vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
An Introduction to
Freshwater Fishes as
Biological Indicators
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EPA-260-R-08-016
November 2008
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes
as Biological Indicators
Prepared by:
Jeffrey D. Grabarkiewicz1 and Wayne S. Davis2
1Ecological Survey and Design, LLC
1517 W. Temperance Rd.
Temperance, Ml 48182
2U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Environmental Information
Office of Information Analysis and Access
Washington, DC 20460
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Environmental Information
Office of Information Analysis and Access
Washington, DC 20460
Printed on chlorine free 100% recycled paper with
100% post-consumer fiber using vegetable-based ink.
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if.
NOTICE
This document has been reviewed and approved in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency policy. Mention of trade names, products, or services does not convey and should not be
interpreted as conveying official EPA approval, endorsement, or recommendation for use.
Funding was provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Contract # 68-C-04-
006, Work Assignment #4-79 with the Great Lakes Environmental Center, Inc.
The appropriate citation for this report is:
Grabarkiewicz, J. and W. Davis. 2008. An introduction to freshwater fishes as biological indicators.
EPA-260-R-08-016. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental Information,
Washington, DC.
The entire document can be downloaded from:
http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/html/publications.html
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the many individuals who provided manuscripts and papers for our review
and reference. We would also like to thank the various reviewers who provided valuable comments
regarding the format and content of this guide including James Kurtenbach, Louis Reynolds, Scott
Stranko, and Richard Spear.
IV
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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CONTENTS
Notice iv
Acknowledgements iv
Introduction 1
Basic Fish Anatomy 3
Fish as Biological Indicators 4
Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) 6
Sampling Fish Populations 8
Fish Habitats 10
Family and Species Accounts 12
Lampreys (Petromyzontidae) 13
Chestnut Lamprey (Ichthyomyzon castaneus) 15
American Brook Lamprey (Lampetra appendix) 15
Sturgeons (Acipenseridae) 16
Lake Sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) 18
Shovelnose Sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus platorynchus) 18
Minnows (Cyprinidae) 19
Central Stoneroller (Campostoma anomalum) 22
Redside Dace (Clinostomus elongatus) 22
Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) 23
Streamline Chub (Erimystax dissimils) 23
Gravel Chub (Erimystaxx-punctatus) 24
Crescent Shiner (Luxilus cerasinus) 24
Striped Shiner (Luxilus chrysocephalus) 25
Common Shiner (Luxilus cornutus) 25
River Chub (Nocomis micropogon) 26
Silverjaw Minnow (Notropis buccatus) 26
Rosyface Shiner (Notropis rubellus) 27
Pugnose Minnow (Opsopoeodus emiliae) 27
Bluntnose Minnow (Pimephales notatus) 28
Blacknose Dace (Rhynichthys atratulus) 28
Longnose Dace (Rhynichthys cataractae) 29
Creek Chub (Semotilus atromaculatus) 29
Suckers (Catostomidae) 30
Quillback (Carpiodes cyprinus) 31
White Sucker (Catostomus commersoni) 31
Northern Hog Sucker (Hypentileum nigricans) 32
Smallmouth Buffalo (Ictiobus bubulas) 32
Spotted Sucker (Minytrema melanops) 33
Golden Redhorse (Moxostoma erythrurum) 33
Shorthead Redhorse (Moxostoma macrolepidotum) 34
Black Jumprock (Scartomyzon cervinus) 34
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators v
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CONTENTS (CON'T)
Catfishes (Ictaluridae) 36
Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) 38
Stonecat Madtom (Noturus flavus) 38
Tadpole Madtom (No torus gyrinus) 39
Brindled Madtom (Noturus miurus) 39
Trouts (Salmonidae) 40
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 42
Brown Trout (Salmo trutta) 42
Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) 43
Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush) 43
Pikes (Esocidae) 44
Grass Pickerel (Esox americanus vermiculatus) 46
