Pre-Publication Copy
NATIONAL WATER PROGRAM STRATEGY:
Response to Climate Change
\ Office of Water
j? U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
"
Pc September 2008
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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Disclaimer
This National Water Program Strategy: Response to Climate Change provides an
overview of the likely effects of climate change on water resources and the Nation's
clean water and safe drinking water programs. It also describes specific actions the
National Water Program intends to take to adapt program implementation in light of
climate change. As such, we hope this document provides useful information and
guidance to the public regarding those matters. To the extent the document mentions
or discusses statutory or regulatory authority, it does so for informational purposes
only. The document does not substitute for those statutes or regulations, and readers
should consult the statutes or regulations themselves to learn what they require.
Neither this document, nor any part of it, is itself a rule or a regulation. Thus, it cannot
change or impose legally binding requirements on EPA, States, the public, or the
regulated community. The use of words like "should," "could," "would," "will," "intend,"
"may," "might," "encourage," "expect," and "can," in this document means solely that
something is intended, suggested or recommended, and not that it is legally required,
or that any expressed intention, suggestion or recommendation imposes legally
binding requirements on EPA, States, the public, or the regulated community. Agency
decision makers remain free to exercise their discretion in choosing to implement the
actions described in this Strategy.
Publication of the:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water (4101M)
EPA 800-R-08-001
Http://www.EPA.gov/water/climatechange/
September 2008
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Table of Contents
Foreword
Executive Summary i
I. Introduction 1
II. Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources
1. Climate Change Basic Science 5
2. Air and Water Temperature Change Impacts 6
3. Rainfall/Snowfall Levels and Distribution Change Impacts 9
4. Storm Intensity Change Impacts 12
5. Sea Level Rise Impacts 16
6. Coastal/Ocean Characteristic Change Impacts 18
7. Changes in Energy Generation 21
III. National Water Program: Climate Change Goals
and Response Actions
1. Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Related to Water 25
2. Adapting Water Programs to Climate Change 38
3. Climate Change Research Related to Water 60
4. Water Program Education on Climate Change 66
5. Water Program Management of Climate Change 68
Appendices
1. Climate Change Impacts on Water in Regions of the United States
2. Summary List of Climate Change Actions
3. Adaptations for Alaska Water Infrastructure
4. EPA Global Climate Change Research Related to Water
5. Potential Climate Change/Water Research Needs
6. Glossary of Water Program and Climate Change Terms
7. Water Program and Climate Change Acronyms
8. References and Further Reading
9. Acknowledgments
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Foreword
For the past thirty-five years, Federal, State, Tribal, and local governments have
worked hard to identify and address water pollution problems. This effort has made
our drinking water safer, improved the quality of rivers, lakes, and coastal waters, and
protected critical wetlands.
Today, the scientific consensus on climate change is changing our assumptions about
water resources. Over the coming years, we in the United States can expect:
• shorelines to move as a result of sea level rise;
• changes in ocean chemistry to alter aquatic habitat and fisheries;
• warming water temperatures to change contaminant concentrations in water
and alter aquatic system uses;
• new patterns of rainfall and snowfall to alter water supply for drinking and other
uses and lead to changes in pollution levels in aquatic systems; and
• more intense storms to threaten water infrastructure and increase polluted
storm water runoff.
There remains significant uncertainty about the exact scope and timing of climate
change-related impacts on water resources, but the National Water Program and its
partners need to assess emerging climate change information, evaluate potential
impacts of climate change on water programs, and identify needed responses.
This National Water Program Strategy: Response to Climate Change is an initial
effort to evaluate how best to meet our clean water and safe drinking water goals in
the context of a changing climate. The ideas and response actions outlined here are
the product of a cooperative effort among EPA water program managers in national
and Regional offices. The EPA Offices of Air and Radiation and Research and
Development provided valuable support for this work. And, a wide range of
stakeholders participated in initial "listening session" meetings.
A changing climate in the years ahead will raise new challenges for improving the
quality of the Nation's waters. This Response to Climate Change starts us in the
direction of understanding and addressing these challenges. I hope that you will join
us in making this important work a success.
Benjamin H. Grumbles
Assistant Administrator for Water
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Executive Summary
A long-term, international investment
in scientific study of the Earth's
climate is now resulting in a scientific
consensus concerning climate
change and its impacts on water
resources. This National Water
Program Strategy: Response to
Climate Change provides an
overview of the potential effects of
climate change on water resources
and the Nation's clean water and
safe drinking water programs. It also
describes specific actions the
National Water Program will take to
adapt program implementation in
light of climate change.
Why is the Earth Warming?
The Earth absorbs energy from the Sun and
radiates energy back into space. Much of
the energy going back to space, however, is
absorbed by "greenhouse gases" in the
atmosphere. Because the atmosphere then
radiates much of this energy back to the
Earth's surface, the planet is warmer than it
would be if the atmosphere did not contain
these gases. As levels of greenhouse
gases increase, partly as a result of human
activity, the Earth will continue to warm.
EPA Administrator Stephen Johnson has identified "clean energy and climate change"
as a top Agency priority, and EPA national and Regional offices are working to define
strategies and actions in this area. This Response to Climate Change is intended to
support the Administrator's priority as well as complement the EPA Office of Air and
Radiation's leadership of climate change policy and program development and the
Office of Research and Development's management of climate change-related
research.
Climate change will have numerous and diverse impacts, including impacts on human
health, natural systems, and the built environment. Many of the consequences of
climate change relate to water resources, including:
• warming air and water;
• change in the location and amount of rain and snow;
• increased storm intensity;
• sea level rise; and
• changes in ocean characteristics.
It is important to note that not all the near-term impacts of climate change are expected
to be disruptive, and this Strategy focuses on impacts that are of concern for water
programs.
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Water Impacts of Climate Change: Summarized
Detailed information about water-related impacts of climate change is documented in
reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and described in
detail in Section II of this Strategy. These impacts vary in different parts of North
America, but can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. Increases in Water Pollution Problems: Warmer air temperatures will result in
warmer water. Warmer waters will:
• hold less dissolved oxygen making instances of low oxygen levels and "hypoxia"
(i.e., when dissolved oxygen declines to the point where aquatic species can no
longer survive) more likely; and
• foster harmful algal blooms and change the toxicity of some pollutants.
The number of waters recognized as "impaired" is likely to increase, even if pollution
levels are stable.
2. More Extreme Water-Related Events: Heavier precipitation in tropical and inland
storms will increase the risks of flooding, expand floodplains, increase the variability
of streamflows (i.e., higher high flows and lower low flows), increase the velocity of
water during high flow periods and increase erosion. These changes will have
adverse effects on water quality and aquatic system health. For example, increases
in intense rainfall result in more nutrients, pathogens, and toxins being washed into
waterbodies.
3. Changes to the Availability of Drinking Water Supplies: In some parts of the
country, droughts, changing patterns of precipitation and snowmelt, and increased
water loss due to evaporation as a result of warmer air temperatures will result in
changes to the availability of water for drinking and for use for agriculture and
industry. In other areas, sea level rise and salt water intrusion will have the same
effect. Warmer air temperatures may also result in increased demands on
community water supplies and the water needs for agriculture, industry, and energy
production are likely to increase.
4. Waterbody Boundary Movement and Displacement: Rising sea levels will move
ocean and estuarine shorelines by inundating lowlands, displacing wetlands, and
altering the tidal range in rivers and bays. Changing water flow to lakes and
streams, increased evaporation, and changed precipitation in some areas, will affect
the size of wetlands and lakes. Water levels in the Great Lakes are expected to fall.
5. Changing Aquatic Biology: As waters become warmer, the aquatic life they now
support will be replaced by other species better adapted to the warmer water (i.e.,
cold water fish will be replaced by warm water fish). This process, however, will
occur at an uneven pace disrupting aquatic system health and allowing non-
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indigenous and/or invasive species to become established. In the long-term (i.e., 50
years), warmer water and changing flows may result in significant deterioration of
aquatic ecosystem health in some areas.
Collective Impacts on Coastal Areas: Most areas of the United States will see
several of the water-related effects of climate change, but coastal areas are likely to
see multiple impacts of climate change. These impacts include sea level rise,
increased damage from floods and storms, changes in drinking water supplies, and
increasing temperature and acidification of the oceans.
These overlapping impacts of climate change make protecting water resources in
coastal areas especially challenging.
Response to Climate Change: Goals and Strategic Choices
The National Water Program has an obligation to recognize and address the threats to
water resources posed by climate change. This Response to Climate Change is an
initial effort to describe climate change impacts on water programs, define goals and
objectives for responding to climate change, and to identify a comprehensive package
of specific response actions. This document expresses the National Water Program's
commitment to work in cooperation with national partners, State and local government,
and public and private stakeholders to understand the science, develop tools, and
implement actions to address the impacts of climate change on water resources.
The National Water Program has established climate change-related goals in each of
the three key climate change topic areas already identified by EPA:
• Mitigation;
• Adaptation; and
• Research.
In addition, this Strategy includes two supporting goals addressing education of water
program professionals on climate change issues and management of climate change
work within the National Water Program.
Goals for the National Water Program in each of these five areas are discussed below
in terms of the strategic issue that is presented and the National Water Program's
conclusion concerning the issue. At the highest "big picture" level, this document
represents a "strategic choice" by the National Water Program to change programs and
invest resources based on a growing understanding of climate change (i.e., climate
change matters to water programs and demands a response). The five goals described
below reflect another level of strategic choices, including the decision to expand water
program efforts related to greenhouse gas mitigation rather than focus only on water
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program adaptation and the decision to have a sustained management focus on climate
change issues.
Goal 1: Water Program Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases: Use core water programs
to contribute to greenhouse gas mitigation
Strategic Issue: The severity of impacts on water resources will depend on
greenhouse gas emissions over the long-term. The National Water Program has a
range of opportunities to contribute to the goal of reducing greenhouse gases,
including water and energy efficiency and assuring that sequestration of carbon
protects human health and the environment.
Conclusion: The National Water Program will expand existing programs that result
in greenhouse gas mitigation and expand efforts related to geologic and biological
sequestration of carbon dioxide. EPA will use the best available science and
technology to support responsible operation of water treatment and delivery systems
through water conservation and energy efficiency. EPA will also support carbon
sequestration related to energy production and industrial processes.
Goal 2: Water Program Adaptation to Climate Change: Adapt implementation of
core water programs to maintain and improve program effectiveness in the context of a
changing climate and assist States and communities in this effort.
Strategic Issue: EPA, States, and Tribes implementing core water programs will
need to continue to meet drinking water, clean water, and wetlands protection goals
as the climate changes. Warmer air and water, changes in weather patterns, and
rising sea levels will create challenges that may require modifications to programs
and new tools in order to sustain past progress and avoid new risks to human health
and aquatic ecosystems.
Conclusion: The National Water Program will implement a range of actions to tailor
existing water programs to the challenges posed by climate change. The National
Water Program will:
• measure, minimize and manage the impacts of climate change on water
resources using effective adaptation approaches and will be responsive in our
standards and permitting programs;
• be proactive in adapting watershed protection, wetlands, and infrastructure
programs in light of climate change;
• develop tools, standards and guidelines, and identify best practices to
understand and measure the nature and magnitude of chemical, biological, and
physical effects of climate change on water resources; and
• apply environmental science, technology, and information to guide and support
proactive climate change planning and management.
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Goal 3: Climate Change Research Related to Water: Strengthen the link between
EPA water programs and climate change research.
Strategic Issue: Given the significance of climate change impacts on water and
water quality, these impacts have been relatively little studied. In addition,
communication of water-related research findings to water program managers has
been inconsistent.
Conclusion: The National Water Program will identify and complement climate
research by others that supports water programs and this Strategy. The National
Water Program will expand participation in inter-agency and intra-Agency research
planning related to climate change and will adjust core water program research to
climate issues as needed.
Goal 4: Water Program Education on Climate Change: Educate water program
professionals and stakeholders on climate change impacts on water resources and
water programs.
Strategic Issue: EPA water program staff in national and Regional offices need to
better understand the anticipated impacts of climate change on water to manage
programs effectively. Also, given the range of impacts of climate change around the
country, State, Tribal, and local water program partners need information and
technical assistance to understand the likely impacts on watersheds, water supply,
water infrastructure, and water quality.
Conclusion: The National Water Program will invest in climate change education
on water issues for water program managers and partners, will support sharing of
information about State and local responses to water impacts of climate change, and
will provide tools and technical assistance to support this effort.
Goal 5: Water Program Management of Climate Change: Establish the
management capability within the National Water Program to engage climate change
challenges on a sustained basis.
Strategic Issue: Prior to creation of the Workgroup that produced this Strategy, the
National Water Program had not had a comprehensive effort to monitor climate
change science, systematically assess climate change impacts on water programs,
work with other Federal agencies on this topic, or develop response actions.
Implementation of this Strategy, however, will require creation of new management
capabilities in these areas.
Conclusion: The National Water Program will maintain a Climate Change
Workgroup, support EPA Regions' efforts to supplement this Strategy, and reach
out to other Federal agencies with climate change interests.
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Each of these five goals is supported by more specific objectives and "Key Actions."
Some of these Key Actions involve existing water program work that has climate
change implications while other actions involve new activities, or changes in the
direction of current activities, in response to climate change. Key Actions will be
initiated in the FY 2008 and 2009 timeframe. In some areas, longer-term actions under
consideration are also identified.
Implementation of these new Key Actions assumes level funding (i.e., no new funding
for "climate" actions). Given this assumption, this Response to Climate Change
represents a further refinement of the "big picture" strategic choices associated with the
five major goals by virtue of the allocation of the Key Actions among the five goals. For
example, although greenhouse gas mitigation through water programs is a major goal,
many more Key Actions are allocated to the water program adaptation goal.
Response to Climate Change: Crosscutting Themes
In developing Key Actions to support the five major goals, several important
crosscutting themes emerged (see the introduction to Section III of this Strategy for
more detailed description of these themes). Understanding these themes was useful in
the process of weighing different possible response actions and adding strategic focus
to this Strategy. These themes offer another perspective on the "strategic choices"
made in the development of the Strategy and new insight into the substantive, new
directions called for in this document.
1. Develop Data to Adapt to Climate Change: Water managers need information
and baseline data to understand how climate change is altering the environment and
inform long-term planning.
2. Plan for Extreme Water Events: Water managers need to expand efforts to plan
for and respond to extreme weather events resulting from climate change, including
storms, an excess of water, and a lack of water.
3. Increase Watershed Sustainability and Resilience: Many elements of a
"watershed approach" will increase the resiliency of watersheds to climate change
and increase the sustainability of aquatic systems.
4. Develop Analytic Tools: Water managers need a wide range of new analytic tools
to understand and address water resources impacts of climate change.
5. Strengthen Partnerships: Water program managers need the help of many
partners, including Federal agencies and State, Tribal, and local governments.
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I. Introduction
Protecting the quality of the Nation's water resources, and the recreational, ecological
and environmental values that water resources support, is an important goal for the
country. The growing understanding of climate change is leading to the recognition that
a changing climate will affect the protection of the quality of water resources. This
National Water Program Strategy: Response to Climate Change outlines how the
National Water Program plans to respond to climate change.
The National Water Program
The National Water Program is a cooperative effort by Federal, State, Tribal, and local
governments to implement core laws, including the Safe Drinking Water Act and the
Clean Water Act, to protect and improve the quality of the Nation's waters. Key
elements of this effort are intended to:
• assure that water provided by public water systems is safe to drink;
• protect and restore the quality of rivers, lakes, and streams;
• improve the quality of estuarine, coastal, and ocean waters;
• protect wetlands; and
• restore the quality of large aquatic ecosystems around the country such as the
Chesapeake Bay, the Great Lakes, and the Gulf of Mexico.
For over thirty years, EPA has worked with other Federal agencies and State, Tribal,
and local governments to implement a wide range of programs to protect the Nation's
waters. EPA works closely with other Federal agencies, such as the Department of
Agriculture, Department of Interior, and Department of Commerce. Many of the Federal
water quality programs authorized by Congress are now delegated to States and Tribes
that implement the programs with the support of grants from EPA. Local governments
play a critical role in this effort as the managers of the drinking water and waste
treatment infrastructure and are supported with financing assistance through the State
Revolving Fund (SRF) loan programs.
Climate Change and Water
Over the past several years, new information about climate change has emerged from
the scientific community. First, recent reports of the United Nations Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the interagency U.S. Climate Change Science
Program (CCSP) express a growing consensus on climate change.
Second, it is increasingly clear that climate change may have impacts on water
resources and affect the programs designed to protect the quality of these resources.
Not all of the near-term impacts of climate change, however, are expected to be
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disruptive, and this Strategy focuses on impacts that are of concern for water
programs. Some of the primary consequences of climate change for water resources
include rising sea levels, warming water temperatures, and changes in the amounts and
location of rain and snow.
Purpose and Structure of this Document
The purpose of this Response to Climate Change is to describe the effects of climate
change on water resources and define goals for the National Water Program in
responding to the challenges posed by climate change.
"Clean energy and climate change" has been identified by EPA Administrator Stephen
Johnson as a top Agency priority, and EPA national and Regional offices are working to
define strategies and actions in this area. This Response to Climate Change is
intended to support the Administrator's priority as well as complement the EPA Office of
Air and Radiation's leadership of climate change policy and program development and
the Office of Research and Development's management of climate change-related
research.
Following this Introduction, Section II of the document describes the primary impacts of
climate change on water resources including:
• air and water temperature increases;
• changes in levels and distribution of rainfall and snowfall;
• storm intensity increases;
• sea level rise; and
• changes in coastal/ocean characteristics.
Section III of the document describes five general goals for the National Water Program
response to climate change impacts on water resources:
Goal 1: Water Program Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases: use water programs to
contribute to greenhouse gas mitigation;
Goal 2: Water Program Adaptation to Climate Change: adapt implementation of
core water programs to maintain and improve program effectiveness in the context of a
changing climate;
Goal 3: Climate Change Research Related to Water: strengthen the link between
EPA water programs and climate change research.
Goal 4: Water Program Education on Climate Change: educate water program
professionals and stakeholders on climate change impacts on water resources and
programs; and
Goal 5: Water Program Management of Climate Change: establish the management
capability within the National Water Program to engage climate change challenges on a
sustained basis.
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Each of these five goals is supported by a series of objectives and "Key Actions" that
the National Water Program will implement in cooperation with partners. Although the
Key Actions defined in this Strategy are a blueprint for accomplishing the five goals
described above, in a larger sense, the success of the Strategy depends on water
program staff taking responsibility for understanding climate change impacts and
helping adapt their programs to address these impacts.
Process of Developing this Document
This Response to Climate Change was developed by a Climate Change Workgroup
established by the Assistant Administrator for Water at the EPA. The Workgroup is
chaired by the Deputy Assistant Administrator for Water and includes senior water
program managers from national and Regional offices of EPA, including the Office of Air
and Radiation and Office of Research and Development.
The Workgroup began meeting in April 2007 and, in May, June, and August conducted
a series of "listening sessions" with a range of stakeholders. A draft version of the
Strategy was available for public comment in the spring of 2008 and comments from
almost one hundred individuals and organizations were considered in the development
of this final document.
Next Steps
With the publication of this Response to Climate Change document, the National
Water Program will affirmatively implement the Key Actions described in Section III and
will monitor the implementation of these actions, provide periodic public reports of
progress, and review and revise the document as needed over time.
Throughout this process, the EPA Office of Water will continue to work to strengthen
linkages with other EPA offices; EPA Regional offices; other Federal agencies; State,
local, and Tribal partners; and others to continue to improve the understanding of both
the impacts of climate change on water resources and the range of actions that might
further improve the National Water Program response to climate change. In addition,
EPA Regional Offices may supplement this Strategy with actions designed to address
the most significant climate change impacts in the Region.
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II. Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources
A first step in understanding how the National Water Program should respond to climate
change is to understand the basic science of climate change and the consequences of
climate change for water resources. Some of the primary effects of climate change for
water resources include:
• Air and Water Temperature Increases;
• Changes in Levels and Distribution of Rainfall and Snowfall;
• Storm Intensity Increases;
• Sea Level Rise; and
• Changes in Coastal/Ocean Characteristics.
Each of these five primary ways climate
change impacts water resources is
described briefly below. Much of the
information in this section is drawn from
EPA's climate change website and is
supplemented with water-related
information from research reports prepared by U.S. EPA's Office of Research and
Development (ORD) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The
description of the impacts of climate change on water resources and water programs is
based on the collective experience and best professional judgment of EPA scientists.
EPA Climate Change Website: EPA's
Climate Change website provides useful
summaries of a wide range of climate
change-related information:
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/
In addition to a general description of
potential effects on water resources,
some of the specific impacts expected in
North America are described and effects
on a range of water programs are
identified. More specific information on
impacts in different areas of the country is
included in Appendix 1.
The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC): Established
by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and the United
Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) in 1988, the IPCC assesses
scientific, technical, and socio-economic
information relevant to climate change.
Finally, it is increasingly likely that one response to climate change will be a shift in the
methods of producing energy (e.g., increased demand for biofuels). Some of these
changes in the methods of energy production may affect water resources and water
protection programs. Some of the expected impacts on water resources due to shifts in
energy production are described at the close of this section.
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1. Climate Change Basic Science
Climate change refers to significant change in measures of climate (such as
temperature or precipitation) lasting for an extended period (decades or longer).
Energy from the Sun drives the Earth's weather, climate and physical processes at the
surface. The Earth absorbs energy from the Sun and also radiates energy back into
space. However, much of this energy going back to space is absorbed by "greenhouse
gases" in the atmosphere (see Figure 1: Greenhouse Effect). Because much of this
energy is retained in the surface-atmosphere system, the planet is warmer than it would
be if the atmosphere did not contain these gases. Without this natural "greenhouse
effect" temperatures would be about 60°F (about 33°C) lower than they are now, and
life as we know it today would not be possible (EPA 2007a).
The Greenhouse Effect
Some solar radiation
is reflected dy the
earth and the
atmosphere
Some of trie Infrared radiation passes
through the atmosphere, and some is
absortied and re-emitted m all
directions by greenhouse gas
motectdes. Ihe effect of this is to warm
l*e earth's surface and the lower
atmosphere.
Most radiation Is absorbed
by the earth's surface
and twins it
Figure 1: The Greenhouse Effect.
Source: EPA2007a.
Climate change may result from:
• natural factors, such as changes in
the sun's intensity or slow changes
in the Earth's orbit around the sun;
• natural processes within the climate
system (e.g., changes in ocean
circulation); and
• human activities that change the
atmosphere's composition (e.g.,
through burning fossil fuels) and the
land surface (e.g., deforestation,
reforestation, urbanization,
desertification)
During the past century, humans have substantially added to the amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, oil and
gasoline to power cars, factories, utilities and appliances. The added gases—primarily
carbon dioxide and methane—are enhancing the natural greenhouse effect and likely
contributing to an increase in global average temperature and related climate changes
(EPA 2007a).
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded in its 2007 report
on climate change:
"Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from
observations of increases in global average air and water temperatures,
widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level" (IPCC
2007a, Working Group I Summary for Policymakers, p. 5).
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2. Air and Water Temperature Increases
Temperatures are changing in the lower atmosphere—from the Earth's surface all the
way through the stratosphere (9 to 14 miles above the Earth's surface) (EPA 2007b).
Most climate change scenarios project that greenhouse gas concentrations will increase
through 2100 with a continued increase in average global temperatures (IPCC 2007a,
as found in EPA 2007c).
The average surface temperature of the Earth is likely1 to increase by 2 to 11.5°F (1.1-
6.4°C) by the end of the 21st century, relative to 1980-1990, with a best estimate of 3.2
to 7.2°F (1.8-4.0°C). The average rate of warming over each inhabited continent is very
likely to be at least twice as large as that experienced during the 20th century (EPA
2007c and IPCC 2007a).
A. Background
According to EPA's climate change website (EPA 2007b) and data from NOAA and
NASA (NOAA 2007, NASA 2006):
• since the mid 1970s, the average surface temperature has warmed about 1°F
(about 0.6°C);
• the Earth's surface is currently warming at a rate of about 0.32°F (about 0.18°C)
per decade or 3.2°F (about 1.8°C) per century; and
• the five warmest years over the last century have likely been: 2005, 1998, 2002,
2003, and 2006. The top 10 warmest years have all occurred since 1990.
Looking ahead, the IPCC recently concluded that: "All of North America is very likely to
warm during this century, and the annual mean warming is likely to exceed the global
mean warming in most areas" (Christensen et al. 2007, p. 887). More specifically, the
IPCC finds that "[w]arming in the USA is expected to exceed 2°C [3.6°F] by nearly all
the models..." (Christensen et al. 2007, p. 889). Climate models project regional
variation of warming—for example, some models project that temperatures in parts of
Alaska could increase by 10°C (18°F) (Christensen et al. 2007, p. 889)).
See Figure 2 for a graphic depiction of temperature trends in the continental United
States for the last century based on data from the National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) National Climatic Data Center (NCDC).
