Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook


Child-Spftcffic
Exposure Factors
Handbook

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                                     DISCLAIMER

       This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and
approved for publication.  Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
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                                TABLE OF CONTENTS

      INTRODUCTION	
      1.1    PURPOSE 	
      1.2    INTENDED AUDIENCE	
      1.3    BACKGROUND 	
      1.4    SELECTION OF STUDIES FOR THE HANDBOOK  	
             1.4.1   General Assessment Factors	
             1.4.2   Selection Criteria	
      1.5    APPROACH USED TO DEVELOP RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EXPOSURE
             FACTORS 	
      1.6    SUGGESTED REFERENCES FOR USE IN CONJUNCTION WITH THIS HANDBOOK
      1.7    THE USE OF AGE GROUPINGS WHEN ASSESSING EXPOSURE 	
-1
-1
-1
-1
-3
-4
-4
-6
-9
       1.8    CONSIDERING LIFESTAGE WHEN CALCULATING EXPOSURE AND RISK  	1-11
       1.9    FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT 	1-11
             1.9.1   Dose Equations	1-12
             1.9.2   Use of Exposure Factors Data in Probabilistic Analyses 	1-14
       1.10   CUMULATIVE EXPOSURES	1-15
       1.11   ORGANIZATION	1-15
       1.12   REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 1	1-16

       VARIABILITY AND UNCERTAINTY	2-1
       2.1    VARIABILITY VERSUS UNCERTAINTY	2-2
       2.2    TYPES OF VARIABILITY	2-2
       2.3    ADDRESSING VARIABILITY	2-3
       2.4    TYPES OF UNCERTAINTY	2-4
       2.5    REDUCING UNCERTAINTY	2-4
       2.6    ANALYZING VARIABILITY AND UNCERTAINTY	2-4
       2.7    PRESENTING RESULTS OF VARIABILITY AND UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS 	2-5
       2.8    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 2	2-6

       INGESTION OF WATER AND OTHER SELECT LIQUIDS	3-1
       3.1    INTRODUCTION	3-1
       3.2    RECOMMENDATIONS 	3-2
             3.2.1   Water Ingestion from Consumption of Water as a Beverage and from Food
                   and Drink	3-2
             3.2.2   Water Ingestion while Swimming	3-2
       3.3    DRINKING WATER INGESTION STUDIES	3-6
             3.3.1   Key Drinking Water Ingestion Study 	3-6
                   3.3.1.1 Kahn and Stralka, 2008  	3-6
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3.4

3.5
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
3.3.2 Relevant Drinking Water Ingestion Studies 	
3.3.2.1 Levyetal., 1995 	
3.3.2.2 Heller et al., 2000 	
3.3.2.3 Sichert-Hellert et al., 2001 	
3.3.2.4 Sohn et al., 2001 	
3.3.2.5 Hilbig et al., 2002 	
3.3.2.6 Marshall et al., 2003a 	
3.3.2.7 Marshall et al., 2003b 	
3.3.2.8 Skinner et al., 2004 	
WATER INGESTION WHILE SWIMMING 	
3.4.1 Dufour et al., 2006 	
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 3 	
4 NON-DIETARY INGESTION FACTORS 	
4.1
4.2
4.3





4.4




INTRODUCTION 	
RECOMMENDATIONS 	
NON-DIETARY INGESTION - MOUTHING FREQUENCY STUDIES 	
4.3.1 Key Studies of Mouthing Frequency 	
4.3. .1 Zartarian et al.,1997a/Zartarian et al., 1997b/Zartarian et al., 1998 . .
4.3. .2 Reed et al., 1999 	
4.3. .3 Freeman et al., 2001 	
4.3. .4 Tulve et al., 2002 	
4.3. .5 Black et al., 2005 	
4.3. .6 Xue et al., 2007 	
4.3.2 Relevant Studies of Mouthing Frequency 	
4.3.2.1 Davis etal., 1995 	
4.3.2.2 Lew and Butterworth, 1997 	
4323 Tudella et al 2000
4324 AuYeung et al 2004
4325 Ko et al 2007
NON-DIETARY INGESTION - MOUTHING DURATION STUDIES
441 Key Mouthing Duration Studies
4411 Jubergetal 2001
4412 Greene 2002
4.4.2 Relevant Mouthing Duration Studies 	
4.4.2.1 Barr et al., 1994 	
4.4.2.2 Zartarian et al., 1997 'a/ 'Zartarian et al., 1997b/Zartarian et al., 1998 .
4.4.2.3 Groot et al., 1998 	
4.4.2.4 Smith and Norris, 2003/Norris and Smith, 2002 	
4.4.2.5 Au Yeung et al, 2004 	
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4-9
4-10
4-10
4-11
4-12
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                          TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

      4.5    MOUTHING PREVALENCE  	4-17
            4.5.1   Stanek et al., 1998 	4-17
            4.5.2   Warren et al., 2000	4-18
      4.6    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 4	4-18
SOIL AND DUST INGESTION 	
5.1 INTRODUCTION 	
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 	
5.3 KEY AND RELEVANT STUDIES 	
5.3.1



5.3.2







5.3.3


5.3.4








5.3.5






Methodologies Used in Key Studies 	
5.3.1.1 Tracer Element Methodology 	
5.3.1.2 Biokinetic Model Comparison Methodology 	
5.3.1.3 Survey Response Methodology 	
Key Studies of Primary Analysis 	
5.3.2.1 Vermeer and Frate, 1979 	
5.3.2.2 Calabrese et al., 1989/Barnes, 1990/Calabrese et al., 1991 	
5.3.2.3 Van Wijnen et al., 1990 	
5.3.2.4 Davis et al., 1990 	
5.3.2.5 Calabrese et al., 1997a 	
5.3.2.6 Stanek et al. 1998/Calabrese et al., 1997b 	
5.3.2.7 Davis and Mirick, 2006 	
Key Studies of Secondary Analysis 	
5.3.3.1 Wong, 1988/Calabrese and Stanek, 1993 	
5.3.3.2 Hogan et al., 1998 	
Relevant Studies of Primary Analysis 	
5.3.4.1 Dickins and Ford, 1942 	
5.3.4.2 Cooper, 1957 	
5343 Barltrop 1966
5344 Bruhn and Pangborn 1971
5345 Robischon 1971
5346 Binder et al 1986
5347 Clausing et al 1987

5348 Smulian et al 1995
Relevant Studies of Secondary Analysis

5.3.5.1 Stanek et al., 2001a 	
5.3.5.2 Calabrese and Stanek, 1995 	
5.3.5.3 Stanek and Calabrese, 1995a 	
5.3.5.4 Calabrese and Stanek, 1992b 	
5.3.5.5 Calabrese et al., 1996 	
5.3.5.6 Stanek et al., 1999 	
	 5-1
	 5-1
	 5-2
	 5-7
	 5-7
	 5-7
	 5-8
	 5-8
	 5-9
	 5-9
	 5-9
	 5-10
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	 5-11
	 5-11
	 5-12
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	 5-13
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	 5-14
	 5-14
5-14
5-14
5-14
5-15
5-15

5-16
5-16

	 5-16
	 5-17
	 5-17
	 5-18
	 5-18
	 5-19
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6


















7








TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
5.3.5.7 Stanek and Calabrese, 1995b 	
5.3.5.8 Stanek and Calabrese, 2000 	
5.3.5.9 Stanek et al., 200 Ib 	
5.3.5.10 von Lindern et al., 2003 	
5.4 LIMITATIONS OF KEY STUDY METHODOLOGIES 	
5.4. 1 Tracer Element Methodology 	
5.4.2 Biokinetic Model Comparison Methodology 	
5.4.3 Survey Response Methodology 	
5.4.4 Key Studies: Representativeness of U.S. Population 	
5.5 SUMMARY OF SOIL AND DUST INGESTION ESTIMATES FROM KEY STUDIES .
5.6 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 5 	
INHALATION RATES 	
6.1 INTRODUCTION 	
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 	
6.3 KEY INHALATION RATE STUDIES 	
6.3.1 Brochu et al., 2006 	
6.3.2 U.S. EPA, 2006 	
6.3.3 Arcus-Arth and Blaisdell, 2007 	
6.3.4 Stifelman, 2007 	
6.3.5 Key Studies Combined 	
6.4 RELEVANT INHALATION RATE STUDIES 	
6.4.1 International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), 1981 	
6.4.2 U.S. EPA, 1985 	
6.4.3 Linn et al., 1992 	
6.4.4 Spier et al., 1992 	
6.4.5 Adams, 1993 	
646 Layton 1993
647 Rusconi et al 1994
648 Price et al 2003
6 5 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 6
DERMAL EXPOSURE FACTORS
7 1 INTRODUCTION
7 2 RECOMMENDATIONS
7.2. 1 Body Surface Area 	
7.2.2 Adherence of Solids to Skin 	
7.3 SURFACE AREA 	
7.3. 1 Key Body Surface Area Studies 	
7.3.1.1 U.S. EPA, 1985 	
7.3.1.2 U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES 1999-2006 Data 	
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. . 5-19
. . 5-19
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. . 5-20
. . 5-20
. . 5-23
. . 5-23
. . 5-24
. . 5-25
. . 5-26
... 6-1
... 6-1
... 6-2
... 6-6
... 6-6
... 6-6
... 6-8
... 6-9
... 6-9
... 6-9
... 6-9
. . 6-10
. . 6-10
. . 6-11
. . 6-11
6-12
6-14
6-14
6-15
7-1
7-1
7-2
... 7-2
... 7-2
. . 7-10
. . 7-10
. . 7-10
. . 7-10
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                              TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

              7.3.2   Relevant Body Surface Area Studies	7-10
                     7.3.2.1  Phillips et al., 1993	7-10
                     7.3.2.2  Wongetal., 2000	7-11
       7.4    ADHERENCE OF SOLIDS TO SKIN	7-11
              7.4.1   Key Adherence of Solids to Skin Studies  	7-11
                     7.4.1.1  Kissel etal, 1996a	7-11
                     7.4.1.2  Holmes etal., 1999	7-12
                     7.4.1.3  Shoaf etal., 2005 	7-12
              7.4.2   Relevant Adherence of Solids to Skin Studies	7-13
                     7.4.2.1  Kissel et al., 1996b	7-13
                     7.4.2.2  Kissel et al., 1998	7-13
       7.5    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 7	7-14

