
Greenhouse Gas - A gas, such as carbon dioxide
or methane, which contributes to potential climate
change.
Greyfields - A term coined by Andreas Duany,
are those developed lands that have become
obsolescent. Obsolescence results when the
uses for which they were originally developed
have begun to depart, surrounding community
development is incompatible, infrastructure
standards have changed, or the market demand for
land-use has changed, but the site cannot adjust.
Ground Water - The supply of fresh water found
beneath the Earth's surface, usually in aquifers,
which supply wells and springs. Because ground
water is a major source of drinking water, there is
growing concern over contamination from leaching
agricultural or industrial pollutants or leaking
underground storage tanks.
Groundwater Recharge - The process whereby
infiltrating rain, snowmelt or surface water enters
and replenishes the ground water stores.
Growth Inhibition - A substance that inhibits the
growth of an organism. The inhibitory effect can
range from mild inhibition (growth retardation) to
severe inhibition or death (toxic reaction). Two plant
growth regulators that may act as inhibitors are
ethylene and abscisic acid. The concentration of
the inhibitor, the length of exposure to it, and the
relative susceptibility of the organisms exposed
to the inhibitor, are all important factors which
determine the extent of the inhibitory effect.
Habitat -The environment in which an individual,
population, community or species lives.
Habitat Fragmentation -The piecemeal
disassembly of terrestrial habitats into
discontinuous, oftentimes isolated, patches as a
consequence of development. Its adverse effects
are cumulative and not immediately noticeable.
Habitat fragmentation stems from habitat loss.
Habitat Loss - The outright destruction of habitat,
such as filling a wetland or channelizing a section of
stream. Its impacts upon biological communities are
immediate and catastrophic.
Health Hazard - A chemical, mixture of chemicals
or a pathogen for which there is statistically
significant evidence, based on at least one study
conducted in accordance with established scientific
principles that acute or chronic effects may occur in
exposed individuals.
Heartland -Twenty-nine states (including DC) that
have in common relatively modest growth levels
and populations that are largely white or white and
African American. Heartland states comprise thirty
nine percent of the U.S. population. They include
all northeastern and Midwestern states that are not
classed as "Melting Pots," and selected southern
and western states that are lagging in population
growth. It is eighty-one percent white and twelve
percent black, where blacks are primarily located
in the region's industrial cities. Only about fourteen
percent of the nation's Asian and Hispanic 1990s
gains came to the Heartland, but this small infusion
of minorities helped to stem losses in several of its
declining cities (Frey, 2000).
Herbicide - Chemicals used to I
vegetation.
undesirable
Hispanics - Hispanics or Latinos are persons of
Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central and South
American, and other or unknown Latin American or
Spanish origins. Persons of Hispanic origin may be
of any race.
Holistic - Of, concerned with, or dealing with
wholes or integrated systems rather than with their
parts. With respect to environmental issues, the
term most typically describes an analytical and
planning approach that examines and considers the
inter-related linkages and interdependencies of a
socioeconomic system with resource use, pollution,
environmental impacts, and preservation of an
entire ecosystem.
Homeostasis - (1) An important process or
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mechanisms of an organism (perhaps biotic
community) for regulation (perhaps pre-disposed
self-regulation) toward a constant or standard
condition. All communities, except possibly the
very simplest types, appear to contain regulatory
mechanisms that enable them to adjust to the
changing conditions of their physical environments.
(2) The maintenance of a high degree of uniformity
in functions of an organism or interactions of
individuals in a population or community under
changing environmental conditions. The constant
function or status that results from the capabilities
of organisms to make compensatory adjustments.
Hormonal Processes - Body processes influenced
by hormones that happen slowly (such as growth
of bone and other body tissues, milk production in
women who are breastfeeding, and ovulation and
the menstrual cycle in women).
Human Demand - Human use of natural resources
for growing crops, grazing animals, harvesting
timber, accommodating infrastructure, absorbing
CO2 produced by burning fossil fuels, and marine
fishing.
Human Ecology - An academic discipline that
deals with the relationship between humans
and their (natural) environment. Human ecology
investigates how humans and human societies
interact with nature and with their environment.
Human ecology views human communities and
human populations as part of the ecosystem of
earth.
Human Health - A state of complete physical,
mental, and social well-being and not merely
the absence of disease or infirmity. The health
of a whole community or population is reflected
in measurements of disease incidence and
prevalence, age-specific death rates, and life
expectancy.
Human Health Effect -A change in health
condition (i.e., reproductive, developmental,
behavioral, neurological, and immunologic) brought
about by a cause or agent (e.g., environmental
toxins).
Hydrology -The science of water relating to
occurrence, properties, distribution, circulation and
transport of water.
Hypertension - Also known as high blood
pressure. A disease characterized by blood
pressure above 160/95. Individuals with high blood
pressure are at risk for kidney disease, heart
disease and stroke. Hypertension can be treated
with medication, exercise, and diet.
Impervious Surface - Impervious surfaces are
mainly constructed surfaces—rooftops, sidewalks,
roads, and parking lots—covered by impenetrable
materials such as asphalt, concrete, brick, and
stone. These materials seal surfaces, repel
water and prevent precipitation and melt water
from infiltrating soils. Soils compacted by urban
development are also highly impervious.
Indian Health Service (IHS) - Provides
comprehensive health services through IHS
and tribally contracted hospitals, health centers,
school health centers, and health stations. Health
services provided include medical, dental, and
environmental health programs. Special program
concentrations are in disease prevention and health
promotion, alcoholism, substance abuse, suicide,
accidents, maternal and child health, nutrition, and
public health services.
Indigenous - Native to an area, occurring naturally.
Infectious Disease - Disease resulting from
presence of disease-causing organisms or agents,
such as bacteria, viruses and parasitic worms
which is transmittable directly or indirectly by a
person, animal, arthropod, or through the agency
of an intermediate hose, vector, or the inanimate
environment to another person.
Infill - A compact form of development that
utilizes vacant urban land areas within the existing
boundaries of a city, rather than development at the
fringes that can consume farmlands, wetlands, and
other resource lands.
Infrastructure - Those systems under public
ownership, or operated or maintained for public
benefit that are necessary to support development,
maintenance, and redevelopment and to protect
the public health, safety, and welfare. Infrastructure
includes capital improvement projects such as
transportation systems (including sidewalks, bike
paths, and wheelchair access), water supplies,
sewage collection and treatment, and other
services that involve a capital expenditure.
Inner Suburbs - Older suburbs that ring Chicago,
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Cleveland, Philadelphia, Seattle, Miami, San
Francisco and other big cities. Like the inner
cities before them, the nation's inner suburbs are
becoming rundown, unfashionable and obsolete.
Shopping centers are boarded up. The aluminum-
sided houses seem worn and cramped. Factories
have closed, and businesses and people have
moved farther out to burgeoning "edge cities" with
their bigger houses, wider yards, fancier malls and
glistening office parks.