NCDC's observations indicate that in the last century, temperatures rose at an average
rate of 0.11 °F (0.06°C) per decade (1.1 °F [0.6°C] per century) in the continental United
States. Average temperatures for the United States rose at an increased rate of 0.56°F
1 IPCC used the following terms to indicate the assessed likelihood, using expert judgment, of an
outcome or a result: virtually certain > 99% probability of occurrence, extremely likely > 95%, very likely >
90%, likely > 66%, more likely than not > 50%, unlikely < 33%, very unlikely < 10%, extremely unlikely <
5% (IPCC 2007a, see Working Group I, Summary for Policymakers, p. 3).
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[0.31°C] per decade from 1979 to 2005. The most recent eight-, nine-, and ten-year
periods were the warmest on record (EPA 2007b).
Water temperatures have also been rising, and increases have been observed in both
freshwater and salt water. For example, the IPCC reported recently that: "There is
compelling evidence that the heat content of the World Ocean has increased since
1955. In the North Atlantic, the warming is penetrating deeper than in the Pacific, Indian
and Southern Oceans..." (Bindoff et al. 2007, p. 420). Ocean surface temperatures are
predicted to increase over the next hundred years (IPCC 2007a, see Working Group I
Technical Summary, p. 72).
Further, inland water temperature projections
indicate that "[simulated future surface and
bottom water temperatures of lakes, reservoirs,
rivers, and estuaries throughout North America
consistently increase from 2 to 7°C [3.6 to
12.6°F] ... with summer surface temperatures
exceeding 30°C [86°F] in Midwestern and
southern lakes and reservoirs" (Field et al. 2007,
p. 629).
B. Impacts on Water Resources
Warmer air temperatures are expected to have
several impacts on water resources including
diminishing snow pack and increasing
evaporation, which affects the seasonal
availability of water (Field et al. 2007, p. 619).
A key impact of warmer air temperatures is
warmer water temperatures. Some impacts of
warmer water temperatures are:
West
North Central
Northwest
Central
Northeast
West
Southwest
South
laska
n
No data
Southeast
Hawaii
Temperature change ("F per century):
432101234
Figure 2. Annual mean temperature
anomalies, 1901-2005. Red shades
indicate warming over the period (+),
and blue shades indicate cooling over
the period (-). Source: NOAA/NESDIS/
NCDC, as found in EPA 2007b.
a shift in aquatic species distribution and population (Field et al. 2007, p. 631);
"[t]he rise in global temperature will tend to extend poleward the ranges of many
invasive aquatic plants ..." (IPCC 2008, p. 70);
"[h]igher stream temperatures affect fish access, survival and spawning (e.g.,
west coast salmon) (Field et al. 2007, p. 629);
higher temperatures reduce dissolved oxygen levels, which can have an effect
on aquatic life (EPA 2007h), and according to the IPCC, "warming is likely to
extend and intensify summer thermal stratification, contributing to oxygen
depletion" in lakes and reservoirs (Field et al. 2007, p. 629);
increased concentrations of some pollutants (e.g., simulations in the Bay of
Quinte in Lake Ontario indicated that 3 to 4°C (5.4 to 7.2° F) warmer water
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temperatures contribute 77 to 98 percent increases in summer phosphorus
concentrations (Field et al. 2007, p. 629));
• "[h]igher surface water temperatures will promote algal blooms and increase the
bacteria and fungi content", which "... may lead to a bad odor and taste in
chlorinated drinking water and the occurrence of toxins" (Kundzewicz et al. 2007,
p. 188);
• "Because warmer waters support more production of algae, many lakes may
become more eutrophic due to increased temperature alone, even if nutrient
supply from the watershed remains unchanged." (CCSP SAP 4-3; page 142);
and
• "[a]ctual evaporation over open water is projected to increase, e.g., over much of
the ocean and lakes, with the spatial variations tending to relate to spatial
variations in surface warming (IPCC 2008, p. 38).
Some aquatic organisms are particularly sensitive to temperature. For example, the
breeding cycle of many amphibians is closely related to temperature and moisture, and
reproductive failure can occur when breeding phenology—periodic biological
phenomena correlated with climate—and pond-drying conditions are misaligned (Field
et al. 2007, p. 630). Further, many coral reefs are surviving at or close to their
temperature tolerance levels, so rising sea surface temperatures are creating more
hostile conditions for the corals (EPA 2007k). Saltwater and freshwater fisheries are
also affected by climate change; in 2001, the IPCC stated that "[projected climate
changes have the potential to affect coastal and marine ecosystems, with impacts on
the abundance and spatial distribution of species that are important to commercial and
recreational fisheries" (Cohen et al. 2001, as referenced in Field et al. 2007, p. 620).
Further, "[c]old-water fisheries will likely be negatively affected by climate change;
warm-water fisheries will generally gain; and the results for cool-water fisheries will be
mixed, with gains in the northern and losses in the southern portions of ranges" (Field et
al. 2007, p. 631). Although temperature increases may favor warm-water fishes, such
as smallmouth bass, "changes in water supply and flow regimes seem likely to have
negative effects" on these fishes (Field et al. 2007, p. 632).
C. Impacts on Water Programs
As air and water temperatures warm, water resource managers will likely face
significant challenges:
• increased pollutant concentrations and lower dissolved oxygen levels will result
in additional waterbodies not meeting water quality standards and, therefore,
being listed as impaired waters requiring a total maximum daily load (TMDL);
• increased growth of algae and microbes will affect drinking water quality;
• discharge permits and nonpoint pollution control programs may need to be
adjusted to reflect changing conditions;
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States and EPA may need to consider the effects of changing air and water
temperatures on water quality;
increased water use will put stress on water infrastructure and demands on the
clean water and drinking water State Revolving Funds; and
drinking water and wetlands managers will need to account for water losses due
to increased evapotranspiration rates resulting from temperature increases.
Air and Water Temperature Increases: Effects on Water Programs
(Shaded areas reflect programs most affected by air and water temperature increases)
Drinking Water Standards Surface Wat
Standards
Clean Water
Drinking Water Planning
Underground Injection
Control Permits
Vater Protection
Discharge Per
Nonpoin*
Technology Based
Standards
Water Monitoring
Storm Water Permits
Emergency Planning
Water Restoration/
TMDLs
Wetlands Perm
Coastal Zone
National Estuaries
Program
Ocean Protection
Combined Sewer
Overflow Plans
3. Rainfall/Snowfall Levels and Distribution
According to the IPCC, an increase in the average global temperature is very likely to
lead to changes in precipitation and atmospheric moisture because of changes in
atmospheric circulation and increases in evaporation and water vapor (EPA 2007e).
The effects of increases in temperature and radiative forcing, a measure of irradiation in
the tropopause, "alter the hydrological cycle, especially characteristics of precipitation
(amount, frequency, intensity, duration, type) and extremes" (Trenberth et al. 2007, p.
254).
Climate models suggest an increase in global average annual precipitation during the
21st century, although changes in precipitation will vary from region to region (IPCC
2007a, as found in EPA 2007e). Regional precipitation projections from climate models,
however, must be considered with caution since their reliability at small spatial scales is
limited (EPA 2007e).
A. Background
The IPCC has concluded that: "Increases in the amount of precipitation are very likely2
in the high latitudes, while decreases are likely3 in most subtropical land
IPCC used the following terms to indicate the assessed likelihood, using expert judgment, of an
outcome or a result: virtually certain > 99% probability of occurrence, extremely likely > 95%, very likely >
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West
North Central
Northwest
North
East
Central
Northeast
regions...continuing observed patterns in recent trends [emphasis in original]" (IPCC
2007a, see Working Group I Summary for Policymakers, p. 16). See Figure 3 for a
depiction of precipitation trends in the continental United States in the last century.
Increases in temperature can affect the amount
and duration of snow cover which, in turn, can
affect timing of streamflow and impact ground
water recharge. Glaciers are expected to
continue retreating, and many small glaciers
may disappear entirely (EPA 2007i). The IPCC
Technical Paper on Climate Change and Water
indicates that warming would lead to changes in
the seasonality of river flows where much winter
precipitation currently falls as snow, with spring
flows decreasing because of the reduced or
earlier snowmelt, and winter flows increasing.
This has been found in ... western, central and
eastern North America (IPCC 2008, p. 40). It
further states that "[projected warming in the
western mountains by the mid-21 st century is
very likely to cause large decreases in
snowpack, earlier snowmelt, more winter rain
events, increased peak winter flows and
flooding, and reduced summer flows" (IPCC
2008, p. 172).
West
/
Southwest
South
laska
Southeast
- .^Hawaii
O
Change in precipitation (% per century):
-30 -20 -10
10 20 30
Figure 3. Annual precipitation trends, 1901-
2005. Green shades indicate a trend towards
wetter conditions over the period, and brown
shades indicate a trend towards dryer
conditions. No data are available for areas
shaded in white. Source:
NOAA/NESDIS/NCDC, as found in EPA
2007d.
These precipitation trends are expected to
continue. The IPCC reported this year that:
"Annual mean precipitation is very likely to
increase in Canada and the northeast USA, and likely to decrease in the southwest
USA" (Christensen et al. 2007, p. 887). The IPCC also concluded that: "Snow season
length and snow depth are very likely to decrease in most of North America..."
(Christensen et al. 2007, p. 887).
B. Impacts on Water Resources
Changing precipitation patterns are expected to have several impacts on water
resources including:
• increased frequency and intensity of rainfall in some areas will produce more
pollution and erosion and sedimentation due to runoff (EPA 2007h);
90%, likely > 66%, more likely than not > 50%, unlikely < 33%, very unlikely < 10%, extremely unlikely <
5% (IPCC 2007a, see Working Group I, Summary for Policymakers, p. 3).
3 See footnote 2 for the IPCC Working Group I's use of the term "likely".
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• "[w]ater-borne diseases and degraded water quality are likely to increase with
more heavy precipitation" (IPCC 2008, p. 139);
• potential increases in heavy precipitation, with expanding impervious surfaces,
could increase urban flood risks and create additional design challenges and
costs for stormwater management" (Field et al. 2007, p. 633);
• flooding can affect water quality, as large volumes of water can transport
contaminants into waterbodies and also overload storm and wastewater systems
(EPA 2007h);
• in general, in areas where precipitation increases sufficiently, net water supplies
may increase while in other areas where precipitation decreases, net water
supplies may decrease (EPA 2007i); and
• "[increased occurrence of low flows will lead to decreased contaminant dilution
capacity, and thus higher pollutant concentrations, including pathogens. In areas
with overall decreased runoff (e.g., in many semiarid areas), water quality
deterioration will be even worse" (IPCC 2008, p. 54);
• "[a] wide range of species and biomes could be impacted by the projected
changes in rainfall, soil moisture, surface water levels, and stream flow in North
America during the coming decades. Lowering of lake and pond water levels, for
example, can lead to reproductive failure in amphibians and fish, and differential
responses among species can alter aquatic community composition and nutrient
flows" (IPCC 2008, p. 140);
• "[c]hanges in rainfall patterns and drought regimes can facilitate other types of
ecosystem disturbances, including fire and biological invasion" (IPCC 2008, p.
140);
• "[s]ome of the greatest potential impacts of climate change on estuaries may
result from changes in physical mixing characteristics caused by changes in
freshwater runoff. Changes in river discharges into shallow near shore marine
environments will lead to changes in turbidity, salinity, stratification and nutrient
availability" (IPCC 2008, p. 72); and
• "[g]reater rainfall variability is likely to compromise wetlands through shifts in the
timing duration and depth of water levels" (IPCC 2008, p. 168). Due in part to
their limited capacity for adaptation, wetlands are considered among the most
vulnerable ecosystems to climate change (IPCC 2008, p. 71).
Although impact assessment studies often focus on negative consequences of changes
in precipitation and flow, it is important to note that there are water quality benefits to
increased precipitation (e.g. increased drinking water supply) and of decreased
precipitation (e.g. reduce frequency of flooding).
C. Impacts on Water Programs
Changing precipitation patterns pose several challenges for water program managers:
• increased rainfall can enhance surface and ground water supplies of drinking
water;
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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increased rainfall, especially more intense rainfall, will result in increased storm
water runoff and may make overflows of sanitary sewers and combined sewers
more frequent, putting increased demands on discharge permit programs and
nonpoint pollution control programs;
increased storm water runoff will wash sediment and other contaminants into
drinking water sources, requiring additional treatment;
additional investments in water infrastructure may be needed to manage both
decreases in rainfall (e.g., expanded water supply retention facilities) and
increases in rainfall (e.g., increases in pipe and storm water management
facilities), and these demands could strain water financing generally including the
State Revolving Funds;
limited water availability and drought in some regions will require drinking water
providers to reassess supply facility plans and consider alternative pricing,
allocation, and water conservation options;
in areas with less precipitation, demand for water may shift to underground
aquifers and prompt water recycling and reuse, development of new reservoirs,
or underground injection of treated water for storage;
in areas with less precipitation, limited groundwater recharge combined with
increasing use will have adverse impacts on stream flow and make meeting
water quality goals more challenging; and
increased incidence of wildfire as a result of reduced precipitation can reduce the
amount of water retained on the land, increase soil erosion, increase water
pollution, increase risk of flooding, and pose a threat to water infrastructure.
Rainfall and Snowfall Levels/Distribution: Effects on Water Programs
(Shaded areas reflect programs most affected by rainfall and snowfall levels)
Drinking Water Standards
Drinking Water Plannin
Underground Inject
Control Permits
Source Water Prot
Drinking Water S
Surface Water
Standards
Clean Water Planning
Technology Based
Standards
Water Monitoring
Emergency Planning
Water Restoration/
lischarae Permits Storm Water Permits
Coastal Zone
Ocean Protection
Wetlands Permits
National Estuaries
Program
Combined Sew
Overflow Plans
4. Storm Intensity
According to the IPCC, "[t]he frequency of heavy precipitation events has increased
over most land areas, consistent with warming and observed increases of atmospheric
water vapor" (IPCC 2007a, Working Group I Summary for Policy Makers, p. 8). Further,
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"[b]ased on a range of models, it is likely4 that future tropical cyclones (typhoons and
hurricanes) will become more intense, with larger peak wind speeds and more heavy
precipitation associated with ongoing increases of tropical sea surface temperatures
[emphasis in original]" (IPCC 2007a, Working Group I Summary for Policymakers , p.
15).
A. Background
There is large natural variability in the intensity and frequency of mid latitude storms and
associated features such as thunderstorms, hail events and tornadoes. To date, there
is no long-term evidence of systematic changes in these types of events over the
course of the past 100 years (IPCC 2007a, as found in EPA 2007d). Analyses of
severe storms are complicated by factors including the localized nature of the events,
inconsistency in data observation methods, and the limited areas in which studies have
been performed (EPA2007d).
The frequency and intensity of tropical storm systems have also varied over the 20th
century on annual, decadal and multi-decadal time scales. For example, in the Atlantic
basin, the period from about 1995-2005 was extremely active both in terms of the
overall number of tropical storm systems including hurricanes as well as in storm
intensity. However, the two to three decades prior to the mid-1990s were characterized
as a relatively inactive period (EPA 2007d).
Following the Atlantic hurricane season of 2005, which set a record with 27 named
storms, a great deal of attention has focused on the relationship between hurricanes
and climate change. Numerous studies have been published on possible linkages, with
a range of conclusions (EPA 2007d). To provide an updated assessment of the current
state of knowledge of the impact of global warming on tropical systems, the World
Meteorological Organization's hurricane researchers published a consensus statement.
Their conclusions include (WMO 2006, as found in EPA 2007d):
• "Though there is evidence both for and against the existence of a detectable
anthropogenic signal in the tropical cyclone climate record to date, no firm
conclusion can be made on this point."
• "There is general agreement that no individual events in [2004 and 2005] can be
attributed directly to the recent warming of the global oceans... [but] it is possible
that global warming may have affected the 2004-2005 group of events as a
whole."
Mid-latitude storm tracks are projected to shift toward the poles, with increased intensity
in some areas but reduced frequency (EPA 2007e). Tropical storms and hurricanes are
likely5 to become more intense, produce stronger peak winds, and produce increased
4 See footnote 2 for the IPCC Working Group I's use of the term "likely".
5 See footnote 2 for the IPCC Working Group I's use of the term "likely".
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rainfall over some areas due to warming sea surface temperatures (which can energize
these storms) (IPCC 2007a, as found in EPA 2007e). The relationship between sea
surface temperatures and the frequency of tropical storms is less clear (EPA 2007e).
B. Impacts on Water Resources
The primary impacts of increasing storm intensity on water resources is coastal and
inland flooding, complicated in the case of coastal storms by storm surges. Many of
these impacts will vary regionally and can be
influenced by other factors such as the level of
development in the watershed. Some of the key
water impacts of this flooding are the following:
water quality changes may be observed in
the future as a result of"... water
infrastructure malfunctioning during floods"
(Kundzewicz et al. 2007, p. 189); and
flood magnitudes and frequencies will very
likely increase in most regions—mainly a
result of increased precipitation intensity
and variability—and increasing
Figure 4: Coastal flooding.
temperatures are expected to intensify the climate's hydrologic cycle and melt
snowpacks more rapidly (IPCC 2007b, as found in EPA 2007h).
In addition to flooding, increased storm frequency and/or intensity may result in the
following:
• adverse effects in surface and ground water quality and contamination of water
supply (IPCC 2007b, Working Group II Summary for Policymakers, p. 18);
• water quality changes may be observed in the future as a result of "overloading
the capacity of water and wastewater treatment plants during extreme rainfall"
(Kundzewicz et al. 2007, p. 189);
• "[w]ater-borne diseases will rise with increases in extreme rainfall" (Kundzewicz
etal. 2007, p. 189); and
• "[a]ll studies on soil erosion have suggested that increased rainfall amounts and
intensities will lead to greater rates of erosion unless protection measures are
taken" (Kundzewicz et al. 2007, p. 189).
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C. Impacts on Water Programs
Water resource managers will face significant challenges as storm intensity increases:
• although there is some uncertainty with respect to climate models addressing
storm intensity and frequency, emergency plans for drinking water and
wastewater infrastructure need to recognize the possibility of increased risk of
high flow and high velocity events due to intense storms as well as potential low
flow periods;
• damage from intense storms may
increase the demand for public
infrastructure funding and may
require re-prioritizing of
infrastructure projects;
• floodplains may expand along
major rivers requiring relocation
of some water infrastructure
facilities and coordination with
local planning efforts;
• in urban areas, stormwater
collection and management
Figure 5: Hurricane Rita.
systems may need to be redesigned to increase capacity;
combined storm and sanitary sewer systems may need to be redesigned
because an increase in storm event frequency and intensity can result in more
combined sewer overflows causing increased pollutant and pathogen loading;
greater use of biological monitoring and assessment techniques will help water
resource managers assess system impacts of higher velocities from more
intense storms and other climate change impacts;
the demand for watershed management techniques that mitigate the impacts of
intense storms and build resilience into water management through increased
water retention (e.g., green roofs, smart growth) is likely to increase; and
the management of wetlands for stormwater control purposes and to buffer the
impacts of intense storms will be increasingly important.
Storm Intensity: Effects on Water Programs
(Shaded areas reflect programs most affected by storm intensity)
Drinking Water Standards
Drinking Water Planning
Underground Injection
Control Permits
Source Water Protection
Surface Water
Standards
Clean Water Planning
•harge Permit'
Drinking Water SR
onpomt Pollution
Control
Clean Water SRF
Technology Based
Standards
Water Monitoring
Water Perm
:mergency Manning
Water Restoration/
TMDLs
oastal Zone
oas
Protection
National Estuaries
Program
ined Se\,
now Plan
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5. Sea Level Rise
"Global mean sea level has been rising", according to the IPCC. "From 1961 to 2003,
the average rate of sea level rise was 1.8 ± 0.5 mm [per year]. For the 20th century, the
average rate was 1.7 ± 0.5 mm [per year]. There is high confidence that the rate of sea
level rise has increased between the mid-19th and the mid-20th centuries" (Bindoff et al.
2007, p. 387). Further, "[t]here are uncertainties in the estimates of the contributions to
sea level change but understanding has significantly improved for recent periods
(Bindoff et al. 2007, p. 387)." For example, "... for the period 1993 to 2003, ... the
contributions from thermal expansion (1.6 ± 0.5 mm [per year]) and loss of mass from
glaciers, ice caps and the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets together give 2.8 ± 0.7
mm [per year]" (Bindoff et al. 2007, p. 387).
ii
^ r250
£|_o
U.S. Sea Level Trends
(1900-2003)
Gaiveston. TX
A. Background
The IPCC states that the primary factors driving current sea level rise include the
expansion of ocean water caused by warmer ocean temperatures, melting of mountain
glaciers and small ice caps, and (to a lesser extent) melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet
and the Antarctic Ice Sheet (EPA 2007f).
Other factors may also be responsible for part of the historic rise in sea level, including
the pumping of ground water for human use, wetland drainage, deforestation, and the
melting of polar ice sheets in response to the warming that has occurred since the last
ice age (EPA 2007f). Considering all of these factors, scientists still cannot account for
the last century's sea level rise in its entirety. It is possible that some contributors to sea
level rise have not been documented or
well-quantified (EPA2007f).
According to the IPCC, current model
projections indicate substantial variability in
future sea level rise between different
locations. Some locations could
experience sea level rise higher than the
global average projections, while others
could have a fall in sea level (EPA 2007g).
In the United States, sea level has been
rising 0.08 to 0.12 inches (2.0 to 3.0 mm)
per year along most of the U.S. Atlantic and
Gulf coasts (EPA 2007f). The rate of sea
level rise varies from about 0.36 inches per
year (10 mm per year) along the Louisiana
Coast (due to land sinking), to a drop of a
few inches per decade in parts of Alaska
(because land is rising) (EPA 2007f, and for
Sitka. AK
Year
cities. Source: Proudman Oceanographic
Laboratory's Permanent Service for Mean Sea
Level (PSMSL), as found in EPA 2007f.
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more information see also the NOAA 2001 technical report in the Further Reading
section at the end of this document). (See Figure 6 for sea level trends in selected
cities.)
IPCC forecasts global average sea level rise of between 0.18 and 0.59 m by the end of
the 21st century (2090 to 2099) relative to the years 1980 to 1999 under a range of
scenarios (IPCC 2007a, see Working Group I Summary for Policymakers, p. 13). ). In
five of the six modeling scenarios, "... the average rate of sea level rise during the 21st
century very likely exceeds the 1961-2003 average rate (1.8 ± 0.5 mm yr-1)" (IPCC
2008, p. 37; IPCC 2007a, Working Group I Summary for Policymakers, p. 13). Note
that these estimates assume that ice flow from Greenland and Antarctica will continue
at the same rates as observed from 1993-2003. The IPCC cautions that these rates
could increase or decrease in the future. For example, if ice flow were to increase
linearly, in step with global average temperature, the upper range of projected sea level
rise by the year 2100 would be 19.2 to 31.6 inches (48-79 cm or 0.48-0.79 m). But
current understanding of ice sheet dynamics is too limited to estimate such changes or
to provide an upper limit to the amount by which sea level is likely to rise over this
century (IPCC 2007a, see Working Group I Summary for Policymakers, pp. 13-14; as
found in EPA 2007g).
B. Impacts on Water Resources
The primary impact of sea level rise on water resources is the gradual inundation of
natural systems and human infrastructure in coastal and estuarine areas. Inundation
impacts include:
• wetland displacement (Burkett et al. 2001, p. 348);
• accelerated coastal erosion (Burkett et al. 2001, p. 345);
• water quality modifications may also be observed in the future as a result of
storm water drainage operation and sewage disposal disturbances in coastal
areas due to sea-level rise (Kundzewicz et al. 2007, p. 189);
• "... low-lying coastal areas such as deltas, coastal plains, and atoll islands are
regarded as particularly vulnerable to small shifts in sea level" (Burkett et al.
2001, p. 348). "Coastal areas also include complex ecosystems such as coral
reefs, mangrove forests, and salt marshes. In such environments, the impact of
accelerated sea-level rise will depend on vertical accretion rates and space for
horizontal migration, which may be limited by the presence of infrastructure"
(Burkett et al. 2001, p. 345); and
• sea level rise increases the vulnerability of coastal areas to flooding during
storms (EPA 2007I).
Impacts of sea level rise other than inundation include:
• rising sea level increases the salinity of both surface water and ground water
through salt water intrusion (EPA 2007I);
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• if sea level rise pushes salty water upstream, then the existing water intakes
might draw on salty water during dry periods (EPA 20071); and
• salinity increases in estuaries can harm aquatic plants and animals that do not
tolerate high salinity (EPA 20071).
C. Impacts on Water Programs
Sea level rise will affect a range of water programs and pose significant challenges for
water program managers.