APPENDIX 7A	  7A-1

8      BODY WEIGHT STUDIES	8-1
       8.1    INTRODUCTION	8-1
       8.2    RECOMMENDATIONS 	8-1
       8.3    KEY BODY WEIGHT STUDY	8-4
              8.3.1   U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 1999-2006 data  	8-4
       8.4    RELEVANT BODY WEIGHT STUDIES 	8-4
              8.4.1   National Center for Health Statistics, 1987  	8-4
              8.4.2   Burmaster and Crouch, 1997 	8-5
              8.4.3   U.S. EPA, 2000  	8-5
              8.4.4   Kuczmarski et al., 2002  	8-5
              8.4.5   Ogden et al., 2004  	8-6
              8.4.6   Freedman et al., 2006	8-6
              8.4.7   Martin et al., 2007 	8-7
              8.4.8   Portier et al., 2007  	8-7
              8.4.9   Kahn and Stralka, 2008  	8-8
       8.5    RELEVANT FETAL WEIGHT STUDIES	8-8
              8.5.1   Brenner et al., 1976  	8-8
              8.5.2   Doubilet et al., 1997	8-8
       8.6    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 8	8-9

9      INTAKE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES	9-1
       9.1    INTRODUCTION	9-1
       9.2    RECOMMENDATIONS 	9-2
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                               TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

       9.3     INTAKE STUDIES	9-6
               9.3.1    Key Fruits and Vegetables Intake Study	9-6
                      9.3.1.1  U.S. EPA Analysis of CSFII 1994-96, 1998  	9-6
               9.3.2    Relevant Fruit and Vegetable Intake Studies	9-8
                      9.3.2.1  USDA,  1999  	9-8
                      9.3.2.2  Smiciklas-Wright et al., 2003   	9-8
                      9.3.2.3  Fox et al., 2004  	9-9
                      9.3.2.4  Ponza et al., 2004	9-9
                      9.3.2.5  Menella et al., 2006  	9-10
                      9.3.2.6  Fox et al., 2006	9-10
       9.4     CONVERSION BETWEEN WET AND DRY WEIGHT INTAKE RATES	9-10
       9.5     REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 9	9-11

 APPENDIX 9A  	  9A-1

10     INTAKE OF FISH AND SHELLFISH	10-1
       10.1     INTRODUCTION	10-1
       10.2     RECOMMENDATIONS  	10-2
       10.3     GENERAL POPULATION STUDIES   	10-6
               10.3.1   Key General Population Study  	10-6
                      10.3.1.1 U.S. EPA 2002  	10-6
               10.3.2   Relevant General Population Studies 	10-6
                      10.3.2.1 U.S. EPA, 1996  	10-6
                      10.3.2.2 Moya et al., 2008  	10-7
       10.4     MARINE RECREATIONAL STUDIES	10-8
               10.4.1   Relevant Marine Recreational Studies	10-8
                      10.4.1.1 KCA Research Division, 1994  	10-8
                      10.4.1.2 Alcoa, 1998  	10-8
       10.5     FRESHWATER RECREATIONAL STUDIES	10-9
               10.5.1   Relevant Freshwater Recreational Studies	10-9
                      10.5.1.1 Westetal., 1989   	10-9
                      10.5.1.2 Benson  etal.,  2001   	10-10
       10.6     NATIVE AMERICAN STUDIES  	10-10
               10.6.1   Relevant Native American Studies	10-10
                      10.6.1.1 Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission (CRITFC), 1994   	10-10
                      10.6.1.2 Toy etal., 1996  	10-12
                      10.6.1.3 Duncan, 2000 	10-13
                      10.6.1.4 Polissar et al., 2006  	10-13
       10.7     SERVING SIZE STUDY	10-14
               10.7.1   Smiciklas-Wright et al., 2002  	10-14
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                              TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

       10.8    OTHER FACTORS TO CONSIDER FOR FISH CONSUMPTION 	10-14
              10.8.1  Conversion Between Wet and Dry Weight 	10-14
              10.8.2  Conversion Between Wet Weight and Lipid Weight Intake Rates	10-15
       10.9    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 10	10-15

11     INTAKE OF MEATS, DAIRY PRODUCTS AND FATS 	11-1
       11.1    INTRODUCTION	11-1
       11.2    RECOMMENDATIONS  	11-2
       11.3    INTAKE STUDIES	11-6
              11.3.1  Key Meat and Diary Intake Study	11-6
                     11.3.1.1 U.S. EPA Analysis of CSFII 1994-96, 1998 	11-6
              11.3.2  Relevant Meat and Dairy Intake Studies	11-7
                     11.3.2.1 USDA, 1999a	11-7
                     11.3.2.2 Smiciklas-Wright et al., 2002	11-8
                     11.3.2.3 Fox etal., 2004	11-8
                     11.3.2.4 Ponzaetal., 2004	11-9
                     11.3.2.5 Mennella et al., 2006  	11-9
                     11.3.2.6 Fox etal., 2006	11-10
       11.4    FAT INTAKE  	11-10
              11.4.1  Key Fat Intake Study 	11-10
                     11.4.1.1 U.S. EPA,  2007  	11-10
              11.4.2  Relevant Fat Intake Studies 	11-11
                     11.4.2.1 Cresanta et al., 1988; Nicklas et al.,  1993; and Frank etal., 1986	11-11
                     11.4.2.2 CDC, 1994	11-11
       11.5    CONVERSION BETWEEN WET AND DRY WEIGHT INTAKE RATES	11-12
       11.6    CONVERSION BETWEEN WET WEIGHT AND LIPID WEIGHT INTAKE RATES  . . . 11-12
       11.7    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 11	11-12

APPENDIX 11A	  11A-1

APPENDIX 11B	  11B-1

12     INTAKE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS 	12-1
       12.1    INTRODUCTION	12-1
       12.2    RECOMMENDATIONS  	12-2
       12.3    INTAKE STUDIES	12-6
              12.3.1  Key Grain Intake Study  	12-6
                     12.3.1.1        U.S. EPA Analysis of CSFII 1994-96, 1998 	12-6
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                             TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

              12.3.2  Relevant Grain Intake Studies  	12-7
                    12.3.2.1        USDA, 1999	12-7
                    12.3.2.2        Smiciklas-Wright et al., 2002 	12-8
                    12.3.2.3        Fox et al., 2004   	12-8
                    12.3.2.4        Ponza et al., 2004  	12-9
                    12.3.2.5        Mennella et al., 2006   	12-9
                    12.3.2.6        Fox et al., 2006   	12-10
       12.4    CONVERSION BETWEEN WET AND DRY WEIGHT INTAKE RATES	12-10
       12.5    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 12	12-10

APPENDIX 12A 	  12A-1

13     INTAKE OF HOME-PRODUCED FOODS	13-1
       13.1    INTRODUCTION	13-1
       13.2    RECOMMENDATIONS  	13-1
       13.3    KEY STUDY FOR INTAKE OF HOME-PRODUCED FOODS	13-6
              13.3.1  U.S. EPA Analysis of NFCS 1987-1988	13-6
       13.4    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 13	13-8

APPENDIX 13A  	  13A-1
APPENDIX 13B  	  13B-1

14     TOTAL DIETARY INTAKE	14-1
       14.1    INTRODUCTION	14-1
       14.2    RECOMMENDATIONS  	14-1
       14.3    KEY STUDY OF TOTAL FOOD INTAKE	14-4
              14.3.1  U.S. EPA, 2007  	14-4
       14.4    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 14	14-5

15     HUMAN MILK INTAKE  	15-1
       15.1    INTRODUCTION	15-1
       15.2    RECOMMENDATIONS  	15-1
              15.2.1  Human Milk Intake  	15-2
              15.2.2  Lipid Content and Lipid Intake	15-2
       15.3    KEY STUDIES ON HUMAN MILK INTAKE	15-10
              15.3.1  Paoetal.,  1980	15-10
              15.3.2  Dewey and Lonnerdal, 1983	15-10
              15.3.3  Butte et al., 1984  	15-10
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                               TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

               15.3.4  Neville et al., 1988	15-11
               15.3.5  Deweyetal., 1991a,b	15-11
               15.3.6  Butte, et al., 2000  	15-12
               15.3.7  Arcus-Arth et al., 2005   	15-13
        15.4    KEY STUDIES ON LIPID CONTENT AND LIPID INTAKE FROM HUMAN MILK . . . 15-13
               15.4.1  Butte etal., 1984 	15-14
               15.4.2  Mitoulas et al., 2002  	15-14
               15.4.3  Mitoulas et al., 2003  	15-15
               15.4.4  Arcus-Arth et al., 2005   	15-15
               15.4.5  Kent et al., 2006  	15-15
        15.5    RELEVANT STUDY ON LIPID  INTAKE FROM HUMAN MILK 	15-16
               15.5.1  Maxwell and Burmaster,  1993  	15-16
        15.6    OTHERFACTORS 	15-16
               15.6.1  Population of Nursing Infants	15-16
               15.6.2  Intake Rates Based on Nutritional Status 	15-19
               15.6.3  Frequency and Duration of Feeding  	15-19
        15.7    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 15	15-20

 16      ACTIVITY FACTORS  	16-1
        16.1    INTRODUCTION	16-1
        16.2    RECOMMENDATIONS 	16-1
        16.3    ACTIVITY PATTERNS  	16-7
               16.3.1  KEY STUDIES  	16-7
                      16.3.1.1 Wiley etal.,  1991  	16-7
                      16.3.1.2 U.S. EPA, 1996   	16-8
               16.3.2  RELEVANT STUDIES  	16-9
                      16.3.2.1 Timmer et al., 1985  	16-9
                      16.3.2.2 Robinson and Thomas, 1991  	16-10
                      16.3.2.3 Funk etal., 1998  	16-11
                      16.3.2.4 U.S. EPA, 2000   	16-11
                      16.3.2.5 Hubal et al.,  2000	16-12
                      16.3.2.6 Wong et al.,  2000	16-12
                      16.3.2.7 Graham and McCurdy, 2004  	16-13
                      16.3.2.8 Vandewater  et al., 2004  	16-14
                      16.3.2.9 Juster et al. (2004)  	16-14
                      16.3.2.10       U.S. Department of Labor, 2007  	16-15
                      16.3.2.11       Nader etal. 2008	16-15
        16.4    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 16	16-15
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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

 17     CONSUMER PRODUCTS 	17-1
       17.1    INTRODUCTION	17-1
       17.2    RECOMMENDATIONS 	17-2
       17.3    CONSUMER PRODUCTS USE STUDIES  	17-2
             17.3.1  CTFA, 1983	17-2
             17.3.2  U.S. EPA, 1996 	17-2
             17.3.3  Bass et al, 2001  	17-3
             17.3.4  Loretz et al., 2005  	17-4
             17.3.5  Loretz et al., 2006  	17-4
             17.3.6  Loretz et al., 2008  	17-5
             17.3.7  Sathyanarayana et al., 2008  	17-5
       17.4    REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 17	17-5

       GLOSSARY OF TERMS	 G-l
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Table 1-1.
Table 1-2.
Table 1-3.