Institutional Care - A set of health care, personal
care and social services required by persons
who have lost, or never acquired, some degree of
functional capacity (e.g., the chronically ill, aged,
disabled, or retarded) in long-term institutional care
such as that provided in nursing homes, homes for
the retarded and mental hospitals.
Interstate Migration - A move that has its origin in
one state and its destination in another.
Intrastate Migration - A move that has its origin,
destination and entire transportation within a single
state.
Invasive Species - Native or non-native plants,
animals, and other organisms (e.g., microbes)
which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species
through unrestrained population growth.
Land Grant - A gift of land made by the
government for projects such as roads, railroads,
or especially academic institutions. In the past
(the 1700s), they were given for the purpose
of establishing settlements, missions, and
farms. During the 1800s, four out of five of the
transcontinental railroads in the U.S. were built
using land grants, as was the Canadian Pacific
Railway. Regarding academia, the Morrill Acts
of 1862 and 1890 have given nearly 100 U.S.
colleges and universities acres of public land,
which in turn were sold by the institutions and the
proceeds placed into endowment funds to provide
them financial support in creating and sustaining
agricultural and mechanical academic programs.
Landpooling - Market-based techniques that
acknowledge the development value of some
farmlands and help the farmer participate in
those gains. They are private enterprises that
must function within a general structure of growth
management institutions that protect the public
interest. Experience is limited to several cases in
Europe and Australia.
Landscape - The traits, patterns, and structure of
a specific geographic area, including its biological
composition, its physical environment, and its
anthropogenic or social patterns. An area where
interacting ecosystems are grouped and repeated
in similar form.
Landscape Ecology - The study of the distribution
patterns of communities and ecosystems, the
ecological processes that affect those patterns, and
changes in pattern and process over time.
Land-use - The way land is developed and used in
terms of the kinds of anthropogenic activities that
occur (e.g., agriculture, residential areas, industrial
areas).
Larvae - Refers to the juvenile stage of most
invertebrates, amphibians, and fish, which all
hatch from eggs. It is unlike the adult in form
and is usually incapable of sexual reproduction.
It develops into the adult by undergoing
metamorphosis. Examples are the tadpoles of frogs
or caterpillars of butterflies.
Latitudinal Comparisons - Comparisons of
populations between different geographic zones
(e.g., temperate and tropical, Florida and the
western U.S., or the U.S. and Sweden).
Lever Fixtures - A lever has the same function
as a knob, except it is longer and thinner. To open
a door, levers are pushed down. Besides the
decorative uses of a lever, they are also used in
applications where someone is handicapped, and
cannot grasp a knob very well.
Leverage - Using given resources in such a way
that the potential positive or negative outcome is
magnified. A method of grant making practiced by
some foundations and individual donors. Leverage
occurs when a small amount of money is given
with the express purpose of attracting funding from
other sources or of providing the organization with
the tools it needs to raise other kinds of funds;
sometimes known as the "multiplier effect."
Life Coach - A counselor who applies mentoring,
values assessment, behavior modification, behavior
modeling, goal-setting, and other techniques in
assisting clients in transitions in their personal
life and in the process of self-actualization. Life
coaching draws from a number of disciplines,
including sociology, psychology, career counseling,
and numerous other types of counseling. Coaches
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tend to specialize in one or more of several
areas: career coaching, transition coaching, life
or personal coaching, executive coaching, small
business coaching, and organizational or corporate
coaching. Some life coaches extend their services
beyond the personal into interpersonal, familial, and
organizational realms, advising clients on the best
methods of maximizing effectiveness in these areas
as well.
Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) - A process to
evaluate the environmental burdens associated with
a product, process, or activity by identifying and
quantifying energy and material used and wastes
released to the environment; to assess the impact
of those energy and material uses and releases
to the environment; and to identify and evaluate
opportunities to affect environmental improvements.
LCA addresses environmental impacts under study
in the areas of ecological health, human health, and
resource depletion. It does not address economic
considerations or social effects. Additionally, like
all other scientific models, LCA is a simplification
of the physical system and cannot claim to provide
an absolute and complete representation of every
environmental interaction.
Liquidation - The process of converting stock or
other assets into cash.
Long-Term Care - Services that are provided in a
setting other than an acute care unit of a Hospital.
Long-term Care may include Skilled Nursing Care,
Intermediate Care, Custodial Care, Nursing Facility
Care, Alternate Facility Care, Home Care, Home
Health Care, Adult Day Care, and Respite Care.
Loons - Loons are powerful, streamlined birds with
red eyes, greenish-black head, long tapered beak
and black and white checkerboard plumage. There
are five species of loons that exist in the northern
hemisphere: the common loon, Pacific loon, Arctic
loon, yellow-billed loon, and the red-throated loon.
Marginally Productive Land - Land that is
unproductive for human use (e.g., covered by ice,
with unsuitable soil condition or lacks water).
Market Survey - The collection and analysis
of data from potential sources to determine the
capability of satisfying a requirement. The testing
of the marketplace may range from written or
telephone contact with knowledgeable experts
regarding similar requirements, to the more formal
Request for Information.
Marketer - A person whose job involves
persuading consumers to buy what producers want
to sell.
Master Plan, Comprehensive Plan, or Future
Land Use Plan - These are three of many
common terms used to describe a plan prepared
by a planning commission to guide future land
use and infrastructure decisions in the community
according to the procedures and requirements
of the applicable planning enabling act. A plan
prepared under these acts has a long-term focus
of at least twenty years; is required to be reviewed
at least once every five years; and includes
analysis, recommendations, and proposals for
the community's population, economy, housing,
transportation, community facilities, services, and
future land use.
Media - One of the major categories of material
found in the physical environment that surrounds
or contacts organisms, e.g., surface water, ground
water, soil, or air, and through which chemicals or
pollutants can move and reach the organisms.
Median - The middle data value in a set of
observations. To find the median, re-order the
data from smallest to largest and find the middle
observation; that is the median. If there is an even
number of observations, then there will be two
middle values; in that case, the average of those
two middle values is the median.
Melting Pot - The nine states that comprise
the Melting Pot (AK, CA, FL, HI, IL, NJ, NY, NM,
and TX) contain 41% of the population. More
importantly, 74% of the nation's Asian and Hispanic
origin populations live in these states. These
states grew 13% in the 1990's, with 76% of the
growth coming from Asians and Hispanics. The
suburbs in the melting pot states are almost as
diverse as the urban cities in these areas. The
suburbs and cities in the melting pot states will
have more in common with other cities and suburbs
in the melting pot than with cities and suburbs in
other regions of the country due to their diversity.
In addition to immigration, the out migration of
middle class Anglos and African Americans from
these states has affected their population mix.
These populations are being replaced by middle
class Asians and Hispanics whose families
actually have stronger family structures and more
"traditional values" than their predecessors in these
communities (Frey, 2001).