• emergency plans for drinking water and wastewater infrastructure need to
recognize long-term projections for rising sea levels;
• drinking water systems will need to consider relocating facilities or intakes as sea
levels rise and salt water intrudes into freshwater aquifers used for drinking water
supply;
• sewage treatment plants will need to consider relocation of some treatment
facilities and discharge outfalls; and
• watershed-level planning will need to incorporate an integrated approach to
coastal management in light of sea level rise including land use planning,
building codes, land acquisition and easements, shoreline protection structures
(e.g., seawalls and channels), beach nourishment, wetlands management,
underground injection to control salt water intrusion to fresh water supplies, and
related programs.
Sea Level Rise: Effects on Water Programs
(Shaded areas reflect programs most affected by sea level rise)
Drinking Water Standards
Drinking Water Plannin
Underground Inject
Control Permits
Source Water Protection
Drinking Water SRF
Surface Water
Standards
Clean Water Planning
Technology Based
Standards
Water Monitoring
Discharge Permits
Nonpoint Pollution
Control
Storm Water Permits
Water Restoration/
TMDLs
•ds Permits
Combined Sewer
Overflow Plans
6. Coastal/Ocean Characteristics
The IPCC states that the oceans are warming, ocean biogeochemistry is changing, and
global mean sea level has been rising (Bindoff et al. 2007, p. 387). "The increase in
atmospheric C02 causes additional C02 to dissolve in the ocean.... The increase in
surface ocean C02 has consequences for the chemical equilibrium of the ocean. As
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C02 increases, surface waters become more acidic ...; [h]owever, the response of
marine organisms to ocean acidification is poorly known and could cause further
changes in the marine carbon cycle with consequences that are difficult to estimate"
(Bindoff et al. 2007, p. 403).
A. Background
According to the IPCC, "[t]he total inorganic carbon content of the oceans has increased
by 118 ± 19 GtC between the end of the pre-industrial period (about 1750) and 1994
and continues to increase (Bindoff et al. 2007, p. 387). "Ocean C02 uptake has lowered
the average ocean pH (increased acidity) by approximately 0.1 since 1750. Ocean
acidification will continue and is directly and inescapably coupled to the uptake of
anthropogenic C02 by the ocean" (Denman et al. 2007, p. 533). "It is important to note
that ocean acidification is not a direct consequence of climate change but a
consequence of fossil fuel C02 emissions, which are the main driver of the anticipated
climate change" (Denman et al. 2007, p. 529).
"As C02 increases, surface waters become more acidic and the concentration of
carbonate ions decreases" (Bindoff et al. 2007, 403). "The availability of carbonate is
particularly important because it controls the maximum amount of C02 that the ocean is
able to absorb. Marine organisms use carbonate to produce shells of calcite and
aragonite (both consisting of calcium carbonate (CaCOs)" (Bindoff et al. 2007, p. 406).
"... [0]cean acidification is leading to a decrease in the saturation of CaCOs in the
ocean. Two primary effects are expected: (1) the biological production of corals as well
as calcifying photoplankton and zooplankton within the water column may be inhibited
or slowed down ..., and (2) the dissolution of CaC03 at the ocean floor will be
enhanced. Aragonite, the meta-stable form of CaCOs produced by corals and
pteropods (planktonic snails ...), will be particularly susceptible to a pH reduction....
According to a model experiment..., bio-calcification [a process in which organisms use
CaC03 to create their shells] will
be reduced by 2100, in particular
within the Southern Ocean ...,
and by 2050 for aragonite-
producing organisms.... "
(Denman et al. 2007, p. 529).
"The overall reaction of marine
biological carbon cycling
(including processes such as
nutrient cycling as well as
ecosystem changes including the
role of bacteria and viruses) to a
warm and high-C02 world is not
yet well understood. Several
Figure 7: Ocean coral reef.
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small feedback mechanisms may add up to a significant one. The response of marine
biota to ocean acidification is not yet clear, both for the physiology of individual
organisms and for ecosystem functioning as a whole. Potential impacts are expected
especially for organisms that build CaCOs shell material.... Extinction thresholds will
likely be crossed for some organisms in some regions in the coming century" (Denman
et al. 2007, p. 533).
In addition to ocean acidification, rising sea level increases the salinity of waters, and
salinity increases in estuaries can harm aquatic plants and animals that do not tolerate
high salinity (EPA 20071). Sea grasses are strongly affected by salinity and temperature
and these grasses provide important ecological services (Orth; p. 987).
B. Impacts on Water Resources
Changes in ocean characteristics are expected to have several impacts on coastal and
ocean resources including:
• "... the biological production of corals, as well as calcifying photoplankton and
zooplankton within the water column, may be inhibited or slowed down" as a
result of ocean acidification (Denman et al. 2007, p. 529);
• "[e]cological changes due to expected ocean acidification may be severe for
corals in tropical and cold waters ... and for pelagic [or oceanic] ecosystems"
(Denman et al. 2007, p. 529);
• "[acidification can influence the marine food web at higher trophic levels"
(Denman et al. 2007, p. 529); and
• salinity increases in estuaries can harm aquatic plants and animals that do not
tolerate high salinity (EPA 20071).
C. Impacts on Water Programs
Changes in ocean characteristics pose several challenges for water program managers
including:
• watershed level protection programs, may need to be revised to account for
changes in natural systems as salinity and pH levels change;
• programs to protect coral reefs, including temperate and cold water corals, from
land-based pollution and impacts may need to be reassessed to provide
enhanced protection; and
• wetlands programs may need to be adjusted to account for changing salinity
levels and impacts on wetlands health.
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Changing Ocean Characteristics: Effects on Water Programs
(Shaded areas reflect programs most affected by changing ocean characteristics)
Drinking Water Standards
Drinking Water Planning
Underground Injection
Control Permits
Source Water Protection
Drinking Water SRF
Surface Water
Standards
Technology Based
Standards
Clean Water Planning
Discharge Permits
Nonpoint Pollution
Control
Clean Water SRF
Emergency Planning
Water Restoration/
TMDLs
Wetlands Permits
ational Estuaries
rogram
Combined Sewer
Overflow Plans
7. Changes in Energy Generation
Likely responses to climate change include development of alternative methods of
energy production that reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and "sequester" carbon
generated by energy production. Alternative methods of energy generation can have
impacts on water resources, as can the sequestering of carbon from conventional
energy generation processes.
A. Background
The IPCC lists biofuels and early applications of carbon capture and storage (CCS, e.g.,
storage of removed C02 from natural gas) as key mitigation technologies and practices
currently available (IPCC 2007c, Working Group III Summary for Policymakers, p. 10).
"Biomass energy is primarily used for industrial process heating, with substantially
increasing use for transportation fuels and additional use for electricity generation" (U.S.
CCSP 2007, p. 64). "Liquid fuel production from biomass is highly visible as a key
renewable alternative to imported oil. Current U.S. production is based largely on corn
for ethanol and, to a lesser extent, soybeans for biodiesel" (U.S. CCSP 2007, p. 69).
"Sustainable biomass production and use imply the resolution of issues relating to
competition for land and food, water resources, biodiversity and socio-economic impact"
(Barker etal. 2007, p. 621).
"CCS in underground geological formations is a new technology with the potential to
make an important contribution to mitigation by 2030. Technical, economic and
regulatory developments will affect the actual contribution" (IPCC 2007c, Working
Group III Summary for Policymakers, p. 13). Other types of carbon sequestration
include injection of carbon into the deep ocean, as well as storage in biological forms
(e.g., forests).
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B. Impacts on Water Resources
Regarding the geologic storage of carbon, according to the IPCC, "Groundwater can be
affected both by C02 leaking directly into an aquifer and by brines that enter the aquifer
as a result of being displaced by C02 during the injection process" (IPCC 2005, p. 31).
More information on underground injection of C02 is provided in section IE.
Another"... potential C02 storage option is to inject captured C02 directly into the deep
ocean (at depths greater than 1,000 m), where most of it would be isolated from the
atmosphere for centuries. This can be achieved by transporting C02 via pipelines or
ships to an ocean storage site, where it is injected into the water column of the ocean or
at the sea floor. The dissolved and dispersed C02 would subsequently become part of
the global carbon cycle.... Ocean storage has not yet been deployed or demonstrated
at a pilot scale, and is still in the research phase" (IPCC 2005, p. 34). IPCC also states
that "[experiments show that adding C02 can harm marine organisms" (IPCC 2005, p.
35) and that "[s]tudies are needed of the response of biological systems in the deep sea
to added C02, including studies that are longer in duration and larger in scale than
those that have been performed until now" (IPCC 2005, p. 45).
At the same time, sequestration of carbon in "biological" forms, (i.e., preserving forests,
no-till agriculture and related land management practices) may have water quality
benefits by encouraging practices that reduce the amount of stormwater runoff and the
pollution levels in the runoff. "Stopping or slowing deforestation and forest degradation
(loss of carbon density) and sustainable forest management may significantly contribute
to avoided emissions, conserve water resources and prevent flooding, reduce run-off,
control erosion, reduce river siltation, and protect fisheries and investments in
hydroelectric power facilities; and at the same time, preserve biodiversity" (Nabuurs et
al. 2007, p. 574).
On the subject of agriculture, according to the IPCC, "[a] mix of horticulture with optimal
crop rotations would promote carbon sequestration and could also improve agro-
ecosystem function" (Smith et al. 2007, p. 521). Minimal tillage (reduced tillage) or
without tillage (no-till)"... practices, which result in the maintenance of crop residues on
the soil surface, thus avoiding water losses by evaporation, are now being used
increasingly throughout the world. Since soil disturbance tends to stimulate soil carbon
losses through enhanced decomposition and erosion, reduced- or no-till agriculture
often results in soil carbon gain, though not always. Adopting reduced- or no-till may
also affect emissions of ISbO, but the net effects are inconsistent and not well quantified
globally ... Furthermore, no-tillage systems can reduce carbon dioxide emissions from
energy use. Systems that retain crop residues also tend to increase soil carbon
because these residues are the precursors for soil organic matter, the main store of
carbon in soil" (IPCC 2008, p. 164).
However, "[w]hile the environmental benefits of tillage/residue management are clear,
other impacts are less certain. Land restoration will have positive environmental
impacts, but conversion of floodplains and wetlands to agriculture could hamper
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ecological function (reduced water recharge, bioremediation, nutrient cycling, etc.) and
therefore, could have an adverse impact on sustainable development goals" (Smith et
al. 2007, p. 522).
The IPCC Technical Paper on Climate Change and Water states that "...[l]arge-scale
biofuel production raises questions on several issues including fertilizer and pesticide
requirements, nutrient cycling, energy balances, biodiversity impacts, hydrology and
erosion, conflicts with food production, and the level of financial subsidies required. The
energy production and [greenhouse gas] mitigation potentials of dedicated energy crops
depends on availability of land, which must also meet demands for food as well as for
nature protection, sustainable management of soils and water reserves, and other
sustainability criteria" (IPCC 2008, p. 157). "Implementing important mitigation options
like afforestation, hydropower and biofuels may have positive and negative impacts on
freshwater resources, depending on site-specific situations. Therefore, site-specific
joint evaluation and optimisation of (effectiveness of) mitigation measures and water-
related impacts are needed" (IPCC 2008, p. 173).
C. Impacts on Water Programs
Changing energy generation methods poses several challenges for water program
managers including:
increased water use and withdrawals will require expanded efforts to assure
water supply availability;
increased attention to potential nonpoint pollution impacts of expanded
agricultural production may be needed;
need for increased attention to discharge permit conditions to address increased
temperature and concentration of pollutants due to low flows;
increased interest in more efficient use of electrical energy at water facilities and
production of power from methane at some wastewater treatment facilities;
need for new capability to assess effects of ocean sequestration activities; and
effective market-based practices that have water quality benefits could be a
source of revenue for these practices.
Energy Generation Shifts: Effects on Water Programs
(Shaded areas reflect programs most affected by energy generation shifts)
Drinking Water Standards
Drinking Water Plannim
Surface Water
Standards
Technology Based
Stand'
Clean Water Planning
Discharge Permits
Underground Injection
Control Permits
Source Water Protection Nonpoint Pollution
Water Monitoring
Storm Water Permits
Coastal Zone
Drinking Water SRF
Clean Water SRF
>cean Protection
Emergency Planning
Water Restoration/
TMDLs
Wetlands Permits
National Estuaries
Program
Combined Sewer
Overflow Plans
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National Water Program: Climate Change Response Actions
Climate change will result in significant impacts on water resources. Water program
managers need to define goals for responding to climate change and identify key
response actions to be implemented to accomplish these goals over the coming years.
Five major goals for the National Water Program Response to Climate change are:
Goal 1: Water Program Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases: use water programs
to contribute to greenhouse gas mitigation;
Goal 2: Water Program Adaptation to Climate Change: adapt implementation
of core water programs to maintain and improve program effectiveness in the
context of a changing climate;
Goal 3: Climate Change Research Related to Water: strengthen the link
between EPA water programs and climate change research;
Goal 4: Water Program Education on Climate Change: educate water program
professionals and stakeholders on climate change impacts on water resources and
programs; and
Goal 5: Water Program Management of Climate Change: establish the
management capability within the National Water Program to engage climate
change challenges on a sustained basis.
These five major goals are supported by more specific objectives and "Key Actions" to
be implemented by the National Water Program. The Key Actions are highlighted in
text boxes throughout this section. Some Key Actions would expand existing efforts to
better address climate change while others are new actions specifically focused on
climate change issues. All the actions in this Strategy are to be initiated within the next
two years (i.e., FY 2008 or 2009). Appendix 2 includes a summary of Key Actions and
supporting information, including the water program office responsible for implementing
the action.
The Key Actions described throughout this document were selected with several
general principles in mind.
1. Define Areas of Uncertainty: Key Actions included in this document draw on the
best available science and every effort has been made to understand uncertainty
related to the action and to defer actions not supported by sound science. Given the
uncertainty associated with some climate change impacts on water resources, it will
be important for water programs to be able to clearly measure water-related climate
impacts, to adapt program management based on new information, and to conduct
research needed to address issues.
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2. Evaluate Proactive and Reactive Actions: Some actions seek to proactively avoid
the consequences of climate change (e.g., protecting wetlands) while others react to
these consequences (e.g., protecting infrastructure facilities against flooding). Given
uncertainty, proactive policies can result in needless costs while reactive policies
can be much more expensive than avoiding the problem in the first place. Careful
balancing of these concerns is needed.
3. Guard Against Unintended Consequences: Actions to address climate change
can have unintended consequences that need to be understood (e.g., hardening of
sea defenses around a water infrastructure facility can shift rising sea levels to
inundate wetlands or other infrastructure) and should be weighed in implementation
plans.
1. Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Related to Water
Goal 1: Water Program Mitigation of
Greenhouse Gases: use water
programs to contribute to greenhouse
gas mitigation.
The largest sources of emissions and
of potential reductions of greenhouse
gases are from the electricity
generation, transportation and industry
sectors. However, reductions of
greenhouse gases associated with
water programs can play a role in America's efforts to reduce greenhouse gases, and
such reductions would contribute to meeting the President's goal of an 18% reduction in
greenhouse gas intensity by 2012.
Many of the actions that can help reduce greenhouse gas releases also help conserve
scarce water supplies and help improve water quality. Water conservation is a win-win-
win situation—in many cases a single program investment will have greenhouse gas,
water supply, and water quality benefits, and will lead to economic savings and greater
sustainability of water infrastructure.
A range of Key Actions related to water programs that lead to mitigation of greenhouse
gases are described in the following sections:
• water-related energy conservation/production;
• water conservation;
• "green building" design and "smart growth;" and
• direct greenhouse gas emissions mitigation from agriculture.
In addition, EPA recognizes that water pollution control processes can be energy
intensive and, where authorized by statute, will consider the energy and potential
climate change implications of clean water and drinking water regulations.
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If creation of greenhouse gases cannot be avoided, these gases can be "sequestered"
so that they are not released to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide sequestration refers to
the process of capturing carbon dioxide to prevent release to the atmosphere.
Sequestration activities related to water programs include:
• geologic sequestration of carbon through underground injection; and
• "biological" carbon sequestration through forestry and agricultural practices,
many of which benefit water resources.
A. Water- Related Energy Conservation/Production
OBJECTIVE: promote water-related
energy conservation.
Drinking water and wastewater facilities,
both public and private, spend billions of
dollars a year on energy to collect, treat,
and deliver clean water - with much of this cost borne by ratepayers. Pumping water,
including pumping and conveyance of wastewater to treatment plants, and distribution
of treated water to customers, are generally the most energy intensive components of
water and wastewater systems. Energy is also required to treat wastewater and to treat
water to drinking water standards, and for collection and distribution. Nationwide,
drinking water and wastewater utilities use 75 billion kilowatt hours (Reardon 1994)—
resulting in the emissions of approximately 116 billion pounds of C02—per year.
Energy use by drinking water and wastewater facilities accounts for approximately three
percent of the United States' energy consumption (Reardon 1994). Drinking water and
wastewater treatment facilities have the potential to achieve 15-30 percent energy
savings (GEE 2007, p.1) by implementing energy conservation measures alone, and
even more with on-site energy generation. Drinking water and wastewater treatment
facilities have the capacity to generate and use energy from low-head hydroelectric,
solar and/or wind power, while wastewater treatment facilities also have the capacity to
generate energy from capture and use of methane.
Pumping is typically the major use of energy in the treatment stage, although the
amount of energy used by drinking water facilities is also affected by the quality of the
source water. Most energy consumed by wastewater facilities is for aeration, pumping,
and solids processing. Energy requirements for biosolids processing vary according to
the method used. Pump and blower motors can account for more than 80 percent of a
wastewater utility's energy use (EPA 2006). Although lagoons use little energy, trickling
filters used in attached growth processes and aeration in activated sludge systems
require large amounts of energy. Advanced treatment also requires a great deal of
energy, particularly denitrification and membrane filtration processes. The energy
required for the handling, transport, and beneficial use of treated residuals increases as
the distance from the treatment site to the disposal/application sites increases.
Energy consumption by drinking water and wastewater treatment facilities is likely to
continue increasing. New or revised drinking water treatment requirements could also
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heighten energy consumption. Further, reduced supplies and increased demand will
require pumping water greater distances. Climate change will lead to higher
temperatures that will likely result in buildings and unit processes needing more cooling.
Changes in rain patterns in some areas may increase CSO and SSO events while in
other areas declining in-stream flows will cause reduced assimilative capacity for
wastewater effluent, both of which may require greater treatment for sediments,
pathogens, and nutrients.
To improve water and wastewater energy efficiency, EPA's ENERGY STAR program
has developed a Focus in the water and wastewater industries. An ENERGY STAR
Focus is a targeted effort to improve the energy efficiency within a specific industry or
combination of industries. A Focus creates momentum for continuous improvement in
energy performance, provides the industry's managers with the tools they need to
achieve greater success in their energy management programs, and creates a
supportive environment where energy efficiency ideas and opportunities are shared.
The National Water Program will continue working with the ENERGY STAR program to
promote energy efficiency in this sector.
Several provisions of the Clean Water Act speak directly or indirectly to the question of
energy efficiency in wastewater treatment. For example:
• section 313(b) of the Act encourages demonstration of innovative processes and
techniques for more efficient use of energy at Federal wastewater treatment
facilities;
• section 304(d)(3) of the Act encourages development of innovative processes
and techniques for publicly owned (wastewater) treatment works (POTWs),
including those processes described under section 201(g)(5), that take into
account the more efficient use of energy (e.g., variable frequency drive motors
reduce energy use of pumps by up to 50 percent); and
• under sections 304(b)(1 )(B), 306, and 307 of the Clean Water Act, the National
Water Program develops effluent limitations guidelines (ELGs) for industrial (non-
POTW) facilities and the use of energy in these processes is one consideration in
the development of the guidelines.
Significant progress is being made in the development of new tools for benchmarking
energy performance among public water and wastewater utilities. For example, the
ENERGY STAR program is expanding the capability of its Energy Performance Rating
System (EPRS) to enable drinking water and wastewater utilities to assess their energy
use over time and compare it to other utilities—normalized for weather and facility
characteristics. As of October 2007, wastewater treatment plant energy performance
can be rated using the ENERGY STAR program's on-line tool, Portfolio Manager.
Portfolio Manager can be used to establish baseline energy use, prioritize investments,
set goals, and track energy use and carbon emissions reductions over time. The ability
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to rate the energy performance of drinking water treatment and distribution facilities is
still under development.
A related effort is the development of audit and tracking systems. For example, a
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system monitors the operation of
water-system control points such as pumps, reservoirs, and metering stations, and
keeps track of energy usage. Other types of databases, such as the Washington D.C.
Blue Plains wastewater treatment facility's Energy Information System, keep track of
energy use and cost, broken down by the facility's processes.
In addition to saving energy, public and private drinking water and wastewater facilities
can produce energy to offset what they would otherwise need to buy from local power
utilities. The National Water Program could also work with the Office of Air and
Radiation to promote these practices. Many facilities have already installed alternative
energy power production facilities, including solar, wind, and hydro, for heating and
electricity generation. For example, Calera Creek Water Recycling Plant in Pacifica, CA
is using solar panels that provide 10-15 percent of its energy needs, resulting in an
estimated $100,000 savings annually in energy costs (EPA 2006).
Wastewater facilities can also generate energy from the capture and use of methane.
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems can recover biogas (a mixture of methane,
carbon dioxide, water vapor and other gases) from anaerobic digesters to heat buildings
or to generate electricity. For example, San Francisco's East Bay Municipal Utility
District (EBMUD) captures and uses biogas to generate enough energy to cover 90
percent of energy needed at its main wastewater facility. If all 544 large sewage
treatment plants in the U.S. operating anaerobic digesters were to install combined heat
and power, about 340 megawatts of clean energy could be generated, offsetting 2.3
million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually (i.e., equivalent to planting
about 640,000 acres of forest, or the emissions of about 430,000 cars) (EPA 2007n).
This power is also marketable as "green power" to power utilities that are now required
by State laws to have alternative or "green" power as a part of their overall production.
Additional energy savings can be achieved by installing adequate insulation in buildings
and replacing conventional lighting with energy-efficient options.
KEY ACTION #1: Improve Energy Efficiency at Water and Wastewater Utilities.
The National Water Program will continue to work with the Office of Air and Radiation
to promote energy performance benchmarking programs, use of energy audits and
energy tracking systems, use of alternative energy sources within plants (e.g., solar,
wind, hydro), installation of Combined Heat and Power systems for heat and energy
generation in facilities that use anaerobic digesters, and will provide State and local
governments information on available and emerging treatment technology.
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B. Water Conservation
OBJECTIVE: promote water
conservation to reduce energy use.
Water quantity and water quality are inextricably linked. Impacts on water resources
due to climate change will make this connection more visible. For example, discharge
of treated effluent assumes adequate flow for dilution and low flows require higher
treatment to avoid impairments; shortages of precipitation and reduced snow melt result
in increased competition between human uses and aquatic uses of in-stream flows; and
shortages of surface water drive increases in groundwater pumping, which in turn affect
recharge.
Water conservation through water use efficiency will be important not just to extend
water supply, but also to reduce greenhouse gases. Reduced water consumption
saves energy because less water is needed to be pumped and treated. On the other
side of the water/energy equation, when energy use is reduced, water is saved because
less is needed to operate power plants. About half of the water gathered in the United
States from surface and groundwater sources is used for power plant cooling (although
most is returned) compared to 34 percent for irrigation and 11 percent for residential
and commercial purposes (USGS 2004, pp. 6-7). On average, each kilowatt generated
consumes approximately 0.2 to 0.3 gallons of water (EPA 2007o), which is based on
cooling water consumption and annual electricity generation estimates from the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI 2002, p. 6-3) and the Energy Information
Administration (EIA2004), respectively.
There are many opportunities for energy savings on the supply side, realized through
better planning, maintenance, and operation of water delivery systems, as well as
through the development of new technologies and processes. What is often overlooked
is how demand-side management or conservation programs can effectively increase
water and energy savings. For example, California's State Water Plan (California
Department of Water Resources 2005) concluded in 2005 that the largest single new
water supply available to meet their expected growth over the next 25 years will be
water-use efficiency—made more critical in light of projected water shortages due to
climate-related decreases in snow pack.
Residential and business customers use more energy to heat, cool, and otherwise use
water than utilities spend treating and distributing it. For example, running a hot water
faucet for five minutes is equivalent to running a 60-watt light bulb for 14 hours
(Grumbles 2007 and EPA 2007o). By conserving water, less energy is used for these
purposes.
For residential consumers, the opportunity to save both water and energy comes
primarily from using water-efficient fixtures and appliances, including toilets,
showerheads, faucets, clothes washers, dishwashers, and irrigation equipment. For
example, an estimated 60 billion gallons and $650 million in energy costs (Grumbles
2007 and EPA 2007o) could be saved if every household also installed high-efficiency
faucets or faucet aerators.
