A Study of Potential Effectiveness of
   Carbon Dioxide Reducing Vehicle
   Technologies
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency

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                   A  Study of Potential Effectiveness of
                     Carbon Dioxide Reducing Vehicle
                                    Technologies
                                 Assessment and Standards Division
                                 Office of Transportation and Air Quality
                                 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                                       Prepared for EPA by
                                          Ricardo, Inc.
                                    EPA Contract No. EP-C-06-003
                                     Work Assignment No. 1-14
v>EPA
                  NOTICE

                  This technical report does not necessarily represent final EPA decisions or
                  positions. It is intended to present technical analysis of issues using data
                  that are currently available. The purpose in the release of such reports is to
                  facilitate the exchange of technical information and to inform the public of
                  technical developments.
United States                                         EPA420-R-08-004
Environmental Protection                                   ,     „„„
Agency                                             January 2008

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          RICARDO
A STUDY OF POTENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF CARBON
   DIOXIDE REDUCING VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES
            21 December, 2007

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   THIS PROJECT WAS FUNDED UNDER SUBCONTRACT 06003-08 BY
 PERRIN QUARLES ASSOCIATES, INC. UNDER CONTRACT EP-C-06-003,
 WORK ASSIGNMENT 1-14 TO THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
                         AGENCY
  THE FOLLOWING ORGANIZATIONS CONTRIBUTED TO THIS STUDY:

                       RICARDO, INC.
               RICARDO STRATEGIC CONSULTING
                       RICARDO, PLC
              PERRIN QUARLES ASSOCIATES, INC.
         THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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                 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE	i
NOTICES	ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS	iii
LIST OF  FIGURES	vi
LIST OF  TABLES	viii
1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY	1
  1.1 BASELINE RESULTS	2
  1.2 TECHNOLOGIES CONSIDERED	2
  1.3 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES	3
  1.4 VEHICLE/TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE RESULTS	6
2.0 INTRODUCTION	12
  2.1 THE NEED TO CONSIDER VEHICLE PERFORMANCE AS WELL AS
  CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS	12
  2.2 OBJECTIVES	12
  2.3 SIMULATION APPROACH	13
  2.4 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS	13
  2.5 TECHNOLOGY READINESS	14
  2.6 SCOPE OF WORK	14
  2.7 REPRESENTATIVE VEHICLE CLASSES AND BASELINE VEHICLES...14
  2.8 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES	15
  2.9 TECHNOLOGY SENSITIVITY CASE STUDIES	21
  2.10 TEST CYCLES AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA	21
   2.10.1 Test Cycles	21
   2.10.2 Fuel Economy and C02 Equivalency	21
   2.10.3 Vehicle Performance Criteria	21
  2.11 INPUT DATA AND MODELING APPROACH OVERVIEW	23
  2.12 COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS	24
  2.13 SECTION 2 REFERENCES	25
3.0 VEHICLE MODEL	26
  3.1 ENGINE MODEL	26
  3.2 ENGINE MODEL-WARMUP	27
  3.3 ENGINE MODEL - CYLINDER DEACTIVATION	28
  3.4 ENGINE ACCESSORIES MODEL	28
  3.5 TRANSMISSION MODEL	28
  3.6 TORQUE CONVERTER MODEL	29
  3.7 FINAL DRIVE DIFFERENTIAL MODEL	29
  3.8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS	29
  3.9 DRIVER MODEL	29
  3.10 STOP-START MODEL	30
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4.0 DISCUSSION OF BASELINE VEHICLE CLASS
RESULTS AND COMPARISON WITH COMPARATOR
VEHICLE	35
5.0 INDIVIDUAL TECHNOLOGIES STUDIED	39
  5.1 ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES	39
    5.1.1 Cam Phaser Systems-Variable Valve Timing (VVT)	39
      5.1.1.1 Advantages	39
      5.1.1.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks	40
      5.1.1.3 Source of Engine Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) Maps
      	40
    5.1.2 Variable Valve Lift Systems	40
      5.1.2.1 Continuously Variable Valve Lift (CVVL)	40
      5.1.2.2 Discrete Variable Valve Lift (DWL)	41
      5.1.2.3 Advantages Compared to CAM Phasers Only	42
      5.1.2.4 Disadvantages and Technical Risks	42
      5.1.2.5 Source of Engine BSFC Maps	43
       5.1.2.5.1 CVVL	43
       5.1.2.5.2 DWL	43
    5.1.3 Cylinder Deactivation	43
      5.1.3.1 Advantages	46
      5.1.3.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks	46
      5.1.3.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps	46
    5.1.4 Gasoline Direct Injection	46
      5.1.4.1 Advantages of Homogeneous Stoichiometric Dl	47
      5A.4.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks of Homogeneous
      Stoichiometric Dl	48
      5.1.4.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps	48
    5.1.5 Turbocharged/Downsized Gasoline Engine	49
      5.1.5.1 Advantages	51
      5.1.5.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks	51
      5.1.5.3 Source of Engine BSFC	52
    5.1.6 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)	52
      5.1.6.1 Advantages	53
      5.1.6.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks	53
      5.1.6.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps	54
    5.1.7 Cam less Valvetrain	56
      5.1.7.1 Advantages Compared to CAM Phasers Only	57
      5.1.7.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks	58
      5.1.7.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps	58
    5.1.8 Diesel Engine	58
      5.1.8.1 Advantages	58
      5.1.8.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks	58
      5.1.8.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps	59
      5.1.8.4 2L Diesel Engine	59
       5.1.8.4.1 Gas Handling System	59
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       5.1.8.4.2 Combustion System	59
       5.1.8.4.3 After-treatment	60
      5.1.8.5 2.8L Diesel Engine	60
       5.1.8.5.1 Gas Handling System	60
       5.1.8.5.2 Combustion System	61
       5.1.8.5.3 After-treatment	61
      5.1.8.6 4.8L Diesel Engine	61
       5.1.8.6.1 Gas Handling System	61
       5.1.8.6.2 Combustion System	62
       5.1.8.6.3 After-treatment	62
      5.1.8.7 Diesel Aftertreatment Fuel Economy Impact	62
    5.1.9 Stop-Start	63
      5.1.9.1 Advantages	63
      5.1.9.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks	64
  5.2 TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES	64
    5.2.1  Losses in Power Transmission Elements	65
    5.2.2 Losses in Bearings	66
    5.2.3 Losses in Sealing Elements	67
    5.2.4 Churning and Drag Losses	68
    5.2.5 Pump Losses	69
    5.2.6 Overall Efficiencies of Transmission Systems	70
      5.2.6.1 Automatic Transm ission	70
      5.2.6.2 Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT)	71
       5.2.6.2.1 Wet-Clutch DCT	71
       5.2.6.2.2 Dry-Clutch DCT	72
      5.2.6.3 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)	73
  5.3 SECTION 5 REFERENCES	74
6.0 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES	76
  6.1 ADDITIONAL TECHNOLOGIES	79
    6.1.1  Aerodynamic Drag and Rolling Resistance	79
    6.1.2 Friction Multiplier	79
7.0 RESULTS	80
  7.1 SELECTED POWERTRAIN (ENGINE & TRANSMISSION) TECHNOLOGY
  PACKAGE RESULTS	80
    7.1.1  Direct Injection Gasoline Engines with Cylinder Deactivation	80
    7.1.2 Turbo/Downsize, Gasoline Direct Injection Engines	81
    7.1.3 Cam less Gasoline Engines	81
    7.1.4 Gasoline Engines Operating on HCCI	83
  7.2 INCREMENTAL RESULTS ON SELECTED VEHICLE / TECHNOLOGY
  PACKAGE COMBINATIONS	84
  7.3 FINAL RESULTS	87
  7.4 CLOSING COMMENTS	99
TERMINOLOGY	100
APPENDIX	103
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                           LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1: Comparison of simulated CO2 output for the baseline vehicle classes	2
Figure 3-1: Basic Stop-Start Strategy	30
Figure 3-2: Starter / Alternator Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency	31
Figure 3-3: Electric Oil Pump Hydraulic Power Equipment	32
Figure 3-4: Electric Oil Pump Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency	33
Figure 3-5: Electric Water Pump Hydraulic Power	34
Figure 3-6: Electric Water Pump Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency	34
Figure 4-1: FTP City Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle	36
Figure 4-2: HWFET Highway Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results
and Comparator Vehicle	36
Figure 4-3: Combined Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle	37
Figure 4-4: Vehicle Performance Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle	37
Figure 4-5: CO2 Emissions Level Comparison of Simulation Results for all Baseline
Vehicle Cases	38
Figure 5-1: Hydraulic Vane-Type Cam Phaser	39
Figure 5-2: Electrically Actuated Cam Phaser	39
Figure 5-3: BMW "Valvetronic" Continuously Variable Inlet Valve Lift System and Valve
Lift Profiles Available With It	41
Figure 5-4: INA DVVL System for Direct-Attack Valvetrains	42
Figure 5-5: Pushrod Valvetrain	44
Figure 5-6: Oil-Controlled Locking Pin	44
Figure 5-7: Symmetrical Roller Finger Follower (SRFF)	45
Figure 5-8: Mercedes 3-valve Configuration Follower	45
Figure 5-9: Typical Homogeneous Stoichiometric Dl Layout  	47
Figure 5-10: BSFC Benefit Achieved by Bosch-Ricardo GDI V6 Engine Compared to V8
Engine	49
Figure 5-11: Comparison of Naturally Aspirated and Turbocharged Downsized Engines
	50
Figure 5-12: Cylinder Pressure During HCCI  Combustion Showing Low Cyclic
Irregularity and Exhaust Recompression 	52
Figure 5-13: Typical Speed / Load Envelope where HCCI  Combustion can be Obtained
using Mechanical Valvetrain	53
Figure 5-14: Ricardo TMVL (Twin Mechanical Variable Lift) HCCI  Research Cylinder
Head Valvetrain with Dual Variable Valve Lift and Period and Dual Variable Cam
Phasing	55
Figure 5-15: Alternative Valve Lift Profiles with the BMW "Valvetronic" System	55
Figure 5-16: Ricardo TMVL (Twin Mechanical Variable Lift) HCCI  Research Cylinder
Head Assembly	56
Figure 5-17: Valeo Electromagnetic Camless Actuator	57
Figure 5-18: Lotus "AVT" Electrohydraulic Camless Actuator	57
Figure 5-19: Small MPV Engine Layout	59
Figure 5-20: Large Car Engine Layout	60
Figure 5-21: Truck Engine Layout	61
Figure 5-22: Conventional, Dual Voltage System	63
Figure 5-23: Estimated Power Loss in a Deep-Groove Ball Bearing	67
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Figure 5-24: Typical Power Loss in Shaft Seals	68
Figure 5-25: Typical Transverse Wet Clutch DCT Arrangement	71
Figure 5-26: Possible Dry Clutch DCT Arrangement	72
Figure 5-27: Typical Transverse CVT Arrangement	73
Figure 7-1: Combined FE Benefit vs. Peak Torque-to-Weight Ratio for Camless Engine
Packages	83
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                           LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 -1: Technology Packages for Standard Car	3
Table 1 -2: Technology Packages for Small MPV	4
Table 1-3: Technology Packages for Full Size Car	5
Table 1-4: Technology Packages for Large MPV	5
Table 1 -5: Technology Packages for Truck	6
Table 1-6: Standard Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	7
Table 1-7: Small MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	8
Table 1-8: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	9
Table 1-9: Large MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	10
Table 1-10: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	11
Table2-1: Baseline Vehicles Description- EPA Fuel Economy	14
Table2-2: Baseline Vehicles Description- EPA CO2-Equivalent	15
Table 2-3: Standard Car Vehicle Class Technology Packages	16
Table 2-4: Small MPV Vehicle Class Technology Packages	17
Table 2-5: Full Size Car Vehicle Class Technology Packages	18
Table 2-6: Large MPV Vehicle Class Technology Packages	19
Table 2-7: Truck Vehicle Class Technology Packages	20
Table 2-8: GHG CO2-Equivalent Emissions Factor	21
Table 4-1: Baseline Vehicles Description and EPA Fuel Economy	35
Table 4-2: Maximum Road Load Force Variation	35
Table 6-1: Standard Car Technology Packages	76
Table 6-2: Small MPV Technology Packages	77
Table 6-3: Full Size Car Technology Packages	78
Table 6-4: Large MPV Technology Packages	78
Table 6-5: Truck Technology Packages	79
Table 7-1: Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results for Cylinder Deactivation
Cases	80
Table 7-2: Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results for Turbo/Downsized
Cases	81
Table 7-3: Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results for Camless Valvetrain
Cases	82
Table 7-4: Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results for HCCI Cases	84
Table 7-5: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Standard Car / Technology
Package Z	85
Table 7-6: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Small MPV / Technology
Package 2	85
Table 7-7: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Full Size Car / Technology
Package 6a	86
Table 7-8: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Large MPV / Technology
Package 4	86
Table 7-9: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Truck with Technology
Package 11	87
Table 7-10: Standard Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	89
Table 7-11: Standard Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy	90
Table 7-12: Small MPV Vehicle Class  CO2 Emissions	91
Table 7-13: Small MPV Vehicle Class  Fuel Economy	92
Table 7-14: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	93
Table 7-15: Full Size Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy	94
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Table 7-16: Large MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions	95
Table 7-17: Large MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy	96
Table 7-18: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	97
Table 7-19: Truck Vehicle Class Fuel Economy	98
Table A-1: Standard CarVehicle Class CO2 Emissions	104
Table A-2: Standard CarVehicle Class Fuel Economy	105
Table A-3: Small MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions	106
Table A-4: Small MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy	107
Table A-5: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	108
Table A-6: Full Size CarVehicle Class Fuel Economy	109
Table A-7: Large MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	110
Table A-8: Large MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy	111
Table A-9: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions	112
Table A-10: Truck Vehicle Class Fuel Economy	113
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1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Ricardo has  been  subcontracted  by Perrin  Quarles Associates,  Inc. (PQA) under
contract to the EPA to carry out an objective and scientific analysis of the influence of
certain technology packages on automotive CO2 emissions and vehicle performance.
The  scope of  the  study was  to  determine the quantitative impact of technology
combinations, or packages, when applied to baseline vehicles. The EPA selected the
vehicle classes and  the technology packages which were applied, as well as a baseline
comparator vehicle  for  each class.  Vehicle performance metrics were considered
simultaneously with CO2 emissions in order to indicate the potential impact on consumer
acceptability.  Vehicle performance metrics  were considered an important part of the
study as these can significantly influence the  desirability of a vehicle to car buyers.

Ricardo's role was to carry out the analysis of the technologies. The report contains the
description of the approach taken and the simulation results obtained.   Significant CO2
reductions are predicted from the combinations of powertrain and vehicle technologies.
Many of these technologies could add  significant cost to vehicles; however, cost analysis
was beyond the scope of this study.  Also, there is no Ricardo discussion or opinion on
the results obtained  nor any recommendations on the level  of CO2 reduction that could
be obtained  in practice from future vehicles. The intended purpose of  this study is to
serve as an input to the EPA in  its  rule-making effort relating to the potential impact of
specific technology packages on fuel  economy/CO2 and vehicle performance. Further,
while baseline vehicle comparators representing vehicle platforms were used to define
the performance and fuel economy/CO2 impacts, this report should not be interpreted as
stating  the actual impact on these baseline comparator vehicles.

A  forward-looking,  millisecond-by-millisecond, physics-based modeling approach was
deployed.  This encompassed simulation from the driver's foot to torque at the wheels
and included  detailed sub-models for influences such as turbocharger  lag and engine
warm-up.  Ricardo used its unique proprietary test and analytical data for future engine,
transmission,  and vehicle technologies. Ricardo also ensured that the technologies were
appropriately characterized into simulation, including any limitations.

Under  direction  of the EPA, one CO2 improvement option was not included in  the
simulation, but instead was applied to the simulation results.  This factor was friction
reduction as might be obtained by low-viscosity oils and/or friction reducing components.
A  fuel  economy benefit of 2.5% was applied to  the simulation  results and could be
construed  to  be indicative of the  potential for further CO2  reductions from friction
reduction.  Furthermore, although vehicle weight has a significant impact on CO2 output,
this study  was focused on the impact of powertrain technologies, vehicle aerodynamic
drag force, tire rolling resistance and friction reduction; a weight change to the vehicles
was not considered in this study.

The scope of the work focused on five different vehicle platforms representing the major
vehicle segments. These five platforms were:
   •   Standard Car (for example, Toyota Camry)
   •   Small MPV    (for example, Saturn Vue)
   •   Full size car   (for example, Chrysler  300)
   •   Large  MPV    (for example, Dodge Grand Caravan)
   •   Truck         (for example, Ford F150)
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1.1 BASELINE RESULTS
For each vehicle class, a typical production vehicle was selected as a comparator and a
baseline model was created that would represent the  vehicle class and also be the
starting point for addition of the technology packages.  The unadjusted results for the
EPA city, highway, and combined cycles as simulated for each of the baseline vehicle
classes are shown in Figure 1-1.
  700 -

  600 -
— 500 -


r 400 -
D
Q.
 O
 O 200 H
   100 -

    0
                                                               612
                                                 -458
                                    420
         338
                      -367-
            218
               284
               T3
                0)
                C
               _Q

                O
               O
               V7777J.
                            316
                          2531
                                       279
                                                       393
                                          356-
                                                                     517
                                                                  402
         Standard Car
                      Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large MPV
Truck
     Figure 1-1: Comparison of simulated CO2 output for the baseline vehicle classes
1.2 TECHNOLOGIES CONSIDERED
A number of technologies were considered for this study.

Engine technologies included:
   •   Variable Valvetrain
          -   Cam phasing, DCP and CCP
          -   Variable valve lift, CVVL
             Discrete cam profile switching, DVVL
             Camless
   •   Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition combustion, HCCI
   •   Cylinder deactivation
   •   Gasoline Direct Injection, GDI
   •   Turbocharging / downsizing
   •   Diesel

Transmission technologies included:
   •   Advanced 6-speed automatic, AT
   •   Dual-clutch, DCT, both wet and dry clutch
   •   Continuously variable, CVT

Accessory technologies included:
   •   42V stop-start system
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   •   Electric accessories, including electric water pump (ePump) and electric power
       steering (ePS) and fast engine warm up
   •   High efficiency alternator (heAlt)

Vehicle technologies included:
   •   Aerodynamic drag force reduction
   •   Tire rolling resistance reduction

1.3 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES
The  EPA  identified  a number of technology packages of engine, transmission,  and
vehicle technologies that would be assessed for each vehicle platform.  The number of
technology packages totaled twenty-six.   Each package was also given a subjective
rating in terms of its  production readiness. The ratings used were: already in production
now  or will be in production within  5 years, and  production within 5-10 years.  The
corresponding terms used are "5 years" and "10 years", respectively. The technology
packages with the associated vehicle and readiness were as follows:
                  Table 1-1: Technology Packages for Standard Car
Pkg
Z
1
2
Engine
14, PFI
14, GDI
14, GDI
Valvetrain
CCP
DVVL
DCP
DVVL
DCP
Transmission
6-spd DCT,
dry clutch
CVT
6-spd AT
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
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                  Table 1-2: Technology Packages for Small MPV
Pkg
Z
1
2
5
15
15a
15b
Engine
14, PFI
14, GDI
14, GDI
14, Diesel
14, GDI
Turbo/down
-size
14, GDI
14, GDI
Valvetrain
CCP
DVVL
DCP
DVVL
DCP

DCP
Camless
HCCI
Transmission
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
CVT
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
1 0 years
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                  Table 1-3: Technology Packages for Full Size Car
Pkg
4
5
6a
16
Y1
Y2
Engine
14, GDI
Turbo/down-
size
I4/I5
Diesel
Small V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Valvetrain
DCP

DCP
CVVL
CCP
Deac
Camless
HCCI
Transmission
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-speed AT
6-speed DCT,
wet clutch
6-speed DCT,
wet clutch
Accessories
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
1 0 years
                   Table 1-4: Technology Packages for Large MPV
Pkg
4
6b
16
Engine
14, GDI
Turbo/down-
size
Small V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Valvetrain
DCP
CCP
Deac
CCP
Deac
Transmission
6-speed AT
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-speed AT
Accessories
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
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                    Table 1-5: Technology Packages for Truck
Pkg
9
10
11
12
17
X1
X2
Engine
V8, GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Turbo/down-
size
Large V6
Diesel
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
Valvetrain
Deac
DCP

CCP
Deac
DCP
DVVL
Camless
HCCI
Transmission
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd AT
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
10 years
1.4 VEHICLE / TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE RESULTS
Each combination  of vehicle and technology package was simulated for the effect on
fuel economy and performance. A  friction-reduction factor was  applied  to  the  fuel
economy values and CO2-equivalent  output was then calculated.  Results for  the
technology packages are shown below for each vehicle class. Technology packages  that
require a 5 to 10 year production readiness period are listed separately at the bottom of
the tables to distinguish their lower level of technical maturity. The tables in this section
list the initial performance  results as described  in Section  2.10.3 for each  baseline
vehicle and  technology package; the complete listing of performance results is shown in
the Appendix.
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                                                        Table 1-6: Standard Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions

                                                                      Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
0)
C
w
Ul
2.4L-4V 14
ICP
2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + CCP
2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + DCP
GDI
2.4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 5spd
FDR 3.39
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.07
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
AT 6spd
FDR 2.96
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
CO2
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
338
250
250
250
249
297
295
295
296
298
277
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
217
170
170
172
174
200
198
201
204
211
180
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
284
214
214
215
215
253
251
253
255
259
233
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%

26%
26%
26%
26%
12%
13%
13%
12%
12%
18%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%

22%
22%
21%
20%
8%
9%
8%
6%
3%
17%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%

25%
25%
24%
24%
11%
11%
11%
10%
9%
18%
Performance
x
0-30 MR
sec
3.2
3.8
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.3
3.4
X
S
o
<9
o
sec
8.7
8.8
7.9
7.6
7.6
9.1
9.2
9.0
8.9
8.6
8.8
X
S
sec
3.4
3.1
2.9
2.8
2.8
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.3
X
50-70 M
sec
5.4
4.7
4.3
4.3
4.3
5.0
5.1
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.3
X
Vel at 3 <
mph
28.3
22.4
25.1
26.2
27.2
24.9
24.8
25.5
26.3
27.9
26.7
Dist at 3 sec
meters
19.2
12.7
15.3
16.0
16.7
16.3
16.2
16.7
17.4
18.6
16.8
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
13.8
15.3
16.0
16.7
17.5
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
14.8
gear
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
-

-
-

3rd
                    Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                    CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                    Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                    Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                    Ratio
                    Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                    Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 7 of 113
21  December 2007

-------
                                                              Table 1-7:  Small  MPVVehicle Class CO2  Emissions

                                                                                  Small MPV  Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
5
15
c
2.4L-4V 14
2.4LI4
DWL + CCP
2.4L 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4LI4
DCP
GDI
1.9LI4 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.91
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5. 8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4. 90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5. 50
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 36
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 68
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
Accessories
Mech
except
ePS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%


0>
{£.
Ul
_c
"o
a:
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%


Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
C02
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
367
272
313
310
309
309
310
290
282
272
272
272
273
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
253
208
231
227
229
231
234
211
205
211
211
212
213
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
316
243
276
273
273
274
276
255
247
244
245
245
246
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%

26%
15%
16%
16%
16%
16%
21%
23%
26%
26%
26%
26%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%

18%
9%
10%
10%
9%
7%
17%
19%
17%
17%
16%
16%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%

23%
13%
14%
13%
13%
13%
19%
22%
23%
22%
22%
22%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
3.8
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.8
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
0-60 MPH
sec
10.4
10.4
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.0
9.7
10.7
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.6
9.5
30-50 MPH
sec
3.7
3.7
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.5
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.2
50-70 MPH
sec
6.0
6.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
6.9
6.3
4.9
5.2
5.2
5.2
Vel at 3 sec
mph
24.6
18.8
18.7
18.7
19.3
20.3
21.6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17.8
18.9
20.0
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.7
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
14.8
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.9
13.1
12.9
13.6
14.1
14.6
gear
2nd
2nd

-

-

2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
Low Technology Readiness - 1 0 Years
15a
15b
2.4LI4
Camless
GDI
2.4LI4
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3.1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
262
270
193
197
231
237
29%
26%
24%
22%
27%
25%
4.3
4.3
10.3
10.3
3.7
3.7
6.1
6.1
19.6
19.6
11.7
11.7
16.6
16.6
2nd
2nd
                                  Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                                  CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                                  Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                                  Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                                  Ratio
                                  Accessories Terminology:  Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                                  Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 8  of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                        Table 1-8: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2  Emissions
                                                                       Full  Size Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
E
EPA Package Iden

Base-
line

4



5







6a




16

01
c
c
UJ

3.5L-4V V6
2.2L 14 Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.8L 14/5 Diese



2.8L 14/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment


3.0L V6
DCP + CVVL
GDI



3 5L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI

Transmission

AT 5spd
FDR 2.87

AT 6spd
FDR 3.08

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 08

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.20
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08

AT 6spd
FDR 2.7

42V Stop-Start

N

N



N







N




Y

Accessories

Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt

ePS
ePump
heAlt





ePS
ePump
heAlt




ePS
ePump

Warm-up Mode

Bag1

Y



Y







Y




Y

Aero Drag

base

-20%



-20%







-20%




-20%
01
Rolling Resistan

base

-10%



-10%







-10%




-10%
oi
Frictional Multipl

N

Y



Y







Y




Y
C02

FTP75 (City
g/mi
420

346

316

315


340

334


338

334


300

HWFET (Highw
g/mi
279

236

221

221


220

234


237

234


200
>
Combined
(Metro-Highwc
g/mi
356

296

273

273


286

289


293

289


255
1
FTP75 (City) Be
%
-

18%

25%

25%


19%

20%


19%

20%


29%
"S
HWFET (Highw
Benefit
%
-

15%

21%

21%


21%

16%


15%

16%


28%
2£
Combined (Met
Highway) Bene
%


17%

23%

24%


20%

19%


18%

19%


28%
Performance

0-30 MPH
sec
2.6

2.6

2.6

2.5


2.5

3.3


3.1

3.1


2.7

0-60 MPH
sec
6.7

6.6

7.1

7.1


7.1

7.3


7.1

7.0


6.8

30-50 MPH
sec
2.3

2.3

2.7

2.7


2.7

2.3


2.3

2.3


2.5

50-70 MPH
sec
3.8

3.4

4.3

4.3


4.3

3.3


3.4

3.5


3.6

Vel at 3 sec
mph
33.7

33.7

33.8

34.3


34.3

26.8


28.6

28.7


33.3

Dist at 3 sec
meters
24.6

22.0

21.7

22.4


22.4

16.8


17.8

17.9


21.8
01 £
70 MPH Grad
Capability at E
%
24.6

25.6

18.5

18.5


18.5

26.1


26.1

25.6


27.2
gear
2nd

2nd

4th

4th


4th

2nd


2nd

2nd


2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years

Y1


Y2

3.5L V6
Camless
GDI
3.5L V6
HCCI
GDI

DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80


FDR 2.80


N


N

ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt

Y


Y


-20%


-20%


-10%


-10%


Y


Y


278


290


199


197


242


248


34%


31%


29%


29%


32%


30%


3.1


3.1


6.8


6.8


2.2


2.2


3.2


3.2


29.3


29.3


17.9


17.9


28.7


28.7


2nd


2nd

                     Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                     CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                     Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                     Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                     Ratio
                     Accessories Term inology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                     Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 9 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                  Table 1-9: Large MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions
                                                            Large MPV  Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description

re
Q
0
HI



base

-20%




-20%





-20%

HI
ng Resistanc
™
s.

base

-10%




-10%





-10%


onal Multipli
+*
u_

N

Y




Y





Y
CO2


FTP75 (City)


g/mi
458

357

333

331


336

320


325

>»
/FET (Highwj
%
I
g/mi
313

256

241

244


240

240


223


Combined
etro-Highwa
S

g/mi
393

312

292

292


293

284


279
-
d)
HI
m
in
h-
Q.
1-
u_
%
-

22%

27%

28%


27%

30%


29%

>»
/FET (Highwj
Benefit
%
I
%
-

18%

23%

22%


23%

23%


29%

° £
,5 0)
01 C
_ m
c re
It
0 ~
O I
%
-

21%

26%

26%


25%

28%


29%
Performance



0
0


sec
3.3

3.2

39

3.5


4.1

3.8


3.3



0
0


sec
9.3

8.0

85

8.1


87

8.9


9.3


I
!


sec
3.5

2.8

?R

2.7


?S

3.0


3.4


I
0
h-
S


sec
5.6

4.3

4?