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Mental Model - An individual's existing
understanding and interpretation about themselves,
others, the environment, and the things with which
they interact, which is formed and reformed on
the basis of experiences, beliefs, values, socio-
cultural histories, and prior perceptions. Our mental
models affect how we interpret new concepts and
events. Very often we are not consciously aware of
our mental models or the effects they have on our
behavior.
Meta-Analysis - Research on the research. More
than a literature review, meta-analysis looks
for different methodologies and measures from
different people or institutions that have published
research on a particular topic. After a multitude of
studies on a particular subject have been reviewed,
meta-analysis enables the researcher to combine
the results of several studies (using quantifiable
data) in order to arrive at a conclusion on the topic.
A researcher systematically inventories current
research on a given topic and integrates the
theories to arrive at a conclusion that is the sum of
all the research he/she analyzed.
Methylmercury - An organic form of mercury that
is highly toxic and is the main culprit in mercury
poisoning. Methylmercury is easily absorbed into
the living tissue of aquatic organisms, is not easily
eliminated, and therefore accumulates in fish that
are predators. The degree to which mercury is
transformed into methylmercury and transferred
up the food chain through bioaccumulation
depends on factors such as water chemistry and
the complexity of the food web. Methylmercury is
highly toxic to mammals, including people, and
causes a number of adverse effects. The brain is
the most sensitive organ. The population at highest
risk is the children of women who consume large
amounts of fish and seafood during pregnancy.
The risk to that population is likely to be sufficient
to result in an increase in the number of children
who have to struggle to keep up in school and who
might require remedial classes or special education
because of brain damage.
Metric - Often used interchangeably with
measurements. However, it is helpful to separate
these definitions. Metrics are the various
parameters or ways of looking at a process that is
to be measured. Metrics define what is to be
measured.
Metropolitan Hierarchy - A growing recognition of
a hierarchy of smaller cities and towns within some
large metropolitan areas. The hierarchy moves
from large cities to smaller cities, and from large
suburban areas to smaller suburban areas.
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) - A county
or group of contiguous counties that contains at
least one urbanized center of 50,000 or more
population. In addition to the county or counties that
contain all or part of the urbanized area, the MSA
may contain other counties that are metropolitan
in character and that are economically and socially
integrated with the main city. In New England, cities
and towns, rather than counties, are used to define
MSAs. Counties that are not within an MSA are
considered to be nonmetropolitan (OMB).
Microcosm - A miniature model of something.
Microgram - One-millionth of a gram. One gram is
about one twenty-eighth of an ounce.
Micropolitan Statistical Area - A non-
metropolitan county or group of contiguous
nonmetropolitan counties that contains an urban
cluster of 10,000 to 49,000 persons. A Micropolitan
statistical area may include surrounding counties
if there are strong economic ties between the
counties, based on commuting patterns. In New
England, cities and towns, rather than counties,
are used to define Micropolitan statistical areas.
Nonmetropolitan counties that are not classified as
part of a Micropolitan statistical area are considered
nonmicropolitan (OMB).
Mixed Use Development - A tract of land with
two or more different uses (e.g., residential, office,
manufacturing, retail, public, or entertainment). It
may also include different housing types and price
ranges.
Model - A representation of reality used to simulate
a process, understand a situation, predict an
outcome, or analyze a problem.
Montane - 1) Of, growing in, or inhabiting mountain
areas. 2) The biogeographic zone of relatively
moist cool upland slopes below timberline. It
is characterized by large evergreen trees as a
dominant life form.
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Morbidity - The rate of disease or proportion of
diseased people in a population. In common clinical
usage, any disease state, including diagnosis and
complications is referred to as morbidity.
Mortality - A measure of the incidence of deaths in
a given population.
Multi-racial -The terms multiracial, biracial and
mixed-race describe people whose ancestors
are not of a single race. (Biracial strictly refers to
those with ancestors from exactly two races). One
example might be a person with an Asian mother
and African father. Another might be the Mestizo
people of Mexico (and other Latin American
countries) who are descended from Spanish and
indigenous ancestors. It is sometimes a matter of
opinion if people are mixed-race, because races
themselves are not clearly defined. This has caused
some problems for census-takers.
Municipality - A city, borough, town, township,
county, institution district, or village that enjoys self-
government in local matters.
n4a (National Association of Area Aging
Agencies) - The umbrella organization for the 655
area agencies on aging (AAAs) and more than 230
Title VI Native American aging programs in the U.S.
Through its presence in Washington, D.C., n4a
advocates on behalf of the local aging agencies to
ensure that needed resources and support services
are available to older Americans. The fundamental
mission of the AAAs and Title VI programs is
to provide services which make it possible for
older individuals to remain in their home, thereby
preserving their independence and dignity. These
agencies coordinate and support a wide range of
home- and community-based services, including
information and referral, home-delivered and
congregate meals, transportation, employment
services, senior centers, adult day care and a long-
term care ombudsman program.
Native Peoples - Also known as indigenous
communities, peoples and nations are those which,
having a historical continuity with pre-invasion
and pre-colonial societies that developed on their
territories, consider themselves distinct from other
sectors of the societies now prevailing in those
territories, or parts of them.
Native Wildlife - A broad term that includes
nondomesticated vertebrates, especially mammals,
birds, and fish that are native to a particular
geographic area.
Natural Amenity - An attribute of the physical
environment (as opposed to the social or economic
environment) that enhances a location as a place of
residence.
Natural Capital - Nature's goods and services
(e.g., healthy food, energy for mobility and heat,
fiber for paper, clothing and shelter, fresh air, and
clean water).
Natural Disturbance - A disturbance (e.g. fire,
insect outbreak, flood) that is caused by nature
rather than human actions.
Natural Lighting - A method of bringing natural
sunlight into buildings.
Natural Scientists - Scientists who study the
physical, nonhuman aspects of the Earth and
the universe around us. Natural sciences include
Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science,
Ecology, Geology and Physics.
Neurotoxicity - The quality of being destructive of
or poisonous to the tissues of the nervous system.
New Sunbelt - An area of 13 states that contains
only about 20% of the population. It includes the
states growing the fastest by domestic migration.
These areas are particularly growing in young
adults and retiree populations. Also in this region,
the fastest growing areas are suburbs, exurbs and
smaller metro areas. States in the New Sunbelt
include AZ, CO, DE, GA, ID, NC, NV, OR, SC, TN,
UT, VA, WA (Frey, 2001).
New West - the mountainous areas of the West
(Utah, Nevada, Colorado).
Nexus - Link: the means of connection between
things linked in series.
NOAA - National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration.
Noncommodity Values - Benefits that cannot be
packages and sold, such as wilderness, aesthetics,
appreciating and protecting nature, providing
wildlife habitat, and providing opportunities for
personal recreation (as opposed to commodities
such as timber and minerals).
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Nondurable good - A good bought by consumers
that tends to last for less than a year. Common
examples are food and clothing. The notable thing
about nondurable goods is that consumers tend
to continue buying them regardless of the ups and
downs of the business cycle.
