A Study of Potential Effectiveness of
Carbon Dioxide Reducing Vehicle
Technologies
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
-------
A Study of Potential Effectiveness of
Carbon Dioxide Reducing Vehicle
Technologies
Assessment and Standards Division
Office of Transportation and Air Quality
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Prepared for EPA by
Ricardo, Inc.
EPA Contract No. EP-C-06-003
Work Assignment No. 1-14
v>EPA
NOTICE
This technical report does not necessarily represent final EPA decisions or
positions. It is intended to present technical analysis of issues using data
that are currently available. The purpose in the release of such reports is to
facilitate the exchange of technical information and to inform the public of
technical developments.
United States EPA420-R-08-004
Environmental Protection , „„„
Agency January 2008
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RICARDO
A STUDY OF POTENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF CARBON
DIOXIDE REDUCING VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES
21 December, 2007
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THIS PROJECT WAS FUNDED UNDER SUBCONTRACT 06003-08 BY
PERRIN QUARLES ASSOCIATES, INC. UNDER CONTRACT EP-C-06-003,
WORK ASSIGNMENT 1-14 TO THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY
THE FOLLOWING ORGANIZATIONS CONTRIBUTED TO THIS STUDY:
RICARDO, INC.
RICARDO STRATEGIC CONSULTING
RICARDO, PLC
PERRIN QUARLES ASSOCIATES, INC.
THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE i
NOTICES ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES viii
1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
1.1 BASELINE RESULTS 2
1.2 TECHNOLOGIES CONSIDERED 2
1.3 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES 3
1.4 VEHICLE/TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE RESULTS 6
2.0 INTRODUCTION 12
2.1 THE NEED TO CONSIDER VEHICLE PERFORMANCE AS WELL AS
CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS 12
2.2 OBJECTIVES 12
2.3 SIMULATION APPROACH 13
2.4 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 13
2.5 TECHNOLOGY READINESS 14
2.6 SCOPE OF WORK 14
2.7 REPRESENTATIVE VEHICLE CLASSES AND BASELINE VEHICLES...14
2.8 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES 15
2.9 TECHNOLOGY SENSITIVITY CASE STUDIES 21
2.10 TEST CYCLES AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA 21
2.10.1 Test Cycles 21
2.10.2 Fuel Economy and C02 Equivalency 21
2.10.3 Vehicle Performance Criteria 21
2.11 INPUT DATA AND MODELING APPROACH OVERVIEW 23
2.12 COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 24
2.13 SECTION 2 REFERENCES 25
3.0 VEHICLE MODEL 26
3.1 ENGINE MODEL 26
3.2 ENGINE MODEL-WARMUP 27
3.3 ENGINE MODEL - CYLINDER DEACTIVATION 28
3.4 ENGINE ACCESSORIES MODEL 28
3.5 TRANSMISSION MODEL 28
3.6 TORQUE CONVERTER MODEL 29
3.7 FINAL DRIVE DIFFERENTIAL MODEL 29
3.8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS 29
3.9 DRIVER MODEL 29
3.10 STOP-START MODEL 30
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4.0 DISCUSSION OF BASELINE VEHICLE CLASS
RESULTS AND COMPARISON WITH COMPARATOR
VEHICLE 35
5.0 INDIVIDUAL TECHNOLOGIES STUDIED 39
5.1 ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES 39
5.1.1 Cam Phaser Systems-Variable Valve Timing (VVT) 39
5.1.1.1 Advantages 39
5.1.1.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks 40
5.1.1.3 Source of Engine Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) Maps
40
5.1.2 Variable Valve Lift Systems 40
5.1.2.1 Continuously Variable Valve Lift (CVVL) 40
5.1.2.2 Discrete Variable Valve Lift (DWL) 41
5.1.2.3 Advantages Compared to CAM Phasers Only 42
5.1.2.4 Disadvantages and Technical Risks 42
5.1.2.5 Source of Engine BSFC Maps 43
5.1.2.5.1 CVVL 43
5.1.2.5.2 DWL 43
5.1.3 Cylinder Deactivation 43
5.1.3.1 Advantages 46
5.1.3.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks 46
5.1.3.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps 46
5.1.4 Gasoline Direct Injection 46
5.1.4.1 Advantages of Homogeneous Stoichiometric Dl 47
5A.4.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks of Homogeneous
Stoichiometric Dl 48
5.1.4.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps 48
5.1.5 Turbocharged/Downsized Gasoline Engine 49
5.1.5.1 Advantages 51
5.1.5.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks 51
5.1.5.3 Source of Engine BSFC 52
5.1.6 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) 52
5.1.6.1 Advantages 53
5.1.6.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks 53
5.1.6.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps 54
5.1.7 Cam less Valvetrain 56
5.1.7.1 Advantages Compared to CAM Phasers Only 57
5.1.7.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks 58
5.1.7.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps 58
5.1.8 Diesel Engine 58
5.1.8.1 Advantages 58
5.1.8.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks 58
5.1.8.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps 59
5.1.8.4 2L Diesel Engine 59
5.1.8.4.1 Gas Handling System 59
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5.1.8.4.2 Combustion System 59
5.1.8.4.3 After-treatment 60
5.1.8.5 2.8L Diesel Engine 60
5.1.8.5.1 Gas Handling System 60
5.1.8.5.2 Combustion System 61
5.1.8.5.3 After-treatment 61
5.1.8.6 4.8L Diesel Engine 61
5.1.8.6.1 Gas Handling System 61
5.1.8.6.2 Combustion System 62
5.1.8.6.3 After-treatment 62
5.1.8.7 Diesel Aftertreatment Fuel Economy Impact 62
5.1.9 Stop-Start 63
5.1.9.1 Advantages 63
5.1.9.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks 64
5.2 TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES 64
5.2.1 Losses in Power Transmission Elements 65
5.2.2 Losses in Bearings 66
5.2.3 Losses in Sealing Elements 67
5.2.4 Churning and Drag Losses 68
5.2.5 Pump Losses 69
5.2.6 Overall Efficiencies of Transmission Systems 70
5.2.6.1 Automatic Transm ission 70
5.2.6.2 Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT) 71
5.2.6.2.1 Wet-Clutch DCT 71
5.2.6.2.2 Dry-Clutch DCT 72
5.2.6.3 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) 73
5.3 SECTION 5 REFERENCES 74
6.0 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES 76
6.1 ADDITIONAL TECHNOLOGIES 79
6.1.1 Aerodynamic Drag and Rolling Resistance 79
6.1.2 Friction Multiplier 79
7.0 RESULTS 80
7.1 SELECTED POWERTRAIN (ENGINE & TRANSMISSION) TECHNOLOGY
PACKAGE RESULTS 80
7.1.1 Direct Injection Gasoline Engines with Cylinder Deactivation 80
7.1.2 Turbo/Downsize, Gasoline Direct Injection Engines 81
7.1.3 Cam less Gasoline Engines 81
7.1.4 Gasoline Engines Operating on HCCI 83
7.2 INCREMENTAL RESULTS ON SELECTED VEHICLE / TECHNOLOGY
PACKAGE COMBINATIONS 84
7.3 FINAL RESULTS 87
7.4 CLOSING COMMENTS 99
TERMINOLOGY 100
APPENDIX 103
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Comparison of simulated CO2 output for the baseline vehicle classes 2
Figure 3-1: Basic Stop-Start Strategy 30
Figure 3-2: Starter / Alternator Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency 31
Figure 3-3: Electric Oil Pump Hydraulic Power Equipment 32
Figure 3-4: Electric Oil Pump Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency 33
Figure 3-5: Electric Water Pump Hydraulic Power 34
Figure 3-6: Electric Water Pump Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency 34
Figure 4-1: FTP City Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle 36
Figure 4-2: HWFET Highway Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results
and Comparator Vehicle 36
Figure 4-3: Combined Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle 37
Figure 4-4: Vehicle Performance Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle 37
Figure 4-5: CO2 Emissions Level Comparison of Simulation Results for all Baseline
Vehicle Cases 38
Figure 5-1: Hydraulic Vane-Type Cam Phaser 39
Figure 5-2: Electrically Actuated Cam Phaser 39
Figure 5-3: BMW "Valvetronic" Continuously Variable Inlet Valve Lift System and Valve
Lift Profiles Available With It 41
Figure 5-4: INA DVVL System for Direct-Attack Valvetrains 42
Figure 5-5: Pushrod Valvetrain 44
Figure 5-6: Oil-Controlled Locking Pin 44
Figure 5-7: Symmetrical Roller Finger Follower (SRFF) 45
Figure 5-8: Mercedes 3-valve Configuration Follower 45
Figure 5-9: Typical Homogeneous Stoichiometric Dl Layout 47
Figure 5-10: BSFC Benefit Achieved by Bosch-Ricardo GDI V6 Engine Compared to V8
Engine 49
Figure 5-11: Comparison of Naturally Aspirated and Turbocharged Downsized Engines
50
Figure 5-12: Cylinder Pressure During HCCI Combustion Showing Low Cyclic
Irregularity and Exhaust Recompression 52
Figure 5-13: Typical Speed / Load Envelope where HCCI Combustion can be Obtained
using Mechanical Valvetrain 53
Figure 5-14: Ricardo TMVL (Twin Mechanical Variable Lift) HCCI Research Cylinder
Head Valvetrain with Dual Variable Valve Lift and Period and Dual Variable Cam
Phasing 55
Figure 5-15: Alternative Valve Lift Profiles with the BMW "Valvetronic" System 55
Figure 5-16: Ricardo TMVL (Twin Mechanical Variable Lift) HCCI Research Cylinder
Head Assembly 56
Figure 5-17: Valeo Electromagnetic Camless Actuator 57
Figure 5-18: Lotus "AVT" Electrohydraulic Camless Actuator 57
Figure 5-19: Small MPV Engine Layout 59
Figure 5-20: Large Car Engine Layout 60
Figure 5-21: Truck Engine Layout 61
Figure 5-22: Conventional, Dual Voltage System 63
Figure 5-23: Estimated Power Loss in a Deep-Groove Ball Bearing 67
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Figure 5-24: Typical Power Loss in Shaft Seals 68
Figure 5-25: Typical Transverse Wet Clutch DCT Arrangement 71
Figure 5-26: Possible Dry Clutch DCT Arrangement 72
Figure 5-27: Typical Transverse CVT Arrangement 73
Figure 7-1: Combined FE Benefit vs. Peak Torque-to-Weight Ratio for Camless Engine
Packages 83
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 -1: Technology Packages for Standard Car 3
Table 1 -2: Technology Packages for Small MPV 4
Table 1-3: Technology Packages for Full Size Car 5
Table 1-4: Technology Packages for Large MPV 5
Table 1 -5: Technology Packages for Truck 6
Table 1-6: Standard Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 7
Table 1-7: Small MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 8
Table 1-8: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 9
Table 1-9: Large MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 10
Table 1-10: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 11
Table2-1: Baseline Vehicles Description- EPA Fuel Economy 14
Table2-2: Baseline Vehicles Description- EPA CO2-Equivalent 15
Table 2-3: Standard Car Vehicle Class Technology Packages 16
Table 2-4: Small MPV Vehicle Class Technology Packages 17
Table 2-5: Full Size Car Vehicle Class Technology Packages 18
Table 2-6: Large MPV Vehicle Class Technology Packages 19
Table 2-7: Truck Vehicle Class Technology Packages 20
Table 2-8: GHG CO2-Equivalent Emissions Factor 21
Table 4-1: Baseline Vehicles Description and EPA Fuel Economy 35
Table 4-2: Maximum Road Load Force Variation 35
Table 6-1: Standard Car Technology Packages 76
Table 6-2: Small MPV Technology Packages 77
Table 6-3: Full Size Car Technology Packages 78
Table 6-4: Large MPV Technology Packages 78
Table 6-5: Truck Technology Packages 79
Table 7-1: Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results for Cylinder Deactivation
Cases 80
Table 7-2: Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results for Turbo/Downsized
Cases 81
Table 7-3: Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results for Camless Valvetrain
Cases 82
Table 7-4: Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results for HCCI Cases 84
Table 7-5: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Standard Car / Technology
Package Z 85
Table 7-6: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Small MPV / Technology
Package 2 85
Table 7-7: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Full Size Car / Technology
Package 6a 86
Table 7-8: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Large MPV / Technology
Package 4 86
Table 7-9: Incremental Fuel Economy and CO2 Benefits for Truck with Technology
Package 11 87
Table 7-10: Standard Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 89
Table 7-11: Standard Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy 90
Table 7-12: Small MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 91
Table 7-13: Small MPV Vehicle Class Fuel Economy 92
Table 7-14: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 93
Table 7-15: Full Size Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy 94
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Table 7-16: Large MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions 95
Table 7-17: Large MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy 96
Table 7-18: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 97
Table 7-19: Truck Vehicle Class Fuel Economy 98
Table A-1: Standard CarVehicle Class CO2 Emissions 104
Table A-2: Standard CarVehicle Class Fuel Economy 105
Table A-3: Small MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions 106
Table A-4: Small MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy 107
Table A-5: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 108
Table A-6: Full Size CarVehicle Class Fuel Economy 109
Table A-7: Large MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 110
Table A-8: Large MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy 111
Table A-9: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions 112
Table A-10: Truck Vehicle Class Fuel Economy 113
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1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Ricardo has been subcontracted by Perrin Quarles Associates, Inc. (PQA) under
contract to the EPA to carry out an objective and scientific analysis of the influence of
certain technology packages on automotive CO2 emissions and vehicle performance.
The scope of the study was to determine the quantitative impact of technology
combinations, or packages, when applied to baseline vehicles. The EPA selected the
vehicle classes and the technology packages which were applied, as well as a baseline
comparator vehicle for each class. Vehicle performance metrics were considered
simultaneously with CO2 emissions in order to indicate the potential impact on consumer
acceptability. Vehicle performance metrics were considered an important part of the
study as these can significantly influence the desirability of a vehicle to car buyers.
Ricardo's role was to carry out the analysis of the technologies. The report contains the
description of the approach taken and the simulation results obtained. Significant CO2
reductions are predicted from the combinations of powertrain and vehicle technologies.
Many of these technologies could add significant cost to vehicles; however, cost analysis
was beyond the scope of this study. Also, there is no Ricardo discussion or opinion on
the results obtained nor any recommendations on the level of CO2 reduction that could
be obtained in practice from future vehicles. The intended purpose of this study is to
serve as an input to the EPA in its rule-making effort relating to the potential impact of
specific technology packages on fuel economy/CO2 and vehicle performance. Further,
while baseline vehicle comparators representing vehicle platforms were used to define
the performance and fuel economy/CO2 impacts, this report should not be interpreted as
stating the actual impact on these baseline comparator vehicles.
A forward-looking, millisecond-by-millisecond, physics-based modeling approach was
deployed. This encompassed simulation from the driver's foot to torque at the wheels
and included detailed sub-models for influences such as turbocharger lag and engine
warm-up. Ricardo used its unique proprietary test and analytical data for future engine,
transmission, and vehicle technologies. Ricardo also ensured that the technologies were
appropriately characterized into simulation, including any limitations.
Under direction of the EPA, one CO2 improvement option was not included in the
simulation, but instead was applied to the simulation results. This factor was friction
reduction as might be obtained by low-viscosity oils and/or friction reducing components.
A fuel economy benefit of 2.5% was applied to the simulation results and could be
construed to be indicative of the potential for further CO2 reductions from friction
reduction. Furthermore, although vehicle weight has a significant impact on CO2 output,
this study was focused on the impact of powertrain technologies, vehicle aerodynamic
drag force, tire rolling resistance and friction reduction; a weight change to the vehicles
was not considered in this study.
The scope of the work focused on five different vehicle platforms representing the major
vehicle segments. These five platforms were:
• Standard Car (for example, Toyota Camry)
• Small MPV (for example, Saturn Vue)
• Full size car (for example, Chrysler 300)
• Large MPV (for example, Dodge Grand Caravan)
• Truck (for example, Ford F150)
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1.1 BASELINE RESULTS
For each vehicle class, a typical production vehicle was selected as a comparator and a
baseline model was created that would represent the vehicle class and also be the
starting point for addition of the technology packages. The unadjusted results for the
EPA city, highway, and combined cycles as simulated for each of the baseline vehicle
classes are shown in Figure 1-1.
700 -
600 -
— 500 -
r 400 -
D
Q.
O
O 200 H
100 -
0
612
-458
420
338
-367-
218
284
T3
0)
C
_Q
O
O
V7777J.
316
2531
279
393
356-
517
402
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large MPV
Truck
Figure 1-1: Comparison of simulated CO2 output for the baseline vehicle classes
1.2 TECHNOLOGIES CONSIDERED
A number of technologies were considered for this study.
Engine technologies included:
• Variable Valvetrain
- Cam phasing, DCP and CCP
- Variable valve lift, CVVL
Discrete cam profile switching, DVVL
Camless
• Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition combustion, HCCI
• Cylinder deactivation
• Gasoline Direct Injection, GDI
• Turbocharging / downsizing
• Diesel
Transmission technologies included:
• Advanced 6-speed automatic, AT
• Dual-clutch, DCT, both wet and dry clutch
• Continuously variable, CVT
Accessory technologies included:
• 42V stop-start system
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• Electric accessories, including electric water pump (ePump) and electric power
steering (ePS) and fast engine warm up
• High efficiency alternator (heAlt)
Vehicle technologies included:
• Aerodynamic drag force reduction
• Tire rolling resistance reduction
1.3 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES
The EPA identified a number of technology packages of engine, transmission, and
vehicle technologies that would be assessed for each vehicle platform. The number of
technology packages totaled twenty-six. Each package was also given a subjective
rating in terms of its production readiness. The ratings used were: already in production
now or will be in production within 5 years, and production within 5-10 years. The
corresponding terms used are "5 years" and "10 years", respectively. The technology
packages with the associated vehicle and readiness were as follows:
Table 1-1: Technology Packages for Standard Car
Pkg
Z
1
2
Engine
14, PFI
14, GDI
14, GDI
Valvetrain
CCP
DVVL
DCP
DVVL
DCP
Transmission
6-spd DCT,
dry clutch
CVT
6-spd AT
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
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Table 1-2: Technology Packages for Small MPV
Pkg
Z
1
2
5
15
15a
15b
Engine
14, PFI
14, GDI
14, GDI
14, Diesel
14, GDI
Turbo/down
-size
14, GDI
14, GDI
Valvetrain
CCP
DVVL
DCP
DVVL
DCP
DCP
Camless
HCCI
Transmission
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
CVT
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
1 0 years
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Table 1-3: Technology Packages for Full Size Car
Pkg
4
5
6a
16
Y1
Y2
Engine
14, GDI
Turbo/down-
size
I4/I5
Diesel
Small V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Valvetrain
DCP
DCP
CVVL
CCP
Deac
Camless
HCCI
Transmission
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-speed AT
6-speed DCT,
wet clutch
6-speed DCT,
wet clutch
Accessories
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
1 0 years
Table 1-4: Technology Packages for Large MPV
Pkg
4
6b
16
Engine
14, GDI
Turbo/down-
size
Small V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Valvetrain
DCP
CCP
Deac
CCP
Deac
Transmission
6-speed AT
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-speed AT
Accessories
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
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Table 1-5: Technology Packages for Truck
Pkg
9
10
11
12
17
X1
X2
Engine
V8, GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Turbo/down-
size
Large V6
Diesel
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
Valvetrain
Deac
DCP
CCP
Deac
DCP
DVVL
Camless
HCCI
Transmission
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd AT
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
6-spd DCT,
wet clutch
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
10 years
1.4 VEHICLE / TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE RESULTS
Each combination of vehicle and technology package was simulated for the effect on
fuel economy and performance. A friction-reduction factor was applied to the fuel
economy values and CO2-equivalent output was then calculated. Results for the
technology packages are shown below for each vehicle class. Technology packages that
require a 5 to 10 year production readiness period are listed separately at the bottom of
the tables to distinguish their lower level of technical maturity. The tables in this section
list the initial performance results as described in Section 2.10.3 for each baseline
vehicle and technology package; the complete listing of performance results is shown in
the Appendix.
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Table 1-6: Standard Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
0)
C
w
Ul
2.4L-4V 14
ICP
2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + CCP
2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + DCP
GDI
2.4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 5spd
FDR 3.39
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.07
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
AT 6spd
FDR 2.96
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
CO2
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
338
250
250
250
249
297
295
295
296
298
277
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
217
170
170
172
174
200
198
201
204
211
180
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
284
214
214
215
215
253
251
253
255
259
233
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%
26%
26%
26%
26%
12%
13%
13%
12%
12%
18%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%
22%
22%
21%
20%
8%
9%
8%
6%
3%
17%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%
25%
25%
24%
24%
11%
11%
11%
10%
9%
18%
Performance
x
0-30 MR
sec
3.2
3.8
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.3
3.4
X
S
o
<9
o
sec
8.7
8.8
7.9
7.6
7.6
9.1
9.2
9.0
8.9
8.6
8.8
X
S
sec
3.4
3.1
2.9
2.8
2.8
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.3
X
50-70 M
sec
5.4
4.7
4.3
4.3
4.3
5.0
5.1
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.3
X
Vel at 3 <
mph
28.3
22.4
25.1
26.2
27.2
24.9
24.8
25.5
26.3
27.9
26.7
Dist at 3 sec
meters
19.2
12.7
15.3
16.0
16.7
16.3
16.2
16.7
17.4
18.6
16.8
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
13.8
15.3
16.0
16.7
17.5
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
14.8
gear
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
-
-
-
3rd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 7 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 1-7: Small MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Small MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
5
15
c
2.4L-4V 14
2.4LI4
DWL + CCP
2.4L 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4LI4
DCP
GDI
1.9LI4 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.91
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5. 8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4. 90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5. 50
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 36
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 68
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
Accessories
Mech
except
ePS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
0>
{£.
Ul
_c
"o
a:
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
C02
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
367
272
313
310
309
309
310
290
282
272
272
272
273
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
253
208
231
227
229
231
234
211
205
211
211
212
213
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
316
243
276
273
273
274
276
255
247
244
245
245
246
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%
26%
15%
16%
16%
16%
16%
21%
23%
26%
26%
26%
26%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%
18%
9%
10%
10%
9%
7%
17%
19%
17%
17%
16%
16%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%
23%
13%
14%
13%
13%
13%
19%
22%
23%
22%
22%
22%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
3.8
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.8
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
0-60 MPH
sec
10.4
10.4
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.0
9.7
10.7
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.6
9.5
30-50 MPH
sec
3.7
3.7
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.5
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.2
50-70 MPH
sec
6.0
6.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
6.9
6.3
4.9
5.2
5.2
5.2
Vel at 3 sec
mph
24.6
18.8
18.7
18.7
19.3
20.3
21.6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17.8
18.9
20.0
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.7
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
14.8
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.9
13.1
12.9
13.6
14.1
14.6
gear
2nd
2nd
-
-
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
Low Technology Readiness - 1 0 Years
15a
15b
2.4LI4
Camless
GDI
2.4LI4
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3.1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
262
270
193
197
231
237
29%
26%
24%
22%
27%
25%
4.3
4.3
10.3
10.3
3.7
3.7
6.1
6.1
19.6
19.6
11.7
11.7
16.6
16.6
2nd
2nd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 8 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 1-8: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Full Size Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
E
EPA Package Iden
Base-
line
4
5
6a
16
01
c
c
UJ
3.5L-4V V6
2.2L 14 Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.8L 14/5 Diese
2.8L 14/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment
3.0L V6
DCP + CVVL
GDI
3 5L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT 5spd
FDR 2.87
AT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.20
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
AT 6spd
FDR 2.7
42V Stop-Start
N
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
Warm-up Mode
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
01
Rolling Resistan
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
oi
Frictional Multipl
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
C02
FTP75 (City
g/mi
420
346
316
315
340
334
338
334
300
HWFET (Highw
g/mi
279
236
221
221
220
234
237
234
200
>
Combined
(Metro-Highwc
g/mi
356
296
273
273
286
289
293
289
255
1
FTP75 (City) Be
%
-
18%
25%
25%
19%
20%
19%
20%
29%
"S
HWFET (Highw
Benefit
%
-
15%
21%
21%
21%
16%
15%
16%
28%
2£
Combined (Met
Highway) Bene
%
17%
23%
24%
20%
19%
18%
19%
28%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
3.3
3.1
3.1
2.7
0-60 MPH
sec
6.7
6.6
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.3
7.1
7.0
6.8
30-50 MPH
sec
2.3
2.3
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.5
50-70 MPH
sec
3.8
3.4
4.3
4.3
4.3
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Vel at 3 sec
mph
33.7
33.7
33.8
34.3
34.3
26.8
28.6
28.7
33.3
Dist at 3 sec
meters
24.6
22.0
21.7
22.4
22.4
16.8
17.8
17.9
21.8
01 £
70 MPH Grad
Capability at E
%
24.6
25.6
18.5
18.5
18.5
26.1
26.1
25.6
27.2
gear
2nd
2nd
4th
4th
4th
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
Y1
Y2
3.5L V6
Camless
GDI
3.5L V6
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80
FDR 2.80
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
278
290
199
197
242
248
34%
31%
29%
29%
32%
30%
3.1
3.1
6.8
6.8
2.2
2.2
3.2
3.2
29.3
29.3
17.9
17.9
28.7
28.7
2nd
2nd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Term inology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 9 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 1-9: Large MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Large MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
re
Q
0
HI
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
HI
ng Resistanc
™
s.
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
onal Multipli
+*
u_
N
Y
Y
Y
CO2
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
458
357
333
331
336
320
325
>»
/FET (Highwj
%
I
g/mi
313
256
241
244
240
240
223
Combined
etro-Highwa
S
g/mi
393
312
292
292
293
284
279
-
d)
HI
m
in
h-
Q.
1-
u_
%
-
22%
27%
28%
27%
30%
29%
>»
/FET (Highwj
Benefit
%
I
%
-
18%
23%
22%
23%
23%
29%
° £
,5 0)
01 C
_ m
c re
It
0 ~
O I
%
-
21%
26%
26%
25%
28%
29%
Performance
0
0
sec
3.3
3.2
39
3.5
4.1
3.8
3.3
0
0
sec
9.3
8.0
85
8.1
87
8.9
9.3
I
!
sec
3.5
2.8
?R
2.7
?S
3.0
3.4
I
0
h-
S
sec
5.6
4.3
4?