Northern Pike (Esox lucius) 46
Topminnows and Killifishes (Fundulidae) 47
Western Banded Killifish (Fundulus d. diaphanus) 49
Blackstripe Topminnow (Fundulus notatus) 49
Sculpins (Cottidae) 50
Mottled Sculpin (Cottus bairdi) 52
Banded Sculpin (Cottus carolinae) 52
Sunfishes (Centrarchidae) 53
Rock Bass (Ambloplites rupestris) 55
Bluespotted Sunfish (Enneacanthus gloriosus) 55
Redbreast Sunfish (Lepomis auritus) 56
Green Sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) 56
Pumpkinseed Sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus) 57
Warmouth Sunfish (Lepomis gulosus) 57
Orangespotted Sunfish (Lepomis humilis) 58
Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) 58
Dollar Sunfish (Lepomis marginatus) 59
Longear Sunfish (Lepomis megalotis) 59
Spotted Sunfish (Lepomis punctatus) 60
Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu) 60
Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) 61
Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) 61
Perches (Percidae) 62
Eastern Sand Darter (Ammocrypta pellucida) 65
Greenside Darter (Etheostoma blennioides) 65
Rainbow Darter (Etheostoma caeruleum) 66
Bluebreast Darter (Etheostoma camurum) 66
Fantail Darter (Etheostoma flabellare) 67
Redband Darter (Etheostoma luteovinctum) 67
vi An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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CONTENTS (CON'T)
Spotted Darter (Etheostoma maculatum) 68
Redline Darter (Etheostoma rufilineatum) 68
Orangethroat Darter (Etheostoma spectabile) 69
Speckled Darter (Etheostoma stigmaeum) 69
Variegate Darter (Etheostoma variatum) 70
Banded Darter (Etheostoma zonale) 70
Yellow Perch (Perca flavescens) 71
Logperch (Percina caprodes) 71
Channel Darter (Percina copelandi) 72
Gilt Darter (Percina evides) 72
Slenderhead Darter (Percina phoxocephala) 73
Roanoke Darter (Percina roanoka) 73
Dusky Darter (Percina sciera) 74
Walleye (Stizostedion vitreus) 74
Literature Cited 75
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators vii
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FIGURES
Figure 1. Mouth orientations 3
Figure 2. Caudal fin shapes 3
Figure 3. Branchiostegal membranes 3
Figure 4: Basic body regions 3
Figure 5: Basic fin anatomy 3
Figure 6: Basic head anatomy 3
Figure 7: A hypothetical watershed 10
TABLES
Table 1. Original IBI Metrics (Karr 1981; Karr et al. 1986) 6
Table 2. Great River IBl Metrics (Simon and Emery 1995) 7
Table 3. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Petromyzontidae 13
Table 4. Tolerance designations for selected petromyzontids 14
Table 5. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Acipenseridae 16
Table 6. Tolerance designations for selected acipenserids 17
Table 7. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Cyprinidae 19
Table 8. Tolerance designations for selected cyprinids 21
Table 9. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Catostomidae 30
Table 10. Tolerance designations for selected catostomids 31
Table 11. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Ictaluridae 36
Table 12. Tolerance designations for selected ictalurids 37
Table 13. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Salmonidae 40
Table 14. Tolerance designations for selected salmonids 41
Table 15. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Esocidae 44
Table 16. Tolerance designations for selected esocids 45
Table 17. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Fundulidae 47
Table 18. Tolerance designations for selected fundulids 48
Table 19. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Cottidae 50
Table 20. Tolerance designations for selected cottids 51
Table 21. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Centrarchidae 53
Table 22. Tolerance designations for selected centrarchids 54
Table 23. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for Family Percidae 62
Table 24. Tolerance designations for selected percids 64
viii An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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PHOTOGRAPHS
Cover (all photos by Jeff Grabarkiewicz andTodd Crail)
Notice/Acknowledgements
Blenny Darter (Top left), Duck River, TN (T. Crail) iv
Speckled Darter (Top right), unknown locality, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) iv