Non-Government Organization (NGO) - A
non-profit group or association organized outside
of institutionalized political structures to realize
particular social objectives (such as environmental
protection) or serve particular constituencies (such
as indigenous peoples). NGO activities range
from research, information distribution, training,
local organization, and community service to
legal advocacy, lobbying for legislative change,
and civil disobedience. NGO's range in size from
small groups within a particular community to huge
membership groups with a national or international
scope.
Nonmetropolitan Areas - Areas that are outside
the boundaries of metro areas and have no cities
with as many as 50,000 residents.
Northern Pike - An elongated fish capable of
growing more than three feet long and weighing
greater than twenty pounds. The range of the
northern pike is extensive, having a range greater
than any other freshwater gamefish. Pike can
be found throughout the northern half of North
America. Pike prefer clear, shallow, vegetated
areas of lakes and larger rivers. Pike are rarely
found in areas lacking stumps, aquatic vegetation,
or other cover.
Nutrients - Essential inorganic chemicals (e.g.,
nitrogen and phosphorus) needed by plants
for growth. Excessive amounts of nutrients
(eutrophication) can lead to degradation of
water quality by promoting excessive growth,
accumulation, and subsequent decay of plants,
especially algae (phytoplankton).
NYSOFA (New York State Office for the Aging)
- The designated State Unit on Aging under the
Older Americans Act of 1965. NYSOFA helps older
New Yorkers to be as independent as possible for
as long as possible through advocacy, development
and delivery of cost-effective policies, programs
and services which support and empower the
elderly and their families, in partnership with the
network of public and private organizations which
serve them.
Old-Old - A sub-group of the elderly population
that researchers often use to refer to persons 85
years old and older.
Open Space - Any open land that is predominantly
lacking in built structural development. Open space
includes natural areas, wetlands and open water,
wildlife habitats, areas of managed production of
resources such as farmlands and grazing areas,
open areas requiring special management or
regulation to protect public health and safety, and
outdoor recreational areas. The term "open space"
does not imply public access or ownership.
Oratory - Addressing an audience formally (usually
a long and rhetorical address and often pompous);
"he loved the sound of his own oratory."
ORD - ERA's Office of Research and Development.
Ordinance - A written regulation or law enacted
by the legislative body of a county, city or town
regulating such matters as zoning, building, safety,
matters of municipality, etc.
Out-migration -To move out of one community,
region, or country in order to reside in another.
Outside the Box - To think differently. Thinking
outside the box requires different attributes that
include: Willingness to take new perspectives to
day-to-day work; Openness to do different things
and to do things differently; Focusing on the value
of finding new ideas and acting on them; Striving to
create value in new ways; Listening to others; and
Supporting and respecting others when they come
up with new ideas. Out-of-the box thinking requires
openness to new ways of seeing the world and a
willingness to explore. Out-of-the box thinkers know
that new ideas need nurturing and support. They
also know that having an idea is good but acting on
it is more important. Results are what count.
Overlay - In traditional cartography, a drawing or
graphic compilation of geographically related data
symbolized on transparent or translucent material,
usually in register with a base map. One or more
overlays of information in register combine to form
a map manuscript. In automated cartography,
overlays will normally be digital map files which can
be registered and combined to form a complete
map.
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Overshoot - The extent to which a population
exceeds the carrying capacity of its environment.
Ozone - Found in two layers of the atmosphere,
the stratosphere and the troposphere. In the
stratosphere (the atmospheric layer 7 to 10 miles
or more above the earth's surface) ozone is a
natural form of oxygen that provides a protective
layer shielding the earth from ultraviolet radiation.
In the troposphere (the layer extending up 7 to 10
miles from the earth's surface), ozone is a chemical
oxidant and major component of photochemical
smog. It can seriously impair the respiratory
system and is one of the most wide- spread of
all the criteria pollutants for which the Clean Air
Act required EPA to set standards. Ozone in the
troposphere is produced through complex chemical
reactions of nitrogen oxides, which are among the
primary pollutants emitted by combustion sources;
hydrocarbons, released into the atmosphere
through the combustion, handling and processing of
petroleum products; and sunlight.
Paratransit - A demand-responsive system that
applies to a variety of smaller, flexibly scheduled
and routed transportation services using low-
capacity vehicles. Primarily used by persons
for whom use of standard mass transit services
is difficult or impossible (e.g., individuals with
disabilities and senior citizens).
Particulate Matter - Any material that exists as
solid or liquid in the atmosphere that is less than
10 microns. Particulate matter may be in the form
of fly ash, soot, dust, fog, fumes etc. Sources of
particulate matter include diesel trucks and power
plants.
Partners - Organizations or individuals who work
cooperatively to achieve mutually agreed upon
objectives and intermediate results and to secure
stakeholder participation. Partners include non-
governmental organizations, universities, federal,
state and local government agencies, professional
and business associations, and private businesses.
Partners for Livable Communities (PLC)
- A non-profit leadership organization working to
improve the livability of communities by promoting
quality of life, economic development, and social
equity. Since its founding in 1977, PLC has helped
communities set a common vision for the future,
discover and use new resources for community
and economic development and build public/private
coalitions to further their goals. PLC promotes
livable communities through technical assistance,
leadership training, workshops, charettes, research
and publications. More than 1,200 individuals and
groups from local, state, national, international,
public and private and media organizations make
up PLCs' resource network and share innovative
ideas on livability and community improvement.
Per Capita - A Latin phrase literally meaning "by
heads," and translated as "for each person." It is
a common unit for expressing data in statistics. A
country's per capita personal income, for example,
is the average personal income per person.
Permaculture - A sustainable farming method that
strives to create a naturally balanced ecosystem
that feeds the farmer's needs while being self-
sustaining. The method takes edible landscaping a
few steps further: not only does it feed the farmer;
its goal is also to provide fuel, materials for shelter
and home, and habitat for livestock. Native plant
species are used whenever possible and when they
are not, species are chosen for their compatibility
with the local environment.
Permitted uses - the owner relinquishes to the
public in perpetuity his or her development
Pesticides - A general term used to describe
chemical substances that are used to destroy or
control insect or plant pests.
Pharmaceuticals - Substances that are aimed to
cure, prevent, or recognize diseases and relieve
pains through their application in the organism.
Pharmacokinetics - Refers to the study of the
metabolism and action of drugs, with particular
emphasis on the time required for absorption,
duration of action, distribution in the body, and
excretion.
Planner - Anyone who plans, e.g., a city planner,
economic planner, public health planner, social
planner, or landscape planner. One whose
profession consists of identifying community needs,
resources and the means to reduce the difference
between a desired or imagined condition and the
present status. One who assist citizens in making
decisions on programs, and methods to create
a physical, economic, and social environment in
which the human conditions, activities, and benefits
desired by the members of the community may
flourish.
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Plenary - Plenary carries with it the meaning of
full, complete, or entire. In terms of a meeting or
workshop, it means an open session, where all
attendees are present.