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To promote water-efficiency and protect the future of our Nation's water supply, EPA
launched the WaterSense program last year. The WaterSense label will help
consumers and businesses identify products that meet the program's water-efficiency
and performance criteria. The WaterSense program sets specifications for the labeling
of products that are at least 20 percent more efficient than the current standards while
performing as well or better than their less-efficient counterparts. Once a
manufacturer's product is certified to meet EPA's WaterSense specification by an
independent third party, they can use the label on their product. The WaterSense
product specifications do not currently address energy consumption directly. However,
all water savings realized through the use of WaterSense labeled products and services
have a corresponding reduction in energy consumption. Both commercial and
residential products and services will be addressed by WaterSense labeling efforts.
KEY ACTION #2: Implement the WaterSense Program. EPA will continue its
current efforts to implement the WaterSense program and will incorporate
educational information about related reductions in energy use.
As noted above, water conservation offers climate change mitigation opportunities
through energy savings and in addition may serve adaptive needs that arise as a result
of changes in water availability and/or overall demand. Adaptation is supported
particularly when water conservation is carried out in a broader context of water
resources management, including strategies to ensure availability of public water
supplies (e.g. consideration of alternative sources of water).
KEY ACTION #3: Water Conservation and Management for Drinking Water
Systems. The National Water Program will explore opportunities with States and
drinking water systems to better address expected impacts of climate change on
water supply and water usage rates through water conservation and water resources
management.
A major opportunity for water conservation is the repair of leaking distribution systems.
Such leaks commonly result in the loss of ten percent of a city's water. Significant
amounts of water can be saved by timely investments in leak correction and more active
implementation of leak detection technologies. In addition, infiltration and inflow in
wastewater collection systems can significantly increase the volume of wastewater
required to be treated resulting in increased energy and chemical demand.
KEY ACTION #4: Water Conveyance Leak Detection and Remediation. The
National Water Program will promote technologies to identify and address leakage
from water pipes and other conveyances.
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Industry is also a significant user of water and is becoming aware of the importance of
measuring, managing, and controlling water use. In particular, energy-intensive
industries are finding water scarcity to be a limit to growth. In general, there is an
economic incentive for facilities to use as little water as possible in their industrial
operations. Reducing water use will also reduce costs (and energy requirements)
associated with water use. In addition to increasing its water efficiency, industry has
substantially increased its application of water re-use in the past 15 years through the
practice of potable substitution, where reclaimed industrial wastewater is used for non-
potable applications. The cost savings of implementing water re-use and reduction
technologies and pollution prevention practices can be significant. The monetary
savings of implementing water conservation and efficiency measures can be significant
with payback periods that may be as short as a few months or years.
KEY ACTION #5: Industrial Water Conservation, Reuse, and Recycling
Technology Transfer. The National Water Program will identify industries and
facilities that best maximize their water efficiency and develop a technical guide for
control authorities and industry for promoting water minimization, re-use, and
recycling.
In addition, technology to recycle and reuse municipal wastewater is being used by
communities in water scarce areas. As in the case of industrial water use, reuse of
municipal wastewater reduces energy use and costs and thus reduces greenhouse
gases. It also can benefit aquatic ecosystems by recycling water to beneficial uses
within a community and reducing demand for water from other locations. EPA
published guidelines for water reuse in 2004 (see Guidelines for Water Reuse; EPA,
2004).
Finally, Executive Order 13423, Section 2 (c), requires that beginning in 2008, Federal
agencies reduce water consumption intensity, relative to the baseline of the agency's
water consumption in fiscal year 2007, through life-cycle cost-effective measures, by 2
percent annually through the end of fiscal year 2015, or 16 percent by the end of fiscal
year 2015. The Office of Water is responsible for developing Water Efficiency
Implementation Guidance for all agencies covering the three elements of compliance:
baseline development, efficiency opportunity identification/implementation, and
reporting. Federal agencies are also encouraged to include WaterSense products and
services in their implementation strategies.
KEY ACTION #6: Federal Agency Water Conservation Guidance. The National
Water Program will develop Water Efficiency Implementation Guidance for all Federal
agencies under Executive Order 13423.
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C. Promote "Green Building" Design and "Smart Growth"
OBJECTIVE: promote "green
buildings" and "smart growth" to
reduce energy and water needs.
Increasing the water and energy efficiency of
water utilities has value from a greenhouse
gas mitigation point of view, but sustaining
these efficiencies over the long-term will
require extending the commitment to water and energy efficiency into the building stock
and the design of communities. By applying "green building" principles and "smart
growth" policies, energy and water efficiencies at utilities can be multiplied. The
National Water Program plays a role in this process because it regulates the storm
water associated with buildings and municipalities.
Several organizations, such as the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership for Energy
and Environmental Design (LEED) program and the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), are working with State and local governments and the private sector in
promoting the "green buildings" concept and rating systems. These rating systems
document the commitment made by a developer to "green" building practices, such as
reduced use of energy and water, on-site (decentralized) energy generation (e.g., solar
power, geothermal), and water retention (e.g., green roofs).
Recent developments are expanding this concept to integrate "smart growth," "low
impact design," and green building practices. For example, the new LEED for
Neighborhood Development (LEED-ND) pilot Rating System reaches beyond the
building envelope to include site selection and design, infrastructure linkages (e.g.,
mass transit), and credits for onsite stormwater management practices such as green
roofs, rain gardens, and vegetated swales. The National Water Program is working with
other offices in EPA to promote low impact development and smart growth concepts.
The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program
generally requires stormwater discharge permits for industrial facilities, construction
sites, and municipalities. These permits are a key regulatory tool for managing
stormwater. As "green building" standards and "green infrastructure" practices gain
wider acceptance, there will be a growing demand for recognition of these standards
and practices within stormwater permits. In some cases, this may require greater
flexibility in permitting to allow the use of such standards and practices. Recognition of
"green building" standards and "green infrastructure" practices as an allowable element
of stormwater permits would encourage their adoption.
KEY ACTION #7: Promote Energy Saving/Generating "Green Buildings" and
"Green Infrastructure" Including Provisions Allowing Such Practices in
Stormwater Permits: The National Water Program will work with other EPA offices
to support States, Tribes, and local governments and the private sector in promoting
the "green buildings" rating systems, with a focus on saving water and energy and
will work to integrate provisions allowing "green infrastructure" practices into
stormwater permits.
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D. Promote Water Quality/Climate-Friendly Agricultural Practices
OBJECTIVE: reduce greenhouse
gas emissions from agricultural
sources.
Climate change can potentially be mitigated
not only by the energy and water conservation
efforts described above that reduce carbon
emissions from fossil-fuel based energy
production, but also through reductions in direct greenhouse gas releases, such as
methane and nitrous oxide releases associated with agriculture and wastewater
treatment.
Agriculture accounts for more than 8 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions, more
than 30 percent of methane releases and 80 percent of nitrous oxide releases.
Agricultural producers have the potential to reduce nitrous oxide releases by expanding
use of manure, biosolids or other organic residuals. The impacts of such practices with
regard to climate change are of interest because soil management and fertilizer use are
the source of 79 percent of releases of nitrous oxide, which is 300 times more heat
trapping than C02. Agricultural animal producers have the potential to reduce methane
releases from livestock and its manure by considering feed alternatives and utilizing
methane capture for combined heat and power production (EPA 2007m).
The National Water Program supports the U.S. Department of Agriculture in promoting
sound agricultural management practices and works with the EPA Office of Air and
Radiation to promote agricultural practices that benefit air quality and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. In this supporting role, the National Water Program will:
• identify and promote through nonpoint pollution control programs, agricultural
management practices that have both water quality and greenhouse gas
reducing benefits (e.g., no till agriculture);
• encourage the use of organic residuals in row-crop and animal agriculture
operations; and
• support programs, such as the AgStar program, that encourage the development
of animal waste management practices that both protect water quality and
reduce releases of methane while generating electric power.
E.
Carbon Sequestration through Underground Injection
Geologic sequestration is one
technology in a portfolio of options that
could be effective in reducing C02
emissions to the atmosphere and
stabilizing atmospheric concentrations
of C02.
OBJECTIVE: assure that commercial
scale geologic sequestration of carbon
safeguards drinking water and the
ocean environment.
Available evidence suggests that geologic storage capacity in the United States could
be as high as 3,500 gigatons (Gts or a billion metric tons) of C02 in some 230 candidate
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sites. The 1,715 largest sources of C02 in the United States release about 2.9 GtC02
per year (Dooley et al. 2006, and for more information see also DOE's 2007 Carbon
Sequestration Atlas of the United States and Canada in the Further Reading section at
the end of this document).
The Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program under the Safe Drinking Water Act
regulates injection of fluids, including solids, semi-solids, liquids, and gases such as
C02, to protect underground sources of drinking water. UIC regulations address the
siting, construction, operation, and closure of wells that inject a wide variety of fluids,
including those that are considered commodities or wastes. Proper operation of
injection wells for sequestration projects is required under the Safe Drinking Water Act
to safeguard underground sources of drinking water and protect public health.
Injection of fluids, including C02, into the subsurface for enhanced oil recovery and
enhanced gas recovery is a long-standing practice within the UIC program. However,
there are some key differences anticipated for geologic sequestration. For example
the relative buoyancy of C02, its corrosivity in the presence of water, the potential
presence of impurities in captured C02, its mobility within subsurface formations, and
large injection volumes anticipated at full scale deployment warrant specific
requirements tailored to this new practice.
The Department of Energy's (DOE) National Energy Technology Lab and DOE's
Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships are conducting research on geological
sequestration of C02to provide information about the capabilities, impacts, and best
practices related to geologic sequestration (GS). On October 9, 2007, DOE announced
awards for three demonstration projects that will test large-scale geologic sequestration
of C02 (http://www.doe.gov/news/5597.htm).
EPA's Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water and Office of Atmospheric Programs
issued UIC Program guidance in March 2007 (Using Class VExperimental Technology
Well Classification for Pilot Geologic Sequestration Projects - UIC Program Guidance
(UICPG # 83)) to assist States and EPA Regional UIC program managers in evaluating
permit applications for GS pilot projects and setting appropriate permit conditions for
these projects to protect underground sources of drinking water and public health. (See
EPA 2007 in the Further Reading section at the end of this document.)
EPA is also preparing to assist States and Regions in addressing permitting of
commercial scale GS projects, which are important in addressing climate change. EPA
will use an adaptive management approach, which includes establishing minimum
federal requirements for States to protect underground sources of drinking water,
providing technical assistance to States, Tribes, and Regions, and coordinating with a
range of other Federal agencies. Through workshops and other outreach, stakeholders
and the public will have an opportunity to participate in this process. EPA proposed
revisions to the UIC Program regulations authorized under the Safe Drinking Water Act
in the summer of 2008 and will work with stakeholders to consider comments on these
proposed rules.
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KEY ACTION #8: Develop Geologic Sequestration Regulations. In 2008, EPA
will work with stakeholders to consider comments on regulations, proposed in July
2008, for siting and managing geologic sequestration (GS) projects to prevent
endangerment of underground sources of drinking water.
EPA has held several technical workshops to better define research gaps and needs
addressing topics including:
• potential impacts on ground water and underground sources of drinking water;
• potential impacts on human health and the environment;
• integrity of C02 injection wells and other wells in the area of review;
• fluid displacement and pressure impacts;
• potential for large-scale C02 releases;
• measurement, monitoring, and verification tools related to sequestration of CC^
• potential impacts of C02 injection on geologic media (reservoir and seals); and
• geochemical and geomechanical effects.
EPA has held public hearings on the proposed regulations to share information about
protecting underground sources of drinking water during geologic sequestration
activities. EPA strongly encourages gathering and sharing of data through the
permitting process for pilot projects and other efforts.
KEY ACTION #9: Continue Technical Sequestration Workshops. The National
Water Program will continue to coordinate with EPA's Office of Research and
Development, the Department of Energy, and National Laboratories on geologic
sequestration research and hold public meetings and workshops with experts and
stakeholders.
Finally, carbon can be sequestered in geologic formations under the seabed as well as
on land. The 1996 Protocol to the London Convention on ocean dumping ("London
Protocol") regulates sub-seabed sequestration of carbon dioxide streams from carbon
dioxide capture processes for sequestration. Parties to the London Convention and
London Protocol are developing guidance for sub-seabed carbon sequestration. The
Office of Water and the Office of Air and Radiation are participating in this effort.
The United States is working toward ratification of the London Protocol, including the
proposal of amendments to the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
(MPRSA), to implement the treaty. One proposed change to the Act would require a
permit for sub-seabed carbon sequestration. In addition, under the Safe Drinking Water
Act, sub-seabed sequestration beneath ocean waters within a State's territorial waters
must comply with any applicable requirements under EPA's Underground Injection
Control program regarding the design, operation, and closure of underground injection
wells.
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KEY ACTION #10: Support Evaluation of Sub-seabed and Ocean Sequestration
of CO2. EPA will work with other interested agencies and the international
community to develop guidance on sub-seabed carbon sequestration and will
address any requests for carbon sequestration in the sub-seabed or "fertilization" of
the ocean, including any permitting under the Marine Protection, Research, and
Sanctuaries Act or the Underground Injection Control program that may be required.
F. Water Related "Biological" Sequestration of Carbon
Carbon can be sequestered in biological
as well as geologic structures. Some of
the practices that result in the "biological
sequestration" of carbon, and estimated
tons of carbon sequestered per year/per
acre of each practice, are described in Figure 8.
potential to sequester carbon.
OBJECTIVE: support "biological
sequestration" of carbon through
agricultural and forestry practices.
In addition, wetlands have the
Biological Sequestration Practices Related to Water
Agriculture/Forest Practice
• Reduce cropland tillage
• Cropland conversion to grassland
• Riparian buffers
• Afforestation
• Reforestation
• Changes in forest management
Estimated Tonnes of C02
Sequestered/Acre/Year
0.6-1.1
0.9-1.9
0.4-1.0
2.2-9.5
1.1 -7.7
2.1 -3.1
Figure 8: Source: Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential in U.S. Forestry and Agriculture (EPA
2005, p. 2-3).
As a result of the world-wide effort to reduce carbon, a market has developed for the
sequestration of carbon, and there is a worldwide price per ton sequestered. Although
the price per ton is now low, this price is expected to increase as the demand for carbon
sequestration rises. EPA has estimated that the biological sequestration resulting from
forest and agriculture practices in the United States could reach close to 100,000 Tg
(teragrams or million tonnes6) by 2095 if prices were to rise to $50 per ton/per acre
(EPA 2005).
A tonne is a metric ton, equal to 1 megagram (Mg); and 1 gigatonne (Gt) equals 1,000 Tg (therefore,
100,OOOTg = 100Gt).
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The National Water Program is now promoting practices to protect water quality and
wetlands and reduce nonpoint pollution that include some of the practices that also
sequester carbon. By continuing to promote these practices, water programs are
contributing to carbon sequestration. Perhaps more important, as the price of a ton of
carbon rises, land owners will change land uses in response to this price signal,
adopting some additional practices with both carbon and water quality benefits.
EPA has estimated that the water quality benefits of carbon sequestration practices may
be significant, depending on the price and the region of the country. Nationally, EPA
estimates that, at a price of $6.80 per tonne of C02 equivalent, nitrogen loadings are
reduced by 3.1% and phosphorous loadings reduced by 2% for a representative year
(i.e., 2020). The overall impact on a 100-point water quality index is an improvement of
about 2%. The biggest benefit would be in corn growing States. In 2020, at higher
prices of $15 per tonne of C02 equivalent, phosphorous reductions may approach a
40% decrease from baseline
conditions, and nitrogen
reductions are slightly more
than 10% below baseline
conditions. These water
quality benefits would be
greater in twenty to thirty years
(see Figure 9). These benefits
would diminish or disappear in
later years (e.g., 2060) as
alternative sequestration
practices are implemented
(EPA 2005). In addition, more
work is needed to understand
how new incentives for
agricultural production related
to biofuels will impact these
practices.
8
6
n
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
2060
Year
Figure 9: Phosphorus loading index over time by (constant)
greenhouse gas price scenario (baseline = 100). This figure shows
that estimated phosphorus loadings decline with the introduction of
greenhouse gas prices ($ per tonne of CO2 equivalent). Source:
EPA 2005.
In recognition of the emerging market in biological methods of sequestering carbon, the
National Water Program needs to learn how to identify which pollution control practices
can also be marketed for their carbon sequestration value and to help realize this value.
In addition, the program intends to support the efforts of the EPA Office of Air and
Radiation and others to develop the documentation and data systems to effectively
verify that the tons of carbon sequestered by these projects is accounted for and
recognized as a contribution to mitigation of greenhouse gases.
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KEY ACTION #11: Pilot Marketing of Nonpoint Source Biological
Sequestration. The National Water Program will support cooperative pilot projects
with selected State section 319 nonpoint pollution control programs to demonstrate
the potential for marketing of nonpoint source biological sequestration to provide
carbon sequestration benefits.
2. Adapting Water Programs to Climate Change
As the climate changes, the National Water Program has an obligation to continue to
ensure that water is safe to drink and that the health of aquatic ecosystems is protected.
To meet this challenge, Federal, State and Tribal managers of clean water and drinking
water programs will need to adapt the implementation of the programs in light of the
changing climate.
Adaptation of water programs to climate
change will be a long and iterative
process. The understanding of the
impacts of climate change on water that
is now emerging from scientific studies,
however, provides a sufficient basis for
defining an initial set of preliminary steps to adapt water programs to climate change.
Goal 2: Water Program Adaptation to
Climate Change: adapt implementation
of core water programs to maintain and
improve program effectiveness in the
context of a changing climate.
Key actions that National Water Program managers will take in response to climate
change are discussed in the following five sections representing core water programs:
• Drinking Water, Water Quality and Effluent Standards;
• Watershed Protection;
• NPDES Permits;
• Water Infrastructure; and
• Wetlands Protection.
The National Water Program is implemented through many individual programs
established under the Clean Water Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, and other laws. Most
of these programs fit within several core program areas (e.g., standards, watershed
protection, NPDES permits, infrastructure protection, and wetlands protection). These
core programs provide the organizing structure for most State and Federal water quality
agencies and provide the organizing structure for the Key Actions in the "adaptation"
goal of this Strategy.
The challenges posed by climate change, however, do not always fit neatly into existing
programs and it is important to think about themes that define the critical elements of an
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effectively adapting core water program in response to climate change. Some of these
climate change crosscutting themes are:
• Develop Data to Adapt to Climate Change: Water managers need baseline
data and information to understand how climate change is altering the
environment and inform long-term planning. Better information concerning the
spatial location of waterbodies and wetlands is needed. In order to improve or
maintain water quality and to protect public health, program managers need to
understand the changes that might affect standards, permits, implementation
strategies, etc. Further, in the event that a baseline ecological condition has
permanently shifted, managers need to be able to identify that point and adapt
program expectations and requirements.
• Develop Analytic Tools: In virtually every water program, the analytic and
decision support tools that water managers rely on to process environmental
data need to be expanded to address the more complex conditions that will arise
from a changing climate.
• Plan for Extreme Water Events: Better data and analytic tools are of little
value unless water managers recognize that climate change will change long-
held assumptions about the norms of water events, including storms, an excess
of water, and a lack of water. Recognition of the increased frequency of extreme
water events is important to water program managers responsible for controlling
nonpoint pollution, protecting wetlands, restoring impaired waters, and protecting
the quality of drinking water. Perhaps most important, local water infrastructure
mangers need to adapt emergency plans to reflect the most extreme water
events.
• Increase Watershed Sustainability and Resilience: Individual water
programs, such as standards, permits, and wetlands protection, need to adjust to
the extremes of climate change. The demands of a changing climate, however,
make it more important than ever that these programs be integrated and well
coordinated on a watershed basis. From this more holistic perspective,
managing stormwater, protecting wetlands, building water infrastructure, and
sustaining drinking water supply all support an overarching goal of making an
aquatic system more sustainable and resilient to the stresses of a changing
climate.
• Recognize Impacts on Children and the Disadvantaged: The impacts of a
changing climate can be more serious for children and the disadvantaged and
these increased risks needs to be considered in developing and implementing
response actions. Children consume more water per pound of body weight than
do adults, thus receiving relatively greater water-borne contaminants, and
exposures through dermal uptake and inhalation of contaminants volatilizing from
water are also greater. Response actions need to address water-borne
infectious disease, asthma exacerbation (e.g. water damage from mold),
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displacement of populations, safety in weather related disasters, and
interruptions of food supply.
• Strengthen Partnerships and Collaboration: A hallmark of water programs is
that Federal, State, Tribal and local government share responsibility for program
implementation. Although many of the Key Actions in this Strategy address
steps that EPA will take, the success of the National Water Program response to
climate change will depend on strengthening partnerships with State, Tribal, and
local governments, the research community, and stakeholders representing
agriculture, industry, and the environmental community..
A. Drinking Water, Water Quality, and Effluent Standards
OBJECTIVE: water standards
continue to protect human health and
the environment as the climate
changes.
Under the Safe Drinking Water Act and
the Clean Water Act, EPA establishes
standards that define when water is safe
to drink and when surface water is clean
enough to support uses such as fishing
and recreation. EPA also sets
standards that must be met by all dischargers in an industry (e.g., paper mills) called
"effluent guidelines." Each of these three types of standards may be affected by climate
change.
Drinking Water Standards
The Safe Drinking Water Act provides for a comprehensive process to assess public
drinking waters for contaminants and to develop drinking water standards for
contaminants posing the greatest risk. The changes to water resources resulting from
climate change, including warmer waters and higher levels of organic materials in water,
suggest that drinking water contaminants may increase as the climate changes. EPA
intends to assess these risks as part of its regular review of drinking water regulations,
giving special attention to the risks of waterborne disease.
There are two key processes to identify and evaluate the potential impact of
contaminants on public water systems. Under the Six Year Review process, the
Agency reviews existing drinking water standards for more than 90 contaminants to
determine whether it is appropriate to revise any of these regulations to maintain or
provide for greater heath protection. Under the Contaminant Candidate List (CCL)
process, EPA identifies new, unregulated contaminants that are known or likely to occur
in public water systems and may need a national drinking water regulation. Because
climate change could impact weather patterns and result in increased rain events, the
runoff from these events could increase the occurrence of regulated and unregulated
contaminants in public drinking water sources and supplies. Under both the Six Year
Review and CCL processes, the Agency evaluates the occurrence of contaminants in
drinking water to determine potential impacts on public health.
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KEY ACTION #12: Address Impacts of Climate Change on Potential
Contamination of Drinking Water Sources. The National Water Program will
evaluate, as part of the contaminant occurrence analyses supporting the EPA 6 year
review of drinking water standards and the contaminant candidate list, the potential
for projected climate change to increase the nature and extent of contaminants in
drinking water supplies and systems.
In addition to recognizing the need to adapt standards established under the Safe
Drinking Water Act to changing climatic conditions, the condition of surface water
providing the supply for drinking water systems may also need attention. To better
understand this potential problem, EPA will assess implications of climate change for
biological contaminants and pathogens in surface waters and evaluate needed
response actions, including revision of criteria recommendations under the Clean Water
Act.
KEY ACTION #13: Assess Need for New or Revised Clean Water Microbial
Criteria and Risks of Waterborne Disease. The National Water Program will
assess the potential for increases in waterborne disease and other water-related
disease vectors as a result of climate change, including recommendations for
appropriate responses (e.g., publish new or revised biological/pathogen criteria for
surface waters).
Water Quality Standards
Climate change is likely to have significant effects on water quality standards for surface
waters in several areas:
• higher/lower flows;
• water temperature;
• modified habitat; and
• salinity changes.
Changes in precipitation are expected to result in higher flows in some regions, lower
flows in other regions, and more variability of flows. Higher flows could increase
available dilution, but could also increase erosion and sedimentation (especially
combined with greater peak velocity). Lower flows could substantially reduce available
dilution, concentrate salts and other pollutants, and indirectly reduce dissolved oxygen
(by increasing temperature and increasing metabolism). As a result, it may become
more difficult to meet current water quality or drinking water standards.
Increases in water temperature can also make some contaminants, such as ammonia
(EPA 1999) and pentachlorophenol (EPA 1986), more toxic for some species and foster
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the growth of microbial pathogens in sources of drinking water. Warmer temperatures
often result in less water which in turn results in increased contaminant concentration
levels. Perhaps most significantly, warmer waters hold lower levels of dissolved
oxygen, the availability of which is critical to the health of aquatic species. Depending
on the severity of such effects, States may need to consider them in their triennial
review of water quality standards.
Changes in climate could change the range and distribution of aquatic species with, for
example, warm water species expanding their habitat range and increasing in number
and cold water species reducing their range and being eliminated in some waters. The
timing and duration of various life stages could also become altered, which may
produce subtle or possibly dramatic shifts in community structure. As a result, the
appropriate target for some water quality standards (particularly numeric and narrative
criteria based on biological assessment) may change. With a changing "natural
reference", water quality standards for temperature and biological expectations may
need to change to reflect these dynamic conditions.
Changes in sea level and fresh water flow could increase saltwater intrusions and affect
the position of the salt front in estuaries and tidal rivers. As a result, there may be
increased pressure to manage freshwater reservoirs to increase flows and attempt to
maintain salinity regimes to protect estuarine productivity and drinking water supplies.