Table 2-1.
Table 2-2.
Table 2-3.
Table 3-1.
Table 3-2.
Table 3-3.
Table 3-4.

Table 3-5.

Table 3-6.

Table 3-7.

Table 3-8.

Table 3-9.

Table 3-10.

Table 3-11.

Table 3-12.

Table 3-13.

Table 3-14.

Table 3-15.

Table 3-16.

Table 3-17.


Page
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Characterization of Variability in Exposure Factors 	 1-21
Considerations Used to Rate Confidence in Recommended Values 	 1-22
Integrating U.S. EPA's Guidance on Selecting Age Groups for Monitoring and Assessing
Childhood Exposures to Environmental Contaminants with U.S. EPA's Supplemental Guidance
for Assessing Susceptibility from Early-Life Exposure to Carcinogens For Those
Contaminants Which Act Via a Mutagenic Mode of Action 	 1-24
Four Strategies for Confronting Variability 	 2-9
Three Types of Uncertainty and Associated Sources and Examples 	 2-9
Approaches to Quantitative Analysis of Uncertainty 	 2-10
Recommended Values for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates 	 3-3
Confidence in Recommendations for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates 	 3-4
Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion while Swimming 	 3-5
Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Community Water (mL/day) 	 3-14
Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Bottled Water (mL/day) 	 3-14
Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Other Sources (mL/day) 	 3-15
Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
All Sources (mL/day) 	 3-15
Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
All Sources (mL/day) 	 3-16
Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Community Water (mL/kg-day) 	 3-17
Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Bottled Water (mL/kg-day) 	 3-17
Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Other Sources (mL/kg-day) 3-18
Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
All Sources (mL/kg-day) 3-18
Per Capita Estimates of Total Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
All Sources (mL/kg-day) 3-19
Consumers Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Community Water (mL/day) 3-20
Consumers Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Bottled Water (mL/day) 3-20
Consumers Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Other Sources (mL/day) 3-21
Consumers Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
All Sources (mL/day) 3-21

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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 3-18. Consumers Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
All Sources (mL/day) 3-22
Table 3-19. Consumers Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Community Water (mL/kg-day) 3-23
Table 3-20. Consumers Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Bottled Water (mL/kg-day) 3-23
Table 3-21. Consumers Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
Other Sources (mL/kg-day) 3-24
Table 3-22. Consumers Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion:
All Sources (mL/kg-day) 3-24
Table 3-23. Consumer Only Estimates of Total Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion (mL/kg-day) 3-25
Table 3-24. Water Ingested (mL/day) from Water By Itself and Water Added to Other Beverages
and Foods 3-26
Table 3-25. Mean Water Consumption (mL/kg-day) by Race/Ethnicity 3-27
Table 3-26 Plain Tap Water and Total Water Consumption by Age, Sex, Region, Urbanicity, and
Poverty Category 3-28
Table 3-27. Intake of Water from Various Sources in 2-13-y-old Participants of the
DONALD Study 1985-1999 3-29
Table 3-28. Mean (± Standard Error) Fluid Intake (mL/kg/day) by Children Aged 1-10 years,
NHANES III, 1988-94 3-30
Table 3-29. Estimated Mean (± Standard Error) Amount of Total Fluid and Plain Water Intake
among Children Aged 1-10 Years: (NHANES III, 1988-94) 3-31
Table 3-30. Tap Water Intake in Breastfed and Formula-fed Infants and Mixed-fed Young Children at
Different Age Points 3-32
Table 3-31. Percentage of Subjects Consuming Beverages and Mean Daily Beverage Intakes (mL/day)
for Children With Returned Questionnaires 3-33
Table 3-32. Mean (± Standard Deviation) Daily Beverage Intakes Reported on Beverage Frequency
Questionnaire and 3-day Food and Beverage Dairies 3-34
Table 3-33. Consumption of Beverages by Infants and Toddlers (Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study) . . 3-35
Table 3-34. Pool Water Ingestion by Swimmers 3-36

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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 4-10. Survey Reported Mouthing Behaviors for 92 Washington State Children 4-23
Table 4-11. Indoor Mouthing Frequency (Contacts per hour), Video-transcription of 9 Children
with >15 minutes in View Indoors 4-23
Table 4-12. Outdoor Mouthing Frequency (Contacts per hour), Video-transcription of 38 Children .... 4-24
Table 4-13. Estimated Daily Mean Mouthing Times of New York State Children, for Pacifiers and
Other Objects 4-25
Table 4-14. Percent of Houston-area and Chicago-area Children Observed Mouthing, by Category
and Child's Age 4-25
Table 4-15. Estimates of Mouthing Time for Various Objects (minutes/hour) 4-26
Table 4-16. Mouthing Times of Dutch Children Extrapolated to Total Time While Awake, Without
Pacifier, in Minutes per Day 4-28
Table 4-17. Estimated Mean Daily Mouthing Duration by Age Group for Pacifiers, Fingers, Toys,
and Other Objects (hours:minutes:seconds) 4-29
Table 4-18. Outdoor Median Mouthing Duration (Seconds per contact), Video-transcription
of 38 Children 4-30
Table 4-19. Indoor Mouthing Duration (Minutes per hour), Video-transcription of 9 Children
with >15 minutes in View Indoors 4-30
Table 4-20. Outdoor Mouthing Duration (Minutes per hour), Video-transcription of 38 Children 4-31
Table 4-21. Reported Daily Prevalence of Massachusetts Children's Non-Food Mouthing/Ingestion
Behaviors 4-32

Table 5-1. Recommended Values for Soil, Dust, and Soil + Dust Ingestion 5-5
Table 5-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Ingestion of Soil and Dust 5-6
Table 5-3. Soil, Dust and Soil + Dust Ingestion Estimates for Amherst, Massachusetts Study
Children 5-31
Table 5-4. Amherst, Massachusetts Soil-Pica Child's Daily Ingestion Estimates by Tracer and by
Week (mg/day) 5-32
Table 5-5. Amherst, Massachusetts Soil-Pica Child's Tracer Ratios 5-33
Table 5-6. Van Wijnen et al., 1990 Limiting Tracer Method (LTM) Soil Ingestion Estimates for
Sample of Dutch Children 5-34
Table 5-7. Estimated Geometric Mean Limiting Tracer Method (LTM) Values of Children
Attending Daycare Centers According to Age, Weather Category, and Sampling
Period 5-35
Table 5-8. Estimated Soil Ingestion for Sample of Washington State Children 5-35
Table 5-9. Soil Ingestion Estimates for 64 Anaconda Children 5-36
Table 5-10. Soil Ingestion Estimates for Massachusetts Child Displaying Soil Pica Behavior
(mg/day) 5-36
Table 5-11. Soil Ingestion Estimates for Sample of 12 Washington State Children 5-37
Table 5-12. Estimated Soil Ingestion for Six High Soil Ingesting Jamaican Children 5-38
Table 5-13. Estimated Daily Soil Ingestion for East Helena, Montana Children 5-39
Table 5-14. Estimated Soil Ingestion for Sample of Dutch Nursery School Children 5-39
Table 5-15. Estimated Soil Ingestion for Sample of Dutch Hospitalized, Bedridden Children 5-40
Table 5-16. Positive/negative Error (Bias) in Soil Ingestion Estimates in Calabrese et al. (1989)
Page
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Study: Effect on Mean Soil Ingestion Estimate (mg/day) 5-40
Table 5-17. Distribution of Average (Mean) Daily Soil Ingestion Estimates per Child for 64
Children (mg/day) 5-41
Table 5-18. Estimated Distribution of Individual Mean Daily Soil Ingestion Based on Data for 64 Subjects
Projected over 365 Days 5-41
Table 5-19. Summary of Estimates of Soil and Dust Ingestion by Children (0.5-14 years old) from
Key Studies (mg/day) 5-42