4.2
41
4.8
5.6
u
HI
Vel at 3 .
mph
27.5
27.8
?1 3
24.5
?01
21.7
27.1
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.9
16.5
11.9
13.6
11.3
12.1
15.6
1 -
I £
Q. =
S &
re
0 Q.
r— re
O
%
17.7
17.1
16.8
19.7
15.5
17.4
17.0
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
2nd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 10 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 1-10: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
6-Spd
AT
9
10
11
12
17
0)
c
O)
c
LIJ
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.6LV6 Turbo
DCP
GDI
4.8L V6 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L V8
DVVL + DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.3
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.26
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.41
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.57
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.15
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
42V Stop-Start
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
N
Accessories
Mech
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Rolling Resistance
base
base
base
base
base
base
base
Frictional Multiplier
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
CO2
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
612
586
448
404
416
418
421
444
450
492
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
402
396
323
319
321
323
325
326
319
333
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
517
500
392
366
373
376
378
391
391
420
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%
X
27%
34%
32%
32%
31%
27%
27%
20%
ro
u_
5
%
X
20%
21%
20%
19%
19%
19%
21%
17%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%
X
24%
29%
28%
27%
27%
24%
24%
19%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
2.6
2.3
2.7
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.7
2.4
2.2
0-60 MPH
sec
7.7
7.5
7.8
6.7
6.4
6.4
6.3
7.7
7.5
7.1
30-50 MPH
sec
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.7
2.9
2.7
50-70 MPH
sec
4.6
5.0
4.6
3.5
3.6
,6
,6
4.7
4.9
4.5
Vel at 3 sec
mph
33.6
35.9
32.7
31.5
32.6
33.5
35.5
32.5
35.6
37.1
Dist at 3 sec
meters
23.3
26.2
21.1
19.3
19.8
20.5
21.4
20.4
25.2
27.3
60 MPH Grade
Capability at GCW
%
8.8
8.5
8.4
12.3
12.5
13.0
12.9
10.2
10.7
10.7
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
3rd
2nd
2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
X1
X2
5.4L V8
Camless
GDI
5.4L V8
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-10%
-10%
base
base
Y
Y
422
425
314
311
374
374
31%
31%
22%
23%
28%
28%
2.7
2.7
7.7
7.7
2.8
2.8
4.6
4.6
32.8
32.8
21.2
21.2
8.6
8.6
3rd
3rd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 11 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The growing concern over greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has spawned global action
aimed at making significant future reductions. One of the identified sources of GHG
production is the automotive internal combustion engine, which accounts for roughly
30% of all GHG emissions in the United States [1]. The EPA's Office of Transportation
and Air Quality (OTAQ) was directed to establish a Federal GHG emissions rule that
would help President George W. Bush achieve his "20-in-10" goal for the nation. This
project forms part of the technological feasibility analysis to support those rulemaking
efforts by quantifying the possible reductions in greenhouse gases, and specifically
carbon dioxide (CO2), from passenger-car and light-truck vehicles.
Ricardo, Inc., executed this project as an independent and objective analytical study
under subcontract to Perrin Quarles Associates, Inc. (PQA) for the US EPA. The goal of
the study was the computer simulation of engine, drivetrain, and vehicle technologies for
greenhouse gas emissions reduction and considered passenger cars for the 2010-2017
model years (MY) and light trucks for the 2012-2017 MY timeframe. Ricardo, Inc., is the
US arm of Ricardo PLC, a global automotive consultancy with nearly 100 years of
specialized engineering expertise and technical experience in internal combustion
engines, transmissions, and automotive vehicle development. This project was
performed between July and October of 2007.
2.1 THE NEED TO CONSIDER VEHICLE PERFORMANCE AS
WELL AS CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
Today's automobile brings multiple benefits to its owner and is not just a means of
transportation. People buy their cars based on a number of different attributes beyond
styling and brand name. These attributes include, but are not limited to:
• The perceived performance of the vehicle, from its initial pull away acceleration
to its ability to quickly merge into and out of traffic flow.
• The towing capacity .
• The responsiveness of the vehicle to changes in accelerator pedal position.
• The level of refinement of the vehicle's driving behavior, which includes minimal
vibrations transmitted to the driver and passengers, low noise from the
powertrain, and elimination of excessively noticeable numbers of gear changes.
These factors are often overlooked in studies such as this, but they can be of vital
importance to the desirability of automobiles. The original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) expend significant engineering efforts during the development of new vehicles to
ensure the key attributes will meet the demands of their buyers. Changes to vehicle
propulsion systems to reduce CO2 will affect these attributes as well. Hence it is
important for studies on automotive CO2 reduction to try to comprehend the impact on all
the key vehicle attributes.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this study was to provide an objective, scientific analysis of the opportunity
for automotive CO2 reduction. To be scientific, a physics-based modeling approach was
used that enabled detailed simulation of the vehicle. To be objective, performance
metrics were identified collaboratively with the EPA that could be outputs of the
simulation model and would characterize some key vehicle attributes. Uncertainties
resulting from the analytical method are negligible, and in most cases the input data
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have a relatively small error band. The largest source of uncertainty in the results is due
to the possible variations in applying the technologies to a vehicle (i.e. differences in
actual specification, design, control, and calibration.) These differences of
implementation are much greater than can be projected for a vehicle class.
There have been several studies in the past that have evaluated the influence of
individual technologies on reducing automotive CO2. However, the benefit of these
technologies will vary depending on the other technologies with which they are being
combined as well as the specific vehicle platform to which the technology is being
applied. For example, the percentage benefit in reducing CO2 of an advanced gasoline
technology such as cylinder deactivation will be different when applied on a truck
compared to a small car. Also, certain technologies may not be readily applied to some
vehicles due to constraints of the technology. To overcome the limitations of previous
studies, an objective of the present study was to simulate the influence of prescribed
technology combination (packages) when applied to specific vehicle applications.
2.3 SIMULATION APPROACH
The modeling approach was a forward-looking, physics-based representation of the
whole vehicle. The model simulates what happens to the vehicle when the driver
applies the accelerator and/or brake pedal in order to achieve a certain vehicle speed at
a certain time. The model operates on a millisecond-by-millisecond basis and predicts
the vehicle CO2 and actual speed with time as the driver tries to drive a certain vehicle
speed trace (duty cycle). The model physics includes torques and inertias as well as
detailed sub-models for the influence of factors such as turbo-lag and engine friction
reduction as the lubricating oil warms up from a cold start.
The key to successful modeling is good data representing the automotive technologies.
This is referred to as input materials. Ricardo has detailed proprietary data for future
engine, transmission and vehicle systems, obtained from its production development
and research work as an engine, transmission and vehicle technology partner to OEMs
worldwide.
This detailed simulation forms the appropriate basis for investigating the influence of
technology packages on vehicle attributes including CO2 and is typical of the way the
automotive industry undertakes its analytical assessment of vehicle performance.
2.4 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
The technology packages studied have more component content than today's gasoline
engines. Many of the components will be new to the market and will, at least initially, be
at lower volumes than today's components.
Therefore the manufacture and assembly costs of these technology packages will be
more than the gasoline engine cost of today. The economic impact of these technologies
is of key importance when it comes to governmental rulemaking on CO2 reductions.
However, the economic impact of the technologies studied was not part of the Ricardo
scope. To facilitate economic studies that may be carried out, Ricardo has provided a
brief description of the individual technologies considered in the study.
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2.5 TECHNOLOGY READINESS
The technology packages identified are in various states of development towards
production. For example, direct injection, stoichiometric gasoline engines are in
production today, whereas homogenous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engines
are still being researched on test beds and very early prototype vehicles. The actual
state of development for specific technologies will vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer. To complement the assessment, Ricardo has provided a subjective
assessment of the readiness of the technologies for production.
2.6 SCOPE OF WORK
The technical analyses yielded simulation results of fuel economy and equivalent CO2
output for various passenger vehicle classes and combinations of advanced
technologies in order to quantify the effect of combined technologies on a vehicle.
Vehicle weight changes were not included in this study. The effects of these
combinations of technologies on specific vehicle performance criteria were also
evaluated. Only the fuel economy/equivalent CO2 output and vehicle performance
parameters were considered in the scope of this study and no cost or warranty/durability
information was included or investigated. However, subjective aspects like acceptable
drivability, idle stability, and NVH performance were taken into account when employing
certain advanced technologies and their combinations. Additional details are discussed
in the relevant sections.
2.7 REPRESENTATIVE VEHICLE CLASSES AND BASELINE
VEHICLES
This analysis was intended to build upon and improve existing literature investigating the
GHG reduction potential of new vehicle technologies. Similar to previous studies [2 & 3],
the EPA identified five vehicle classes to be representative of the overall population of
cars and light trucks in the US operational passenger vehicle fleet. These classes were:
Standard Car, Small Multi-Purpose Vehicle (MPV), Full Size Car, Large MPV, and Truck.
The EPA also chose a specific representative vehicle for each of the five classes: the
Toyota Camry for the Standard Car, the Saturn Vue for the Small MPV, the Chrysler 300
for the Full Size car, the Dodge Grand Caravan for the Large MPV, and the Ford F150
for the Truck. Published data for these specific vehicles are listed in the table below. The
fuel economy (FE) values are as reported in the EPA Test Car List.
Table 2-1: Baseline Vehicles Description - EPA Fuel Economy
Baseline Vehicles
Vehicle Class
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large MPV
Truck
Representative
Vehicle
Toyota Camry
Saturn Vue
Chrysler 300
Grand Caravan
Ford F150
Engine
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
3.5LV6DOHC
4 valve
3.8LV6OHV
2 valve
5.4L V8SUHC
3 valve
Trans.
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
Drlvetraln
FWD
FWD
RWD
FWD
4WD
Curb
Weight
(Ib)
3108
3825
3721
4279
5470
ETW
(Ib)
3625
4000
4000
4500
6000
GCW
(Ib)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
14000
EPA
City
FE
(mpg)
26.7
23.8
20.9
19.5
15.5
EPA
Highway
FE
(mpg)
42.2
36.7
34.1
31.9
22.7
EPA
Combined
FE
(mpg)
32
28.3
25.3
23.6
18.1
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Table 2-2: Baseline Vehicles Description - EPA CO2-Equivalent
Baseline Vehicles
Vehicle Class
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large MPV
Truck
Representative
Vehicle
Toyota Cam ry
Saturn Vue
Chrysler 300
Grand Caravan
Ford F150
Engine
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
3.5LV6DOHC
4 valve
3.8LV6OHV
2 valve
5.4L V8SOHC
3 valve
Trans.
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
Drlvetraln
FWD
FWD
RWD
FWD
4WD
Curb
Weight
(Ib)
3108
3825
3721
4279
5470
ETW
(Ib)
3625
4000
4000
4500
6000
GCW
(Ib)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
14000
trA
City
C02'
(g/mi)
340.3
381.8
434.8
466.0
586.3
trA
Highway
CO2*
(g/mi)
215.3
247.6
266.5
284.9
400.3
trA
Combined
CO2*
(g/mi)
284.0
321.1
359.2
385.0
502.0
*CO2-equivalent values are based on FE values from table 2.1 and gasoline conversion factor stated in Section 2.10.2 of this report
2.8 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES
The aim of this study was to project what the effects of current advanced technologies
and future technologies would be on CO2 levels for each of the identified vehicle classes
when used in specific combinations. It is important to note that the effect of the whole
combination is the key, since the result of multiple technologies applied to a specific
vehicle may not simply be additive when compared individually to the baseline, and in
most cases, is less effective than the sum of the individual component technologies in
that combination.
The EPA identified a number of combinations of vehicles and technology packages to be
simulated in this part of the project. In addition to these cases, final drive ratio sweeps
were also performed for certain configurations to determine the sensitivities involved.
The various vehicle and technology package simulations are listed below:
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Table 2-3: Standard Car Vehicle Class Technology Packages
Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
HI
c
'o>
c
UJ
2.4L-4V 14
ICP
2.4L-4V 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L-4V 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 5spd
FDR 3.39
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.07
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
AT 6spd
FDR 2.96
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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Table 2-4: Small MPV Vehicle Class Technology Packages
Small MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
5
15
HI
C
'o>
C
LU
2.4L-4V 1 4
2.4LI4
DWL + CCP
2.4LI4
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4LI4
DCP
GDI
1.9LI4 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.91
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5.8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.36
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.68
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
Accessories
Mech
except
ePS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
_OJ
"5.
'a
3
"re
C
0
tj
it
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
15a
15b
2.4LI4
Camless
GDI
2.4LI4
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3.1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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Table 2-5: Full Size Car Vehicle Class Technology Packages
Full Size Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
4
5
6a
16
01
,c
D)
C
UJ
3.5L-4V V6
2.2L 14 Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.8L 14/5 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
2.8L 14/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment
3.0L V6
DCP + CWL
GDI
3.5LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT 5spd
FDR 2.87
AT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.20
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
AT 6spd
FDR 2.7
t
$
tn
Q.
o
(/)
1
N
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
01
|
Q.
3
1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
O)
5
Q
O
1
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
Y1
Y2
3.5LV6
Camless
GDI
3.5LV6
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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Table 2-6: Large MPVVehicle Class Technology Packages
Large MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
4
6b
16
01
_c
'5>
c
UJ
3.8L-2V V6
2. 1L 14 Turbo
DCP
GDI
3.0LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
2.7LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.8LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.43
AT 6spd
FDR 3. 17
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.17
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.72
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.72
AT 6spd
FDR 2.7
42V Stop-Start
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
01
•a
o
a.
3
I
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
D)
n
Q
Q
$
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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Table 2-7: Truck Vehicle Class Technology Packages
Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
6-
Spd
AT
9
10
11
12
17
01
£
U>
c
UJ
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.6LV6 Turbo
DCP
GDI
4.8LV6 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L V8
DWL + DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.3
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.26
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.41
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.57
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.15
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
42V Stop-Start
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
N
Accessories
Mech
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
01
|
Q.
3
1
Bag1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
O)
5
Q
O
1
base
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Rolling Resistance
base
base
base
base
base
base
base
Frictional Multiplier
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
X1
X2
5.4L V8
Camless
GDI
5.4L V8
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-10%
-10%
base
base
Y
Y
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v =
2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual
Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL
= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac =
Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans
(Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable
Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS =
electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt =
High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y =
Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
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It must also be noted that the reduced engine friction, lower rolling resistance tires, and
reduced aerodynamic drag were applied to each of the vehicle/technology package
combinations as prescribed by the EPA. Specific technology actions were not identified
to obtain these improvements.
2.9 TECHNOLOGY SENSITIVITY CASE STUDIES
While the effects of the various vehicle and technology packages identified above on
CO2 output was the primary aim of the study, investigations of how much each individual
technology affected vehicle fuel economy were also undertaken. Thus, incremental
technology sensitivity studies were performed and are discussed in Section 7.2.
2.10 TEST CYCLES AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
2.10.1 Test Cycles
The test cycles considered for fuel economy and equivalent CO2 output were the EPA
FTP Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule and HWFET Highway Test Driving
Schedule, with all analyses being performed at the EPA vehicle equivalent test weight
(ETW) for each of the identified base vehicles.
2.10.2 Fuel Economy and CO2 Equivalency
Standard fuels were used for gasoline and diesel engines, respectively, and equivalent
CO2 output values were derived by applying a known factor for each fuel type to the fuel
economy (FE) results. For this analysis, GHG emissions per gallon of fuel consumed
were provided by the EPA as follows:
Table 2-8: GHG CO2-equivalent Emissions Factor
Fuel Type
Gasoline
Diesel
GHG Emissions Factor
(g CO2-equiv./ gallon of fuel)
9,087
10,097
The CO2-equivalent output can then be calculated from the vehicle fuel economy (FE)
values using the fuel-appropriate factor above and the equation:
CO2_equiv (g/mile) = GHG Emissions Factor/ FE (miles/gal)
2.10.3 Vehicle Performance Criteria
As described earlier, vehicle performance criteria are also an important consideration for
studies investigating CO2 reductions. A number of different criteria are used throughout
the industry and the opinion on the importance of the specific criteria varies between
industry, environmental groups, and government agencies.
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For this study, the following performance criteria were initially proposed; the EPA
intended to maintain roughly equivalent overall performance levels to the base vehicles
and was willing to consider tradeoffs among these performance parameters:
• Wide-open-throttle (WOT) accelerations from rest:
• 0-30MPH time
• 0-60MPH time
• WOT accelerations from a set vehicle speed (representing passing or freeway
merging maneuvers):
• 30 - 50 MPH time
• 50 - 70 MPH time
• Vehicle speed and distance traveled after a three-second WOT acceleration from
rest.
• Grade capability at 70 mph for the Standard Car, Small MPV, Large Car, and
Large MPV
• Grade capability at 60 mph for the Truck at Gross Combined Weight (GCW)
All simulations, apart from the Truck GCW case, were performed at the EPA Equivalent
Test Weight (ETW) for the vehicle as listed in the tables.
Also, grade capability is defined as the steepest grade that the vehicle is capable of
climbing at a given speed and weight, regardless of gear. The results for this metric
report both the grade (%) and gear.
During the course of the study, Ricardo suggested the following additional metrics to
increase the amount of information available:
• Wide-open-throttle (WOT) accelerations from rest:
• 0-10 MPH time
• 0-50 MPH time
• 0-70 MPH time
• Top-gear grade capability (or torque reserve) at 60 mph and 70 mph for all
vehicle classes
• Top-gear grade capability (or torque reserve) at 60 MPH for the Truck at GCW
Again, all simulations, apart from the Truck GCW case, were performed at the EPA
Equivalent Test Weight (ETW) for the vehicle as listed in the tables.
Also, top-gear grade capability is defined as the steepest grade that the vehicle is
capable of climbing at a given speed and weight in top gear only, which is an indication
of torque reserve (the excess torque available from the engine at part-throttle
conditions).
Only the initial performance metrics are included in the tables presented in Sections 1
and 7. The same vehicle technology package, fuel economy, and CO2 data,
accompanied by the complete set of performance results (initial and additional), are
shown in the tables in the Appendix.
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The 0-10 MPH and 0-30 MPH time criteria along with vehicle speed and distance
traveled after 3 seconds are all indicators of vehicle launch. For buyers, a good launch
can be a significant factor distinguishing the performance of one vehicle from another.
It was recognized that certain advanced technologies, in particular DCTs and CVTs,
would necessarily have to sacrifice some of the initial launch (0-10 MPH) at WOT in
order to achieve the fuel economy or CO2 improvements that they can offer. This is due
to the lack of a torque converter and the delay time for initial clutch engagement.
However, under part-throttle conditions, the control of these advanced transmissions has
made the launch performance virtually indistinguishable from an automatic transmission
with a torque converter.
The 0-50 MPH, 0-60 MPH, and 0-70 MPH times are often quoted by magazines as
indicators of vehicle performance.
The 30 - 50 MPH and 50 - 70 MPH acceleration times are indicators of vehicle
performance during freeway merges and overtaking, and are again seen as
representation of performance that is important to car buyers.
The grade capability is another similar series of tests important to buyers that simulate
the ability of the vehicle to maintain a given speed up a specific grade. The top-gear
grade capability results indicate the maximum grade that the vehicle can climb at the
stated speed in top gear (without a downshift). The heavier (GCW) test weight is used
for the truck case to take account of towing needs of this vehicle.
This set of vehicle performance criteria is not an all-inclusive list, but is meant to be a
good coverage of the factors important to vehicle buyers.
2.11 INPUT DATA AND MODELING APPROACH OVERVIEW
Since the intention of this study was to model existing and future vehicle technologies,
not all of the necessary input data were publicly available. Thus, Ricardo obtained
information from other commercial sources where appropriate and extensively used
representative data from its own proprietary databases. Ricardo invests 5 - 7% of its
annual sales revenue in collaborative research with industry partners on future engine,
transmissions and vehicle technology. Hence, as a consultancy, Ricardo is uniquely
placed to provide the required input materials.
All input data was reviewed extensively for completeness and accuracy and then used
as representative inputs to the detailed models created for this study. No vehicle
manufacturers were approached for any input data in order to maintain the complete
independence and objectivity of this work.
Although there are a few software packages available to perform the simulation tasks,
Ricardo chose MSC.EASY5™, a licensed commercially available package that allows
detailed modeling of engines, transmissions, drivelines, vehicle systems (including tires
and aerodynamics), and driver inputs. More in-depth descriptions of the input data and
modeling activities are stated in Section 3 of this report.
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To verify the validity of the models and input data, and to satisfy concerns of whether the
projections for the advanced and future technologies and associated packages would be
reasonable and accurate, the baseline vehicle results were compared with published
data for the identified representative vehicles. The project team determined that there
was no need to "calibrate" the models to match published data more closely since the
initial results were considered to represent the published data with sufficient accuracy,
and all the input values were reviewed and approved as being representative of real-
world findings and built on experience with other similar simulation activities.
2.12 COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Results are presented for the 5 baseline vehicle cases and the agreed technology
packages in Sections 1, 4, and 7 and the Appendix of this document. The data tables list
the outputs for fuel economy and CO2 emissions as well as percentage changes from
the baseline for each on the city and highway cycles and a combined cycle. Vehicle
performance results for the identified metrics are also listed for each package and can
be referenced to the baseline in absolute numbers. Each of the technology packages is
also described in terms of its individual technologies and readiness for production.
This report does not draw any specific conclusions from the data. However, Ricardo
believes that the simulation method and approach used to derive the results are
consistent and correct and that the output information is an accurate projection for the
vehicle, technologies, and combinations stated. Also, because different vehicles exhibit
unique characteristics, care must be taken to properly apply the results of this study to
other vehicles.
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2.13 SECTION 2 REFERENCES
1. INVENTORY OF U.S. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND SINKS: 1990-
2005 (EPA430-R-07-002), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of
Transportation and Air Quality, April 2007
2. EFFECTIVENESS AND IMPACT OF CORPORATE AVERAGE FUEL
ECONOMY (CAFE) STANDARDS, National Research Council, Washington,
DC, National Academy Press, 2002
3. REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM LIGHT-DUTY
MOTOR VEHICLES, Northeast States Center for a Clean Air Future
(NESCCAF), September 2004
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3.0 VEHICLE MODEL
A full physical model was developed for each baseline vehicle using MSC.EASY5™.
This is a commercially available software package that is used widely in the industry for
vehicle system analysis. MSC.EASY5™ enables a complete physical model of the
vehicle. The torque reactions are simulated from the engine, through the transmission to
the wheels. The model reacts to simulated driver inputs to the accelerator and/or brake
pedals. This enables the actual vehicle acceleration to be determined. The model is
divided into a number of subsystem models. Within each subsystem the model
determines key component data such as torque, speeds, and heat rejection, and from
these, algorithms are used to determine the appropriate subsystem efficiencies.
The vehicles were modeled using published information from various sources and
Ricardo proprietary data.
Published vehicle data and [source]:
• Equivalent Test Weight (ETW) [EPA Vehicle Certification Database]
• Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) [Manufacturer website]
• Gross Combined Weight (GCW) [Manufacturer website]
• Road load coefficients [EPA Vehicle Certification Database]
• Vehicle dimensions (length, width, height, wheelbase and track) [Manufacturer
website]
• Tire size [Manufacturer website]
• Engine displacement, rated HP, rated torque and technology level [Manufacturer
website]
• Transmission gear ratios [various websites]
• Final drive ratio [Manufacturer website and EPA Vehicle Certification Database]
Model inputs based on Ricardo proprietary data and experience:
• Transmission hydraulic losses and gear efficiency
• Torque converter efficiency and capacity factor
• Engine, transmission and driveline rotational inertia
• Driveline spin losses
• Transmission shift and torque converter lockup strategy
• Vehicle frontal area (Af) and coefficient of drag (CD)
• Tire rolling resistance
• Vehicle weight distribution and center of gravity
Key subsystem models include engine, engine accessories, transmission, torque
converter, final drive differential, vehicle characteristics, vehicle driver, and 42V stop-
start.
3.1 ENGINE MODEL
The engine model uses torque curves for full-load torque and closed-throttle motoring
torque throughout the entire engine operating speed range. Full-load torque values
were correlated to published power ratings for the baseline vehicle engines. Ricardo
proprietary data was used to generate a map of fuel consumption rates covering the full
range of engine speed and load values. This is used to calculate fuel usage at each
operating point in the simulation. The torque and fuel rates are adapted from Ricardo
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proprietary test data from various engines for each simulation to the engine
specifications required. Idle speed and maximum engine RPM are specified for each
model. Full engine maps were also used to evaluate all advanced engine technologies
(refer to Section 5 for data sources).
Some gasoline and all the diesel technologies use turbochargers. The steady-state
performance of the engine will be different than the engine transient response due to the
time it takes the turbocharger to spin up to its new operating speed. To simulate this
effect, a turbo lag model was used for all the advanced technology packages that
incorporate turbochargers. The lag was based on Ricardo experience and was
dependent on engine size.
3.2 ENGINE MODEL - WARMUP
Fuel consumption during the first 505 seconds of the FTP drive cycle (bag #1) depends
on how quickly the engine warms up, since a cold engine has higher oil viscosity and
hence higher frictional losses. Also combustion can be sub-optimal when the engine is
cold. It is typical in the industry to apply a "cold start factor" for the fuel economy
achieved during bag #1 time of the FTP cycle. This factor is approximately 80% of the
bag #3 fully warm part of the FTP.
For this study, the technology packages represent more efficient powertrains, which
could reject less heat and hence have different engine warmup times compared to the
baseline technologies. Therefore, to improve the accuracy of the predictions, a warmup
model was incorporated to simulate the effects of going from a cold engine starting
condition to a hot engine operating condition.
The engine thermal models are linked into a simplified vehicle cooling circuit model that
accounts for coolant and oil thermal inertias. The warm up model predicts oil and
coolant temperature change and from this determines engine friction change and its
influence on fuel consumption.
Running the model showed approximately a 20% decrease in fuel economy for a cold
engine compared to a hot engine, which correlated well to vehicle dynamometer test
results.
The engine thermal model was sufficiently detailed to account for improvements to warm
up times provided by electric water pumps and intelligent cooling systems as might be
used on advanced vehicles.