Water quality standards in watersheds experiencing reservoir depletion may need to
reflect these conditions. In the case of saltwater intrusions, biological expectations
again may need to be adjusted.
In response to climate impacts to water quality, it may be necessary to consider the
following actions with respect to water quality standards:
• expanded efforts to meet current standards;
• modifying criteria to protect uses; and
• modifying designated uses.
A designated use and associated criteria should only be removed or replaced when the
first two actions above have been exhausted.
Dischargers and watershed activities may need to change to reflect the increased
degree of difficulty in meeting current standards, where those standards remain the
appropriate targets and where they remain attainable. In these cases, program efforts
will concentrate on ways to better implement actions to meet standards in an altered or
changing climate.
Some standards (i.e., pollutant-specific goals) may need to change to reflect more
sensitive environmental conditions. In these cases, program efforts will concentrate on
providing better recommendations that reflect necessary levels of protection in an
altered or changing climate. For example, expected increases in sediment loads could
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be addressed with development of sediment criteria. Program efforts will also focus on
ways to implement and meet these new recommendations.
Some designated uses and associated criteria may need to be removed and replaced
with alternative uses and criteria where conditions have changed, or are anticipated to
change, to the point that the current water quality standards are not appropriate or are
not attainable. In these cases, program efforts will concentrate on providing the means
to discern these situations and providing options and approaches for developing revised
standards in an altered or changing climate.
Some examples of altered conditions due to climate change that may require a water
quality standards change or replacement may be: a persistent instream water
temperature increase that prevents a cold water fishery from existing in a waterbody
because the cold water species' temperature limits have been exceeded; or a
freshwater coastal wetland, and its freshwater aquatic community, that has been turned
into a saline waterbody due to salt water intrusion via sea level rise.
KEY ACTION #14: Clean Water Criteria for Sedimentation/Velocity. In
anticipation of increased flow and velocity and sediment loadings in some
streams, rivers, and estuaries, the National Water Program will review the
potential for development of criteria for sediment and velocity in streams that
are appropriate to these changing conditions.
In response to these problems, the following tools and procedures will need to be fully
developed and implemented:
• measurement of biological condition and detection of changes;
• models to forecast hydrologic and water quality changes; and
• partnerships with land use managers.
The program will need the ability to measure and detect modifications in biological
conditions as a result of climate change impacts. This may involve more extensive
biological monitoring, development of indices and indicators that are sensitive to climate
change impacts, and methods to link monitoring results with the effects of other
stressors. This biological information base will be crucial to managing adaptation and
deciding when compensation is appropriate (e.g., change activity in the watershed to
maintain biology) and when revised goal setting is appropriate (i.e., to reflect reality).
An example of this work is the development of guidance on coral reef bioassessments
and biological criteria as part of EPA's participation in the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force.
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KEY ACTION #15: Develop Biological Indicators and Methods. The National
Water Program will improve the biological information base to better manage water
resources in a changing climate, including developing guidance on coral reef
bioassessments and biological criteria.
The program will need the ability to link ecological process models with landscape
hydrology models to meet the forecasting need. This may involve predicting the effects
of new temperature and precipitation patterns and discerning the effects of long-term
climate change from the effects of normal short-term variability. As "natural conditions"
become more dynamic, current empirical modeling approaches and characterization of
current or past conditions may no longer be relevant or effective means of projecting to
the future. Mechanistic modeling approaches and quantitative uncertainty analysis will
become more important tools. The Office of Research and Development's Global
Change Research Program will support this effort by developing national maps
depicting projected land use patterns, by decade, through 2040. ORD will also develop
a downloadable and customizable ArcGIS tool that will enable local decision makers to
develop their own land use scenarios.
KEY ACTION #16: Link Ecological and Landscape Models. The National Water
Program will work with the Office of Research and Development, the Office of Air and
Radiation, and Federal partners to invest in refinement of models of ecological
process and landscape hydrology.
Effluent Standards
Development of alternative energy sources may result in effluent sources that need to
be controlled. For example, EPA intends to evaluate the processes being used to
generate alternative energy sources such as biofuels and the wastewater generated
from these processes. In addition, EPA intends to study whether new industries
associated with climate change, will require permits as new sources and/or new
dischargers.
In addition, potential changes in effluent composition, such as changes in pollutants or
the amount of pollutants due to new or different air emissions control technologies or
the addition of carbon sequestration technologies, may also require modifications to
existing effluent guidelines or require changes in permit limitations for some categories.
KEY ACTION #17: Evaluate New Industry Sectors. The National Water Program
will evaluate new industry sectors (including biofuels) and existing effluent guidelines
for industrial categories to determine potential NPDES permitting needs and assess
the need for new or revised technology-based performance standards.
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OBJECTIVE: use a watershed
approach to adapt core water programs
to climate change challenges.
B. A Watershed Approach
For some time, EPA has supported
management of water resources using
a watershed approach, which is a
coordinating framework that focuses
community efforts on priority problems within a watershed. Using the watershed
approach, utilities, agricultural producers, and other stakeholders look holistically at
infrastructure planning, water pollution control, waterbody restoration, and soft path
technologies, such as low impact development, thereby protecting, maintaining or
restoring the natural functions of the watershed. Many of the elements of a watershed
approach lend themselves to adapting water programs to climate change including:
• water monitoring and data;
• watershed management tools;
• protecting estuaries;
• restoring impaired waters; and
• reducing pollution from nonpoint sources.
An important challenge the National Water Program will face in adapting these national
programs to better address climate change needs will be managing the process of
implementing the Key Actions described below and making the numerous small scale
adaptations to core program management that are needed. In support of the prompt
implementation of climate change adaptation actions related to watershed
management, the Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds will develop a Climate
Change Policy Memo that directs the incorporation of responses to climate change into
these core programs.
KEY ACTION #18: Watershed Climate Change Policy Memo. The Office of
Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds will develop a Climate Change Policy memo that
promotes the incorporation of responses to climate change into core programs.
Water Monitoring and Data
The Nation's waters are monitored by State, Federal, Tribal, and local agencies,
universities, dischargers, and volunteers. Water quality data are used to characterize
waters, identify trends overtime, identify emerging problems, determine whether
pollution control programs are working, help direct pollution control efforts to where they
are most needed, and respond to emergencies such as floods and spills. As the climate
changes, monitoring the condition of water resources will be increasingly important and
increasingly challenging. At the same time, identifying and measuring environmental
changes that result from a changing climate is both difficult and uncertain. In addition,
assigning effects to "climate" as opposed to other causes is frequently challenging.
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The National Water Program will include assessment of climate change impacts in
water resources assessments at the national level, such as the recent wadeable stream
assessment and the Coastal Condition Report. These national overviews will provide
useful information on climate-related changes to water resources but will also form a
foundation for assessment of trends over time. To support this work, EPA will work with
States, Tribes and other Federal agencies to include climate change-related
measurements in monitoring programs, including reports from States under section
305(b) and ocean monitoring conducted by the Ocean Survey Vessel (OSV) Bold.
KEY ACTION #19: Expand National Water Resource Surveys to Include Climate
Change Indicators. The National Water Program will expand the national water
resources surveys, such as the recent assessment of wadeable streams and the
Coastal Condition Report, to address climate change issues and information.
While understanding the impacts of climate change on the quality of water resources, it
will also be increasingly important over time to understand changes in the spatial
characteristics of fresh waters. The National Water Program will work with the U.S.
Geological Survey to assess the potential for monitoring the change in the spatial
characteristics of wetlands, freshwater lakes (including the Great Lakes), rivers, and
streams as a result of changes in flow, velocity, increased evapotranspiration, and other
factors associated with climate change and summarize any findings.
KEY ACTION #20: Assess Waterbody Spatial Changes Due to Climate Change.
In cooperation with USGS, explore opportunities and needs to assess change in the
spatial characteristics of fresh waters due to climate change and summarize any
findings.
Watershed Management Tools
One of the most useful tools for understanding climate change impacts on water
resources, especially impaired waters, is the Climate Assessment Tool (CAT) element
of the BASINS water modeling program. (For more information about CAT, see
Johnson et al. 2006 in the Further Reading section at the end of this document or visit
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/BASINS/.) EPA intends to promote the use of the
model and provide training to EPA, State and Tribal program staffs on how to use the
model to support assessment of climate-related water resources impacts and program
decisions.
KEY ACTION #21: BASINS Climate Assessment Tool. The Office of Water will
develop training sessions in Washington, DC, and selected Regions to assist EPA,
State, Tribal, and other government staffs in using the CAT element of the BASINS
decision support tool.
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Protecting Coastal Estuaries
The National Estuary Program (NEP) promotes technical transfer of information,
expertise, and best management practices within 28 estuaries designated as nationally
significant watersheds. The accomplishments within these watersheds also assist other
coastal watersheds facing similar water pollution and water quality impairments. This
approach has proven to be a success over the past 15 years and the NEP is seen as a
model for other comprehensive watershed and community-based programs.
The National Water Program will work with individual estuary programs to promote
climate change as a priority for NEPs' Comprehensive Conservation and Management
Plan revisions. In addition, the National Water Program will work with the Office of Air
and Radiation to establish a "Climate Ready Estuaries Program" (similar to the existing
"Climate Friendly Parks" with the National Park Service) that would provide climate
change outreach to estuaries and recognize efforts of coastal watersheds to adapt to
climate change.
KEY ACTION #22: "Climate Ready Estuaries". The National Water
Program will establish a Climate Ready Estuaries Program in partnership with
the Office of Air and Radiation's Climate Change Division.
In a related effort, the National Water Program will continue participation in the U.S.
Coral Reef Task Force. In this effort, EPA is supporting local action strategies to
address threats to reefs, developing guidance on coral reef bioassessments and
biological criteria, and working to reduce stress on reefs from other sources (e.g., water
pollution, vessel discharges).
KEY ACTION #23: Continue Coral Reef Protections: The National Water
Program will continue participation in the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force and support
related efforts to protect coral reefs.
Restoring Impaired Waters
The Clean Water Act provides for listing of waters not meeting State water quality
standards and the development of plans, called "Total Maximum Daily Loads" (TMDLs)
for reducing pollutant loadings as needed to meet water quality standards. The National
Water Program is encouraging States and others to look for opportunities to develop
TMDLs on a watershed basis and to implement restoration at the watershed scale. The
National Water Program will consider the long range implications forwaterbody
impairment associated with climate change and will make needed revisions to TMDL
guidance.
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Nonpoint Pollution Control
Nonpoint source pollution continues to be the largest remaining source of water quality
impairments in the Nation. State nonpoint source programs, developed under the Clean
Water Act (CWA) Section 319 Program, are working to meet this challenge.
Congress enacted the 319 Program in 1987, establishing a national program to address
nonpoint sources of water pollution. Under section 319(a), all States have developed
nonpoint source assessment reports that identify nonpoint source pollution problems
and the sources responsible for those water quality problems. Under section 319(b), all
States have also adopted management programs to control nonpoint source pollution.
Since 1990, Congress has annually appropriated grant funds to States under Section
319(h) to help them to implement those management programs.
In cooperation with NOAA, EPA has developed guidelines and methods under section
304(f)(1) and (2) of the Clean Water Act and under Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization
Amendments (CZARA) of 1990 section 6217 concerning estimates of the nature and
extent of nonpoint sources of pollutants and methods to control pollution. EPA has
further developed these guidelines into management measures for multiple stakeholder
sectors. EPA will review the current guidelines in light of information related to climate
change impacts on the type and extent of pollutants associated with nonpoint sources
(e.g., greater storm intensity resulting in high rates of pollutant loads in runoff) and
revise the guidelines as needed.
KEY ACTION #24: Review/Revise Nonpoint Pollution Management Measures:
EPA will review the sector specific series "National Management Measures to Control
Nonpoint Source Pollution" based on emerging information related to climate change
impacts.
As research develops and nonpoint pollution control methods are better tailored to
climate change, EPA will work with States to make climate change a priority for funding
under section 319 and consider asking States and Tribes to amend nonpoint pollution
management programs as needed to reflect new information relating to climate change,
including information developed under section 304(f) relating to water movement and
flow and the value of wetlands in mitigating impacts of climate change.
C.
NPDES Permits
The National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit
program controls water pollution by
regulating point source discharges of
pollutants into the waters of the United States. The NPDES permit program covers
approximately 500,000 facilities and is administered by either EPA or authorized States.
OBJECTIVE: NPDES permits
maintain protection of water quality as
the climate changes.
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At the national level, EPA establishes regulations and policies that set technology- and
water quality-based standards and that provide a framework for implementing those
standards in discharge permits. Permit authorities are required to reevaluate and renew
NPDES permits every five years to ensure that permit requirements protect the quality
of a waterbody.
Changes in the hydrologic cycle due to climate change will need to be taken into
consideration throughout the permitting process in order to preserve water quality. The
NPDES program will undertake the following actions to adapt program management in
response to climate change impacts:
• coordinate with other parts of EPA's Surface Water Program and other agencies,
such as USGS, to evaluate climate change impacts on water quality and to
identify appropriate responses by EPA's water quality program;
• lay the groundwork to build EPA's ability to provide technical assistance to permit
authorities and, in the long term, incorporate new information into permit writer
training and stakeholder outreach; and
• build the capability of EPA's Wet Weather Permit Program to assist communities
with adaptation to changes in hydrological cycles.
As discussed in the mitigation section of this Strategy, the NPDES program will also
promote technologies and practices that will help mitigate emissions of greenhouse
gases.
Adapting the NPDES Permit Program
The five-year permitting cycle, as well as other mechanisms, provide permit writers with
a significant amount of flexibility to adapt to changing conditions. However, an
awareness on behalf of the permit writers and other stakeholders of the impacts of
climate change will be crucial for ensuring that the program is protective of water quality
within a changing climate regime. As an integral part of the National Water Program,
conditions written into NPDES permits depend upon other program inputs, such as
water quality standards, effluent guidelines, and Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs).
Cross-program workgroups (e.g., pesticides, ground water, and air programs) may be
useful to identify changes each program will need to make. The NPDES program will
be directly impacted by a variety of inter-office and intra-Agency decisions; therefore,
continuous and effective inter-office dialogue will ensure that permit authorities are
aware of, and properly able to incorporate, any new or revised permit requirements
responsive to climate change.
Technical Assistance
Education, outreach, and technical assistance efforts will be targeted to permit writers
as well as municipal, industrial, and agricultural stakeholders to help them understand
and respond to the potential impacts of climate change in their areas. For example, the
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NPDES program intends to provide technical support to permitting authorities and
permit writers on how to assess the need for revised water quality-based effluent
limitations (WQBELs) and other permit conditions, as well as other aspects of program
implementation. This may include assistance on issues such as:
• how to address changing values for low flow conditions due to climate change,
used in calculating permit limits (i.e., 7Q10—the 7-day average low flow
occurring once in 10 years);
• how to make reasonable potential determinations as other flow conditions
change (i.e., 1Q10, 7Q10, and 30Q5);
• how to determine whether existing mixing zones continue to be protective of
water quality;
• evaluating appropriate upset and bypass emergency conditions; and
• how climate change might affect anti-backsliding provisions.
EPA also intends to provide training and outreach to permit writers that will focus on
ensuring the latest information and tools are available. The Permit Writers Course is
one opportunity for providing basic information on a broad range of issues that permit
writers should consider when developing permits. An introduction to climate change
impacts can be incorporated into this training, but a more detailed forum for discussion
will also be useful. Some of the climate change-related topics that may be suitable for
more advanced training include:
• watershed-based permitting and the potential impacts that climate change can
have on this process;
• use of best professional judgment (BPJ) to develop technology-based effluent
limitations for pollutant discharges from new technologies that may be developed
to adapt to climate change;
• ways to evaluate the need for new or revised permit conditions due to impacts
caused by climate change.
• how existing data systems can be used as tools for collecting and querying
information on facilities and water bodies; and
• trainings targeted to stakeholders on specific topics related to their areas of focus
(e.g., CAFOs, POTWs, and wet weather)
KEY ACTION #25: Review and Adapt NPDES Permit Program Tools. Conduct
an internal review of the flexibilities and tools in the NPDES program that can be
used to respond to changing water quality/quantity conditions and new technologies;
collaborate with programs within the Office of Water and across the Agency, modify
and expand training to reflect climate change, and provide technical assistance to
permit authorities and permit writers.
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Wet Weather Permits
As discussed previously in this
document, climate change is projected
to cause increased intensity of wet
weather events in some areas, while
increasing intensity of drought in other
areas, and in some cases both "wetter
wet and drier dry" periods in the same
region. This variability hits at the heart
of one of the most challenging sources
of water pollution—stormwater runoff
and sewer overflows during "wet
weather" events. Although overall
precipitation may decline nationwide,
precipitation is expected to fall in more
intense downpours, challenging current
wet weather controls.
Intensifying the Global Water Cycle:
"According to model predictions, the most
significant manifestation of climate change
for humans and the environment is an
intensification of the global water cycle,
leading to increased global precipitation,
faster evaporation, and a general
exacerbation of extreme hydrologic regimes,
floods, and droughts" (Asrar et al. 2001, p.
1313). Further, the National Research
Council stated that "Water is at the heart of
both the causes and the effects of climate
change" (NRC 1999).
The NPDES program is charged with controlling urban and industrial wet weather
discharges. Urban discharges are those from a municipality's stormwater or wastewater
conveyance infrastructure that are caused by precipitation events such as rainfall or
heavy snowmelt. Wet weather discharges include stormwater runoff through municipal
separate storm sewer systems (MS4s), combined storm and sanitary sewer system
overflows (CSOs), and wet weather sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs). Stormwater
runoff gathers pollutants such as sediment, oil and grease, chemicals, nutrients, metals,
and bacteria as it travels across land and over surfaces. CSOs and wet weather SSOs
contain a mixture of raw sewage, industrial wastewater and stormwater and have
resulted in beach closings, shellfish bed closings, and aesthetic problems.
Installing infrastructure, such as pipes and wet weather storage and treatment systems,
involves long-term planning and may take 15-20 years to fully implement, and these
systems have projected lifetimes of 50 years or more. Existing systems and current
planning to reduce or eliminate CSOs and SSOs are based on historical rainfall records.
EPA and States will need to help communities understand the climate scenarios that
they are facing and will need to take climate change into account in their long-term
planning. EPA will evaluate its programs to identify optimal response strategies and will
work with the research community to develop tools for assessing rainfall patterns and
design considerations.
Controlling stormwater discharges begins where water hits the ground. Traditional
building techniques have created urban landscapes dominated by impervious cover,
forcing rainfall to run off into waterways and stormwater systems. High volume and
velocity scours waterways, increases erosion, floods human settlements, and
overwhelms treatment systems. Shifting practices can significantly reduce both the
volume and speed of runoff and, in fact, can aid the natural ecosystem by retaining
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water in the watershed and filtering out pollutants before they reach waterways. In the
future, this will become even more important in the face of increasing temperatures and
low flow periods that cause water shortages.
In support of this education effort, the National Water Program's Green Infrastructure
Initiative is working to identify and demonstrate improved and new methods and
techniques for preserving green space, increasing the perviousness of various types of
land cover, retaining stormwater, and otherwise reducing the impacts of stormwater
discharges. This work is expected to include assessment of the role of "green building"
design specifications and approaches in developing CSO, SSO, and MS4 controls, as
well as in guidance for non-point source stormwater controls.
KEY ACTION #26: Evaluate Opportunities to Address Wet Weather/
Climate Impacts at Municipal and Industrial Operations. The National
Water Program will evaluate the wet weather program to identify initiatives to
effectively address increases in precipitation due to climate change. Actions
will include identifying best practices for characterizing design storms that take
climate change into account, incorporating climate change into outreach and
training materials, and promoting Green Infrastructure and Sustainable
Infrastructure.
Industrial activities are also subject to NPDES permit requirements for their stormwater
discharges. The NPDES program will evaluate appropriate steps to take to address
climate change impacts.
In addition, EPA intends to work with USDA and the agricultural community to better
understand how climate change may impact major agricultural communities where
animal feeding operations (AFOs) and concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)
are located, especially with regard to how manure storage and management systems
might take into account climatological and hydrological changes.
KEY ACTION #27: Assess Climate Impacts at Animal Feeding Operations.
The National Water Program will work with USDA to evaluate climate change
impacts, such as increases in wet weather, on animal feeding operations.
D. Water Infrastructure
Impacts should be expected to vary regionally, but in general, climate change could
result in increased demands on our infrastructure systems, both in terms of O&M costs
and the need for capital expenditures. The suite of expected impacts can be grouped
according to the type of change a system may face and fall roughly into the following
categories:
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• more water (through increased precipitation and storm intensity) and sea level
rise;
• less water, with increased frequency and duration of drought;
• temperature change; and
• damage from more intense storms.
Changes will affect drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater systems and range in
scope from physical damage, to changes in treatment costs and treatment
infrastructure, to changes in drinking water supply. Some of the steps that the National
Water Program can take to respond to the challenges that climate change poses for
water infrastructure include:
• continue the Sustainable Infrastructure Initiative, a comprehensive strategy to
change the way the nation views, values, and manages its water infrastructure—
for more information, please visit http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/,
• support infrastructure planning tools;
• address issues related to use of the State Revolving Fund (SRF) loans; and
• improve emergency planning.
Sustainable Infrastructure Initiative
In attempts to move our systems and the sector as a whole towards greater
sustainability, EPA initiated and is pursuing its Sustainable Water Infrastructure (SI)
Initiative. The Initiative includes a suite of approaches that reduce the demands on our
water and wastewater systems and, paired with innovations in financing, help to ensure
that our infrastructure serves us for the long term. It is organized around four principles,
or "pillars":
• Better management,
• Water efficiency,
• Full cost pricing, and
• Watershed approaches to infrastructure.
As all of the work under the Initiative seeks to reduce the demands on infrastructure and
lessen the gap, it also encompasses the adaptations that help address any additional
costs and demands resulting from climate change.
Decision Support Tools
A number of tools and outreach efforts can be adapted or created to foster the
consideration of climate change in planning for infrastructure sustainability. For
example:
• Advanced Asset Management (AAM) is an approach that plans for the
replacement and repair of all a utility's infrastructure. Impacts from climate
change will be included in EPA's AAM training and messaging; and
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Environmental Management Systems (EMSs) provide a means through which
utilities examine their environmental footprints and constantly work towards
improvements. This self evaluation process can be used as a vehicle for
evaluating, adapting to, and mitigating climate change, and discussion of climate
change will be included in EPA's outreach to promote EMSs.
KEY ACTION #28: Implement the Sustainable Water Infrastructure Initiative
and Adapt Decision Support Tools to Include Climate Change. The National
Water Program will continue the implementation of the Sustainable Infrastructure
Initiative and incorporate climate change into its activities, including incorporating
climate change considerations in a range of new and existing sustainable
infrastructure tools and outreach efforts.
Adaptation requires that communities understand the potential consequences of climate
change at the local level. While climate models are not scaled to project such local
impacts, communities can use available science to understand the plausible range of
changes to climate and resulting impacts on water resources they could face. This
information can then be considered in local decision making processes. Given the long
lifespan of water and wastewater infrastructure, it is prudent that planning for new and
existing facilities include climate considerations. EPA can work with the professional
water and wastewater community to develop and disseminate such decision support
tools.
KEY ACTION #29: Develop a Sustainability/Vulnerability Analysis Handbook
for Climate Change Impacts. Work to publish a document describing a process
through which utilities can conduct a self analysis of sustainability, including a climate
change-specific vulnerability analysis.
State Revolving Funds and Climate Change
The Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act both provide for State Revolving
Funds (SRFs) through which States make low interest loans to finance water
infrastructure projects. The National Water Program works with States to assure the
effective management of these funds. The Drinking Water SRF provides about $1.6
billion in loans each year and the Clean Water SRF provides about $5 billion in loans
each year. Taken together, the SRFs are a vital tool for financing needed water
infrastructure.
It will be important to clarify the SRF eligibility of projects that provide for mitigation of
greenhouse gases (through energy or water efficiency or energy generation) or for the
adaptation of treatment and distribution/collection systems to accommodate climate
change.
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KEY ACTION #30: Clarify Use of the Clean Water and Drinking Water SRFs to
Support Adaptation to Climate Change. Work with State partners to clarify what
types of climate change-related infrastructure expenditures are eligible for SRF
assistance.
Emergency Planning for Water Facilities
The impacts of climate change present ongoing challenges for the Agency's emergency
response program. The possibility of more frequent and severe storms and flooding
due to climate changes, along with the continued threat of terrorist attacks on our water
and wastewater infrastructure, calls for a coordinated approach. To address this
challenge, EPA has developed an agency-wide approach that identifies roles and
responsibilities for Regions and Headquarters. The EPA approach incorporates an
Incident Command System (ICS) that provides a set of core concepts, terminologies,
and technologies common to all federal agencies.