Table 6-1. Recommended Long-Term Exposure (More Than 30 Days) Values for Inhalation
(Males and Females Combined) 6-3
Table 6-2. Recommended Short-Term Exposure (Less Than 30 Days) Values for Inhalation
(Males and Females Combined) 6-4
Table 6-3. Confidence in Recommendations for Inhalation Rates 6-5
Table 6-4. Physiological Daily Inhalation Rates for Newborns Aged 1 Month or Less 6-17
Table 6-5. Distribution Percentiles of Physiological Daily Inhalation Rates (mVday) for Free-living
Normal-weight Males and Females Aged 2.6 months to 23 years 6-18
Table 6-6. Mean and 95th Percentile Inhalation Rate Values (mVday) for Free-living Normal-weight
Males, Females, and Males and Females Combined 6-19
Table 6-7. Distribution Percentiles of Physiological Daily Inhalation Rates (mVday) for Free-living
Normal-weight and Overweight/obese Males and Females Aged 4 to 18 years 6-20
Table 6-8. Distribution Percentiles of Physiological Daily Inhalation Rates per Unit of Body Weight
(mVkg-day) for Free-living Normal-weight Males and Females Aged 2.6 months
to 23 years 6-21
Table 6-9. Distribution Percentiles of Physiological Daily Inhalation Rates (mVkg-day) for Free-living
Normal-weight and Overweight/obese Males and Females Aged 4 to 18 years 6-22
Table 6-10. Descriptive Statistics for Daily Average Inhalation Rate in Males, by Age Category 6-23
Table 6-11. Descriptive Statistics for Daily Average Inhalation Rate in Females, by Age Category 6-24
Table 6-12. Mean and 95th Percentile Inhalation Rate Values (mVday) for Males, Females and
Males and Females Combined 6-25
Table 6-13. Descriptive Statistics for Average Ventilation Rate While Performing Activities Within the
Specified Activity Category, for Males by Age Category 6-26
Table 6-14. Descriptive Statistics for Average Ventilation Rate While Performing Activities Within the
Specified Activity Category, for Females by Age Category 6-28
Table 6-15. Descriptive Statistics for Duration of Time (hours/day) Spent Performing Activities
Within the Specified Activity Category, by Age and Gender Categories 6-30
Table 6-16. Nonnormalized Daily Inhalation Rates (mVday) Derived Using Layton's (1993)
Method and CSFII Energy Intake Data 6-32
Table 6-17. Mean and 95th Percentile Inhalation Rate Values (mVday) for Males and Females
Combined 6-33
Table 6-18. Summary of Institute of Medicine Energy Expenditure Recommendations
for Active and Very Active People with Equivalent Inhalation Rates 6-34
Table 6-19. Mean Inhalation Rate Values (mVday) for Males, Females, and Males and Females
Combined 6-35
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September 2008
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 6-20. Mean Inhalation Rate Values (mVday) from Key Studies for Males and Females
Combined 6-36
Table 6-21. 95th Percentile Inhalation Rate Values (mVday) from Key Studies for Males and Females
Combined 6-37
Table 6-22. Daily Inhalation Rates Estimated From Daily Activities 6-38
Table 6-23. Selected Inhalation Rate Values During Different Activity Levels Obtained From Various
Literature Sources 6-39
Table 6-24. Summary of Human Inhalation Rates for Children by Activity Level (mVhour) 6-40
Table 6-25. Activity Pattern Data Aggregated for Three Microenvironments by Activity Level for
All Age Groups 6-40
Table 6-26. Summary of Daily Inhalation Rates Grouped by Age and Activity Level 6-41
Table 6-27. Calibration and Field Protocols for Self-monitoring of Activities Grouped by
Subject Panels 6-42
Table 6-28. Subject Panel Inhalation Rates by Mean VR, Upper Percentiles, and Self-estimated
Breathing Rates 6-42
Table 6-29. Distribution of Predicted Inhalation Rates by Location and Activity Levels for Elementary
and High School Students 6-43
Table 6-30. Average Hours Spent Per Day in a Given Location and Activity Level for Elementary and
High School Students 6-44
Table 6-31. Summary of Average Inhalation Rates (mVhour) by Age Group and Activity Levels for
Laboratory Protocols 6-45
Table 6-32. Summary of Average Inhalation Rates (mVhour) by Age Group And Activity Levels in Field
Protocols 6-46
Table 6-33. Mean Minute Inhalation Rate (mVminute) by Group and Activity for Laboratory Protocols . 6-47
Table 6-34. Mean Minute Inhalation Rate (mVminute) by Group and Activity for Field Protocols 6-47
Table 6-35. Comparisons of Estimated Basal Metabolic Rates (BMR) with Average Food-energy
Intakes (EFD) for Individuals Sampled in the 1977-78 NFCS 6-48
Table 6-36. Daily Inhalation Rates Calculated from Food-energy Intakes 6-49
Table 6-37. Statistics of the Age/gender Cohorts Used to Develop Regression Equations for Predicting
Basal Metabolic Rates (BMR) 6-50
Table 6-38. Daily Inhalation Rates Obtained from the Ratios of Total Energy Expenditure to Basal
Metabolic Rate (BMR) 6-51
Table 6-39. Inhalation Rates for Short-term Exposures 6-52
Table 6-40. Mean, Median, and SD of Inhalation Rate According to Waking or Sleeping in 618
Infants and Children Grouped in Classes of Age 6-53

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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 7-7. Mean and Percentile Skin Surface Area (m2) Derived from U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES
1999-2006 Males and Females Combined 7-17
Table 7-8. Mean and Percentile Skin Surface Area (m2) Derived from U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES
1999-2006 Males 7-17
Table 7-9. Mean and Percentile Skin Surface Area (m2) Derived from U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES
1999-2006 Females 7-18
Table 7-10. Descriptive Statistics For Surface Area/Body Weight (SA/BW) Ratios (mVkg) 7-19
Table 7-11. Estimated Skin Surface Exposed During Warm Weather Outdoor Activities 7-20
Table 7-12. Summary of Field Studies 7-21
Table 7-13. Geometric Mean and Geometric Standard Deviations of Solids Adherence by
Activity and Body Region 7-22
Table 7-14. Summary of Controlled Greenhouse Trials - Children Playing 7-23
Table 7A-1. Estimated Parameter Values for Different Age Intervals 7A-5
Table 7A-2. Summary of Surface Area Parameter Values for the Dubois and Dubois Model 7A-5

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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 8-19. Numbers of Live Births by Weight and Percentages of Live Births with Low and Very Low Birth
Weights, by Race and Hispanic Origin of Mother: United States, 2005 8-31
Table 8-20. Estimated Mean Body Weights of Males and Females by Single-Year Age Groups Using
NHANES II Data 8-32
Table 8-21. Estimated Mean Body Weights of Males and Females by Single-Year Age Groups Using
NHANES III Data 8-33
Table 8-22. Estimated Mean Body Weights of Males and Females by Single-Year Age Groups Using
NHANES IV Data 8-34
Table 8-23. Estimated Body Weights of Typical Age Groups of Interest in U.S. EPA Risk Assessments . 8-35
Table 8-24. Estimated Percentile Distribution of Body Weight by Fine Age Categories 8-35
Table 8-25. Estimated Percentile Distribution of Body Weight By Fine Age Categories With Confidence
Interval 8-36
Table 8-26. Fetal Weight (grams) Percentiles Throughout Pregnancy 8-37
Table 8-27. Neonatal Weight by Gestational Age for Males and Females Combined 8-38

Table 9-1. Recommended Values for Intake of Fruits and Vegetables, As Consumed 9-3
Table 9-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Intake of Fruits and Vegetables 9-4
Table 9-3. Per Capita Intake of Fruits and Vegetables (g/kg-day as consumed) 9-12
Table 9-4. Consumer Only Intake of Fruits and Vegetables (g/kg-day as consumed) 9-13
Table 9-5. Per Capita Intake of Individual Fruits and Vegetables (g/kg-day as consumed) 9-14
Table 9-6. Consumer Only Intake of Individual Fruits and Vegetables (g/kg-day as consumed) 9-17
Table 9-7. Mean Quantities of Vegetables Consumed Daily by Sex and Age, Per Capita (g/day) 9-20
Table 9-8. Percentage of Individuals Consuming Vegetables, by Sex and Age (%) 9-21
Table 9-9. Mean Quantities of Fruits Consumed Daily by Sex and Age, Per Capita (g/day) 9-22
Table 9-10. Percentage of Individuals Consuming, Fruits by Sex and Age (%) 9-23
Table 9-11. Quantity (as consumed) of Fruits and Vegetables Consumed Per Eating Occasion and
Percentage of Individuals Using These Foods in Two Days 9-24
Table 9-12. Characteristics of the FITS Sample Population 9-25
Table 9-13. Percentage of Infants and Toddlers Consuming Different Types of Vegetables 9-26
Table 9-14. Top Five Vegetables Consumed by Infants and Toddlers 9-27
Table 9-15. Percentage of Infants and Toddlers Consuming Different Types of Fruits 9-28
Table 9-16. Top Five Fruits Consumed by Infants and Toddlers 9-29
Table 9-17. Characteristics of WIC Participants and Non-participants (Percentages) 9-30
Table 9-18. Food Choices for Infants and Toddlers by WIC Participation Status 9-32
Table 9-19. Percentage of Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Infants and Toddlers Consuming
Different Types of Fruits and Vegetables on A Given Day 9-33
Table 9-20. Top Five Fruits and Vegetables Consumed by Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Infants
and Toddlers Per Age Group 9-34
Table 9-21. Average Portion Sizes per Eating Occasion of Fruits and Vegetables Commonly
Consumed by Infants from the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study 9-35
Table 9-22. Average Portion Sizes per Eating Occasion of Fruits and Vegetables Commonly
Consumed by Toddlers from the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study 9-36
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 9-23. Mean Moisture Content of Selected Food Groups Expressed as Percentages of Edible
Portions 9-37
Table 9A-1. Food Codes and Definitions Used in Analysis of the 1994-96, 1998 USD A CSFII Data . . . 9A-2