Politician - A person engaged in politics,
especially party politics, professionally or otherwise.
Often, a person holding or seeking political office.
Pollutant Transport -The movement of pollutants,
by the wind or water, long distances from the
original emission sources. Pollutant transport is
an important issue because it creates regional
pollution problems, rather than simply affecting the
local area where the pollutant is emitted.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
- Any of a class of carcinogenic organic molecules
that consist of three or more rings containing
carbon and hydrogen and that are commonly
produced by fossil fuel combustion. Examples of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are naphthalene,
anthracene, phenanthrene, pyrene, benzopyrene,
and coronene.
Population - 1. All of the people inhabiting a
specified area. 2. The total number of inhabitants
constituting a particular race, class, or group in a
specified area. 3. Ecology. All the organisms that
constitute a specific group or occur in a specified
habitat. 4. Statistics. The set of individuals, items, or
data from which a statistical sample is taken. Also
called universe.
Population Density - Is usually expressed in
terms of items or organisms per unit area. For
human beings, population density is the number
of persons per unit of area (which may include
or exclude inland water), though it may also be
expressed in relation to habitable, inhabited,
productive (or potentially productive) or cultivated
area. It is frequently measured in persons per
square mile or persons per square kilometer or
hectare, which can be obtained simply by dividing
the number of persons by the land area measured
in square miles or in square kilometers or hectares.
Commonly this may be calculated for a county, city,
country or the entire world. In the country articles
the density is based on land area.
Primitivism - A wild or unrefined state.
Private Sector - A short-cut term that combines
the households and businesses in the economy
into a single group. This term should be contrasted
directly with public sector, which is a comparable
short-cut term for government. The distinction
between private sector and public sector reflects
the two basic methods of answering the three
questions of allocation-markets and government.
Markets make use of private ownership and control
of resources (hence the term "private" sector) for
voluntary allocation decisions.
Projections - Different ways of projecting the
surface of the globe onto a flat screen or sheet of
paper. The choice of a projection can influence how
the world is perceived. Different projections possess
different qualities, including accuracy in terms of
Area, Direction or Distance.
Public Health - The science and practice of
protecting and improving the health of a community,
as by preventive medicine, health education, control
of communicable diseases, application of sanitary
measures, and monitoring of environmental
hazards. The three core public health functions
are: the assessment and monitoring of the health
of communities and populations at risk to identify
health problems and priorities; the formulation of
public policies designed to solve identified local
and national health problems and priorities; and
to assure that all populations have access to
appropriate and cost-effective care, including health
promotion and disease prevention services, and
evaluation of the effectiveness of that care.
Public Lands - Land owned by the federal
government but not reserved for any special
purpose, e.g., for a park or a military reservation.
Public land is also called land in the public domain.
Except in Texas, which made retention of its
public lands one of the conditions for joining the
Union, there are no state public lands. Seven of
the original states ceded their western lands to
the federal government when they entered the
Union. Additional public land was acquired with
the Louisiana Purchase (1803), Florida (1819),
Oregon (1846), the Mexican Cession (1848), the
Gadsden Purchase (1853), and Alaska (1867).
Almost as soon as public land was acquired the
federal government began to dispose of it through
grants to states, railroad companies, settlers (see
Homestead Act, 1862), colleges (see land-grant
colleges and universities), and cash sales. It was
charged that large companies frequently acquired
extensive holdings by dishonest means, and many
of the new owners obtained considerable revenue
by selling the land. A reaction to this easy policy
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set in toward the end of the 19th century and steps
were taken to ensure the conservation of natural
resources by withdrawing public lands from sale.
Thereafter the government leased such land for
grazing, lumbering, mining, the harnessing of
waterpower, and other purposes, while maintaining
regulatory control. By the 1970s there was
considerable controversy over the need to make
the best use of the public land's valuable resources
while still preserving the land for future use and
expanded recreational activities. Most of the
nation's remaining public land is in the western part
of the country, about half of it in Alaska.
Public Sector - That part of economic and
administrative life that deals with the delivery of
goods and services by and for the government,
whether national, regional or local/municipal.
Examples of public sector activity range from
delivering social security, administering urban
planning and organizing national defenses.
Public Transit - A public transportation system
using buses, subways, light rail, commuter rail,
monorail, passenger ferry boats, trolleys, inclined
railways, or people movers. An effective public
transit system provides convenient, low-cost
mobility for people who cannot, or chose not to,
drive a motor vehicle.
Publicly-Owned Company - A company that is
owned by shareholders and is publicly traded.
Pueblo [Spanish for "town," "village," "settlement,"
"people" or "nation"] - An Indian village in the
American Southwest. A member of any of about two
dozen Native American peoples. Probably derives
from the practice of most ancient Southwestern
cultures and many modern American Indian
tribes to call themselves "the people" in their own
language.
Pull Factors - Events or features that pull people
towards another area (and so are perceived as
good). Examples of pull factors influencing senior
migration include: recreation amenities; climate and
terrain preferences, while availability of support
services; opportunities for social or community
participation, location of family, and ambience
(including such other factors as more rural
environment or smaller population size).
Push Factors - Events or features of the place in
which people live that are pushing them away from
that area (and so are perceived as bad). Examples
of push factors influencing senior migration include:
retirement; desire to get away from cold weather;
personal health/health care needs, life disruptions
or critical events, financial considerations,
housing needs, neighborhood conditions and
socioeconomic status.
Qualitative Dimensions - Related to quality, a
subjective analysis.
Quality of Life - A term used to describe the
noneconomic amenities a community has to offer,
including clean air and water, safe streets, good
schools, and scenic views. Retired migrants appear
to define quality of life as a mosaic of amenities
which include the perception of increased personal
space, toward geographic areas that are less
congested, aesthetics of the natural environment,
climate, and the potential for recreation nearby.
Quantitative Dimensions - Related to quantity,
value, or amount.
Rainbow Trout - A species of freshwater fish
belonging to the salmon family, typically 12-18
inches in length. This trout is an olive-green color
with heavy black spotting over the length of the
body. The adult fish has a red-colored stripe along
the lateral line, from the gills to the tail. Rainbow
trout in lakes are usually lighter colored or a more
silvery color than those in streams.
RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act) - 42 U.S.C. s/s 6901 et seq. (1976), gave
EPA the authority to control hazardous waste from
the "cradle-to-grave." This includes the generation,
transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of
hazardous waste. RCRA also set forth a framework
for the management of non-hazardous wastes.
Recreational Amenities - Features that increase
attractiveness or value, especially of a piece of real
estate or a geographic location (e.g., clubhouse,
pools, covered picnic areas for family gatherings,
lots of open space, golf, fitness centers, and
jogging/hiking/walking/biking trails).
Recycle/Reuse - Minimizing waste generation by
recovering and reprocessing usable products that
might otherwise become waste (i.e. recycling of
aluminum cans, paper, and bottles, etc.).