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3.3 ENGINE MODEL - CYLINDER DEACTIVATION
A cylinder deactivation model was used to evaluate the effect of running on half of the
available cylinders during light throttle conditions. The remaining cylinders operate at a
higher BMEP thus reducing pumping work and results in a lower total fuel rate. The
model applies a BSFC modifier, based on Ricardo proprietary data, to the fuel rate when
the engine is in deactivation mode. Deactivation was only used when the vehicle
conditions are between certain limits:
1. minimal vehicle speed = 15 mph
2. minimal engine speed = 850 rpm
3. allowed gears: 4-speed transmission = 3rd & 4th, 5-speed transmission = 4th & 5th,
6-speed transmission = 4th, 5th & 6th
4. manifold pressures for deactivate-off and deactivate-on (to avoid on-off hunting).
3.4 ENGINE ACCESSORIES MODEL
Parasitic loads from the alternator were assumed constant over the drive cycles and
were included in the engine model. Alternator efficiency of 55% was assumed for
baseline vehicle simulations and 70% efficiency for the high efficiency alternator (heAlt)
in all of the advanced technology package simulations to represent future alternator
design improvements.
Power steering systems (full electric or electric hydraulic) were modeled as engine
speed dependent and were included in the engine model for each baseline vehicle. The
electric power steering systems assumed no engine parasitic loads on the EPA drive
cycles and acceleration performance cycles, which require no steering input. All
advanced package simulations included the benefit of electric power steering.
The Truck model also includes engine parasitic losses due to the belt-driven engine-
cooling fan. The other vehicles were assumed to have electric radiator fans, with the
load being drive-cycle dependent and added to the vehicle's base electrical load.
3.5 TRANSMISSION MODEL
Efficiencies for each gear ratio were calculated based on an empirical formula derived
from several transmission and final drive gear tests. Different efficiency curves were
mapped for planetary, dual-clutch (DCT with dry and wet clutches) and belt-driven CVT
gearboxes. Hydraulic pumping losses were included in the efficiency calculations.
Transmission efficiencies were calculated to represent the average of the leading edge
for today's industry and not one particular manufacturer's design.
A shift map (upshift and downshift based on engine load and vehicle speed) was
developed for each vehicle/engine/transmission combination using common industry
design practices. A minimum engine speed after upshift of 1250 RPM was considered
for the 14 engines (1200 RPM for V6 and 1150 RPM for V8) with considerations for gear
hunting and WOT shifts at engine redline.
An "aggressive" shift schedule was used with the advanced technology vehicle
packages that allowed the engine to operate at 100-150 RPM lower during some
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portions of the drive cycles. The NVH effect of this lower engine speed was considered
but not quantified.
3.6 TORQUE CONVERTER MODEL
Torque converter characteristics curves for torque ratio and K-factor were generated
using typical industry standards for efficiency. Each vehicle's torque converter
characteristics for torque ratio and K-factor were tailored for the application based on
Ricardo experience. Impeller and turbine rotational inertias are also input to the model.
A lockup clutch model was used with all torque converters and was of sufficient capacity
to prevent clutch slip during all simulation conditions. Lockup was allowed in 3rd and 4th
gears with the 4-speed automatics, 3rd/4th/5th gears with the 5-speed automatics, and
4th/5th/6th gears with the 6-speed automatics. During light throttle conditions a minimum
engine operating speed of 1300 RPM for 14 engines (1200 RPM for V6 and 1000 RPM
for V8) with the converter clutch locked was considered in developing the lock/unlock
maps. A vibration damper or limited clutch slip (30-50 RPM) strategy was not modeled
for the lockup clutch. These devices typically have a minor effect on fuel economy and
manufacturers may choose to adopt these to minimize any driveability impacts of the
torque converter lockup operation.
An "aggressive" torque converter lock/unlock schedule was used with the advanced
technology vehicle packages that allowed the engine to operate at 100-150 RPM lower
during some portions of the drive cycles. The vehicle refinement effect of this lower
engine speed was considered but not quantified.
3.7 FINAL DRIVE DIFFERENTIAL MODEL
Baseline final drive ratios were taken from published information and driveline
efficiencies and spin losses were assumed as typical industry standards. The spin
losses of the 4-wheel-drive Truck front axle and transfer case were included in the model
to simulate the fuel economy and performance of the 4-wheel-drive powertrain operating
in 2-wheel-drive mode (similar to EPA procedure for emissions and fuel economy
certification testing).
3.8 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
Vehicle mass and dimensions for wheelbase and height are from published sources.
Center of gravity and front/rear weight distribution are assumed as typical for the vehicle
class.
Model inputs for Frontal Area (Af) and Coefficient of Drag (CD) were assumed to be
typical of the vehicle class.
The wheel/tire model includes inputs for rolling radius, rotational inertia, slip at peak tire
force, maximum friction coefficient, and tire rolling resistance coefficients.
3.9 DRIVER MODEL
Vehicle simulations for fuel economy were conducted over the EPA FTP75 (city) and
HWFET (highway) drive cycles. The FTP75 cycle consists of three "bags" for a total of
11.041 miles. A ten minute engine-off soak is performed between bags 2 and 3 (after
1372 seconds of testing). A bag 1 correction factor of 80% was applied to the simulated
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"hot" fuel economy result of the baseline vehicles to approximate warm-up conditions of
increased friction and sub-optimal combustion.
The vehicle model is forward facing and has a model for the driver. The driver looks at
the required vehicle speed in the drive cycle and applies the throttle or brake pedal as
needed to meet the required speed. This allows the modeling of the actual vehicle
response to meet the target drive cycle.
The driver model contains the drive cycle time/velocity trace, controls for the throttle and
brake functions and maintains vehicle speed to the desired set point. For WOT
accelerations from zero vehicle velocity, the driver model controls the throttle to ramp-up
the full load engine torque during the first second of the simulation. This more closely
simulates actual vehicle engine/transmission calibrations and engine induction system
lag. The model does not include launch delays that are inherent in the vehicle hardware
and relies on the published engine output values.
3.10 STOP-START MODEL
As the stop-start system has significant complexity it is worth describing the modeling. A
42V starter / alternator can be used to restart the engine after an idle stop condition and
to supply power to the Dual Voltage electrical system. Under normal driving conditions
the starter / alternator functions similarly to the conventional alternator but is sized for
42V operation. When the vehicle is stationary, the engine coolant temperature
determines the idle stop functionality. Below the desired coolant temperature set point,
the idle stop function is disabled to maintain appropriate emissions regulation. Above
the coolant temperature set point, the engine is turned off to decrease fuel consumption.
42 V Stop-Start
Vehicle Speed > 0
or
Desired Vehicle Speed > 0
or
Coolant Temperature < "Engine Warm" Coolant Temperature
Vehicle Speed = 0
and
Desired Vehicle Speed = 0
and
Coolant Temperature >= "Engine Warm" Coolant Temperature
Figure 3-1: Basic Stop-Start Strategy
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The 42V stop-start included the starter/alternator and a DC-DC converter. To power the
12V loads a conversion efficiency of the DC-DC was modeled as a constant 85%. As
higher voltage was available, the stop/start technology also included electric pumps for
engine oil and engine coolant. The model included electrical losses associated with the
motors, conductors and power electronics. The efficiency of the electrical machines,
defined as output power over input power, is shown in Figure 3-2. For a electrical motor
the efficiency is the ratio of the shaft power (output) to electric power (input) and for a
generator the efficiency is the ratio of electric power (output) to shaft power (input).
The starter / alternator was based on an electric motor drive system with a peak power
output of 5kW. It is shown that the energy required to restart the engine is negligible
compared to the total drive cycle energy. On the city drive cycle, the Small MPV
experienced 18 stops, requiring less than 1kJ of total energy to restart the engine. This
represents less than 0.2% of the total energy expended over the drive cycle.
Starter/Alternator Machine & AC Drive Effiency, %
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4500
4000
3500
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i
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Figure 3-2: Starter / Alternator Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency
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The oil pump and water pump hydraulic power requirements are based on typical
restriction curves and design point requirements. The electric pumps are modeled as a
reduction in parasitic losses resulting from decoupling the pump speed from the engine
speed. The operating point of the electric pumps is determined from engine load and
hydraulic power requirements. While a conventional pump power increases
monotonically with speed, the flow rate does not because the pressure is regulated.
Therefore, electric pumps can limit the power consumed at higher engine speeds to
match the flow provided by a conventional pump. Figure 3-3 shows the electric pump
power leveling off above a certain engine speed depending on the engine load.
I
05
o
E
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Oil Pump Power
Conventional Pump
Electric Pump
-X-
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Figure 3-3: Electric Oil Pump Hydraulic Power Equipment
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Electric Oil Pump Machine & AC Drive Effiency, %
JUU
450
400
350
^ 300
i
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Figure 3-4: Electric Oil Pump Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency
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Water Pump Power
500
1500
2500
3500
4500
• Mech. Power -•- Required Power ErW8LR!iid -*-50%Load -*-25%Load
Figure 3-5: Electric Water Pump Hydraulic Power
Electric Water Pump Machine & AC Drive Effiency, %
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450
400
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8- 250
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Figure 3-6: Electric Water Pump Machine & Air Conditioning Drive Efficiency
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4.0 DISCUSSION OF BASELINE VEHICLE CLASS
RESULTS AND COMPARISON WITH COMPARATOR
VEHICLE
The modeling approach described in Section 3 was used in conjunction with input data
compiled from public as well as Ricardo-proprietary sources to generate results for the
representative baselines in each of the five vehicle classes identified by the EPA. The
five vehicles classes and the representative vehicle chosen by EPA are provided below.
Table 4-1: Baseline Vehicles Description and EPA Fuel Economy
Baseline Vehicles
Vehicle Class
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large MPV
Truck
Representative
Vehicle
Toyota Cam ry
Saturn Vue
Chrysler 300
Grand Caravan
Ford F150
Engine
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
2.4L 14 DOHC
4 valve WT
3.5LV6DOHC
4 valve
3.8LV60HV
2 valve
5.4LV8SOHC
3 valve
Trans.
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
5 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
4 spd Auto
Drlvetraln
FWD
FWD
RWD
FWD
4WD
Curb
Weight
(Ib)
3108
3825
3721
4279
5470
ETW
(Ib)
3625
4000
4000
4500
6000
GCW
(Ib)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
14000
bKA
City
FE
(mpg)
26.7
23.8
20.9
19.5
15.5
bKA
Highway
FE
(mpg)
42.2
36.7
34.1
31.9
22.7
bKA
Combined
FE
(mpg)
32
28.3
25.3
23.6
18.1
As a first step in validation of the model, the simulated road load for each baseline
vehicle case was compared to the published EPA road load curve for the representative
comparator vehicle. This data is as follows:
Table 4-2: Maximum Road Load Force Variation
Vehicle Class
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large PMV
Truck
Maximum Road Load Force Variation
(model versus published EPA data)
-0.2%
+0.2%
-0.4%
+1.2%
-2.4%
The following charts document the results of the simulations for the baseline cases as
compared to the identified respective representative vehicles for the 5 classes used in
this study. As mentioned in Section 2 of this report, any discrepancies between the
simulation results and the actual vehicle data were attributed to the use of generic input
data for that vehicle class instead of actual data for a specific vehicle. Specifically, the 0
- 60 MPH times will be affected by the method used to conduct the actual vehicle test as
well as the reasons cited in Section 3.9. The baseline simulation results were required to
represent the vehicle classes and not specific vehicles and formed a consistent basis for
comparing the technology packages.
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FTP City Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and Comparator Vehicle
Actual EPA Fuel Economy Test Results
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vs vs vs vs vs
Toyota Cam ry Saturn Vue ChryslerSOO Dodge Grand Caravan FordF-150
Figure 4-1: FTP City Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle
HWFET Highway Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and Comparator
Vehicle Actual EPA Fuel Economy Test Results
45
| 35 -
I 25
§ 20
ui 15
1 10
"- 5
0
& 36.7 -
Standard Car
vs
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Small MPV
vs
Saturn Vue
Full Size Car
vs
ChryslerSOO
Large MPV
vs
Dodge Grand Caravan
Truck
vs
FordF-150
Figure 4-2: HWFET Highway Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle
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Combined Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and Comparator Vehicle
Actual EPA Fuel Economy Test Results
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Standard Car
vs
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Small MPV
vs
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Full Size Car
vs
ChryslerSOO
Large MPV
vs
Dodge Grand Caravan
Truck
vs
FordF-150
Figure 4-3: Combined Fuel Economy Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle
12
-G- 10
1 8
Vehicle Performance (0-60 mph acceleration) Comparison between Simulation Results and
Comparator Vehicle Published Results*
10.4 Ro2
Q.
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6
4
2
0
Standard Car
vs
Toyota Camry
Small MPV
vs
Saturn Vue
Full Size Car
vs
ChryslerSOO
Large MPV
vs
Dodge Grand Caravan
Truck
vs
FordF-150
* www.consumerreports.org for all except www.autos.yahoo.com for Saturn Vue
Figure 4-4: Vehicle Performance Comparison between Simulation Results and Comparator
Vehicle
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700 -
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279
612
517
402
Standard Car
Small MPV
Full Size Car
Large MPV
Truck
Figure 4-5: CO2 Emissions Level Comparison of Simulation Results for all Baseline Vehicle
Cases
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5.0 INDIVIDUAL TECHNOLOGIES STUDIED
In this section the advanced technologies applied to the engine and the transmission are
discussed. It should be noted that many of these technologies have the potential to
change vehicle weight and therefore further impact vehicle fuel economy and CO2
output. However the weight changes inherent in most of these technologies was
assumed to fall within a band of 125lb as defined by the Engineering Test Weight
classes.
5.1 ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES
5.1.1 Cam Phaser Systems - Variable Valve Timing (VVT)
A cam phaser actuator adjusts the camshaft angular position relative to the cam
sprocket, and therefore, relative to the crankshaft position. The majority of applications
use hydraulically actuated units, powered by engine oil pressure, and managed by a
solenoid that controls the oil pressure supplied to the phaser. The figures below show
the standard vane-type hydraulic cam phaser and an electrically actuated unit, which are
beginning to appear in production. Typical angular adjustment range is 50-60
crankshaft degrees. There are a number of different implementation options:
• DCP (Dual Cam Phaser), where one cam phaser is used on each camshaft,
giving independent control of inlet and exhaust valve timing
• ICP (Inlet Cam Phaser), where one cam phaser is used on the inlet camshaft
only
• CCP (Coordinated Cam Phaser), where one cam phaser is used per engine,
giving equal cam phase adjustment to inlet and exhaust camshafts.
Figure 5-1: Hydraulic vane-type cam phaser
Figure 5-2: Electrically actuated cam phaser
5.1.1.1 Advantages
Compared to fixed valve timing, use of variable cam phasing gives an improvement in
full-load volumetric efficiency, particularly at low speed, resulting in increased torque
output. In turbocharged engines, particularly direct-injection turbocharged engines, use
of variable cam phasing gives improved scavenging at full load, resulting in improved
octane requirement and higher torque.
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At low load, use of variable cam phasing gives a reduction in pumping losses, resulting
in improved low-load fuel consumption. The economy benefit depends on the residual
tolerance of the combustion system. Additional benefits are seen at idle, where low
valve overlap can be used to give improved combustion stability.
5.1.1.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
The only disadvantage of this technology is that there may be a need to increase the
engine oil pump capacity.
Hydraulically actuated cam phasers are regarded as a mature technology with minimal
technical risk. Electrically actuated cam phasers are relatively new, but are now in
volume production with Toyota, which suggests that any technical issues have been
resolved.
To deliver the full potential benefits, the phaser system must be optimized for fast
transient response (> 100 degrees crank angle per second).
5.1.1.3 Source of Engine Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) Maps
Since cam phasers are becoming widely used in production, data was readily available
from Ricardo benchmark data.
5.1.2 Variable Valve Lift Systems
5.1.2.1 Continuously Variable Valve Lift (CWL)
In CWL systems, maximum valve lift is varied by means of a mechanical linkage, driven
by an actuator controlled by the engine Electronic Control Unit (ECU). Cam period and
phasing vary as the maximum lift is changed, with the relation depending on the
geometry of the mechanical system. CWL is applied in addition to cam phase control.
The BMW "Valvetronic" system, as shown in the figure below, is the best known
production CWL system, giving a lift range of 0.25-9.4 mm. This allows the engine to
be completely valve-throttled.
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Figure 5-3: BMW "Valvetronic" continuously variable inlet valve lift system and valve lift
profiles available with it
5.1.2.2 Discrete Variable Valve Lift (DWL)
DVVL systems allow the selection between 2 or 3 separate cam profiles by means of a
hydraulically actuated mechanical system. DVVL is normally applied together with cam
phase control. One example is the INA system for direct-attack valvetrains, as shown.
DVVL is also known as Cam Profile Switching (CPS).
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Figure 5-4: INA DWL system for direct-attack valvetrains
5.1.2.3 Advantages Compared to CAM Phasers Only
Variable valve lift gives a further reduction in pumping losses compared to what can be
obtained with cam phase control only, with CVVL giving greater benefit than DWL.
There may also be a small reduction in valvetrain friction when operating at low valve lift.
This results in improved low-load fuel consumption for cam phase control with variable
valve lift compared to cam phase control only. Most of the fuel economy benefit is
achieved with variable valve lift on the inlet valves only.
In terms of fuel economy benefit versus system cost, variable lift systems on the inlet
valves only are seen as a cost-effective technology when applied in addition to cam
phase control.
5.1.2.4 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
In Ricardo's experience, it is more difficult to achieve good cylinder-to-cylinder airflow
balance at low load with a CVVL valve-throttled engine due to the sensitivity of airflow to
small differences in lift caused by production component tolerances. BMW has reported
mixture quality issues with CVVL and port fuel injection, requiring a compromise on
pumping work reduction to ensure good mixture quality. With CVVL, a small amount of
throttling is necessary to maintain brake servo operation, unless a separate vacuum
pump is used. BMW maintains 50 mbar inlet manifold depression on its "Valvetronic"
engines to allow the brake servo to function.
Tumble air motion generated by the inlet port is not available in the cylinder at low valve
lift, which has an effect on combustion characteristics. The high gas velocities at the
valve seat generate high turbulence levels, but most of this has decayed by the time of
ignition.
DWL is a mature technology with low technical risk.
CVVL system designs are unique to each OEM and it is therefore not possible to
generalize about technical risk. BMW has the most production experience and has sold
port injection "Valvetronic" engines since 2001. The most recent introduction of
"Valvetronic" is on the BMW/PSA 1.6-liter, 4-cylinder, port injection "Prince" engine.
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With CVVL systems, engine transient response will be limited by rate of change of
maximum valve lift. 100 ms response time from minimum to maximum lift is available
from the BMW system.
5.1.2.5 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
5.1.2.5.1 CWL
The CVVL BSFC benefit map was based on measured test bed data from a Ricardo
research engine and BMW published data for its "Valvetronic" engine [1-4]. The
specification of the research engine is as follows:
• European 4 cylinder
• 4 valves per cylinder
• Bore of 84mm
• Stroke of 90mm
• Compression Ratio of 10.5 :1
• Port fuel injection
• Dual variable cam phasers with 60 degree crank angle range
• The engine was fitted with a new cylinder head designed and manufactured by
Ricardo, incorporating the BMW Valvetronic' mechanical variable lift and period
system for both intake and exhaust valves.
5.1.2.5.2 DWL
The DWL BSFC benefit map is based on Ricardo test data from a North American V6,
using alternative camshafts to simulate the benefit of a cam profile switching system.
5.1.3 Cylinder Deactivation
Cylinder deactivation is a fuel economy technology that is in use today in the North
American market. It can be found on several vehicles under various trade names such
as Multiple Displacement System (MDS) and Active Fuel Management (AFM). Cylinder
deactivation has to date been applied to V6, V8, and V12 engines.
The concept of cylinder deactivation targets reducing pumping losses by switching off, or
deactivating, half of the engine cylinders. By deactivating half the cylinders, the
remaining active cylinders are operating at twice the load that the engine would normally
operate at if all cylinders were active. By definition therefore, those active cylinders have
the throttle further open, thereby reducing the pump losses and improving fuel
consumption.
Mitsubishi Motor Corporation introduced an early example of cylinder deactivation with
its MIVEC system applied to a four-cylinder engine. This engine had a short-lived
production run but demonstrated its feasibility. In the North American market, a
significant percentage of the engines in production were based on a pushrod valvetrain.
The simplicity of the architecture of pushrod valvetrains lends itself to cylinder
deactivation, and thus, significant effort was directed to this technology on both V8 and
V6 pushrod engines. General Motors Corporation and Chrysler Corporation have
developed systems for their respective engine families. Applying cylinder deactivation to
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overhead camshaft engines is also possible but requires a more complex solution.
Mercedes-Benz successfully applied this technology to its V8 and V12 engines.
Effective cylinder deactivation requires accurately timed disablement and re-enablement
of both the intake and exhaust valves. In the case of a pushrod valvetrain, a revised
hydraulic lifter is used which incorporates an oil-pressure-controlled locking pin. The pin
can be either locked or unlocked to allow the pushrod to operate or not operate the
valve. Below is an example of the layout for a pushrod valvetrain.
Figure 5-5: Pushrod Valvetrain
Overhead camshaft engines generally have greater challenges in deactivating valves,
primarily due to the available package space and generally a four-valve-per-cylinder
layout. Typically, there are two types of valve train: Type 1 a direct-acting bucket tappet,
which is either hydraulically or mechanically lashed; Type 2 is a roller finger follower with
a static hydraulic lash adjuster. In the case of a Type 1 configuration, a hydraulic tappet
can allow "lost motion" by utilizing an oil-controlled locking pin, an example of which is
shown below.
Figure 5-6: Oil-Controlled Locking Pin
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Type 2 valvetrains can utilize two approaches. One has a collapsing rocker, where lost
motion can be achieved by allowing the roller to move relative to the follower. This
approach still uses a conventional lash adjuster. The other approach uses a
conventional roller follower and has a lost motion lash adjuster similar to that used on
the pushrod valvetrain layout. The figure below shows examples of a lost-motion Type 2
roller finger follower:
Single oil feed, pressureless unlocked
Inner arm
(with roller for low valve Lift)
^^L
,^
\ •—^_
b~~~~~" f^ittn
Locking pin
Twin lost-motion spring
Outer arm
(with sliding pads for high valve lift)
Pivot axle outer arm
Figure 5-7: Symmetrical Roller Finger Follower (SRFF)
In the case of the Mercedes engine, the valvetrain was a 3-valve configuration.
Therefore, a more complex solution was required, as shown below.
disengaged position
no valve actuation
Figure 5-8: Mercedes 3-valve Configuration Follower
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The sequencing of cylinder deactivation is important. Firstly, when deactivating half the
number of cylinders, this has to be done in such a manner that an even firing interval is
maintained. So in the case of a V8, the firing interval would increase from 90° to 180°.
Depending on the firing order and configuration selected, either one bank of an engine
will be deactivated (V6) or selected cylinders on both banks (V8). The control of the
deactivation is by solenoid valves akin to those found on transmissions. The number of
valves used is an area where extensive development has occurred in an attempt to
minimize the total but still achieve satisfactory control. Four control valves are typical on
a pushrod engine, whilst four per cylinder head is typical for an overhead cam engine.
5.1.3.1 Advantages
Cylinder deactivation control strategy is relatively simple. It relies on setting a maximum
and minimum manifold absolute pressure with which it will deactivate the cylinders.
There is potentially a significant fuel saving due to the reduced pumping losses as part
load. The same engine displacement and maximum horsepower can be maintained.
5.1.3.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
Vehicle integration has been a challenge for cylinder deactivation. Issues with NVH
dominate the list of implementation issues. Active engine mounts are needed to run
deactivated at idle. Noise quality from both intake and exhaust has been problematic,
and in some cases, had lead to active exhaust systems with an ECU-controlled valve.
Deactivation is typically used in the highest two gears only. Other factors affecting real-
world fuel consumption include vehicle power-to-weight ratio, drag coefficient, and
available gear ratios. In many cases, it is difficult to maintain the vehicle in deactivated
mode at 70 mph, which can lead to customer dissatisfaction with fuel consumption. As
engine specific rating improves, the potential fuel consumption benefit reduces, or stated
another way, as vehicle specific power rating improves, the potential fuel consumption
benefit increases.
5.1.3.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
Production cylinder deactivation systems exist and Ricardo has benchmark data that can
be appropriately scaled to various engine applications.
5.1.4 Gasoline Direct Injection
In gasoline direct-injection engines, fuel is injected into the cylinder rather than the inlet
manifold or inlet port. Some changes to engine architecture are required compared to a
port fuel injection engine. A typical homogeneous stoichiometric Direct Injection (Dl)
layout is shown below.
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Figure 5-9: Typical homogeneous stoichiometric Dl layout [5]
The fuel injection system comprises an electrically-driven low-pressure fuel pump, which
feeds a high-pressure mechanical pump, working at up to 200 bar fuel pressure. A
common fuel rail supplies the injectors, which produce a highly atomized spray with a
Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) of 15-20 microns, which compares to around 50 microns
for a port injector. Two operating strategy options are used in Dl gasoline engines,
characterized by the mixture preparation strategy.
1. Homogenous, where fuel is injected during the intake stroke with a single
injection. The aim is to produce a homogeneous charge by the time of ignition.
In this mode, a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio can be used and the exhaust
aftertreatment system can be a relatively low-cost conventional three-way
catalyst.
2. Stratified, where fuel is injected late in the compression stroke with a single or
multiple injections. The aim is to produce an overall lean stratified mixture, with a
rich area in the region of the spark plug to enable stable ignition. Multiple
injections can be used per cycle to control the degree of stratification. Use of
lean mixtures significantly improves efficiency by reducing pumping work, but
requires a high-cost lean NOx trap in the exhaust aftertreatment system.
In this study, only homogeneous stoichiometric systems were considered, at the request
of the EPA.
5.1.4.1 Advantages of Homogeneous Stoichiometric Dl
A compression ratio up to 1.5:1 higher than for a port-injected engine can be used for
the same fuel quality due to charge cooling [6]. As a result of the higher compression
ratio, part-load efficiency and full-load torque are improved.
Volumetric efficiency is improved by up to 2%, again due to charge cooling [6], which
improves full-load torque.
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Dl increases turbulence in the charge as a result of the energy in the spray itself [7].
This helps to maintain burn rate with high residual levels and thereby improves economy
in engines with cam phasers.
In boosted engines, Dl allows improved scavenging of the cylinder without any direct
charge loss. This reduces residuals and charge temperature, allowing a higher
compression ratio to be used for a given fuel quality.