Table 10-1. Recommended Values for General Population Fish Intake 10-4
Table 10-2. Confidence in Recommendations for General Population Fish Intake 10-5
Table 10-3. Per Capita Distribution of Fish (Finfish and Shellfish) Intake
General Population Children Ages 3 to 17 Years - g/day, As-Consumed 10-17
Table 10-4. Per Capita Distribution of Fish (Finfish and Shellfish) Intake
General Population Children Ages 3 to 17 Years - mg/kg-day, As-Consumed 10-17
Table 10-5. Consumer Only Distribution of Fish (Finfish and Shellfish) Intake
General Population Children Ages 3 to 17 Years - g/day, As-Consumed 10-18
Table 10-6. Consumer Only Distribution of Fish (Finfish and Shellfish) Intake
General Population Children Ages 3 to 17 Years - mg/kg-day, As-Consumed 10-18
Table 10-7. Per Capita Distribution of Fish (Finfish and Shellfish) Intake
General Population Children Ages 3 to 17 Years - g/day, Uncooked Fish Weight 10-19
Table 10-8. Per Capita Distribution of Fish (Finfish and Shellfish) Intake
General Population Children Ages 3 to 17 Years - mg/kg-day, Uncooked Fish Weight.... 10-19
Table 10-9. Consumer Only Distribution of Fish (Finfish and Shellfish) Intake
General Population Children Ages 3 to 17 Years - g/day, Uncooked Fish Weight 10-20
Table 10-10. Consumer Only Distribution of Fish (Finfish and Shellfish) Intake
General Population Children Ages 3 to 17 Years - mg/kg-day, Uncooked Fish Weight.... 10-20
Table 10-11. Number of General Population Respondents Reporting Consumption of a
Specified Number of Servings of Seafood in 1 Month, and Source of Seafood Eaten 10-21
Table 10-12. Fish Consumption Among General Population Children in Four States,
Consumers Only, g/kg-day As-Consumed 10-22
Table 10-13. Fish Consumption Among General Population in Four States According to Caught or Bought
Status, g/kg-day As-Consumed 10-23
Table 10-14. Fish Consumption Among General Population and Anglers in Three States,
g/kg-day As-Consumed 10-24
Table 10-15. Recreational Fish Consumption in Delaware Consumers Only 10-24
Table 10-16. Consumption of Self-Caught Fish by Recreational Anglers
Lavaca Bay, Texas, g/day 10-25
Table 10-17. Number of Meals and Portion Sizes of Self-Caught Fish Consumed by Recreational
Anglers Lavaca Bay, Texas 10-25
Table 10-18. Mean Fish Intake Among Individuals Who Eat Fish and
Reside in Households With Recreational Fish Consumption - Michigan 10-26
Table 10-19. Consumption of Sports-caught and Purchased Fish by Minnesota and North Dakota
Children, Ages 0 to 14 Years (g/day) 10-26
Table 10-20. Fish Consumption Rates among Native American Children (age 5 years and under) 10-27
Table 10-21. Number of Fish Meal Eaten per Month and Fish Intake Among Native American
Children who Consume Particular Species 10-28
Table 10-22. Consumption Rates for Native American Children, Age Birth to Five Years (g/kg-day) . . . 10-29
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 10-23. Consumption Rates for Native American Children (g/kg-day), All Children
(including non-consumers): Individual Finfish and Shellfish and Fish Groups 10-30
Table 10-24. Consumption Rates for Native American Children (g/kg-day),
Consumers Only: Individual Finfish and Shellfish and Fish Groups 10-31
Table 10-25. Fish Consumption Rates for Tulalip and Squaxin Island Children
Consumers Only (g/kg-day) 10-32
Table 10-26. Fish Consumption Rates by Gender for Tulalip and Squaxin Island Children
Consumers Only (g/kg-day) 10-33
Table 10-27. Distribution of Quantity of Canned Tuna Consumed (grams) Per Eating Occasion,
by Age and Sex 10-34
Table 10-28. Distribution of Quantity of Other Finfish Consumed (grams) Per Eating Occasion,
by Age and Sex 10-34
Table 10-29. Mean Percent Moisture and Total Fat Content for Selected Species 10-35

Table 11-1. Recommended Values for Intake of Meats, Dairy Products, and Fats, As Consumed 11-3
Table 11-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Intake of Meats, Diary Products, and Fats 11-4
Table 11-3. Per Capita Intake of Total Meat and Dairy Products (g/kg-day as consumed) 11-14
Table 11-4. Consumer Only Intake of Total Meat and Dairy Products (g/(kg-day as consumed) 11-15
Table 11-5. Per Capita Intake of Individual Meats and Dairy Products (g/kg-day as consumed) 11-16
Table 11-6. Consumer Only Intake of Individual Meats and Dairy Products (g/kg-day as consumed) . . 11-16
Table 11-7. Mean Quantities of Meat and Eggs consumed Daily by Sex and Age, Per Capita (g/day) . . 11-17
Table 11-8. Percentage of Individuals Consuming Meats and Eggs, by Sex and Age (%) 11-18
Table 11-9. Mean Quantities of Dairy Products Consumed Daily by Sex and Age, Per Capita (g/day) . . 11-19
Table 11-10. Percentage of Individuals Consuming Dairy Products, by Sex and Age (%) 11-20
Table 11-11. Quantity (as consumed) of Meat and Dairy Products Consumed Per Eating Occasion and
Percentage of Individuals Using These Foods in Two Days 11-21
Table 11-12. Characteristics of FITS Sample Population 11-22
Table 11-13. Percentage of Infants and Toddlers Consuming Meat or Other Protein Sources 11-23
Table 11-14. Characteristics of WIC Participants and Non-participants (Percentages) 11-24
Table 11-15. Food Choices for Infants and Toddlers by WIC Participation Status 11-25
Table 11-16. Percentage of Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Infants and Toddlers Consuming Different
Types of Milk, Meats or Other Protein Sources on A Given Day 11-26
Table 11-17. Average Portion Sizes Per Eating Occasion of Meats and Dairy Products Commonly
Consumed by Infants from the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study 11-27
Table 11-18. Average Portion Sizes Per Eating Occasion of Meats and Dairy Products Commonly
Consumed by Toddlers from the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study 11-28
Table 11-19. Total Fat Intake (Per capita; g/day) 11-29
Table 11-20. Total Fat Intake (Per capita; g/kg-day) 11-30
Table 11-21. Total Fat Intake (Consumers Only; g/day) 11-31
Table 11-22. Total Fat Intake (Consumers Only; g/kg-day) 11-32
Table 11-23. Total Fat Intake - Top 10% of Animal Fat Consumers (Consumers Only; g/day) 11-33
Table 11-24. Total Fat Intake - Top 10% of Animal Fat Consumers (Consumers Only; g/kg-day) 11-34
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 11-25. Fat Intake Among Children Based on Data from the Bogalusa Heart Study,
1973-1982 (g/day) 11-35
Table 11-26. Fat Intake Among Children Based on Data from the Bogalusa Heart Study,
1973-1982 (g/kg-day) 11-37
Table 11-27. Mean Total Daily Dietary Fat Intake (g/day) Grouped by Age and Gender 11-39
Table 11-28. Mean Percent Moisture and Total Fat Content of Selected Meat and Dairy Products 11-40
Table 11A-1. Food Codes and Definitions Used in Analysis of the 1994-96, 1998 USDA CSFII Data . . 11A-2

Table 12-1. Recommended Values for Intake of Grains, As Consumed 12-3
Table 12-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Intake of Grain Products 12-4
Table 12-3. Per Capita Intake of Total Grains (g/kg-day as consumed) 12-12
Table 12-4. Consumer Only Intake of Total Grains (g/kg-day as consumed) 12-12
Table 12-5. Per Capita Intake of Individual Grain Products (g/kg-day as consumed) 12-13
Table 12-6. Consumer Only Intake of Individual Grain Products (g/kg-day as consumed) 12-13
Table 12-7. Mean Quantities of Grain Products Consumed Daily by Sex and Age, Per Capita (g/day) . . 12-14
Table 12-8. Percentage of Individuals Consuming Grain Products, by Sex and Age (%) 12-15
Table 12-9. Quantity (as consumed) of Grain Products Consumed Per Eating Occasion and
Percentage of Individuals Using These Foods in Two Days 12-16
Table 12-10. Characteristics of the FITS Sample Population 12-17
Table 12-11. Percentage of Infants and Toddlers Consuming Different Types of Grain Products 12-18
Table 12-12. Characteristics of WIC Participants and Nonparticipants (Percentages) 12-19
Table 12-13. Food Choices for Infants and Toddlers by WIC Participation Status 12-20
Table 12-14. Percentage of Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Infants and Toddlers Consuming Different
Types of Grain Products on A Given Day 12-21
Table 12-15. Average Portion Sizes Per Eating Occasion of Grain Products Commonly Consumed
by Infants from the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study 12-22
Table 12-16. Average Portion Sizes Per Eating Occasion of Grain Products Commonly Consumed
by Toddlers from the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study 12-22
Table 12-17. Mean Moisture Content of Selected Grain Products Expressed as Percentages
of Edible Portions 12-23
Table 12A-1. Food Codes and Definitions Used in Analysis of the 1994-96, 1998 USDA CSFII Data . . 12A-2

Table 13-1. Summary of Recommended Values for Intake of Home-produced Foods (Consumers Only) .13-3
Table 13-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Intake of Home-produced Foods 13-4
Table 13-3. Weighted and Unweighted Number of Observations (Individuals) for NFCS Data Used in
Child-specific Analysis of Food Intake 13-10
Table 13-4. Consumer Only Intake of Home-produced Foods (g/kg-day) 13-11
Table 13-5. Percent Weight Losses from Food Preparation 13-12
Table 13-6. Fraction of Food Intake that is Home-produced 13-13
Table 13A-1. Food Codes and Definitions Used in Child-specific Analysis of the 1987-1988 USDA
NFCS Data to Estimate Intake of Home-produced Foods 13A-2
Table 13B-1. Food Codes and Definitions Used in Analysis of the 1987-1988 USDA NFCS Household
Data to Estimate Fraction of Food Intake that is Home-produced 13B-2
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                                    LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 14-1.     Recommended Values for Per Capita Total Intake of Foods, As Consumed 	14-2
Table 14-2.     Confidence in Recommendations for Total Food Intake	14-3
Table 14-3.     Per Capita Total Food Intake	14-6
Table 14-4.     Per Capita Intake of Total Food and Intake of Major Food Groups (g/day, As Consumed)  . . 14-7
Table 14-5.     Per Capita Intake of Total Food and Intake of Major Food Groups (g/kg-day, As Consumed)14-ll
Table 14-6.     Per Capita Intake of Total Foods and Major Food Groups, and Percent of Total Food Intake
               for Individuals with Low-end, Mid-range, and High-end Total Food Intake	14-15
Table 14-7.     Per Capita Intake of Total Foods and Major Food Groups, and Percent of Total Food Intake
               for Individuals with Low-end, Mid-range, and High-end Total Meat Intake	14-19
Table 14-8.     Per Capita Intake of Total Foods and Major Food Groups, and Percent of Total Food Intake
               for Individuals with Low-end, Mid-range, and High-end Total Meat and Dairy Intake .... 14-23
Table 14-9.     Per Capita Intake of Total Foods and Major Food Groups, and Percent of Total Food Intake
               for Individuals with Low-end, Mid-range, and High-end Total Fish Intake	14-27
Table 14-10.    Per Capita Intake of Total Foods and Major Food Groups, and Percent of Total Food Intake
               for Individuals with Low-end, Mid-range, and High-end Total Fruit and Vegetable Intake . 14-31
Table 14-11.    Per Capita Intake of Total Foods and Major Food Groups, and Percent of Total Food Intake
               for Individuals with Low-end, Mid-range, and High-end Total Dairy Intake	14-35