Redevelopment - Renovation of a previously
developed parcel of land or building site in order
to allow a new or more-viable use or uses to
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replace the previous land use. These sites typically
are found in urban areas that previously had
experienced economic and physical deterioration,
but that now are the focus of renewal efforts.
Regenerative Capacity - A measure of the ability
to re-establish on a new, usually improved, basis or
make new or like new.
Renewable Resource - A natural resource that
can be increased by either automatically through
the natural forces of the environment or through
actions undertaken by people. The quantities
of renewable resources are not fixed and thus
the amounts available for use tomorrow can be
increased. Efficient use of renewable resources
requires a balance between the rate of use and
the rate of renewal. It is possible to efficiently use
renewable resources indefinitely. However, such
resources can also be exhausted if the rate of use
exceeds the rate of renewal. Common examples of
renewable resources are plant life, animal life, clean
air, and clean water.
Reservation - Public land set-aside in trust for the
use of Native Americans.
Resident population - Includes persons whose
usual place of residence (that is, the place where
one usually lives and sleeps) is one of the 50 states
or the District of Columbia. It includes members of
the Armed Forces stationed in the U.S. and their
families. It excludes international military, naval and
diplomatic personnel and their families located in
this country and residing in embassies or similar
quarters. Also excluded are international workers
and international students living in this country and
Americans living abroad. The resident population
is the denominator for calculating birth and death
rates and incidence of disease.
Resource Extraction - Refers to the practice of
locating, acquiring and selling any resource, but
typically a natural resource (e.g., mining ore, cutting
trees for timber, and commercial fishing).
Restoration - The practice of returning an object
or building to its appearance at a particular time
period. Restoration may include the removal of
additions and alterations made after the particular
time period, and reconstruction of missing earlier
features. Ecosystem restoration involves the
repair of ecological damage to an ecosystem so
that it is close to the natural condition prior to a
disturbance and it can function as a normal self-
regulating system. This is done through processes
such as chemical cleanups, revegetation, and the
reintroduction of native species.
Restorative Development - A fast-growing
economic sector that restores value to a piece
of property, a neighborhood or a community.
Restorative development includes eight component
industries: four that primarily restore the natural
environment (ecosystems, watersheds, fisheries,
and farms), plus four that mainly restore the built
environment (brownfields, infrastructure, heritage,
and disasters/wars).
Retirement Enclaves - Communities designed
for seniors who are active, healthy and able to
live without assistance. They generally consist of
homes, condominiums, town houses, apartments,
and/or mobile and motor homes where residents
maintain an independent lifestyle. Some
communities offer only minimal services such as
building and grounds maintenance, and security.
The residential units may be rented on a monthly
basis or owned as condominiums or cooperatives.
Basically they are no different from other residential
enclaves except that there is an age restriction
(over 55) or an age target.
Retirement Years - The years after an individual
stops working, generally starting between 55 and
70, and continuing until death.
Reuse - Practices that find alternate uses or
alternate avenues for use of an item rather than
expending energy to dispose it or alter its form
by recycling or composting. Examples would be
donating used books and magazines to a nursing
home, using the fronts of Christmas cards to make
new cards, using plastic margarine tubs to hold
leftovers or craft supplies, donating clothing to
charity.
ReVA - EPA's Regional Vulnerability Assessment
Program.
Reverse Migration - Describes the phenomenon
older Americans leave active retirement
communities to return back to their original home
community.
Risk Assessment - The process of establishing
information regarding acceptable levels of a risk
and/or levels of risk for an individual, group, society,
or the environment.
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Risk Management - The process of evaluating
and selecting alternative regulatory and non-
regulatory responses to risk. The selection process
necessarily requires the consideration of legal,
economic, and behavioral factors.
Runoff - The flow of water, usually from
precipitation, which is not absorbed into the ground.
It flows across the land and eventually runs to
stream channels, lakes, oceans, or depressions or
lowpoints in the Earth's surface. The characteristics
that affect the rate of runoff include rainfall duration
and intensity as well as the ground's slope,
soil type, and ground cover. Runoff can pick up
pollutants from the air and land, carrying them into
the streams, lakes, etc.
Scale - Extent covered by a study or data set;
typically used to refer to time (temporal scale) or
geography (spatial scale).
Scenario - A technical term usually used to
describe an image of the future deliberately crafted
for planning or foresight purposes. It should be
rooted in identifiable trends or emerging issues
data that are extrapolated and organized using an
explicit theory of social change. It should describe
how changes created the particular future present
out of the past, and offer a vivid, provocative,
accessible picture of how the future present
differs from today. Scenarios are often evaluated
in terms of plausibility and probability; they should
contain both opportunities and threats - they are
statements of possible future outcomes.
Sediment - Mud, sand, silt, clay, shell debris, and
other particles that settle on the bottom of rivers,
lakes, estuaries, and oceans.
Sedimentation -The removal, transport, and
deposition of detached sediment particles by wind
or water.
SEE Program - EPA's Senior Environmental
Employment Program established under Public
Law 98-313 to allow the EPA to award grants
to, or enter into Cooperative Agreements with
nonprofit organizations (grantees) (designated
by the Secretary of Labor under Title V of
the Older Americans Act of 1965) to provide
technical assistance to federal, state, and/or
local environmental agencies for projects of
pollution, prevention, abatement, and control.
The grantees then recruit program participants
(enrollees) matching their skills to temporary
assignments, which may be full time or part-time.
An enrollee is an individual, at least 55 years
of age, who is enrolled under such a grant or
Cooperative Agreement, and who is engaged in
providing technical assistance to EPA, and other
federal, state or local agencies. The program is
not intended to, and does not compete with the
Civil Service hiring or compensation systems.
Enrollees are used to support, not supplant, federal
employees.
Sentinel Cohort - A group of individuals having
a statistical factor (such as age) in common in a
demographic or epidemiological study in which
effects from environmental contaminant(s) may be
interpreted as indicators of similar disturbances in
other groups.
Sentinel Species - A species in which effects from
environmental contaminant(s) may be interpreted
as indicators of similar disturbances in other
species (e.g., the "canary in the mine").
Septic System - An on-site system designed to
treat and dispose of domestic sewage. A typical
septic system consists of tank that receives waste
from a residence or business and a system of
tile lines or a pit for disposal of the liquid effluent
(sludge) that remains after decomposition of the
solids by bacteria in the Sewage Effluent.
Skewed - A skewed distribution is not symmetric.
That is, it has different shapes on each side of the
median.
For example:
Smart Growth - A more sustainable and holistic
model for urban growth that aims to limit low-
density development on the urban fringe while
creating more livable neighborhoods in urban
and suburban areas. A key component of smart
growth is focusing new medium and high density
development in compact areas near frequent and
reliable public transportation, so that people who
live, work, shop, or visit the neighborhood will have
viable options besides a private car.
Social Amenities - Features that contribute to
the attractiveness of a piece of real estate or a
geographic location such as parks, schools health
facilities, sanitary facilities, libraries, social welfare,
public transportation and water.