Tennessee Snubnose Darter (Bottom left), Little Buffalo River, TN (T. Crail) iv
Rainbow Darter (Bottom right), Blanchard River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) iv
The Conservation of Fishes
Photo 1: Spring Cavefish, Some Creek, TN (T. Crail) 1
Photo 2:Tangerine Darter, Tennessee Aquarium (W. Davis) 1
Photo 3: Greenfin Darter, Ivy Creek, NC (T. Crail) 2
Photo 4: Mobile Logperch, Borden Creek, AL (J. Grabarkiewicz) 2
Basic Fish Anatomy
All photos and drawings by J. Grabarkiewicz 3
Fish as Biological Indicators
Photo 5: Cacapon River, WV (J. Grabarkiewicz) 4
Sampling Fish Populations
Photo 6: A sampler using a backpack electroshocker, unknown state (W. Davis) 8
Photo 7: A pair using a seine to capture various darters, Chagrin River,
OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 8
Photo 8: A downstream sampling blockade, unknown state (W. Davis) 9
Fish Habitats
Photo 9: Floodplain during spring, Scioto River floodplain, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 11
Photo 10: An agricultural headwater channel in a low-gradient region of the
Midwest, Swan Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 11
Lampreys
Adult Chesnut Lamprey (top and bottom), Little Buffalo River, TN (T. Crail) 13
Sea Lamprey, Lake Erie, OH (T. Crail) 14
Chestnut Lamprey (A and B), Little Buffalo River, TN (T. Crail) 15
American Brook Lamprey (A and B), Macochee Creek headwater, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 15
Sturgeons
Shovelnose Sturgeon (top and bottom), Missouri River, MO (T. Crail) 16
Lake Sturgeon, Newport Aquarium (W. Davis) 17
Lake Sturgeon (A and B), Newport Aquarium (W. Davis) 18
Shovelnose Sturgeon (A and B), Missouri River, MO (T. Crail) 18
Minnows
Bluenose Shiner, Yellow River, FL (T. Crail) 19
Tricolor Shiner, Swamp Creek, AL (T. Crail) 19
Pinewood Shiner, Eno River, NC (T. Crail) 20
Stoneroller Minnow (A), Ten Mile Creek, OH (T. Crail) 23
Stoneroller Minnow (B), Big Darby Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 23
Redside Dace (A), Macochee Creek, OH (T. Crail) 23
Redside Dace (B), St. Joseph Creek, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 23
Common Carp mirror variety (A), Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 23
Common Carp mirror variety (B), Blanchard River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 23
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators ix
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PHOTOGRAPHS (CON'T)
Minnows (con't)
Streamline Chub (A), Big Darby Creek, OH (T. Crail) 23
Streamline Chub (B), Clinch River, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 23
Gravel Chub (A and B), Duck River, TN (T. Crail) 24
Crescent Shiner (A), South Hyco Creek, NC (T. Crail) 24
Habitat of the Crescent Shiner (B), Roanoke River, VA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 24
Striped Shiner (A), Big Darby Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 25
Striped Shiner (B), Ten Mile Creek, OH (T. Crail) 25
Common Shiner (A and B), French Creek (Schuylkill), PA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 25
River Chub (A and B), River Raisin, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 26
Silverjaw Minnow (A), "The Outlet", OH (T. Crail) 26
Silverjaw Minnow (B), Blacklick Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 26
Rosyface Shiner (A), Blacklick Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 27
Rosyface Shiner (B), River Raisin, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 27
Pugnose Minnow (A and B), Yellow River, FL (T. Crail) 27
Bluntnose Minnow (A), Blanchard River, OH (T. Crail) 28
Bluntnose Minnow (B), Maumee River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 28
Blacknose Dace (A), French Creek (Schuylkill), PA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 28
Habitat of the Blacknose Dace (B), French Creek, PA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 28
Longnose Dace (A), French Creek (Schuylkill), PA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 29
Habitat of the Longnose Dace (B), French Creek, PA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 29
Creek Chub (A and B), Indian Creek, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 29
Suckers
White Sucker (top), French Creek (Schuylkill), PA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 30