Table 15-1.     Recommended Values for Human Milk And Lipid Intake Rates for Exclusively Breastfed
               Infants	15-3
Table 15-2.     Confidence in Recommendations for Human Milk Intake	15-4
Table 15-3.     Human Milk Intake Rates Derived from Key Studies for Exclusively Breast-fed Infants
               (mL/day)  	15-6
Table 15-4.     Human Milk Intake Rates Derived from Key Studies for Exclusively Breast-fed Infants
               (mL/kg/day)	15-7
Table 15-5.     Lipid Intake Rates Derived from Key Studies for Exclusively Breastfed Infants (mL/day) ... 15-8
Table 15-6.     Lipid Intake Rates Derived from Key Studies for Exclusively Breast-fed Infants
               (mL/kg/day)	15-9
Table 15-7.     Daily Intakes of Human Milk	15-23
Table 15-8.     Human Milk Intakes for Infants Aged 1 to 6 Months	15-23
Table 15-9.     Human Milk Intake Among Exclusively Breast-fed Infants During the First 4 Months
               of Life  	15-24
Table 15-10.    Human Milk Intake During a 24-hour Period	15-25
Table 15-11.    Human Milk Intake Estimated by the Darling Study	15-26
Table 15-12.    Mean Breastfed Infants Characteristics  	15-26
Table 15-13.    Mean Human Milk Intake of Breastfed Infants (mL/day) 	15-27
Table 15-14.    Feeding Practices by Percent of Infants  	15-27
Table 15-15.    Body Weight of Breastfed Infants	15-28
Table 15-16.    AAP Dataset Milk Intake Rates at Different Ages  	15-29
Table 15-17.    Average Daily Human Milk Intake (mL/kg day)	15-30
Table 15-18.    Lipid Content of Human Milk and Estimated Lipid Intake Among Exclusively Breast-fed
               Infants	15-30
Table 15-19.    Human Milk Production  and Composition Over the First 12 Months of Lactation  	15-31
Page
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 15-20. Changes in Volume of Human Milk Produced and Milk Fat Content Over the First Year of
Lactation 15-32
Table 15-21. Changes in Fatty Acid Composition of Human Milk Over the First Year of Lactation
(g/100 g total fatty acids) 15-33
Table 15-22. Comparison of Lipid Content Assumptions (mL/kg-day) 15-33
Table 15-23. Distribution of Average Daily Lipid Intake (mL/kg day) assuming 4% Milk Lipid Content 15-34
Table 15-24. Predicted Lipid Intakes for Breast-fed Infants Under 12 Months of Age 15-34
Table 15-25. Socio-economic Characteristics of Exclusively Breast-fed Infants Born in 2004 15-34
Table 15-26. Geographic-specific Breastfeeding Percent Rates Among Children Born in 2004 15-36
Table 15-27. Percentage of Mothers in Developing Countries by Feeding Practices for Infants 0-6
Months Old 15-37
Table 15-28. Percentage of Mothers in Developing Countries by Feeding Practices for Infants 6-12
Months Old 15-38
Table 15-29. Population Weighted Averages of Mothers Who Reported Selected Feeding Practices
During the Previous 24-hours 15-39
Table 15-30. Racial and Ethnic Differences in Proportion of Children Ever Breastfed, NHANES III
(1988-1994) 15-40
Table 15-31. Racial and Ethnic Differences in Proportion of Children Who Received Any Human Milk
at 6 Months (NHANES III, 1988-1994) 15-41
Table 15-32. Racial and Ethnic Differences in Proportion of Children Exclusively Breastfed at 4
Months (NHANES III, 1991-1994) 15-42
Table 15-33. Percentage of Mothers Breast-feeding Newborn Infants in the Hospital and Infants at 5 or 6
Months of Age in the United States in 1989 and 1995, by Ethnic Background and Selected
Demographic Variables 15-43
Table 15-34. Percentage of Mothers Breast-feeding Newborn Infants in the Hospital and Infants at 6 and
12 Months of Age in the United States in 2003, by Ethnic Background and Selected
Demographic Variables 15-44
Table 15-35. Number of Meals Per Day 15-45
Table 15-36. Comparison of Breastfeeding Patterns Between Age and Groups (Mean ±SD) 15-45

Table 16-1. Recommended Values for Activity Factors 16-3
Table 16-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Activity Factors 16-6
Table 16-3. Mean Time (minutes/day) Children Under 12 Years of Age Spent in Ten Major Activity
Categories, for All Respondents and Doers 16-17
Table 16-4. Mean Time (minutes/day) Children Under 12 Years of Age Spent in Ten Major Activity
Categories, by Age and Gender 16-18
Table 16-5. Mean Time (minutes/day) Children Under 12 Years of Age Spent in Ten Major Activity
Categories, Grouped by Seasons and Regions 16-19
Table 16-6. Time (minutes/day) Children Under 12 Years of Age Spent in Six Major Location
Categories, for All Respondents and Doers 16-20
Table 16-7. Mean Time (minutes/day) Children Under 12 Years of Age Spent in Six Location
Categories, Grouped by Age and Gender 16-21
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 16-8. Mean Time (minutes/day) Children Under 12 Years of Age Spent in Six Location
Categories, Grouped by Season and Region 16-22
Table 16-9. Mean Time (minutes/day) Children Under 12 Years of Age Spent in
Proximity to Two Potential Sources of Exposure, Grouped by All Respondents,
Age, and Gender 16-23
Table 16-10. Mean Time (minutes/day) Children Under 12 Years of Age Spent Indoors and Outdoors,
Grouped by Age and Gender 16-24
Table 16-11. Time Spent (minutes/day) in Various Rooms at Home and in All Rooms Combined
Whole Population and Doers Only 16-25
Table 16-12. Time Spent (minutes/day) at Selected Indoor Locations Whole Population
and Doers Only 16-29
Table 16-13. Time Spent (minutes/day) in Selected Outdoor Locations Whole Population
and Doers Only 16-31
Table 16-14. Mean Time Spent (minutes/day) Inside and Outside, by Age Category 16-33
Table 16-15. Time Spent (minutes/day) in Selected Vehicles and All Vehicles Combined
Whole Population and Doers Only 16-34
Table 16-16. Time Spent (minutes/day) in Selected Activities Whole Population and Doers Only 16-36
Table 16-17. Number of Showers Taken per Day, by Number of Respondents 16-40
Table 16-18. Time Spent (minutes) Bathing, Showering, and in Bathroom Immediately after Bathing
and Showering 16-41
Table 16-19. Range of Number of Times Washing the Hands at Specified Daily Frequencies by
the Number of Respondents 16-43
Table 16-20. Number of Times Swimming in a Month in Freshwater Swimming Pool by the
Number of Respondents 16-44
Table 16-21. Time Spent (minutes/month) Swimming in Freshwater Swimming Pool 16-45
Table 16-22. Time Spent (minutes/day) Playing on Dirt, Sand/Gravel, or Grass Whole Population
and Doers Only 16-46
Table 16-23. Time Spent (minutes/day) Working or Being Near Excessive Dust in the Air 16-48
Table 16-24. Time Spent (minutes/day) with Smokers Present 16-48
Table 16-25. Mean Time Spent (minutes/day) Performing Major Activities, by Age, Sex
and Type of Day 16-49
Table 16-26. Mean Time Spent (minutes/day) in Major Activities, by Type of Day for Five Different
Age Groups 16-50
Table 16-27. Mean Time Spent (hours/day) Indoors and Outdoors, by Age and Day of the Week 16-51
Table 16-28. Mean Time Spent (minutes/day) in Various Microenvironments, Children Ages 12 to
17 Years National and California Surveys 16-52
Table 16-29. Gender and Age Groups 16-53
Table 16-30. Assignment of At-Home Activities to Inhalation Rate Levels for Children 16-54
Table 16-31. Aggregate Time Spent (minutes/day) At-Home in Activity Groups, by Adolescents
and Children 16-55
Table 16-32. Comparison of Mean Time Spent (minutes/day) At-Home, by Gender (Adolescents) 16-55
Table 16-33. Comparison of Mean Time Spent (minutes/day) At-Home, by Gender and Age
for Children 16-56
Page
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                                   LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 16-34.    Number of Person-Days/Individuals for Children in CHAD Database  	16-57
Table 16-35.    Time Spent (hours/day) in Various Microenvironments, by Age  	16-58
Table 16-36.    Mean Time Children Spent (hours/day) Doing Various Macroactivities
               While Indoors at Home  	16-59
Table 16-37.    Time Children Spent (hours/day) in Various Microenvironments, by Age
               Recast into New Standard Age Categories 	16-60
Table 16-38.    Time Children Spent (hours/day) in Various Macroactivities While Indoors at Home
               Recast Into New Standard Age Categories	16-61
Table 16-39.    Number and Percentage of Respondents with Children and Those Reporting
               Outdoor Play Activities in both Warm and Cold Weather  	16-62
Table 16-40.    Play Frequency and Duration for all Child Players (from SCS-II data)  	16-63
Table 16-41.    Hand Washing and Bathing Frequency for all Child Players (from SCS-II data)  	16-63
Table 16-42.    NHAPS and SCS-II Play Duration Comparison	16-64
Table 16-43.    NHAPS and SCS-II Hand Wash Frequency Comparison 	16-64
Table 16-44.    Time Spent (minutes/day) Outdoors Based on CHAD Data (Doers Only)	16-65
Table 16-45.    Comparison of Daily Time Spent Outdoors (minutes/day), Considering Gender
               and Age Cohort (Doers Only)	16-66
Table 16-46.    Time Spent (minutes/day) Indoors Based on CHAD Data (Doers Only)	16-67
Table 16-47.    Time Spent (minutes/day) in Motor Vehicles Based on CHAD Data (Doers Only)	16-68
Table 16-48.    Time Spent (minutes/two-day period) in Various Activities by Children Participating
               in the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), 1997 Child Development Supplement
               (CDS)  	16-69
Table 16-49.    Mean Time Spent (minutes/day) in Various Activity Categories, by Age - Weekday	16-70
Table 16-50.    Mean Time Spent (minutes/day) in Various Activity Categories, by Age - Weekend Day . . 16-71
Table 16-51.    Mean Time Spent (minutes/week) in Various Activity Categories for Children, Ages 6 to 1716-72
Table 16-52.    Mean Time Use (hours/day) by Children, Ages 15 to 19 Years	16-73
Table 16-53.    Mean Time Spent (minutes/day) in Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity  	16-74