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Social Capital - Refers to the connection among
individuals and the relationships that can be
economically valuable. Social networks that include
people who trust and assist each other can be a
powerful asset. Social capital is a key component
to building and maintaining democracy. The term
"capital" is used by analogy with other forms of
economic capital, as social capital is argued to have
similar (although less measurable) benefits, and as
a result is now considered by institutions such as
the World Bank in deciding policy.
Social Marketers - Use the same marketing
principles that were being used to sell products to
consumers could be used to "sell" ideas, attitudes
and behaviors. Kotler and Andreasen define
social marketing as "differing from other areas of
marketing only with respect to the objectives of
the marketer and his or her organization. Social
marketing seeks to influence social behaviors not
to benefit the marketer, but to benefit the target
audience and the general society." This technique
has been used extensively in international health
programs, especially for contraceptives and oral
rehydration therapy (ORT), and is being used with
more frequency in the U.S. for such diverse topics
as drug abuse, heart disease and organ donation.
Social Mindscapes - Mental models that are held
by communities or cultures. The mental models are
similar in concept to landscapes in that they contain
an array of individual mental models (individual
owner land-use) that collectively define the beliefs,
norms, and mores of the community or culture. The
term was coined by E. Zerubavel.
Social Sciences - The study of human society
and individual relationships in and to society.
Social sciences include sociology, psychology,
anthropology, economics, and political science.
Social Scientist - Social scientists study
all aspects of society—from past events and
achievements to human behavior and relationships
among groups. Their research provides insights
that help us understand different ways in
which individuals and groups make decisions,
exercise power, and respond to change. Through
their studies and analyses, social scientists
suggest solutions to social, business, personal,
governmental, and environmental problems. Social
science occupations include anthropologists,
archaeologists, geographers, historians, political
scientists, sociologists, economists, market and
survey researchers, psychologists, and urban and
regional planners.
Socioeconomic Factors - Include ethnicity, sense
of community, personal income, education level,
and occupation.
Sociologist - A social scientist that studies the
institutions and development of human society.
Solid Waste - Non-liquid, non-soluble materials
ranging from municipal garbage to industrial wastes
that contain complex and sometimes hazardous
substances. Solid wastes also include sewage
sludge, agricultural refuse, demolition wastes, and
mining residues. Technically, solid waste also refers
to liquids and gases in containers.
Source Waters -The source of drinking water
in your community, whether it is from ground or
surface water.
Sovereign Indian Nation - Indian tribes are
distinct political entities—governments with
executive, legislative, and judicial powers. Members
of the tribes may be citizens of both their Indian
nation and the U.S. Sovereignty is an internationally
recognized power of a nation to govern itself.
The framers of the U.S. Constitution specifically
recognized the sovereignty of Indian tribes. In
Article 1, section 8, clause 3 of the Constitution,
Congress is identified as the governmental branch
authorized to regulate commerce with "foreign
nations, among the several states, and with the
Indian tribes." The Supreme Court reaffirmed this
legal and political standing of Indian nations in a
set of three 19th Century court decisions known
as the Marshall Trilogy. These cases serve as
cornerstones to understanding Indian sovereignty
in the U.S. political system as a clearly defined legal
status that has constitutional standing.
Spatial Scale - Provides a "shorthand" form for
discussing relative lengths, areas, distances and
sizes. Examples of different scales are: local,
regional, continental and global.
Sprawl - Unplanned development of open land.
Stakeholder - Any organization, governmental
entity, or individual that has a stake in or may be
impacted by a given approach to environmental
regulation, pollution prevention, energy
conservation, etc.
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Statin Drug - A class of drugs that lowers the
level of cholesterol in the blood by reducing the
production of cholesterol by the liver. Statins
block the enzyme in the liver that is responsible
for making cholesterol. This enzyme is called
hydroxy-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase
(HMG-CoA reductase for short). Scientifically,
statins are called HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors.
Cholesterol is critical to the normal function of
every cell in the body. However, it also contributes
to the development of atherosclerosis, a condition
in which cholesterol-containing plaques form within
the arteries. These plaques block the arteries and
reduce the flow of blood to the tissues the arteries
supply. When plaques rupture, a blood clot forms
on the plaque, thereby further blocking the artery
and reducing the flow of blood. When blood flow
is reduced sufficiently in the arteries that supply
blood to the heart, the result is angina (chest pain)
or a heart attack. If the clot occurs on plaques in
the brain, the result is a stroke. Clots occurring on
plaques in the leg cause intermittent claudication
(pain in the legs while walking). By reducing the
production of cholesterol, statins are able to reduce
the formation of new plaques and occasionally
can reduce the size of plaques that already exist.
In addition, through mechanisms that are not well
understood, statins also stabilize plaques and make
them less prone to rupturing and forming clots.
Stewardship - The concept of land as a resource,
our responsibility to wisely manage that resource,
and our responsibility to preserve and protect the
condition of that resource for future generations.
Stormwater - Runoff from streets, parking lots,
parks, as well as agricultural and urban areas into a
water body.
Stream Re-Meandering - Returning channelized
and straightened streams to their natural,
meandering, sinuous forms. The U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers uses the term remeandering
extensively in Florida, where they have been
returning the St. Johns and other rivers to their
natural form. Stream power studies have identified
equations that can be used to describe what the
sinuosity should be for various streams based
on slope, geology and soils, watershed size and
gradient, etc.
Stressor - Any physical, chemical, or biological
entity that can induce an adverse response (or
stress).
Subsistence Fishing - Fishing activity solely to
provide fish for personal or family consumption
and not for sale or exchange, but does not include
recreational fishing.
Superfund - The better-known name for the
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) passed
by Congress in 1980. Under this law, parties found
responsible for polluting a site must clean up the
contamination or reimburse the EPA for doing so.
Liability is strict, retroactive, joint and several.
Surface Water - Water found over the land surface
in rivers, streams, creeks, lakes, ponds, marshes,
or oceans.
Susceptibility -The inability to withstand a
specific environmental or chemical stress, disease,
specified pest or pathogen.
Susceptible Population - Certain subgroups of
the population may be more susceptible to the
toxic effects of environmental contaminants or to
particular infectious diseases. These may include
children (<6 years old), pregnant women, the
elderly, and people with pre-existing diseases.
Sustainable Development - Development
that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
Sustainable Environment for Quality of life
(SEQL) - A 2-state (North Carolina-South
Carolina), 15 county, 85 municipality area that is
considering the impacts of air and water quality on
the population and environment.
Symbiotic - A phenomenon where two different
organisms live together in a mutually beneficial
relationship. Both organisms provide each other
with food, protection, or some other survival need.
The most famous example is the anemone and
clownfish. The anemone provides protection to
the clownfish within its stinging tentacles, and the
clownfish provides the anemone with scraps of
food.
Temporal Scale - Duration or period of time.