A degree of charge stratification can be used to improve combustion stability under the
ignition timing strategy employed for catalyst heating after a cold start.
As a result of a higher compression ratio and improved residual tolerance, drive cycle
fuel consumption is improved by 2-3%.
Also, as a result of a higher compression ratio and improved volumetric efficiency,
torque is improved by around 5% in naturally aspirated engines.
5.1.4.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks of Homogeneous
Stoichiometric Dl
The only disadvantage is the price of the Dl fuel system. However, for an engine that
already has dual cam phasers, Dl represents a reasonably cost-effective next step in
technology implementation.
Homogeneous, Stoichiometric Dl systems are regarded as a mature technology with
minimal technical risk. To deliver the full potential benefits, a variable cam phasing
system is required.
5.1.4.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
The Stoichiometric Dl BSFC benefit and torque benefit were based on Ricardo data from
Port Fuel Injection (PFI) to Dl conversion experience. The values agreed with published
data [8].
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5.1.5 Turbocharged/Downsized Gasoline Engine
Forced induction in the form of turbocharging and supercharging have been used on
internal combustion engines for many years. Their traditional role has been one of
providing enhance performance for high-end or sports car applications.
With the drive for improved fuel economy, turbocharged engines have been viewed in a
different role, one of a fuel economy technology. There are two main reasons for this.
Engine friction torque is proportional to engine displacement, but when comparing
Friction Mean Effective Pressure (FMEP)—friction torque normalized by displacement—
there is very little difference between the full-size engine and the boosted downsized
engine, despite the higher cylinder pressure associated with higher Brake Mean
Effective Pressure (BMEP). The net result is a natural friction advantage with a boosted
down-sized engine. The second benefit is related to reduced pump losses (Pumping
Mean Effective Pressure—PMEP). A turbocharged engine runs at significantly higher
BMEP levels than a naturally aspirated engine. The upper limit of BMEP levels that can
be expected from a naturally aspirated engine is ~ 13.5 bar, whereas a turbocharged
engine can produce BMEP levels in excess of 20 bar. Current technology gasoline
engines use a throttle to regulate load, but this causes pumping losses. Therefore, by
using a small-displacement engine with a turbocharger, the smaller engine works harder
(higher in-cylinder load) and this results in lower pumping losses as the throttle has to be
further open. The figure below shows the benefit in BSFC achieved by the Bosch-
Ricardo GDI V6 engine (Dl Boost) compared to a V8 engine, specifically for a Cadillac
CTS-V application [9].
550
500
450
400
350
(0
m
300
250
200
-4-DI BOOST
-»-V8
0.0
50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0
Torque (Nm)
250.0
300.0
Figure 5-10: BSFC benefit achieved by Bosch-Ricardo GDI V6 Engine Compared to V8
Engine
There is no question that in most cases a boosted downsized engine can replace a
conventional naturally aspirated engine and achieve equivalent power and torque.
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2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Engine Disp (I)
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Figure 5-11: Comparison of Naturally Aspirated and Turbocharged Downsized Engines
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The challenges associated with acceptance of a downsized boosted engine are:
• Achievement of "seamless" power delivery compared to the naturally aspirated
engine (no perceptible turbo lag)
• Emissions performance—the addition of a turbocharger causes additional
difficulty with catalyst light-off due to the thermal inertia of the turbo itself
• Additional base engine cost
• Additional vehicle integration costs
The case for using downsized boosted engines has greatly improved with the wider
introduction of direct-injection gasoline engines. When combined with cam phasing, a
viable technology package is readily available.
Structural changes to the base engine are focused on increasing its structural capability
to tolerate higher cylinder pressures. It is reasonable to expect that the maximum
cylinder pressure would increase by 25-30% over those typical in a naturally aspirated
engine. Higher thermal loads accompany higher pressures, and these must also be
considered.
5.1.5.1 Advantages
The downsized, boosted engine can deliver similar torque and power to the larger
displacement engine it replaces. This reduces pumping and frictional losses and
generates a noticeable improvement in fuel consumption.
5.1.5.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
One potential disadvantage is that car buyers have become accustomed to large-
displacement engines being high power. Hence, the acceptability of smaller-
displacement engines needs to be tested.
With a turbocharged engine there are a number of trade-offs to be considered. If the
engine is to be biased to a highly rated variant then it is reasonable to expect that the
engine will be a premium recommended product rather than regular fuel. In optimizing
the engine, decisions as to the compression ratio and specific rating to be achieved are
influenced by the fuel grade. For example, regular fuel can be used if the specific rating
chosen is lower and the compression ratio is not raised significantly. While some fuel
economy benefit may be lost if regular fuel is used, significant benefits from downsizing
can still be realized.
If an engine rating of say 100 bhp/L is targeted, it is reasonable to assume that a regular
fuel variant can be developed with a lower compression ratio, for example, 9.5:1 to
10.0:1 and still be a balanced overall product. The engine with the same rating could use
10.5:1 if it were a premium fuel engine. If a higher specific rating were selected, for
example greater than 125 bhp/L then it is likely that the compression ratio would be 9.5:1
to 10.0:1 on premium fuel to avoid excessive engine knock. While some compression
ratio has been lost, the engine's performance has increased and the effect of downsizing
has been improved, offsetting the loss of compression ratio. Trade offs as to what
displacement the engine should be and what rating it should target with which
recommended fuel are important to study during the planning stage.
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A downsized boosted engine with stoichiometric direct injection presents minimal
technical risk. Although, there have been limited demonstrations of this technology
achieving SULEV emission levels.
5.1.5.3 Source of Engine BSFC
Ricardo has experience with a number of downsized, boosted engines. Two particular
data sets were used for this study, one for a 2.4L 14 engine and the other for a 3.6L V6.
5.1.6 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)
HCCI is also known as Controlled Auto Ignition (CAI) and "Active Radical" combustion.
In spark ignition, combustion initiates at the plug at a time controlled by the spark and a
flame propagates through the charge. HCCI combustion initiates by auto-ignition at
multiple sites within the combustion chamber at a time controlled by the charge
temperature, pressure, and composition. Excessive rates of heat release are controlled
by using high levels of internal EGR or lean mixtures.
The most practical approach to obtaining HCCI combustion in automotive gasoline
engines is to use high levels of internal EGR (typically 40-70%) to both raise charge
temperature and control heat release rate. A large negative valve overlap is used, often
called "recompression strategy." Typical cylinder pressure diagrams for recompression
HCCI are provided in Figure 5-12. Due to gas exchange, pressure rise rate and
compression temperature constraints, HCCI combustion is only possible in a relatively
small speed and load range as depicted in Figure 5-13. The upper load limit can be
extended by boosting.
Practical implementation requires short valve-opening periods and control of inlet and
exhaust cam phasing. The three main valvetrain options are:
• Cam profile switching and dual cam phasers
• Mechanical variable lift and period system for both intake and exhaust valves and
dual cam phasers. The BMW "Valvetronic" valvetrain is a good example [11-13]
• Camless valvetrain
Crank Angle [deg]
Figure 5-12: Cylinder pressure during HCCI combustion showing low cyclic irregularity
and exhaust recompression [10]
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Q_ b
UJ
1 4
2
HCC
spark
ignition zone
zone
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Engine Speed [rev/min]
6000
Figure 5-13: Typical speed / load envelope where HCCI combustion can be obtained using
mechanical valvetrain
5.1.6.1 Advantages
To determine the benefits of HCCI combustion compared to spark-ignition combustion, it
is important to compare it with a baseline spark-ignition engine with the necessary
valvetrain technology to enable HCCI. On this basis, the benefits of HCCI combustion
are:
• An overall gain in drive cycle fuel consumption
• A 20-30% reduction in drive cycle engine-out NOx emissions
• No engine-out HC emissions penalty
• A low level of cyclic combustion irregularity
• Compatibility with lambda 1 operation, enabling three-way catalyst exhaust
aftertreatment to be used
• Compatibility with port or direct fuel injection
• Low system cost for implementation in an engine that already has a suitable
valvetrain. (This statement assumes that a cylinder pressure or some other
direct combustion sensor is not required to give heat release feedback to the
engine management system.)
5.1.6.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
One disadvantage of HCCI combustion is that it can only be implemented in engines
with variable valvetrains incorporating fast-response variable cam phasing and variable
cam profiles. It is unlikely that the benefits of HCCI combustion alone would justify the
cost of the necessary valvetrain. However, in engines where the necessary valvetrain
has already been justified by the spark-ignition benefits, this disadvantage is not an
issue.
Rates of pressure rise with HCCI combustion can be higher than for spark-ignition
combustion, which may have implications for engine refinement.
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Due to the high compression temperatures required to initiate HCCI combustion, HCCI
mode would not be available in a cold engine, which limits the fuel consumption benefit
in both legislated drive cycles and short journeys in the real world.
Control disadvantages include issues associated with calibration discontinuities between
spark-ignition and HCCI combustion, requiring development of sophisticated strategies
for managing the transition. Direct-injection with multiple injections per cycle may be
required for control of combustion phasing and to manage the spark-ignition/HCCI
transition. Also, HCCI may require cylinder pressure or other direct combustion sensor
to give heat release feedback to the engine management system.
Small end bearing design may need to be reviewed for HCCI engines due to the lack of
inertia relief in HCCI mode and the effect on lubrication.
HCCI implementation is thought to be 5-10 years away from high-volume production.
5.1.6.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
The HCCI BSFC benefit map was based on measured testbed data from a multi-cylinder
Ricardo research engine. The engine was fitted with a new cylinder head designed and
manufactured by Ricardo, incorporating the BMW Valvetronic' mechanical variable lift
and period system for both intake and exhaust valves [11-13]. Figures 5-14 through 5-
16 below show a section through the valvetrain and a view of the assembled cylinder
head along with the range of valve lift profiles available. The work is reported in
reference [10] and the engine specification was as follows:
• 4 cylinder
• Bore of 84mm
• Stroke of 90mm
• Compression Ratio of 10.5 :1
• Port fuel injection
• Dual variable cam phasers with 60 degree crank angle range
• Variable lift and period system for both intake and exhaust valves
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Figure 5-14: Ricardo TMVL (Twin Mechanical Variable Lift) HCCI research cylinder head
valvetrain with dual variable valve lift and period and dual variable cam phasing
Figure 5-15: Alternative valve lift profiles with the BMW 'Valvetronic' system
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Figure 5-16: Ricardo TMVL (Twin Mechanical Variable Lift) HCCI research cylinder head
assembly
5.1.7 Camless Valvetrain
The term "camless" is used to describe a valve actuation system where valve motion is
controlled by an electrohydraulic [15-16] or an electromagnetic actuator [14], with one
actuator per valve or pair of valves. Feedback position control is provided to enable
closed-loop control of the lift profile. An example of an electromagnetic actuator
produced by Valeo is shown below [13]. The system operates on a 12V power supply.
Also below is an example of an electrohydraulic actuator from Lotus [15]. Hydraulic fluid
pressure in the electrohydraulic systems is up to 200 bar, provided by an engine-driven
pump. Maximum valve velocity is typically 5 m/s, and maximum valve lift up to 15 mm
can be achieved.
There are no production engines with camless valvetrains, although a number of
research engines have been produced. A number of issues will need to be resolved
before production applications can be considered:
• Power consumption
• Providing sufficient opening force for exhaust valves, especially in the case of
turbocharged engines
• Control issues, such as cycle-to-cycle repeatability of lift (target 1%) and timing
(target 1 degree crankshaft angle) and the ability to control valve-seating velocity
("soft landing")
• Cost
• Negative impact on NVH
• Failure modes and effects (FMEA)
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Lower coil
Spring
retainer
Upper coil
Armature
Springs
Figure 5-17: Valeo electromagnetic camless actuator [14]
Hydraulic Manifold
and
Actuator Cylinder
Displacement
Transducer
Engine Valve
Actuator Piston
Assembly
EHSV
Figure 5-18: Lotus "AVT" Electrohydraulic camless actuator [15]
5.1.7.1 Advantages Compared to CAM Phasers Only
The full flexibility in valve lift profiles and timing provided by a camless valvetrain
achieves a reduction in pumping losses at low load above that available from cam
phasers and CVVL combined. This results in improved low-load fuel consumption
compared to DCP + CVVL.
The camless valvetrain enables the engine to achieve HCCI combustion by exhaust gas
recompression. The spark ignition to HCCI transition requires a switch to reduced inlet
and exhaust cam periods compared to spark ignition operation with revised phasing.
Simple or complex cylinder deactivation strategies can be achieved by use of the
camless system to selectively deactivate valves as required.
A timing drive is not required for camless engines.
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5.1.7.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
Power consumption of camless systems can be excessive compared to purely
mechanical camshafts, which can negate the potential gains in fuel consumption.
In Ricardo's experience, it is more difficult to achieve good cylinder-to-cylinder airflow
balance at low load with a valve-throttled engine due to the sensitivity of airflow to small
differences in lift caused by production component tolerances.
There is a possibility of mixture quality issues with valve-throttling and port fuel injection,
requiring a compromise on pumping work reduction to ensure good mixture quality.
A separate vacuum pump will be necessary to maintain brake servo operation, unless a
small amount of engine throttling is maintained.
In a valve-throttled engine, tumble air motion generated by the inlet port is not available
in the cylinder at low valve lift, which has an effect on combustion characteristics. The
high gas velocities at the valve seat generate high turbulence levels, but most of this has
decayed by the time of ignition.
Camless valvetrain technologies are unproven in production and therefore carry a high
technical risk, with the issues listed above still to be fully resolved.
5.1.7.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
The camless valvetrain BSFC benefit map was based on published data for a 4-cylinder
research engine with the Bosch EHVS electrohydraulic valvetrain [16,17]. The report
states that this data is from a fully dressed 4-cylinder engine, including all mechanical
and hydraulic losses.
5.1.8 Diesel Engine
Advanced diesel technologies offer fuel economy benefits over conventional gasoline
technology under all conditions without compromising performance. Benefits include
robust fuel economy and low CO2 under all operating conditions, improved performance
and towing, and high torque at low engine speed giving a "fun-to-drive" characteristic.
Diesel engines gain efficiency through high compression ratios and significantly reduced
throttling or pumping losses. Diesels are turbocharged to recover exhaust heat and
require a high-pressure fuel injection system to enable low-emission combustion to
occur. The diesel engine requires robust construction of the cylinder head, block, and
piston so that it can withstand the high mechanical loads.
5.1.8.1 Advantages
Diesel engines also have an advantage in that their torque curve shape provides
improved vehicle grade capability and torque reserve over gasoline engines. With
optimized transmission matching, this enables efficiency gains by allowing the
transmission to operate in higher gears for a longer period over the same drive cycle.
There are also potential advantages for towing or when a vehicle operates in heavily
loaded conditions.
5.1.8.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
The US requires significantly lower NOx emissions than Europe. This is a challenge for
lean combustion technologies such as diesel engines. The US emissions levels can be
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achieved, but can require significant complexity in the aftertreatment systems. The
emission control also requires novel air and exhaust flow management, multiple
turbochargers, and new catalyst types.
5.1.8.3 Source of Engine BSFC Maps
As the diesel engine and emission solution is still under development for the US, it is
worth describing in more detail the approach taken for the diesel engine data contained
in this report.
5.1.8.4 2L Diesel Engine
This engine was assumed to be an inline 4-cylinder 2-liter with 4 valves per cylinder and
dual overhead camshafts. The engine calibration maps were modified from a Euro4
baseline to be compatible with U.S. emissions cycles. The engine layout is shown by
the following figure, with the description of components immediately following.
Figure 5-19: Small MPV Engine Layout
5.1.8.4.1 Gas Handling System
Boosting was through a single-stage variable-nozzle turbocharger (VNT) with air-to-air
charge-air cooling. High levels of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) were facilitated
through single-stage EGR cooling. The EGR system included a cooler bypass to aid in
cold start, light load emissions, and transient operation. This configuration was expected
to require an EGR Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) to mitigate fouling issues in the EGR
and intake systems.
5.1.8.4.2 Combustion System
The geometric compression ratio for the map used was 17.5:1. The fuel system was a
High-Pressure Common Rail (HPCR) with 1800 bar solenoid injection. Glow plugs were
used to aid in cold start, with one or more having cylinder-pressure-sensing capability for
adaptation to fuel cetane variations. For 2010-2015, advanced diesel technology will be
required in order to achieve Tier 2 Bin 5 emission levels without compromising fuel
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economy. This includes lower geometric compression ratio, 2000+ bar piezo injection
capable of up to 5 close-coupled injections per cycle, and low-temperature combustion
concepts like Partially Pre-mixed Compression Ignition (PCCI) and fully pre-mixed or
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI).
5.1.8.4.3 Aftertreatment
Aftertreatment included a DOC, Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), and a Lean NOx Trap
(LNT). Simulation using the MSC.EASY5™ results and the specific engine-out NOx
map indicate that engine-out NOx will have to be reduced by -65-70% over the FTP
cycle to meet Tier 2 Bin 5 tailpipe emissions. This level of NOx reduction is consistent
with expected LNT technology available in 2010-2015 timeframe without the
implementation of PCCI/HCCI combustion. As stated above, these low temperature
combustion concepts enable the attainment of emissions targets without as much
aftertreatment penalty.
5.1.8.5 2.8L Diesel Engine
This engine featured dual or single overhead cam(s). Engine maps were developed
from the 2L engine previously described. This application is more likely compatible with
a compact V6 architecture. The engine layout is shown in the following figure with, the
description of components immediately afterwards.
EGR Cooler
O O O
Compressor
Figure 5-20: Large Car Engine Layout.
5.1.8.5.1 Gas Handling System
Boosting was through a single-stage variable-nozzle turbocharger (VNT) with air-to-air
charge-air cooling. Two-stage boosting may be required in practice. High levels of
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) were facilitated through a single-stage EGR cooler.
The EGR system included cooler-bypass capability to aid in cold start, light-load
emissions, and transient operation. The engine was expected to require EGR DOC to
mitigate fouling issues in the EGR and intake systems.
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5.1.8.5.2 Combustion System
The geometric compression ratio for the map used was 17.5:1. The fuel system was
HPCR with 1800 bar solenoid injection. Glow plugs were used to aid in cold start with
one or more having cylinder pressure-sensing capability for adaptation to fuel cetane
variations. For 2010-2015, advanced diesel technology will be required in order to
maintain T2B5 emission levels without compromising fuel economy. This includes lower
geometric compression ratio, 2000+ bar piezo injection capable of up to 5 close-coupled
injections per cycle, and low-temperature combustion concepts like PCCI and HCCI.
5.1.8.5.3 Aftertreatment
Aftertreatment included DOC, DPF, and an LNT. Simulation using the MSC.EASY5™
results and the specific engine-out NOx map indicate that engine-out NOx will have to be
reduced by -75-80% over the FTP cycle to meet Tier2 Bin5 tailpipe emissions.
Development is ongoing to demonstrate the robustness of such a high conversion
efficiency using LNT Technology. Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) or LNT are both
options depending on technical risk. For this study, LNT was selected.
5.1.8.6 4.8L Diesel Engine
The Truck diesel engine configuration was assumed to be a 4.8L V6 with a cam-in-block,
or pushrod, valvetrain. However, an overhead cam or cams may also be used. The
engine maps are based on 2010 emissions levels for a 7000-pound ETW vehicle. The
engine layout is shown in the following figure, with description of components
immediately following.
Figure 5-21: Truck Engine Layout
5.1.8.6.1 Gas Handling System
Boosting is through a two-stage series-sequential turbo charging system. The low-
pressure turbine is fixed geometry with a wastegate. The high-pressure turbine is a
VNT. High levels of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) were facilitated through a single-
stage EGR cooler. For 2010-2015, it is expected that advanced EGR cooling will be
required. This will likely include increased cooling capacity, EGR DOC for fouling
mitigation, and EGR bypass for reasons previously described.
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5.1.8.6.2 Combustion System
The geometric compression ratio was 16:1. The fuel system was HPCR with 1800+ bar
solenoid injection. Glow plugs were used to aid in cold start, with one or more having
cylinder pressure sensing capability for adaptation to fuel cetane variations. An intake
air heater was also required for cold start. For 2010-2015, advanced diesel technology
will be required in order to maintain T2B5 emission levels without compromising fuel
economy. This includes lower geometric compression ratio, 2000+ bar piezo injection
capable of up to 5 close-coupled injections per cycle, and low-temperature combustion
concepts like PCCI and HCCI.
5.1.8.6.3 Aftertreatment
Aftertreatment included DOC, DPF, and urea SCR. Simulation using the MSC.EASY5™
results and the specific engine-out NOx map indicate that engine-out NOx will have to be
reduced by -75-80% over the FTP cycle to meet Tier2 Bin5 tailpipe emissions.
5.1.8.7 Diesel Aftertreatment Fuel Economy Impact
For the diesel engines, there are two main contributors to the fuel consumption penalty
from the emissions control systems. The first is the diesel particulate filter (DPF). Here,
the main penalty of approximately 2% comes from supplying extra fuel to raise the DPF
inlet temperature to 550°C or higher. The 550°C regeneration temperature is to facilitate
active regeneration, whereby extra hydrocarbons are used to trigger a regeneration
event. The fuel may be burned in the engine to raise the engine-out temperature, but is
more typically catalytically combusted in the exhaust system to raise the temperature
downstream of the turbine. The DPF system consumes the most fuel when the vehicle
has been operating at low loads with many transients and generating the most soot to be
cleaned out of the DPF per operating hour. If the exhaust gas is hot enough, the DPF
needs no additional fuel to stay cleared of soot.
The second part of the fuel consumption penalty comes from the device used to remove
nitrogen oxides (NOx) from the exhaust gas. For smaller engines and vehicles, the
typical device is the lean NOx trap (LNT), also known as a NOx adsorber catalyst. Here,
diesel fuel is used to release NOx from the trapping compound and then to convert the
NOx to nitrogen gas. The regeneration penalty averages out to approximately 5% on the
city cycle and 3% on the highway cycle.
An alternative, used on larger passenger cars and in use on heavy-duty engines, is the
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system. The SCR system uses urea to generate
ammonia; the ammonia then reacts with the NOx to form nitrogen gas and water. There
is a fuel economy penalty associated with warming up the urea-SCR system to effective
operating temperatures. This is approximately 5% on the city cycle but none on the
highway cycle due to the fact that it is performed with a warm start.
For either NOx-control mechanism, the systems consume the most fuel or urea when
the engine is at sustained high loads, where the engine-out NOx levels are typically
highest. Therefore, an account has been made of the penalty for urban driving to reflect
a combination of the DPF and NOx control system fuel consumption penalties. For
highway driving, an estimate was made of the fuel consumption penalty, which comes
primarily from the NOx control system.
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5.1.9 Stop-Start
Stop-Start technology, in combination with efficient electrical accessories, has the
potential to improve fuel economy over a wide range of vehicles. Due to the high
starting torques for V6 and V8 engines, a 42V starting system is needed for US
applications. The advantages and disadvantages of stop-start vary depending on the
control strategy implementation and the vehicle drive cycle.
The electrical system architecture is replaced with a Dual Voltage (42V/14V) system.
This is driven by a crankshaft-mounted starter/alternator and bi-directional AC drive,
which combines the conventional starter and alternator into one electronically controlled
unit. The starter/alternator can be belt driven, like the conventional alternator, or a
crankshaft-mounted version on the rear face of the engine, which was the case
modelled. As the engine starting loads are large at very cold ambient temperatures, it is
usual to retain the conventional starter motor. Hence the starter/alternator is only used
for starting when the ambient temperature has reached a pre-determined level. The bi-
directional AC drive converts battery power from DC to AC to start the engine (inverter).
Once the engine is running, the bi-directional AC drive converts AC power from the
electric machine to DC power to supply the 42V bus (rectifier). Electric accessories such
as water pumps and power steering pumps can also be driven electrically at either 42V
or 12V. A DC-DC converter is used to provide power to the 12V circuits from the 42V
starter/alternator. It is felt that the market will not support complete migration to 42V
power for all loads.
Conventional Electrical System Architecture
Belt Driven Alternator +
Rectifier & Regulator
Dual Voltage System
Starter & Gear Drive
14V Electric Loads
Crank Driven ^O/AI _
Starter/Alternator + IS/A)
Bi-directional AC >«_»X
Drive
36 V Battery
42 V Bus
•* ^*^l
DC/DC
14V Bus
•* ^*^l 42 V Electric Loads ^*^l 14 V E
Figure 5-22: Conventional, Dual Voltage System
14 V Electric Loads
5.1.9.1 Advantages
Stop-Start, or idle-off operation, is used to reduce fuel consumption due to friction and
pumping losses by turning the engine off while stationary. This will take place at traffic
signals and under similar conditions when the vehicle is stationary and after the engine
has reached the normal operating temperature.
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Conventional belt-driven accessories are designed to deliver their maximum required
output at relatively low engine speed. As a consequence, the conventional accessories
produce unnecessary parasitic losses at high engine speed. By decoupling the
accessories from the engine speed, the electric accessory duty cycle can be determined
based on demand, thereby reducing parasitic losses compared to the conventional
system.
The advantages of the Stop-Start technology are highly dependent on control strategy
and drive cycle. The benefits of idle-stop operation favor a drive cycle that has frequent
stops. That is, on long highway drives, no savings will be made because the vehicle
remains in motion. However, the benefit from electric accessories increases at highway
speeds because the duty cycle can be determined from engine operating conditions
rather than engine speed. This results in reduced parasitic losses compared to the
conventional system. In contrast, city driving may yield significant savings from idle-stop
operation and little benefit from electric accessories due to low engine speeds. The
electric accessories may also allow faster engine warm-up by reducing coolant flow rate
when the engine is below the normal operating temperature.
5.1.9.2 Disadvantages and Technical Risks
The disadvantages associated with the Stop-Start system come from increased control-
and electrical-system complexity combined with overall energy conversion efficiency of
the electric accessories. Compared to the belt-driven conventional accessories, the
electric accessories have decreased conversion efficiency due to the "round trip"
efficiency of the electrical system. However, the net result does provide fuel economy
benefits due to the decreased duty cycle noted above.
The cost of the system can be considered to be a disadvantage. The conventional
starter motor is usually retained to enable cold-ambient start.