Table 17-1.     Consumer Products Commonly Found in Some U.S. Households	17-7
Table 17-2.     Amount and Frequency of Use of Various Cosmetic and Baby Products	17-10
Table 17-3.     Number of Minutes Spent in Activities Working With or Near Freshly Applied
               Paints (minutes/day)	17-13
Table 17-4.     Number of Minutes Spent in Activities Working With or Near Household Cleaning
               Agents Such as Scouring Powders or Ammonia (minutes/day)	17-13
Table 17-5.     Number of Minutes Spent in Activities (at home or elsewhere) Working With
               or Near Floorwax, Furniture Wax or Shoe Polish (minutes/day)	17-13
Table 17-6.     Number of Minutes Spent in Activities Working With or Near Glue (minutes/day) 	17-14
Table 17-7.     Number of Minutes Spent in Activities Working With or Near Solvents, Fumes or
               Strong Smelling Chemicals (minutes/day) 	17-14
Table 17-8.     Number of Minutes Spent in Activities Working With or Near Stain or Spot Removers
               (minutes/day)	17-14
Table 17-9.     Number of Minutes Spent in Activities Working With or Near Gasoline or
               Diesel-powered Equipment, Besides Automobiles (minutes/day	17-15
Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook
September 2008	
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)

Table 17-10. Number of Minutes Spent in Activities Working with or Near Pesticides,
Including Bug Sprays or Bug Strips (minutes/day) 17-15
Table 17-11. Number of Respondents Using Cologne, Perfume, Aftershave or Other Fragrances at
Specified Daily Frequencies 17-15
Table 17-12. Number of Respondents Using Any Aerosol Spray Product for Personal Care Item
Such as Deodorant or Hair Spray at Specified Daily Frequencies 17-16
Table 17-13. Number of Respondents Using a Humidifier at Home 17-16
Table 17-14. Number of Respondents Indicating that Pesticides Were Applied by the Professional at
Home to Eradicate Insects, Rodents, or Other Pests at Specified Frequencies 17-16
Table 17-15. Number of Respondents Reporting Pesticides Applied by the Consumer at Home
To Eradicate Insects, Rodents, or Other Pests at Specified Frequencies 17-17
Table 17-16. Number of Respondents Indicating that Pesticides Were Applied by a
Professional at Home to Eradicate Insects, Rodents, or Other Pests at Specified
Frequencies 17-17
Table 17-17. Number of Respondents Reporting Pesticides Applied by the Consumer at Home to
Eradicate Insects, Rodents, or Other Pests at Specified Frequencies 17-17
Table 17-18. Household Demographics, and Pesticide Types, Characteristics, and Frequency of
Pesticide Use 17-18
Table 17-19. Frequency of Use of Cosmetic Products 17-19
Table 17-20. Amount of Test Product used (grams) for Lipstick, Body Lotion and Face Cream 17-20
Table 17-21. Frequency of Use of Personal Care Products 17-22
Table 17-22. Average Amount of Product Applied per Application (grams) 17-23
Table 17-23. Average Amount of Product Applied per Use Day (grams) 17-24
Table 17-24. Average Number of Applications Per Use Day 17-25
Table 17-25. Average Amount of Product Applied Per Use Day (grams) 17-26
Table 17-26. Average Amount of Product Applied Per Application (grams) 17-27
Table 17-27. Characteristics of the Study Population and the Percent Using Selected Baby Care
Products 17-28
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                                       LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1.      The Exposure-Dose Effect Continuum	1-25

Figure 6-1.      5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 95th Smoothed Gentiles by Age in Awake Subjects . .  6-54
Figure 6-2.      5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 95th Smoothed Gentiles by Age in Asleep Subjects . .  6-54

Figure 7-1.      Skin Coverage as Determined by Fluorescence vs. Body Part for Children Playing
               in Wet Soils	7-24
Figure 7-2.      Gravimetric Loading vs. Body Part for Children Playing in Wet and Dry Soils	7-24

Figure 8-1.      Weight by Age Percentiles for Boys Aged Birth to 36 Months 	8-19
Figure 8-2.      Weight by Age Percentiles for Girls Aged Birth to 36 Months	8-20
Figure 8-3.      Weight by Length Percentiles for Boys Aged Birth to 36 Months	8-21
Figure 8-4.      Weight by Length Percentiles for Girls Aged Birth to 36 Months	8-22
Figure 8-5.      Body Mass Index-for-Age Percentiles: Boys, 2 to 20 Years	8-23
Figure 8-6.      Body Mass Index-for-Age Percentiles: Girls, 2 to 20 Years  	8-24
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                                                   Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook
AAP
ADD
AF
AIR
ANOVA
ARS
ATSDR
ATUS
BI
BMD
BMI
BMR
BTM
C
CARB
CATI
CDC
CDS
CHAD
CI
cm2
cm3
CNRC
CRITFC
CSFII
CTFA
CV
DARLING
DIY
DLW
DONALD
E or EE
EBF
ECG
ED
El
EPA
fB
FCID
FITS
FQPA
F/S
        ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

American Academy of Pediatrics
Average Daily Dose
Adherence Factor
Acid Insoluble Residue
Analysis of Variance
Agricultural Research Service
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
American Time Use Study
Bootstrap Interval
Benchmark Dose
Body Mass Index
Basal Metabolic Rate
Best Tracer Method
Contaminant Concentration
California Air Resources Board
Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Child Development Supplement
Consolidated Human Activity Database
Confidence Interval
Square Centimeter
Cubic Centimeter
Children's Nutrition Research Center
Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission
Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals
Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association
Coefficient of Variation
Davis Area Research on Lactation, Infant Nutrition and Growth
Do-it-yourself
Doubly Labeled Water
Dortmund Nutritional and Anthropometric Longitudinally Designed
Energy Expenditure
Exclusively Breastfed
Energy Cost of Growth
Exposure Duration
Energy Intake
Environmental Protection Agency
Breathing Frequency
Food Commodity Intake Database
Feeding Infant and Toddler Study
Food Quality Protection Act
Food/Soil
Gram
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GAF
GLM
H
HEC
HPV
HR
I
IA
ICRP
IEUBK
IPS
IOM
IPCS
IR
IRP
IRIS
KJ
KS
kg
LI
L2
LADD
LTM
m2
m3
mg
MJ
mL
METS
MSA
N
Nc
NT
NAS
NCEA
NCHS
NERL
NFCS
NHANES
NHAPS
NHES
NHEXAS
NIS
NOAEL
NRC
General Assessment Factor
General Linear Model
Oxygen Uptake Factor
Human Equivalent Exposure Concentrations
High Production Volume
Heart Rate
Tabulated Intake Rate
Adjusted Intake Rate
International Commission on Radiological Protection
Integrated Exposure and Uptake Biokinetic Model
Iowa Fluoride Study
Institute of Medicine
International Programme on Chemical Safety
Intake Rate
Intake Rate Percentile
Integrated Risk Information System
Kilo Joules
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Kilogram
Cooking or Preparation Loss
Post-cooking Loss
Lifetime Average Daily Dose
Limiting Tracer Method
Square Meter
Cubic Meter
Milligram
Mega Joules
Milliliter
Metabolic Equivalents of Work
Metropolitan Statistical Area
Number of Subjects or Respondents
Weighted Number of Individuals Consuming Homegrown Food Item
Weighted Total Number of Individuals Surveyed
National Academy of Sciences
National Center for Environmental Assessment
National Center for Health Statistics
National Exposure Research Laboratory
Nationwide Food Consumption Survey
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
National Human Activity Pattern Survey
National Health Examination Survey
National Human Exposure Assessment Survey
National Immunization Survey
No-observed-adverse-effect-level
National Research Council
Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook
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                                                   Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook
OPP
ORD
PBPK
PDIR
PSID
RAGS
ROD
RfD
RfC
RME
RQ
RTF
SA
SA/BW
scs
SD
SDA
SE
SEM
SES
SPC
SPS
SRD
TDEE
TFEI
USDA
USDL
USDHHS
UV
V02
VQ
VR
W
w,-
WHO
WIC
x,
Office of Pesticide Programs
Office of Research and Development
Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic
Physiological Daily Inhalation Rate
Panel Study of Income Dynamics
Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund
Random Digit Dial
Reference Dose
Reference Concentration
Reasonable Maximum Exposure
Respiratory Quotient
Ready to Feed
Surface Area
Surface Area to Body Weight Ratio
Soil Contact Survey
Standard Deviation
Soaps and Detergent Association
Standard Error
Standard Error of the Mean
Socioeconomic Status
Science Policy Council
Statistical Processing System
Source Ranking Database
Total Daily Energy Expenditure
Total Food Energy Intake
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Department of Labor
United States Department of Health and Human Services
Ultraviolet
Oxygen Consumption Rate
Ventilatory Equivalent
Ventilation Rate
Weight
Sample Weight Assigned to Observation xt.
World Health Organization
USDA's Women, Infants, and Children Program
/'* observation
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PREFACE

The Exposure Factors Program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (U.S. EPA's) Office of
Research and Development (OPvD) has three main goals: (1) provide updates to the Exposure Factors Handbook and
the Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook', (2) identify exposure factors data gaps and needs in consultation with
clients; and (3) develop companion documents to assist clients in the use of exposure factors data. The activities under
each goal are supported by and respond to the needs of the various program offices.