4.2


41

4.8


5.6


u
HI
Vel at 3 .


mph
27.5

27.8

?1 3

24.5


?01

21.7


27.1


Dist at 3 sec


meters
16.9

16.5

11.9

13.6


11.3

12.1


15.6


1 -
I £
Q. =
S &
re
0 Q.
r— re
O
%
17.7

17.1

16.8

19.7


15.5

17.4


17.0
gear
2nd

3rd

3rd

3rd


3rd

3rd


2nd
       Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
       CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
       Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
       Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
       Ratio
       Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
       Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 10 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                             Table 1-10: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
                                                                               Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
6-Spd
AT
9
10
11
12
17
0)
c
O)
c
LIJ
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.6LV6 Turbo
DCP
GDI
4.8L V6 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L V8
DVVL + DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.3
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.26
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.41
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.57
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.15
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
42V Stop-Start
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
N
Accessories
Mech
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Rolling Resistance
base
base
base
base
base
base
base
Frictional Multiplier
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
CO2
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
612
586
448
404
416
418
421
444
450
492
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
402
396
323
319
321
323
325
326
319
333
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
517
500
392
366
373
376
378
391
391
420
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%

X
27%
34%
32%
32%
31%
27%
27%
20%
ro
u_
5
%

X
20%
21%
20%
19%
19%
19%
21%
17%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%

X
24%
29%
28%
27%
27%
24%
24%
19%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
2.6
2.3
2.7
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.7
2.4
2.2
0-60 MPH
sec
7.7
7.5
7.8
6.7
6.4
6.4
6.3
7.7
7.5
7.1
30-50 MPH
sec
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.7
2.9
2.7
50-70 MPH
sec
4.6
5.0
4.6
3.5
3.6
,6
,6
4.7
4.9
4.5
Vel at 3 sec
mph
33.6
35.9
32.7
31.5
32.6
33.5
35.5
32.5
35.6
37.1
Dist at 3 sec
meters
23.3
26.2
21.1
19.3
19.8
20.5
21.4
20.4
25.2
27.3
60 MPH Grade
Capability at GCW
%
8.8
8.5
8.4
12.3
12.5
13.0
12.9
10.2
10.7
10.7
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
3rd
2nd
2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
X1
X2
5.4L V8
Camless
GDI
5.4L V8
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-10%
-10%
base
base
Y
Y
422
425
314
311
374
374
31%
31%
22%
23%
28%
28%
2.7
2.7
7.7
7.7
2.8
2.8
4.6
4.6
32.8
32.8
21.2
21.2
8.6
8.6
3rd
3rd
                        Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                        CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                        Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                        Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                        Ratio
                        Accessories Terminology:  Mech =  Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                        Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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 2.0 INTRODUCTION
The growing concern over greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has spawned global action
aimed at making significant future reductions. One of the identified sources of GHG
production is the automotive internal combustion engine, which accounts for roughly
30% of all GHG emissions in the United States [1]. The EPA's Office of Transportation
and Air Quality (OTAQ) was directed to establish a Federal GHG emissions rule that
would help President George W. Bush achieve his "20-in-10" goal for the nation. This
project forms part of the technological feasibility analysis to support those rulemaking
efforts by quantifying the possible reductions in greenhouse gases, and specifically
carbon dioxide (CO2), from passenger-car and light-truck vehicles.

Ricardo, Inc., executed this project as an independent and objective analytical study
under subcontract to Perrin Quarles Associates, Inc. (PQA) for the US EPA. The goal of
the study was the computer simulation of engine, drivetrain, and vehicle technologies for
greenhouse gas emissions reduction and considered passenger cars for the 2010-2017
model years (MY) and light trucks for the 2012-2017 MY timeframe. Ricardo, Inc.,  is the
US arm of Ricardo PLC, a global automotive consultancy with nearly 100 years of
specialized engineering expertise and technical experience in internal combustion
engines, transmissions, and automotive vehicle development. This project was
performed between July and October of 2007.

2.1  THE  NEED TO CONSIDER VEHICLE  PERFORMANCE  AS
WELL AS CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
Today's automobile brings multiple benefits  to its owner  and  is  not just a means of
transportation.  People buy their cars  based on a number of different attributes beyond
styling and brand name. These attributes include, but are not limited to:
    •  The perceived performance of the vehicle, from its initial pull away acceleration
       to its ability to quickly merge into and out of traffic flow.
    •  The towing  capacity .
    •  The responsiveness of the vehicle to changes in accelerator pedal position.
    •  The level of refinement of the  vehicle's driving behavior, which includes minimal
       vibrations  transmitted  to the driver  and passengers,  low noise from  the
       powertrain,  and elimination of excessively noticeable numbers of gear changes.

These factors  are  often  overlooked in studies  such as this, but they can be of vital
importance to  the desirability of automobiles.  The  original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) expend significant engineering efforts during the development of new vehicles to
ensure the key attributes will meet the demands of their buyers. Changes to vehicle
propulsion systems to  reduce CO2 will affect these attributes as  well. Hence  it is
important for studies on automotive CO2 reduction to try to comprehend the impact on all
the key vehicle attributes.

2.2  OBJECTIVES
The  aim of this study was to provide  an objective,  scientific analysis of the opportunity
for automotive CO2 reduction. To be scientific, a physics-based modeling approach was
used that  enabled  detailed simulation of the vehicle.   To be  objective, performance
metrics  were identified  collaboratively  with  the  EPA that could be  outputs  of  the
simulation  model and  would characterize some key vehicle attributes.  Uncertainties
resulting from the analytical method are negligible, and in most  cases the input data
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have a relatively small error band. The largest source of uncertainty in the results is due
to the possible variations in applying the technologies to a vehicle  (i.e.  differences in
actual   specification,   design,  control,  and   calibration.)  These  differences  of
implementation are much greater than can be projected for a vehicle class.

There have been  several studies  in the past that have evaluated the influence of
individual  technologies on  reducing automotive CO2.  However, the benefit of these
technologies will vary depending  on the other technologies with which they are being
combined  as well  as the  specific vehicle platform to which  the  technology is being
applied. For example, the percentage benefit in reducing CO2  of an advanced gasoline
technology such as  cylinder deactivation will  be different when applied on a  truck
compared to a small car. Also, certain technologies may not be readily applied to some
vehicles due to constraints of the technology.  To overcome the limitations of previous
studies, an objective of the present study was  to simulate the influence of prescribed
technology combination (packages) when applied to specific vehicle applications.

2.3 SIMULATION APPROACH
The modeling approach was a forward-looking,  physics-based representation of the
whole vehicle.  The model  simulates what happens to the  vehicle when the driver
applies the accelerator and/or brake pedal in order to achieve a certain vehicle speed at
a certain time.  The model operates on  a millisecond-by-millisecond  basis and predicts
the vehicle CO2 and actual speed with time as the driver tries  to drive a certain  vehicle
speed trace (duty cycle).  The model physics includes torques and  inertias as well as
detailed sub-models  for the  influence of factors such as turbo-lag and engine friction
reduction as the lubricating oil warms up  from a cold start.

The key to successful modeling is good data representing the automotive technologies.
This is referred to as input materials.  Ricardo has detailed proprietary data for future
engine, transmission and vehicle systems, obtained from its production development
and research work as an engine, transmission and vehicle technology partner to OEMs
worldwide.


This  detailed simulation forms the  appropriate  basis for  investigating the influence of
technology packages on vehicle attributes including CO2 and  is typical of the way the
automotive industry undertakes its analytical assessment of vehicle performance.

2.4 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
The technology packages studied have  more component content than today's gasoline
engines.  Many of the components will be new to the market and  will,  at least initially, be
at lower volumes than today's components.

Therefore  the  manufacture  and assembly costs of these technology packages will be
more than the gasoline engine cost of today. The economic impact of these technologies
is of key  importance when it comes to governmental  rulemaking on CO2 reductions.
However,  the economic impact of the technologies studied was  not part of the Ricardo
scope. To facilitate economic studies that may  be  carried out, Ricardo has provided a
brief description of the individual technologies considered in the study.
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2.5 TECHNOLOGY READINESS
The technology packages  identified  are  in various  states of development towards
production.   For  example,  direct  injection,  stoichiometric gasoline engines  are  in
production today, whereas  homogenous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engines
are still being researched on test beds and very early prototype vehicles.   The actual
state  of  development  for  specific  technologies will  vary  from manufacturer  to
manufacturer.   To complement the  assessment, Ricardo has provided  a subjective
assessment of the readiness of the technologies for production.

2.6 SCOPE  OF WORK
The technical analyses yielded simulation  results of fuel economy and equivalent CO2
output  for  various passenger  vehicle  classes  and  combinations  of  advanced
technologies in order to  quantify the effect of combined  technologies on a vehicle.
Vehicle  weight changes were  not  included in  this  study.  The effects of  these
combinations  of technologies on  specific  vehicle  performance  criteria were  also
evaluated. Only the fuel economy/equivalent CO2  output and  vehicle  performance
parameters were considered in the scope of this study and no cost or warranty/durability
information was included or investigated. However, subjective aspects like acceptable
drivability, idle stability, and  NVH performance were taken into account when employing
certain advanced technologies and their combinations. Additional details are discussed
in the relevant sections.

2.7   REPRESENTATIVE  VEHICLE   CLASSES  AND   BASELINE
VEHICLES
This analysis was intended to build upon and improve existing literature investigating the
GHG reduction potential of new vehicle technologies. Similar to previous studies [2 & 3],
the EPA identified five vehicle classes to be representative of the overall population of
cars and light trucks in the US operational passenger vehicle fleet. These classes were:
Standard Car, Small Multi-Purpose Vehicle  (MPV), Full Size Car, Large MPV, and Truck.
The EPA also chose a specific representative vehicle for each of the five classes: the
Toyota Camry for the Standard Car, the Saturn Vue for the Small MPV, the Chrysler 300
for the Full Size car, the Dodge Grand Caravan for the Large MPV, and the Ford F150
for the Truck. Published data for these specific vehicles are listed in the table below. The
fuel economy (FE) values are as reported in the EPA Test Car List.
            Table 2-1: Baseline Vehicles Description - EPA Fuel Economy
Baseline Vehicles
Vehicle Class
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large MPV
Truck
Representative
Vehicle
Toyota Camry
Saturn Vue
Chrysler 300
Grand Caravan
Ford F150
Engine
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
3.5LV6DOHC
4 valve
3.8LV6OHV
2 valve
5.4L V8SUHC
3 valve
Trans.
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
Drlvetraln
FWD
FWD
RWD
FWD
4WD
Curb
Weight
(Ib)
3108
3825
3721
4279
5470
ETW
(Ib)
3625
4000
4000
4500
6000
GCW
(Ib)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
14000
EPA
City
FE
(mpg)
26.7
23.8
20.9
19.5
15.5
EPA
Highway
FE
(mpg)
42.2
36.7
34.1
31.9
22.7
EPA
Combined
FE
(mpg)
32
28.3
25.3
23.6
18.1
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            Table 2-2: Baseline Vehicles Description - EPA CO2-Equivalent
Baseline Vehicles
Vehicle Class
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large MPV
Truck
Representative
Vehicle
Toyota Cam ry
Saturn Vue
Chrysler 300
Grand Caravan
Ford F150
Engine
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
3.5LV6DOHC
4 valve
3.8LV6OHV
2 valve
5.4L V8SOHC
3 valve
Trans.
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
Drlvetraln
FWD
FWD
RWD
FWD
4WD
Curb
Weight
(Ib)
3108
3825
3721
4279
5470
ETW
(Ib)
3625
4000
4000
4500
6000
GCW
(Ib)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
14000
trA
City
C02'
(g/mi)
340.3
381.8
434.8
466.0
586.3
trA
Highway
CO2*
(g/mi)
215.3
247.6
266.5
284.9
400.3
trA
Combined
CO2*
(g/mi)
284.0
321.1
359.2
385.0
502.0
*CO2-equivalent values are based on FE values from table 2.1 and gasoline conversion factor stated in Section 2.10.2 of this report
2.8 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES
The aim of this study was to project what the effects of current advanced technologies
and future technologies would be on CO2 levels for each of the identified vehicle classes
when  used in specific combinations. It is important to note that the effect of the whole
combination is the key, since the  result of multiple technologies applied to a specific
vehicle may not simply be additive when compared individually to the baseline, and in
most cases, is less effective than the sum of the individual component technologies in
that combination.

The EPA identified a number of combinations of vehicles and technology packages to be
simulated  in this part of the  project. In addition to these cases,  final drive ratio sweeps
were also performed for certain configurations to determine  the  sensitivities involved.
The various vehicle and technology package simulations are listed below:
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             Table 2-3: Standard Car Vehicle Class Technology Packages
Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
HI
c
'o>
c
UJ
2.4L-4V 14
ICP
2.4L-4V 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L-4V 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 5spd
FDR 3.39
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.07
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
AT 6spd
FDR 2.96
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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              Table 2-4: Small MPV Vehicle Class Technology Packages
Small MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
5
15
HI
C
'o>
C
LU
2.4L-4V 1 4
2.4LI4
DWL + CCP
2.4LI4
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4LI4
DCP
GDI
1.9LI4 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.91
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5.8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.36
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.68
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
Accessories
Mech
except
ePS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
_OJ
"5.
'a
3
"re
C
0
tj
it
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
15a
15b
2.4LI4
Camless
GDI
2.4LI4
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3.1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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              Table 2-5: Full Size Car Vehicle Class Technology Packages
Full Size Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
4
5
6a
16
01
,c
D)
C
UJ
3.5L-4V V6
2.2L 14 Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.8L 14/5 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
2.8L 14/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment
3.0L V6
DCP + CWL
GDI
3.5LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT 5spd
FDR 2.87
AT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.20
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
AT 6spd
FDR 2.7
t
$
tn
Q.
o
(/)
1
N
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
01
|
Q.
3
1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
O)
5
Q
O
1
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
Y1
Y2
3.5LV6
Camless
GDI
3.5LV6
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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              Table 2-6: Large MPVVehicle Class Technology Packages
Large MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
4
6b
16
01
_c
'5>
c
UJ
3.8L-2V V6
2. 1L 14 Turbo
DCP
GDI
3.0LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
2.7LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.8LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.43
AT 6spd
FDR 3. 17
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.17
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.72
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.72
AT 6spd
FDR 2.7
42V Stop-Start
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
01
•a
o
a.
3
I
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
D)
n
Q
Q
$
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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                 Table 2-7: Truck Vehicle Class Technology Packages
Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
6-
Spd
AT
9
10
11
12
17
01
£
U>
c
UJ
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.6LV6 Turbo
DCP
GDI
4.8LV6 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L V8
DWL + DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.3
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.26
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.41
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.57
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.15
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
42V Stop-Start
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
N
Accessories
Mech
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
01
|
Q.
3
1
Bag1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
O)
5
Q
O
1
base
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Rolling Resistance
base
base
base
base
base
base
base
Frictional Multiplier
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
X1
X2
5.4L V8
Camless
GDI
5.4L V8
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-10%
-10%
base
base
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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It must also be noted that the reduced engine friction, lower rolling resistance tires, and
reduced aerodynamic drag were applied to each of the vehicle/technology package
combinations as prescribed by the EPA. Specific technology actions were not identified
to obtain these improvements.

2.9 TECHNOLOGY SENSITIVITY CASE STUDIES
While the effects  of the various  vehicle and technology packages identified above on
CO2 output was the primary aim of the study, investigations of how much each individual
technology affected vehicle fuel economy were also undertaken. Thus, incremental
technology sensitivity studies were performed and are discussed in Section 7.2.

2.10 TEST CYCLES AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
2.10.1 Test Cycles
The test cycles considered for fuel economy and equivalent CO2 output were the EPA
FTP Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule and HWFET Highway Test Driving
Schedule, with all analyses being performed at the EPA vehicle equivalent test weight
(ETW) for each of the identified base vehicles.

2.10.2 Fuel Economy and CO2 Equivalency
Standard fuels were used for gasoline and diesel engines, respectively, and equivalent
CO2 output values were derived by applying a known factor for each fuel type to the fuel
economy (FE) results. For this analysis, GHG emissions per gallon of fuel consumed
were provided by the EPA as follows:


                  Table 2-8: GHG CO2-equivalent Emissions Factor
Fuel Type
Gasoline
Diesel
GHG Emissions Factor
(g CO2-equiv./ gallon of fuel)
9,087
10,097
The CO2-equivalent output can then be calculated from the vehicle fuel economy (FE)
values using the fuel-appropriate factor above and the equation:

             CO2_equiv (g/mile) = GHG Emissions Factor/ FE (miles/gal)
2.10.3 Vehicle Performance Criteria
As described earlier, vehicle performance criteria are also an important consideration for
studies investigating CO2 reductions.  A number of different criteria are used throughout
the industry and the opinion on the importance of the specific criteria varies between
industry, environmental groups, and government agencies.
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For this  study, the following performance  criteria were initially  proposed;  the  EPA
intended  to maintain roughly equivalent overall performance levels to the base vehicles
and was willing to consider tradeoffs among these performance parameters:

   •   Wide-open-throttle (WOT) accelerations from rest:
                •   0-30MPH time
                •   0-60MPH time
   •   WOT accelerations from a set vehicle  speed (representing passing or freeway
       merging maneuvers):
                •   30 - 50 MPH time
                •   50 - 70 MPH time
   •   Vehicle speed and distance traveled after a three-second WOT acceleration from
       rest.
   •   Grade capability at 70 mph for the Standard Car, Small MPV,  Large Car, and
       Large MPV
   •   Grade capability at 60 mph for the Truck at Gross Combined Weight (GCW)

All simulations, apart from the Truck GCW case, were performed at the EPA Equivalent
Test Weight (ETW) for the vehicle as listed in the tables.

Also, grade capability is defined  as the steepest  grade that the vehicle is capable of
climbing  at a given speed and weight,  regardless of gear.  The results for this metric
report both the grade (%) and gear.

During the course  of the  study, Ricardo suggested the  following additional metrics to
increase the amount of information available:

   •   Wide-open-throttle (WOT) accelerations from rest:
                •   0-10 MPH time
                •   0-50 MPH time
                •   0-70 MPH time
   •   Top-gear  grade capability  (or  torque reserve) at 60 mph and 70  mph for all
       vehicle classes
   •   Top-gear grade capability (or torque reserve) at 60 MPH for the Truck at GCW

Again,  all simulations, apart from the Truck GCW case, were performed at the  EPA
Equivalent Test Weight (ETW) for the vehicle as listed in the tables.

Also, top-gear grade  capability is  defined as the steepest grade that the vehicle is
capable of climbing at a given speed and weight in top gear only, which is an  indication
of torque reserve  (the  excess  torque  available from the  engine  at  part-throttle
conditions).

Only the  initial performance metrics are included in the tables presented in Sections 1
and  7.  The same  vehicle technology  package,  fuel economy,  and  CO2  data,
accompanied by the complete set of performance results  (initial and additional), are
shown  in  the tables in the Appendix.
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The 0-10 MPH and 0-30 MPH time criteria along with vehicle speed and distance
traveled after 3 seconds are all indicators of vehicle launch.  For buyers, a good launch
can be a significant factor distinguishing the performance of one vehicle from another.

It was recognized that certain advanced technologies, in particular DCTs and CVTs,
would necessarily have to sacrifice some of the initial launch (0-10 MPH) at WOT in
order to achieve the fuel economy or CO2 improvements that they can offer. This is due
to the lack of a torque converter and the delay  time for initial  clutch engagement.
However, under part-throttle conditions, the control of these advanced transmissions has
made the launch performance virtually indistinguishable from an automatic transmission
with a torque converter.

The 0-50 MPH, 0-60 MPH, and 0-70 MPH times are often quoted by magazines as
indicators of vehicle performance.

The  30 - 50 MPH and 50 - 70 MPH acceleration  times are indicators of  vehicle
performance  during  freeway  merges  and  overtaking,  and  are  again seen as
representation of performance that is important to car buyers.

The grade capability is another similar series of tests important to  buyers that simulate
the ability of the vehicle to  maintain a given  speed up a specific  grade. The top-gear
grade capability results indicate  the maximum grade that the vehicle can climb at the
stated speed in top gear (without a downshift). The heavier (GCW) test weight is used
for the truck case to take account of towing needs of this vehicle.

This set of vehicle performance criteria is not an all-inclusive list, but is meant to be a
good coverage of the factors important to vehicle buyers.
2.11 INPUT DATA AND MODELING APPROACH OVERVIEW
Since the intention of this study was to model existing and future vehicle technologies,
not all of  the  necessary input data were  publicly available.  Thus, Ricardo obtained
information from other commercial sources where  appropriate and extensively used
representative  data from its own  proprietary databases.  Ricardo invests  5 - 7% of its
annual sales revenue in collaborative research with industry partners on future engine,
transmissions and  vehicle  technology.   Hence, as a consultancy, Ricardo  is uniquely
placed to provide the required input materials.

All input data was reviewed extensively for completeness and accuracy and then used
as representative  inputs to the  detailed  models created for this study.  No vehicle
manufacturers  were approached  for any input data in order to maintain the complete
independence and objectivity of this work.

Although there are a few software packages  available to perform the simulation tasks,
Ricardo chose MSC.EASY5™, a licensed commercially  available  package  that allows
detailed modeling of engines, transmissions, drivelines, vehicle systems (including tires
and aerodynamics), and driver inputs. More in-depth descriptions of the input data and
modeling activities are stated in Section 3 of this report.
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To verify the validity of the models and input data, and to satisfy concerns of whether the
projections for the advanced and future technologies and associated packages would be
reasonable and accurate, the baseline vehicle results were compared with published
data for the  identified representative vehicles.  The project team determined that there
was no  need to "calibrate" the models to match published data more closely since the
initial results were considered to represent the published  data with sufficient accuracy,
and all the input values were reviewed and approved as being representative of real-
world findings and built on experience with other similar simulation activities.

2.12 COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Results  are  presented for the 5 baseline vehicle  cases  and the agreed technology
packages  in  Sections 1, 4, and 7 and the Appendix of this document. The data tables list
the outputs for fuel economy and CO2 emissions as well  as percentage changes from
the baseline for each  on the city and highway cycles and a combined cycle. Vehicle
performance results for the identified metrics are also listed for each package and can
be referenced to the baseline in absolute numbers. Each of the technology packages is
also described in terms of its individual technologies and readiness for production.

This report does not draw any specific conclusions from the data.  However, Ricardo
believes that the simulation method  and approach  used to derive  the results are
consistent and correct and that the output information is an accurate projection for the
vehicle,  technologies, and combinations stated.  Also, because different vehicles exhibit
unique characteristics, care must be taken to properly apply the results of this study to
other vehicles.
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2.13 SECTION 2 REFERENCES

   1.    INVENTORY OF U.S. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND SINKS: 1990-
        2005 (EPA430-R-07-002), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of
        Transportation and Air Quality, April 2007

   2.    EFFECTIVENESS AND IMPACT OF CORPORATE AVERAGE FUEL
        ECONOMY (CAFE) STANDARDS, National Research Council, Washington,
        DC, National Academy Press, 2002

   3.    REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM LIGHT-DUTY
        MOTOR VEHICLES, Northeast States Center for a Clean Air Future
        (NESCCAF), September 2004
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3.0 VEHICLE  MODEL
A full physical model was developed for each baseline vehicle  using MSC.EASY5™.
This is a commercially available software package that is used widely in the industry for
vehicle  system analysis. MSC.EASY5™  enables  a complete physical  model  of the
vehicle. The torque  reactions are simulated from the engine, through the transmission to
the wheels. The model reacts to  simulated driver inputs to the accelerator and/or brake
pedals.  This enables the actual  vehicle acceleration to be determined.  The  model is
divided  into a  number  of  subsystem  models.  Within each subsystem  the  model
determines key component  data  such as torque, speeds, and heat rejection, and from
these, algorithms are used to determine the appropriate subsystem efficiencies.

The vehicles were  modeled  using  published  information  from  various  sources  and
Ricardo proprietary data.


Published vehicle data and [source]:
    •   Equivalent Test Weight (ETW) [EPA Vehicle Certification Database]
    •   Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)  [Manufacturer website]
    •   Gross Combined Weight (GCW) [Manufacturer website]
    •   Road load coefficients [EPA Vehicle Certification Database]
    •   Vehicle dimensions  (length,  width, height,  wheelbase and track)  [Manufacturer
       website]
    •   Tire size [Manufacturer website]
    •   Engine displacement, rated HP, rated torque and technology level [Manufacturer
       website]
    •   Transmission gear ratios [various websites]
    •   Final drive ratio [Manufacturer website and EPA Vehicle Certification Database]

Model inputs based on Ricardo proprietary data and experience:
    •   Transmission hydraulic losses and gear efficiency
    •   Torque converter efficiency and capacity factor
    •   Engine, transmission and driveline rotational inertia
    •   Driveline spin losses
    •   Transmission shift and torque converter lockup strategy
    •   Vehicle frontal area (Af) and coefficient of drag (CD)
    •   Tire rolling resistance
    •   Vehicle weight distribution and center of gravity

Key subsystem  models  include engine,  engine  accessories,  transmission,  torque
converter,  final drive differential,  vehicle characteristics, vehicle  driver, and 42V stop-
start.

3.1  ENGINE MODEL
The engine model uses  torque curves for full-load torque and closed-throttle  motoring
torque throughout the entire engine operating  speed range.  Full-load  torque  values
were correlated to published power  ratings for the  baseline vehicle engines.  Ricardo
proprietary data was used to generate a map of fuel consumption rates covering the full
range of engine  speed and  load  values.  This  is used  to calculate fuel usage at each
operating point in the simulation.  The torque and fuel  rates are  adapted from Ricardo
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proprietary  test  data  from  various engines  for  each  simulation  to  the engine
specifications required.  Idle speed and maximum engine RPM are specified for each
model. Full engine maps were also used to evaluate all advanced engine technologies
(refer to Section 5 for data sources).
Some gasoline  and all the diesel technologies use turbochargers.  The steady-state
performance of the engine will be different than the engine transient response due to the
time it takes the turbocharger to spin up to its new operating speed.  To simulate this
effect, a turbo  lag model  was used for all the advanced  technology packages that
incorporate turbochargers.  The  lag  was  based  on  Ricardo  experience and  was
dependent on engine size.

3.2  ENGINE MODEL - WARMUP
Fuel consumption  during the first 505 seconds of the FTP drive cycle (bag #1) depends
on how  quickly  the engine warms up, since a cold engine has higher oil viscosity and
hence higher frictional  losses. Also combustion can be  sub-optimal when the engine is
cold.   It is typical in  the  industry to apply a "cold start factor" for  the fuel economy
achieved during bag #1 time of the FTP cycle.  This factor is approximately  80% of the
bag #3 fully warm part of the FTP.