5.2 TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES
For detailed simulation of transmission technologies it is important to model the losses
that come from several common sources, namely:
• Power transmission elements (usually gears or gear systems, clutches and
traction-drive devices)
• Rotating component support elements (bearings)
• Friction losses in sealing elements
• Interaction of the rotating elements with the lubricant (churning losses, drag
losses)
• Losses associated with powering ancillary elements such as hydraulic system
and lubrication pumps
This section describes how these elements within a transmission system contribute
towards the total losses, resulting in a typical level of efficiency for each of the
transmission types examined in this study:
• Planetary Automatic Transmissions
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Dual-Clutch Transmissions (wet and dry clutch)
Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVTs)
5.2.1 Losses in Power Transmission Elements
Gear pairs and gear systems, such as epicyclic gear sets, are the main power
transmission elements used in automotive transmissions.
When power is transmitted between a pair of gears some power is lost. As the gear
teeth move through mesh, power is absorbed as a result of sliding that occurs at the
contact point between the gear teeth and the 'wedging action' as the gear teeth
compress the oil between them. The power absorbed or lost is dissipated as heat and
noise from the gear mesh. The overall power loss is therefore calculated from the power
loss due to oil wedging and the power loss due to sliding. The total gear mesh losses are
therefore a function of instantaneous sliding and rolling speed, gear load, oil properties
(viscosity, etc.), and gear geometry. Mesh losses generally increase with gear speed
and load.
For an overall efficiency analysis, it is more common to assume an average efficiency for
all operating conditions. The assumptions made in this study are based on Ricardo's
experience with losses for gear meshes as follows:
Single gear mesh - 0.5-2%
Each mesh in epicyclic - 0.4-1.8%
Hypoid gear mesh - 3-6%
Hypoid gears are used in Transaxle final drives and rear axles. The losses are generally
much higher than a spur or helical gear pair because of very high sliding velocities in the
mesh.
The Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) is a specific type of automatic
transmission that has a different type of power transmission element than a typical gear
set. Whereas most transmissions have a series of specific ratio steps to match engine
speed to road conditions, the CVT allows any ratio between a minimum and maximum.
This is commonly achieved through a belt-drive system where the effective diameters of
the belt pulleys are changed to vary the ratio between them.
A number of different types of CVT are produced, namely belt and toroidal. Only the belt-
type CVT is considered in this report because it is the most widely used and this trend is
expected to continue. However, toroidal types work on similar principles but are not
considered realistic for this timeframe.
The efficiency of a CVT belt and variator system is the subject of much research. A
figure of 5% was assumed for this study, which is in line with measured data. This is
predominantly due to slip between the belt and pulley and also due to deflection of the
pulley sheaves.
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5.2.2 Losses in Bearings
Bearings are used to support rotating components, such as shafts and gears. In
automotive transmissions, rolling element bearings are typically used. The losses in a
rolling element bearing are mainly due to rolling and sliding of the elements on the
raceways and churning of the lubricating oil. Calculation procedures for estimating
bearing losses are readily available from bearing suppliers and were used in this
analysis to estimate bearing losses. Losses in bearings will vary according to the exact
type of bearing. Taper bearings, which are usually set up with a certain preload, may
have higher losses at moderate temperatures and speeds. An example of power loss in
a bearing with varying load and varying speed is given below.
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Bearing Power Loss (at 4000rpm)
350 -,
300 -
250 -
200 -
150 -
o
Q.
100 -
50 -
20
40 60
Load (%)
80
100
Bearing Power Loss (at high load)
450
400
350-
^ 300
250-
5 200
I
Q.
150-
100
50
1000 2000 3000 4000
Speed (rpm)
5000
6000
Figure 5-23: Estimated power loss in a deep-groove ball bearing
5.2.3 Losses in Sealing Elements
Seals of various types are commonly used within transmission systems. Radial-lip seals
are typically used to seal the input and output shafts. These are available in a number of
different materials to suit the application. PTFE/teflon seals will usually offer the lowest
power loss due to their low coefficient of friction, but the latest generation of rotating
seals is improving the pumping capabilities of the seal, thereby reducing the contact
pressure, and thus reducing the heat and frictional losses from the harder materials.
Some bearing types can be fitted with integral seals that run on the inner race of the
bearing.
Power losses in seals have been calculated from proprietary data available from
suppliers. An example of power losses in shaft seals is given below.
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500
400
CO
03
£
C
o
300
200
100
n -= 8000 rpm
— n = 4000 rpm
n = 2000 rpm
n •- 1000 rpm
100
120 140
Shaft diameter
Figure 5-24: Typical Power Loss in Shaft Seals
Automatic transmissions and wet-clutch Dual-Clutch Transmissions (DCTs) also have
rotary 'gland' seals to allow pressurized hydraulic fluid to be fed to rotating pistons for
clutch actuation. These rings are usually manufactured in carbon-based materials or
more commonly high-performance thermoplastic materials, such as Vespel.
Power losses in ring seals can be determined from engineering principles. Seal
coefficients of friction range from 0.05 to 0.2 for some plastics. A seal coefficient of
friction of 0.05 was assumed for this analysis.
5.2.4 Churning and Drag Losses
Churning losses occur when a gear rotates through an oil bath. This mechanism is used
in gearboxes to distribute oil (by splash) around gearboxes. Most gearboxes will
generate a level of churning loss, dependant on the configuration and oil level. Churning
losses can be estimated according to established methodologies.
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Churning losses in a transmission can be significant. An example of estimated losses for
a final-drive gear in a typical transmission are shown below.
Additional drag losses in automatic transmissions have two main causes:
• Losses associated with open multiplate clutch packs rotating in oil (shearing of oil
between plates rotating at different speeds)
• Losses associated with clutch slip (automatics and DCTs)
Multiplate clutches are used primarily in automatic transmissions to change ratio by
locking the required element of an epicyclic gear set.
A typical 6-speed automatic may have 5 clutch packs. Two clutch packs are closed for a
particular gear selected, but the other 3 are open and may create drag losses dependant
on the relative rotational speed of the clutch plates. Clutch drag is heavily dependent on
the size of the clutches and on the relative speed, number of plates, plate gap, and
amount of oil assumed between the plates. The amount of oil present in the analysis
was based on required oil-flow rate and rotational acceleration.
Open clutch drag losses may vary considerably due to differences in transmission
architecture, but typical losses at 4000 rpm due to clutch drag could be between 0.5 and
2kW.
Clutch slip control is used in DCTs to reduce engine torsional vibrations in the
transmission and to help clutch control during gear shifting. In some automatics, an
additional torque converter 'lock-up clutch' can have a controlled amount of slip to help
with vibration damping.
Any slip across a driving clutch results in power loss. This is simply a function of the
transmitted torque and the slipping speed. Under typical average driving conditions,
power loss in a DCT could be around 300-400 Watts.
5.2.5 Pump Losses
Pumps used for hydraulic systems in any form of automatic transmission, and lubrication
systems in some manual transmissions, cause a power loss. Pump power is a function
of system pressure and flow rate requirement. Typical automatic transmission hydraulic
systems operate at a low pressure for cooling and lubrication and higher pressures for
shifting and clutch clamping. Automatic transmissions tend to have larger oil volumes
(around 5-7 liters) and operate at pressures typically between 10 and 20 bar, with
pressures up to 60 bar required for CVTs. Similarly, wet-clutch DCTs require larger oil
volumes for clutch cooling. Automatics and wet-clutch DCTs use common oil for
transmission lubrication and hydraulics. Dry-clutch DCT transmissions use a small
quantity of higher-viscosity oil to separate gears, as the requirements for hydraulic
systems are not required.
The pressure ranges in both types of transmissions (clutched transmissions, both
automatic and wet-clutch DCTs) and traction-drive transmissions (CVTs) are dictated by
the forces required to transmit torque at the clutches in clutched transmission, or at the
belt-rolling contact in the CVT-style transmission. The CVT transmissions adjust gear
ratio by changing the radius on the primary and secondary pulleys or within the toroidal
system. This change in radius vastly varies the amount of force required to transmit
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torque though the rolling-frictional interface, and in turn, varies the hydraulic pressure
required to generate this force.
Power loss due to hydraulic pumps under typical average driving conditions can vary
between around 400 W for an optimized variable pressure/volume pump to between
1500 and 2000 W for a single pressure/volume system. Most automatic or wet-clutch
DCT transmissions' hydraulic systems have pump maximum displacements in the
ranges of 15-26 cc/revolution. System leakage equates to approximately 5-12 liters/min
at average pressure ranges. The latest generation of variable-displacement pumps take
into account the performance required for fast engagement of system components, but
during the majority of the operating conditions at steady-state low-torque conditions
swash back to discharge only enough fluid to overcome system leakage and maintain
pressure. Lower losses are possible within dry-clutch DCT transmissions due to the
sealed actuation hydraulic systems offering the capability to use a hydraulic system with
an accumulator or electric actuation. With this type of hydraulic system, the loss reduces
to 3-5 W when averaged over a charge cycle under steady-state conditions.
Additionally, the control system required for an automatic—predominantly valves in
hydraulic circuit—has a small electrical power draw.
5.2.6 Overall Efficiencies of Transmission Systems
To compare transmission types, efficiencies are described as a result of total losses due
to individual components/elements and the arrangement of transmission systems.
5.2.6.1 Automatic Transmission
A typical planetary automatic transmission arrangement is shown. The overall losses are
made up from:
• Gear mesh losses - typical losses for each epicyclic ~ 1.5%, with two or three
stages for a 6-speed.
• Additional gear mesh losses for some arrangements with final drive gears (~1-
3%).
• Bearing and seal losses for input and output shafts plus additional sealing losses
for gland seals (estimated between 1 and 2% in total).
• Churning and drag losses for rotating open clutch packs, final-drive gears, and
slipping lock-up clutch (if slip- control is employed). These could total up to 5%.
• Losses due to hydraulic system pump between 0.5 and 5%, dependent on
operating pressure and control strategy (at system pressures around 20-30 bar).
The total losses present in a planetary automatic transmission would suggest an overall
efficiency of between 86% and 90%. However, fuel economy and emissions
performance over a drive cycle can lead to better than expected results due to the
automatic control of the transmission resulting in shifting strategies to give optimum
economy and emissions.
Improvements in efficiency are possible through optimum design of the planetary
arrangement, and reduction of hydraulic power requirement through reduced operating
pressure and variable-flow pump designs, for example. Efficiencies in the region of 92-
93% are possible with an optimized design, reaching as high as 95% in some specific
operating conditions.
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Losses associated with the torque converter are not considered in this analysis and will
be covered in a following section.
5.2.6.2 Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT)
The recent introduction of the DCT sees the first alternative automatic transmission
offering significant improvements over traditional planetary automatics at sensible
productions volumes (mainly in the Volkswagen-Audi Group products in Europe).
The DCT potentially offers the best of both worlds, with the high mechanical efficiency of
a manual and the shift control of an automatic, resulting in strong fuel economy and
emissions performance over a drive cycle. Additional performance benefits are reduced
shift time with no torque interrupt during the shift.
The DCT is essentially two power transmission paths in parallel, each with its own
clutch. A change in gear ratio is achieved by disengaging one clutch while
simultaneously engaging the other. Current production units predominantly use wet
multiplate clutches, requiring a hydraulic system to clamp and cool the clutches as well
as for gear shifting.
5.2.6.2.1 Wet-Clutch DCT
A typical arrangement for a 6-speed
wet multiplate clutch DCT is shown in
Figure 5-25. The overall losses are
made up as follows:
• Gear mesh losses - typically
two gear meshes, totaling 1 %
• Bearing and seal losses for
input and output shafts plus
additional sealing losses for
gland seals (estimated
between 1 and 2% in total)
• Churning losses between 2
and 6% dependent on
transmission layout
• Losses due to hydraulic
system pump between 0.5 and
3 % dependent on pressure-
control strategy
• Drag losses also occur in the
open clutch of around 0.5-1%.
Slip control across the driving
clutch will also result in 0.5-1%
power loss.
Figure 5-25: Typical transverse wet clutch DCT
arrangement
The total efficiency of a wet-clutch DCT could therefore be expected to be between 86%
and 94.5%. DCTs use many of the loss-reduction strategies employed in planetary
automatics, such as low hydraulic system pressure between shifting, to achieve the
higher predicted efficiencies. Although, the wet clutches require a high flow rate for
cooling, resulting in high instantaneous pump power requirements.
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The efficiency map is similar to a planetary automatic, with the best efficiencies being
achieved at high loads and medium speeds, and significant reduction in efficiency at low
loads and speeds as the power requirement of the hydraulic system becomes a higher
proportion of the overall power transmitted.
5.2.6.2.2 Dry-Clutch DCT
Another iteration, currently being investigated by several manufacturers, is the dry-clutch
DCT, using two dry clutches in the place of the wet multiplate clutches. This
development significantly reduces the volume of oil required to cool wet clutches and
could offer further improvements in efficiency due to reduction of hydraulic pumping
losses and churning losses in the transmission due to a lower oil volume. However, dry-
clutch DCTs are likely to be limited to smaller vehicle applications, at least initially, due
to thermal limitations of the dry clutches.
A possible arrangement for a 6-
speed dry-clutch DCT is shown in
Figure 5-26. The overall losses are
made up as follows:
• Gear mesh losses - typically
two gear meshes, totaling 1
• Bearing and seal losses for
~8 bearings and ~3 seals
(input shaft and differential
seals) totaling around 500 W
or~1%
• Churning losses between 2
and 6% dependent on
transmission layout
• Pumping losses (in pressure
lubricated systems) - losses
in low-pressure lubrication
system are small (<0.5%)
• Drag in the open clutch
should be minimal, but if
slip control is used, then slip across the driving clutch could result in 0.5-1%
power loss.
• The clutch and gear change actuation system will affect overall efficiency. The
losses due to the actuation systems will depend on the type of system, electro-
hydraulic or electro mechanical, but the average losses in a drive cycle are likely
to be around 0.5%.
The total efficiency of a dry-clutch DCT could therefore be expected to be between 90%
and 95%. Optimum design should see overall efficiencies between 1-1.5% lower than a
similar manual. A more significant reduction would be seen at low loads and speeds due
to the relative power requirement of the actuation systems.
Figure 5-26: Possible dry clutch DCT arrangement
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The major benefit over the wet-clutch DCT is the reduction in oil volume requirement,
resulting in potentially significant reductions in hydraulic power and churning losses in
the transmission.
5.2.6.3 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
A typical CVT arrangement is
shown in Figure 5-27. The overall
losses in a CVT are higher than in
a planetary automatic. The 3%
loss due to the two epicyclics in a
planetary automatic is replaced by
a 5% loss due to the belt and
variator assembly. Additionally, the
torque is transmitted through a
single epicyclic (used to select
reverse), resulting in an additional
1-1.5% loss.
Bearing and seal losses are
similar to a planetary automatic.
Churning losses are similar,
especially for transverse
configurations with final drive
gears, but drag losses may be
less, since there is usually only
one open clutch for either forward
or reverse operation.
Hydraulic system losses can be
considerably higher than for a
planetary automatic. The primary
pressure requirement to prevent
belt slip can be as high as 40-60
bar. This results in higher
hydraulic power, leading to losses
in some operating conditions of up
to 8%.
Therefore, with an overall
efficiency of between 80% and
90%, the CVT may be less
efficient than a planetary
automatic; higher levels of
efficiency will be dependent on configuration and level of design optimization, particularly
with regard to reducing operating pressures.
Although the continuously variable ratio ability of the CVT theoretically allows operation
at the optimum point for economy/emissions at any condition, the lower overall efficiency
of the system results in similar or poorer performance than a planetary automatic over a
typical drive cycle.
Figure 5-27: Typical transverse CVT arrangement
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 73 of 113
21 December 2007
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5.3 SECTION 5 REFERENCES
1. GASOLINE ENGINE OPERATION WITH TWIN MECHANICAL VARIABLE
LIFT (TMVL) VALVETRAIN - STAGE 1: SI AND CAI COMBUSTION WITH
PORT FUEL INJECTION. J Stokes; T H Lake; R D Murphy; R J Osborne; J
Patterson; J Seabrook, SAE 2005-01-0752.
2. THE THIRD GENERATION OF VALVETRAINS - NEW FULLY VARIABLE
VALVETRAINS FOR THROTTLE-FREE LOAD CONTROL. R Flierl; M
Kluting, SAE 2000-01-1227
3. THE NEW BMW 4-CYLINDER SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE WITH
VALVETRONIC PART I: CONCEPT AND DESIGN CONFIGURATION Rudolf
Flierl; Reinhard Hofmann; Christian Landerl; Theo Melcher; Helmut Steyer.
MTZ, June 2001
4. THE NEW BMW 4-CYLINDER ENGINE WITH VALVETRONIC PART 2:
THERMODYNAMICS AND FUNCTIONAL FEATURES. Johannes Liebl;
Manfred Kluting; Jurgen Poggel; Stephen Missy. MTZ Worldwide, July/Aug
2001
5. THE NEW ALFA ROMEO 2 LITRE JTS ENGINE WITH DIRECT GASOLINE
INJECTION Dirk Andriesse; Francesco Guarnaccia; Marco Guazzaroni; Aldo
Oreggioni.lOth Aachen Colloquium on Vehicle and Engine Technology, 2001
6. FUEL INJECTION STRATEGIES TO INCREASE FULL LOAD TORQUE
OUTPUT OF A DIRECT INJECTION SI ENGINE. Jialin Yang, Richard W
Anderson, SAE 980495
7. SIMULATION AND DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE OF A STRATIFIED
CHARGE GASOLINE DIRECT INJECTION ENGINE. T H Lake, S M
Sapsford, J Stokes, N S Jackson, SAE 962014
8. CORPORATE AVERAGE FUEL ECONOMY and CAFE REFORM FOR MY
2008-2011 LIGHT TRUCKS. Office of Regulatory Analysis and Evaluation,
National Center for Statistics and Analysis, March 2006
9. Dl BOOST: APPLICATION OF A HIGH PERFORMANCE GASOLINE
DIRECT INJECTION CONCEPT. David W. Woldring, Tilo Landenfeld, Mark
Christie, SAE 2007-01-1410
10. GASOLINE ENGINE OPERATION WITH TWIN MECHANICAL VARIABLE
LIFT (TMVL) VALVETRAIN - STAGE 1: SI AND CAI COMBUSTION WITH
PORT FUEL INJECTION. J Stokes; T H Lake; R D Murphy; R J Osborne; J
Patterson; J Seabrook, SAE 2005-01-0752
11. THE THIRD GENERATION OF VALVETRAINS - NEW FULLY VARIABLE
VALVETRAINS FOR THROTTLE-FREE LOAD CONTROL. R Flierl; M
Kluting SAE 2000-01-1227
Ricardo, Inc. Page74of113 21 December2007
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12. THE NEW BMW 4-CYLINDER SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE WITH
VALVETRONIC PART I: CONCEPT AND DESIGN CONFIGURATION Rudolf
Flierl; Reinhard Hofmann; Christian Landerl; Theo Melcher; Helmut Steyer,
MTZ, June 2001
13. THE NEW BMW 4-CYLINDER ENGINE WITH VALVETRONIC PART 2:
THERMODYNAMICS AND FUNCTIONAL FEATURES. Johannes Liebl;
Manfred Kluting; Jurgen Poggel; Stephen Missy, MTZ Worldwide, July/Aug
2001
14. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC VALVE ACTUATION SYSTEM: FUNCTIONAL
CHARACTERISTICS AND BENEFITS V. Picron, Y. Postel, SIA Conference
on Variable Valve Actuation - November 30, 2006 - IFP Rueil
15. PRODUCTION AVT DEVELOPMENT: LOTUS AND EATON'S
ELECTROHYDRAULIC CLOSED-LOOP FULLY VARIABLE VALVE TRAIN
SYSTEM. J.W.G. Turner, S.A. Kenchington, D.A. Stretch, 25th Vienna
Engine symposium, 2004.
16. THE ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC VALVETRAIN SYSTEM EHVS - SYSTEM
AND POTENTIAL. Dirk Denger; Karsten Mischker, SAE 2005-01-0774
17. POTENTIAL OF VVA SYSTEMS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF CO2,
POLLUTANT EMISSION AND PERFORMANCE OF COMBUSTION
ENGINES. P. Kapus, G. Fraidl, T. Sams, T. Kammerdiener, SIA Conference
on Variable Valve Actuation - November 30, 2006 - IFP Rueil
Ricardo, Inc. Page75of113 21 December2007
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6.0 TECHNOLOGY PACKAGES
For the baseline vehicles, the EPA identified a number of combinations (technology
packages) of the individual technologies described in Section 5. The carbon dioxide
emission, fuel economy, and vehicle performance were simulated for these technology
packages.
The packages were selected to represent potential technology combinations that could
be offered in production between 2010 and 2017. These technology packages are
described in the tables below and grouped together by each baseline vehicle. All of the
packages contain technologies that need a certain level of development, either to mature
the technology or to apply the technology to a new application. As a guide, Ricardo has
provided a subjective assessment of the readiness of the packages divided into two
categories:
• 5 years. Could be in production within 5 years. This means there are some
example technologies in production today and/or the technology is likely to be
introduced very soon.
• 10 years. Technology is still being developed and might be ready for production
release within 5 to 10 years.
Table 6-1: Standard Car Technology Packages
Pk
Z
1
2
Architecture
14, PFI
14, GDI
14, GDI
Valvetrain
CCP,
DVVL
DCP,
DVVL
DCP
Transmission
6-spd DCT
dry clutch
CVT
6-spd AT
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePump (42V)
42V stop-start,
ePS
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 76 of 113
21 December 2007
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Table 6-2: Small MPV Technology Packages
Pkg
Z
1
2
5
15
15a
15b
Architecture
14, PFI
14, GDI
14, GDI
14, Diesel
14, GDI
downsized
turbo
14, GDI
14, dual-
mode
HCCI/GDI
Valvetrain
CCP,
DVVL
DCP,
DVVL
DCP
DCP
Camless
Transmission
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
CVT
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
10 years
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 77 of 113
21 December 2007
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Table 6-3: Full-size Car Technology Packages
Pkg
4
5
6a
16
Y1
Y2
Architecture
14, GDI
downsized
turbo
14, Diesel
Small V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Large V6,
dual-mode
HCCI/GDI
Valvetrain
DCP
DCP,
CVVL
CCP,
Deac
Camless
Transmission
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-speed AT
6-speed DCT
wet clutch
6-speed DCT
wet clutch
Accessories
ePS
ePump(12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
10 years
10 years
Table 6-4: Large MPV Technology Packages
Pkg
4
6b
16
Architecture
14, GDI
downsized
turbo
Small V6,
GDI
Large V6,
GDI
Valvetrain
DCP
CCP,
Deac
CCP,
Deac
Transmission
6-speed AT
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-speed AT
Accessories
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 78 of 113
21 December 2007
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Table 6-5: Truck Technology Packages
Pkg
9
10
11
12
17
X1
X2
Architecture
V8, GDI
Large V6,
GDI,
downsized
turbo
Large V6
Diesel
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
V8, GDI
V8, dual-
mode
HCCI/GDI
Valvetrain
Deac
DCP
CCP,
Deac
DCP,
DVVL
Camless
Transmission
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd AT
6-spd AT
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
6-spd DCT
wet clutch
Accessories
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
42V stop-start
ePS
ePump (42V)
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
ePS
ePump (12V)
heAlt
Readiness
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
5 years
1 0 years
1 0 years
6.1 ADDITIONAL TECHNOLOGIES
6.1.1 Aerodynamic Drag and Rolling Resistance
The EPA considers that OEMs could be able to achieve a 20% reduction in aerodynamic
drag forces in the future along with a 10% reduction in vehicle rolling resistance.
Ricardo did not investigate the validity of this viewpoint. However, these levels of
reductions relative to the baseline vehicle were included in the simulations.
6.1.2 Friction Multiplier
The EPA believes that powertrain friction can also be reduced by use of low-viscosity
oils and/or low-friction components. Although the friction reduction could have been
included in the simulations, this would have taken more time and effort. Therefore, a
simplification was made only for the reduced-friction technology and that was to assume
the fuel consumption, and hence carbon dioxide emissions, could be reduced by 2.5%.
This "friction multiplier" was kept constant and applied to all the final simulation cases.
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 79 of 113
21 December 2007
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7.0 RESULTS
This section presents the results for the study and discusses selected powertrain-
technology package results, incremental results on selected vehicle / technology
package combinations, and the final results.
7.1 SELECTED POWERTRAIN (ENGINE & TRANSMISSION)
TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE RESULTS
The main focus of the study was on combinations of powertrain and vehicle technology
packages. However, it can be useful to review results for technology packages just
featuring powertrain technology. To this end, results were collated for powertrain
technologies grouped into four categories:
• Direct Injection engines with cylinder deactivation
• Turbocharged, downsized, direct injection engines
• Gasoline engines with Camless valvetrains
• Gasoline engines operating on HCCI
7.1.1 Direct Injection Gasoline Engines with Cylinder Deactivation
Three vehicle/technology package combinations incorporated direct injection with
cylinder deactivation. These were the full size car, the large MPV, and the truck. All had
similar peak torque-to-weight ratios. Table 7.1 shows the combined fuel economy benefit
was similar for the three packages, ranging from 15 to 21%, depending on the vehicle
application.
Table 7-1: Powertrain (engine & transmission) only results for cylinder deactivation cases
Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results - Cylinder Deactivation cases
HI
U
.c
Full Size
Car
Large MPV
Truck
Technology Package Description
c
•o
EPA Package
16
16
12
c
o>
c
UJ
3.5LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.8L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L-3VV8
CCP + Deac
g
1
c
AT 6spd
FDR 3. 08
AT 6spd
FDR 3.17
AT 6spd
FDR 3.6
-c
42V Stop-
N
N
N
0>
I
base
base
base
"oj
o
Warm-up ft
Bag1
Bag1
Bag1
O)
Aero Dr
base
base
base
c
2
Rolling Resi
base
base
base
=
Frictional Mi
N
N
N
Fuel Economy
•£
o
u.
mpg
25.0
23.6
17.2
i
0)
HWFETIH
mpg
39.3
35.4
25.9
5
c •=
Comb
(Metro-Hi
mpg
29.9
27.8
20.3
-
a>
0}
FTP75 (City
%
18.0%
20.1%
15.7%
i
0)i=
HWFETIH
Bene
%
19.7%
22.2%
14.4%
£ E
1! ?
•5.3
Combined
Highway!
%
1 8.6%
20.8%
15.2%
Performance
0.
8
d,
sec
2.6
3.2
2.4
0.
sec
6.5
8.8
7.3
Q.