Under the National Response Framework, EPA serves as an important support agency
to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (the Corps) to enable the rapid restoration of
critical water and wastewater services after a calamitous event. By Presidential
Directive, EPA also is the federal lead for preparing water and wastewater systems to
prevent, detect, respond to, and recover from terrorism and natural disasters.
In order to be prepared to respond to natural disasters such as hurricanes and floods, or
possible terrorist attacks on our water and wastewater infrastructure, the National Water
Program can take the following additional actions:
• Provide Training: Provide training (e.g., National Incident Management System
and Incident Command System) and materials (e.g., best practices and table-top
exercises) to improve the ability of drinking water and wastewater systems to
prepare for and recover from all hazards, including natural disasters.
• Develop Response Networks: Coordinate with States, Tribes, and water sector
associations to promote the adoption of mutual aid and assistance programs,
known as Water and Wastewater Agency Response Networks (WARNs), so that
utilities can exchange equipment and personnel to expedite the restoration of
critical water services.
• Participate in Emergency Response Exercises: Integrate the water sector
into national emergency response exercises such as Spill of National
Significance (SONS) and TOPOFF ("TOP OFFicials") to enhance awareness of
the importance of the sector and to measure the effectiveness of a simulated
response. Implement a national effort to measure risk reduction efforts against
all hazards in the water sector.
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• Coordinate Incident Control: In coordination with the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) and the Corps, EPA will work within the National
Response Framework to improve the marshalling of aid for utilities. This work
includes identifying Department of Homeland Security and other databases as
resources for critical infrastructure information that could prove useful in
preparing for or responding to an event on the State or Federal level, and for
establishing key definitions across the Federal government to facilitate
emergency assistance (e.g., credentialing, resource typing).
• Streamline Permitting: In order to address emergency response and climate
change, the NPDES program intends to develop processes to streamline and
expedite permits concerning natural disasters. It will be important to provide
flexible mechanisms for dealing with emergencies, such as permitting for
emergency package treatment systems to quickly reinstate the ability to treat
wastewater.
Following unfortunate events that damage communities and ecosystems, EPA and its
Federal partners intend to ensure that rebuilding efforts take advantage of the
opportunity to re-think planning and development. It is appropriate that Federal funding
promote use of water and energy efficient technologies, use of sustainable re-
development principles such as smart growth and green buildings/green infrastructure,
and re-evaluate how to rebuild and preserve wetlands to mitigate future storm damage.
KEY ACTION #31: Develop and Expand Emergency Response Planning. The
National Water Program will implement a range of actions (see above) to ensure
existing emergency response planning considers impacts from climate change, and
will work with federal partners to promote adoption of sustainable practices during
recovery and rebuilding.
OBJECTIVE: assure that
development of wetlands protection
guidelines and policies includes
consideration of climate change.
E. Wetlands Management
Since 1989, the Federal government as
a whole has embraced a policy goal of
no net loss of wetlands under the Clean
Water Act Section 404 regulatory
program. In 2004, President Bush
announced an additional national goal to
protect, restore, and improve 3 million
acres of wetlands by 2009. After achieving this goal a year early, the President
recently announced a new challenge to protect, restore and improve an additional 4
million acres of wetlands nationwide. The Wetlands Program contributes to these goals
by fostering effective wetlands management through strategic partnerships with States,
Tribes, local governments, and other key partners.
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The section 404 permit program regulates the discharge of dredged or fill material into
all "waters of the United States" (as defined in the Clean Water Act), which includes
wetlands, rivers, streams, and other aquatic resources. Wetlands are also the focus of
the voluntary State/Tribal portion of the program, which builds the capacity of State,
Tribal, and local governments to protect and manage wetlands through grants, by
promoting wetlands monitoring and assessment, mapping, outreach, and through
strategic partnerships.
The important functions and ecosystem services provided by the nation's wetlands,
streams and other aquatic resources will continue to grow in importance as the climate
changes. These resources provide crucial functions in four areas related to climate
change:
• Coastal Protection: Facing the certainty of sea level rise and the potential for
increasing hurricane intensities, the ability of coastal wetlands to reduce wave
energy and protect coastal settlements may become more important.
• Protecting Water Supplies: With increasing aridity in some regions of the
United States, the protection of remaining wetlands and streams that provide
groundwater recharge and maintain minimum stream flows is important for
maintaining water supplies.
• Flood Mitigation: With the projected increase in precipitation and storm
frequency in other parts of the United States, the capacity of wetlands and
headwater streams to reduce flood peaks, detain stormwater, and filter
pollutants, is important to the protection of life, property, and water quality.
• Carbon Sequestration: Lastly, the high primary productivity of many wetland
types may make these systems attractive components of existing and future
carbon sequestration efforts.
In light of the important contributions wetlands and other aquatic resources can make to
adapting to climate change, the National Water Program will evaluate strategies for
enhanced aquatic resource protection and develop a new standard for wetlands
mapping. Key themes of this assessment process are to consider a watershed
approach to aquatic resource protection and to emphasize integration with other water
programs.
Regulatory Framework
Section 404 of the Clean Water Act establishes a program to regulate the discharge of
dredged or fill material into waters of the United States, including wetlands. Activities in
waters of the United States regulated under this program include fill for development,
water resource projects (such as dams and levees), infrastructure development (such
as highways and airports) and mining projects. Section 404 requires a permit from the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (the Corps) or a state with an EPA-approved program
before dredged or fill material may be discharged into waters of the United States.
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EPA developed the substantive environmental criteria used by the Corps to make its
permitting decisions, known as the Section 404(b)(1) Guidelines (the Guidelines). As
articulated in the Guidelines, the basic premise of the permitting program is that no
discharge of dredged or fill material may be permitted if a practicable alternative exists
that is less damaging to the aquatic environment or the nation's waters would be
significantly degraded. Permit applicants must demonstrate that:
• impacts to wetlands and other waters of the U.S. have been avoided to the
"maximum extent practicable";
• unavoidable impacts have been minimized "to the extent appropriate and
practicable"; and
• remaining impacts have been compensated for "to the extent appropriate and
practicable."
Since protecting our Nation's existing aquatic resource base is critical to ensuring the
country's ecological and economic resilience as climatic patterns shift, effective
implementation of the Section 404 regulatory program and meeting the no net loss and
net gain goal is an important part of maintaining the ability to adapt to climate change.
The §404 Guidelines currently prohibit discharges that will cause or contribute to
"significant degradation" of the waters of the United States. Significant degradation is
broadly defined to include individual or cumulative impacts to human health and welfare;
fish and wildlife; ecosystem diversity, productivity and stability; and recreational,
aesthetic or economic values. In light of the growing concerns regarding the adverse
effects of climate change and the recognition that protecting the Nation's wetlands and
other aquatic resources can help to mitigate these effects, EPA will explore how
consideration of the effects of climate change should inform significant degradation
determinations and publish additional guidance where appropriate.
The §404 permit review process also includes determining where there would be an
"unacceptable adverse impact" resulting from the proposed activity, as described under
§404(c), as well as "substantial and unacceptable" impacts to Aquatic Resources of
National Importance, pertaining to §404(q), often called permit elevations. Criteria used
for these determinations should take into account the chemical, physical and biological
importance of an aquatic resource in light of climate change. The program will consider
developing guidance describing any impacts determined to be "unacceptable" in
consideration of the potential effects of climate change (e.g., where discharges would
result in harm to wetlands critical to storm surge reduction).
General permits under section 404 authorize categories of activities that are expected to
have minor impacts, without the need for completion of an individual permit application,
as long as specified procedures and conditions for minimizing impacts are followed.
Since almost 90% of §404 permits each year are general permits, effective
implementation of the general permit program is an important component of the broader
regulatory program role in addressing the potential impacts of climate change. For
example, conditions in general permits may identify key resource types (e.g., playa
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lakes) or specific locations (e.g., coastal Louisiana) that are protected on a regional or
State basis.
In order to offset permitted impacts, the Corps typically requires between 40,000 -
50,000 acres of compensatory mitigation annually. This compensation takes the form of
restored, created, enhanced and/or preserved complexes of wetlands and streams.
EPA, in conjunction with the Corps, will evaluate how these wetland and stream
compensation projects could be selected, designed and sited to also aid in mitigating
the effects of climate change. For example, certain types of restoration projects could
be encouraged because of their relative carbon sequestration benefits or because they
would facilitate more effective wetland migration as sea level rises.
KEY ACTION #32: Evaluate Opportunities to Refine the 404 Regulatory
Framework to Address Climate Change: The National Water Program will work
with the Army Corps of Engineers to ensure effective implementation of the
regulatory framework under section 404 of the Clean Water Act in a way that
considers the effects of climate change and will explore the need for additional
guidance on avoiding or minimizing impacts, defining "significant degradation" and
"unacceptable adverse impact", and/or implementing compensatory mitigation.
National Wetlands Mapping Standard
Baseline information on the location and condition of wetlands and aquatic resources is
necessary to manage the wetlands program and develop the models and plans needed
to adapt to climate change. The existing National Wetland Inventory (NWI) mapping,
managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service, is used extensively for those efforts and is
already used to address the effects of climate change (e.g., modeling sea level rise).
The NWI maps were innovative when first produced, but additional work is now needed
to better satisfy the demands for sophisticated analysis that supports effective
environmental planning. Hardcopy maps are available for 81 % of the Nation, and 53%
of the NWI is available online for use in CIS applications. However, a significant portion
of the arid West has not yet been mapped.
Stakeholder agencies and organizations have started an initiative to develop and
implement a modernized Wetland Mapping Standard to update and improve the quality
of the data. The goal of this effort is twofold: to accelerate the rate at which the
national wetlands mapping is completed and to enable real-time updates of the national
wetlands data layer in the future. Using the new Standard, other groups, such as
States, local governments, and non-governmental organizations, will be able to collect
and upload digitally mapped data to the NWI. EPA and other Federal agencies will be
supporting a range of organizations to complete the national map. The Standard was
published for public comment in August 2007.
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KEY ACTION #33: Finalize National Wetlands Mapping Standard: Work with
other Federal agencies to finalize the National Wetlands Mapping Standard and work
with Federal partners to fund updates of arid west maps.
3. Climate Change Research Related to Water
Research on climate change issues related to water is occurring both internationally and
in the United States. Much of this research is being managed by Federal agencies,
including EPA. The National Water Program will benefit from much of the research now
underway and this Response to Climate Change document will be revised periodically
to reflect emerging research. At the same time, the National Water Program will begin
to play a larger role in defining research priorities and working with the research
community to make research results as useful as possible. Three key research topics
are addressed below:
research projects related to water
now underway as part of the
Federal government interagency
U.S. Climate Change Science
Program (CCSP);
Goal 3: Climate Change Research
Related to Water: strengthen the link
between EPA water programs and
climate change research.
• research projects underway within the EPA Office of Research and Development
(ORD) related to water quality, drinking water and ecosystems that relate to
climate change; and
• elements of the ORD Global Change Research Program that relate to water (all
of which are consistent with the CCSP Strategic Plan).
Additional research topics were identified by the National Water Program Climate
Change Workgroup during the development of this Strategy (noted in Appendix 5) and
will be considered in future research planning.
Although not addressed below, it is important to note the vital and continuing research
sponsored by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). ORD scientists
and grantees make a significant contribution to the IPCC as authors, and through
research cited by the IPCC. Much of the work is related to water resource impacts of
climate change and a significant portion addresses water issues in North America.
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A. U.S. Interagency Research: CCSP Projects Underway
The interagency U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) coordinates and
integrates scientific research on global change and climate change, including research
related to water, sponsored by 13 participating departments and agencies of the U.S.
Government. The planning and implementation of ORD's Global Change Research
Program is integrated by the CCSP with other participating Federal departments and
agencies to reduce overlaps, identify and fill programmatic gaps, and add integrative
value to products and deliverables produced under the CCSP's auspices. ORD
coordinates with other CCSP agencies to develop and provide timely, useful, and
scientifically sound information to decision makers.
OBJECTIVE: monitor and make
good use of Federal interagency
climate change research.
A major activity called for in the 2003
CCSP Strategic Plan is the production of
21 Synthesis and Assessment Products
(SAPs) by 2008 that respond to the CCSP
highest priority research, observation, and
decision support needs. A full list of the 21 CCSP SAPs is available at
http://www.climatescience.gov. The following SAPs relate to water resources:
• Weather and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate: Focus North
America, Hawaii, Caribbean, and the U.S. Pacific Islands (SAP 3-3): Report
published 6/08; NOAA lead with NASA, USGS, DOE.
• Coastal Elevation and Sea Level Rise (SAP 4-1): Report to be published in
2008; EPA lead with USGS and NOAA.
• Thresholds of Change in Ecosystems (SAP 4-2): Report to be published in
2008; USGS lead with EPA, NOAA, DOE and NSF.
• Effect of Climate Change on Agriculture, Biodiversity, Land, and Water
Resources (SAP 4-3): Report published 5/08; USDA lead with many other
agencies.
• Review of Adaptation Options for Climate Sensitive Ecosystems and
Resources (SAP 4-4): Report published 6/08; EPA lead with other contributing
agencies.
• Effect of Climate Change on Energy Production and Use (SAP 4-5): Report
published 10/07; DOE lead.
• Analyses of the Effects of Global Climate Change on Human Health and
Welfare and Human Systems (SAP 4-6): Report published 6/08; EPA lead with
other agencies.
• Effect of Climate Change on Transportation and Infrastructure: Gulf Coast
Study (SAP 4-7): Report published by 3/08; DOT lead with USGS, DOE, NASA.
• Decision Support Experiments and Evaluations Using Seasonal to
Interannual Forecasts and Observed Data (SAP 5-3): Report to be published
2008; NOAA lead.
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The National Water Program intends to monitor the development of these key CCSP
products and use these reports to refine and improve responses to climate change. As
this Response to Climate Change is revised over time, findings from these reports will
be considered.
In addition to the Synthesis and Assessment Products, the CCSP also has detailed
implementation plans for each of its priority program elements. This includes a plan for
its Carbon Cycle Workgroup's research activities related to carbon sequestration. The
National Water Program will work with ORD to integrate information from these activities
into the management framework.
KEY ACTION #34: Monitoring of Water Related CCSP Reports. The National
Water Program will monitor the development of reports by the Climate Change
Science Program and name a representative to join an ORD representative on the
CCSP Water Cycle Working Group.
B. EPA/ORD Water Research Related to Climate
OBJECTIVE: EPA research on
water issues will address climate
change
The National Water Program works closely
with the EPA Office of Research and
Development (ORD) on a wide range of
water related research focusing on the Multi-
Year Plans and Strategies for:
• Ecosystem Research;
• Clean Water Research; and
• Drinking Water Research.
Some of this research applies to issues related to climate change.
Ecological Research Program
The Ecological Research Program is undergoing a major shift in direction. The new
focus is on "ecosystems services, their value, and their relationship to human well
being, for consistent incorporation into environmental decision making" (Ecological
Research Program; Multi-Year Plan; draft 4/07). It is clear that in adapting to climate
change, risk managers make choices involving land use, benefit vs. cost of ecosystem
maintenance or restoration, value of preserving endangered species in a particular
location and so forth. Research in ecosystems services will provide direct support in
these decisions.
The draft Multi-Year Plan for Ecological Research specifies several outputs that will be
of use in managing climate change impacts on water programs:
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• measures and dynamic maps of ecosystems services;
• predictive models relating to the response of stressors;
• management options, based on alternative future scenarios; and
• decision support platforms.
Some specific areas of research that are particularly germane to climate change are
also described including a focus on nitrogen, concentrated work on evaluating
ecosystem services of wetlands, and place-based research—for which the Willamette
River basin and adjacent areas and the Tampa Bay ecosystem have been selected for
near term studies.
Clean Water Research Program
The Water Quality Multi-Year Plan includes many areas that will directly support
decision making related to climate change impacts including:
• Multiple Stressors: Assessment of multiple stressors (i.e., changes in
temperature, salinity, water flow, pH and other parameters) on the health of
waters.
• Bioassessment/Biocriteria: In developing permits and standards to address
climate change, the National Water Program will need a greater concentration on
bioassessment and biocriteria.
• Nutrients: Increased water flow will mean changes in nutrient status of water
bodies in some areas of the country and research theme 1.3 is dedicated to
nutrients research.
• Flooding Impacts on Infrastructure: To the extent that extreme weather
events increase, flooding events may increase in magnitude and the Multi-year
Plan addresses research needs in this area in the Aging Infrastructure research
theme.
• Pathogens: Climate change may result in changes in the range of existing
pathogens and a need to revise traditional indicators of pathogens. New means
of testing for the presence of microbial pathogens are being developed, including
rapid indicators based on genomic and other state-of-the-art techniques. These
methods will be relevant not only to recreational waters, but also to shellfish beds
and drinking water uses.
Drinking Water Research Program
The Drinking Water Multi-year Plan also describes research on microbial contaminants,
including rapid detection methods and evaluation of emerging pathogens. One area
addressed in the Plan that is particularly important is improved and rapid detection
methods for algal toxins so that we can better address harmful algal blooms in both
freshwater and marine environments.
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Underground injection wells figure prominently in some climate mitigation strategies,
and the Drinking Water Multi-Year Plan identified several projects in this area under
Source Water Protection including:
• a report on C02 transport, modeling and risk assessment (2008);
• a report on impacts on drinking water sources of carbon capture and storage
(2010); and
• a report on mechanical integrity test methods for C02 injection (2011).
In addition to climate change research within these water research programs, there is
important research being conducted by research foundations such as the Water
Environment Research Foundation (WERF) and the American Water Works Association
Research Foundation (AWWARF). The National Water Program will coordinate with
these agencies and foundations to maximize information sharing and to build on
research efforts of common interest.
KEY ACTION #35: Climate Research in Water Related ORD Research. The
National Water Program will work with the EPA Office of Research and Development
in development of water research related to climate change and will also coordinate
with external research foundations engaged in water and climate change related
research.
C. ORD Global Change Research Program
OBJECTIVE: The EPA Global
Change Research Program will
address water program research
needs.
The EPA ORD also develops a Multi-
Year Plan for Global Change Research.
This Plan provides an implementation
plan for the 2001 Research Strategy for
ORD's Global Change Research
Program, which was externally peer-reviewed. Although the National Water Program
has had limited participation in development of this Plan in the past, the current Plan
includes a number of important research projects related to the impacts of climate
change on water resources.
ORD's Global Change Research Program is stakeholder-oriented, with emphasis on
assessing the potential consequences of global change on air quality, water quality,
aquatic ecosystems, human health, and socioeconomic systems. ORD uses the results
of these studies to investigate adaptation options to improve society's ability to respond
to the risks and opportunities presented by global change, and to develop decision tools
for resource managers coping with a changing climate.
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KEY ACTION #36: Revision of ORD Global Change Multi-Year Plan. The Office
of Water will appoint a representative to participate in the ORD revision of the
Global Change Multi-Year Plan.
The most significant major study called for in the current Multi-Year Global Change
Research Plan calls for ORD and the National Water Program to cooperate in the
development of an assessment of the sensitivity to climate change of the goals
articulated by the Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act and the opportunities
available within the provisions of these laws to address the anticipated impacts of
climate change. The assessment will also develop an atlas of vulnerabilities of water
resources and aquatic ecosystems in the United States to climate change.
ORD's Global Change Research Program recognizes that there is a lack of empirical
data about the importance and prevalence of climate-related decisions, including those
related to water resources.
To fill this information gap, the
ORD Global Change
Research Program will
develop a new "decision
assessment" process to help
prioritize future climate
change/water research needs.
This process will provide a
foundation for future research.
ORD will develop a dynamic
"decision inventory" to identify
different classes of climate-
sensitive decisions related to
water resources in different
regions of the country, and to
evaluate the returns from
providing better scientific
information to inform those
decisions.
EPA Global Climate Change Research Program
^•^OT*£
Human Health
Weather-related morbidity
Water & vector-borne disease
Air pollutant health effects
n
Air Quality
Prelim ambient air pollutants
Ambient air pollutants
/!_
r~
cT^T^B
Water Quality
Pollutants 8, pathogens
Biocriteria
:r
Ecosystems
Aq ua ti c ecosystem watersheds
Aquatic ecosystems coastal
Invasive species
Ecosystem services
Figure 10: Source: EPA ORD Global Change Research Program.
Other major research projects in ORD's Global Change Research Program related to
the water resource impacts of climate change are described in Appendix 4. ORD will
also work with the National Water Program to complement research on geologic
sequestration. The Office of Water will monitor the development of ORD reports on
climate change impacts on water resources, distribute the reports to water program
managers, and apply the findings of the reports to program implementation.
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4. Water Program Education on Climate Change
Goal 4: Water Program Education on
Climate Change: educate water program
professionals and stakeholders on climate
change impacts on water resources and
programs.
Climate change science and policy
is evolving rapidly and today's
understanding of climate change
impacts on water resources, and
conclusions about needed
response actions, may change
over time. In order for the National
Water Program to stay current with climate change issues, new practices are needed to
strengthen outreach to partners and stakeholders on climate change-related water
program issues and educate water program professionals on climate change generally.
This communication needs to involve both EPA informing others about new issues and
activities and EPA listening to and learning from the suggestions of others.
A key first step toward establishing the strong communication linkages that will support
successful implementation of water program climate change adaptations is the
operation of a water and climate change website and listserve. These web tools will
provide basic information about the impacts of climate change on water programs
including copies of related materials and links to the EPA climate change website and
other related sites. The listserve will provide periodic email updates on climate change-
related issues to subscribers.
KEY ACTION #37: Clearinghouse Website/Listserve. The Office of Water will
work with other EPA offices to establish a website to provide documents related to
water and climate change, including research products, and offer as part of this site,
a listserve to send update emails to interested parties.
Keeping partners and stakeholders informed of progress in implementing the Key
Actions identified in this document will be a continuing task. For many interested
parties, however, a single, annual report on progress and new or emerging issues will
best serve their needs. We expect the reports will identify progress toward key goals
identified in the Strategy and identify "best practices" addressing the water impacts of
climate change.
KEY ACTION #38: Annual Public Reports on Strategy Implementation. The
Office of Water will publish annual reports describing progress in implementing this
Strategy.
As water program partners and stakeholders become more involved in activities related
to climate change, issues and priorities will become clearer and requests for information
and analysis will increase. In anticipation of these requests, the National Water
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Program intends to take the initiative to
provide existing advisory groups and related
organizations with information on climate
change activities.
State and Tribal organizations are also an
effective vehicle for providing basic
information about climate change to water
program professionals. For example, EPA
relies on the National Drinking Water
Advisory Council to provide guidance on a
range of safe drinking water program
implementation issues. Some of these other
organizations include:
Stakeholder Meetings to Date:
The National Water Program Climate
Change Workgroup held five listening
sessions with stakeholders in 2007:
May 24: Environmental Community
June 6: Agriculture Community
June 13: Industry Organizations
June 14: State and Local
Government Organizations
August 10: Tribal Officials
• Association of State and Interstate
Water Pollution Control Administrators;
• Association of State Drinking Water Administrators;
• Ground Water Protection Council;
• Association of State Wetland Managers;
• Coastal States Organization; and
• National Tribal Water Council.
The National Water Program intends to work with these organizations to identify
meetings, seminars and other opportunities to provide information about climate change
and to identify and address climate change issues related to water programs. As part
of this process, EPA will consult with State, Tribal and local governments and related
organizations concerning the best mechanism for establishing and maintaining a
dialogue on climate change program and policy issues over the coming years.
KEY ACTION #39: Outreach to Partners. The Office of Water will provide material
and briefings on the National Water Program climate change response actions
periodically to a wide variety of EPA advisory groups, State and Tribal organizations,
and stakeholder organizations.
Among the most important steps that the National Water Program can take to respond
to the many challenges of climate change is to inform and educate the tens of
thousands of water program professionals in Federal, State, Tribal, and local
governments and in the private sector concerning climate change issues and potential
impacts on water resources. With access to basic information about climate change,
professionals can apply this knowledge to numerous specific cases and make countless
valuable program adaptations.
This Strategy is a first step in building understanding of climate change issues among
water program professionals. The background information in Section II of this Strategy
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provides key information about a range of potential climate change impacts on water
resources and on water programs. The Office of Water intends to make new reports
about climate change impacts on water available to a wide range of water program
managers on a continuing basis with the goal of helping individual program managers to
recognize climate change issues and impacts and to address these problems
effectively.
The National Water Program is now making a significant investment in training for water
program professionals in the management, policy, and technical challenges arising from
the management of core clean water and safe drinking water programs. The Water
Quality Standards Academy, the Watershed Academy, and the Drinking Water
Academy are just a few examples. By including basic information about climate
change in these training programs, the National Water Program can build understanding
of climate change issues among water program staff and strengthen the ability of the
program to address climate change problems. In addition, short, focused training on
climate change issues related to water would be a benefit to water program staff in
national and Regional offices.
KEY ACTION #40: Expand Water Training on Climate Change. EPA will revise
existing training programs to include attention to the impacts of climate change on
water programs and will offer training on water-related climate change impacts to
national and Regional offices.