Ecosystem response to a stressor may occur
very slowly, e.g., over decades or centuries, or
organisms may suffer immediate effects. For
example, the temporal scale for ecosystems
may be: seconds (photosynthesis, prokaryotic
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reproduction); weeks (recolonization from upstream
after a fire); years (revegetation after a fire); or
decades (global climate change, revegetation after
landslides or volcanization).
Terrestrial ecosystem - An integrated
representation of the ecological relationship
between climate, soil and vegetation (e.g., arid,
grassland, and forest ecosystems.
Threshold - The dose or exposure level below
which a significant adverse effect is not expected.
Tipping Points - Thresholds in stressor levels
or ecological effects beyond which the ecological
systems change state.
Topography - The configuration of a surface
area including its relief, or relative elevations, and
position of its natural and manmade features.
Total population - The population of the U.S.
including all members of the Armed Forces living
in foreign countries, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the
U.S. Virgin islands. Other Americans living abroad
(for example civilian Federal employees and
dependents of members of the Armed Forces or
other Federal employees) are not included.
Toxicity - The degree to which a substance
or mixture of substances can harm humans or
animals. Acute toxicity involves harmful effects
in an organism through a single or short-term
exposure. Chronic toxicity is the ability of a
substance or mixture of substances to cause
harmful effects over an extended period, usually
upon repeated or continuous exposure sometimes
lasting for the entire life of the exposed organism.
Transportation Corridor - A geographic area
that is defined by major highway and rail facilities,
and major flows of travel. Transportation corridors
are identified for the purpose of analyzing the
patterns and flows of traffic between origins and
destinations.
Tribal Council - The elected body of officials
charged with responsibility for managing the
government and related affairs of the tribal
nation. The tribal council is comprised of tribal
members who are elected to their positions,
and are responsible for drafting and maintaining
the ordinances, which govern the tribe and its
business. The tribal council may be the entity to
approve for ordinances that allow loan programs to
be made available to tribal members.
Uncertainty - A lack of knowledge about certain
factors in a study which can reduce the confidence
in conclusions drawn from data in that study; it
is opposed to variability which is a result of true
variation in characteristics of the environment;
and risk, which refers to a situation in which an
individual knows the possible outcomes that
will occur and the probability of each outcome
occurring. Uncertainty refers to a situation in
which the individual is ignorant of all the possible
outcomes, the probability associated with known
outcomes, or both.
Universal Access - Simplifies life for everyone
by making products, communications and the built
environment more usable by as many people as
possible at little or no extra cost. Universal Design
benefits people of all ages and abilities.
Uranium - A very heavy (dense) metal which can
be used as an abundant source of concentrated
energy. Uranium was apparently formed in super
novae about 6.6 billion years ago. While it is not
common in the solar system, today its radioactive
decay provides the main source of heat inside the
earth, causing convection and continental drift. Its
melting point is 1132°C. The chemical symbol for
uranium is U.
U.S. Bureau of the Census - Collects and
publishes demographic data about the population of
the U.S.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) -
Administers programs that provide services to
farmers (including research and soil conservation
and efforts to stabilize the farming economy).
Variable - A characteristic that varies in value or
magnitude along which an object, individual or
group may be categorized, such as income or age.
Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) - A measure of
the extent of motor vehicle operation; the total
number of vehicle miles traveled within a specific
geographic area over a given period of time.
VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America) - A
program that places individuals with community-
based agencies to help find long-term solutions to
the problems caused by urban and rural poverty.
Aging Americans: Impacts on Ecology and Environmental Quality Workshop
189
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Appendix D
Visualization - The art or science of transforming
information to a form "comprehensible" by the
sense of sight. Visualization is broadly associated
with graphical display in the form of pictures
(printed or photo), workstation displays, or video.
Vulnerability - Susceptibility to degradation or
damage from adverse factors or influences.
Vulnerability Analysis - Assessment of elements
in the community that are susceptible to damage if
hazardous materials are released.
Walkability - Areas that are walkable and are
safe, comfortable, interesting and accessible. They
offer amenities such as wide sidewalks; attractive
storefronts that face the sidewalk, shade, shelter
and a sense of spatial enclosure provided through
landscaping and streetscape elements. These
areas are inviting to pedestrians for shopping,
recreation and relaxation.
Walkable - Refers to a single route, or a system
of routes, between points that is relatively short,
barrier-free, interesting, safe, well-lighted and
comfortable, inviting pedestrian travel.
Wastewater - The used water and solids from a
community (including used water from industrial
processes) that flow to a treatment plant. Storm
water, surface water, and groundwater infiltration
also may be included in the wastewater that enters
a wastewater treatment plant. The term sewage
usually refers to household wastes, but this word is
being replaced by the term wastewater.
Wastewater Treatment - Any of the mechanical,
chemical or biological processes used to modify
the quality of wastewater in order to make it more
compatible or acceptable to humans and the
environment.
Water Feature - Either still or moving water (e.g.,
fountains, streams, waterspouts, waterfalls, formal
or informal ponds, bogs, wetlands, or container
water gardens.
Watershed - The area of land that catches rain and
snow and drains or seeps into a marsh, stream,
river, lake or groundwater.
Wellness Programs - Programs designed to
educate individuals or groups about the connection
between good health habits and quality of life.
These programs focus achieving health benefits
through positive changes in physical, psychological
or social areas of life.
Wetland - A type of ecosystem, generally occurring
between upland and deepwater areas, that provides
many important functions, including fish and wildlife
habitat, flood protection, erosion control, water
quality maintenance, and recreational opportunities.
A wetland is an area that is covered by water or
has water-saturated soil during a portion of the
growing season. In general, it is often considered
the transitional area between permanently wet and
dry environments.
Yellow perch - Generally a freshwater fish,
but have adapted to the estuarine waters of
Chesapeake Bay and have historically been
reported in all of its major tributaries and streams.
Their general coloring tends to be brassy green
to golden yellow on their sides and white to yellow
on their belly. Their most distinguishing feature is
6-8 dark vertical bands that are found across their
back and sides. Their anal, pelvic, and pectoral fins
are red to orange, with these colors being brightest
in males during the spawning season. These fish
are also characterized by having a dorsal fin that
is completely divided into a spiny portion and a
separate soft-rayed portion, and an anal fin with
two long and slender spines. On the Atlantic coast,
yellow perch range from South Carolina north to
Nova Scotia. They can also be found west through
the southern Hudson Bay region to Saskatchewan,
and south to the northern half of the Mississippi
drainage.
Young-Old - A sub-group of the elderly population
that researchers often use to refer to persons
between 65 and 74 years old.
Zoning - The ability of local governments to specify
the use of private property in order to control
development within designated areas of land. For
example, some areas of a neighborhood may be
designated only for residential use and others for
commercial use such as stores, gas stations, etc.
Zoomburb - A city in the suburbs growing faster
than a boomburb.
190
Proceedings I August 10-12, 2004 I Research Triangle Park, NC
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