I
sec
2.2
3.3
2.8
0.
s
sec
3.6
5.2
4.4
o
•8
"a)
mph
34.0
28.4
35.0
u
la
5
meters
23.5
17.6
24.4
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 80 of 113
21 December 2007
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7.1.2 Turbo/Downsize, Gasoline Direct Injection Engines
There were four vehicle/technology package combinations with a turbo/downsized,
gasoline direct-injected engine; Table 7-2 shows that the benefit of the powertrain is
application-specific. Comparing the two vehicle packages with DCT transmissions, the
small MPV had a much lower displacement-to-weight ratio than the truck (0.6 vs
0.9cc/lb) and so benefited less from the advanced technology powertrain combination.
This is because even the baseline powertrain in the small MPV was spending more of its
time near the engine's peak efficiency islands (or minimum BSFC) than the truck which
operated typically on test cycles well below its peak efficiency area. The two vehicle
packages with 6-speed automatic transmissions both had similar displacement-to-weight
ratios (0.88 and 0.84 cc/lb for the full size car and large MPV, respectively) and had
similar benefit levels for the advanced powertrain combinations (7.2% and 9.6%,
respectively.)
Table 7-2: Powertrain (engine & transmission) only results for turbo/downsized cases
Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results - Turbo/Downsized cases
HI
U
.c
HI
Small MPV
Full Size
Car
Large MPV
Truck
Technology Package Description
c
•o
EPA Package
15
4
4
10
c
o>
c
UJ
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.2L 14 Turbo
DCP
2.1LI4Turbo
DCP
3.6LV6 Turbo
DCP
GDI
g
1
c
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.5
AT 6spd
FDR 3.08
AT 6spd
FDR 3. 17
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.6
-c
42V Stop-
N
N
N
N
0>
I
base
base
base
base
"oj
o
Warm-up ft
Bag1
Bag1
Bag1
Bag1
O)
Aero Dr
base
base
base
base
c
2
Rolling Resi
base
base
base
base
=
Frictional Mi
N
N
N
N
Fuel Economy
•£
o
u.
mpg
29.7
23.2
21.9
19.3
i
0)
HWFETIH
mpg
37.5
33.8
30.9
25.3
5
c •=
Comb
(Metro-Hi
mpg
32.7
27.1
25.2
21.6
-
a>
0}
FTP75 (City
%
19.9%
9.5%
1 1 .2%
34.5%
i
0)i=
HWFETIH
Bene
%
4.3%
3.0%
6.8%
13.0%
£ E
1! ?
•5.3
Combined
Highway!
%
1 3.7%
7.2%
9.6%
26.1%
Performance
0.
2
sec
4.3
2.6
3.3
2.6
0.
sec
9.8
6.6
8.2
6.4
Q.
I
sec
3.3
2.3
2.9
2.2
0.
8
sec
5.5
3.4
4.9
3.7
0
$
•3
mph
18.7
33.7
27.5
35.8
u
»
Q
meters
10.0
22.0
16.2
21.7
7.1.3 Camless Gasoline Engines
The small MPV, the full size car, and the truck each had a technology package with
camless valvetrain engine and DCT transmission. These are compared in Table 7-3 and
show a fuel economy benefit ranging from 20 to 30%, depending on the vehicle
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 81 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
application. Since the camless engine technology package is primarily reducing the
engine pumping losses, its benefit should scale with torque-to-weight ratio for the
vehicle. The torque-to-weight ratio relates to the load levels that the engine runs at on a
drive cycle. Hence, vehicles with a low torque-to-weight ratio will run at higher engine
loads, and so benefit less from camless technology. Figure 7-1 shows this to be valid.
Since camless valvetrains still need to be proven in terms of robustness and cost,
Ricardo considers camless engine technology to be high risk for application to high-
volume production within the timeframe of this study.
Table 7-3: Powertrain (engine & transmission) only results for camless valvetrain cases
Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results - Camless valvetrain cases
0)
o
0)
Small MPV
Full Size
Car
Truck
Technology Package Description
0)
If
*J
1
EPA Package
15a
Y1
X1
c
Camless
3.5L V6
Camless
5.4L V8
Camless
GDI
5
i
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.5
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 6
a
42V Stop-
N
N
N
—
i
base
base
base
o
Warm-up I
Bag1
Bag1
Bag1
o)
Aero Dr
base
base
base
o
£
VI
Rolling Res
base
base
base
^
.92
5
c
g
~
u.
N
N
N
Fuel Economy
. — .
o
u.
mpg
30.6
28.5
19.4
_
I
.c
O)
HWFET(H
mpg
40.7
40.1
26.3
_
c 0)
Comb
(Metro-Hi
mpg
34.4
32.8
22.0
1
c
™
FTP75 (Citl
%
23.4%
34.3%
30.3%
-
§
•c *,
HWFET(H
BenE
%
13.4%
22.0%
16.0%
o £
« *
Combinec
Highway)
%
19.6%
29.8%
24.9%
Performance
X
Q.
sec
3.6
2.6
2.4
X
Q.
CO
sec
9.8
6.5
7.3
0.
0
0
sec
3.5
2.2
2.8
0.
0
sec
5.6
3.6
4.4
o
i
mph
25.7
34.0
35.0
o
Dist at
meters
17.5
23.5
24.4
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 82 of 113
21 December 2007
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35 -,
d 30 --
+J
I 25 --
0)
-Q 20 +
LU
10 H
&
E
o
o
5^
Combined FE Benefit for Camless Engine Packages
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Peak Torque (Ib-ft) /Weight (Ib)
0.06
0.07
Figure 7-1: Combined FE benefit vs. peak torque-to-weight ratio for Camless engine
packages
7.1.4 Gasoline Engines Operating on HCCI
The small MPV, the full size car, and the truck each had a technology package with an
engine using HCCI combustion and a DCT transmission. These are compared in Table
7.4 and show fuel economy benefit ranging from 16 to 26%, depending on the vehicle
application. The HCCI engine technology package reduces pumping losses with a
flexible valvetrain and improves combustion efficiency over a small light-load range as
described in Section 5.1.6. HCCI combustion solutions are still in their infancy. Hence,
Ricardo considers HCCI engine technology to be high risk for application to high-volume
production within the timeframe of this study.
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 83 of 113
21 December 2007
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Table 7-4: Powertrain (engine & transmission) only results for HCCI cases
Powertrain (Engine & Transmission) Only Results - HCCI cases
01
o
.c
Small MPV
Full Size
Car
Truck
Technology Package Description
0)
1
0.
2
15b
Y2
X2
.E
&
HCCI
3.5L V6
HCCI
5.4LV8
HCCI
GDI
c
g
.«>
i
£
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.5
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 6
Q.
w
N
N
N
o
s
<
base
base
base
*
E
Q.
ro
Bag1
Bag1
Bag1
D)
Q
O
3
base
base
base
{£.
&
base
base
base
"a.
=
i
r
—
N
N
N
Fuel Economy
o
>n
£
mpg
30.6
28.5
19.4
_
O)
x_
m
mpg
40.7
40.1
26.3
•o i
1 £
o ^
mpg
34.4
32.8
22.0
c
0}
m
£*
«T
"•
%
23.4%
34.3%
30.3%
_
D) iH
i. c
m m
%
13.4%
22.0%
16.0%
^ 0}
« X
i ~
%
1 9.6%
29.8%
24.9%
Performance
X
Q.
%
sec
3.6
2.6
2.4
X
Q.
1
sec
9.8
6.5
7.3
X
Q.
o
sec
3.5
2.2
2.8
X
0.
0
sec
5.6
3.6
4.4
a
13
«
mph
25.7
34.0
35.0
a
•s
•a
meters
17.5
23.5
24.4
7.2 INCREMENTAL RESULTS ON SELECTED VEHICLE /
TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE COMBINATIONS
As a means of indicating the relative benefit of certain technology solutions, a series of
simulations were undertaken by adding technologies in order to build up to the total
technology package. The effects on fuel economy and CO2 output of individual
technologies applied sequentially to a specific vehicle class were thus examined.
Technologies were added in a given sequence and the effects at each stage were
determined. Each of the tables below starts with the baseline configuration for a vehicle
class and ends with the complete technology package results.
It is important to note that no optimization was performed for any of the incremental
technology simulations listed. Therefore, adding a technology could actually produce
reduced fuel economy. This illustrates the key point that technologies need to be
considered in certain packages and optimized for the specific applications. It is also
consistent with the understanding in the industry that fuel economy improvements from
different technologies cannot merely be added together to determine their total benefit.
In the cases analyzed here, the optimization was only performed for the complete
technology packages.
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 84 of 113
21 December 2007
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Table 7-5: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Standard Car/ Technology
Package Z
Incremental Action*
Standard Car baseline 2.4L-4V
WT / 5spd AT (3.39 FDR)
CCP & DCCL
6spd DOT (3.23 FDR)
42V Stop-Start
42V Electric accessories & Fast
engine warm-up
Aero drag reduction of 20% &
Tire rolling resistance reduction
of 10%
Aggressive shift/lock scheduling
(2.96 FDR)
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
26.9
27.5
30.0
31.7
32.9
33.9
35.5
36.4
Hwy
(mpg)
41.8
42.5
45.8
45.8
46.7
50.8
52.2
53.5
Comb
ined
(mpg)
32.0
32.7
35.5
36.8
37.9
39.9
41.5
42.5
Incremental benefit
City
— -
2%
9%
6%
4%
3%
5%
3%
Hwy
—
2%
8%
0%
2%
9%
3%
3%
Comb
ined
—
2%
9%
4%
3%
5%
4%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
338
330
303
287
277
268
256
250
Hwy
(g/mi)
217
214
198
198
194
179
174
170
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
284
278
256
247
240
228
219
214
Incremental benefit
City
— -
2%
8%
5%
3%
3%
4%
2%
Hwy
—
2%
7%
0%
2%
8%
3%
2%
Comb
ined
—
2%
8%
3%
3%
5%
4%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
Table 7-6: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Small MPV / Technology
Package 2
Incremental Action*
Small MPV baseline 2.4L-4V
WT / 4spd AT (3.91 FDR)
GDI
DCP & 6spd AT (3.50 FDR)
42V Stop-Start
42V Electric accessories & Fast
engine warm-up
Aero drag reduction of 20% &
Tire rolling resistance reduction
of 10%
Aggressive shift/lock scheduling
(2.80 FDR)
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
24.8
25.4
26.2
27.6
28.5
29.7
30.5
31.3
Hwy
(mpg)
35.9
36.8
37.3
37.3
37.4
41.1
42.1
43.1
Comb
ined
(mpg)
28.8
29.5
30.2
31.3
31.9
34.0
34.8
35.7
Incremental benefit
City
— -
2%
3%
6%
3%
4%
3%
3%
Hwy
—
3%
1%
0%
0%
10%
2%
3%
Comb
ined
—
3%
2%
4%
2%
6%
3%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
367
358
347
329
319
306
298
290
Hwy
(g/mi)
253
247
244
243
243
221
216
211
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
316
308
301
290
285
268
261
255
Incremental benefit
City
— -
2%
3%
5%
3%
4%
3%
2%
Hwy
—
2%
1%
0%
0%
9%
2%
2%
Comb
ined
—
2%
2%
3%
2%
6%
2%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 85 of 113
21 December 2007
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Table 7-7: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Full Size Car/ Technology
Package 6a
Incremental Action*
Full size car baseline 3.5L-4V/
5spd AT (2.87 FDR)
3.0L-4V engine
DCP
CWL
GDI
6spd DOT (3.08 FDR)
Electric accessories & Fast
engine warm-up
Aero drag reduction of 20% &
Tire rolling resistance reduction
of 10%
3.20 FDR for performance
improvement
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
21.7
19.9
20.9
21.7
22.2
24.3
25.7
26.5
26.2
26.9
Hwy
(mpg)
32.6
29.6
31.2
31.9
32.7
34.3
34.9
37.9
37.4
38.3
Comb
ined
(mpg)
25.5
23.4
24.5
25.3
26.0
27.9
29.2
30.6
30.3
31.1
Incremental benefit
City
— -
-8%
5%
4%
3%
9%
6%
3%
-1%
3%
Hwy
—
-9%
5%
2%
3%
5%
2%
9%
-1%
3%
Comb
ined
—
-8%
5%
3%
3%
8%
4%
5%
-1%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
420
456
435
419
409
375
354
343
347
338
Hwy
(g/mi)
279
307
292
285
278
265
261
240
243
237
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
356
389
371
359
350
325
312
297
300
293
Incremental benefit
City
— -
-9%
5%
4%
2%
8%
6%
3%
-1%
2%
Hwy
—
-10%
5%
2%
2%
4%
2%
8%
-1%
2%
Comb
ined
—
-9%
5%
3%
2%
7%
4%
5%
-1%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
Table 7-8: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Large MPV / Technology
Package 4
Incremental Action*
Large MPV baseline 3.8L-2V/
4spd AT (3.43 FDR)
DCP
GDI
2.1 L Turbo
6spdAT(3.17FDR)
Electric accessories & Fast
engine warm-up
Aero drag reduction of 20% &
Tire rolling resistance reduction
of 10%
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
19.8
20.8
21.4
22.4
22.9
23.9
24.8
25.5
Hwy
(mpg)
29.0
30.7
31.5
31.3
32.0
32.6
34.6
35.4
Comb
ined
(mpg)
23.1
24.3
25.0
25.7
26.2
27.2
28.4
29.2
Incremental benefit
City
— -
5%
3%
5%
2%
5%
4%
3%
Hwy
—
6%
3%
-1%
2%
2%
6%
3%
Comb
ined
—
5%
3%
3%
2%
4%
5%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
458
437
425
406
397
380
366
357
Hwy
(g/mi)
313
296
289
290
284
279
263
256
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
393
373
364
354
346
335
319
312
Incremental benefit
City
— -
5%
3%
4%
2%
4%
4%
2%
Hwy
—
5%
3%
-1%
2%
2%
6%
2%
Comb
ined
—
5%
3%
3%
2%
3%
5%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 86 of 113
21 December 2007
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Table 7-9: Incremental fuel economy and CO2 benefits for Truck with Technology
Package 11
Incremental Action*
Truck baseline 5.4L-3V WT /
4spd AT (3.73 FDR)
4.8L Diesel with baseline
transmission
Aggressive shift/lockup
scheduling
6spd DOT (3.73 FDR)
FDR 3.73 -> 3.15
ePS & High-efficiency Alternator
Aero drag reduction of 10%
Electric accessories (ePumps)
& Fast engine warm-up
Aftertreatment penalty
Oil and friction modifier, 2.5%
FE improvement
Fuel Economy
City
(mpg)
14.9
17.8
19.2
21.9
22.2
22.9
23.2
23.7
22.2
22.7
Hwy
(mpg)
22.6
26.7
27.0
27.7
29.2
29.8
30.8
30.8
30.2
31.0
Comb
ined
(mpg)
17.6
21.0
22.1
24.2
24.9
25.6
26.1
26.5
25.2
25.8
Incremental benefit
City
20%
8%
14%
1%
3%
1%
2%
-7%
3%
Hwy
—
18%
1%
3%
6%
2%
4%
0%
-2%
3%
Comb
ined
—
19%
5%
10%
3%
3%
2%
1%
-5%
3%
CO2
City
(g/mi)
612
567
525
461
454
440
435
425
455
444
Hwy
(g/mi)
402
378
375
365
345
339
327
327
334
326
Comb
ined
(g/mi)
517
482
458
418
405
395
387
381
401
391
Incremental benefit
City
— -
7%
7%
12%
1%
3%
1%
2%
-7%
2%
Hwy
—
6%
1%
3%
5%
2%
3%
0%
-2%
2%
Comb
ined
—
7%
5%
9%
3%
3%
2%
1%
-5%
2%
*Note: Optimization was performed on the final package only, no attempt was made to optimize after each incremental
action.
7.3 FINAL RESULTS
The complete advanced technology packages, which are a combination of several
powertrain and vehicle technologies, include:
• advanced engine & transmission
• selected packages include a 42V stop-start system
• electric accessories (except for the mechanically driven cooling fan for the Truck)
and high-efficiency alternator (which is inherent in the 42V stop-start systems)
• fast engine warm-up
• aerodynamic drag reduction
• rolling resistance reduction (except for the Truck)
• a post-simulation multiplier intended to be indicative of the potential FE and CO2
benefits from friction reduction throughout the drivetrain.
For the Small MPV, Full Size Car, and Truck vehicle classes technology packages
considered as low readiness (or high risk) are shown separately at the bottom of each
table, specifically, packages containing Camless and HCCI technologies. This is
because these are considered to require long-term development prior to application for
high-volume production.
The final results with the originally identified performance metrics are shown below in
tables for each vehicle class. There are two tables for each vehicle class, one presents
the CO2 results alongside the performance results and the other states FE results
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 87 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
alongside the performance results. Although, the focus of this study was on CO2
reduction, the FE results are also shown. The same vehicle and technology package
information with complete performance results (initial and additional) are shown in the
Appendix.
It is important to note the following regarding the final results:
• Every performance metric for a given advanced technology package cannot be
matched to the baselines, since the shape of the engine torque curve and the
transmission characteristics may be different. Therefore a spectrum of
performance parameters was evaluated without attempting to meet or exceed
each of the baseline's metrics.
• The benefits for each complete technology package are relative to the baseline
vehicle and do not imply that every vehicle model sold in that class would be able
to achieve all of the assumed inputs or benefits. Some vehicle models already
implement some of the advanced technologies, and so would not derive the full
benefit level stated here.
Ricardo, Inc. Page88of113 21 December2007
-------
Table 7-10: Standard Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
i
=
EPA Package Ide
Base-
line
Z
1
2
0)
'B
c
Ul
2.4L-4V 1 4
ICP
2.4L-4V 1 4
DVVL + CCP
2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + DCP
GDI
2.4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI
c
Transmissio
AT 5spd
FDR 3.39
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT 6spd
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
AT 6spd
FDR 2.96
t
42V Stop-Sta
N
Y
N
Y
Accessorie!
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
01
Warm-up Moc
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
0)
C
Rolling Resista
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
.£
•R
Frictional Multi
N
Y
Y
Y
CO2
>.
FTP75 (Cit
g/mi
338
250
250
250
249
297
295
295
296
298
277
ra
^
HWFET (High
g/mi
217
170
170
172
174
200
198
201
204
211
180
_
Combine
(Metro-Highv
g/mi
284
214
214
215
215
253
251
253
255
259
233
«
FTP75 (City) B
%
-
26%
26%
26%
26%
12%
13%
13%
12%
12%
18%
ra
^
HWFET (High
Benefit
%
-
22%
22%
21%
20%
8%
9%
8%
6%
3%
17%
O j£
•% ?
Combined (M
Highway) Be
%
-
25%
25%
24%
24%
11%
11%
11%
10%
9%
18%
Performance
HdLAIO£-0
sec
3.2
38
35
3.4
33
37
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.3
3.4
0.
sec
8.7
88
79
7.6
76
91
9.2
9.0
8.9
8.6
8.8
30-50 MP
sec
3.4
31
99
2.8
98
39
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.3
50-70 MP
sec
5.4
47
43
4.3
43
50
5.1
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.3
y
Vel at 3 SE
mph
28.3
994
951
26.2
979
949
24.8
25.5
26.3
27.9
26.7
Dist at 3 s
meters
19.2
12.7
15.3
16.0
16.7
16.3
16.2
16.7
17.4
18.6
16.8
0) H
^ 111
70MPHGR
Capability at
%
13.8
15.3
16.0
16.7
17.5
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
14.8
gear
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
-
-
3rd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 89 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 7-11: Standard Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
i
=
EPA Package Ide
Base-
line
Z
1
2
0)
'B
c
Ul
2.4L-4V 14
ICP
2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + CCP
2.4L-4V 14
DVVL + DCP
GDI
2 4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI
c
Transmissio
AT 5spd
FDR 3.39
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT 6spd
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
AT 6spd
FDR 2.96
t
42V Stop-Sta
N
Y
N
Y
Accessorie!
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
01
Warm-up Moc
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
0)
C
Rolling Resista
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
.£
•R
Frictional Multi
N
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
>.
FTP75 (Cit
mpg
26.9
36.4
36.4
36.4
36.4
30.6
30.8
30.8
30.7
30.5
32.8
ra
^
HWFET (High
mpg
41.8
53.5
53.6
52.8
52.3
45.5
45.9
45.2
44.5
43.1
50.6
_
Combine
(Metro-Highv
mpg
32.0
42.5
42.6
42.3
42.2
35.9
36.2
35.9
35.7
35.1
39.0
«
FTP75 (City) B
%
-
35%
35%
35%
35%
14%
15%
14%
14%
13%
22%
ra
^
HWFET (High
Benefit
%
-
28%
28%
26%
25%
9%
10%
8%
7%
3%
21%
O j£
•% ?
Combined (M
Highway) Be
%
-
33%
33%
32%
32%
12%
13%
12%
11%
9%
22%
Performance
HdLAIO£-0
sec
3.2
38
35
3.4
33
37
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.3
3.4
0.
sec
8.7
88
79
7.6
76
91
9.2
9.0
8.9
8.6
8.8
30-50 MP
sec
3.4
31
99
2.8
98
39
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.3
50-70 MP
sec
5.4
47
43
4.3
43
50
5.1
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.3
y
Vel at 3 SE
mph
28.3
994
951
26.2
979
949
24.8
25.5
26.3
27.9
26.7
Dist at 3 s
meters
19.2
12.7
15.3
16.0
16.7
16.3
16.2
16.7
17.4
18.6
16.8
0) H
^ 111
70MPHGR
Capability at
%
13.8
15.3
16.0
16.7
17.5
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
14.8
gear
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
-
-
3rd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 90 of 113
21 December 2007
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Table 7-12: Small MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Small MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
5
15
c
2.4L-4V 14
2.4L 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L 14
DCP
GDI
1.9LI4 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.91
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5. 8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.36
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.68
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
Accessories
Mech
except
ePS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
C02
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
367
272
313
310
309
309
310
290
282
272
272
272
273
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
253
208
231
227
229
231
234
211
205
211
211
212
213
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
316
243
276
273
273
274
276
255
247
244
245
245
246
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%
26%
15%
16%
16%
16%
16%
21%
23%
26%
26%
26%
26%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%
18%
9%
10%
10%
9%
7%
17%
19%
17%
17%
16%
16%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%
23%
13%
14%
13%
13%
13%
19%
22%
23%
22%
22%
22%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
3.8
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.8
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
0-60 MPH
sec
10.4
10.4
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.0
9.7
10.7
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.6
9.5
30-50 MPH
sec
3.7
3.7
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.5
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.2
50-70 MPH
sec
6.0
6.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
6.9
6.3
4.9
5.2
5.2
5.2
Vel at 3 sec
mph
24.6
18.8
18.7
18.7
19.3
20.3
21.6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17.8
18.9
20.0
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.7
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
14.8
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.9
13.1
12.9
13.6
14.1
14.6
gear
2nd
2nd
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
15a
15b
2.4L 14
Camless
GDI
2.4L 14
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3.1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
262
270
193
197
231
237
29%
26%
24%
22%
27%
25%
4.3
4.3
10.3
10.3
3.7
3.7
6.1
6.1
19.6
19.6
11.7
11.7
16.6
16.6
2nd
2nd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 91 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 7-13: Small MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy
Small MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
5
15
c
2.4L-4V 14
2.4L 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L 14
DCP
GDI
1.9L 14 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.91
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5.8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4.90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.36
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.68
42V Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
Accessories
Mech
except
ePS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
FTP75 (City)
mpg
24.8
33.4
29.0
29.3
29.4
29.4
29.4
31.3
35.9
33.4
33.4
33.4
33.3
HWFET (Highway)
mpg
35.9
43.8
39.4
40.0
39.7
39.4
38.8
43.1
49.3
43.1
43.1
42.9
42.7
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
mpg
28.8
37.4
32.9
33.3
33.3
33.2
33.0
35.7
40.9
37.2
37.2
37.1
36.9
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%
35%
17%
18%
19%
19%
19%
26%
45%
35%
35%
35%
34%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%
22%
10%
11%
11%
10%
8%
20%
37%
20%
20%
19%
19%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%
30%
14%
16%
16%
15%
14%
24%
42%
29%
29%
29%
28%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
3.8
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.8
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
0-60 MPH
sec
10.4
10.4
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.0
9.7
10.7
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.6
9.5
30-50 MPH
sec
3.7
3.7
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.5
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.2
50-70 MPH
sec
6.0
6.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
6.9
6.3
4.9
5.2
5.2
5.2
Vel at 3 sec
mph
24.6
18.8
18.7
18.7
19.3
20.3
21.6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17.8
18.9
20.0
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.7
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
14.8
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.9
13.1
12.9
13.6
14.1
14.6
gear
2nd
2nd
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
15a
15b
2.4L 14
Camless
GDI
2.4L 14
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3.1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
34.7
33.6
47.1
46.1
39.3
38.3
40%
36%
31%
28%
37%
33%
4.3
4.3
10.3
10.3
3.7
3.7
6.1
6.1
19.6
19.6
11.7
11.7
16.6
16.6
2nd
2nd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 92 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 7-14: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Full Size Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
_a>
EPA Package Ident
Base-
line
4
5
6a
16
o>
c
'u>
c
I1J
3.5L-4V V6
2.2LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.8L I4/5 Diese
aftertreatment
2.8L I4/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment
3.0LV6
DCP + CWL
GDI
3 5L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT 5spd
FDR 2.87
AT 6spd
FDR 3. 08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.20
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
AT 6spd
FDR 2.7
42V Stop-Start
N
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
0>
Q.