For this study,  the technology packages represent more efficient powertrains, which
could reject less heat and  hence  have different engine warmup times compared to the
baseline technologies.  Therefore, to improve the accuracy of the predictions, a warmup
model was incorporated to simulate the effects of going from a  cold engine starting
condition to a hot engine operating condition.

The engine thermal models are linked into a simplified vehicle cooling circuit model that
accounts for coolant and  oil thermal inertias.  The warm  up model predicts oil and
coolant temperature change and from this determines  engine friction change and its
influence on fuel consumption.

Running the  model showed approximately a 20%  decrease  in fuel economy for a cold
engine compared  to a hot engine, which correlated well to vehicle dynamometer test
results.

The engine thermal model was sufficiently detailed  to account for improvements to warm
up times provided by electric water pumps  and  intelligent cooling systems as might be
used on advanced vehicles.
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3.3 ENGINE MODEL - CYLINDER DEACTIVATION
A cylinder deactivation model was used to evaluate the effect of running on half of the
available cylinders during light throttle conditions.  The remaining cylinders operate at a
higher BMEP thus reducing pumping work and results in  a  lower total fuel rate.  The
model applies a BSFC modifier,  based on Ricardo proprietary data, to the fuel rate when
the engine is  in deactivation mode.  Deactivation was  only  used when  the  vehicle
conditions are between certain limits:

   1.   minimal vehicle speed =  15 mph
   2.   minimal engine speed = 850 rpm
   3.   allowed gears: 4-speed transmission = 3rd & 4th, 5-speed transmission = 4th & 5th,
       6-speed transmission = 4th, 5th & 6th
   4.   manifold pressures for deactivate-off and deactivate-on (to avoid on-off hunting).

3.4 ENGINE ACCESSORIES MODEL
Parasitic loads from the alternator were assumed constant  over the drive cycles and
were  included in the engine model.  Alternator  efficiency of 55% was assumed for
baseline vehicle simulations and 70% efficiency for the  high efficiency alternator (heAlt)
in  all  of the advanced  technology package simulations to represent  future alternator
design improvements.

Power steering systems (full electric or  electric  hydraulic)  were modeled as  engine
speed dependent and were included in the engine model for each baseline vehicle. The
electric power steering  systems assumed  no engine parasitic loads on the EPA drive
cycles and acceleration performance cycles, which  require  no steering input.  All
advanced package simulations included the benefit of electric  power steering.

The Truck model also includes engine  parasitic losses due  to  the belt-driven engine-
cooling fan.  The other  vehicles were assumed to have electric radiator fans, with the
load being drive-cycle dependent and added to the vehicle's base electrical load.

3.5 TRANSMISSION MODEL
Efficiencies for each gear ratio  were calculated based on  an empirical formula derived
from several transmission and  final drive gear tests.  Different efficiency curves were
mapped for planetary, dual-clutch (DCT with dry and wet clutches) and belt-driven CVT
gearboxes.  Hydraulic  pumping losses  were included in the  efficiency calculations.
Transmission efficiencies were calculated to represent the average of the leading edge
for today's industry and not one  particular manufacturer's design.

A  shift map (upshift and downshift  based on engine load and vehicle speed) was
developed for each vehicle/engine/transmission combination using common industry
design practices. A minimum engine speed after  upshift of 1250 RPM was considered
for the 14 engines (1200 RPM for V6 and 1150 RPM for V8) with considerations for gear
hunting and WOT shifts  at engine redline.

An  "aggressive" shift  schedule was used  with the advanced  technology  vehicle
packages that allowed  the engine to  operate at 100-150  RPM  lower during some
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portions of the drive cycles.  The NVH effect of this lower engine speed was considered
but not quantified.

3.6 TORQUE CONVERTER MODEL
Torque converter characteristics curves for torque ratio and K-factor were generated
using  typical industry standards for efficiency.     Each  vehicle's  torque converter
characteristics for torque ratio and K-factor were tailored for the application based  on
Ricardo experience. Impeller and turbine rotational inertias are also input to the model.

A lockup clutch model was used with all torque converters and was of sufficient capacity
to  prevent clutch slip during all simulation conditions. Lockup was allowed in 3rd and  4th
gears with the 4-speed automatics, 3rd/4th/5th  gears with the 5-speed automatics, and
4th/5th/6th gears with the 6-speed  automatics.  During light throttle conditions a minimum
engine operating speed of 1300  RPM for 14 engines (1200 RPM for V6 and 1000 RPM
for V8) with  the converter clutch locked was considered in developing the lock/unlock
maps.  A vibration damper or limited clutch slip (30-50 RPM) strategy  was not modeled
for the lockup clutch.  These devices typically have a minor effect on fuel economy and
manufacturers may choose to adopt  these to minimize  any driveability impacts of the
torque converter lockup operation.

An "aggressive"  torque converter lock/unlock schedule was used with the advanced
technology vehicle  packages that allowed the engine to  operate at 100-150 RPM lower
during some portions of the drive cycles.  The vehicle  refinement effect of this lower
engine speed was considered but not quantified.

3.7 FINAL DRIVE DIFFERENTIAL MODEL
Baseline  final  drive  ratios were  taken  from  published   information and driveline
efficiencies  and spin  losses were  assumed as typical  industry standards.  The spin
losses of the 4-wheel-drive Truck front axle and transfer case were included in the model
to  simulate the fuel economy and performance of the 4-wheel-drive powertrain operating
in  2-wheel-drive mode (similar  to EPA procedure for emissions and fuel economy
certification testing).

3.8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Vehicle mass and  dimensions for wheelbase and height are from published sources.
Center of gravity and front/rear weight distribution are assumed as typical for the vehicle
class.

Model  inputs for Frontal  Area (Af)  and Coefficient  of Drag  (CD) were assumed to  be
typical of the vehicle class.

The wheel/tire model includes inputs for rolling radius, rotational inertia, slip at peak tire
force, maximum friction coefficient, and tire rolling resistance coefficients.

3.9 DRIVER  MODEL
Vehicle simulations for fuel economy were conducted over  the EPA  FTP75 (city) and
HWFET (highway) drive cycles.  The  FTP75 cycle consists of three "bags" for a total of
11.041 miles. A ten minute engine-off  soak is performed between bags 2 and 3 (after
1372 seconds of testing). A bag  1 correction factor of 80% was applied to the simulated
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"hot" fuel economy result of the baseline vehicles to approximate warm-up conditions of
increased friction and sub-optimal combustion.

The vehicle model is forward facing and has a model for the driver.  The driver looks at
the required vehicle speed in the drive cycle and applies the throttle or brake pedal as
needed to meet the required speed.   This allows the modeling of the actual  vehicle
response to meet the target drive cycle.

The driver model contains the drive cycle time/velocity trace,  controls for the throttle and
brake  functions and  maintains  vehicle speed to the desired  set  point.   For WOT
accelerations from zero vehicle velocity, the driver model controls the throttle to ramp-up
the full load engine torque during the first second of the simulation.  This more closely
simulates actual vehicle engine/transmission  calibrations and engine induction  system
lag. The model does not include launch delays that are inherent in the vehicle hardware
and relies on the published engine output values.
3.10 STOP-START  MODEL
As the stop-start system has significant complexity it is worth describing the modeling.  A
42V starter / alternator can be used to restart the engine after an idle stop condition and
to supply power to the Dual  Voltage electrical system.  Under normal driving conditions
the  starter / alternator functions similarly to  the conventional alternator but is sized for
42V operation.  When  the   vehicle  is   stationary,  the  engine  coolant  temperature
determines the idle stop functionality.  Below the desired coolant temperature set point,
the  idle stop function is disabled to maintain appropriate emissions regulation.  Above
the  coolant temperature set point, the engine is turned off to decrease fuel consumption.

                               42 V Stop-Start

                                 Vehicle Speed > 0
                                       or
                              Desired Vehicle Speed > 0
                                       or
                Coolant Temperature < "Engine Warm" Coolant Temperature
                                Vehicle Speed = 0
                                      and
                             Desired Vehicle Speed = 0
                                      and
                Coolant Temperature >= "Engine Warm" Coolant Temperature
                        Figure 3-1: Basic Stop-Start Strategy
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The 42V stop-start included the starter/alternator and a DC-DC converter. To power the
12V loads a conversion efficiency of the DC-DC was modeled  as a constant 85%. As
higher voltage was available, the stop/start technology also included electric pumps for
engine oil and engine coolant. The model included electrical losses associated with the
motors,  conductors and  power electronics. The efficiency of the electrical machines,
defined  as output power over input power, is shown in Figure 3-2. For a electrical motor
the efficiency is the ratio of the shaft power (output) to electric  power (input) and for a
generator the efficiency is the ratio of electric power (output) to shaft power (input).

The starter / alternator was based on an electric motor drive system with a  peak power
output of 5kW. It is shown  that the energy required to restart  the engine  is negligible
compared to the total drive cycle energy. On the city drive  cycle, the  Small  MPV
experienced 18 stops, requiring less than 1kJ of total energy to  restart the engine.  This
represents less than 0.2% of the total energy expended over the  drive cycle.
                                Starter/Alternator Machine & AC Drive Effiency, %
*J\J\J\J
4500


4000

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5 3000
i
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                              1000     2000      3000      4000
                                              speed, rpm
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       Figure 3-2: Starter / Alternator Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency
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The  oil  pump and water  pump  hydraulic  power requirements are based  on typical
restriction curves and design point requirements.  The electric pumps are modeled as a
reduction in parasitic losses resulting from decoupling the pump speed from the engine
speed.  The operating point of the electric pumps is determined from engine load and
hydraulic  power  requirements.  While  a  conventional  pump  power  increases
monotonically with speed,  the flow rate does not because the pressure is  regulated.
Therefore, electric pumps  can limit the power consumed at  higher engine  speeds to
match the flow provided by a conventional  pump. Figure 3-3 shows the electric pump
power leveling off above a certain engine speed depending on the engine load.
  I
  05
   o
   E
     1400
     1200
     1000
800
      600
      400
      200
         0
                                 Oil Pump Power
                               Conventional Pump
                                         Electric Pump
                          -X-
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- 25% load
              Figure 3-3: Electric Oil Pump Hydraulic Power Equipment
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                     Electric Oil Pump Machine & AC Drive Effiency, %
JUU


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400
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                                     speed, rpm
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        Figure 3-4: Electric Oil Pump Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency
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                                    Water Pump Power
              500
1500
2500
3500
4500
        • Mech. Power -•- Required Power   ErW8LR!iid -*-50%Load -*-25%Load
                   Figure 3-5: Electric Water Pump Hydraulic Power
                     Electric Water Pump Machine & AC Drive Effiency, %
\J\J\J
450
400
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                                     speed, rpm
                                  5000
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       Figure 3-6: Electric Water Pump Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency
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4.0 DISCUSSION  OF BASELINE VEHICLE CLASS
RESULTS AND COMPARISON WITH COMPARATOR
VEHICLE
The modeling approach described in Section 3 was used in conjunction with input data
compiled from public as well as Ricardo-proprietary sources to generate results for the
representative baselines in each of the five vehicle classes identified by the EPA. The
five vehicles classes and the representative vehicle chosen by EPA are provided below.

           Table 4-1: Baseline Vehicles Description and EPA Fuel Economy
Baseline Vehicles
Vehicle Class
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large MPV
Truck
Representative
Vehicle
Toyota Cam ry
Saturn Vue
Chrysler 300
Grand Caravan
Ford F150
Engine
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
3.5LV6DOHC
4 valve
3.8LV60HV
2 valve
5.4LV8SOHC
3 valve
Trans.
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
Drlvetraln
FWD
FWD
RWD
FWD
4WD
Curb
Weight
(Ib)
3108
3825
3721
4279
5470
ETW
(Ib)
3625
4000
4000
4500
6000
GCW
(Ib)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
14000
bKA
City
FE
(mpg)
26.7
23.8
20.9
19.5
15.5
bKA
Highway
FE
(mpg)
42.2
36.7
34.1
31.9
22.7
bKA
Combined
FE
(mpg)
32
28.3
25.3
23.6
18.1
As a first step in validation of the model, the simulated road load for each baseline
vehicle case was compared to the published EPA road load curve for the representative
comparator vehicle. This data is as follows:
                  Table 4-2: Maximum Road Load Force Variation
Vehicle Class
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large PMV
Truck
Maximum Road Load Force Variation
(model versus published EPA data)
-0.2%
+0.2%
-0.4%
+1.2%
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The following charts document the results of the simulations for the baseline cases as
compared to the identified respective representative vehicles for the 5 classes used in
this study. As mentioned in Section  2 of this report, any discrepancies between the
simulation results and the actual vehicle data were attributed to the use of generic input
data for that vehicle class instead of actual data for a specific vehicle. Specifically, the 0
- 60 MPH times will be affected by the method used to conduct the actual vehicle test as
well as the reasons cited in Section 3.9. The baseline simulation results were required to
represent the vehicle classes and not specific vehicles  and formed a consistent basis for
comparing the technology packages.
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FTP City Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and Comparator Vehicle
Actual EPA Fuel Economy Test Results
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     Figure 4-1: FTP City Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
                                  Comparator Vehicle
          HWFET Highway Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and Comparator
                          Vehicle Actual EPA Fuel Economy Test Results
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 Figure 4-2: HWFET Highway Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
                                  Comparator Vehicle
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           Combined Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and Comparator Vehicle
                               Actual EPA Fuel Economy Test Results
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    Figure 4-3: Combined Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
                                     Comparator Vehicle
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           Vehicle Performance (0-60 mph acceleration) Comparison between Simulation Results and
                                Comparator Vehicle Published Results*
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                  vs
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Figure 4-4: Vehicle Performance Comparison between Simulation Results and Comparator
                                            Vehicle
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Figure 4-5: CO2 Emissions Level Comparison of Simulation Results for all Baseline Vehicle
                                        Cases
Ricardo, Inc.
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5.0 INDIVIDUAL TECHNOLOGIES STUDIED
In this section the advanced technologies applied to the engine and the transmission are
discussed. It should be noted that many of these technologies have the potential to
change vehicle weight and therefore further impact vehicle fuel economy and CO2
output. However the weight changes inherent in most of these technologies was
assumed to fall within a band of 125lb as defined  by the Engineering Test Weight
classes.

5.1 ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES
5.1.1 Cam Phaser Systems - Variable Valve Timing (VVT)
A  cam phaser actuator adjusts the  camshaft  angular position relative to the cam
sprocket,  and therefore, relative to the crankshaft position.  The majority of applications
use hydraulically actuated  units, powered by engine oil pressure, and managed by a
solenoid that controls the oil pressure supplied to the phaser.  The figures below show
the standard vane-type hydraulic cam phaser and an electrically actuated unit, which are
beginning  to  appear in  production.   Typical  angular adjustment range is  50-60
crankshaft degrees. There are a number of different implementation options:
   •  DCP (Dual  Cam  Phaser), where one cam  phaser  is used on each camshaft,
      giving independent control of inlet and exhaust valve timing
   •  ICP (Inlet Cam Phaser),  where one  cam phaser is used on the inlet camshaft
      only
   •  CCP (Coordinated  Cam  Phaser), where one cam  phaser is  used per engine,
      giving equal cam phase adjustment to inlet and exhaust camshafts.
 Figure 5-1: Hydraulic vane-type cam phaser
           Figure 5-2: Electrically actuated cam phaser
5.1.1.1 Advantages
Compared to fixed valve timing, use of variable cam phasing gives an improvement in
full-load volumetric efficiency, particularly at low  speed, resulting in increased torque
output.  In turbocharged engines, particularly direct-injection turbocharged engines, use
of variable cam  phasing gives  improved scavenging at full  load, resulting in improved
octane requirement and higher torque.
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At low load, use of variable cam phasing gives a reduction in pumping losses, resulting
in  improved low-load fuel consumption. The economy benefit depends on the residual
tolerance of the combustion system.  Additional benefits are seen at  idle, where low
valve overlap can be used to give improved combustion stability.
5.1.1.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
The only disadvantage of this technology is that there may be a need to increase the
engine oil pump capacity.

Hydraulically actuated cam phasers are regarded  as a mature technology with minimal
technical risk.   Electrically actuated cam phasers are  relatively  new,  but are now  in
volume production with Toyota, which suggests that any technical issues  have been
resolved.

To deliver the full potential benefits, the phaser system  must be optimized for fast
transient response (> 100 degrees crank angle per second).

5.1.1.3 Source of Engine Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) Maps
Since cam phasers are becoming  widely used in production, data was readily available
from Ricardo benchmark data.

5.1.2 Variable Valve Lift Systems
5.1.2.1 Continuously Variable Valve Lift (CWL)
In CWL systems, maximum valve lift is varied by means of a mechanical linkage, driven
by an actuator controlled by the engine Electronic Control Unit (ECU).  Cam period and
phasing vary as the maximum lift is changed,  with the relation  depending on  the
geometry of the mechanical system. CWL is applied in  addition to cam phase control.
The  BMW  "Valvetronic"  system, as  shown  in the  figure below, is  the  best  known
production CWL system, giving a lift range of 0.25-9.4 mm.  This allows the engine to
be completely valve-throttled.
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 Figure 5-3: BMW "Valvetronic" continuously variable inlet valve lift system and valve lift
                             profiles available with it
5.1.2.2 Discrete Variable Valve Lift (DWL)
DVVL systems allow the selection between 2 or 3 separate cam profiles by means of a
hydraulically actuated mechanical system.  DVVL is normally applied together with cam
phase control. One example is the INA system for direct-attack valvetrains, as shown.
DVVL is also known as Cam Profile Switching (CPS).
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               Figure 5-4: INA DWL system for direct-attack valvetrains
5.1.2.3 Advantages Compared to CAM Phasers Only
Variable valve lift gives a further reduction in pumping losses compared to what can be
obtained  with  cam phase control only, with CVVL giving greater benefit than DWL.
There may also be a small reduction in valvetrain friction when operating at low valve lift.
This results in improved low-load fuel consumption for cam phase control with variable
valve lift  compared to cam phase  control  only.  Most of the fuel economy benefit is
achieved with variable valve lift on the inlet valves only.

In terms  of fuel economy benefit versus system cost, variable lift systems on the inlet
valves only are seen  as a cost-effective technology when applied  in addition to cam
phase control.

5.1.2.4 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
In Ricardo's experience, it is more difficult to  achieve  good cylinder-to-cylinder airflow
balance at low load with  a CVVL valve-throttled engine due to the sensitivity of airflow to
small differences in lift caused by production component tolerances.  BMW has reported
mixture quality issues with CVVL and port fuel injection, requiring a compromise on
pumping  work reduction to ensure good mixture quality. With  CVVL, a small  amount of
throttling  is necessary to maintain  brake servo operation,  unless a separate vacuum
pump is used.  BMW maintains 50 mbar inlet  manifold depression on its "Valvetronic"
engines to allow the brake servo to function.

Tumble air motion generated by the inlet port is not available in the cylinder at low valve
lift, which has  an effect  on combustion characteristics.  The high gas velocities at the
valve seat generate high turbulence levels, but most of this has decayed by the time of
ignition.

DWL is a mature technology with low technical risk.

CVVL  system  designs are unique to each OEM and it is therefore not possible to
generalize about technical risk. BMW has the  most production experience and has sold
port injection  "Valvetronic" engines  since  2001.  The most recent introduction  of
"Valvetronic" is on the BMW/PSA  1.6-liter, 4-cylinder, port injection "Prince" engine.
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With CVVL systems, engine transient response will be  limited by  rate of change of
maximum valve lift.  100 ms response time from minimum to maximum lift is available
from the BMW system.

5.1.2.5 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
5.1.2.5.1  CWL
The CVVL BSFC benefit map was based on measured test bed data from a Ricardo
research  engine and BMW published  data for  its  "Valvetronic" engine  [1-4].  The
specification of the research engine is as follows:
   •   European 4 cylinder
   •   4  valves per cylinder
   •   Bore of 84mm
   •   Stroke of 90mm
   •   Compression Ratio of 10.5 :1
   •   Port fuel injection
   •   Dual variable cam phasers with 60 degree crank angle range
   •   The engine was fitted with a new cylinder head designed and manufactured by
       Ricardo, incorporating the BMW Valvetronic' mechanical variable lift and period
       system for both intake and exhaust valves.


5.1.2.5.2  DWL
The DWL BSFC benefit map is based on Ricardo test data from a North American V6,
using alternative camshafts to simulate the benefit of a cam profile switching  system.

5.1.3 Cylinder Deactivation
Cylinder  deactivation is  a fuel  economy technology that is in use  today in the North
American market. It  can be found  on several vehicles  under various  trade names such
as Multiple Displacement System (MDS) and Active Fuel Management (AFM).  Cylinder
deactivation has to date been applied to V6, V8, and V12 engines.

The concept of cylinder deactivation targets reducing pumping losses  by switching off, or
deactivating,  half of the  engine  cylinders.  By  deactivating  half  the cylinders,  the
remaining active cylinders are operating at twice the load that the engine would  normally
operate at if all cylinders were active. By definition therefore, those active cylinders have
the throttle  further  open,  thereby  reducing  the pump  losses and improving fuel
consumption.

Mitsubishi Motor Corporation introduced an early  example of cylinder deactivation with
its MIVEC system applied to  a four-cylinder engine. This engine  had a short-lived
production run  but  demonstrated  its feasibility.   In  the North American market,  a
significant percentage of the engines in production were based on a pushrod valvetrain.
The  simplicity  of the  architecture of  pushrod  valvetrains  lends  itself  to  cylinder
deactivation, and thus, significant effort was directed to this technology on both V8 and
V6  pushrod engines. General  Motors Corporation  and  Chrysler  Corporation  have
developed systems for their respective engine families. Applying cylinder deactivation to
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overhead camshaft engines is  also possible but requires a more complex solution.
Mercedes-Benz successfully applied this technology to its V8 and V12 engines.

Effective cylinder deactivation requires accurately timed disablement and re-enablement
of both the intake and exhaust  valves.  In the case  of a pushrod  valvetrain, a revised
hydraulic lifter is used which incorporates an oil-pressure-controlled locking pin. The pin
can be either locked  or  unlocked to allow the pushrod  to operate or not operate the
valve. Below is an example of the layout for a pushrod valvetrain.
                           Figure 5-5: Pushrod Valvetrain

Overhead camshaft engines generally have greater challenges in deactivating valves,
primarily due to the available package space and generally a four-valve-per-cylinder
layout. Typically, there are two types of valve train: Type 1 a direct-acting bucket tappet,
which is either hydraulically or  mechanically lashed; Type 2 is a roller finger follower with
a static hydraulic lash adjuster. In the case of a Type 1 configuration, a hydraulic tappet
can allow "lost motion" by utilizing an oil-controlled locking  pin, an example of which is
shown below.
                        Figure 5-6: Oil-Controlled Locking Pin
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Type 2 valvetrains can utilize two approaches. One has a collapsing rocker, where lost
motion can be achieved by allowing the roller  to  move  relative  to the  follower. This
approach  still  uses  a  conventional  lash  adjuster. The  other approach  uses  a
conventional roller follower and has a lost motion lash adjuster similar to that used on
the pushrod valvetrain layout. The figure below shows examples of a lost-motion Type 2
roller finger follower:

                              Single oil feed, pressureless unlocked
                  Inner arm
            (with roller for low valve Lift)
                                                    ^^L
                                                   ,^

                                        \   •—^_
                                                      b~~~~~" f^ittn
                           Locking pin
                         Twin lost-motion spring
                        Outer arm

               (with sliding pads for high valve lift)


               Pivot axle outer arm
                 Figure 5-7: Symmetrical Roller Finger Follower (SRFF)

In the  case of  the  Mercedes  engine, the valvetrain  was  a  3-valve  configuration.
Therefore, a more complex solution was required, as shown below.
                                                        disengaged position
                                                         no valve actuation
                  Figure 5-8: Mercedes 3-valve Configuration Follower
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The sequencing of cylinder deactivation is important. Firstly, when deactivating half the
number of cylinders, this has to be done in such a manner that an even firing interval is
maintained. So in the case of a V8,  the firing interval would increase from 90° to 180°.
Depending on the firing order and configuration selected, either one bank of an engine
will be deactivated (V6) or selected cylinders on both banks (V8).  The control of the
deactivation is by solenoid valves akin to those found on transmissions. The number of
valves used is an  area where extensive  development has occurred in an attempt to
minimize the total but still achieve satisfactory control. Four control valves are typical on
a pushrod engine, whilst four per cylinder head is typical for an overhead cam engine.

5.1.3.1 Advantages
Cylinder deactivation control strategy is relatively simple. It relies on setting a maximum
and minimum manifold absolute pressure with which  it will deactivate the cylinders.
There is potentially a significant fuel  saving due to the reduced  pumping losses as part
load.  The same engine displacement and maximum horsepower can  be maintained.

5.1.3.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
Vehicle integration has  been a challenge for  cylinder deactivation.  Issues with  NVH
dominate the list of implementation  issues. Active engine mounts are needed to run
deactivated at idle. Noise  quality from both  intake and exhaust has been  problematic,
and in some cases, had lead to active exhaust systems with an ECU-controlled valve.
Deactivation is typically used in the highest two gears only. Other factors affecting real-
world  fuel consumption include vehicle  power-to-weight  ratio, drag coefficient, and
available gear ratios. In many cases, it is difficult to maintain the vehicle in  deactivated
mode at 70 mph, which can lead to  customer dissatisfaction with fuel consumption. As
engine specific rating improves, the potential fuel consumption benefit reduces, or stated
another way,  as vehicle specific power rating improves, the potential fuel consumption
benefit increases.

5.1.3.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
Production cylinder deactivation systems exist and Ricardo has benchmark data that can
be appropriately scaled to various engine applications.

5.1.4 Gasoline Direct  Injection
In gasoline direct-injection  engines, fuel is injected into the cylinder rather than the inlet
manifold or inlet port. Some changes to engine architecture are  required compared to a
port fuel injection engine.   A typical homogeneous stoichiometric Direct Injection (Dl)
layout is shown below.
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             Figure 5-9: Typical homogeneous stoichiometric Dl layout [5]


The fuel injection system comprises an electrically-driven low-pressure fuel pump, which
feeds a high-pressure  mechanical pump, working at up to 200 bar fuel pressure.   A
common fuel rail supplies  the injectors, which produce a highly atomized spray with a
Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) of 15-20 microns, which compares to around 50 microns
for a  port injector.  Two operating strategy options are  used in  Dl  gasoline engines,
characterized by the mixture preparation strategy.
   1.  Homogenous,  where fuel  is  injected  during  the  intake stroke  with a  single
       injection. The aim  is to produce a homogeneous charge by the time of ignition.
       In  this  mode,  a stoichiometric air/fuel  ratio  can  be used  and the  exhaust
       aftertreatment  system  can be a  relatively low-cost conventional  three-way
       catalyst.


   2.  Stratified, where fuel is injected late in the compression stroke with a single or
       multiple injections.  The aim is  to produce an overall lean stratified mixture, with a
       rich area in  the region of  the spark plug to enable stable ignition.    Multiple
       injections can be used  per cycle to control the degree of stratification.  Use of
       lean  mixtures significantly  improves efficiency by reducing pumping work, but
       requires a high-cost lean NOx  trap in the exhaust aftertreatment system.


In this study, only  homogeneous stoichiometric systems were considered, at the request
of the EPA.

5.1.4.1 Advantages of Homogeneous Stoichiometric Dl
A compression ratio up to 1.5:1 higher than for a port-injected engine can be used for
the same fuel quality due to charge cooling [6].  As a result of the higher compression
ratio,  part-load efficiency and full-load  torque are improved.

Volumetric efficiency is improved  by  up to 2%,  again due to charge cooling [6], which
improves full-load  torque.
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Dl increases turbulence in the charge as a result of the energy in the spray itself [7].
This helps to maintain burn rate with high residual levels and thereby improves economy
in engines with cam phasers.
In boosted engines, Dl allows improved scavenging  of the cylinder without any direct
charge  loss.  This reduces residuals  and charge  temperature,  allowing a  higher
compression ratio to be used for a given fuel quality.
A degree of charge stratification can be  used to improve combustion stability under the
ignition timing strategy employed for catalyst heating after a cold start.