Blacktail Redhorse (bottom), Swamp Creek, AL (T. Crail) 30
Blue Sucker, Albuquerque Aquarium exhibit (W. Davis) 31
Quillback (A and B), Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 32
White sucker (A), French Creek (Schuylkill), PA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 32
White sucker (B), Ottawa River (Toledo), OH (T. Crail) 32
Northern Hog Sucker (A), Big Darby Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 33
Northern Hog Sucker (B), St. Joseph Creek, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 33
Smallmouth Buffalo (A and B), Newport Aquarium, KY (W. Davis) 33
Spotted Sucker (A and B), East Fork West Branch St. Joseph River, Ml (T. Crail) 34
Golden Redhorse (A and B), East Fork West Branch St. Joseph River, Ml (T. Crail) 34
Shorthead Redhorse (A and B), Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 35
Black Jumprock (A), upper Roanoke River, VA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 35
Habitat of the Black Jumprock (B), Roanoke River, VA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 35
Catfishes
Tadpole Madtom, Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 36
Mountain Madtom, Big Darby Creek, OH (T. Crail) 36
Stonecat Madtom, Big Darby Creek, OH (T. Crail) 37
Channel Catfish (A and B), Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 38
Stonecat Madtom (A), Fish Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 38
Stonecat Madtom (B), Big Darby Creek, OH (T. Crail) 38
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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PHOTOGRAPHS (CON'T)
Catfishes (con't)
Tadpole Madtom (A), Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 39
Tadpole Madtom (B), The Outlet, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 39
Brindled Madtom (A), Swan Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 39
Brindled Madtom (B), Blanchard River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 39
Trouts
Rainbow Trout, Tennessee Aquarium,TN (W. Davis) 40
Brook Trout, Shinagawa Aquarium, Japan (W. Davis) 40
Lake Trout, unknown location (W. Davis) 41
Brook Trout, Tennessee Aquarium, TN (W. Davis) 41
Rainbow Trout (A and B), Tennessee Aquarium, TN (W. Davis) 42
Brown Trout (A), Denver Aquarium, CO (W. Davis) 42
Introduced habitat of the Brown Trout (B), Macochee Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 42
Brook Trout (A), Woodiebrook Creek, OH (T. Crail) 43
Brook Trout (B), Shinagawa Aquarium, Japan (W. Davis) 43
Lake Trout (A and B), Great Lakes Aquarium, MN (W. Davis) 43
Pikes
Northern Pike, Ottawa River, Toledo, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 44
Grass Pickerel, ditch, Toledo, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 44
Esoxspp., French Creek (Schuylkill), PA (J. Grabarkiewicz) 45
Grass Pickerel (A), East Fork West Branch St. Joseph River, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 46
Grass Pickerel (B), ditch, Toledo, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 46
Northern Pike (A), East Fork West Branch St. Joseph River, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 46
Northern Pike (B), Prairie Ditch, OH (T. Crail) 46
Topminnows
Russetfin Topminnow, Blackwater River (T. Crail) 47
Lined Topminnow, unknown (T. Crail) 47
Longnose Killifish, tidal stream, Geiger Key, FL (T. Crail) 47
Western Banded Killifish, Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 48
Western Banded Killifish (A), Round Lake, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 49
Habitat of the Western Banded Killifish (B), Devil's Lake, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 49
Blackstripe Topminnow (A and B), The Outlet, OH (T. Crail) 49
Sculpins
Mottled Sculpin (top left), St. Joseph Creek, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 50
Mottled Sculpin (top right), Fish Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 50
Habitat of the Banded Sculpin (bottom center), unknown trib, AL (J. Grabarkiewicz) 50
Banded Sculpin, unknown trib, AL (J. Grabarkiewicz) 51
Mottled Sculpin (A), St. Joseph Creek, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 52
Mottled Sculpin (B), Fish Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 52
Banded Sculpin (A), unknown trib, AL (J. Grabarkiewicz) 52