The National Center for Environmental Assessment (NCEA) of the U.S. EPA's OPJ) has prepared this
handbook to provide information on various physiological and behavioral factors commonly used in assessing
children's exposure to environmental chemicals. Children have different exposure circumstances than do adults.
Understanding these differences is key for evaluating potential for environmental hazards from pollutants. They
consume more of certain foods and water and have higher inhalation rates per unit of body weight than adults. Young
children play close to the ground and come into contact with contaminated soil outdoors and with contaminated dust
on surfaces and carpets indoors. Ingestion of breast milk is another potential pathway of exposure for infants and
young children.

NCEA published the Exposure Factors Handbook in 1997. That document includes exposure factors and
related data on children, as well as adults. However, the U.S. EPA Program Offices identified the need to prepare a
document specifically for children's exposure factors. The Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook is intended to
fulfill this need.

This handbook was first offered to the public in 2002. Since that time, the U. S. EPA has incorporated updated
data and revised the recommendations for several exposure factors and developed a standardized set of age categories
to be used for children's exposure assessment. Where possible, the U.S. EPA has used this standard set of age
categories to permit easier comparison of data among multiple sources and to allow consistency between different types
of exposure factors.
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                                                        Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook
           EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

        This   Child-Specific   Exposure   Factors
Handbook  has been prepared to focus on various
factors used in assessing exposure, specifically for
children  ages  0 to <21 years old.  This handbook
provides nonchemical-specific data on exposure factors
for the U.S. EPA recommended set of childhood age
groups in the following areas:

        ingestion of water and other select liquids
        (Chapter 3);
        non-dietary ingestion factors (Chapter 4);
        ingestion of soil and dust (Chapter 5);
        inhalation rates (Chapter 6);
        dermal exposure factors such as surface area
        and adherence (Chapter 7);
        body weight (Chapter 8);
        intake of fruits and vegetables (Chapter 9);
        intake offish and shellfish (Chapter 10);
        intake of meat, dairy  products,  and  fats
        (Chapter 11);
        intake of grain products (Chapter 12);
        intake of home-produced foods (Chapter 13);
        total food intake (Chapter 14);
        human milk intake (Chapter 15);
        activity factors (Chapter 16); and
        consumer products (Chapter 17).

        The    Child-specific   Exposure   Factors
Handbook was first published in 2002.  Subsequently,
recognizing that exposures  among infants, toddlers,
adolescents, and teenagers can vary significantly, the
U.S. EPA  published its Guidance on Selecting Age
Groups for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood
Exposures to Environmental Contaminants (U. S. EPA.
2005).   To the extent possible,  source data for the
independent studies cited in the earlier version of this
handbook were obtained and re-analyzed to conform to
the standard age categories.  This update and revision
of the 2002 interim final  Child-specific Exposure
Factors  Handbook  is  designed  specifically  to
complement the U.S.  EPA's  recommended  set of
childhood age groups:
         Less than 12 months old: birth to <1 month,
         1 to <3 months, 3 to <6 months, and 6 to < 12
         months.
         Greater than 12 months old: 1 to <2 years, 2
         to <3 years, 3 to <6 years, 6 to <11 years, 11
         to <16 years, and 16 to <21 years.

         The data presented in this handbook have
 been compiled from various sources, which include the
 U.S. EPA's Exposure Factor Handbook  (U.S. EPA,
 1997), government reports, and information presented
 in the scientific literature. The data presented are the
 result of analyses by  the individual  study authors.
 However, in some cases the U.S. EPA has conducted
 analysis of published primary data to  present results
 for the recommended age groups. Studies presented in
 this handbook were chosen because they were seen as
 useful and appropriate for estimating exposure factors
 based on the following considerations: (1) soundness
 (adequacy of approach and minimal or defined bias);
 (2)  applicability and utility (focus on the exposure
 factor of interest, representativeness of the population,
 currency of the information, and adequacy of the data
 collection period);  (3) clarity  and  completeness
 (accessibility, reproducibility, and quality assurance);
 (4)  variability and  uncertainty (variability  in the
 population and uncertainty in  the  results); and (5)
 evaluation and review (level  of peer review and
 number and agreement of studies). Overall confidence
 ratings of high, medium, or low were derived for the
 various exposure factors based on the evaluation of the
 elements described above.
         Many scientific studies were reviewed for
 possible inclusion in this handbook.  The handbook
 contains  summaries  of selected  studies published
 through July 2008. Generally, studies were designated
 as "key" or "relevant" studies.  Key studies were
 considered   the  most  useful   for   deriving
 recommendations; while  relevant  studies  provided
 applicable or pertinent data, but not necessarily the
 most important for a variety of reasons (e.g., data were
 outdated,  limitations  in  study   design).    The
 recommended values for exposure factors are based on
 the results of key studies. The U.S. EPA's procedure
 for developing recommendations was as follows:
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Key studies were evaluated in terms of both
quality and relevance to specific populations
(general U. S. population, age groups, gender,
etc.). The criteria for assessing the quality of
studies are described in Section 1.5.

If only one study was classified as key for a
particular factor, the mean value from that
study was selected as the recommended
central tendency value for that population. If
multiple key studies with reasonably equal
quality, relevance, and study design
information were available, a weighted mean
(if appropriate, considering sample size and
other statistical factors) of the studies was
chosen as the recommended mean value. If
the key studies were judged to be unequal in
quality, relevance, or study design, the range
of means is presented and the user of this
handbook should employ judgment in
selecting the most appropriate value for the
lifestage or local population of interest.
Recommendations for upper percentiles,
when multiple studies were available, were
calculated as the midpoint of the range of
upper percentile values of the studies for each
age group where data were available.

Aspects of exposure factors variability have
been discussed. This document attempts to
characterize the variability of each of the
factors. Variability refers to true
heterogeneity or diversity in a population.
Differences among individuals in a
population are referred to as inter-individual
variability, differences for one individual over
time is referred to as intra-individual
variability. Since most of the studies used to
derive exposure factors data are short term in
nature, they present the variability in short
term exposures across a population sample
and often do not allow analysis of either
inter-temporal variability within individuals
nor inter-individual variability of long term
average exposures. Inter-individual
variability in this handbook is characterized
in one or more of the following ways: (1) as a
table with various percentiles or ranges of
values; (2) as analytical distributions with
specified parameters; and/or (3) as a
qualitative discussion.

4. Uncertainties were discussed in terms of data
limitations, the range of circumstances over
which the estimates were (or were not)
applicable, possible biases in the values
themselves, a statement about parameter
uncertainties (measurement error, sampling
error) and model or scenario uncertainties if
models or scenarios were used to derive the
recommended value.

5. The U.S. EPA assigned a confidence rating of
low, medium or high to each recommended
value. This rating is not intended to
represent an uncertainty analysis; rather, it
represents the U.S. EPA's judgment on the
quality of the underlying data used to derive
the recommendation.

6. Finally, the U.S. EPA developed a table for
each exposure factor to summarize the
recommended values for that factor. Table
ES-1 summarizes key recommended values
for the exposure factors included in this
handbook. Additional recommendations and
detailed supporting information can be found
in the individuals chapters that address these
factors.

In the providing recommendations for the
various exposure factors, an attempt was made to
present percentile values that are consistent with the
exposure estimators defined in Guidelines for
Exposure Assessment (U.S. EPA, 1992) (i.e., mean,
50th, 90th, 95th, 98th, and 99.9th percentile).
However, this was not always possible, because the
data available were limited for some factors, or the
authors of the study did not provide such information.
It is important to note, however, that these percentiles
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were discussed in the guidelines within the context of
risk descriptors and not individual exposure factors.
For example, the guidelines state that the assessor may
derive a high-end estimate of exposure by using
maximum or near maximum values for one or more
sensitive exposure factors, leaving others at their mean
value. The term "upper percentile" is used throughout
this handbook, and it is intended to represent values in
the upper tail (i.e., between 90th and 99.9th percentile)
of the distribution of values for a particular exposure
factor.
Most of the data presented in this handbook
are derived from studies that target (1) the general
population (e.g., USDA food consumption surveys) or
(2) a sample population from a specific area or group
(e.g., soil ingestion study using children from the
three-city area in southeastern Washington State). The
decision as to whether to use site-specific or national
values for an assessment may depend on the quality of
the competing data sets as well as on the purpose of the
specific assessment.
It is important to note that the recommended
values were derived solely from the U.S. EPA's
interpretation of the available data. Different values
may be appropriate for the user in consideration of
policy, precedent, strategy, or other factors (e.g., more
up-to-date data of better quality and more
representative of the population of concern).
U.S. EPA. (1992) Guidelines for exposure assessment.
Washington, DC: Office of Research and
Development, Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment. EPA/600/Z-92/001.

U.S. EPA. (1997) Exposure factors handbook.
Washington, DC: National Center for Environmental
Assessment, Office of Research and Development.
EPA/600/P-95/002Fa,b,c.

U.S. EPA. (2005) Guidance on selecting age groups
for monitoring and assessing childhood exposures to
environmental contaminants (2005). U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/630/P-03/003F.
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