As a result of a higher compression ratio and  improved residual tolerance, drive cycle
fuel consumption is improved by 2-3%.
Also,  as a result of  a higher compression ratio and  improved volumetric efficiency,
torque is improved by around 5% in naturally aspirated engines.

5.1.4.2    Disadvantages   and   Technical   Risks    of    Homogeneous
Stoichiometric Dl
The only disadvantage is the price of the Dl fuel system.   However, for an engine that
already  has dual cam phasers, Dl represents  a reasonably cost-effective next step in
technology implementation.
Homogeneous,  Stoichiometric Dl  systems are regarded as a mature technology with
minimal  technical risk.  To deliver the full  potential  benefits,  a variable  cam phasing
system is required.

5.1.4.3  Source of Engine BSFC  Maps
The Stoichiometric Dl  BSFC benefit and torque  benefit were based on Ricardo data from
Port Fuel Injection (PFI) to Dl conversion experience.  The values agreed with published
data [8].
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5.1.5 Turbocharged/Downsized Gasoline Engine
Forced induction in the form of turbocharging  and supercharging have  been used on
internal  combustion  engines for many years.  Their traditional role has been one  of
providing enhance performance for high-end or sports car applications.

With the drive for improved fuel economy, turbocharged engines have been viewed in a
different role, one of a fuel economy technology. There are two main  reasons for this.
Engine friction torque is proportional to engine  displacement,  but when  comparing
Friction Mean Effective Pressure (FMEP)—friction torque normalized by displacement—
there is very little difference between the full-size engine and the boosted  downsized
engine,  despite  the  higher cylinder pressure associated with  higher Brake Mean
Effective Pressure (BMEP). The net result is a natural friction advantage with a boosted
down-sized engine. The second benefit is  related to reduced pump losses (Pumping
Mean Effective Pressure—PMEP). A turbocharged engine runs  at  significantly higher
BMEP levels than a naturally aspirated engine.  The upper limit of BMEP  levels that can
be expected from a  naturally aspirated engine is ~ 13.5 bar, whereas a turbocharged
engine can  produce  BMEP levels in excess of 20 bar. Current technology gasoline
engines use a throttle to regulate load, but this causes pumping losses. Therefore, by
using a small-displacement engine with a turbocharger, the smaller engine works harder
(higher in-cylinder load) and  this results in lower pumping losses as the throttle has to be
further open. The figure below shows the benefit in  BSFC achieved by the Bosch-
Ricardo GDI V6 engine (Dl  Boost)  compared to a V8 engine, specifically for a Cadillac
CTS-V application [9].
     550


     500


     450


     400
     350
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     250
     200
-4-DI BOOST
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                 Torque (Nm)
250.0
300.0
  Figure 5-10: BSFC benefit achieved by Bosch-Ricardo GDI V6 Engine Compared to V8
                                    Engine

There is no question that in most cases a boosted downsized  engine  can  replace a
conventional naturally aspirated engine and achieve equivalent power and torque.
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The challenges associated with acceptance of a downsized boosted engine are:

   •   Achievement of "seamless" power delivery compared to the  naturally aspirated
       engine (no perceptible turbo lag)
   •   Emissions performance—the  addition  of  a  turbocharger  causes  additional
       difficulty with catalyst light-off due to the thermal inertia of the turbo itself
   •   Additional base engine cost
   •   Additional vehicle integration costs

The case for using downsized boosted engines has greatly improved with  the wider
introduction of direct-injection gasoline engines. When combined  with cam phasing, a
viable technology package is readily available.

Structural changes to the base engine are focused on increasing its structural capability
to tolerate  higher cylinder pressures. It  is reasonable to expect that  the  maximum
cylinder pressure would increase by 25-30% over those typical in a  naturally aspirated
engine. Higher thermal loads accompany higher pressures,  and these must also be
considered.

5.1.5.1 Advantages
The downsized,  boosted engine can deliver similar torque and  power to the larger
displacement engine it replaces.    This  reduces pumping and  frictional losses  and
generates a noticeable improvement in fuel consumption.

5.1.5.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
One  potential disadvantage  is that car buyers have  become accustomed to large-
displacement  engines  being  high  power.    Hence,  the  acceptability  of smaller-
displacement engines needs to be tested.

With a turbocharged  engine there are a number of trade-offs  to be considered. If the
engine is to be biased to a highly rated variant then  it is reasonable to expect that the
engine will  be a premium recommended product rather than regular fuel. In optimizing
the engine, decisions as to the compression ratio and specific rating to be achieved are
influenced by the fuel grade. For example, regular fuel can be used if the specific rating
chosen is lower and the compression ratio is not raised significantly. While some fuel
economy benefit may be lost if regular fuel is used, significant benefits from downsizing
can still be realized.

If an engine rating of say 100 bhp/L is targeted, it is reasonable to assume that a regular
fuel variant can  be developed with  a lower compression ratio, for example, 9.5:1  to
10.0:1  and still be a balanced overall product. The engine with the same rating could use
10.5:1  if  it were  a premium fuel engine.  If a higher specific rating  were selected, for
example greater than 125 bhp/L then it is likely that the compression ratio would be 9.5:1
to 10.0:1 on premium fuel to avoid excessive engine knock. While some compression
ratio has  been lost, the engine's performance has increased and the effect of downsizing
has been improved,  offsetting the  loss of compression ratio. Trade offs as to  what
displacement  the engine should be  and  what rating  it should  target  with  which
recommended fuel are important to study during the planning stage.
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A  downsized boosted  engine with  stoichiometric  direct  injection presents minimal
technical risk.   Although, there  have been limited demonstrations of this technology
achieving SULEV emission levels.

5.1.5.3 Source of Engine BSFC
Ricardo has experience with a number of downsized, boosted engines. Two particular
data sets were used for this study, one for a 2.4L 14 engine and the other for a 3.6L V6.

5.1.6 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)
HCCI is also known as Controlled Auto Ignition (CAI) and "Active Radical" combustion.
In  spark ignition, combustion initiates at the plug at a time controlled by the spark and a
flame propagates  through the charge.  HCCI  combustion  initiates by auto-ignition at
multiple sites within  the combustion chamber at a  time  controlled by the charge
temperature, pressure, and composition.  Excessive rates of heat release are  controlled
by using high levels of internal EGR or lean mixtures.

The  most practical approach to obtaining HCCI  combustion in automotive gasoline
engines is to use  high levels of internal  EGR (typically 40-70%) to both raise charge
temperature and control heat release rate. A large negative valve overlap  is used, often
called "recompression strategy."  Typical  cylinder pressure diagrams for recompression
HCCI are provided in Figure 5-12.   Due to gas exchange, pressure  rise  rate and
compression temperature constraints, HCCI combustion  is  only possible in a relatively
small speed and load range as  depicted in Figure 5-13. The upper load limit can be
extended by boosting.
Practical implementation requires short valve-opening  periods and control of inlet and
exhaust cam phasing. The three main valvetrain options are:

   •   Cam profile switching and dual cam phasers
   •   Mechanical variable lift and period  system for both  intake and exhaust valves and
       dual cam phasers. The BMW "Valvetronic" valvetrain is a good example [11-13]
   •   Camless valvetrain
                                                       Crank Angle [deg]
  Figure 5-12: Cylinder pressure during HCCI combustion showing low cyclic irregularity
                         and exhaust recompression [10]
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Q_  b
UJ

1  4


   2
                          HCC
                                 spark
                          ignition zone
                               zone
        1000     2000     3000    4000    5000
                   Engine Speed [rev/min]
                                                            6000
 Figure 5-13: Typical speed / load envelope where HCCI combustion can be obtained using
                              mechanical valvetrain
5.1.6.1 Advantages
To determine the benefits of HCCI combustion compared to spark-ignition combustion, it
is important to compare it with a  baseline spark-ignition engine with the  necessary
valvetrain technology to  enable HCCI.  On this basis, the benefits of HCCI combustion
are:

   •  An overall gain in drive cycle fuel consumption
   •  A 20-30% reduction in drive cycle engine-out NOx emissions
   •  No engine-out HC emissions penalty
   •  A low level of cyclic  combustion irregularity
   •  Compatibility with  lambda  1 operation, enabling three-way catalyst  exhaust
      aftertreatment to be used
   •  Compatibility with port or direct fuel injection
   •  Low system cost for implementation in an  engine that already has  a suitable
      valvetrain.   (This statement assumes that  a  cylinder  pressure or some other
      direct combustion sensor is not required to give heat release feedback to the
      engine management system.)

5.1.6.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
One disadvantage of HCCI combustion is that it can only be implemented in engines
with variable valvetrains  incorporating fast-response variable cam phasing and variable
cam profiles.  It is unlikely  that  the benefits  of HCCI combustion alone would justify the
cost of the  necessary valvetrain. However,  in engines where  the necessary valvetrain
has already been justified  by the  spark-ignition benefits, this  disadvantage is not  an
issue.
Rates of pressure  rise  with HCCI  combustion can  be higher than for spark-ignition
combustion, which may have implications for engine refinement.
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Due to the high compression temperatures required to initiate HCCI combustion, HCCI
mode would not be available in a cold engine, which limits the fuel consumption benefit
in both legislated drive cycles and short journeys in the real world.
Control disadvantages include issues associated with calibration discontinuities between
spark-ignition and HCCI  combustion, requiring development of sophisticated strategies
for  managing the transition.  Direct-injection with multiple injections per cycle  may be
required for control of combustion  phasing  and to manage the spark-ignition/HCCI
transition.  Also, HCCI may require cylinder pressure or other direct combustion sensor
to give heat release feedback to the engine management system.

Small end bearing design may need to be reviewed for HCCI  engines due to the lack of
inertia relief in HCCI mode and the effect on lubrication.

HCCI  implementation is thought to be 5-10 years away from high-volume production.

5.1.6.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
The HCCI  BSFC benefit map was based on measured testbed data from a multi-cylinder
Ricardo research engine.  The engine was fitted with a new cylinder head designed and
manufactured by Ricardo, incorporating the BMW Valvetronic' mechanical variable lift
and period system for both intake and exhaust valves [11-13].  Figures 5-14 through 5-
16 below show a section through the valvetrain and a view of the assembled  cylinder
head  along  with the  range  of  valve lift  profiles available.  The  work  is  reported  in
reference [10] and the engine specification was as follows:

    •   4 cylinder
    •   Bore of 84mm
    •   Stroke of 90mm
    •   Compression Ratio of 10.5 :1
    •   Port fuel injection
    •   Dual  variable cam  phasers with 60 degree crank angle  range
    •   Variable lift and period system for both intake and exhaust valves
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  Figure 5-14: Ricardo TMVL (Twin Mechanical Variable Lift) HCCI research cylinder head
     valvetrain with dual variable valve lift and period and dual variable cam phasing
       Figure 5-15: Alternative valve lift profiles with the BMW 'Valvetronic' system
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  Figure 5-16: Ricardo TMVL (Twin Mechanical Variable Lift) HCCI research cylinder head
                                    assembly
5.1.7 Camless Valvetrain
The term "camless" is used to describe a valve actuation system where valve motion is
controlled by an electrohydraulic [15-16] or an electromagnetic actuator [14], with one
actuator per valve  or pair of valves.   Feedback position control is provided to  enable
closed-loop  control of the lift profile.  An example of an  electromagnetic actuator
produced by Valeo is shown below [13].  The system operates on a 12V power supply.
Also below is an example of an electrohydraulic actuator from Lotus [15].  Hydraulic fluid
pressure in the electrohydraulic systems is up to 200 bar, provided by an engine-driven
pump.  Maximum valve velocity is typically 5 m/s, and maximum valve lift up to  15 mm
can be achieved.
There  are  no  production engines with camless  valvetrains,  although a  number  of
research engines have been produced.  A number of issues will need to be resolved
before  production applications can be considered:

   •   Power consumption
   •   Providing sufficient opening force for exhaust valves, especially in the case of
       turbocharged engines
   •   Control issues, such as cycle-to-cycle repeatability of lift (target 1%) and timing
       (target 1 degree crankshaft angle) and the ability to control valve-seating velocity
       ("soft landing")
   •   Cost
   •   Negative impact on NVH
   •   Failure modes and effects (FMEA)
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                                          Lower coil

                                            Spring
                                          retainer
                                Upper coil

                                Armature
                                                               Springs
               Figure 5-17: Valeo electromagnetic camless actuator [14]
                         Hydraulic Manifold
                              and
                         Actuator Cylinder
                                                         Displacement
                                                          Transducer
               Engine Valve
                                                      Actuator Piston
                                                        Assembly
                                                  EHSV
            Figure 5-18: Lotus "AVT" Electrohydraulic camless actuator [15]
5.1.7.1 Advantages Compared to CAM Phasers Only
The  full flexibility in valve lift profiles and timing provided by a  camless valvetrain
achieves a reduction in pumping losses at low load above that available from cam
phasers and  CVVL  combined.   This results in improved  low-load fuel consumption
compared to DCP + CVVL.

The camless valvetrain enables the engine to achieve HCCI combustion by exhaust gas
recompression. The spark ignition to HCCI transition requires a switch to reduced inlet
and exhaust cam periods compared to spark ignition operation with revised phasing.
Simple or complex cylinder deactivation  strategies  can be achieved by  use of the
camless system to selectively deactivate valves as required.

A timing drive is not required for camless engines.
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5.1.7.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
Power  consumption of  camless systems can be  excessive compared  to  purely
mechanical camshafts, which can negate the potential gains in fuel consumption.

In Ricardo's experience,  it is more difficult to  achieve good cylinder-to-cylinder airflow
balance at low load with a valve-throttled engine due to the sensitivity of airflow to small
differences in lift caused by production component tolerances.

There is a possibility of mixture quality issues with valve-throttling and port fuel injection,
requiring a compromise on pumping work reduction to ensure good mixture quality.

A separate vacuum  pump will be necessary to  maintain brake servo operation, unless a
small amount of engine throttling is maintained.

In a valve-throttled engine, tumble air motion generated by the inlet port is not available
in the cylinder at low valve lift, which has an effect on combustion characteristics.  The
high  gas velocities at the valve seat generate high turbulence levels, but most of this has
decayed by the time of ignition.
Camless valvetrain technologies are unproven in production and therefore carry a high
technical risk, with the issues listed above still to be fully resolved.

5.1.7.3 Source of  Engine BSFC Maps
The camless valvetrain BSFC benefit map was based on published data for a 4-cylinder
research engine with the Bosch  EHVS electrohydraulic  valvetrain [16,17].  The report
states that  this data is  from a fully dressed 4-cylinder engine, including all mechanical
and hydraulic losses.

5.1.8 Diesel Engine
Advanced  diesel technologies offer  fuel economy benefits over conventional gasoline
technology under all conditions without compromising performance.  Benefits include
robust fuel economy and low CO2 under all operating conditions, improved performance
and towing, and high torque at low engine speed giving a "fun-to-drive" characteristic.

Diesel engines gain  efficiency through high compression  ratios and significantly reduced
throttling or pumping losses.  Diesels are turbocharged to recover exhaust  heat and
require  a  high-pressure  fuel injection  system  to enable  low-emission combustion  to
occur. The diesel  engine requires robust construction of the  cylinder head, block, and
piston so that it can withstand the high mechanical loads.

5.1.8.1  Advantages
Diesel  engines also have an  advantage  in that their  torque  curve shape provides
improved vehicle  grade  capability and torque reserve  over gasoline engines.  With
optimized  transmission  matching,  this  enables  efficiency gains  by  allowing the
transmission to operate in higher gears for a longer period over the same drive cycle.
There are also potential  advantages for towing or when a vehicle operates in heavily
loaded conditions.
5.1.8.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
The US requires significantly lower NOx emissions than Europe. This is a challenge for
lean combustion technologies such as diesel engines.  The US emissions levels can be
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achieved,  but can  require significant complexity in the aftertreatment systems.   The
emission  control  also  requires  novel  air and  exhaust flow management,  multiple
turbochargers, and new catalyst types.
5.1.8.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
As the diesel engine and emission solution is still under development for the US, it is
worth describing in more detail the approach taken for the diesel engine data contained
in this report.

5.1.8.4 2L Diesel Engine
This engine was assumed to be an inline 4-cylinder 2-liter with 4 valves per cylinder and
dual overhead camshafts.  The engine calibration maps  were modified from a Euro4
baseline to be compatible with U.S. emissions cycles.  The engine layout is shown by
the following figure, with the description of components immediately following.
                       Figure 5-19: Small MPV Engine Layout
5.1.8.4.1 Gas Handling System
Boosting was through a single-stage variable-nozzle turbocharger (VNT) with air-to-air
charge-air cooling.   High  levels of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) were facilitated
through single-stage EGR cooling. The EGR system included a cooler bypass to aid in
cold start, light load emissions, and transient operation. This configuration was expected
to require an EGR Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) to mitigate fouling issues in the EGR
and intake systems.
5.1.8.4.2 Combustion System
The geometric compression ratio for the map used was 17.5:1. The fuel system was a
High-Pressure Common Rail (HPCR) with 1800 bar solenoid injection.  Glow plugs were
used to aid in cold start, with one or more having cylinder-pressure-sensing capability for
adaptation to fuel cetane variations. For 2010-2015, advanced diesel technology will be
required in order  to achieve Tier  2 Bin 5  emission levels without compromising  fuel
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economy.  This includes lower geometric compression ratio, 2000+ bar piezo injection
capable of up to 5 close-coupled injections per cycle, and low-temperature combustion
concepts like Partially Pre-mixed Compression  Ignition (PCCI) and fully  pre-mixed or
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI).

5.1.8.4.3 Aftertreatment
Aftertreatment  included a DOC, Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), and a Lean NOx Trap
(LNT).   Simulation  using the MSC.EASY5™  results and  the specific engine-out NOx
map indicate that engine-out NOx will have to be reduced by -65-70% over the FTP
cycle to meet Tier 2 Bin 5 tailpipe emissions.  This level of NOx reduction is consistent
with expected   LNT  technology  available  in  2010-2015  timeframe  without  the
implementation  of PCCI/HCCI combustion. As stated  above,  these  low temperature
combustion  concepts  enable  the  attainment of emissions targets without as much
aftertreatment penalty.

5.1.8.5 2.8L Diesel Engine
This engine  featured dual or single overhead cam(s).  Engine maps were developed
from the 2L engine previously described.  This application  is more likely compatible with
a compact V6 architecture. The engine layout is shown in the following figure with, the
description of components immediately afterwards.
                                          EGR Cooler
                                         O   O   O
                     Compressor
                       Figure 5-20: Large Car Engine Layout.
5.1.8.5.1 Gas Handling System
Boosting was through a single-stage variable-nozzle turbocharger (VNT) with air-to-air
charge-air cooling.  Two-stage boosting may be required  in practice.  High  levels  of
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)  were facilitated through a single-stage  EGR cooler.
The  EGR system included  cooler-bypass capability  to  aid  in cold start, light-load
emissions, and transient operation.  The engine was expected to require EGR DOC  to
mitigate fouling issues in the EGR and intake systems.
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5.1.8.5.2 Combustion System
The geometric compression ratio for the map used was  17.5:1.  The fuel system was
HPCR with 1800 bar solenoid injection. Glow plugs were used to aid in cold start with
one or more having cylinder pressure-sensing capability for adaptation to fuel cetane
variations.  For 2010-2015, advanced diesel technology will be required in  order to
maintain T2B5 emission levels without compromising fuel  economy. This includes lower
geometric compression ratio, 2000+ bar piezo injection capable of up to 5 close-coupled
injections per cycle, and low-temperature combustion concepts like PCCI and HCCI.

5.1.8.5.3 Aftertreatment
Aftertreatment included DOC, DPF, and an LNT.  Simulation  using the MSC.EASY5™
results and the specific engine-out NOx map indicate that engine-out NOx will have to be
reduced  by  -75-80%  over  the  FTP cycle to meet Tier2  Bin5 tailpipe  emissions.
Development is ongoing  to demonstrate  the robustness of such a  high  conversion
efficiency using LNT Technology.   Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) or LNT are both
options depending on technical risk. For this study,  LNT was selected.

5.1.8.6  4.8L Diesel Engine
The Truck diesel engine configuration was assumed to be a 4.8L V6 with a cam-in-block,
or pushrod, valvetrain. However,  an overhead cam or cams  may also be used.  The
engine maps are based on 2010 emissions levels  for a 7000-pound ETW vehicle. The
engine  layout is  shown  in the  following  figure,  with description  of components
immediately following.
                         Figure 5-21: Truck Engine Layout
5.1.8.6.1 Gas Handling System
Boosting  is through a two-stage series-sequential turbo charging system.  The low-
pressure  turbine is fixed geometry with a wastegate.  The high-pressure turbine is a
VNT.  High levels of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) were facilitated through a single-
stage EGR cooler. For 2010-2015, it is expected that advanced EGR cooling will  be
required.   This will likely include increased cooling capacity,  EGR DOC for fouling
mitigation, and EGR bypass for reasons previously described.
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5.1.8.6.2 Combustion System
The geometric compression ratio was 16:1. The fuel system was HPCR with 1800+ bar
solenoid injection. Glow plugs were used to aid in cold start, with one or more having
cylinder pressure sensing capability for adaptation to fuel cetane variations. An intake
air heater was also required for cold start. For 2010-2015, advanced diesel technology
will  be required in order to maintain  T2B5  emission levels without compromising fuel
economy.  This includes lower geometric compression ratio, 2000+ bar piezo injection
capable of up to 5 close-coupled injections per cycle,  and low-temperature combustion
concepts like PCCI and HCCI.

5.1.8.6.3 Aftertreatment
Aftertreatment included DOC, DPF, and urea SCR. Simulation using the MSC.EASY5™
results and the specific engine-out NOx map indicate that engine-out NOx will have to be
reduced by -75-80% over the FTP cycle to meet Tier2 Bin5 tailpipe emissions.

5.1.8.7 Diesel Aftertreatment Fuel Economy Impact
For the diesel engines, there are two  main contributors to the fuel consumption penalty
from the emissions control systems. The first is the diesel particulate filter (DPF). Here,
the main penalty of approximately 2% comes from supplying extra fuel to  raise the DPF
inlet temperature to 550°C or higher. The 550°C regeneration temperature is to facilitate
active  regeneration,  whereby extra hydrocarbons are used to trigger a regeneration
event.  The fuel  may be burned in the engine to raise the engine-out temperature, but is
more typically catalytically combusted in the exhaust  system to raise the temperature
downstream of the turbine. The DPF system consumes the most fuel when the vehicle
has been operating at low loads with many transients and generating the most soot to be
cleaned out of the DPF per operating hour.  If the exhaust gas is hot enough, the DPF
needs no additional fuel to stay cleared of soot.

The second part of the fuel consumption penalty comes from the device used to remove
nitrogen oxides  (NOx) from the exhaust gas.  For smaller engines and vehicles,  the
typical  device  is the lean  NOx trap (LNT), also known as a NOx adsorber catalyst. Here,
diesel fuel is used to release NOx from the trapping compound and then  to convert the
NOx to nitrogen gas. The regeneration penalty averages out to approximately 5% on the
city cycle and  3% on the highway cycle.

An alternative, used  on larger passenger cars and in use on heavy-duty engines, is the
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system.  The  SCR system uses urea to generate
ammonia; the ammonia then reacts with the  NOx to form nitrogen gas and water. There
is a fuel economy penalty associated with warming up the urea-SCR system to effective
operating temperatures.  This is approximately  5% on the city cycle but none  on the
highway cycle due to the fact that it is performed with a warm start.

For either  NOx-control mechanism, the systems consume the most fuel  or urea when
the  engine is  at sustained high  loads,  where the engine-out NOx levels are typically
highest. Therefore, an account has been made of the penalty for urban  driving to reflect
a combination of the DPF and  NOx control system  fuel consumption  penalties.  For
highway driving, an estimate was made of the fuel consumption  penalty, which comes
primarily from  the NOx control system.
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5.1.9 Stop-Start
Stop-Start  technology,  in  combination  with  efficient electrical  accessories,  has  the
potential to improve fuel economy over a wide range of vehicles.    Due to the high
starting torques for V6 and  V8  engines,  a 42V starting system  is  needed for  US
applications. The advantages and disadvantages of  stop-start vary depending  on the
control strategy implementation and the vehicle drive cycle.

The electrical system architecture is replaced with a  Dual Voltage (42V/14V) system.
This is  driven by  a crankshaft-mounted starter/alternator and bi-directional AC drive,
which combines the conventional starter and alternator into one electronically controlled
unit.  The  starter/alternator can be belt driven,  like  the conventional alternator, or  a
crankshaft-mounted version  on the rear face of the  engine,  which  was  the case
modelled. As the engine starting loads are large at very cold ambient temperatures,  it is
usual to retain the conventional starter motor.  Hence  the starter/alternator is only used
for  starting when the ambient temperature has reached a pre-determined  level. The bi-
directional AC drive converts battery power from DC to AC to start the engine (inverter).
Once the engine  is running,  the  bi-directional AC drive converts AC  power from  the
electric machine to DC power to supply the 42V bus (rectifier). Electric accessories such
as water pumps and power steering pumps can also be driven electrically at either 42V
or 12V. A  DC-DC converter is  used to provide power to the 12V circuits  from the 42V
starter/alternator.  It is  felt that the  market will not support complete migration  to 42V
power for all loads.
 Conventional Electrical System Architecture
Belt Driven Alternator +
 Rectifier & Regulator
  Dual Voltage System
                                                  Starter & Gear Drive
                                                14V Electric Loads
     Crank Driven   ^O/AI _
   Starter/Alternator +  IS/A)
    Bi-directional AC  >«_»X
       Drive

                 36 V Battery
      42 V Bus
                            •*     ^*^l
                         DC/DC
                                14V Bus
        •*     ^*^l 42 V Electric Loads ^*^l 14 V E
Figure 5-22: Conventional, Dual Voltage System
                                                            14 V Electric Loads
5.1.9.1 Advantages
Stop-Start, or idle-off operation, is used to reduce fuel consumption due to friction and
pumping losses by turning the engine off while stationary.  This will take place at traffic
signals and under similar conditions when the vehicle is stationary and after the engine
has reached the normal operating temperature.
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Conventional belt-driven accessories are designed to deliver their maximum required
output at relatively low engine speed. As a consequence, the conventional accessories
produce unnecessary parasitic losses at high engine speed. By decoupling the
accessories from the engine speed, the electric accessory duty cycle can be determined
based on demand, thereby reducing parasitic losses compared to the conventional
system.

The advantages of the Stop-Start technology are highly dependent on control strategy
and drive cycle.  The  benefits of idle-stop operation favor a drive  cycle that has frequent
stops.  That is, on long highway drives,  no savings will be made because the vehicle
remains in motion.  However, the benefit from electric accessories increases at highway
speeds  because the  duty cycle can be  determined  from  engine  operating  conditions
rather than engine speed.  This  results  in reduced  parasitic losses  compared to the
conventional system.  In contrast, city driving may yield significant savings from idle-stop
operation and  little benefit from electric  accessories due to  low engine  speeds.  The
electric accessories may also allow faster engine warm-up by reducing coolant flow rate
when  the engine is below the normal operating temperature.
5.1.9.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
The disadvantages associated with the Stop-Start system come from increased control-
and electrical-system complexity combined with overall energy conversion efficiency of
the electric accessories.  Compared to the belt-driven conventional accessories, the
electric accessories  have decreased conversion  efficiency  due to the "round trip"
efficiency of the electrical system.  However, the net result does  provide fuel economy
benefits due to the decreased duty cycle noted above.