3
1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
o>
Rolling Resistan
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
0>
Frictional Multipl
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
C02
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
420
346
316
315
340
334
338
334
300
%
HWFET (Highw
g/mi
279
236
221
221
220
234
237
234
200
>
Combined
(Metro-Highwa
g/mi
356
296
273
273
286
289
293
289
255
1
FTP75 (City) Be
%
18%
25%
25%
19%
20%
19%
20%
29%
ST
HWFET (Highw
Benefit
%
15%
21%
21%
21%
16%
15%
16%
28%
e e
Combined (Mel
Highway) Benc
%
17%
23%
24%
20%
19%
18%
19%
28%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
7fi
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
33
3.1
3.1
2.7
0-60 MPH
sec
87
6.6
7.1
7.1
7.1
73
7.1
7.0
6.8
30-50 MPH
sec
73
2.3
2.7
2.7
2.7
93
2.3
2.3
2.5
50-70 MPH
sec
38
3.4
4.3
4.3
4.3
33
3.4
3.5
3.6
Vel at 3 sec
mph
337
33.7
33.8
34.3
34.3
7fiS
28.6
28.7
33.3
Dist at 3 sec
meters
24.6
22.0
21.7
22.4
22.4
16.8
17.8
17.9
21.8
.£
70 MPH Grad
Capability at E
%
24.6
25.6
18.5
18.5
18.5
26.1
26.1
25.6
27.2
gear
2nd
2nd
4th
4th
4th
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
Y1
Y2
3.5LV6
Camless
GDI
3.5LV6
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
278
290
199
197
242
248
34%
31%
29%
29%
32%
30%
3.1
3.1
6.8
6.8
2.2
2.2
3.2
3.2
29.3
29.3
17.9
17.9
28.7
28.7
2nd
2nd
Engine Terminology 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factorfor Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 93 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 7-15: Full Size Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
Full Size Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
0>
1C
EPA Package Ident
Base-
line
4
5
6a
16
o>
c
'5)
c
I1J
3.5L-4V V6
2.2LI4Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.8L I4/5 Diesel
2.8L 1 4/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment
3.0LV6
DCP + CWL
GDI
3 5L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT 5spd
FDR 2.87
AT 6spd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6s pd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6s pd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6s pd
6. 55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT 6s pd
FDR 3.08
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.20
DCT 6spd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
AT 6spd
FDR 2.7
42V Stop-Start
N
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
Warm-up Model
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
o>
Rolling Resistanc
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multipli
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
FTP75 (City)
mpg
21.7
26.3
31.9
32.1
29.7
27.2
26.9
27.2
30.3
&
HWFET (Highwa
mpg
32.6
38.5
45.8
45.7
45.9
38.8
38.3
38.8
45.4
Combined
(Metro-Highwa)
mpg
25.5
30.7
37.0
37.0
35.3
31.4
31.0
31.4
35.7
£
a
FTP75 (City) Ben
%
21%
47%
48%
37%
25%
24%
26%
40%
&
HWFET (Highwa
Benefit
%
18%
40%
40%
41%
19%
18%
19%
40%
Combined (Metr
Highway) Bene
%
20%
45%
45%
38%
23%
22%
23%
40%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
33
3.1
3.1
2.7
0-60 MPH
sec
6.7
6.6
7.1
7.1
7.1
73
7.1
7.0
6.8
30-50 MPH
sec
2.3
2.3
2.7
•1.1
2.7
73
2.3
2.3
2.5
50-70 MPH
sec
3.8
3.4
4.3
4.3
4.3
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Vel at 3 sec
mph
33.7
33.7
33.8
34.3
34.3
7fiR
28.6
28.7
33.3
Dist at 3 sec
meters
24.6
22.0
21.7
22.4
22.4
16.8
17.8
17.9
21.8
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ET
%
24.6
25.6
18.5
18.5
18.5
26.1
26.1
25.6
27.2
gear
2nd
2nd
4th
4th
4th
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
Y1
Y2
3.5LV6
Camless
GDI
3.5LV6
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80
DCT 6spd
FDR 2.80
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
32.7
31.4
45.7
46.1
37.5
36.6
51%
45%
40%
42%
47%
44%
3.1
3.1
6.8
6.8
2.2
2.2
3.2
3.2
29.3
29.3
17.9
17.9
28.7
28.7
2nd
2nd
Engine Terminology 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 94 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 7-16: Large MPVVehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Large MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
4
6b
16
HI
,c
'ra
C
LU
3.8L-2V V6
2.1LI4Turbo
DCP
GDI
3.0L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
2.7L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
38L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.43
AT 6spd
FDR 3 17
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 17
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.72
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 72
AT 6spd
FDR 2.7
42V Stop-Start
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
heAlt
ePS
ePump
HI
•o
o
Q.
3
to
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
-20%
20%
-20%
Rolling Resistance
base
-10%
10%
-10%
b
|5.
"5
~m
C
O
•s
o
it
N
Y
Y
Y
CO2
FTP75 (City)
g/mi
458
357
333
331
336
320
325
HWFET (Highway)
g/mi
313
256
241
244
240
240
223
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
g/mi
393
312
292
292
293
284
279
FTP75 (City) Benefit
%
-
22%
27%
28%
27%
30%
29%
HWFET (Highway)
Benefit
%
-
18%
23%
22%
23%
23%
29%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%
-
21%
26%
26%
25%
28%
29%
Performance
Q.
0
«?
o
sec
3.3
3.2
3.9
3.5
4.1
3.8
3.3
Q.
0
<9
o
sec
9.3
8.0
8.5
8.1
8.7
8.9
9.3
Q.
o
"?
o
CO
sec
3.5
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.8
3.0
3.4
Q.
o
IY
o
in
sec
5.6
4.3
4.2
4.2
4.1
4.8
5.6
$
t/>
co
ra
a
mph
27.5
27.8
21.3
24.5
20.1
21.7
27.1
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.9
16.5
11.9
13.6
11.3
12.1
15.6
70 MPH Grade
Capability at ETW
%
17.7
17.1
16.8
19.7
15.5
17.4
17.0
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
2nd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 95 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 7-17: Large MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy
Large MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
0
tn
CM
Tt
N
N
N
Y
to
0)
to
to
HI
u
s
Mech
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
heAlt
ePS
ePump
HI
g
arm -up
g
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
o
re
o
£
o
a-
base
-10%
10%
-10%
HI
|5.
"re
£
0
•43
u.
N
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
&•
b
£
u.
mpg
19.8
25.5
27.3
27.5
27.0
28.4
28.0
re
i-
LU
U.
I
mpg
29.0
35.4
37.7
37.2
37.8
37.8
40.8
>,
•o S
0) .£
.= 0)
o 2
0 IB
* — '
mpg
23.1
29.2
31.1
31.1
31.0
32.0
32.6
«
HI
m
-^
10
£
1-
%
-
28%
37%
38%
36%
43%
41%
re
•— ' */ii
u.
I
%
-
22%
30%
28%
30%
30%
41%
° £
t! £
- — • CO
0) >.
.E 5
•=1
"T
O T
%
-
26%
35%
35%
34%
38%
41%
Performance
i
o
o
sec
3.3
3.2
3.9
3.5
4.1
38
3.3
I
o
o
sec
9.3
8.0
8.5
8.1
8.7
89
9.3
I
Q.
O
O
CO
sec
3.5
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.8
30
3.4
I
Q.
O
i
sec
5.6
4.3
4.2
4.2
4.1
48
5.6
Ji
TO
1
mph
27.5
27.8
21.3
24.5
20.1
?1 7
27.1
id
to
CO
re
"to
b
meters
16.9
16.5
11.9
13.6
11.3
12.1
15.6
0) K
"O QJ
0 re
Q. =
O
%
17.7
17.1
16.8
19.7
15.5
17.4
17.0
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
2nd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 96 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 7-18: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
E
EPA Package Iden
Base-
line
6-Spd
AT
9
11
12
17
01
c
c
L1J
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.6LV6 Turbo
GDI
4. 8LV6 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L V8
DVVL + DCP
GDI
Transmission
AT 4spd
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3. 60
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.3
DCT 6spd
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.26
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 41
DCT 6spd
DCT 6spd
FDR 3 15
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
AT 6spd
FDR 3 1
42V Stop-Start
N
N
Y
N
Y
N
Accessories
Mech
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Mode
Bag1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Aero Drag
base
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
0)
Rolling Resistan
base
base
base
base
base
base
0)
Frictional Multipl
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
CO2
FTP75 (City
g/mi
612
586
448
404
416
418
421
444
450
492
">
HWFET(Highw
g/mi
402
396
323
319
321
323
325
326
319
333
"5
Combined
(Metro-Highwe
g/mi
517
500
392
366
373
376
378
391
391
420
S
FTP75 (City) Be
%
-
X
27%
34%
32%
32%
31%
27%
27%
20%
">
HWFET(Highw
Benefit
%
X
20%
21%
20%
19%
19%
19%
21%
17%
?. 1
Combined (Met
Highway) Bent
%
-
X
24%
29%
28%
27%
27%
24%
24%
19%
Performance
0-30 MPH
sec
2.6
2.3
2.7
99
2.8
2.7
7R
2.7
2.4
2.2
I
Q.
S
sec
7.7
7.5
7.8
R7
6.4
6.4
83
7.7
7.5
7.1
30-50 MPH
sec
3.0
2.9
2.8
77
2.2
2.2
77
2.7
2.9
2.7
50-70 MPH
sec
4.6
5.0
4.6
35
3.6
3.6
38
4.7
4.9
4.5
Vel at 3 sec
mph
33.6
35.9
32.7
31 5
32.6
33.5
355
32.5
35.6
37.1
Dist at 3 sec
meters
23.3
26.2
21.1
19.3
19.8
20.5
21.4
20.4
25.2
27.3
0) O
SOMPHGrad
Capability atG
%
8.8
8.5
8.4
12.3
12.5
13.0
12.9
10.2
10.7
10.7
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
3rd
2nd
2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
X1
X2
5.4L V8
Camless
GDI
5.4L V8
HCCI
GDI
FDR 3.35
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-10%
-10%
base
base
Y
Y
422
425
314
311
374
374
31%
31%
22%
23%
28%
28%
2.7
2.7
7.7
7.7
2.8
2.8
4.6
4.6
32.8
32.8
21.2
21.2
8.6
8.6
3rd
3rd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 97 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table 7-19: Truck Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
Jentifier
0
o
s
n"
2
Base-
line
6-Spd
AT
9
11
12
17
c
O)
c
HI
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.6LV6 Turbo
GDI
4.8L V6 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V V8
CCP + Deac
GDI
5.4L V8
DVVL + DCP
GDI
c
o
en
E
en
1
AT 4spd
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.3
DCT 6spd
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.26
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.41
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.57
DCT 6spd
FDR 315
AT 6spd
FDR 3.1
AT 6spd
1
Q.
3
*
N
N
Y
N
Y
N
%
Accesso
Mech
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
o
S
arm -up l\
S
Bag1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
0)
Aero Dr
base
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
tance
ing Res
o
£
base
base
base
base
base
base
o
"a.
1=
tional M
u
•c
u.
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
I
if)
S:
t
mpg
14.9
15.5
20.3
22.5
21.8
21.7
21.6
22.7
20.2
18.5
I
£
1-
LU
Li.
1
mpg
22.6
23.0
28.2
28.5
28.3
28.1
27.9
31.0
28.5
27.3
I
* P
!!
° «
mpg
17.6
18.2
23.2
24.9
24.3
24.2
24.1
25.8
23.2
21.6
Benefit
&
O
nf
t-
u_
%
X
37%
52%
47%
46%
46%
53%
36%
24%
i
II
LJ.
1
%
X
24%
26%
25%
24%
23%
37%
26%
21%
£ £
% 1
ambined
ighway)
0 i
%
X
32%
42%
39%
38%
37%
47%
32%
23%
Performance
g
sec
2.6
2.3
2.7
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.7
2.4
2.2
sec
7.7
7.5
7.8
6.7
6.4
6.4
6.3
7.7
7.5
7.1
I
Q.
1
sec
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.7
2.9
2.7
I
Q.
$
sec
4.6
5.0
4.6
3.5
3.6
3.6
3.6
4.7
4.9
4.5
8
CO
"o
mph
33.6
35.9
32.7
31.5
32.6
33.5
35.5
32.5
35.6
37.1
»
Dist at
meters
23.3
26.2
21.1
19.3
19.8
20.5
21.4
20.4
25.2
27.3
o o
E 3
°
%
8.8
8.5
8.4
12.3
12.5
13.0
12.9
10.2
10.7
10.7
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
3rd
2nd
2nd
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
X1
X2
5.4LV8
Camless
GDI
5.4LV8
HCCI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.35
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
Y
Y
-10%
-10%
base
base
Y
Y
21.5
21.4
28.9
29.2
24.3
24.3
45%
44%
28%
29%
38%
38%
2.7
2.7
7.7
7.7
2.8
2.8
4.6
4.6
32.8
32.8
21.2
21.2
8.6
8.6
3rd
3rd
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers,
CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DVVL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI =
Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive
Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 98 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
7.4 CLOSING COMMENTS
The intent of the study was to carry out a scientific, objective study of the effectiveness
of packages of advanced powertrain and vehicle technologies to reduce CO2 emissions
from light-duty passenger vehicles. The technology packages included advanced
engines, transmissions, 42V engine stop-start systems, electrically-driven engine
accessories combined with fast warm-up strategies, aerodynamic drag and rolling
resistance reductions, and a friction reduction multiplier.
The technology packages assessed as high readiness level (or low risk) were predicted
to offer CO2 reduction potentials ranging from 9 - 29% on the combined metro-highway
drive cycle, and those with low technology readiness (or high risk) up to 32%. The
effects on vehicle performance were also reported along with the CO2 emission benefits
as they can have a strong impact on vehicle purchase decisions.
The potential benefits in reducing CO2 are seen to be significant, but it is important to
note that these are realized through the combination of a number of technologies. Most
of these technologies would add cost to the vehicles. The assessment of the economic
impact of these technology packages was outside of the scope of this study.
Finally, the CO2 and performance results for combinations of technologies represent
what could potentially be achieved when applied to a specific baseline vehicle. The
results are seen to vary significantly between different vehicle applications. Hence,
determination of the benefit of specific technology combinations to other vehicle
platforms would require a similar level of scientific analysis.
Ricardo, Inc. Page99of113 21 December2007
-------
TERMINOLOGY
AT Automatic Transmission, used here to refer to a planetary gearbox with torque
converter
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
BSFC Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
CAI Controlled Auto-Ignition
CCP Coordinated Cam Phaser (intake and exhaust cams have same phasing change)
CPS Crankshaft Position Sensor
CO2 Carbon Dioxide, a known greenhouse gas
CVVL Continuously Variable Valve Lift by means of a mechanical linkage
CVT Continuously Variable Transmission
DCP Dual Cam Phasers, one each on intake and exhaust cam giving independent
control of inlet and exhaust valve timing
DCT Dual Clutch Transmission (either wet-clutch or dry-clutch)
DEAC Cylinder Deactivation
DOC Diesel Oxidation Catalyst
DPF Diesel Particulate Filter
DVVL Discrete Variable Valve Lift, two or three stage variable valve lift by means of
cam profile switching
ECU Engine Control Unit
EGR Exhaust Gas Residual
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ePS Electric Power Steering (either full electric or electro-hydraulic)
ePump Both electric water pump and electric engine oil pump
ETW EPA Equivalent Test Weight
FDR Final Drive Ratio
FMEP Friction Mean Effective Pressure
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 100 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
FTP75 Federal Test Procedure, commonly referred to as the EPA City test cycle
GCW Gross Combined Weight
GDI Gasoline Direct Injection, with combustion occurring at stoichiometric conditions
GHG Green House Gas
HC Hydrocarbon Emissions
HCCI Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
HeAlt High efficiency Alternator
HPCR High Pressure Common Rail, diesel fuel injection system
HWFET Highway Fuel Economy Test, EPA test cycle commonly referred to as the
Highway cycle
14 In-line 4 cylinder engine
15 In-line 5 cylinder engine
ICP Intake Cam Phaser
LNT Lean NOX Trap
MPV Multi-Purpose Vehicle
NOX Nitrogen Oxides
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer, used to mean the automotive vehicle
manufacturers
PCCI Pre-mixed Charge Compression Ignition, synonymous w/ HCCI
PFI Port Fuel Injection
PMEP Pumping Mean Effective Pressure
SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction
T2B5 Tier 2 Bin 5 emissions standard
Turbo Turbocharger
V6 Vee-6 cylinder engine
V8 Vee-8 cylinder engine
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 101 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
VNT Variable Nozzle Turbocharger
VVT Variable Valve Timing
WOT Wide-Open Throttle, or full engine load
Ricardo, Inc. Page102of113 21 December2007
-------
APPENDIX
This appendix shows the complete final results tables, which include the data shown in Sections
1 and 7 and the additional performance metrics as discussed in Section 2.10.3.
Ricardo, Inc. Page103of113 21 December2007
-------
Table A-1: Standard Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
Base-
line
Z
1
2
OS
UJ
2.4L-4V 14
ICP
2.4L-4V 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L-4V 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI
Transmission
ATSspd
FDR 3.39
DCT6spd
FDR 2.96
DCTBspd
FDR 3.07
DCT6spd
FDR 3.23
DCT6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
CVTw!
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVT w/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
AT6spd
FDR 2.96
I
a.
o
«/>
N
Y
N
Y
Accessories
Meeh
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
•o
*
S
SL
m
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
f
£
Ss
1
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
m
3
1
cc
CL
bast
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
N
Y
Y
Y
ee»2
3.
CL
H
U.
g/rni
338
250
250
250
249
297
295
295
296
298
277
HWFET (Highway!
a/mi
21?
1 70
170
172
174
200
198
201
204
211
180
if
S/nii
284
214
214
215
215
253
251
253
255
259
233
1
3
5
h-
Cu
H
LL
%
26%
26%
26%
26%
12%
13%
13%
12%
12%
18%
1
CD
f
3
x
1—
LU
X
%
-
22%
22%
21%
20%
8%
9%
8%
6%
3%
17%
Combined (Metro-Highway)
Benefit
%
25%
25%
24%
24%
11%
11%
11%
10%
9%
18%
Performance
X
CL
o
<*?
o
sec
3.2
3.8
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.3
3.4
x
CL
o
sec
8.7
8.8
7.9
7.6
7.6
9.1
9.2
9.0
8.9
8.6
8.8
x
CL
S
o
o
sec
3.4
3.1
2.9
2.8
2.8
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.3
x
Q.
S
O
O
sec
5.4
4.7
4.3
4.3
4.3
5.0
5.1
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.3
4>
15
~
mph
28.3
22.4
25.1
26.2
27.2
24.9
24.8
25.5
26.3
27.9
26.7
-------
Table A-2: Standard Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
Standard Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
*
—
c
_
ra
-*£
CL
CL
LU
I
1
2
S
"ra
Z4L-4V 14
ICP
2.4L-4V 14
OWL + CCP
2.4L-4V 14
OWL + DCP
2.4L-4V 14
DCP
GDI
s
£
W
m
H
ATiipef
FOi 3,3i
DCT6spd
FDR 2.96
DCT6spd
FDR 3.07
DCT6spd
FDR 3. 23
DCT6spd
FDR 3.40
CVT
FDR 6.23
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.00
rvTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.25
CVT w/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 6.00
FDR 2.96
c
fS)
N
Y
N
Y
..
i
o
»
s
<
Mich
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
ePurnp
m
"S
E
a.
f
s
Blfll
Y
Y
Y
ggj
o
<
base
-20%
-20%
-2U%
.2
£
"3
a:
bise
-10%
-10%
-1U%
I
a.
5
s
s
~
LL
N
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
&
U
r*>*
LL
I—
LL.
mpg
26.9
36.4
36.4
36.4
36.4
30.6
30.8
30.8
30.7
30.5
32.8
f
$
"ffi
LU
1
mpg
41.8
53.5
53.6
52.8
52.3
45.5
45.9
45.2
44.5
43.1
50.6
?
~ 1
2 —
«_ ra
s =
i 2
S,
mpg
32,0
42.5
42.6
42,3
42.2
35.9
36.2
35.9
35.7
35.1
39.0
m
m
^
O
Q_
H
%
35%
35%
35%
35%
14%
15%
14%
14%
13%
22%
-
~
3
01
jj*
5
"9>
X
H
LU
S
X
%
28%
28%
26%
25%
9%
10%
8%
7%
3%
21%
•K
1
X
S ^
-_ jjj
=
E
u
%
33%
33%
32%
32%
12%
13%
12%
11%
9%
22%
Performance
LL
O
sec
3,2
3R
3.5
3.4
3.3
-i/
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.3
3.4
a.
o
sec
6.7
RR
7.9
7,6
7.6
9 1
9.2
9.0
8.9
8.6
a.«
X
CL
t^
O
O
sec
3,4
31
2.9
2.8
2.8
'1V
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.3
X
CL
^
O
o
sec
5,4
47
4.3
4.3
4.3
Ml
5.1
4.9
4.9
4.9
5.3
Q
CS
«•>
13
-
"
mph
28.3
724
25.1
26,2
27.2
','4 M
24.8
25.5
26.3
27.9
26. /
3S
«>
^5
1
"S
a
meters
19.2
12.7
15.3
16,0
16.7
16.3
16.2
16.7
17,4
18.6
16.8
2-
B
B"
U 22
» f—
1 e
5
X
CL
O
N-
%
13J
15.3
16.0
16.7
17.5
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.9
14.8
gear
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
CL
s
o
sec
1,3
1 fi
1.4
1.3
1.3
1 'f
1.3
1,2
1.2
1.1
1.2
LL
s
o
sec
6.6
fiq
6.4
6,2
6.1
HM
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.5
b./
£
O
sec
12.0
11 6
10.7
10.5
10.4
11 M
12.0
11.7
11.6
11.3
1211
" *
s =
a.
o U
!~ 0!
CL «
%
5,2
4.7
5.0
5.5
5.9
6.6
6.6
7.1
7.6
8.7
4.7
ff_ «e
^ ^
s =
' £L
O O
H tf
CL J?
S yj
r^
%
4,6
4.2
4.5
5.0
5.4
6.1
6.1
6.6
7.2
8.2
4.2
Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is constrainted to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
Engine Teiniinoloyy: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam
Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL= Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI= Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Teiminoloqy AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessoiies Tenniiinloyy: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
W«iini-ii|) Model Teuniiiology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 105 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table A-3: Small MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Small MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EC
J
Vf<
%
&.
<
Q.
Phi
z
1
2
5
15
i
14L-4V 14
2.4L 14
DWL + CCP
2.4L 14
DWL + DCP
GDI
2.4L [4
DCP
SO!
1.9L M Diesel
wrth
after! re atrnent
1 .51 14 Tutto
DCP
GDI
i
K
ATdqxl
FDR 191
DCT6spd
FDR 3 10
CVT
FDR5.B
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4 64
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4 90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5 15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5 SO
AT 6spd
FDR 2.8
DCT6spd
FDR 3 00
DCT 6spd
FDR 3 2
DCT 6spd
FDR 3. 36
DCT6spd
FDR 3 52
DCT 6spd
FDR 3,68
42V StO|>-St,nt
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
.1
1
<
iP5
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAll
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAll
ePS
ePump
heAlt
s
f
3
it|i
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
a
btii
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
ec
biii
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
*|
1
®
tZ
N
¥
Y
Y
Y
Y
C02
a!
r~
g/mi
mr
272
313
310
309
309
310
290
2B2
272
272
272
273
HWFET iHlcjIiwayl
g/ms
111
206
231
227
229
231
234
211
205
211
211
212
213
l{
1}
S
g/mr
111
243
276
273
273
274
276
255
247
244
245
245
246
^
i
cs
f
£
u.
%
26%
15%
16%
16%
16%
16%
21%
23%
26%
26%
26%
26%
HWFET (HNjhw.iy) Benefit
%
18*
9%
10%
10%
9%
7%
17%
19%
17%
17%
,6%
16%
1
X
i i
s S
™ m
O
%
23%
13%
14%
13%
13%
13%
19%
22%
23%
22%
22%
22%
Performance
X
a.
S
sec
1.1
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.6
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
X
a.
S
sec
11.4
10.4
103
103
103
10.0
9.7
107
104
10,1
9.8
9.6
9.5
30-50 MPH
sec
i.r
3.7
34
34
34
3.4
3.4
4.5
39
3.6
3.3
3 2
3.2
50-70 HPH
sec
10
6.1
52
52
52
5.2
5.2
69
63
4.S
52
5.2
5.2
>
mpi-
14.6
18.8
18.?
18.7
19.3
28.3
21.6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17. 8
18.9
20.0
1
meters
16,7
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Grade Capability
.ItETW
%
141
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.9
13.1
12.9
13.6
14.1
14.6
gear
lirf
2nd
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
0-10 MPH
sec
1.1
1.8
1 7
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1 2
1 7
2.2
21
2.0
1.9
1,50 MPH
sec
75
6.1
6.0
8.0
8.0
7.7
7.4
8.3
7.B
B.2
7.7
7.5
7.3
1-70 MPH
sec
111
14.2
132
132
,32
129
12.6
152
141
13.0
129
127
125
60 MPH Top Gut ETW
Grade Cap ability A
%
1.1
2.6
3.3
3.3
3.7
4.2
4.8
1.9
4.8
2.6
3.1
36
4.1
70 MPH Top-Gear ETW
Gr.id* Capability*
%
1.1
2.1
2.8
2.8
3.2
3.8
4.5
1.4
6.2
2.4
2.3
3.4
3.9
Low Technology Readiness - 16 Years
15a
I5b
2.4L 14
Camless
GDI
2.4L 14
HCCI
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3.1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 31
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAll
ePS
ePump
heAll
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
262
270
193
197
231
237
29%
26%
24%
22%
27%
25%
4.3
4.3
103
103
37
37
61
6.1
19.6
19. 6
11.7
11.7
16.6
16.6
2nd
2nd
1 7
1.7
8.0
8.0
141
141
2.6
26
2.1
2.1
Accessintes Teriiiiti
W.iim-ii|' Model Te
grade capability is constrained to the lop gear and i* used as an indication of torque reserve, See section 2 for discussion on performance mot tic?
14 ~ Inline 4 cylinder , VB ~ Vee-engrne 8 cylinders, 2/3/4*= 2/3/4 valves/cylmder, GDI- Gasoline Direct Injection (SiGichmmetrie). DCP= Dual Cam Phasers, CCP ~ Coordina
Cam Phaser, DWL- Discrete Variable Valve Lift, OWL- Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac - Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI - Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
ioleijy: AT= Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all otheis), CVT= Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
il«i)^. Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High- efficiency Alternetot
iihioiflgy. Bagl = Conection factor for Bag1 is 0 8*Bag3, V = Physcs-based engine warm-up mode! applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 106 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table A-4: Small MPV Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
Small MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPA Package Identifier
BlfB-
Z
1
2
5
15
"S
3.JL-4V It
24LW
DWL + CCP
24LI4
DVvl + DCP
GDI
24LI4
DCP
GDI
1.9LI4 Diesel
with
aftertreatment
1.5LI4 Turbo
DCP
GDI
I
FBI 1.11
DCTBspd
FDR 3.10
CVT
FDR 5 8
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 4. 64
CVT w/
revised ratio
FDR 4.90
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.15
CVTw/
revised ratio
FDR 5.50
ATispd
FDR 2 8
DCT6spd
FDR 3.00
DCTBspd
FDR 3.2
DCTBspd
FDR 3.36
DCTBspd
FDR 3.52
DCT Bspd
FDR3.6S
42¥ Stop-Start
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
i
Muh
«PS
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Warm-up Model
B.,1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
o
i
ta»
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
i
1
"e
ta.