5. Water Program Management of Climate Change
Climate change poses significant
and long-term challenges for the
National Water Program. The
development of this National Water
Program Strategy: Response to
Climate Change is a key first step in
understanding climate change
Goal 5: Water Program Management
of Climate Change: establish the
management capability within the
National Water Program to address
climate change challenges on a
sustained basis.
impacts on water programs and the
beginning of the process of implementing response actions. To sustain this focus on
climate change, the National Water Program will need to establish management
practices to build on this initial assessment of climate change impacts.
A first key step in this process is to continue the operation of the National Water
Program Climate Change Workgroup. This group is chaired by the Deputy Assistant
Administrator for Water and includes senior managers from national and EPA Regional
offices as well as representatives of the Office of Air and Radiation and the Office of
Research and Development and helps maintain good communication among these
offices on climate change issues. For the next several years, we expect the Workgroup
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will oversee implementation of this Strategy. This work will include oversight of water
program coordination with other EPA offices and other Federal agencies on climate-
related issues, evaluation of the usefulness of response actions to decision-makers at
different levels of government, and development of needed revisions to the Response
to Climate Change document on a periodic basis. As part of this process, the
Workgroup will develop an implementation plan for the final Strategy, including more
detailed descriptions of schedules and resources for key actions and opportunities for
coordination in implementation of key actions. The workgroup will consult with State,
Tribal, and local governments and organizations and with stakeholders throughout this
process.
KEY ACTION #41: Maintain Office of Water Climate Change Workgroup. The
Office of Water will maintain the National Water Program Climate Change workgroup
and develop an implementation plan for the final Strategy.
As the water program begins implementation of the Response to Climate Change, it is
likely that issues with respect to coordination of this work with other program
implementation work will arise. To address these issues, the National Water Program
will integrate climate-related Key Actions with the established water program
management tools, including the EPA Strategic Plan and the annual water program
guidance. The FY 2009 annual National Water Program guidance, published in April
2008, included discussion of implementation of the draft Strategy. The FY 2010 annual
guidance will include more detailed attention to implementation of the Key Actions
included in the final Strategy. .
KEY ACTION #42: Agency Strategic Plan and Water Program Annual
Guidance. The Office of Water will include Key Actions from this Strategy in the FY
2010 annual National Water Program guidance, and when appropriate, make needed
changes to the water elements of the EPA Strategic Plan.
EPA Regional water programs will play a central role in responding to climate change
by implementing Key Actions identified in this document. Regions will take the lead in
helping State, Tribal and local governments understand climate change consequences
for water resources and to make sound program adaptation decisions. While this
national strategy describes actions to be implemented at the national level and in each
of the ten EPA Regions, there is likely to be significant variation in the nature and extent
of climate impacts in each Region. For example, drought and water supply issues may
be a top priority in western Regions while sea level rise may be more critical in other
Regions. Some Regions may want to supplement this national strategy with Key
Actions designed to more specifically address the specific needs in the Region.
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KEY ACTION #43: Regional Additions to National Water Climate Strategy.
Each EPA Regional Water Division will review climate change potential impacts in
the Region, identify impacts of special concern to that Region, and develop Region-
specific additions to this national Strategy as needed.
This Response to Climate Change document is the product of an internal, EPA review
of opportunities to better adapt water programs to climate change. Water program staff
have discussed this work with staff from other Federal agencies, but have not asked
other Federal agencies to endorse the document. It is clear that there are numerous
opportunities to coordinate the climate change-related work of the National Water
Program with the activities of other Federal agencies. Some of the existing interagency
coordination mechanisms are working on matters that have a bearing on climate
change. For example, the Federal Advisory Committee on Water Information (ACWI)
has a Subcommittee on Ground Water that is working to develop a ground water
monitoring framework.
Some of the other Federal agencies with an interest in water-related climate change
issues include:
• the Army Corps of Engineers;
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;
• U.S. Department of Energy;
• Federal Emergency Management Agency;
• U.S. Department of Interior (Bureau of Reclamation, Geologic Survey, and Fish
and Wildlife Service);
• U.S. Department of Agriculture (Natural Resources Conservation Service, Forest
Service);
• Department of Transportation (Federal Highway Administration); and
• National Science Foundation.
As a first step in strengthening water-related communication among these agencies,
EPA will convene a staff level coordination group to exchange information, report on
best practices, and improve program efficiency.
KEY ACTION #44: Federal Agency Water Climate Coordination Group. The
Office of Water will work with other Federal agencies with a significant interest in the
water-related impacts of climate change through creation of a staff level coordination
group.
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APPENDICES
1. Climate Change Impacts on Water in Regions of the United States
2. Summary List of Climate Change Actions (including responsible offices)
3. Adaptations for Alaska Water Infrastructure
4. EPA Global Climate Change Research Program Projects Related to Water
5. Potential Climate Change/Water Research Needs
6. Glossary of Water Program and Climate Change Terms
7. Water Program and Climate Change Acronyms
8. References and Further Reading
9. Acknowledgments
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APPENDIX 1:
Climate Change Impacts on Water in Regions of the United States
In addition to the general impacts of climate change on water resources described in
Section II of this document, the following list provides examples of some effects of
climate change on water resources in different parts of the United States that have been
projected by various researchers. More information is available at the EPA Climate
Change website at: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/usregions.html
The following table is taken from the IPCC Technical Paper on Climate Change and
Water (2008) and lists observed changes in North America's water resources in the past
century (1s = increase, ^ = decrease):
Water Resource Change
1 to 4 week earlier peak stream flow due to
earlier warming-driven snowmelt
4* Proportion of precipitation falling as snow
4* Duration and extent of snow cover
1s Annual precipitation
4* Mountain snow water equivalent
4- Annual precipitation
1s Frequency of heavy precipitation events
4- Runoff and stream flow
Widespread thawing of permafrost
1s Water temperature of lakes (0.1 to 1.5°C)
[0.18to2.7°F]
1s Stream flow
Glacial shrinkage
^ Ice cover
Salinization of coastal surface waters
1s Periods of drought
Examples from the IPCC Fourth Assessment
Report (AR4)
U.S. West and U.S. New England regions, Canada
Western Canada and prairies, U.S. West
Most of North America
Most of North America
Western North America
Central Rockies, south-western U.S., Canadian
prairies
and eastern Arctic
Most of USA
Colorado and Columbia River Basins
Most of northern Canada and Alaska
Most of North America
Most of eastern U.S.
U.S. western mountains, Alaska and Canada
Great Lakes, Gulf of St Lawrence
Florida, Louisiana
Western U.S., southern Canada
Source: IPCC 2008, table 5.7, p. 137.
In the East:
"streamflow in the eastern U.S. has increased 25% in the last 60 years ..." (Field
etal. 2007, p. 621)
"[s]ea-level rise has accelerated in eastern North America since the late 19th
century ... and further acceleration is expected ..." (Field et al. 2007, p. 630); and
"[u]p to 21% of the remaining coastal wetlands in the U.S. mid-Atlantic region are
potentially at risk of inundation between 2000 and 2100" (Field et al. 2007, p.
630).
"[t]he water utility serving New York City has identified heavy precipitation events
as one of its major climate-change-related concerns because such events can
raise turbidity levels in some of the city's main reservoirs up to 100 times the
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legal limit for source quality at the utility's intake, requiring substantial additional
treatment and monitoring costs" (IPCC 2008, p. 56).
In the Northeast:
• coastal erosion, loss of wetland habitat, increased risk from storm surges from
sea level rise (IPCC 2007b, as found in EPA 2007J).
In the Southeast and Gulf Coast:
• increased coastal erosion including loss of barrier islands and wetlands (IPCC
2007b, as found in EPA 2007J);
• intense coastal zone development places coastal floodplains at risk to flooding
from sea level rise, storm surge, and extreme precipitation events (IPCC 2007b,
as found in EPA 2007J); and
• "[s]torm impacts are likely to be more severe, especially along the Gulf and
Atlantic coasts" (Field et al. 2007, p. 619).
In the Midwest and Great Lakes:
• lowered lake and river levels, resulting from warmer temperatures and increased
evaporation (IPCC 2007b, as found in EPA 2007J);
• "[s]tudies of the Great Lakes of North America ... suggest changes in water
levels of the order of several tens of centimet[er]s, and sometimes met[er]s, by
the end of the century" (IPCC 2008, p. 40);
• increased agricultural productivity in many regions resulting from increased
carbon dioxide and warmer temperatures (IPCC 2007b, as found in EPA 2007J);
• "[i]n the Great Lakes, both extremely high and extremely low water levels have
been damaging and disruptive" (Field et al. p. 622);
• "[i]n the Great Lakes and major river systems, lower [water] levels are likely to
exacerbate challenges relating to water quality, navigation, recreation,
hydropower generation, water transfers, and bi-national relationships" (Field et al.
2007, p. 619);
• "[r]ising temperatures are likely to lower water quality in lakes through increased
thermal stability and altered mixing patterns, resulting in reduced oxygen
concentrations and an increased release of phosphorus from the sediments. For
example, already high phosphorus concentrations during summer in a bay of
Lake Ontario could double with a 3-4°C [5.4 to 7.2°F] increase in water
temperatures" (IPCC 2008, p. 53);
• "[r]ecent winters with less ice in the Great Lakes and Gulf of St. Lawrence have
increased coastal exposure to damage from winter storms" (Field et al. 2007, p.
623);
• "[Restoration of beneficial uses (e.g., to address habitat loss, eutrophication,
beach closures) under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement will likely be
vulnerable to declines in water levels, warmer water temperatures, and more
intense precipitation" (Field et al. 2007, p. 629); and
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"[i]n North America's Prairie Pothole region [in the upper Midwest], models have
projected an increase in drought with a 3°C [5.4°F] regional temperature increase
and varying changes in precipitation, leading to large losses of wetlands and to
declines in the populations of waterfowl breeding there" (IPCC 2008, p. 140).
In the West:
earlier runoff of snowmelt, stressing some reservoir systems (IPCC 2007b, as
found in EPA 2007J);
"[s]pring and summer snow cover has decreased in the U.S. west" (Field et al.
2007, p. 622), and "[t]he fraction of annual precipitation falling as rain (rather than
snow) increased at 74% of the weather stations studied in the western mountains
of the U.S. from 1949 to 2004" (Field et al. 2007, p. 622);
"...in the Ogallala aquifer region, projected natural groundwater recharge
decreases more than 20% in all simulations with warming of 2.5°C [4.5°F] or
greater" (IPCC 2008, p. 51);
"[t]hreats to reliable supply are complicated by the high population growth rates in
western states where many water resources are at or approaching full
utili[z]ation" (Field et al. 2007, p. 633);
increased wildfire potential (IPCC 2007, as found in EPA 2007J); and
streamflow has decreased by about 2% per decade in the central Rocky
Mountain region over the last century (Field et al. 2007, p. 621).
In the Southwest:
annual precipitation has decreased (Field et al. 2007, p. 621);
"[i]n the southern Great Plains of the United States water temperatures are
already approaching lethal limits for many native stream fish" (IPCC 2008, p. 69);
"[b]y the 2020s, 41% of the supply to southern California is likely to be vulnerable
to warming from loss of Sierra Nevada and Colorado River basin snowpack"
(Field etal., 2007, p. 633).
"[h]eavily utili[z]ed groundwater-based systems in the southwest U.S. are likely
to experience additional stress from climate change that leads to decreased
recharge ..." (Field et al. 2007, p. 629).
In Alaska:
damage to infrastructure resulting from permafrost melting (IPCC 2007b, as
found in EPA 2007J);
"[Deductions in the extent of seasonally frozen ground and permafrost, and an
increase in active-layer thickness, have resulted in ... [t]he disappearance of
lakes due to draining within the permafrost, as detected in Alaska ..." (IPCC
2008, p. 43);
retreating sea ice and earlier snowmelt alter native people's traditional life styles
(IPCC 2007b, as found in EPA 2007J);
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• general increase in biological production from warming, but reduced sea ice and
warming disrupts polar bears, marine mammals, and other wildlife (IPCC 2007b,
as found in EPA 2007J);
• "[m]any indigenous communities in northern Canada and Alaska are already
experiencing constraints on lifestyles and economic activity from less reliable sea
and lake ice (for travelling, hunting, fishing, and whaling) ... and more exposed
coastal infrastructure from diminishing sea ice (Field et al. 2007, p. 625); and
• "[s]ome Alaskan villages are threatened and require protection or relocation at
projected costs up to US$54 million (Field et al. 2007, p. 623).
In Hawaii and the Pacific Islands:
• "[s]ea-level rise will exacerbate inundation, erosion and other coastal hazards,
threaten vital infrastructure, settlements and facilities, and thus compromise the
socio-economic well-being of island communities and states" (Mimura et al.
2007, p. 689);
• for small islands in the Pacific, changes in temperature, rainfall, and sea level
rise are projected to result in "accelerated coastal erosion, saline intrusion into
freshwater lenses, and increased flooding from the sea ..." (Mimura et al. 2007,
p. 696); and
• the projected sea level rise is expected to result in a 50% loss of mangrove area
in American Samoa, and a 12% reduction in the mangrove area within 15 other
Pacific islands (Mimura et al. 2007, p. 696).
For More Information:
For more information on how climate change may affect different regions
and States within the U.S., see:
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/usregions.html
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APPENDIX 2:
Summary List of Climate Change Actions
The following 44 key actions appear in the draft strategy, and this table indicates the
lead and supporting offices for each action.
Key Actions
Office of Water Lead
with Supporting Offices
Comments
1) Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
Energy Conservation/Production
1
Improve Energy Efficiency at
Water and Wastewater Utilities
OWM (Note that OAR
leads this work for the
Agency)
Water Conservation
2
3
4
5
6
Implement Water Sense
Program
Water Conservation at Drinking
Water Facilities
Water Conveyance and Leak
Detection Remedies
Industrial Water Conservation
and Reuse
Federal Agency Water
Conservation Guidance
OWM
OGWDW
OGWDW with OWM
OST
OWM
Green Building Design and Smart Growth
7
Promote Green Buildings
OWOW with OWM
Agriculture Related Mitigation
Carbon Sequestration/Injection
8
9
10
Develop Geologic Sequestration
Regulations
Continue Technical Workshops
Evaluate Ocean and
Subseabed Sequestration
OGWDW
OGWDW
OWOW
Biological Sequestration
11
Pilot Projects for Marketing NPS
Biological Sequestration
OWOW
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2) Water Program Adaptation to Climate Change
Water Quality and Technology-Based Standards
12
13
14
15
16
17
Address Impacts of Climate
Change on Potential
Contamination of Drinking
Water Sources
Assess Clean Water Microbial
Criteria and Risks of
Waterborne Disease
Consider Criteria for
Sedimentation/Velocity
Develop Biological Indicators
and Methods
Link Ecological and Landscape
Models
Evaluate New Industry Sectors
OGWDW
OST
OST
OST
OST
OST with OWM
Watershed Approach
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Watershed Climate Change
Policy Memo
Expand National Water
Resource Surveys to Address
Climate Change
Assess Fresh Waterbody
Spatial Changes Due to Climate
Change
Promote BASINS Climate
Assessment Tool
Climate Ready Estuaries
Continue Coral Reef Protections
Review/Revise NPS Guidelines
OWOW
OWOW
OW
OST
OWOW
OWOW
OWOW
NPDES Program
25
26
27
Review Permit Program Tools
Evaluate Climate Impacts on
Wet Weather Program
Assess Climate Impacts at
Animal Feeding Operation
OWM
OWM
OWM with OWOW
Water Infrastructure
28
29
30
Continue Implementing
Sustainable Infrastructure
Initiative
Sustainability Handbook with
Climate Impacts
Clarify Use of SRFs for Climate
Change Related Projects
OWM with OGWDW and
OWOW
OWM with OGWDW
OWM with OGWDW
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31
Expand Emergency Response
Planning
OGWDWwithOWM
Wetlands Protection
32
33
Implementation of 404
Regulatory Framework
Complete National Wetlands
Mapping Standard
OWOW
OWOW
3) Water/Climate Related Research
34
35
36
Monitoring of Water Related
CCSP Reports
Add Climate Research in ORD
Water Related Research Plans
OW Role in Revision of Global
Climate Research Plan
OST
OST
OST
4) Education on Climate Change
37
38
39
40
Clearinghouse/Website
Annual Public Reports on
Strategy Implementation
Outreach to Partners and
Stakeholders
Expand Existing Training
Programs
OW
OW
OW
OW
5) Climate Change Management
41
42
43
44
Maintain Office of Water
Climate Change Workgroup
Strategic Plan and Annual
Program Guidance
Regional Additions to National
Strategy
Federal Agency Water Climate
Coordination Group
OW
OW
Regions with OW
OW
EPA OFFICES:
OAR
OGWDW
OST
OW
OWM
OWOW
Office of Air and Radiation
Office of Groundwaterand Drinking Water (EPA's Office of Water)
Office of Science and Technology (EPA's Office of Water)
Office of Water
Office of Wastewater Management (EPA's Office of Water)
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds (EPA's Office of Water)
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APPENDIX 3:
Adaptations for Alaska Water Infrastructure
Alaska is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Changes in
permafrost have created stability issues for buildings. Greater storm intensity has
increased coastal erosion. Freeze-up is occurring later, increasing the risk of storm
surges to inundate the numerous villages located in the large river deltas. The
Government Accountability Office (GAO) identifies the communities of Kivalina,
Koyukuk, Newtek, and Shishmaref as being "in imminent danger from flooding and
erosion and are making plans to relocate" (GAO 2004, p. 3).
EPA, the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, and others are taking
steps to address these concerns.
Existing actions include:
• use of thermal siphons to ensure the stability of buildings located on
discontinuous permafrost; and
• avoid funding long-term improvements of water infrastructure where flooding or
erosion is an imminent danger to the facility.
Likely future actions include:
• modify designs of buildings and related infrastructure to include hardening to
address storm surges and/or sea level rise;
• prepare for extensive retrofitting to protect facilities from melting permafrost,
flooding, and/or erosion; and
• refine maps to show climate change impacts on a more local level.
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APPENDIX 4:
EPA Global Climate Change Research Related to Water
The Global Change Research Program in the EPA Office of Research and
Development (ORD) is developing important scientific information on the impacts of
climate change on the nation's water resources. Research projects now underway are
identified below.
• Aquatic Ecosystems and Climate Change: ORD will complete a report
assessing the impact of climate change on aquatic ecosystems.
• Uncertainty of Regional Impacts: ORD is developing models to improve
estimation of climate change impacts on regional and local scales.
• Regional Climate Change and Invasive Species: ORD will release an
assessment of the effects of climate change and interacting stressors on the
establishment and expansion of aquatic invasive species, and the implications for
resource management.
• Climate-Related Decisions in the Chesapeake Bay Program: ORD will
complete an assessment that inventories and prioritizes climate-related decisions
related to water quality in the Chesapeake Bay Program.
• Climate Change Consequences for Biocriteria: ORD will complete an
assessment of the consequences of global change for water quality related to
biocriteria in 2008.
• CSO Control and Impacts of Climate Change: ORD will release a final report
in 2008 on the implications of climate change for Combined Sewer Overflows in
the Great Lakes and New England areas.
• Water Quality-Based Effluent Limits at POTWs in the Great Lakes Region:
ORD will release a final report in 2008 on the implications of climate change for
water quality-based effluent limits at POTWs in the Great Lakes region.
• Water Erosion Prediction Model: In response to anticipated increases in soil
erosion as a result of climate change, ORD is incorporating a Climate
Assessment Tool into USDA's Water Erosion Prediction Project Model (WEPP),
expected to be available in 2008, to provide online capability for assessing
climate change impacts on sediment in streams.
• National Maps Depicting Land-Use Scenarios: ORD will release national
maps depicting land-use scenarios for the conterminous United States for use in
assessments of where climate-land use interactions may exacerbate impacts or
create adaptation opportunities.
• Coral Reefs and Climate Change: ORD will develop a report identifying
adaptation options for protecting coral reefs from multiple stressors, including
climate change, land-use practices, and other factors.
• Geologic Sequestration of CO2: ORD will assess and provide decision support
related to the behavior of injected C02 in the subsurface and impacts to drinking
water sources.
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APPENDIX 5:
Potential Climate Change/Water Research Needs
Given the extensive range of likely impacts of climate change on water resources, the
potential research topics in this field are almost limitless. The work now underway or
planned by the IPCC, the CCSP and the EPA ORD will make important contributions to
questions concerning water resources impacts of climate change, but additional
research will be needed. The National Water Program expects to play an active role in
identifying climate change/water resource research needs, both within the context of
existing research programs as well as in other forums. A key goal of this process will be
to identify from among the many potential research projects, those that are the most
important and pressing.
During the development of this Response to Climate Change, members of the Climate
Change Workgroup assessed climate change impacts on water resources and, as part
of this effort, developed ideas for additional research projects to fill gaps in current
knowledge. Although this is an initial list of research needs and is not yet complete or
ranked in terms of relative priority, it suggests the range of research needs in this area.
Human Health
• Better Predict Municipal Water Supply Impacts Associated with
Temperature Increases/Snow to Rain Shifts: Develop more complete
estimates of water supply impacts of snow to rain shifts, the correlation of
increased use of municipal water supplies, and water loss due to
evapotranspiration.
• Literature Review on Effects of Heat Stress: It is likely that humans will
continue to modify their environment to deal with rising temperature.
Nevertheless, given the expected increase in frequency of extreme temperature
events, people will be exposed to higher temperatures for at least short periods
of time. Toxicological tests for all endpoints are done in animals kept at steady,
standard temperatures. Thus, the extent to which temperature increases affects
observations in these tests needs to be investigated.
• Assess Population at Risk of Salt Water Intrusion to Drinking Water Wells:
Identify the population that relies on public and private drinking water wells that
may be at risk to intrusion of salt water and the likely impacts on nearby
community water systems.
• Determine Climate Change Impacts on Ground Water and Surface Water
Interactions: Investigate the impacts from climate change on aquifer levels,
aquifer recharge and surface water levels. In turn this should be related to
stream flows and wetland health.
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Ecosystem Effects
• Estimate Location of Loss of Shellfishing Areas: Identify coastal waters used
for shellfishing and assess the impact of expected sea level rise on the
productivity and viability of these areas, including estimates of economic impacts.
• Maintaining Water Retention Rates within Watersheds: Develop methods to
scale the rates of retention of watersheds and indices to compare retention rate
impacts of land use shifts, including retention rates of various practices (e.g.,
green roofs, impervious surfaces, retention basins, wetlands).
• Increasing Resilience of Aquatic Ecosystems: Identify the elements of
aquatic ecosystems that foster increased resilience of the ecosystem and identify
ways to strengthen and expand these elements.
• Estimate Hypoxia/DO Events: Identify coastal and fresh waters most at risk to
decreased levels of oxygen in the water as a result of warmer air and water
temperatures, the extent of increase of such events, and the environmental costs
and economic impacts of the events.
• NPS Management Models: Develop models to forecast NPS loadings under
variable climate change scenarios including changes in velocity of flows and
pollutant concentrations and describe how these models can be used in design
of NPS control plans and watershed plans.
• Impacts of Salinity Changes on Health of Aquatic Systems: Identify the
waters most at risk of increasing levels of salinity and the likely impacts on
fisheries and the health of aquatic systems.
• Identify Flow Changes on Water Quality: Identify the water pollutant increases
and the hydrologic changes associated with flow changes , i.e., flooding of
varying types (e.g., inland, coastal) and drought conditions.
Technology Studies
• Support Models to Determine Localized Impacts of Climate Change: EPA
will support and work with leading scientific agencies and academic and research
foundations which are working toward downscaling of climate change models.
The goal is to provide regional climate data that states and local water resource
managers can use to make local predictions of climate change impacts and
trends on their water resources.
• Stormwater Injection Wells: Identify potential issues and benefits of injection of
stormwater into underground geologic formations and recommend how this
practice might best be managed in the future.
• Biofuels Impacts on Water Quantity and Quality: Evaluate the impact of
increased biofuels production on water quality (e.g., increased land in crop
production and increased use of fertilizer/pesticides) and use of water for
production of biofuels.
• Assess Drinking Water Treatment Complications Associated with Climate
Change Impacts: Assess the impacts of climate change (e.g., salt water
intrusion, increased source water sediment and organic levels, and increased
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microorganism levels in water) for treatment of drinking water and for compliance
with drinking water standards.
Energy Savings of Water Conservation: Evaluate the potential for energy
savings associated with different water conservation practices in areas of the
country served by different power generation sources (e.g., coal-fired power
plants vs. hydropower).
Alternative Water Supplies: Assess issues associated with the development of
alternative water sources as part of a suite of water supply management
techniques (e.g., the best methods to evaluate the suitability of underground sites
for the storage of water for future use; the water quality implications of
desalination.)
Effects of Water Conservation on Treatment Plant Operations: Evaluate the
impact of water conservation practices that reengineer water conveyance and
reuse on the efficiency of conventional sewage treatment plant operations (i.e.,
dewatering of influent).