The cost of the system can be considered to  be  a disadvantage.  The conventional
starter motor is usually retained to enable cold-ambient start.
5.2 TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES
For detailed simulation of transmission technologies it is important to model the losses
that come from several common sources, namely:

   •   Power transmission elements (usually gears  or  gear systems,  clutches and
       traction-drive devices)
   •   Rotating component support elements (bearings)
   •   Friction losses in sealing elements
   •   Interaction of the  rotating  elements with the  lubricant (churning losses,  drag
       losses)
   •   Losses associated  with powering ancillary elements such as hydraulic system
       and lubrication pumps

This section describes how these elements within a transmission system contribute
towards the total losses,  resulting  in  a  typical  level of efficiency for each  of the
transmission types examined in this study:

   •   Planetary Automatic Transmissions
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       Dual-Clutch Transmissions (wet and dry clutch)
       Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVTs)
5.2.1 Losses in Power Transmission Elements
Gear pairs and gear systems, such  as epicyclic gear sets,  are the main  power
transmission elements used in automotive transmissions.

When power is transmitted between a pair of gears some power is lost. As the gear
teeth move through mesh, power is absorbed as a result of sliding that occurs at the
contact  point between  the  gear teeth  and the 'wedging action' as the  gear  teeth
compress the oil between them. The power absorbed or lost is dissipated as heat and
noise from the gear mesh. The overall power loss is therefore calculated from the power
loss due to oil wedging and the power loss due to sliding. The total gear mesh losses are
therefore a function of instantaneous sliding and rolling speed, gear load, oil properties
(viscosity, etc.), and gear geometry. Mesh  losses generally increase with  gear speed
and load.

For an overall efficiency analysis, it is more common to assume an average efficiency for
all operating conditions. The assumptions made in this study are based on Ricardo's
experience with losses for gear meshes as follows:

      Single gear mesh                 -     0.5-2%
      Each mesh in epicyclic            -     0.4-1.8%
      Hypoid gear mesh                 -     3-6%

Hypoid gears are used in Transaxle final drives and  rear axles. The losses are generally
much higher than a spur or helical gear pair because of very high sliding velocities in the
mesh.

The  Continuously Variable  Transmission  (CVT)  is  a  specific  type  of automatic
transmission that has a different type of power transmission element than a typical gear
set. Whereas most transmissions have a series of specific ratio steps to match engine
speed to road conditions,  the CVT allows any ratio  between a  minimum and maximum.
This  is commonly achieved through a belt-drive system where the effective diameters of
the belt pulleys are changed to vary the ratio between them.

A number of different types of CVT are produced, namely belt and toroidal. Only the belt-
type  CVT is considered in this report because it is the most widely used and this trend is
expected to continue. However,  toroidal types work on similar principles but are not
considered realistic for this timeframe.

The  efficiency  of a CVT belt and variator system is the subject of much  research. A
figure of 5% was  assumed for  this study, which is  in line with measured data. This is
predominantly due to slip  between the belt and pulley and also due to deflection of the
pulley sheaves.
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5.2.2 Losses in Bearings
Bearings are used to support rotating  components,  such as  shafts and  gears.  In
automotive transmissions,  rolling element bearings are typically used. The losses in a
rolling element  bearing are mainly due to rolling and sliding  of the elements on the
raceways  and churning of the lubricating oil. Calculation procedures for estimating
bearing  losses  are readily available from bearing suppliers  and were  used in this
analysis to estimate bearing losses. Losses in bearings will vary according to the  exact
type of bearing. Taper bearings, which are usually set up with a certain  preload, may
have higher losses at moderate temperatures and speeds. An example of  power loss in
a bearing with varying load and varying speed is given below.
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                              Bearing Power Loss (at 4000rpm)
              350 -,
              300 -
              250 -
              200 -
              150 -
            o
            Q.
              100 -
               50 -
                            20
                                       40          60

                                           Load (%)
                                                              80
                                                                         100
                             Bearing Power Loss (at high load)
              450
              400
              350-
           ^ 300
              250-
            5  200

            I
            Q.
              150-
              100
              50
                         1000     2000     3000     4000

                                       Speed (rpm)
                          5000
    6000
            Figure 5-23: Estimated power loss in a deep-groove ball bearing

5.2.3 Losses in Sealing Elements
Seals of various types are commonly used within transmission systems. Radial-lip seals
are typically used to seal the input and output shafts. These are available in a number of
different materials to suit the application. PTFE/teflon seals will usually offer the lowest
power loss due to their low coefficient  of friction,  but the latest generation of rotating
seals is improving the pumping capabilities of the seal, thereby reducing  the contact
pressure,  and thus reducing the heat and frictional losses from  the  harder materials.
Some bearing types can be fitted  with integral seals that run on the  inner race of the
bearing.

Power losses in seals have been calculated  from  proprietary  data  available from
suppliers.  An example of power losses in shaft seals is given below.
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      500
      400
    CO

    03
    £
    C
    o
      300
      200
      100
                                                                  n -= 8000 rpm
                                                               —  n = 4000 rpm
                                                                  n = 2000 rpm
                                                                  n •- 1000 rpm
                                             100
                   120      140

                  Shaft diameter
                    Figure 5-24: Typical Power Loss in Shaft Seals

Automatic transmissions  and wet-clutch Dual-Clutch Transmissions (DCTs) also have
rotary 'gland' seals to allow pressurized hydraulic fluid to be fed to rotating pistons for
clutch actuation. These rings are usually  manufactured in carbon-based materials or
more commonly high-performance thermoplastic materials, such as Vespel.

Power losses in ring seals can  be  determined from  engineering  principles. Seal
coefficients of friction range from 0.05 to  0.2  for some plastics. A seal coefficient of
friction of 0.05 was assumed for this analysis.
5.2.4 Churning and Drag Losses
Churning losses occur when a gear rotates through an oil bath. This mechanism is used
in  gearboxes  to  distribute  oil  (by  splash)  around  gearboxes.  Most  gearboxes will
generate a level of churning loss, dependant on the configuration and oil level. Churning
losses can be estimated according to established methodologies.
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Churning losses in a transmission can be significant. An example of estimated losses for
a final-drive gear in a typical transmission are shown below.

Additional drag losses in automatic transmissions have two main causes:
   •   Losses associated with open multiplate clutch packs rotating in oil (shearing of oil
       between plates rotating at different speeds)
   •   Losses associated with clutch slip (automatics and DCTs)

Multiplate clutches are used primarily in automatic transmissions to change  ratio by
locking the required element of an epicyclic gear set.

A typical 6-speed  automatic may have 5 clutch packs. Two clutch packs are closed for a
particular gear selected, but the other 3 are open and may create drag losses dependant
on the relative rotational speed of the clutch  plates. Clutch drag is  heavily dependent on
the size  of the clutches and on the relative speed, number of plates, plate gap,  and
amount of oil assumed between the plates. The amount of oil present in the  analysis
was based on required oil-flow rate and rotational acceleration.

Open clutch  drag losses  may  vary considerably due  to  differences in  transmission
architecture, but typical losses at 4000 rpm due to clutch drag could be between 0.5  and
2kW.

Clutch slip control  is  used in DCTs  to  reduce  engine  torsional  vibrations in  the
transmission and  to  help  clutch control  during gear shifting.  In  some automatics, an
additional torque converter 'lock-up clutch' can have a controlled amount of slip to help
with vibration damping.

Any slip  across a driving clutch results in power loss.  This is simply a function of the
transmitted torque and the slipping speed. Under typical  average driving conditions,
power loss in a DCT could  be around 300-400 Watts.

5.2.5 Pump Losses
Pumps used for hydraulic systems in any form  of automatic transmission, and lubrication
systems  in some manual transmissions, cause a power loss. Pump power is a function
of system pressure and flow rate requirement. Typical automatic transmission hydraulic
systems  operate at a low pressure for cooling and lubrication and higher pressures for
shifting and clutch clamping. Automatic transmissions tend  to have  larger oil volumes
(around 5-7  liters) and operate at  pressures typically between  10  and  20  bar, with
pressures up to 60 bar required for CVTs. Similarly, wet-clutch DCTs require larger oil
volumes  for  clutch  cooling. Automatics  and  wet-clutch  DCTs  use common oil for
transmission  lubrication and hydraulics.  Dry-clutch DCT transmissions  use  a small
quantity  of higher-viscosity oil to separate gears, as the  requirements for  hydraulic
systems are not required.

The  pressure  ranges in  both types of transmissions (clutched transmissions, both
automatic and wet-clutch DCTs) and traction-drive transmissions (CVTs) are dictated by
the forces required to transmit torque at the clutches in clutched transmission, or at the
belt-rolling contact in the CVT-style  transmission.  The CVT transmissions adjust gear
ratio by changing  the radius on the primary and secondary pulleys or within the toroidal
system. This  change  in radius vastly varies the amount of force required to  transmit
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torque though the rolling-frictional  interface,  and in turn, varies the hydraulic pressure
required to generate this force.

Power loss due to hydraulic pumps under typical average driving conditions can vary
between  around  400 W for an optimized variable pressure/volume pump to between
1500  and 2000 W for a single pressure/volume system. Most automatic or  wet-clutch
DCT  transmissions' hydraulic  systems have  pump  maximum  displacements  in  the
ranges of 15-26 cc/revolution. System leakage equates to approximately 5-12 liters/min
at average pressure ranges. The latest generation of variable-displacement pumps take
into account the performance required for fast  engagement of system  components, but
during the majority  of the operating conditions at steady-state low-torque  conditions
swash back  to discharge only enough fluid to  overcome system leakage and maintain
pressure. Lower  losses  are possible within  dry-clutch  DCT  transmissions due to the
sealed actuation hydraulic systems offering the capability to use a hydraulic system with
an accumulator or electric actuation. With this type of hydraulic system, the loss reduces
to 3-5 W when averaged over a charge cycle under steady-state conditions.

Additionally,  the  control system required for  an  automatic—predominantly  valves in
hydraulic circuit—has a small electrical power draw.

5.2.6 Overall Efficiencies of Transmission Systems
To compare  transmission types, efficiencies are described as a result of total losses due
to individual components/elements and the arrangement of transmission systems.

5.2.6.1 Automatic Transmission
A typical  planetary automatic transmission arrangement is shown. The overall  losses are
made up from:

   •   Gear mesh losses - typical losses for each epicyclic  ~ 1.5%, with two or three
       stages for a 6-speed.
   •   Additional gear mesh losses for some arrangements with final  drive gears (~1-
       3%).
   •   Bearing and seal losses for input and  output shafts plus additional sealing losses
       for gland seals (estimated between 1 and 2% in total).
   •   Churning  and drag losses for rotating open clutch packs, final-drive gears, and
       slipping lock-up clutch (if slip- control is employed). These could total up to 5%.
   •   Losses due  to hydraulic system pump between 0.5 and 5%, dependent on
       operating  pressure and control strategy (at system pressures around 20-30 bar).

The total losses present in a planetary automatic transmission would suggest an overall
efficiency of  between  86%  and 90%.  However,  fuel economy  and   emissions
performance  over a drive cycle can lead to better than expected results due to the
automatic control of the transmission resulting in shifting  strategies  to give optimum
economy and emissions.

Improvements in  efficiency are possible through optimum  design of the   planetary
arrangement, and reduction of hydraulic power requirement through reduced operating
pressure and variable-flow pump designs, for example. Efficiencies in the region of 92-
93% are possible with an optimized design,  reaching as high as 95% in some specific
operating conditions.
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Losses associated with the torque converter are not considered in this analysis and will
be covered in a following section.

5.2.6.2 Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT)
The  recent introduction of the  DCT  sees the first alternative  automatic transmission
offering significant  improvements  over traditional planetary  automatics  at sensible
productions volumes (mainly in the Volkswagen-Audi Group products in Europe).

The DCT potentially offers the best of both worlds, with the high mechanical efficiency of
a manual  and the shift control  of an automatic, resulting in strong fuel economy and
emissions performance over a drive cycle. Additional performance benefits are reduced
shift time with no torque interrupt during the shift.

The  DCT  is essentially two  power transmission paths in parallel,  each with its own
clutch. A  change  in  gear  ratio  is  achieved  by  disengaging  one  clutch  while
simultaneously engaging the other.  Current production  units  predominantly use wet
multiplate  clutches, requiring  a hydraulic system to clamp and cool the clutches as well
as for gear shifting.

5.2.6.2.1 Wet-Clutch DCT
A typical arrangement  for a  6-speed
wet multiplate clutch DCT is shown in
Figure 5-25.  The overall losses  are
made up as follows:
   •   Gear mesh  losses -  typically
       two gear meshes,  totaling 1 %
   •   Bearing  and seal losses  for
       input and output  shafts plus
       additional  sealing losses  for
       gland     seals     (estimated
       between 1 and 2% in total)
   •   Churning   losses   between  2
       and   6%    dependent    on
       transmission layout
   •   Losses   due   to  hydraulic
       system pump between 0.5 and
       3  %  dependent on pressure-
       control strategy
   •   Drag losses  also  occur  in  the
       open clutch of around  0.5-1%.
       Slip control across the driving
       clutch will also result in 0.5-1%
       power loss.
    Figure 5-25: Typical transverse wet clutch DCT
                   arrangement
The total efficiency of a wet-clutch DCT could therefore be expected to be between 86%
and 94.5%. DCTs use  many  of  the loss-reduction strategies employed  in planetary
automatics, such as low hydraulic system  pressure  between shifting, to  achieve the
higher predicted efficiencies. Although, the wet clutches require a high flow  rate for
cooling, resulting in high instantaneous pump power requirements.
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The efficiency map is similar to a planetary automatic, with the best efficiencies being
achieved at high loads and medium speeds, and significant reduction in efficiency at low
loads and speeds as the power requirement of the hydraulic system becomes a higher
proportion of the overall power transmitted.

5.2.6.2.2 Dry-Clutch  DCT
Another iteration, currently being investigated by several manufacturers, is the dry-clutch
DCT,  using  two dry clutches  in the  place of the wet multiplate   clutches.  This
development  significantly reduces the volume of oil  required to cool wet clutches and
could offer further improvements in efficiency due to reduction of hydraulic pumping
losses and churning losses in the transmission due to a lower oil volume. However, dry-
clutch DCTs are likely to be limited to smaller  vehicle applications,  at least initially, due
to thermal limitations of the dry clutches.

A  possible arrangement for  a 6-
speed dry-clutch DCT is shown  in
Figure 5-26. The overall losses are
made up as follows:
   •  Gear mesh losses - typically
      two gear meshes, totaling 1
   •   Bearing  and seal losses  for
       ~8  bearings  and ~3 seals
       (input shaft and  differential
       seals) totaling around 500 W
       or~1%
   •   Churning losses between 2
       and   6%  dependent   on
       transmission layout
   •   Pumping losses (in pressure
       lubricated systems) - losses
       in  low-pressure  lubrication
       system are  small (<0.5%)
   •   Drag  in  the  open  clutch
       should be  minimal, but  if
       slip control  is used, then slip across the  driving clutch could result in 0.5-1%
       power loss.
   •   The clutch  and  gear change actuation system will  affect overall efficiency. The
       losses due  to the actuation systems will depend on the type of system, electro-
       hydraulic or electro mechanical, but the average losses in a drive cycle are likely
       to be around 0.5%.

The total efficiency of a dry-clutch DCT could therefore be expected to be between 90%
and 95%.  Optimum design should see overall efficiencies between 1-1.5%  lower than a
similar manual. A more significant reduction would be seen at low loads and speeds due
to the relative power requirement of the actuation systems.
 Figure 5-26: Possible dry clutch DCT arrangement
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The major benefit over the wet-clutch DCT is the reduction in oil volume requirement,
resulting in potentially significant reductions in hydraulic power and churning losses in
the transmission.

5.2.6.3 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
A  typical  CVT  arrangement  is
shown in Figure 5-27. The overall
losses in a CVT are higher than in
a  planetary  automatic.  The  3%
loss due to the two epicyclics in a
planetary automatic is replaced by
a  5%  loss  due to the  belt and
variator assembly. Additionally, the
torque  is transmitted  through a
single  epicyclic (used  to select
reverse), resulting in an additional
1-1.5% loss.

Bearing  and  seal   losses   are
similar to a  planetary automatic.
Churning   losses  are   similar,
especially      for     transverse
configurations  with  final  drive
gears,  but  drag  losses  may be
less,  since  there is usually  only
one open clutch for either forward
or reverse operation.

Hydraulic  system  losses  can be
considerably higher  than for a
planetary automatic. The primary
pressure requirement  to  prevent
belt slip can be as high as 40-60
bar.    This   results   in   higher
hydraulic power, leading to losses
in  some operating conditions of up
to  8%.

Therefore,    with    an    overall
efficiency  of between 80%  and
90%,   the   CVT  may   be  less
efficient    than    a     planetary
automatic;    higher    levels    of
efficiency will be dependent on configuration and level of design optimization, particularly
with regard to reducing operating pressures.

Although the continuously variable ratio ability of the CVT theoretically allows operation
at  the optimum  point for economy/emissions at any condition, the lower overall efficiency
of  the system results in similar or poorer performance than a planetary automatic over a
typical drive  cycle.
 Figure 5-27: Typical transverse CVT arrangement
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 5.3 SECTION 5 REFERENCES

   1.    GASOLINE ENGINE OPERATION WITH TWIN MECHANICAL VARIABLE
        LIFT (TMVL) VALVETRAIN - STAGE 1: SI AND CAI COMBUSTION WITH
        PORT FUEL INJECTION. J Stokes; T H Lake; R D Murphy; R J Osborne; J
        Patterson; J Seabrook, SAE 2005-01-0752.

   2.    THE THIRD GENERATION OF VALVETRAINS - NEW FULLY VARIABLE
        VALVETRAINS FOR THROTTLE-FREE LOAD CONTROL. R Flierl; M
        Kluting, SAE 2000-01-1227

   3.    THE NEW BMW 4-CYLINDER SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE WITH
        VALVETRONIC PART I: CONCEPT AND DESIGN CONFIGURATION Rudolf
        Flierl; Reinhard Hofmann; Christian Landerl; Theo Melcher; Helmut Steyer.
        MTZ, June 2001

   4.    THE NEW BMW 4-CYLINDER ENGINE WITH VALVETRONIC PART 2:
        THERMODYNAMICS AND FUNCTIONAL FEATURES. Johannes Liebl;
        Manfred Kluting; Jurgen Poggel; Stephen Missy. MTZ Worldwide, July/Aug
        2001

   5.    THE NEW ALFA ROMEO 2 LITRE JTS ENGINE WITH DIRECT GASOLINE
        INJECTION Dirk Andriesse; Francesco Guarnaccia; Marco Guazzaroni; Aldo
        Oreggioni.lOth Aachen Colloquium on Vehicle and Engine Technology, 2001

   6.    FUEL INJECTION STRATEGIES TO INCREASE FULL LOAD TORQUE
        OUTPUT OF A DIRECT INJECTION SI ENGINE. Jialin Yang, Richard W
        Anderson, SAE 980495

   7.    SIMULATION AND DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE OF A STRATIFIED
        CHARGE GASOLINE DIRECT INJECTION ENGINE. T H Lake, S M
        Sapsford, J Stokes, N S Jackson, SAE 962014

   8.    CORPORATE AVERAGE FUEL ECONOMY and CAFE REFORM FOR MY
        2008-2011 LIGHT TRUCKS.  Office of Regulatory Analysis and Evaluation,
        National Center for Statistics  and Analysis, March 2006

   9.    Dl BOOST: APPLICATION OF A HIGH PERFORMANCE GASOLINE
        DIRECT INJECTION CONCEPT. David W. Woldring, Tilo Landenfeld, Mark
        Christie, SAE 2007-01-1410

   10.   GASOLINE ENGINE OPERATION WITH TWIN MECHANICAL VARIABLE
        LIFT (TMVL) VALVETRAIN - STAGE 1: SI AND CAI COMBUSTION WITH
        PORT FUEL INJECTION. J Stokes; T H Lake; R D Murphy; R J Osborne; J
        Patterson; J Seabrook, SAE 2005-01-0752

   11.   THE THIRD GENERATION OF VALVETRAINS - NEW FULLY VARIABLE
        VALVETRAINS FOR THROTTLE-FREE LOAD CONTROL. R Flierl; M
        Kluting SAE 2000-01-1227
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   12.   THE NEW BMW 4-CYLINDER SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE WITH
        VALVETRONIC PART I: CONCEPT AND DESIGN CONFIGURATION Rudolf
        Flierl; Reinhard Hofmann; Christian Landerl; Theo Melcher; Helmut Steyer,
        MTZ, June 2001

   13.   THE NEW BMW 4-CYLINDER ENGINE WITH VALVETRONIC PART 2:
        THERMODYNAMICS AND FUNCTIONAL FEATURES. Johannes Liebl;
        Manfred Kluting; Jurgen Poggel; Stephen Missy, MTZ Worldwide, July/Aug
        2001

   14.   ELECTRO-MAGNETIC VALVE ACTUATION SYSTEM: FUNCTIONAL
        CHARACTERISTICS AND BENEFITS V. Picron, Y. Postel, SIA Conference
        on Variable Valve Actuation - November 30, 2006 - IFP Rueil

   15.   PRODUCTION AVT DEVELOPMENT: LOTUS AND EATON'S
        ELECTROHYDRAULIC CLOSED-LOOP FULLY VARIABLE VALVE TRAIN
        SYSTEM. J.W.G. Turner, S.A. Kenchington, D.A. Stretch, 25th Vienna
        Engine symposium, 2004.

   16.   THE ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC VALVETRAIN SYSTEM EHVS - SYSTEM
        AND POTENTIAL. Dirk Denger; Karsten Mischker, SAE 2005-01-0774

   17.   POTENTIAL OF VVA SYSTEMS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF CO2,
        POLLUTANT EMISSION AND PERFORMANCE OF COMBUSTION
        ENGINES. P. Kapus, G. Fraidl, T. Sams, T. Kammerdiener, SIA Conference
        on Variable Valve Actuation - November 30, 2006 - IFP Rueil
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6.0 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES
For the baseline vehicles,  the EPA identified a number  of combinations  (technology
packages) of the individual technologies described in Section 5.  The carbon dioxide
emission, fuel economy, and vehicle performance were simulated for these technology
packages.

The packages were selected to represent potential technology combinations that could
be offered  in production between  2010 and 2017.  These technology packages are
described in the tables below and grouped together by each baseline vehicle.  All of the
packages contain technologies that need a certain level of development, either to mature
the technology or to apply the technology to a new application.  As a guide,  Ricardo has
provided a  subjective assessment  of the readiness of the packages divided into two
categories:

   •   5 years.  Could be  in production within 5 years.   This means there are some
       example technologies in production today  and/or the technology is likely to  be
       introduced very soon.
   •   10 years. Technology is still being developed and might be ready for production
       release within 5 to 10 years.

                   Table 6-1: Standard Car Technology Packages
Pk
Z
1
2
Architecture
14, PFI
14, GDI
14, GDI
Valvetrain
CCP,
DVVL
DCP,
DVVL
DCP
Transmission
6-spd DCT
dry clutch
CVT
6-spd AT
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePump (42V)
42V stop-start,
ePS
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
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                    Table 6-2: Small MPV Technology Packages
Pkg
Z
1
2
5
15
15a
15b
Architecture
14, PFI
14, GDI
14, GDI
14, Diesel
14, GDI
downsized
turbo
14, GDI
14, dual-
mode
HCCI/GDI
Valvetrain
CCP,
DVVL
DCP,
DVVL
DCP

DCP
Camless

Transmission
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
CVT
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
10 years
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                    Table 6-3: Full-size Car Technology Packages
Pkg
4
5
6a
16
Y1
Y2
Architecture
14, GDI
downsized
turbo
14, Diesel
Small V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Large V6,
dual-mode
HCCI/GDI
Valvetrain
DCP

DCP,
CVVL
CCP,
Deac
Camless

Transmission
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-speed AT
6-speed DCT
wet clutch
6-speed DCT
wet clutch
Accessories
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
10 years
10 years
                     Table 6-4: Large MPV Technology Packages
Pkg
4
6b
16
Architecture
14, GDI
downsized
turbo
Small V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Valvetrain
DCP
CCP,
Deac
CCP,
Deac
Transmission
6-speed AT
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-speed AT
Accessories
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
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                      Table 6-5: Truck Technology Packages
Pkg
9
10
11
12
17
X1
X2
Architecture
V8, GDI
Large V6,
GDI,
downsized
turbo
Large V6
Diesel
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
V8, dual-
mode
HCCI/GDI
Valvetrain
Deac
DCP

CCP,
Deac
DCP,
DVVL
Camless

Transmission
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd AT
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
1 0 years
6.1 ADDITIONAL TECHNOLOGIES
6.1.1 Aerodynamic Drag and Rolling Resistance
The EPA considers that OEMs could be able to achieve a 20% reduction in aerodynamic
drag forces  in the future along with a 10% reduction in  vehicle rolling resistance.
Ricardo did  not investigate  the validity of this viewpoint.  However, these levels of
reductions relative to the baseline vehicle were included in the simulations.
6.1.2 Friction Multiplier
The EPA believes that powertrain friction can also be reduced by use of low-viscosity
oils and/or low-friction components.  Although the friction reduction could have  been
included in the simulations, this would have taken more time and effort.   Therefore, a
simplification was made only for the reduced-friction technology and that was to assume
the fuel consumption, and hence carbon dioxide emissions, could be reduced by 2.5%.
This "friction multiplier" was kept constant and applied to all the final simulation cases.
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7.0 RESULTS
This section presents the results  for the  study and discusses selected powertrain-
technology  package  results,  incremental  results on  selected vehicle  / technology
package combinations, and the final results.

7.1 SELECTED POWERTRAIN (ENGINE  & TRANSMISSION)
TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE  RESULTS
The main focus of the study was on combinations of  powertrain and vehicle technology
packages.  However, it can be useful to review results for technology packages just
featuring  powertrain  technology.   To this  end, results were  collated for powertrain
technologies grouped into four categories:
   •  Direct Injection engines with  cylinder  deactivation
   •  Turbocharged, downsized, direct injection engines
   •  Gasoline engines with Camless valvetrains
   •  Gasoline engines operating on HCCI

7.1.1 Direct Injection Gasoline Engines with Cylinder Deactivation
Three vehicle/technology  package combinations incorporated  direct  injection with
cylinder deactivation.  These were the full size car, the large MPV, and the truck. All had
similar peak torque-to-weight ratios. Table 7.1 shows the combined fuel economy benefit
was similar for the three packages, ranging from 15  to 21%, depending on the vehicle
application.