Habitat of the Banded Sculpin (B), unknown trib, AL (J. Grabarkiewicz) 52
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators xi
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PHOTOGRAPHS (CON'T)
Sunfishes
Dollar Sunfish (Top left), Tennessee Aquarium, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 53
Spotted Bass (Top right), Cowarts Creek, AL (T. Crail) 53
Smallmouth Bass (Bottom left), Unknown (T. Crail) 53
Orangespotted Sunfish, Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 53
Longear Sunfish, The Outlet, OH (T. Crail) 54
Rock Bass (A), Fish Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 55
Rock Bass (B), Maumee River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 55
Bluespotted Sunfish (A), Tennessee Aquarium, TN (W. Davis) 55
Bluespotted Sunfish (B), Yellow River, FL (T. Crail) 55
Redbreast Sunfish (A), Saluda River drainage, SC (T. Crail) 56
Redbreast Sunfish (B), Capacon River, WV (J. Grabarkiewicz) 56
Green Sunfish (A), Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 56
Habitat of the Green Sunfish (B), Fast Ditch, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 56
Pumpkinseed Sunfish (A), Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 57
Pumpkinseed Sunfish (B), Maumee River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 57
Warmouth Sunfish (A), Lake Wilson, Ml (T. Crail) 57
Habitat of the Warmouth Sunfish (B), Lake Wilson, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 57
Orangespotted Sunfish (A and B), Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 58
Bluegill Sunfish (A), unknown aquarium (W. Davis) 58
Bluegill Sunfish (B), Mohican River, OH (T. Crail) 58
Dollar Sunfish (A), Tennessee Aquarium, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 59
Dollar Sunfish (B), unknown locality (T. Crail) 59
Longear Sunfish (A), The Outlet, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 59
Longear Sunfish (B), The Outlet, OH (T. Crail) 59
Spotted Sunfish (A and B), Rainbow River, FL (T. Crail) 60
Smallmouth Bass (A), Little Beaver Creek, OH (T. Crail) 60
Smallmouth Bass (B), Cacapon River, WV (J. Grabarkiewicz) 60
Largemouth Bass (A), unknown aquarium (W. Davis) 61
Largemouth Bass (B), Cacapon River, WV (J. Grabarkiewicz) 61
Black Crappie (A), Auglaize River drainage, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 61
Black Crappie (B), Delaware Creek, OH (T. Crail) 61
Perches
Greenside Darters (top), Swan Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 62
Bloodfin Darter (bottom), Collins River, TN (T. Crail) 62
Redline Darter, Duck River, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 63
Redline Darter, Clinch River, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 63
Eastern Sand Darter (A), Paint Creek, OH (T. Crail) 65
Historic habitat of the Eastern Sand Darter (B), Green River, KY (J. Grabarkiewicz) 65
Greenside Darter (A and B), Swan Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 65
Rainbow Darter (A), Blanchard River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 66
Rainbow Darter (B), Scioto River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 66
Bluebreast Darter (A), Big Darby Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 66
Bluebreast Darter (B), Paint Creek, OH (T. Crail) 66
Fantail Darter (A and B), Blanchard River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 67
xii An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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PHOTOGRAPHS (CON'T)
Perches (con't)
Redband Darter (A), unknown trib, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 67
Habitat of the Redband Darter (B), unknown trib, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 67
Spotted Darter (A and B), Green River, KY (J. Grabarkiewicz) 68
Redline Darter (A), Duck River, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 68
Redline Darter (B), Clinch River, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 68
Orangethroat Darter (A and B), Ten Mile Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 69
Speckled Darter (A), unknown trib, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 69
Habitat of the Speckled Darter (B), unknown trib, TN (J. Grabarkiewicz) 69
Variegate Darter (A and B), Big Darby Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 70
Banded Darter (A), Big Darby Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 70