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
.1
"5
u.
n
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
^
CL
&-
mps
349
33.4
29.0
29.3
29.4
29.4
29.4
31.3
35.9
33.4
33.4
33.4
33.3
I
z
1
mpfl
35.1
43. B
39.4
40.0
39.7
39.4
38. B
43.1
49.3
43.1
43.1
42.9
42.7
°I
rnpg
mi
37.4
329
333
333
332
330
35.7
40.8
372
37,2
37.1
369
CD
Q.
f—
%
35%
17%
18%
19%
19%
19%
26%
45%
35%
35%
35%
34%
i
i
en
H
1
%
22%
10%
11%
11%
10%
8%
20%
37%
20%
20%
19%
19%
"f
*
ir
f 1
S X
u
%
30%
14%
16%
16%
15%
14%
24%
42%
23%
29%
29%
2B%
Performance
a.
o
sec
3.1
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.1
3.6
3.9
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
9-68 MPH
sec
10-t
10.4
10.3
10.3
10.3
100
9.7
10.7
10.4
10.1
9.6
9.B
9.5
38-50 MPH
sec
3,7
37
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.5
3.9
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.2
58-70 MPH
sec
1.B
6.1
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
6.9
6.3
4.9
5.2
5.2
5.2
1
mph
341
18.8
18.7
18.7
19.3
20.3
21 6
24.5
24.1
16.6
17.8
18.9
20.0
1
5
meters
my
10.8
12.0
12.0
12.3
13.0
13.8
16.1
12.9
8.9
9.5
10.1
10.7
70 MPH Gait C«(Hiliililjr
at ETW
%
14.1
16.7
167
IB 7
167
167
167
16.9
13.1
129
13, i
14.1
146
gear
3rt
2nd
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
1
sec
1.3
1.B
1 7
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.2
„
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
8-58 MPH
sec
7.5
8.1
0.0
8.0
8.0
7.7
7.4
8.3
7.8
B.2
7.7
7.5
7.3
MB MPH
sec
tu
14.2
13.2
13.2
13.2
12.9
12.6
15.2
14.1
13.0
12.9
12.7
12.5
60 MPH T«p S«a ETW
Grade Capability A
%
«
2.6
3.3
3.3
3.7
4.2
4.8
1.9
4.8
2.6
3.1
3.6
4.1
70 MPH Top-Cur ETW
Grade C«|»liility "
%
3.1
2.1
2.8
2.0
3.2
3.8
4.5
1.4
5.2
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.9
Low Teehnsii»gy Readiness - 18 Years
15a
1Sb
2.4L 14
Camless
GDI
2.4L [4
HCC!
GDI
DCT 6spd
FDR 3,1
DCT 6 spd
FDR 3 1
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
V
34.7
33.6
47.1
46.1
393
38.3
40%
38%
31 %
28%
37%
33%
4.3
4.3
103
10.3
3.7
3.7
6.1
6.1
19.6
19.6
11.7
11.7
166
16.8
2nd
2nd
1.7
1.7
8.0
8.0
14.1
14.1
2.6
2.6
2.1
2.1
Engine Terminology W = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam
Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL= Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac= Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Cha
Tiiiiisinissieii Tettuinoioqy AT = Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans {Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for ali others), CYT- Continuously Variable Trans, FDR =
AccessoiiesT&irniriology Mecrt = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS - electric Power Steering, ePurnp = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-eftkien
W.iim-tij} Model Teiminoloijy: Bag1 = Co?n?ction factor for Bacjl is 0 B'BagJ, V = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam
rge Compression ignition
: Final Drive Ratio
cy Alternator
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 107 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table A-5: Full Size Car Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Full Size Car Vehicle
Technology Package Description
S
S
g/mi
35i
296
273
273
286
289
293
289
255
S
©
ca
.s-
l^
Q.
f—
%
18%
25%
25%
19%
20%
19%
20%
29%
1
CQ
§
S
1-
LU
z
%
15%
21%
21%
21%
16%
15%
16%
28%
'?•
S
"~1
x
11
£
Q
u
%
17%
23%
24%
20%
19%
18%
19%
28%
Performance
X
Q.
£
f*5
O
sec
IB
7R
9R
2.b
2.5
33
3.1
3.1
2.7
X
a.
S
••*
o
sac
6.7
R6
71
/.1
7.1
73
7.1
7.0
6.B
X
Q.
S
o
S
sec
13
23
27
27
2.7
73
23
2.3
25
X
0.
^
o
sac
3.8
34
43
4.3
4.3
33
3.4
3.5
3.6
S
?
®
mph
33.7
337
33 R
34.3
34.3
-JRfl
28.6
28.7
333
4)
S
.2
maters
24,i
22.0
21.7
22.4
22.4
16.8
17.8
17.9
21.8
15
•s
i
»5
,"
X
Q.
%
24.6
25.6
18.5
18.5
18.5
26.1
26.1
25.6
27.2
gear
2nd
2nd
4th
4th
4th
2nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
X
Q.
S
o
sac
0.8
1 0
1 1
1.1
1.1
1 7
1.2
1.2
1.0
X
Q.
S
L">
O
sec
4.9
5n
53
b.2
5.2
57
5.5
5.5
51
X
S.
S
t*.
o
sac
B.7
R4
9R
M.b
9.5
HQ
8.8
8.9
8.8
?~
HJ g,
1 Z
a. S"
i— ":
Q. 2
E a
*a
%
i.4
4.8
10.6
10.6
10.6
4.7
5.4
4.7
4.6
UJ £,
-------
Table A-6: Full Size Car Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
Full Size Car Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
o
OS
ff>
.*£
CL
UJ
Base-
line
4
5
6a
16
«
'«
LU
w
2.2L 14 Turbo
DCP
GDI
2.8L I4/5
aftertreatment
2.8L I4/5 US
Diesel with
aftertreatment
3.0LVB
DCP + CWL
GDI
3 5L VB
CCP + 0eac
GDI
o
1
e
H
FDR 237
AT6spd
FDR 3. OB
DCT Bspd
FDR 3.06
DCT Bspd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT Bspd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
DCT Bspd
FDR 3.08
DCT Bspd
FDR 3.20
DCT Bspd
6.55 span
FDR 3.08
AT6spd
FDR 2.7
S
o
tSi
SM
N
N
N
N
Y
.1
m
Is
o
<
Mich
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePump
-
o
S
a.
e
1
Bijl
Y
Y
Y
Y
ff
Q
i»
**
bail
-20%
-20%
-20%
-20%
w
2
i
w
cr
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
1
2
'fj
LL
M
Y
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
s
S,
H
mpg
21.7
26.3
31.9
32.1
29.7
27.2
26.9
27.2
30.3
I
JZ
[_»
LU
i
mpg
32.S
38,5
45,8
45,7
45.9
38.8
38.3
38.8
45,4
f
I 1
u S
s
mpfl
26.5
30,7
37.0
37.0
35,3
31.4
31.0
31,4
35,7
i
SX9
O
«
CL
I-
%
21%
47%
48%
37%
25%
24%
26%
40%
as
ffi
|
-C
ss
LU
S
X
%
18%
40%
40%
41%
19%
18%
19%
40%
I
"S
I J
•c
•=
p
o
%
20%
45%
45%
38%
23%
22%
23%
40%
Performance
Q_
IS
o
o
sec
11
26
'>K
2.5
2.5
a.d
3.1
3.1
2.7
a.
o
o
sec
I.?
Rfi
71
7.1
7.1
/.a
7.1
7.0
6.8
Q.
a
"7
s
P"S
sec
2.3
91
">7
2.7
2.,'
2.J
2.3
2.3
2.5
a.
o
e
sec
3.8
34
43
4.J
4.3
d.a
3.4
3.5
3.6
mph
33.7
337
338
34-3
34.3
26.S
28.6
28. /
33-3
y
m
•s
mete is
24.1
22.0
21,7
22,4
22,4
16.8
17.8
17.9
21.8
1
i
Ss
z
Q.
O
%
14.8
25,6
18,5
18.5
18,5
26.1
26.1
25,6
27.2
gear
2n7
5.5
6.5
5.1
a.
o
o
sec
8.?
84
9R
9.5
a.fa
a.a
8.8
8.9
8.8
5
UJ ^
t5 s
z —
Q. P
S (3
§
yfe
8J
4.8
10.6
10.B
10.6
4.7
5.4
4.7
4.6
S
LU g,
a *
e U
I -s
Q. -5
S 5
e
%
S3
5.0
10.5
10.5
10.5
4.3
4.9
4.3
4.2
Low Technology Readiness - 10 Years
Yl
Y2
3.5LVE
Carnless
GDI
3.5L VB
HCCI
GDI
FDR 2 80
DCT Bspd
FDR 2.80
N
N
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-20%
-20%
-10%
-10%
Y
Y
32.7
31.4
45,7
46.1
37.5
36.6
51%
45%
40%
42%
47%
44%
3.1
3 1
6.8
RR
2.2
29
3.2
32
29.3
293
17.9
17.9
28.7
28.7
2nd
2nd
1.2
1 2
5.3
53
8.5
85
4.9
4.9
4.6
4.6
cssiori on performance metrics.
Enyme T6iinin«l«?jy: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v= 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric). DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Ca
Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, OWL = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL= Continuously Vanable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Transmission Terminology: AT- Automatic Trans, DCT- Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for ail others), OVT ~ Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Access-ones-Teiminoloyy Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePurnp = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
W*iini-M|j Model Teiniinoli>yy. Bagl = Correction factor tor Bag1 is0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 109 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table A-7: Large MPV Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Large MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
3
"5
<*3
o
a.
a.
yj
Bssi-
lini
4
6b
16
45
"5*
c
yj
W
2.1LI4Turbo
DCP
GDI
o ni \/K
CCP -4- Deac
27L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
3 8L V6
CCP + Deac
GDI
s
"5
i
AT4spd
FOB 3.43
AT 6spd
FDR 3 17
DCTBspd
FDR 3.17
DCT6spd
FDR 3.72
DCTBspd
FDR 3.00
DCT B^pd
FDR 3.72
AT Bspd
FDR 2.7
e
55
o
"*f
N
N
N
Y
.1
Accesso
Mich
ePS
ePump
heAIt
ePS
ePump
heAIt
ePS
ePurnp
1
*
s.
S
1
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
S?
Q
®
base
-20%
-20%
-20%
*
Q
S
s
Of
tasa
-10%
-10%
-10%
,_
s
s
I
N
Y
Y
Y
CO2
•?
o
to
Q.
t-
U.
g/mi
45§
357
333
331
336
320
325
1?
1
X,
i—
UJ
X
g/mi
313
256
241
244
240
240
223
—
"s §
c =
5 £
u S
S
g/mi
3i3
312
292
292
293
284
279
m
I
5,
Q-
%
-
22%
27%
28%
27%
30%
29%
1
S
CQ
1*
"ra
E.
IXi
X
%
18%
23%
22%
23%
23%
29%
o .£
f 1
s ^
— CO
2 ?
%
-
21%
26%
26%
25%
28%
29%
Performance
o.
o
sec
3,3
3.2
.„
35
4.1
:HH
3.3
a.
o
o
sec
9.3
8.0
R5
R1
8.7
8 9
9.3
X
Q.
?
O
f^i
sec
3,5
2.8
1R
77
2.8
HII
3.4
X
o.
h"
O
yr.
sec
5.1
4.3
4?
4?
4.1
4H
5.6
u
»
1=
"o
>
mph
27.5
27.8
71 3
745
20.1
V1 /
27.1
u
a^
1
Q
meters
1B.9
16.5
11.9
13.6
11.3
12.1
15.6
$
i
a.
U g
P
S
o
%
17.7
17.1
16.8
19.7
15.5
1/4
17.0
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
HrH
2nd
Q.
O
sec
1,3
1.3
1 7
1 R
1.8
1 /
1.4
o
o
sec
l.i
6.0
67
K7
6.9
KH
6.7
Q.
O
h-
sec
12.4
10.3
1flq
1H4
11.0
11 H
12.3
5
(* ^
MPH Top
Grade Ca|
o
%
5,7
4.3
4.5
5.9
4.0
5.0
4.0
5
F "-
(5 c
o
X -3
Q. ^
O
%
5.2
4.5
3.8
5.2
3.5
4.3
3.6
Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is constrairited to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
Enijine Teiminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, V8 = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 vahres/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam
Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CVVL= Continuously Variable Valva Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Ti.iiismission Teiminology: A.T = Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT= Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
ftccessoiies Terminology: fvlech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePurnp = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAIt = High-efficiency Alternator
W Model Teiminology: Bagl = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page110of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table A-8: Large MPVVehicle Class Fuel Economy
Large MPV Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
EPft Package Identifier
Base-
lirw
4
6b
16
LLJ
Vi
2.1LI4Turbo
DCP
GDI
3.0L VB
CCP + Deac
2.7LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
3.8LV6
CCP + Deac
GDI
Transmission
AT4spd
FDR 3.43
ATBspd
FDR 3.17
DCTBspd
FDR 3.17
DCTBspd
FDR 3.72
DCTBspd
FDR 3.00
DCTBspd
FDR 3.72
ATBspd
FDR 2.7
o
>
N
N
N
Y
Accessories
Mich
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePurnp
Warm -up Model
B.|1
Y
Y
Y
!»
Q
o
i»
<
-20%
-20%
-20%
U
1
Q£
Si
"5
-10%
-10%
-10%
Frictional Multiplier
M
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
is.
c_
t
mpg
w,e
25.5
27.3
27.5
27.0
28.4
28.0
|
x_
I—
uu
mpg
29.0
35.4
37.7
37.2
37.8
37,8
40.8
Combined
(Metro-Highway)
mpg
23.1
29.2
31.1
31.1
31.0
32,0
32.6
1
CO
o.
CL
h-
LL
%
28%
37%
38%
36%
43%
41%
1
3>
03
H
X
%
-
22%
30%
28%
30%
30%
41%
Combined (Metro-
Highway) Benefit
%
•
26%
35%
35%
34%
38%
41%
Performance
X
CL
S
o
en
o
sec
3,3
3.2
3.9
3.5
4.1
3,8
3.3
X
e
o
sec
9.3
8.0
8.5
8.1
8.7
8,9
9.3
X
Q.
O
O
sec
3.S
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.8
3.0
3.4
X
CL
o
o
sec
i.i
4.3
4.2
4.2
4.1
4.8
5.6
u
tnph
27,6
27.8
21.3
24.5
20.1
21.7
27.1
Dist at 3 sec
meters
16.9
16.5
11.9
13.6
11.3
12.1
15.6
&.
•0 UJ
X
Q.
%
1?.?
17.1
16,8
19.7
15.5
17.4
17,0
gear
2nd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
3rd
2nd
X
CL
O
O
sec
1.3
1.3
1.7
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.4
X
Q.
e
o
sec
i.i
6.0
6.7
6.2
6.9
6.8
6.7
X
CL
9
O
sec
12 .4
10.3
10.9
10.4
11.0
11.6
12.3
60 MPH Top Gear ETW
Grade Capability *
%
5.7
4.3
4.5
5.9
4.0
5.0
4.0
70 MPH Top-Gear ETW
Grade Capability *
%
S.2
4.5
3.8
5.2
3.5
4.3
3.6
Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is coristrainted to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
Engine Terminology: 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, VB = Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam
Phasers, ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DWL= Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CWL= Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Tiiinsmissioii Teiminology: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT = Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT = Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessories Terminology: Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
Warm-up Model Terminology: Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0.8*Bag3, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page 111 of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table A-9: Truck Vehicle Class CO2 Emissions
Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
"£
j£
—
c
a
c£
D.
LU
Base-
line
6-3pd
AT
9
10
11
12
17
2
s
m
VB
CCP
5.4L-3V VB
CCP
5.4L-3VV8
CCP + Deac
GD!
3.6LV6 Turbo
DCP
GDI
4.8L V6 Diese!
with
aftertreatment
5.4L-3V VB
CCP + Deac
6D!
5.4L VB
DVVL + DCP
GDI
=
.—
1?
=
S
AT4spd
FOB 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCT6spd
FDR 3.3
DCTBspd
DCTSspd
DCTBspd
FDR 3. 41
DCTBspd
DCTBspd
FDR 3 15
FDR 31
AT 6spd
FDR 3 1
=
*z
>
o
>
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
N
9
Mech
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePump
heAlt
"®
o
^
t
=
«.
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
V
Y
!?N
2
o
«
>_
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-1U%
-10%
V
^
.2
tf
«=
CC
base
base
base
base
base
base
S
-
•£
uZ
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
CO2
-
:-?
w
a.
H-
LL
g/iro
in
586
448
404
416
418
421
444
450
492
S
•=,
™
H
g/mi
«
396
323
319
321
323
325
326
319
333
>« ^
g/rni
ii r
500
392
366
373
37B
378
391
391
420
S
ffi!
lix
^
trt
a.
U.
%
*
27%
34%
32%
32%
31 %
27%
27%
20%
1
m
^
5
JT
LU
*
z:
%
-
X
20%
21%
20%
19%
19%
19%
21%
17%
If
t£ f-
S ®
~
%
X
24%
29%
26%
27%
27%
24%
24%
19%
Performance
S
o
sec
11
2.3
2.7
•39
2.8
27
9fi
2.7
2.4
2.2
?
o
sec
„
7.5
78
67
64
64
R3
7 7
7.5
7.1
a.
o
f^
sec
3.
2.9
2.8
2 2
2.2
17
7?
2.7
2.9
2.7
CL
o
tf~.
SGC
41
5,0
4.6
35
3.6
3R
36
4.7
4.H
4.5
',»
*
?*>
15
>
rnph
33.1
35.9
32.7
31 5
32.6
135
•*<;
32.5
*.B
37.1
w
a
^~«
J
O
meters
23.3
26.2
21.1
19.3
19.8
20.5
21.4
20.4
25.2
27.3
S
t
«v ^
^ Q
1 ^
X
%
B.B
8.5
84
P3
12.5
13.0
12.9
10.2
1UV
10.7
gear
2ml
3rd
3rd
?nd
2nd
2nd
2nd
3rd
2nd
2nd
E
o
o
sec
03
0.7
1.0
17
1 1
1 1
1 1
1.2
Ub
0,7
S
o
sec
5.1
5,2
5,5
51
5,0
^q
4fl
5,5
b.2
4.9
o
o
sec
11,2
10.2
10.1
HR
8.6
R5
H4
10.2
111.1
9.4
5
t! S
.* <
H -'
X ^
O. ^
o
%
1,2
5.5
5.3
6.1
6.9
7,4
8.0
8.0
4.7
4.7
?
- .-
,® -~
*•; ^
H '^
X ~
%
a?
5.0
48
5.6
62
6.7
73
9.0
4.1
4.1
S
- s
* "£
~' ^
H '-'
11
o
%
S.I
2.3
2.2
2,5
2.8
3,1
3.3
3.3
1.9
2.0
Low Technology Reariiiiess - 10 Years
X1
X2
5.4LVB
Camless
GD!
5.4LVB
HCCI
GDI
FDR 3.35
DCT6spd
N
N
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
Y
Y
-10%
-10%
base
base
Y
Y
422
425
314
311
374
374
31 %
31%
22%
23%
26%
28%
2,7
2.7
7.7
7.7
2.8
2.8
4.6
4.6
32.8
32.8
21.2
21.2
8.6
8.6
3rd
3rd
1.0
1.0
5.5
5.5
10.0
10.0
5.5
5.5
5.0
5.0
2.4
2.4
Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is constrainted to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
Etiyine Teniiiiioloyy 14 - Inline 4 cylinder, V8 - Vee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v- 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI - Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichiometricj, DCP - Dual Cam Phasers, CCP - Coordinated Cam Phasers,
ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, D^i/L = Discrete Variable Valve Lift, CYVL = Continuously Variable Valve Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Ti.insmission TeuisiiHtiofjy. AT = Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for ail others), CYT= Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Ac.cessotiesTeitnmoIoijjf Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
$/,iiin-ii|j Mutle! Temiiiiohiijy Bag1 = Correction factor for Bag1 is 0 8*Bag3, ¥ = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page112of 113
21 December 2007
-------
Table A-10: Truck Vehicle Class Fuel Economy
Truck Vehicle Class
Technology Package Description
s
3=
1
0>
^
a.
CL
Bass-
ins
6-Spd
AT
9
10
11
12
17
ffi
"§!
UJ
S.4L-3¥ VB
CCP
5.4L-3V VB
CCP
5.4L-3V VB
CCP +Deac
GDI
3.6LVB Turbo
DCP
GDI
4.8LV6 Diesel
with
aft eft re at merit
5 4L-3V VB
CCP +Deac
GDI
5.4L VB
DWL + DCP
GDI
C
e
"S
~
3
N
AT Ispii
FDR 3.73
AT 6spd
FDR 3.60
DCTBspd
FDR 3.3
DCT6spd
FDR 3.1
DCTBspd
FOR 3.26
DCTBspd
FDR 3. 41
DCTBspd
FDR 3 15
AT Gspd
FDR 3.1
AT Gspd
I
&
a.
s
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
N
1
s
1
Medi
Mech
ePS
ePurnp
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
ePS
ePurnp
heAlt
o
s
E
1
B*
Bag1
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
w
a
<
blii
base
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
-10%
1
i
cn
.E
Q;
taii
base
base
base
base
bsise
base
_
,Eh
5
,2
u.
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Fuel Economy
$
G
i—
LL
mpg
,„
15.5
20.3
22.5
21.8
21.7
21.6
22.7
20.2
18.5
1
i
.E
sn
yj
s
mpg
22.i
23.0
28.2
28.5
28.3
26.1
279
31.0
28.5
27.3
¥
11
.= es
of
=
mpg
17.1
18.2
23.2
24.9
24.3
24.2
24.1
25.8
23.2
21.6
«
a?
a
ITS
F-w
a_
H
/Q
-
«
37%
52%
47%
46%
46%
53%
36%
24%
1
?
•£,
LU
1
%
X
24%
26%
25%
24%
23%
37%
26%
21%
* £
li
— m
*"S
.2 J
-3 5
%
-
X
32%
42%
39%
38%
37%
47%
32%
23%
Performance
X
a.
o
®
sec
ZB
2.3
27
2.9
2.8
2.7
7fi
2.7
2.4
2.2
£
CL
o
sec
7.7
7.5
7.8
6.7
M
R4
R1
7.7
7,5
7.1
x:
Q.
S=
S
sec
3,0
2.9
2.8
2.2
-n
-1-1
T?
2.7
2.9
2.7
X
a.
3=
s
sec
(J
5.0
4.6
3.5
3R
3R
3R
4.7
4.9
4.5
s
B
5
mph
33.1
35.9
32.7
31.5
T'fi
335
355
32.5
35.6
37.1
»
•g
.1
meters
23.3
26.2
21.1
19.3
19.8
20.5
21.4
20.4
25.2
27.3
I
-•5
Is 'J
X
a.
«
%
GLB
8.5
8.4
12.3
P5
13 n
179
10.2
10.7
10.7
qear
2-
3rd
3rd
2nd
^nd
7rirt
?nrl
3rd
2nd
2nd
X
Q.
O
O
sec
D.i
0.7
1.0
1.2
1 1
1 1
1 1
1.2
0.8
0.7
X
CL
o
®
sec
5,B
5.2
55
5.1
5fl
4«
4R
5.5
5.2
4.9
X
Q.
O
*
sec
1U.2
10.2
10.1
8.6
RR
H5
H4
10.2
10.1
9.4
UJ %
'J5 *c
f" ,1
i 4
D. ^
s <5
S
%
i.2
5.5
5.3
6.1
6.9
7.4
8.0
8.0
4.7
4.7
UJ £..
•^ "^
£a- *3
I ^
a. c
o
%
5.7
5.0
4.8
5.6
6.2
6.7
7.3
9.0
4.1
4.1
8,
f~ &
5 ™
4j ^
X ~
o. ^
E '^
i
%
2.B
2.3
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.1
3.3
3.3
1.9
2.0
Low Technology Readings - 10 Years
X1
»
5.4LVB
Camless
GDI
5.4LVB
HCCI
GDI
DCTBspd
FDR 3.35
DCT Bspd
FDR 3.35
N
N
ePS
ePump
heAlt
ePS
ePump
heAlt
Y
Y
-10%
-10%
base
base
Y
Y
21.5
21.4
28.9
29.2
24.3
24.3
45%
44%
28%
29%
38%
38%
27
2.7
7.7
7.7
28
2.8
4.6
4.6
32.8
32.8
21.2
21.2
86
8.6
3rd
3rd
1.0
1.0
55
5.5
10.0
10.0
5.5
5.5
5.0
5.0
2.4
2.4
Footnote A: Top-gear grade capability is ctmstrainted to the top gear and is used as an indication of torque reserve. See section 2 for discussion on performance metrics.
Emjine Teimiiiology; 14 = Inline 4 cylinder, YB = Yee-engine 8 cylinders, 2/3/4v = 2/3/4 valves/cylinder, GDI = Gasoline Direct Injection (Stoichionietric), DCP = Dual Cam Phasers, CCP = Coordinated Cam Phasers,
ICP = Intake Cam Phaser, DYYL= Discrete Variable Vaive Lift, CWL= Continuously Variable Vafee Lift, Deac = Cylinder Deactivation, HCCI = Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
Ti.iitsmission Teinimohxjy: AT = Automatic Trans, DCT= Dual-Clutch Trans (Dry clutch for Std Car, Wet clutch for all others), CVT= Continuously Variable Trans, FDR = Final Drive Ratio
Accessaries Teiminolociy; Mech = Mechanically-driven accessories, ePS = electric Power Steering, ePump = electric engine oil and coolant pumps, heAlt = High-efficiency Alternator
W(iiHi-(ip Model Temiiiioloijy. Bagl = Correction factor for Bag1 is dS'SagS, Y = Physics-based engine warm-up model applied
Ricardo, Inc.
Page113of 113
21 December 2007
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