 Table 7-1: Powertrain  (engine & transmission) only results for cylinder deactivation cases
      Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results - Cylinder Deactivation cases



HI
U
.c

Full Size
Car
Large MPV
Truck

Technology Package Description


c
•o
EPA Package

16
16
12





c
o>
c
UJ

3.5LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.8L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L-3VV8
CCP + Deac




g
1
c

AT 6spd
FDR 3. 08
AT 6spd
FDR 3.17
AT 6spd
FDR 3.6



-c

42V Stop-

N
N
N




0>
I

base
base
base



"oj
o
Warm-up ft

Bag1
Bag1
Bag1




O)
Aero Dr

base
base
base



c
2
Rolling Resi

base
base
base



=

Frictional Mi

N
N
N

Fuel Economy


•£
o
u.
mpg
25.0
23.6
17.2



i
0)
HWFETIH
mpg
39.3
35.4
25.9



5
c •=
Comb
(Metro-Hi
mpg
29.9
27.8
20.3

-
a>
0}

FTP75 (City
%
18.0%
20.1%
15.7%



i
0)i=
HWFETIH
Bene
%
19.7%
22.2%
14.4%


£ E
1! ?
•5.3
Combined
Highway!
%
1 8.6%
20.8%
15.2%

Performance



0.
8
d,
sec
2.6
3.2
2.4




0.

sec
6.5
8.8
7.3




Q.
I
sec
2.2
3.3
2.8




0.
s
sec
3.6
5.2
4.4



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mph
34.0
28.4
35.0



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la
5
meters
23.5
17.6
24.4

Ricardo, Inc.
Page 80 of 113
21 December 2007

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7.1.2 Turbo/Downsize, Gasoline Direct Injection Engines
There were four vehicle/technology package  combinations with a turbo/downsized,
gasoline direct-injected engine; Table 7-2 shows that the benefit of the powertrain is
application-specific. Comparing the two vehicle packages with DCT transmissions,  the
small  MPV had  a  much lower displacement-to-weight ratio than the truck  (0.6 vs
0.9cc/lb) and so benefited less from the advanced technology powertrain combination.
This is because even the  baseline powertrain in the small MPV was spending more of its
time near the engine's peak efficiency islands (or minimum BSFC) than the truck which
operated typically on  test cycles well below its  peak efficiency  area. The two vehicle
packages with 6-speed automatic transmissions both had similar displacement-to-weight
ratios  (0.88 and 0.84 cc/lb for the full size car and large MPV,  respectively) and had
similar benefit levels for the advanced powertrain combinations (7.2%  and 9.6%,
respectively.)
  Table 7-2: Powertrain (engine & transmission) only results for turbo/downsized cases
        Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results - Turbo/Downsized cases



HI
U
.c
HI

Small MPV
Full Size
Car

Large MPV

Truck
Technology Package Description


c
•o
EPA Package

15
4

4

10




c
o>
c
UJ

1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.2L 14 Turbo
DCP

2.1LI4Turbo
DCP

3.6LV6 Turbo
DCP
GDI



g
1
c

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.5
AT 6spd
FDR 3.08

AT 6spd
FDR 3. 17

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.6


-c

42V Stop-

N
N

N

N



0>
I

base
base

base

base


"oj
o
Warm-up ft

Bag1
Bag1

Bag1

Bag1



O)
Aero Dr

base
base

base

base


c
2
Rolling Resi

base
base

base

base


=

Frictional Mi

N
N

N

N
Fuel Economy


•£
o
u.
mpg
29.7
23.2

21.9

19.3


i
0)
HWFETIH
mpg
37.5
33.8

30.9

25.3


5
c •=
Comb
(Metro-Hi
mpg
32.7
27.1

25.2

21.6
-
a>
0}

FTP75 (City
%
19.9%
9.5%

1 1 .2%

34.5%


i
0)i=
HWFETIH
Bene
%
4.3%
3.0%

6.8%

13.0%

£ E
1! ?
•5.3
Combined
Highway!
%
1 3.7%
7.2%

9.6%

26.1%
Performance



0.
2
sec
4.3
2.6

3.3

2.6



0.

sec
9.8
6.6

8.2

6.4



Q.
I
sec
3.3
2.3

2.9

2.2



0.
8
sec
5.5
3.4

4.9

3.7


0
$
•3
mph
18.7
33.7

27.5

35.8


u
»
Q
meters
10.0
22.0

16.2

21.7
7.1.3 Camless Gasoline Engines

The small MPV, the full size car, and the truck each had a technology package with
camless valvetrain engine and DCT transmission. These are compared in Table 7-3 and
show  a fuel economy benefit  ranging from  20 to  30%, depending  on the vehicle
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 81 of 113
21 December 2007

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application.  Since the camless  engine technology package is  primarily  reducing  the
engine  pumping  losses, its  benefit should scale with torque-to-weight  ratio for  the
vehicle. The torque-to-weight ratio relates to the load levels that the engine runs at on a
drive cycle.  Hence, vehicles with a low torque-to-weight ratio will run at higher engine
loads, and so benefit less from camless technology. Figure 7-1  shows this to be valid.
Since camless valvetrains still need to be proven  in terms of robustness  and cost,
Ricardo considers camless  engine technology to  be high risk for application to high-
volume  production within the timeframe of this study.
  Table 7-3: Powertrain (engine & transmission) only results for camless valvetrain cases
        Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results - Camless valvetrain cases


0)
o
0)


Small MPV

Full Size
Car

Truck
Technology Package Description
0)
If
*J
1
EPA Package


15a

Y1

X1



c


Camless

3.5L V6
Camless

5.4L V8
Camless
GDI


5
i


DCT 6spd
FDR 3.5

DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 08

DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 6


a
42V Stop-


N

N

N


—
i


base

base

base


o
Warm-up I


Bag1

Bag1

Bag1


o)
Aero Dr


base

base

base

o
£
VI
Rolling Res


base

base

base
^
.92
5
c
g
~
u.


N

N

N
Fuel Economy

. — .
o
u.
mpg

30.6

28.5

19.4
_
I
.c
O)
HWFET(H
mpg

40.7

40.1

26.3
_

c 0)
Comb
(Metro-Hi
mpg

34.4

32.8

22.0
1
c
™
FTP75 (Citl
%

23.4%

34.3%

30.3%
-
§
•c *,
HWFET(H
BenE
%

13.4%

22.0%

16.0%
o £
« *

Combinec
Highway)
%

19.6%

29.8%

24.9%
Performance


X
Q.

sec

3.6

2.6

2.4


X
Q.
CO
sec

9.8

6.5

7.3


0.
0
0
sec

3.5

2.2

2.8


0.
0
sec

5.6

3.6

4.4

o

i
mph

25.7

34.0

35.0

o

Dist at
meters

17.5

23.5

24.4
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 82 of 113
21 December 2007

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      35 -,

   d 30 --
   +J
   I  25 --
   0)
   -Q  20 +
   LU
      10 H
&
E
o
o
       5^
                  Combined FE Benefit for Camless Engine Packages
                0.01       0.02      0.03      0.04      0.05

                             Peak Torque (Ib-ft) /Weight (Ib)
                                                            0.06
          0.07
   Figure 7-1: Combined FE benefit vs. peak torque-to-weight ratio for Camless engine
                                   packages
7.1.4 Gasoline Engines Operating on HCCI
The small MPV, the full size car, and the truck each had a technology package with an
engine using HCCI  combustion and a DCT transmission. These are compared in Table
7.4 and show fuel economy benefit ranging from  16 to 26%, depending on the vehicle
application.  The HCCI  engine technology  package reduces  pumping losses  with  a
flexible valvetrain and improves combustion efficiency over a small light-load range as
described in Section 5.1.6. HCCI combustion solutions are still in their infancy. Hence,
Ricardo considers HCCI engine technology to be high risk for application to high-volume
production within the timeframe of this study.
Ricardo, Inc.
                              Page 83 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
       Table 7-4: Powertrain (engine & transmission) only results for HCCI cases
             Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results - HCCI cases


01
o
.c





Small MPV

Full Size
Car

Truck
Technology Package Description
0)
1


0.
2


15b

Y2

X2


.E
&




HCCI

3.5L V6
HCCI

5.4LV8
HCCI
GDI

c
g
.«>
i
£



DCT 6spd
FDR 3.5

DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 08

DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 6


Q.
w




N

N

N


o
s
<



base

base

base

*
E
Q.

ro



Bag1

Bag1

Bag1

D)
Q
O
3




base

base

base



{£.

&


base

base

base

"a.
=
i
r

—


N

N

N
Fuel Economy

o
>n
£


mpg

30.6

28.5

19.4
_
O)
x_
m


mpg

40.7

40.1

26.3

•o i
1 £
o ^


mpg

34.4

32.8

22.0

c
0}
m
£*
«T

"•
%

23.4%

34.3%

30.3%
_
D) iH
i. c
m m


%

13.4%

22.0%

16.0%

^ 0}
« X

i ~

%

1 9.6%

29.8%

24.9%
Performance

X
Q.

%


sec

3.6

2.6

2.4

X
Q.

1


sec

9.8

6.5

7.3

X
Q.

o


sec

3.5

2.2

2.8

X
0.

0


sec

5.6

3.6

4.4

a
13
«


mph

25.7

34.0

35.0

a
•s
•a


meters

17.5

23.5

24.4
7.2   INCREMENTAL  RESULTS  ON  SELECTED   VEHICLE  /
TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE COMBINATIONS
As a means of indicating the relative benefit of certain technology solutions, a series of
simulations were undertaken by adding technologies  in order to build up to the total
technology package.   The effects  on  fuel  economy and  CO2 output of individual
technologies  applied  sequentially to a specific vehicle class were thus examined.
Technologies were added in a  given sequence and  the  effects at each stage were
determined. Each of the tables below starts with  the baseline configuration for a vehicle
class and ends with the complete technology package results.

It is important to note that no optimization was performed for any of the incremental
technology simulations listed. Therefore, adding a technology could actually produce
reduced fuel economy. This  illustrates the  key point that  technologies need to be
considered in certain  packages  and optimized for the specific applications. It is  also
consistent with the understanding in the industry that fuel economy improvements from
different technologies  cannot merely  be added together to determine their total  benefit.
In  the  cases  analyzed here,  the  optimization was only performed for  the complete
technology packages.
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 84 of 113
21 December 2007

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   Table 7-5: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Standard Car/ Technology
                                  Package Z
Incremental Action*
Standard Car baseline 2.4L-4V
WT / 5spd AT (3.39 FDR)
CCP & DCCL
6spd DOT (3.23 FDR)
42V Stop-Start
42V Electric accessories & Fast
engine warm-up
Aero drag reduction of 20% &
Tire rolling resistance reduction
of 10%
Aggressive shift/lock scheduling
(2.96 FDR)
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
26.9
27.5
30.0
31.7
32.9
33.9
35.5
36.4
Hwy
(mpg)
41.8
42.5
45.8
45.8
46.7
50.8
52.2
53.5
Comb
ined
(mpg)
32.0
32.7
35.5
36.8
37.9
39.9
41.5
42.5
Incremental benefit
City
— -
2%
9%
6%
4%
3%
5%
3%
Hwy
—
2%
8%
0%
2%
9%
3%
3%
Comb
ined
—
2%
9%
4%
3%
5%
4%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
338
330
303
287
277
268
256
250
Hwy
(g/mi)
217
214
198
198
194
179
174
170
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
284
278
256
247
240
228
219
214
Incremental benefit
City
— -
2%
8%
5%
3%
3%
4%
2%
Hwy
—
2%
7%
0%
2%
8%
3%
2%
Comb
ined
—
2%
8%
3%
3%
5%
4%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
    Table 7-6: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Small MPV / Technology
                                  Package 2
Incremental Action*
Small MPV baseline 2.4L-4V
WT / 4spd AT (3.91 FDR)
GDI
DCP & 6spd AT (3.50 FDR)
42V Stop-Start
42V Electric accessories & Fast
engine warm-up
Aero drag reduction of 20% &
Tire rolling resistance reduction
of 10%
Aggressive shift/lock scheduling
(2.80 FDR)
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
24.8
25.4
26.2
27.6
28.5
29.7
30.5
31.3
Hwy
(mpg)
35.9
36.8
37.3
37.3
37.4
41.1
42.1
43.1
Comb
ined
(mpg)
28.8
29.5
30.2
31.3
31.9
34.0
34.8
35.7
Incremental benefit
City
— -
2%
3%
6%
3%
4%
3%
3%
Hwy
—
3%
1%
0%
0%
10%
2%
3%
Comb
ined
—
3%
2%
4%
2%
6%
3%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
367
358
347
329
319
306
298
290
Hwy
(g/mi)
253
247
244
243
243
221
216
211
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
316
308
301
290
285
268
261
255
Incremental benefit
City
— -
2%
3%
5%
3%
4%
3%
2%
Hwy
—
2%
1%
0%
0%
9%
2%
2%
Comb
ined
—
2%
2%
3%
2%
6%
2%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 85 of 113
21 December 2007

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   Table 7-7: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Full Size Car/ Technology
                                  Package 6a
Incremental Action*
Full size car baseline 3.5L-4V/
5spd AT (2.87 FDR)
3.0L-4V engine
DCP
CWL
GDI
6spd DOT (3.08 FDR)
Electric accessories & Fast
engine warm-up
Aero drag reduction of 20% &
Tire rolling resistance reduction
of 10%
3.20 FDR for performance
improvement
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
21.7
19.9
20.9
21.7
22.2
24.3
25.7
26.5
26.2
26.9
Hwy
(mpg)
32.6
29.6
31.2
31.9
32.7
34.3
34.9
37.9
37.4
38.3
Comb
ined
(mpg)
25.5
23.4
24.5
25.3
26.0
27.9
29.2
30.6
30.3
31.1
Incremental benefit
City
— -
-8%
5%
4%
3%
9%
6%
3%
-1%
3%
Hwy
—
-9%
5%
2%
3%
5%
2%
9%
-1%
3%
Comb
ined
—
-8%
5%
3%
3%
8%
4%
5%
-1%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
420
456
435
419
409
375
354
343
347
338
Hwy
(g/mi)
279
307
292
285
278
265
261
240
243
237
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
356
389
371
359
350
325
312
297
300
293
Incremental benefit
City
— -
-9%
5%
4%
2%
8%
6%
3%
-1%
2%
Hwy
—
-10%
5%
2%
2%
4%
2%
8%
-1%
2%
Comb
ined
—
-9%
5%
3%
2%
7%
4%
5%
-1%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
    Table 7-8: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Large MPV / Technology
                                   Package 4
Incremental Action*
Large MPV baseline 3.8L-2V/
4spd AT (3.43 FDR)
DCP
GDI
2.1 L Turbo
6spdAT(3.17FDR)
Electric accessories & Fast
engine warm-up
Aero drag reduction of 20% &
Tire rolling resistance reduction
of 10%
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
19.8
20.8
21.4
22.4
22.9
23.9
24.8
25.5
Hwy
(mpg)
29.0
30.7
31.5
31.3
32.0
32.6
34.6
35.4
Comb
ined
(mpg)
23.1
24.3
25.0
25.7
26.2
27.2
28.4
29.2
Incremental benefit
City
— -
5%
3%
5%
2%
5%
4%
3%
Hwy
—
6%
3%
-1%
2%
2%
6%
3%
Comb
ined
—
5%
3%
3%
2%
4%
5%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
458
437
425
406
397
380
366
357
Hwy
(g/mi)
313
296
289
290
284
279
263
256
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
393
373
364
354
346
335
319
312
Incremental benefit
City
— -
5%
3%
4%
2%
4%
4%
2%
Hwy
—
5%
3%
-1%
2%
2%
6%
2%
Comb
ined
—
5%
3%
3%
2%
3%
5%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 86 of 113
21 December 2007

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    Table 7-9: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Truck with Technology
                                   Package 11
Incremental Action*
Truck baseline 5.4L-3V WT /
4spd AT (3.73 FDR)
4.8L Diesel with baseline
transmission
Aggressive shift/lockup
scheduling
6spd DOT (3.73 FDR)
FDR 3.73 -> 3.15
ePS & High-efficiency Alternator
Aero drag reduction of 10%
Electric accessories (ePumps)
& Fast engine warm-up
Aftertreatment penalty
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
14.9
17.8
19.2
21.9
22.2
22.9
23.2
23.7
22.2
22.7
Hwy
(mpg)
22.6
26.7
27.0
27.7
29.2
29.8
30.8
30.8
30.2
31.0
Comb
ined
(mpg)
17.6
21.0
22.1
24.2
24.9
25.6
26.1
26.5
25.2
25.8
Incremental benefit
City

20%
8%
14%
1%
3%
1%
2%
-7%
3%
Hwy
—
18%
1%
3%
6%
2%
4%
0%
-2%
3%
Comb
ined
—
19%
5%
10%
3%
3%
2%
1%
-5%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
612
567
525
461
454
440
435
425
455
444
Hwy
(g/mi)
402
378
375
365
345
339
327
327
334
326
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
517
482
458
418
405
395
387
381
401
391
Incremental benefit
City
— -
7%
7%
12%
1%
3%
1%
2%
-7%
2%
Hwy
—
6%
1%
3%
5%
2%
3%
0%
-2%
2%
Comb
ined
—
7%
5%
9%
3%
3%
2%
1%
-5%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
7.3 FINAL RESULTS
The complete advanced technology packages, which are  a combination of several
powertrain and vehicle technologies, include:
   •   advanced engine & transmission
   •   selected packages include a 42V stop-start system
   •   electric accessories (except for the mechanically driven cooling fan for the Truck)
       and high-efficiency alternator (which  is inherent in the 42V stop-start systems)
   •   fast engine warm-up
   •   aerodynamic drag reduction
   •   rolling resistance reduction (except for the Truck)
   •   a post-simulation multiplier intended to be indicative of the potential  FE and CO2
       benefits from friction reduction throughout the drivetrain.

For the Small MPV, Full Size Car, and Truck vehicle classes  technology packages
considered as low readiness (or high risk) are shown separately  at the bottom of each
table,   specifically,  packages containing Camless  and  HCCI technologies.  This  is
because these are considered to require long-term development  prior to application for
high-volume production.

The final results with the originally identified performance metrics are shown below in
tables for each vehicle class. There are two tables for each vehicle class, one presents
the CO2 results alongside the  performance results and the  other states FE results
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 87 of 113
21 December 2007

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alongside the performance results. Although,  the  focus  of  this study was  on CO2
reduction, the FE results are  also shown. The  same vehicle  and technology  package
information with complete performance results (initial and additional) are shown in the
Appendix.

 It is important to note the following regarding the final results:
    •   Every performance metric for a given advanced technology package cannot be
       matched to the baselines, since the  shape of the engine torque curve and the
       transmission  characteristics may  be  different.  Therefore  a  spectrum  of
       performance parameters was evaluated without  attempting to meet or exceed
       each of the baseline's metrics.
    •   The benefits for each complete technology package are relative to the baseline
       vehicle and do not imply that every vehicle model sold in that class would be able
       to achieve  all of the assumed inputs or benefits. Some vehicle models already
       implement some of the  advanced technologies, and so would not derive the full
       benefit level stated here.
Ricardo, Inc.                       Page88of113                 21 December2007

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                                                        Table 7-10: Standard Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions

                                                                    Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
i
=
EPA Package Ide

Base-
line




Z










1







2


0)
'B
c
Ul

2.4L-4V 1 4
ICP




2.4L-4V 1 4
DVVL + CCP









2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + DCP
GDI






2.4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI

c
Transmissio

AT 5spd
FDR 3.39
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT 6spd



DCT 6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
AT 6spd
FDR 2.96

t
42V Stop-Sta

N




Y










N







Y


Accessorie!

Mech




ePS
ePump









ePS
ePump
heAlt






ePS
ePump

01
Warm-up Moc

Bag1




Y










Y







Y


Aero Drag

base




-20%










-20%







-20%
0)
C
Rolling Resista

base




-10%










-10%







-10%
.£
•R
Frictional Multi

N




Y










Y







Y
CO2

>.
FTP75 (Cit
g/mi
338
250

250



250

249

297


295


295


296


298

277
ra
^
HWFET (High
g/mi
217
170

170



172

174

200


198


201


204


211

180
_

Combine
(Metro-Highv
g/mi
284
214

214



215

215

253


251


253


255


259

233

«
FTP75 (City) B
%
-
26%

26%



26%

26%

12%


13%


13%


12%


12%

18%
ra
^
HWFET (High
Benefit
%
-
22%

22%



21%

20%

8%


9%


8%


6%


3%

17%
O j£
•% ?
Combined (M
Highway) Be
%
-
25%

25%



24%

24%

11%


11%


11%


10%


9%

18%
Performance


HdLAIO£-0
sec
3.2
38

35



3.4

33

37


3.7


3.6


3.5


3.3

3.4


0.
sec
8.7
88

79



7.6

76

91


9.2


9.0


8.9


8.6

8.8


30-50 MP
sec
3.4
31

99



2.8

98

39


3.3


3.3


3.3


3.2

3.3


50-70 MP
sec
5.4
47

43



4.3

43

50


5.1


4.9


4.9


4.9

5.3

y
Vel at 3 SE
mph
28.3
994

951



26.2

979

949


24.8


25.5


26.3


27.9

26.7


Dist at 3 s
meters
19.2
12.7

15.3



16.0

16.7

16.3


16.2


16.7


17.4


18.6

16.8
0) H
^ 111
70MPHGR
Capability at
%
13.8
15.3

16.0



16.7

17.5

17.9


17.9


17.9


17.9


17.9

14.8
gear
3rd
3rd

3rd



3rd

3rd




-








-

3rd
                 Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                 CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                 Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                 Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                 Ratio
                 Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                 Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1  = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo,  Inc.
Page 89 of 113
21  December 2007

-------
                                                        Table 7-11:  Standard Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy

                                                                   Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
i
=
EPA Package Ide

Base-
line




Z










1








2


0)
'B
c
Ul

2.4L-4V 14
ICP




2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + CCP









2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + DCP
GDI






2 4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI

c
Transmissio

AT 5spd
FDR 3.39
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT 6spd



DCT 6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00

AT 6spd
FDR 2.96

t
42V Stop-Sta

N




Y










N








Y


Accessorie!

Mech




ePS
ePump









ePS
ePump
heAlt







ePS
ePump

01
Warm-up Moc

Bag1




Y










Y








Y


Aero Drag

base




-20%










-20%








-20%
0)
C
Rolling Resista

base




-10%










-10%








-10%
.£
•R
Frictional Multi

N




Y










Y








Y
Fuel Economy

>.
FTP75 (Cit
mpg
26.9
36.4

36.4



36.4

36.4

30.6


30.8


30.8


30.7


30.5


32.8
ra
^
HWFET (High
mpg
41.8
53.5

53.6



52.8

52.3

45.5


45.9


45.2


44.5


43.1


50.6
_

Combine
(Metro-Highv
mpg
32.0
42.5

42.6



42.3

42.2

35.9


36.2


35.9


35.7


35.1


39.0

«
FTP75 (City) B
%
-
35%

35%



35%

35%

14%


15%


14%


14%


13%


22%
ra
^
HWFET (High
Benefit
%
-
28%

28%



26%

25%

9%


10%


8%


7%


3%


21%
O j£
•% ?
Combined (M
Highway) Be
%
-
33%

33%



32%

32%

12%


13%


12%


11%


9%


22%
Performance


HdLAIO£-0
sec
3.2
38

35



3.4

33

37


3.7


3.6


3.5


3.3


3.4


0.
sec
8.7
88

79



7.6

76

91


9.2


9.0


8.9


8.6


8.8


30-50 MP
sec
3.4
31

99



2.8

98

39


3.3


3.3


3.3


3.2


3.3


50-70 MP
sec
5.4
47

43



4.3

43

50


5.1


4.9


4.9


4.9


5.3

y
Vel at 3 SE
mph
28.3
994

951



26.2

979

949


24.8


25.5


26.3


27.9


26.7


Dist at 3 s
meters
19.2
12.7

15.3



16.0

16.7

16.3


16.2


16.7


17.4


18.6


16.8
0) H
^ 111
70MPHGR
Capability at
%
13.8
15.3

16.0



16.7

17.5

17.9


17.9


17.9


17.9


17.9


14.8
gear
3rd
3rd

3rd



3rd

3rd




-








-


3rd
                 Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                 CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                 Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                 Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                 Ratio
                 Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                 Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1  = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo,  Inc.
Page 90 of 113
21  December 2007

-------
                                                                  Table 7-12:  Small MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions

                                                                                  Small MPV  Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
5
15
c
2.4L-4V 14
2.4L 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L 14
DCP
GDI
1.9LI4 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.91
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5. 8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.36
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.68
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
Accessories
Mech
except
ePS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
C02
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
367
272
313
310
309
309
310
290
282
272
272
272
273
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
253
208
231
227
229
231
234
211
205
211
211
212
213
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
316
243
276
273
273
274
276
255
247
244
245
245
246
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%

26%
15%
16%
16%
16%
16%
21%
23%
26%
26%
26%
26%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%

18%
9%
10%
10%
9%
7%
17%
19%
17%
17%
16%
16%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%

23%
13%
14%
13%
13%
13%
19%
22%
23%
22%
22%
22%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
3.8
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.8
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
0-60 MPH
sec
10.4
10.4
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.0
9.7
10.7
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.6
9.5
30-50 MPH
sec
3.7
3.7
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.5
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.2
50-70 MPH
sec
6.0
6.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
6.9
6.3
4.9
5.2
5.2
5.2
Vel at 3 sec
mph
24.6
18.8
18.7
18.7
19.3
20.3
21.6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17.8
18.9
20.0
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.7
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
14.8
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.9
13.1
12.9
13.6
14.1
14.6
gear
2nd
2nd





2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
15a
15b
2.4L 14
Camless
GDI
2.4L 14
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3.1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
262
270
193
197
231
237
29%
26%
24%
22%
27%
25%
4.3
4.3
10.3
10.3
3.7
3.7
6.1
6.1
19.6
19.6
11.7
11.7
16.6
16.6
2nd
2nd
                                  Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                                  CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                                  Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                                  Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                                  Ratio
                                  Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                                  Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 91 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                                  Table 7-13: Small MPVVehicle Class  Fuel  Economy

                                                                                  Small  MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
5
15
c
2.4L-4V 14
2.4L 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L 14
DCP
GDI
1.9L 14 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.91
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5.8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.36
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.68
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
Accessories
Mech
except
ePS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
FTP75 (City)
mpg
24.8
33.4
29.0
29.3
29.4
29.4
29.4
31.3
35.9
33.4
33.4
33.4
33.3
HWFET (Highway)
mpg
35.9
43.8
39.4
40.0
39.7
39.4
38.8
43.1
49.3
43.1
43.1
42.9
42.7
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
mpg
28.8
37.4
32.9
33.3
33.3
33.2
33.0
35.7
40.9
37.2
37.2
37.1
36.9
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%

35%
17%
18%
19%
19%
19%
26%
45%
35%
35%
35%
34%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%

22%
10%
11%
11%
10%
8%
20%
37%
20%
20%
19%
19%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%

30%
14%
16%
16%
15%
14%
24%
42%
29%
29%
29%
28%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
3.8
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.8
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
0-60 MPH
sec
10.4
10.4
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.0
9.7
10.7
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.6
9.5
30-50 MPH
sec
3.7
3.7
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.5
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.2
50-70 MPH
sec
6.0
6.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
6.9
6.3
4.9
5.2
5.2
5.2
Vel at 3 sec
mph
24.6
18.8
18.7
18.7
19.3
20.3
21.6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17.8
18.9
20.0
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.7
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
14.8
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.9
13.1
12.9
13.6
14.1
14.6
gear
2nd
2nd





2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
15a
15b
2.4L 14
Camless
GDI
2.4L 14
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3.1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
34.7
33.6
47.1
46.1
39.3
38.3
40%
36%
31%
28%
37%
33%
4.3
4.3
10.3
10.3
3.7
3.7
6.1
6.1
19.6
19.6
11.7
11.7
16.6
16.6
2nd
2nd
                                  Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                                  CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                                  Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                                  Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                                  Ratio
                                  Accessories Terminology: Mech  = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                                  Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 92 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                           Table 7-14: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
                                                                       Full Size  Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
_a>
EPA Package Ident

Base-
line

4

5







6a




16

o>
c
'u>
c
I1J

3.5L-4V V6

2.2LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.8L I4/5 Diese
aftertreatment

2.8L I4/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment


3.0LV6
DCP + CWL
GDI



3 5L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI

Transmission

AT 5spd
FDR 2.87

AT 6spd
FDR 3. 08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 08

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.20
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08