Methane Cleaning Technology: Identify technologies to more cost effectively
and reliably clean methane from sewage treatment plant digesters to allow for
combustion of power of fuel cells.
Identify Energy Efficient Treatment Technologies: Identify energy efficient
treatment technologies for drinking water treatment, wastewater treatment, and
industrial wastewater treatment.
Investigate Energy Conservation Measures: Topics include assessing less
energy intensive treatment methods, identifying opportunities for on-site
combined heat and power production efforts such as utilizing biogas from
anaerobic digesters and/or low head small hydroelectric, identifying more
efficient processing of biosolids, and assessing the potential benefits of co-
location of power plants and water utilities.
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APPENDIX 6:
Glossary of Water Program and Climate Change Terms
Key terms used in this Strategy related to water programs and climate change are
defined below. Many of these terms are further defined on the EPA Office of Water
website.
Adaptation (to climate change) - "Adjustment in natural or human systems in response
to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits
beneficial opportunities." http://www.ipcc-wg2.org/index.html (click on "glossary" of
the Working Group II (WGII) contribution to the Fourth IPCC Assessment Report)
AgSTAR - The AgSTAR Program is a voluntary effort jointly sponsored by the EPA,
USDA, and USDOE. The program encourages the use of methane recovery (biogas)
technologies at concentrated animal feeding operations that manage manure as liquids
or slurries, http://www.epa.gov/agstar/
Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) - ASR is the process of injecting water at times
of high supply with the intention to retrieve the stored water at a later date.
Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS) -
BASINS is a multi-purpose environmental analysis system that integrates a
geographical information system (CIS), national watershed data, and state-of-the-art
environmental assessment and modeling tools. The Climate Assessment Tool (CAT) is
an element of the BASINS water modeling program that is useful for learning about
climate change impacts on water resources, especially impaired waters.
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/BASINS/
Biofuels - A gaseous, liquid, or solid fuel that contains an energy content derived from
a biological source, http://www.epa.gov/trs/
Carbon sequestration - Carbon sequestration refers to "[t]he process of increasing the
carbon content of a reservoir/pool other than the atmosphere" http://www.ipcc-
wg2.org/index.html (click on "glossary" of the WGII contribution to the Fourth IPCC
Assessment Report). The draft strategy refers to several types of sequestration,
including subseabed and ocean, geologic, and biological.
Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) - The interagency U.S. CCSP coordinates
and integrates scientific research on global change and climate change, including
research related to water, sponsored by 13 participating departments and agencies.
The CCSP incorporates the U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) and the
Climate Change Research Initiative (CCRI). http://www.climatescience.gov/,
http://www.usgcrp.gov, http://www.climatescience.gov/about/ccri.htm
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Combined heat and power (CHP) - CHP, also known as cogeneration, is an efficient,
clean, and reliable approach to generating power and thermal energy from a single fuel
source, http://www.epa.gov/chp/
Combined sewer overflow (CSO) - Combined sewer systems (CSSs) are sewers that
are designed to collect rainwater runoff, domestic sewage, and industrial wastewater in
the same pipe. During periods of heavy rainfall or snowmelt, the wastewater volume in
a CSS can exceed the capacity of the sewer system or treatment plant. For this reason,
CSSs are designed to overflow occasionally and discharge excess wastewater directly
to nearby water bodies. These overflows are referred to as CSOs.
http://www.epa.gov/npdes/cso
Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) - The SDWA includes a process to identify and list
unregulated contaminants that may require a national drinking water regulation in the
future. EPA must periodically publish this list of contaminants—called the CCL—and
decide whether to regulate at least five or more contaminants on the list.
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/ccl/index.html
Effluent limitations guidelines (ELGs) - Effluent guidelines are national standards for
wastewater discharges to surface waters and publicly owned treatment works
(municipal sewage treatment plants), http://www.epa.gov/guide/
ENERGY STAR - ENERGY STAR is a joint program of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Energy designed to help save money
and protect the environment through energy efficient products and practices.
http://www.energystar.gov/
Five Star Restoration Grant Program - The Five Star Restoration Program brings
together students, conservation corps, other youth groups, citizen groups, corporations,
landowners, and government agencies to provide environmental education and training
through projects that restore wetlands and streams. The program provides challenge
grants, technical support, and opportunities for information exchange to enable
community-based restoration projects.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/restore/5star/
Green building - Green or sustainable building is the practice of creating healthier and
more resource-efficient models of construction, renovation, operation, maintenance, and
demolition, http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/
Greenhouse effect - Energy from the Sun drives the Earth's weather and climate. The
Earth absorbs energy from the Sun and also radiates energy back into space.
However, much of this energy going back to space is absorbed by "greenhouse gases"
in the atmosphere. Because the atmosphere then radiates most of this energy back to
the Earth's surface, the planet is warmer than it would be if the atmosphere did not
contain these gases. Without this natural "greenhouse effect" temperatures would be
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about 60°F (about 33°C) lower than they are now, and life as we know it today would
not be possible, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/index.html
Greenhouse gas (GHG) - Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are often called
greenhouse gases. Some greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide occur naturally
and are emitted to the atmosphere through natural processes and human activities.
Other greenhouse gases (e.g., fluorinated gases) are created and emitted solely
through human activities. The principal greenhouse gases that enter the atmosphere
because of human activities are: carbon dioxide (CC^), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N20), and fluorinated gases (hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur
hexafluoride).
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/index.htmHfggo
Green infrastructure - Green infrastructure represents a new approach to stormwater
management that is cost-effective, sustainable, and environmentally friendly. Green
infrastructure techniques utilize natural systems, or engineered systems that mimic
natural landscapes, to capture, cleanse and reduce stormwater runoff using plants, soils
and microbes, http://www.epa.gov/npdes/greeninfrastructure
Green power - Renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, geothermal, biogas,
biomass and low-impact hydro generate green power. Not all sources of power
generation share the same environmental benefits. As a result, green power is
considered a subset of renewable energy.
http://www.epa.gov/greenpower/whatis/index.htm
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) - The IPCC was established by
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic information
relevant for the understanding of climate change, its potential impacts and options for
adaptation and mitigation, http://www.ipcc.ch/
Leadership for Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) - "The [LEED] Green
Building Rating System™ is the nationally accepted benchmark for the design,
construction, and operation of high performance green buildings."
http://www.usgbc.org/LEED/
Low impact development (LID) - LID is development that results in low impacts on
natural resources. This is done by using planning and designs that preserve green
space and manage stormwater to minimize increases in flow and pollutants. LID
techniques include conservation of forests and sensitive waters, water reuse, and
stormwater controls that detain and retain rainfall throughout the development.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lid/stormwater_hq/pdf/qanda.pdf
Mitigation (of greenhouse gases) - "An anthropogenic intervention to reduce the
anthropogenic forcing of the climate system, it includes strategies to reduce greenhouse
gas sources and emissions and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks." http://www.ipcc-
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wg2.org/index.html (click on "glossary" of the WGII contribution to the Fourth IPCC
Assessment Report)
National Dredging Team - The interagency U.S. National Dredging Team was
established in 1995 to implement the recommendations in a 1994 report to the
Secretary of Transportation on the dredging process, to promote national and regional
consistency on dredging issues, and to provide a mechanism for issue resolution and
information exchange among federal, state, and local agencies and stakeholders.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/ndt/
National Estuary Program (NEP) - EPA's NEP was established by Congress in 1987
to improve the quality of estuaries of national importance. The NEP is a voluntary
program that brings community members together to improve their estuary using a
forum to establish working relationships and develop solutions.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) - As authorized by the
Clean Water Act, the NPDES permit program controls water pollution by regulating point
sources that discharge pollutants into waters of the United States.
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/
National Water Program - The National Water Program is a cooperative effort by
Federal, State, Tribal, and local governments to implement core laws, including the Safe
Drinking Water Act and the Clean Water Act, to protect and improve the quality of the
Nation's waters.
National Water Program Climate Change Workgroup - This EPA workgroup is
chaired by the Deputy Assistant Administrator for Water and includes managers from
the Office of Water, the Water Divisions within regional EPA offices, the Office of Air
and Radiation, and the Office of Research and Development. The workgroup will
oversee water program work related to climate change.
Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution - NPS pollution, unlike pollution from industrial and
sewage treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources. NPS pollution is caused
by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it
picks up and carries away natural and human-made pollutants, finally depositing them
into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and even underground sources of drinking
water, http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/qa.html
Radiative forcing - "Radiative forcing is the change in the net, downward minus
upward, irradiance (expressed in W m-2) at the tropopause due to a change in an
external driver of climate change, such as, for example, a change in the concentration
of carbon dioxide or the output of the Sun." http://ipcc-
wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/Report/AR4WG1 _Print_Annexes.pdf
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Renewable energy - To be considered renewable energy, a resource must rely on
naturally existing energy flows such as sunshine, wind and water flowing. The energy
source, or "fuel", must be replaced by natural processes at a rate that is equal to, or
faster than, the rate at which the energy source is consumed.
http://www.epa.gov/greenpower/whatis/renewableenergy.htm
Sanitary Sewer Overflow (SSO) - Occasional unintentional discharges of raw sewage
from municipal sanitary sewers occur in almost every system, which are referred to as
SSOs. SSOs have a variety of causes, including but not limited to severe weather,
improper system operation and maintenance, and vandalism.
http://www.epa.gov/npdes/sso
Smart growth - Smart growth covers a range of development and conservation
strategies that help protect our natural environment and make our communities more
attractive, economically stronger, and more socially diverse, http://www.epa.gov/dced/
State Revolving Fund (SRF) - There are two types of SRFs—the Clean Water SRF
(CWSRF) and the Drinking Water SRF (DWSRF). CWSRF programs fund water quality
protection projects for wastewater treatment, nonpoint source pollution control, and
watershed and estuary management. CWSRF monies are loaned to communities and
loan repayments are recycled back into the program to fund additional water quality
protection projects, http://www.epa.gov/owm/cwfinance/cwsrf/
The DWSRF provides capitalization grants to states to develop drinking water revolving
loan funds to help finance system infrastructure improvements, assure source water
protection, enhance operation and management of drinking water systems, and
otherwise promote local water system compliance and protection of public health.
http://www.epa.gov/trs/an6 http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwsrf/index.html
Sustainable Infrastructure Initiative - The Sustainable Infrastructure Initiative for
Water and Wastewater will guide EPA's efforts in changing how the nation views,
values, manages, and invests in its water infrastructure.
http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/
Total maximum daily load (TMDL) - A TMDL is a calculation of the maximum amount
of a pollutant that a waterbody can receive and still meet water quality standards, and
an allocation of that amount to the pollutant's sources.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/tmdl/intro.htmindefinition
Underground Injection Control Program - EPA's UIC Program works with State and
local governments to oversee underground injection of fluids in order to prevent
contamination of drinking water resources.
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/index.html
Water infrastructure - Water infrastructure refers to the network of infrastructure that
provides the public with access to water and sanitation and includes drinking water
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treatment plants, sewer lines, drinking water distribution lines, and storage facilities.
http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/
Water quality standards (WQS) - WQS are the foundation of the water quality-based
pollution control program mandated by the Clean Water Act. WQS define the goals for
a waterbody by designating its uses, setting criteria to protect those uses, and
establishing antidegradation policies, http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/standards/
Water reuse - Water reuse is the use of process wastewater or treatment facility
effluent in a different manufacturing process, http://www.epa.gov/trs/
WaterSense - WaterSense is a voluntary partnership program that seeks to protect the
future of the nation's water supply by promoting water efficiency and enhancing the
market for water-efficient products, programs, and practices. The WaterSense label will
indicate that products and programs meet water efficiency and performance criteria.
http://www.epa.gov/watersense/
Watershed approach - The watershed approach is a coordinating framework for
environmental management that focuses public and private sector efforts to address the
highest priority problems within hydrologically defined geographic areas, taking into
consideration both ground and surface water flow.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/framework/ch2.html
Wetland Program Development Grant (WPDG) - The Wetland Program Development
Grants provide eligible applicants an opportunity to conduct projects that promote the
coordination and acceleration of research, investigations, experiments, training,
demonstrations, surveys, and studies relating to the causes, effects, extent, prevention,
reduction, and elimination of water pollution.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/grantguidelines/
7Q10 - 7Q10 refers to the 7-day average low flow occurring once in 10 years.
http://www.epa.gov/trs/
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APPENDIX?:
Water Program and Climate Change Acronyms
Acronyms used in this Strategy related to water programs and climate change are
defined below.
AAM Advanced asset management
AFO Animal feeding operation
ASR Aquifer storage and recovery
BASINS Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources
BMP Best management practice
BPJ Best professional judgment
CAA Clean Air Act
CAFO Concentrated animal feeding operation
CAT Climate Assessment Tool (BASINS)
CCL Contaminant Candidate List
CCSP Climate Change Science Program
CHP Combined heat and power
CSO Combined sewer overflow
CWA Clean Water Act
CWNS Clean Watersheds Needs Survey
CWSRF Clean Water State Revolving Fund
CZARA Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments of 1990
DHS Department of Homeland Security
DO Dissolved oxygen
OWNS Drinking Water Needs Survey
ELGs Effluent limitations guidelines
EMS Environmental management system
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
GS Geologic sequestration
ICS Incident Command System
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
LEED-NC Leadership for Energy and Environmental Design for New
Construction
LEED-ND Leadership for Energy and Environmental Design for Neighborhood
Development
MPRSA Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
MS4 Municipal separate storm sewer system
MYP Multi-year plan
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NEP National Estuary Program
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NPS Nonpoint source (pollution)
NWI National Wetlands Inventory
OAR Office of Air and Radiation (EPA)
Office of Water
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
91
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OGWDW Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water (EPA's Office of Water)
O&M Operations and maintenance
ORD Office of Research and Development (EPA)
OST Office of Science and Technology (EPA's Office of Water)
OWM Office of Wastewater Management (EPA's Office of Water)
OWOW Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds (EPA's Office of Water)
POTWs Publicly owned treatment works
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act
SONS Spill of National Significance
SRF State Revolving Fund
SSO Sanitary sewer overflow
TMDL Total maximum daily load
UIC Underground injection control
USAGE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
USDOE U.S. Department of Energy
USGBC U.S. Green Building Council
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
WEPP Water Erosion Prediction Project (USDA model)
WPDG Wetlands Program Development Grants
WQBELs Water quality-based effluent limitations
WQS Water quality standards
Office of Water
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
92
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APPENDIX 8:
References and Further Reading
References for works cited in this Strategy are provided below along with suggested
further reading.
References
Asrar, G., J.A. Kaye, and P. Morel. 2001. "NASA Research Strategy for Earth System
Science: Climate Component." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82,
pp. 1309-1329. http://www-nacip.ucsd.edu/BAMS8270701AsrarKayeMorel.pdf
Barker, T., I. Bashmakov, A. Alharthi, M. Amann, L. Cifuentes, J. Drexhage, M. Duan,
0. Edenhofer, B. Flannery, M. Grubb, M. Hoogwijk, F. I. Ibitoye, C. J. Jepma, W. A.
Pizer, K. Yamaji. 2007. Mitigation from a Cross-sectoral Perspective. In: IPCC.
2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
[Metz, B., 0. Davidson, P. Bosch, R. Dave, L. Meyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3-chapter11.pdf
Bindoff, N.L., J. Willebrand, V. Artale, A, Cazenave, J.M. Gregory, S. Gulev, K. Hanawa,
C. Le Quere, S. Levitus, Y. Nojiri, C.K. Shum, L.D. Talley, and A.S. Unnikrishnan.
2007. Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level. In: IPCC. 2007.
Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group
I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.
Tignorand H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter5.pdf
Burkett, V., J.O. Codignotto, D.L. Forbes, N. Mimura, R.J. Beamish, and V. Ittekkot.
2001. Coastal Zones and Marine Ecosystems. In: IPCC. 2001. Climate Change
2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to
the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
[McCarthy, J.J., O.F. Canziani, N.A. Leary, D.J. Dokken, and K.S. White (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,
U SA. http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm
California Department of Water Resources. 2005. Department of Water Resources
Bulletin 160-05. California Water Plan Update 2005: A Framework for Action.
Division of Planning and Local Assistance, California Department of Water
Resources, Sacramento, California.
http://www.waterplan.water.ca.gov/previous/cwpu2005/index.cfm
Office of Water 93
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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Christensen, J.H., B. Hewitson, A. Busuioc, A. Chen, X. Gao, I. Held, R. Jones, R.K.
Kolli, W.-T. Kwon, R. Laprise, V. Magana Rueda, L. Mearns, C.G. Menendez, J.
Raisanen, A. Rinke, A. Sarr and P. Whetton. 2007. Regional Climate Projections.
In: IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change. [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B.
Averyt, M. Tignorand H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter11.pdf
Cohen, S., K. Miller, K. Duncan, E. Gregorich, P. Groffman, P. Kovacs, V. Magana, D.
McKnight, E. Mills, and D. Schimel. 2001. North America. In: IPCC. 2001. Climate
Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working
Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. [McCarthy, J.J., O.F. Canziani, N.A. Leary, D.J. Dokken, K.S.
White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, NY, USA. http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/548.htm
Consortium for Energy Efficiency (GEE). 2007. "Initiative Description: GEE National
Municipal Water and Wastewater Facility Initiative." http://www.cee1.org/ind/mot-
sys/ww/ww-init-des.pdf
Denman, K.L., G. Brasseur, A. Chidthaisong, P. Ciais, P. M. Cox, R. E. Dickinson, D.
Hauglustaine, C. Heinze, E. Holland, D. Jacob, U. Lohmann, S. Ramachandran, P.
Leite da Silva Dias, S. C. Wofsy, and X. Zhang. 2007. Couplings Between
Changes in the Climate System and Biogeochemistry. In: IPCC. 2007. Climate
Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
[Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor
and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom
and New York, NY, USA. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter7.pdf
Dooley, J.J., R.T. Dahowski, C.L. Davidson, M.A. Wise, N. Gupta, S.H. Kim, and E.L.
Malone. 2006. Carbon Dioxide Capture and Geologic Storage: A Core Element of
a Global Energy Technology Strategy to Address Climate Change. A Technology
Report from the Second Phase of the Global Energy Technology Strategy
Program. PNNL-15296. Battelle, Joint Global Change Research Institute, Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory, College Park, MD.
http://www.pnl.gov/gtsp/docs/ccs_report.pdf
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). 2002. Water and Sustainability (Volume 3):
U. S. Water Consumption for Power Production-The Next Half Century. Report
Number 1006786. Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California.
http://www.epri.com (This report is downloadable from the EPRI website.)
Office of Water 94
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Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2004. Table 1.1. Net Generation by Energy
Source: Total (All Sectors), 1990 through January 2004. Energy Information
Administration, Washington, DC.
http://www.eia.doe.goV//cneaf/electricity/epm/table1_1.html
EPA. 2007a. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Science.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/index.html, accessed on February
8, 2008.
EPA. 2007b. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Science: Temperature
Changes, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/recenttc.html, accessed
on February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007c. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Science: Future Temperature
Changes, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/futuretc.html, accessed
on February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007d. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Science: Precipitation and
Storm Changes, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/recentpsc.html,
accessed on February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007e. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Science: Future Precipitation
and Storm Changes.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/futurepsc.html, accessed on
February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007f. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Science: Sea Level Changes.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/recentslc.html, accessed on
February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007g. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Science: Future Sea Level
Changes, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/futureslc.html, accessed
on February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007h. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Health and Environmental
Effects: Water Quality.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/water/quality.html, accessed on
February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007i. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Health and Environmental
Effects: Water Availability.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/water/availability.html, accessed on
February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007J. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Health and Environmental
Effects: Water Resources in North America.
Office of Water 95
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http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/usregions.html, accessed on
February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007k. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Health and Environmental
Effects: Coral Reefs.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/eco_coral.html, accessed on
February 8, 2008.
EPA. 20071. Climate Change Website. Climate Change-Health and Environmental
Effects: Coastal Zones and Sea Level Rise.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/coastal/index.html, accessed on
February 8, 2008.
EPA. 2007m. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2005. EPA
430-R-07-002. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.html.
EPA. 2007n. Opportunities for and Benefits of Combined Heat and Power at
Wastewater Treatment Facilities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Combined Heat and Power Partnership, Washington, DC.
http://www.epa.gov/chp/documents/wwt1jopportunities.pd1
EPA. 2007o. WaterSense Program Files. Cynthia Simbanin and Stephanie Tanner,
WaterSense Program, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
EPA. 2006. "Wastewater Management Fact Sheet: Energy Conservation." U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC. EPA 832-F-
06-024. http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/energycon_fasht_final.pdf
EPA. 2005. Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Potential in U.S. Forestry and Agriculture. EPA
430-R-05-006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Atmospheric
Programs, Washington, DC.
http://www.epa.gov/sequestration/pdf/greenhousegas2005.pdf
EPA. 2004. Guidelines for Water Reuse. EPA/625/R-04/108. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC.
EPA. 2002. Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis. EPA-816-R-
02-020. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC.
http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/infrastructuregap.html
EPA. 1999. 1999 Update of Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Ammonia. EPA-822-R-
99-014. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC.
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/ammonia/99update.pdf
Office of Water 96
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EPA. 1986. Ambient Aquatic Life Water Quality Criteria for Pentachlorophenol. EPA-
440-5-86-009. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water,
Washington, DC. http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/1980docs.htm
Field, C.B., L.D. Mortsch, M. Brklacich, D.L. Forbes, P. Kovacs, J.A. Patz, S.W.
Running, and M.J. Scott. 2007. North America. In: IPCC. 2007. Climate Change
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[M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson,
(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York,
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Government Accountability Office (GAO). 2004. Alaska Native Villages: Villages
Affected by Flooding and Erosion Have Difficulty Qualifying for Federal Assistance.
GAO-04-895T. GAO, Washington, DC. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt7GAO-
04-895T
Grumbles, B.H. July/August 2007. "Drops to Watts: Leveraging the Water and Energy
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Forester Communications.
http://www.waterefficiency.net/we_0707_guesteditora.html
IPCC. 2008. Technical Paper on Climate Change and Water.
http://www.ipcc.ch/meetings/session28/doc13.pdf
IPCC. 2007a. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
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Averyt, M. Tignor, and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
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http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg1.htm
IPCC. 2007b. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution
of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change. [Parry, M., 0. Canziani, J. Palutikof, P. van der Linden,
C. Hanson (eds.)] Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, USA, 976 pp. http://www.ipcc-wg2.org/
IPCC. 2007c. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the
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[Metz, B., 0. Davidson, P. Bosch, R. Dave, L. Meyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University
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IPCC. 2005. IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Prepared
by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [Metz, B.,
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Kundzewicz, Z.W., L.J. Mata, N.W. Arnell, P. Doll, P. Kabat, B. Jimenez, K.A. Miller, T.
Oki, Z. Sen and I.A. Shiklomanov. 2007. Freshwater Resources and Their
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Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,
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National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 2006. Goddard Institute for
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Sustainable Development, Policy Division, NRC. National Academy Press,
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Orth, J.R., T.J.B. Carruthers, W.C. Dennison, C.M. Duarte, J.W. Fourqurean, K.L. Jeck,
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Further Reading
American Waterworks Association Research Foundation (AwwaRF) and the University
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the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean, University of Washington, and King
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EPA. 2006. A Screening Assessment of the Potential Impacts of Climate Change on the
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EPA. 1995. Ecological Impacts from Climate Change: An Economic Analysis of
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EPA. 1989. The Potential Effects of Global Climate Change on the United States:
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Office of Water 104
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APPENDIX 9:
Acknowledgments
This document was prepared by the National Water Program Climate Change
Workgroup. Members of the Workgroup are:
EPA Office of the Assistant Administrator for Water
Michael Shapiro (Deputy Assistant Administrator for Water and Workgroup
Chair), Jeff Peterson (Workgroup Staff Lead), William Anderson, Katharine
Dowell, Wendy Drake and Surabhi Shah
Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water
Ann Codrington, Elizabeth Corr, and Mike Muse
Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds
Rachel Fertik Katie Flahive, Kathleen Kutschenreuter, Bonnie Thie, and John
Wilson
Office of Wastewater Management
Jeremy Arling, Linda Boornazian, Andy Crossland, Sarah Hilbrich, Tom Laverty,
Karen Metchis, and Martha Segall
Office of Science and Technology
Robert Cantilli, Fred Leutner, Suzanne Rudzinski, and William Swietlik
American Indian Environmental Office
Jeff Besougloff
Office of Research and Development
Joel Scheraga
Office of Air and Radiation
Rona Birnbaum and Dina Kruger
EPA Regional Offices
Region 1: Stephen Perkins
Region 2: Douglas Pabst
Region 3: Joe Piotrowski
Region 4: Linda Rimer
Region 5: Joan Karnauskas
Region 6: James Brown
Region 7: Karen Flournoy
Region 8: Gene Reetz, Carol Russell
Region 9: Karen Schwinn and Cheryl McGovern
Region 10: Paula VanHaagen
Office of Water 105
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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