AT 6spd
FDR 2.7

42V Stop-Start

N


N

N







N




Y

Accessories

Mech

ePS
ePump
heAlt

ePS
ePump
heAlt





ePS
ePump
heAlt




ePS
ePump

0>
Q.
3
1

Bag1


Y

Y







Y




Y

Aero Drag

base


-20%

-20%







-20%




-20%
o>
Rolling Resistan

base


-10%

-10%







-10%




-10%
0>
Frictional Multipl

N


Y

Y







Y




Y
C02

FTP75 (City)
g/mi
420


346
316
315


340

334


338

334


300
%
HWFET (Highw
g/mi
279


236
221
221


220

234


237

234


200
>
Combined
(Metro-Highwa
g/mi
356


296
273
273


286

289


293

289


255
1
FTP75 (City) Be
%



18%
25%
25%


19%

20%


19%

20%


29%
ST
HWFET (Highw
Benefit
%



15%
21%
21%


21%

16%


15%

16%


28%
e e
Combined (Mel
Highway) Benc
%



17%
23%
24%


20%

19%


18%

19%


28%
Performance

0-30 MPH
sec
7fi


2.6
2.6
2.5


2.5

33


3.1

3.1


2.7

0-60 MPH
sec
87


6.6
7.1
7.1


7.1

73


7.1

7.0


6.8

30-50 MPH
sec
73


2.3
2.7
2.7


2.7

93


2.3

2.3


2.5

50-70 MPH
sec
38


3.4
4.3
4.3


4.3

33


3.4

3.5


3.6

Vel at 3 sec
mph
337


33.7
33.8
34.3


34.3

7fiS


28.6

28.7


33.3

Dist at 3 sec
meters
24.6


22.0
21.7
22.4


22.4

16.8


17.8

17.9


21.8
.£
70 MPH Grad
Capability at E
%
24.6


25.6
18.5
18.5


18.5

26.1


26.1

25.6


27.2
gear
2nd


2nd
4th
4th


4th

2nd


2nd

2nd


2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years

Y1


Y2

3.5LV6
Camless
GDI
3.5LV6
HCCI
GDI

DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80


DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80


N


N

ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt

Y


Y


-20%


-20%


-10%


-10%


Y


Y


278


290


199


197


242


248


34%


31%


29%


29%


32%


30%


3.1


3.1


6.8


6.8


2.2


2.2


3.2


3.2


29.3


29.3


17.9


17.9


28.7


28.7


2nd


2nd

                     Engine Terminology 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                     CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                     Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                     Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                     Ratio
                     Accessories Terminology:  Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                     Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factorfor Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 93 of 113
21  December 2007

-------
                                                          Table 7-15:  Full Size Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy

                                                                        Full Size Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
0>
1C
EPA Package Ident

Base-
line

4



5







6a





16


o>
c
'5)
c
I1J

3.5L-4V V6
2.2LI4Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.8L I4/5 Diesel



2.8L 1 4/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment


3.0LV6
DCP + CWL
GDI



3 5L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI


Transmission

AT 5spd
FDR 2.87

AT 6spd
FDR 3.08

DCT 6s pd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6s pd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6s pd
6. 55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6s pd
FDR 3.08

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.20

DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08

AT 6spd
FDR 2.7


42V Stop-Start

N

N



N







N





Y


Accessories

Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt

ePS
ePump
heAlt





ePS
ePump
heAlt




ePS
ePump


Warm-up Model

Bag1

Y



Y







Y





Y


Aero Drag

base

-20%



-20%







-20%





-20%

o>
Rolling Resistanc

base

-10%



-10%







-10%





-10%


Frictional Multipli

N

Y



Y







Y





Y
Fuel Economy


FTP75 (City)
mpg
21.7

26.3

31.9

32.1


29.7

27.2


26.9


27.2


30.3

&
HWFET (Highwa
mpg
32.6

38.5

45.8

45.7


45.9

38.8


38.3


38.8


45.4


Combined
(Metro-Highwa)
mpg
25.5

30.7

37.0

37.0


35.3

31.4


31.0


31.4


35.7
£
a
FTP75 (City) Ben
%


21%

47%

48%


37%

25%


24%


26%


40%

&
HWFET (Highwa
Benefit
%


18%

40%

40%


41%

19%


18%


19%


40%


Combined (Metr
Highway) Bene
%


20%

45%

45%


38%

23%


22%


23%


40%
Performance


0-30 MPH
sec
2.6

2.6

2.6

2.5


2.5

33


3.1


3.1


2.7


0-60 MPH
sec
6.7

6.6

7.1

7.1


7.1

73


7.1


7.0


6.8


30-50 MPH
sec
2.3

2.3

2.7

•1.1


2.7

73


2.3


2.3


2.5


50-70 MPH
sec
3.8

3.4

4.3

4.3


4.3

3.3


3.4


3.5


3.6


Vel at 3 sec
mph
33.7

33.7

33.8

34.3


34.3

7fiR


28.6


28.7


33.3


Dist at 3 sec
meters
24.6

22.0

21.7

22.4


22.4

16.8


17.8


17.9


21.8


70 MPH Grade
Capability at ET
%
24.6

25.6

18.5

18.5


18.5

26.1


26.1


25.6


27.2
gear
2nd

2nd

4th

4th


4th

2nd


2nd


2nd


2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years

Y1


Y2

3.5LV6
Camless
GDI
3.5LV6
HCCI
GDI

DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80


DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80


N


N

ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt

Y


Y


-20%


-20%


-10%


-10%


Y


Y


32.7


31.4


45.7


46.1


37.5


36.6


51%


45%


40%


42%


47%


44%


3.1


3.1


6.8


6.8


2.2


2.2


3.2


3.2


29.3


29.3


17.9


17.9


28.7


28.7


2nd


2nd

                      Engine Terminology 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                      CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser,  DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                      Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                      Transmission Terminology AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                      Ratio
                      Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                      Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 94 of 113
21  December 2007

-------
                                                    Table 7-16: Large MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions
                                                            Large MPV  Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier

Base-
line

4




6b





16
HI
,c
'ra
C
LU

3.8L-2V V6
2.1LI4Turbo
DCP
GDI


3.0L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI



2.7L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
38L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission

AT 4spd
FDR 3.43

AT 6spd
FDR 3 17

DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 17
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.72

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 72

AT 6spd
FDR 2.7
42V Stop-Start

N

N




N





Y
Accessories

Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt


ePS

heAlt




ePS
ePump
HI
•o
o
Q.
3
to

Bag1

Y




Y





Y
Aero Drag

base

-20%




20%





-20%
Rolling Resistance

base

-10%




10%





-10%
b
|5.
"5
~m
C
O
•s
o
it

N

Y




Y





Y
CO2
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
458

357

333

331

336

320


325
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
313

256

241

244

240

240


223
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
393

312

292

292

293

284


279
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%
-

22%

27%

28%

27%

30%


29%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%
-

18%

23%

22%

23%

23%


29%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%
-

21%

26%

26%

25%

28%


29%
Performance
Q.
0
«?
o
sec
3.3

3.2

3.9

3.5

4.1

3.8


3.3
Q.
0
<9
o
sec
9.3

8.0

8.5

8.1

8.7

8.9


9.3
Q.
o
"?
o
CO
sec
3.5

2.8

2.8

2.7

2.8

3.0


3.4
Q.
o
IY
o
in
sec
5.6

4.3

4.2

4.2

4.1

4.8


5.6
$
t/>
co
ra
a
mph
27.5

27.8

21.3

24.5

20.1

21.7


27.1
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.9

16.5

11.9

13.6

11.3

12.1


15.6
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
17.7

17.1

16.8

19.7

15.5

17.4


17.0
gear
2nd

3rd

3rd

3rd

3rd

3rd


2nd
       Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
       CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
       Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
       Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
       Ratio
       Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
       Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 95 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                     Table 7-17: Large MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy
                                                            Large MPV  Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description


0
tn
CM
Tt


N

N




N





Y


to
0)


to
to
HI
u
s



Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt


ePS

heAlt




ePS
ePump


HI
g

arm -up
g


Bag1

Y




Y





Y


o
re

o

£
o
a-

base

-10%




10%





-10%

HI
|5.


"re
£
0
•43

u.

N

Y




Y





Y
Fuel Economy


&•
b

£
u.


mpg
19.8

25.5

27.3

27.5

27.0

28.4


28.0

re



i-
LU
U.
I

mpg
29.0

35.4

37.7

37.2

37.8

37.8


40.8

>,
•o S
0) .£
.= 0)

o 2
0 IB
* — '

mpg
23.1

29.2

31.1

31.1

31.0

32.0


32.6
«
HI
m
-^

10
£
1-

%
-

28%

37%

38%

36%

43%


41%

re

•— ' */ii

u.
I

%
-

22%

30%

28%

30%

30%


41%

° £
t! £
- — • CO

0) >.
.E 5
•=1
"T
O T

%
-

26%

35%

35%

34%

38%


41%
Performance


i


o
o


sec
3.3

3.2

3.9

3.5

4.1

38


3.3


I


o
o


sec
9.3

8.0

8.5

8.1

8.7

89


9.3


I
Q.


O
O
CO


sec
3.5

2.8

2.8

2.7

2.8

30


3.4


I
Q.


O
i


sec
5.6

4.3

4.2

4.2

4.1

48


5.6


Ji


TO
1


mph
27.5

27.8

21.3

24.5

20.1

?1 7


27.1


id
to
CO

re
"to
b


meters
16.9

16.5

11.9

13.6

11.3

12.1


15.6

0) K
"O QJ
0 re

Q. =
O

%
17.7

17.1

16.8

19.7

15.5

17.4


17.0
gear
2nd

3rd

3rd

3rd

3rd

3rd


2nd
       Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
       CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
       Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
       Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
       Ratio
       Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
       Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 96 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                                 Table 7-18:  Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions

                                                                                 Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
E
EPA Package Iden

Base-
line
6-Spd
AT
9








11

12


17


01
c
c
L1J

5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI


3.6LV6 Turbo
GDI



4. 8LV6 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L V8
DVVL + DCP
GDI

Transmission

AT 4spd
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3. 60
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.3
DCT 6spd

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.26
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 41
DCT 6spd

DCT 6spd
FDR 3 15

AT 6spd
FDR 3.1

AT 6spd
FDR 3 1


42V Stop-Start

N
N
Y








N

Y


N


Accessories

Mech
Mech
ePS
ePump


ePS
heAlt



ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt

Warm-up Mode

Bag1
Bag1
Y








Y

Y


Y


Aero Drag

base
base
-10%








-10%

-10%


-10%

0)
Rolling Resistan

base
base
base








base

base


base

0)
Frictional Multipl

N
N
Y








Y

Y


Y

CO2

FTP75 (City
g/mi
612
586
448

404

416
418

421

444

450


492

">
HWFET(Highw
g/mi
402
396
323

319

321
323

325

326

319


333

"5
Combined
(Metro-Highwe
g/mi
517
500
392

366

373
376

378

391

391


420

S
FTP75 (City) Be
%
-
X
27%

34%

32%
32%

31%

27%

27%


20%

">
HWFET(Highw
Benefit
%

X
20%

21%

20%
19%

19%

19%

21%


17%

?. 1
Combined (Met
Highway) Bent
%
-
X
24%

29%

28%
27%

27%

24%

24%


19%

Performance

0-30 MPH
sec
2.6
2.3
2.7

99

2.8
2.7

7R

2.7

2.4


2.2


I
Q.
S
sec
7.7
7.5
7.8

R7

6.4
6.4

83

7.7

7.5


7.1


30-50 MPH
sec
3.0
2.9
2.8

77

2.2
2.2

77

2.7

2.9


2.7


50-70 MPH
sec
4.6
5.0
4.6

35

3.6
3.6

38

4.7

4.9


4.5


Vel at 3 sec
mph
33.6
35.9
32.7

31 5

32.6
33.5

355

32.5

35.6


37.1


Dist at 3 sec
meters
23.3
26.2
21.1

19.3

19.8
20.5

21.4

20.4

25.2


27.3

0) O
SOMPHGrad
Capability atG
%
8.8
8.5
8.4

12.3

12.5
13.0

12.9

10.2

10.7


10.7

gear
2nd
3rd
3rd

2nd

2nd
2nd

2nd

3rd

2nd


2nd

Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years

X1


X2

5.4L V8
Camless
GDI
5.4L V8
HCCI
GDI

FDR 3.35


DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35


N


N

ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt

Y


Y


-10%


-10%


base


base


Y


Y


422


425


314


311


374


374


31%


31%


22%


23%


28%


28%


2.7


2.7


7.7


7.7


2.8


2.8


4.6


4.6


32.8


32.8


21.2


21.2


8.6


8.6


3rd


3rd

                          Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                          CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                          Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                          Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                          Ratio
                          Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                          Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 97 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                                  Table 7-19: Truck Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
                                                                                 Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
Jentifier

0
o
s
n"
2

Base-
line
6-Spd
AT
9









11

12

17



c
O)
c
HI


5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI


3.6LV6 Turbo
GDI



4.8L V6 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L V8
DVVL + DCP
GDI
c
o

en
E
en
1


AT 4spd
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.3
DCT 6spd

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.26
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.41
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.57

DCT 6spd
FDR 315

AT 6spd
FDR 3.1

AT 6spd

1

Q.
3
*

N
N
Y









N

Y

N

%

Accesso


Mech
Mech
ePS
ePump


ePS
heAlt



ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
o
S

arm -up l\
S

Bag1
Bag1
Y









Y

Y

Y

0)

Aero Dr


base
base
-10%









-10%

-10%

-10%

tance

ing Res
o
£

base
base
base









base

base

base

o
"a.
1=

tional M
u
•c
u.

N
N
Y









Y

Y

Y

Fuel Economy
I

if)
S:
t

mpg
14.9
15.5
20.3

22.5

21.8
21.7

21.6


22.7

20.2

18.5

I

£
1-
LU
Li.
1
mpg
22.6
23.0
28.2

28.5

28.3
28.1

27.9


31.0

28.5

27.3

I
* P

!!
° «

mpg
17.6
18.2
23.2

24.9

24.3
24.2

24.1


25.8

23.2

21.6

Benefit

&
O
nf
t-
u_
%

X
37%

52%

47%
46%

46%


53%

36%

24%

i

II
LJ.
1
%

X
24%

26%

25%
24%

23%


37%

26%

21%

£ £
% 1

ambined
ighway)
0 i
%

X
32%

42%

39%
38%

37%


47%

32%

23%

Performance


g

sec
2.6
2.3
2.7

2.9

2.8
2.7

2.6


2.7

2.4

2.2





sec
7.7
7.5
7.8

6.7

6.4
6.4

6.3


7.7

7.5

7.1

I
Q.

1

sec
3.0
2.9
2.8

2.2

2.2
2.2

2.2


2.7

2.9

2.7

I
Q.

$

sec
4.6
5.0
4.6

3.5

3.6
3.6

3.6


4.7

4.9

4.5

8

CO
"o

mph
33.6
35.9
32.7

31.5

32.6
33.5

35.5


32.5

35.6

37.1

»

Dist at

meters
23.3
26.2
21.1

19.3

19.8
20.5

21.4


20.4

25.2

27.3

o o

E 3
°
%
8.8
8.5
8.4

12.3

12.5
13.0

12.9


10.2

10.7

10.7

gear
2nd
3rd
3rd

2nd

2nd
2nd

2nd


3rd

2nd

2nd

Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years

X1

X2

5.4LV8
Camless
GDI
5.4LV8
HCCI


DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35

DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35


N

N

ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump


Y

Y


-10%

-10%


base

base


Y

Y


21.5

21.4


28.9

29.2


24.3

24.3


45%

44%


28%

29%


38%

38%


2.7

2.7


7.7

7.7


2.8

2.8


4.6

4.6


32.8

32.8


21.2

21.2


8.6

8.6


3rd

3rd

                          Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
                          CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
                          Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                          Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
                          Ratio
                          Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
                          Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo,  Inc.
Page 98  of 113
21 December 2007

-------
7.4 CLOSING COMMENTS
The intent of the study was to carry out a scientific, objective study of the effectiveness
of packages of advanced powertrain and vehicle technologies to reduce CO2 emissions
from light-duty passenger vehicles. The technology packages included advanced
engines, transmissions, 42V engine stop-start systems, electrically-driven engine
accessories combined with fast warm-up strategies, aerodynamic drag and rolling
resistance reductions,  and a friction reduction multiplier.

The technology packages assessed as high readiness level (or low risk) were predicted
to offer CO2 reduction  potentials ranging from 9 - 29% on the combined metro-highway
drive cycle, and those with low technology readiness (or high risk) up to 32%. The
effects on vehicle performance were also reported along with the CO2 emission benefits
as they can have a strong impact on vehicle purchase decisions.

The potential benefits in reducing CO2 are seen to be significant, but it is  important to
note that these are realized through the combination of a number of technologies. Most
of these technologies would add cost to the vehicles. The assessment of the economic
impact of these technology packages was outside of the scope of this study.

Finally, the CO2 and performance results for combinations of technologies represent
what could  potentially be achieved  when applied to a specific baseline vehicle. The
results are seen to vary significantly between different vehicle applications.  Hence,
determination of the benefit of specific technology combinations to other vehicle
platforms would require a similar level of scientific analysis.
Ricardo, Inc.                        Page99of113                        21 December2007

-------
TERMINOLOGY

AT           Automatic Transmission, used here to refer to a planetary gearbox with torque
             converter

BMEP        Brake Mean Effective Pressure

BSFC        Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

CAI          Controlled Auto-Ignition

CCP         Coordinated Cam Phaser (intake and exhaust cams have same phasing change)


CPS         Crankshaft Position Sensor


CO2         Carbon Dioxide, a known greenhouse gas

CVVL        Continuously Variable Valve Lift by means of a mechanical linkage

CVT         Continuously Variable Transmission

DCP         Dual Cam Phasers, one each on intake and exhaust cam giving independent
             control of inlet and exhaust valve timing

DCT         Dual Clutch Transmission (either wet-clutch or dry-clutch)

DEAC        Cylinder Deactivation

DOC         Diesel Oxidation Catalyst

DPF         Diesel Particulate Filter

DVVL        Discrete Variable Valve Lift,  two or three stage variable valve lift by means of
             cam profile switching

ECU         Engine Control Unit

EGR         Exhaust Gas Residual

EPA         Environmental Protection Agency

ePS         Electric Power Steering (either full electric or electro-hydraulic)

ePump       Both electric water pump and electric engine oil pump

ETW         EPA Equivalent Test Weight

FDR         Final Drive Ratio

FMEP        Friction Mean Effective Pressure
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 100 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
FTP75       Federal Test Procedure, commonly referred to as the EPA City test cycle

GCW        Gross Combined Weight

GDI          Gasoline Direct Injection, with combustion occurring at stoichiometric conditions

GHG         Green House Gas

HC          Hydrocarbon Emissions

HCCI         Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition

HeAlt        High efficiency Alternator

HPCR        High Pressure Common Rail, diesel fuel injection system

HWFET      Highway Fuel Economy Test, EPA test cycle commonly referred to as the
             Highway cycle


14            In-line 4 cylinder engine

15            In-line 5 cylinder engine

ICP          Intake Cam Phaser

LNT          Lean  NOX Trap

MPV         Multi-Purpose Vehicle

NOX          Nitrogen Oxides

OEM         Original Equipment Manufacturer, used to mean the automotive vehicle
             manufacturers

PCCI         Pre-mixed Charge Compression Ignition, synonymous w/ HCCI

PFI          Port Fuel Injection

PMEP        Pumping Mean Effective Pressure

SCR         Selective Catalytic Reduction

T2B5         Tier 2 Bin 5 emissions standard

Turbo        Turbocharger

V6           Vee-6 cylinder engine

V8           Vee-8 cylinder engine
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 101 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
VNT         Variable Nozzle Turbocharger



VVT         Variable Valve Timing



WOT        Wide-Open Throttle, or full engine load
Ricardo, Inc.                      Page102of113                        21 December2007

-------
APPENDIX

This appendix shows the complete final results tables, which include the data shown in Sections
1 and 7 and the additional performance metrics as discussed in Section 2.10.3.
Ricardo, Inc.                      Page103of113                      21 December2007

-------
                                                     Table A-1: Standard Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions

                                                                  Standard  Car Vehicle  Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
OS
UJ
2.4L-4V 14
ICP
2.4L-4V 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L-4V 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI
Transmission
ATSspd
FDR 3.39
DCT6spd
FDR 2.96
DCTBspd
FDR 3.07
DCT6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw!
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVT w/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
AT6spd
FDR 2.96
I
a.
o
«/>
N
Y
N
Y
Accessories
Meeh
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
•o
*
S
SL
m
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
f
£
Ss
1
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
m
3
1
cc
CL
bast
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
ee»2
3.
CL
H
U.
g/rni
338
250
250
250
249
297
295
295
296
298
277
HWFET (Highway!
a/mi
21?
1 70
170
172
174
200
198
201
204
211
180
if
S/nii
284
214
214
215
215
253
251
253
255
259
233
1
3
5
h-
Cu
H
LL
%

26%
26%
26%
26%
12%
13%
13%
12%
12%
18%
1
CD
f
3
x
1—
LU
X
%
-
22%
22%
21%
20%
8%
9%
8%
6%
3%
17%
Combined (Metro-Highway)
Benefit
%

25%
25%
24%
24%
11%
11%
11%
10%
9%
18%
Performance
X
CL
o
<*?
o
sec
3.2
3.8
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.3
3.4
x
CL
o
sec
8.7
8.8
7.9
7.6
7.6
9.1
9.2
9.0
8.9
8.6
8.8
x
CL
S
o
o
sec
3.4
3.1
2.9
2.8
2.8
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.3
x
Q.
S
O
O
sec
5.4
4.7
4.3
4.3
4.3
5.0
5.1
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.3
4>
15
~
mph
28.3
22.4
25.1
26.2
27.2
24.9
24.8
25.5
26.3
27.9
26.7

-------
                                                     Table A-2: Standard Car Vehicle Class  Fuel Economy
                                                                  Standard Car Vehicle  Class
Technology Package Description

*
—
c

_
ra
-*£
CL
CL
LU




I









1








2




S
"ra





Z4L-4V 14
ICP


2.4L-4V 14
OWL + CCP









2.4L-4V 14
OWL + DCP






2.4L-4V 14

DCP
GDI


s


£
W
m
H



ATiipef
FOi 3,3i
DCT6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT6spd
FDR 3.07
DCT6spd
FDR 3. 23
DCT6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT

FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
rvTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVT w/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00


FDR 2.96


c




fS)



N


Y









N








Y


..
i
o
»
s
<



Mich


ePS
ePump









ePS
ePump








ePurnp


m
"S
E
a.
f
s



Blfll


Y









Y








Y



ggj

o

<



base


-20%









-20%








-2U%




.2
£

"3
a:


bise


-10%









-10%








-1U%

I
a.

5
s
s
~
LL


N


Y









Y








Y
Fuel Economy


&
U

r*>*
LL
I—
LL.


mpg
26.9
36.4

36.4
36.4

36.4

30.6


30.8


30.8

30.7


30.5



32.8

f
$
"ffi


LU
1


mpg
41.8
53.5

53.6
52.8

52.3

45.5


45.9


45.2

44.5


43.1



50.6

?
~ 1
2 —
«_ ra
s =
i 2
S,


mpg
32,0
42.5

42.6
42,3

42.2

35.9


36.2


35.9

35.7


35.1



39.0

m
m

^
O

Q_
H


%

35%

35%
35%

35%

14%


15%


14%

14%


13%



22%
-
~
3
01

jj*
5
"9>
X
H
LU
S
X
%

28%

28%
26%

25%

9%


10%


8%

7%


3%



21%
•K
1
X


S ^
-_ jjj
=
E
u
%

33%

33%
32%

32%

12%


13%


12%

11%


9%



22%
Performance



LL

O




sec
3,2
3R

3.5
3.4

3.3

-i/


3.7


3.6

3.5


3.3



3.4



a.

o




sec
6.7
RR

7.9
7,6

7.6

9 1


9.2


9.0

8.9


8.6



a.«


X
CL
t^
O
O



sec
3,4
31

2.9
2.8

2.8

'1V


3.3


3.3

3.3


3.2



3.3


X
CL
^
O
o



sec
5,4
47

4.3
4.3

4.3

Ml


5.1


4.9

4.9


4.9



5.3


Q
CS
«•>
13
-
"


mph
28.3
724

25.1
26,2

27.2

','4 M


24.8


25.5

26.3


27.9



26. /


3S
«>
^5
1
"S
a


meters
19.2
12.7

15.3
16,0

16.7

16.3


16.2


16.7

17,4


18.6



16.8
2-
B
B"
U 22
» f—
1 e
5
X
CL
O
N-
%
13J
15.3

16.0
16.7

17.5

17.9


17.9


17.9

17.9


17.9



14.8
gear
3rd
3rd

3rd
3rd

3rd
















3rd



CL
s
o




sec
1,3
1 fi

1.4
1.3

1.3

1 'f


1.3


1,2

1.2


1.1



1.2



LL
s
o




sec
6.6
fiq

6.4
6,2

6.1

HM


6.9


6.8

6.7


6.5



b./




£
O




sec
12.0
11 6

10.7
10.5

10.4

11 M


12.0


11.7

11.6


11.3



1211

" *
s =

a.
o U
!~ 0!
CL «


%
5,2
4.7

5.0
5.5

5.9

6.6


6.6


7.1

7.6


8.7



4.7

ff_ «e
^ ^
s =

' £L
O O
H tf
CL J?
S yj
r^

%
4,6
4.2

4.5
5.0

5.4

6.1


6.1


6.6

7.2


8.2



4.2
   Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is constrainted to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
   Engine Teiniinoloyy: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam
   Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL= Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI= Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
   Transmission Teiminoloqy AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
   Accessoiies Tenniiinloyy:  Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =  electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
   W«iini-ii|) Model Teuniiiology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 105 of 113
21  December 2007

-------
                                                                 Table A-3:  Small MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
                                                                                       Small MPV  Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EC
J
Vf<
%
&.
<
Q.
Phi
z
1
2
5
15
i
14L-4V 14
2.4L 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L [4
DCP
SO!
1.9L M Diesel
wrth
after! re atrnent
1 .51 14 Tutto
DCP
GDI
i
K
ATdqxl
FDR 191
DCT6spd
FDR 3 10
CVT
FDR5.B
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4 64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4 90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5 15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5 SO
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT6spd
FDR 3 00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3 2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 36
DCT6spd
FDR 3 52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3,68
42V StO|>-St,nt
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
.1
1
<
iP5
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAll
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAll
ePS
ePump
heAlt
s
f
3
it|i
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
a
btii
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
ec
biii
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
*|
1
®
tZ
N
¥
Y
Y
Y
Y
C02
a!
r~
g/mi
mr
272
313
310
309
309
310
290
2B2
272
272
272
273
HWFET iHlcjIiwayl
g/ms
111
206
231
227
229
231
234
211
205
211
211
212
213
l{
1}
S
g/mr
111
243
276
273
273
274
276
255
247
244
245
245
246
^
i
cs
f
£
u.
%

26%
15%
16%
16%
16%
16%
21%
23%
26%
26%
26%
26%
HWFET (HNjhw.iy) Benefit
%

18*
9%
10%
10%
9%
7%
17%
19%
17%
17%
,6%
16%
1
X
i i
s S
™ m
O
%

23%
13%
14%
13%
13%
13%
19%
22%
23%
22%
22%
22%
Performance
X
a.
S
sec
1.1
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.6
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
X
a.
S
sec
11.4
10.4
103
103
103
10.0
9.7
107
104
10,1
9.8
9.6
9.5
30-50 MPH
sec
i.r
3.7
34
34
34
3.4
3.4
4.5
39
3.6
3.3
3 2
3.2
50-70 HPH
sec
10
6.1
52
52
52
5.2
5.2
69
63
4.S
52
5.2
5.2
>
mpi-
14.6
18.8
18.?
18.7
19.3
28.3
21.6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17. 8
18.9
20.0
1
meters
16,7
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Grade Capability
.ItETW
%
141
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.9
13.1
12.9
13.6
14.1
14.6
gear
lirf
2nd





2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
0-10 MPH
sec
1.1
1.8
1 7
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1 2
1 7
2.2
21
2.0
1.9
1,50 MPH
sec
75
6.1
6.0
8.0
8.0
7.7
7.4
8.3
7.B
B.2
7.7
7.5
7.3
1-70 MPH
sec
111
14.2
132
132
,32
129
12.6
152
141
13.0
129
127
125
60 MPH Top Gut ETW
Grade Cap ability A
%
1.1
2.6
3.3
3.3
3.7
4.2
4.8
1.9
4.8
2.6
3.1
36
4.1
70 MPH Top-Gear ETW
Gr.id* Capability*
%
1.1
2.1
2.8
2.8
3.2
3.8
4.5
1.4
6.2
2.4
2.3
3.4
3.9
Low Technology Readiness - 16 Years
15a
I5b
2.4L 14
Camless
GDI
2.4L 14
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 31
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAll
ePS
ePump
heAll
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
262
270
193
197
231
237
29%
26%
24%
22%
27%
25%
4.3
4.3
103
103
37
37
61
6.1
19.6
19. 6
11.7
11.7
16.6
16.6
2nd
2nd
1 7
1.7
8.0
8.0
141
141
2.6
26
2.1
2.1
Accessintes Teriiiiti
W.iim-ii|' Model Te
                                              grade capability is constrained to the lop gear and i* used as an indication of torque reserve, See section 2 for discussion on performance mot tic?
                                               14 ~ Inline 4 cylinder , VB ~ Vee-engrne 8 cylinders, 2/3/4*= 2/3/4 valves/cylmder, GDI- Gasoline Direct Injection (SiGichmmetrie). DCP= Dual Cam Phasers, CCP ~ Coordina
                                              Cam Phaser, DWL- Discrete Variable Valve Lift, OWL- Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac - Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI - Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
                                              ioleijy: AT= Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all otheis), CVT= Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
                                              il«i)^. Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High- efficiency Alternetot
                                              iihioiflgy. Bagl = Conection factor for Bag1 is 0 8*Bag3, V = Physcs-based engine warm-up mode! applied
Ricardo,  Inc.
                                                              Page  106 of 113
21  December 2007

-------
                                                                Table A-4: Small  MPV Vehicle Class  Fuel Economy
                                                                                    Small MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
BlfB-
Z
1
2
5
15
"S
3.JL-4V It
24LW
DWL + CCP
24LI4
DVvl + DCP
GDI
24LI4
DCP
GDI
1.9LI4 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
I
FBI 1.11
DCTBspd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5 8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4. 64
CVT w/
revised ratio
FDR 4.90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
ATispd
FDR 2 8
DCT6spd
FDR 3.00
DCTBspd
FDR 3.2
DCTBspd
FDR 3.36
DCTBspd
FDR 3.52
DCT Bspd
FDR3.6S
42¥ Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
i
Muh
«PS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
B.,1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
o
i
ta»
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
i
1
"e
ta.
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
.1
"5
u.
n
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
^
CL
&-
mps
349
33.4
29.0
29.3
29.4
29.4
29.4
31.3
35.9
33.4
33.4
33.4
33.3
I
z
1
mpfl
35.1
43. B
39.4
40.0
39.7
39.4
38. B
43.1
49.3
43.1
43.1
42.9
42.7
°I
rnpg
mi
37.4
329
333
333
332
330
35.7
40.8
372
37,2
37.1
369
CD
Q.
f—
%

35%
17%
18%
19%
19%
19%
26%
45%
35%
35%
35%
34%
i
i
en
H
1
%

22%
10%
11%
11%
10%
8%
20%
37%
20%
20%
19%
19%
"f
*
ir
f 1
S X
u
%

30%
14%
16%
16%
15%
14%
24%
42%
23%
29%
29%
2B%
Performance
a.
o
sec
3.1
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.6
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
9-68 MPH
sec
10-t
10.4
10.3
10.3
10.3
100
9.7
10.7
10.4
10.1
9.6
9.B
9.5
38-50 MPH
sec
3,7
37
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.5
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.2
58-70 MPH
sec
1.B
6.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
6.9
6.3
4.9
5.2
5.2
5.2
1
mph
341
18.8
18.7
18.7
19.3
20.3
21 6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17.8
18.9
20.0
1
5
meters
my
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Gait C«(Hiliililjr
at ETW
%
14.1
16.7
167
IB 7
167
167
167
16.9
13.1
129
13, i
14.1
146
gear
3rt
2nd





2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
1
sec
1.3
1.B
1 7
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.2
„
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
8-58 MPH
sec
7.5
8.1
0.0
8.0
8.0
7.7
7.4
8.3
7.8
B.2
7.7
7.5
7.3
MB MPH
sec
tu
14.2
13.2
13.2
13.2
12.9
12.6
15.2
14.1
13.0
12.9
12.7
12.5
60 MPH T«p S«a ETW
Grade Capability A
%
«
2.6
3.3
3.3
3.7
4.2
4.8
1.9
4.8
2.6
3.1
3.6
4.1
70 MPH Top-Cur ETW
Grade C«|»liility "
%
3.1
2.1
2.8
2.0
3.2
3.8
4.5
1.4
5.2
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.9
Low Teehnsii»gy Readiness - 18 Years
15a
1Sb
2.4L 14
Camless
GDI
2.4L [4
HCC!
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3,1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3 1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
V
34.7
33.6
47.1
46.1
393
38.3
40%
38%
31 %
28%
37%
33%
4.3
4.3
103
10.3
3.7
3.7
6.1
6.1
19.6
19.6
11.7
11.7
166
16.8
2nd
2nd
1.7
1.7
8.0
8.0
14.1
14.1
2.6
2.6
2.1
2.1
                           Engine Terminology W = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam
                           Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL= Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac= Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Cha
                           Tiiiiisinissieii Tettuinoioqy AT = Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans {Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for ali others), CYT- Continuously Variable Trans, FDR =
                           AccessoiiesT&irniriology Mecrt = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS - electric Power Steering, ePurnp = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-eftkien
                           W.iim-tij} Model Teiminoloijy: Bag1 = Co?n?ction factor for Bacjl is 0 B'BagJ, V = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
                                                         Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam
                                                         rge Compression ignition
                                                         : Final Drive Ratio
                                                         cy Alternator
Ricardo,  Inc.
Page 107 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                          Table A-5: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
                                                                          Full Size Car Vehicle
Technology Package Description

 S
S


g/mi
35i

296

273



273


286

289

293

289


255

S
©
ca
.s-

l^
Q.
f—


%


18%

25%



25%


19%

20%

19%

20%


29%
1
CQ
§
S


1-
LU

z
%


15%

21%



21%


21%

16%

15%

16%


28%
'?•
S
"~1
x
11


£

Q
u
%


17%

23%



24%


20%

19%

18%

19%


28%
Performance


X
Q.
£
f*5
O



sec
IB

7R

9R



2.b


2.5

33

3.1

3.1


2.7


X
a.
S
••*
o



sac
6.7

R6

71



/.1


7.1

73

7.1

7.0


6.B


X
Q.
S
o

S



sec
13

23

27



27


2.7

73

23

2.3


25


X
0.
^
o





sac
3.8

34

43



4.3


4.3

33

3.4

3.5


3.6


S
?

®



mph
33.7

337

33 R



34.3


34.3

-JRfl

28.6

28.7


333


4)
S

.2



maters
24,i

22.0

21.7



22.4


22.4

16.8

17.8

17.9


21.8
15
•s
i
»5

,"
X
Q.


%
24.6

25.6

18.5



18.5


18.5

26.1

26.1

25.6


27.2
gear
2nd

2nd

4th



4th


4th

2nd

2nd

2nd


2nd


X
Q.
S

o



sac
0.8

1 0

1 1



1.1


1.1

1 7

1.2

1.2


1.0


X
Q.
S
L">
O



sec
4.9

5n

53



b.2


5.2

57

5.5

5.5


51


X
S.
S
t*.
o



sac
B.7

R4

9R



M.b


9.5

HQ

8.8

8.9


8.8
?~
HJ g,
1 Z
a. S"
i— ":

Q. 2
E a

*a
%
i.4

4.8

10.6



10.6


10.6

4.7

5.4

4.7


4.6

UJ £,

-------
                                                         Table A-6: Full Size Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
                                                                        Full Size Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description

o
OS
ff>
.*£
CL
UJ

Base-
line

4





5






6a




16



«
'«
LU



w
2.2L 14 Turbo
DCP

GDI
2.8L I4/5


aftertreatment

2.8L I4/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment


3.0LVB
DCP + CWL
GDI


3 5L VB
CCP + 0eac
GDI


o
1
e
H


FDR 237

AT6spd
FDR 3. OB

DCT Bspd
FDR 3.06
DCT Bspd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT Bspd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT Bspd
FDR 3.08
DCT Bspd
FDR 3.20
DCT Bspd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08

AT6spd
FDR 2.7



S
o
tSi
SM


N

N





N






N




Y



.1
m
Is
o
<


Mich
ePS
ePump

heAlt


ePS
ePump






ePS
ePurnp
heAlt



ePS
ePump


-
o
S
a.
e
1


Bijl

Y





Y






Y




Y



ff
Q
i»
**


bail

-20%





-20%






-20%




-20%


w
2
i
w

cr



-10%





-10%






-10%




-10%


1
2


'fj
LL

M

Y





Y






Y




Y

Fuel Economy

s
S,

H


mpg
21.7

26.3


31.9


32.1


29.7


27.2
26.9

27.2


30.3


I
JZ
[_»
LU
i

mpg
32.S

38,5


45,8


45,7


45.9


38.8
38.3

38.8


45,4


	 f
I 1

u S
s

mpfl
26.5

30,7


37.0


37.0


35,3


31.4
31.0

31,4


35,7


i
SX9
O
«
CL
I-

%


21%


47%


48%


37%


25%
24%

26%


40%

as
ffi
|
-C
ss

LU
S
X
%


18%


40%


40%


41%


19%
18%

19%


40%

I
"S

I J
•c
•=
p
o
%


20%


45%


45%


38%


23%
22%

23%


40%

Performance


Q_
IS
o
o


sec
11

26


'>K


2.5


2.5


a.d
3.1

3.1


2.7



a.
o
o


sec
I.?

Rfi


71


7.1


7.1


/.a
7.1

7.0


6.8



Q.
a
"7
s
P"S


sec
2.3

91


">7


2.7


2.,'


2.J
2.3

2.3


2.5



a.
o
e


sec
3.8

34


43


4.J


4.3


d.a
3.4

3.5


3.6








mph
33.7

337


338


34-3


34.3


26.S
28.6

28. /


33-3


y
m
•s



mete is
24.1

22.0


21,7


22,4


22,4


16.8
17.8

17.9


21.8

1
i
Ss


z
Q.
O
%
14.8

25,6


18,5


18.5


18,5


26.1
26.1

25,6


27.2

gear
2n7
5.5

6.5


5.1



a.
o
o


sec
8.?

84


9R


9.5


a.fa


a.a
8.8

8.9


8.8

5
UJ ^
t5 s

z —
Q. P
S (3
§
yfe
8J

4.8


10.6


10.B


10.6


4.7
5.4

4.7


4.6

S
LU g,
a *
e U
I -s
Q. -5
S 5
e
%
S3

5.0


10.5


10.5


10.5


4.3
4.9

4.3


4.2

Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years

Yl


Y2

3.5LVE
Carnless
GDI
3.5L VB
HCCI
GDI

FDR 2 80


DCT Bspd
FDR 2.80

N


N

ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt

Y


Y


-20%


-20%


-10%


-10%


Y


Y


32.7


31.4


45,7


46.1


37.5


36.6


51%


45%


40%


42%


47%


44%


3.1


3 1


6.8


RR


2.2


29


3.2


32


29.3


293


17.9


17.9


28.7


28.7


2nd


2nd


1.2


1 2


5.3


53


8.5


85


4.9


4.9


4.6


4.6

                                                                                                                      cssiori on performance metrics.

            Enyme T6iinin«l«?jy: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v= 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric). DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Ca
            Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, OWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL= Continuously Vanable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
            Transmission Terminology: AT- Automatic Trans, DCT- Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for ail others), OVT ~ Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
            Access-ones-Teiminoloyy  Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePurnp = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
            W*iini-M|j Model Teiniinoli>yy. Bagl = Correction factor tor Bag1 is0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo,  Inc.
Page  109 of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                      Table A-7: Large MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
                                                                 Large MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description

3
"5

<*3
o
a.

a.
yj

Bssi-
lini

4





6b





16



45
"5*
c
yj



W
2.1LI4Turbo
DCP
GDI

o ni \/K
CCP -4- Deac


27L V6

CCP + Deac
GDI
3 8L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI


s
"5
i



AT4spd
FOB 3.43

AT 6spd
FDR 3 17

DCTBspd
FDR 3.17
DCT6spd
FDR 3.72
DCTBspd
FDR 3.00

DCT B^pd

FDR 3.72

AT Bspd
FDR 2.7


e
55
o
"*f



N

N





N





Y



.1
Accesso



Mich
ePS
ePump
heAIt



ePS
ePump
heAIt





ePS
ePurnp


1
*
s.
S
1



Bag1

Y





Y





Y



S?
Q
®



base

-20%





-20%





-20%

*
Q
S
s
Of



tasa

-10%





-10%





-10%

,_


s
s
I



N

Y





Y





Y
CO2


•?
o
to
Q.
t-
U.


g/mi
45§

357

333

331

336


320


325

1?
1

X,
i—
UJ
X


g/mi
313

256

241

244

240


240


223

—
"s §

c =
5 £
u S
S


g/mi
3i3

312

292

292

293


284


279

m
I

5,
Q-


%
-

22%

27%

28%

27%


30%


29%
1
S
CQ
1*
"ra
E.
IXi

X
%


18%

23%

22%

23%


23%


29%

o .£
f 1
s ^
— CO
2 ?


%
-

21%

26%

26%

25%


28%


29%
Performance



o.
o


sec
3,3

3.2

.„

35

4.1


:HH


3.3



a.
o
o


sec
9.3

8.0

R5

R1

8.7


8 9


9.3


X
Q.
?
O
f^i


sec
3,5

2.8

1R

77

2.8


HII


3.4


X
o.
h"
O
yr.


sec
5.1

4.3

4?

4?

4.1


4H


5.6


u
»
1=
"o
>


mph
27.5

27.8

71 3

745

20.1


V1 /


27.1


u
a^

1
Q


meters
1B.9

16.5

11.9

13.6

11.3


12.1


15.6
$
i
a.
U g
P
S

o
%
17.7

17.1

16.8

19.7

15.5


1/4


17.0
gear
2nd

3rd

3rd

3rd

3rd


HrH


2nd



Q.
O


sec
1,3

1.3

1 7

1 R

1.8


1 /


1.4




o
o


sec
l.i

6.0

67

K7

6.9


KH


6.7



Q.
O
h-


sec
12.4

10.3

1flq

1H4

11.0


11 H


12.3
5


(* ^
MPH Top
Grade Ca|
o

%
5,7

4.3

4.5

5.9

4.0


5.0


4.0
5
F "-

(5 c
o
X -3
Q. ^
O

%
5.2

4.5

3.8

5.2

3.5


4.3


3.6
Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is constrairited to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
Enijine Teiminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 vahres/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam
Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL= Continuously Variable Valva Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Ti.iiismission Teiminology: A.T = Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT= Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
ftccessoiies Terminology: fvlech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePurnp = electric engine oil and coolant pumps,  heAIt = High-efficiency Alternator
W Model Teiminology: Bagl = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
 Ricardo,  Inc.
Page110of 113
21  December 2007

-------
                                                      Table A-8: Large MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy
                                                                Large MPV  Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPft Package Identifier
Base-
lirw
4
6b
16
LLJ
Vi
2.1LI4Turbo
DCP
GDI
3.0L VB
CCP + Deac
2.7LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.8LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT4spd
FDR 3.43
ATBspd
FDR 3.17
DCTBspd
FDR 3.17
DCTBspd
FDR 3.72
DCTBspd
FDR 3.00
DCTBspd
FDR 3.72
ATBspd
FDR 2.7
o
>
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mich
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePurnp
Warm -up Model
B.|1
Y
Y
Y
!»
Q
o
i»
<

-20%
-20%
-20%
U
1
Q£
Si
"5

-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
M
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
is.
c_
t
mpg
w,e
25.5
27.3
27.5
27.0
28.4
28.0
|
x_
I—
uu
mpg
29.0
35.4
37.7
37.2
37.8
37,8
40.8
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
mpg
23.1
29.2
31.1
31.1
31.0
32,0
32.6
1
CO
o.
CL
h-
LL
%

28%
37%
38%
36%
43%
41%
1
3>
03
H
X
%
-
22%
30%
28%
30%
30%
41%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%
•
26%
35%
35%
34%
38%
41%
Performance
X
CL
S
o
en
o
sec
3,3
3.2
3.9
3.5
4.1
3,8
3.3
X
e
o
sec
9.3
8.0
8.5
8.1
8.7
8,9
9.3
X
Q.
O
O
sec
3.S
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.8
3.0
3.4
X
CL
o
o
sec
i.i
4.3
4.2
4.2
4.1
4.8
5.6
u
tnph
27,6
27.8
21.3
24.5
20.1
21.7
27.1
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.9
16.5
11.9
13.6
11.3
12.1
15.6
&.
•0 UJ
X
Q.
%
1?.?
17.1
16,8
19.7
15.5
17.4
17,0
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
2nd
X
CL
O
O
sec
1.3
1.3
1.7
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.4
X
Q.
e
o
sec
i.i
6.0
6.7
6.2
6.9
6.8
6.7
X
CL
9
O
sec
12 .4
10.3
10.9
10.4
11.0
11.6
12.3
60 MPH Top Gear ETW
Grade Capability *
%
5.7
4.3
4.5
5.9
4.0
5.0
4.0
70 MPH Top-Gear ETW
Grade Capability *
%
S.2
4.5
3.8
5.2
3.5
4.3
3.6
Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is coristrainted to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, VB = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam
Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL= Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Tiiinsmissioii Teiminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
 Ricardo, Inc.
Page 111  of 113
21  December 2007

-------
                                                                  Table A-9: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
                                                                                    Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description

"£
j£
—
c
a
c£
D.
LU

Base-
line
6-3pd
AT
9



10



11


12

17




2
s
m



VB
CCP
5.4L-3V VB
CCP
5.4L-3VV8
CCP + Deac
GD!


3.6LV6 Turbo
DCP
GDI



4.8L V6 Diese!
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V VB
CCP + Deac
6D!
5.4L VB
DVVL + DCP
GDI

=
.—
1?
=
S



AT4spd
FOB 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCT6spd
FDR 3.3
DCTBspd

DCTSspd

DCTBspd
FDR 3. 41
DCTBspd

DCTBspd
FDR 3 15


FDR 31

AT 6spd
FDR 3 1


=
*z
>
o
>



N
N
Y



N



N


Y

N





9





Mech
ePS
ePump


ePS
ePurnp
heAlt



ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt

"®
o
^
t
=



«.
Bag1
Y



Y



Y


V

Y



!?N
2
o
«



>_
base
-10%



-10%



-10%


-1U%

-10%


V
^
.2
tf
«=
CC



base
base



base



base


base

base




S
-
•£
uZ


N
N
Y



Y



Y


Y

Y

CO2

-
:-?
w
a.
H-
LL


g/iro
in
586
448
404

416

418

421

444


450

492


S
•=,
™
H



g/mi
«
396
323
319

321

323

325

326


319

333




>« ^




g/rni
ii r
500
392
366

373

37B

378

391


391

420


S
ffi!
lix
^
trt
a.
U.

%

*
27%
34%

32%

32%

31 %

27%


27%

20%

1
m
^
5
JT
LU
*
z:
%
-
X
20%
21%

20%

19%

19%

19%


21%

17%


If
t£ f-
S ®
~




%

X
24%
29%

26%

27%

27%

24%


24%

19%

Performance




S
o


sec
11
2.3
2.7
•39

2.8

27

9fi

2.7


2.4

2.2





?
o


sec
„
7.5
78
67

64

64

R3

7 7


7.5

7.1



a.

o
f^


sec
3.
2.9
2.8
2 2

2.2

17

7?

2.7


2.9

2.7



CL

o
tf~.


SGC
41
5,0
4.6
35

3.6

3R

36

4.7


4.H

4.5


',»
*
?*>
15
>


rnph
33.1
35.9
32.7
31 5

32.6

135

•*<;

32.5


*.B

37.1


w
a
^~«
J
O


meters
23.3
26.2
21.1
19.3

19.8

20.5

21.4

20.4


25.2

27.3

S
t
«v ^
^ Q
1 ^
X


%
B.B
8.5
84
P3

12.5

13.0

12.9

10.2


1UV

10.7

gear
2ml
3rd
3rd
?nd

2nd

2nd

2nd

3rd


2nd

2nd




E
o
o


sec
03
0.7
1.0
17

1 1

1 1

1 1

1.2


Ub

0,7





S
o


sec
5.1
5,2
5,5
51

5,0

^q

4fl

5,5


b.2

4.9





o
o


sec
11,2
10.2
10.1
HR

8.6

R5

H4

10.2


111.1

9.4

5
t! S
.* <

H -'
X ^
O. ^
o

%
1,2
5.5
5.3
6.1

6.9

7,4

8.0

8.0


4.7

4.7

?
- .-
,® -~
*•; ^
H '^
X ~


%
a?
5.0
48
5.6

62

6.7

73

9.0


4.1

4.1

S
- s
* "£
~' ^
H '-'
11
o

%
S.I
2.3
2.2
2,5

2.8

3,1

3.3

3.3


1.9

2.0

Low Technology Reariiiiess - 10 Years

X1


X2

5.4LVB
Camless
GD!
5.4LVB
HCCI
GDI

FDR 3.35


DCT6spd


N


N

ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt

Y


Y


-10%


-10%


base


base


Y


Y


422


425


314


311


374


374


31 %


31%


22%


23%


26%


28%


2,7


2.7


7.7


7.7


2.8


2.8


4.6


4.6


32.8


32.8


21.2


21.2


8.6


8.6


3rd


3rd


1.0


1.0


5.5


5.5


10.0


10.0


5.5


5.5


5.0


5.0


2.4


2.4

               Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is constrainted to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
               Etiyine Teniiiiioloyy 14 - Inline 4 cylinder, V8 - Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v- 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI - Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometricj, DCP - Dual Cam Phasers, CCP - Coordinated Cam Phasers,
               ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, D^i/L = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CYVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
               Ti.insmission TeuisiiHtiofjy. AT = Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for ail others), CYT= Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
               Ac.cessotiesTeitnmoIoijjf Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
               $/,iiin-ii|j Mutle! Temiiiiohiijy Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0 8*Bag3, ¥ = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page112of 113
21 December 2007

-------
                                                                 Table A-10: Truck Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
                                                                                  Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
s
3=
1
0>

^
a.
CL

Bass-
ins
6-Spd
AT
9


10




11

12

17


ffi
"§!

UJ


S.4L-3¥ VB
CCP
5.4L-3V VB
CCP
5.4L-3V VB
CCP +Deac
GDI

3.6LVB Turbo
DCP
GDI



4.8LV6 Diesel
with
aft eft re at merit
5 4L-3V VB
CCP +Deac
GDI
5.4L VB
DWL + DCP
GDI

C
e
"S
~

3
N


AT Ispii
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCTBspd
FDR 3.3
DCT6spd
FDR 3.1
DCTBspd
FOR 3.26
DCTBspd
FDR 3. 41
DCTBspd


FDR 3 15

AT Gspd
FDR 3.1

AT Gspd


I
&
a.

s


N
N
Y


N




N

Y

N


1
s

1


Medi
Mech
ePS
ePurnp

ePS
ePump
heAlt



ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt

o
s


E
1


B*
Bag1
Y


Y




Y

Y

Y


w
a

<


blii
base
-10%


-10%




-10%

-10%

-10%


1
i

cn
.E
Q;

taii
base
base


base




base

bsise

base

_
,Eh
5

,2
u.

N
N
Y


Y




Y

Y

Y

Fuel Economy

$
G


i—
LL

mpg
,„
15.5
20.3
22.5
21.8

21.7

21.6


22.7

20.2

18.5

1
i
.E
sn


yj
s

mpg
22.i
23.0
28.2
28.5
28.3

26.1

279


31.0

28.5

27.3

¥
11
.= es


of
=

mpg
17.1
18.2
23.2
24.9
24.3

24.2

24.1


25.8

23.2

21.6

«
a?
a


ITS
F-w
a_
H

/Q
-
«
37%
52%
47%

46%

46%


53%

36%

24%

1
?
•£,

LU
1
%

X
24%
26%
25%

24%

23%


37%

26%

21%

* £
li
— m
*"S

.2 J
-3 5

%
-
X
32%
42%
39%

38%

37%


47%

32%

23%

Performance

X
a.
o

®

sec
ZB
2.3
27
2.9
2.8

2.7

7fi


2.7

2.4

2.2


£
CL
o



sec
7.7
7.5
7.8
6.7
M

R4

R1


7.7

7,5

7.1


x:
Q.
S=


S

sec
3,0
2.9
2.8
2.2
-n

-1-1

T?


2.7

2.9

2.7


X
a.
3=


s

sec
(J
5.0
4.6
3.5
3R

3R

3R


4.7

4.9

4.5


s
B

5

mph
33.1
35.9
32.7
31.5
T'fi

335

355


32.5

35.6

37.1


»
•g

.1

meters
23.3
26.2
21.1
19.3
19.8

20.5

21.4


20.4

25.2

27.3

I
-•5
Is 'J

X
a.
«
%
GLB
8.5
8.4
12.3
P5

13 n

179


10.2

10.7

10.7

qear
2-
3rd
3rd
2nd
^nd

7rirt

?nrl


3rd

2nd

2nd


X
Q.
O

O

sec
D.i
0.7
1.0
1.2
1 1

1 1

1 1


1.2

0.8

0.7


X
CL
o

®

sec
5,B
5.2
55
5.1
5fl

4«

4R


5.5

5.2

4.9


X
Q.
O

*

sec
1U.2
10.2
10.1
8.6
RR

H5

H4


10.2

10.1

9.4

UJ %
'J5 *c
f" ,1

i 4
D. ^
s <5
S
%
i.2
5.5
5.3
6.1
6.9

7.4

8.0


8.0

4.7

4.7

UJ £..
•^ "^
£a- *3

I ^
a. c
o
%
5.7
5.0
4.8
5.6
6.2

6.7

7.3


9.0

4.1

4.1

8,
f~ &
5 ™
4j ^


X ~
o. ^
E '^
i
%
2.B
2.3
2.2
2.5
2.8

3.1

3.3


3.3

1.9

2.0

Low Technology Readings - 10 Years
X1


»

5.4LVB
Camless
GDI
5.4LVB
HCCI
GDI
DCTBspd
FDR 3.35


DCT Bspd
FDR 3.35

N


N

ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y


Y

-10%


-10%

base


base

Y


Y

21.5


21.4

28.9


29.2

24.3


24.3

45%


44%

28%


29%

38%


38%

27


2.7

7.7


7.7

28


2.8

4.6


4.6

32.8


32.8

21.2


21.2

86


8.6

3rd


3rd

1.0


1.0

55


5.5

10.0


10.0

5.5


5.5

5.0


5.0

2.4


2.4

              Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is ctmstrainted to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
              Emjine Teimiiiology; 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, YB = Yee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichionietric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers,
              ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DYYL= Discrete Variable Vaive Lift, CWL= Continuously Variable Vafee Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
              Ti.iitsmission Teinimohxjy: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT= Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
              Accessaries Teiminolociy; Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
              W(iiHi-(ip Model Temiiiioloijy. Bagl = Correction factor for Bag1 is dS'SagS, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page113of 113
21 December 2007

-------