Banded Darter (B), Green River, KY (J. Grabarkiewicz) 70
Yellow Perch (A), Unknown Aquarium (W. Davis) 71
Habitat of the Yellow Perch (B), Lake Wilson, Ml (J. Grabarkiewicz) 71
Logperch (A), Big Darby Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 71
Habitat of the Logperch (B), Blanchard River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 71
Channel Darter (A and B), Green River, KY (J. Grabarkiewicz) 72
Gilt Darter (A and B), Green River, KY (J. Grabarkiewicz) 72
Slenderhead Darter (A), Scioto River, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 73
Slenderhead Darter (B), Little Miami River, OH (T. Crail) 73
Roanoke Darter (A and B), Eno River, NC (T. Crail) 73
Dusky Darter (A), Paint Creek, OH (J. Grabarkiewicz) 74
Dusky Darter (B), Tippecanoe River, IN (T. Crail) 74
Walleye (A and B), Maumee River, OH (T. Crail) 74
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators xiii
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INTRODUCTION
The freshwaters of North America are populated by a rich tapestry of native fishes, some of
which possess enough charisma and color to rival their marine and tropical counterparts. While
names such as trout and bass are well-embedded into the American vernacular, the less familiar
monikers of darter, madtom, and dace remain relatively unknown. However, it is more often these
lesser known groups that function as valuable indicators of biological integrity, thereby providing
important information to scientists regarding the health of our nation's waterways.
This guide is intended to act as a reference for environmental and fisheries professionals,
naturalists, and educators on the use of fishes as biological indicators. The species described
herein were not chosen for their familiarity, commercial, or recreational value, but rather their
distribution and utility as bioindicators. In addition, an effort was made to provide clear, concise
species descriptions to assist investigators in both the identification of fishes and their indicator
value.
The Conservation of Fishes
Over 1,000 species of freshwater fishes occur in the surface waters of North America (Williams
et al. 1989). This extraordinary component of our natural history is punctuated by the fishes of
the southeastern United States (Photos 1-4), a fauna possessing remarkable diversity and a high
degree of endemism. Recently, there has been an emerging awareness among biologists that a
significant proportion of these fishes have become threatened or endangered due to the activities
of humans. Williams et al. (1989) reviewed the conservation status of North American fishes and
estimated approximately 21.3 % of the 1,042 extant species were "imperiled." More recently,
Jelks et al. (2008) found that since that 1989 review, there was a 92% increase in the number of
imperiled taxa from 364 to 700. Over the past 100 years, a total of 28 species have gone extinct
(Boschung and Mayden 2004). In the United States, 139 species are currently listed as threatened
or endangered (USFWS 2008).
Photo 1: Spring Cavefish (Forbesichthys
agassizii).
Photo 2: Tangerine Darter (Percina
aurantiaca).
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Photo 3: Greenfin Darter (Etheostoma
chlorobranchium).
Photo 4: Mobile Logperch (Percina kathae).
Any discussion on the reduction, extirpation, or extinction of a species inevitably requires a
diagnosis of the causal factors of decline. Extirpations and extinctions of fishes have been
attributed to habitat and landscape alterations such as channelization, impoundment, wetland
destruction, and deforestation (Angermeier 1995). The intersection of species traits incompatible
with various stressors and habitat alterations has unfortunately spelled doom for some fishes. For
example, the combination of a restricted range and habitat destruction were likely responsible for
the extinction of the Whiteline Topminnow (Fundulus albolineatus). Originally collected in Spring
Creek (Huntsville, AL) in 1891, the natural channel where the Whiteline Topminnow once occurred
is now an impounded, concrete lined canal in downtown Huntsville (Boschung and Mayden 2004).
Many authors and experts have called for an ecological approach to aquatic species conservation,
fisheries management, and water quality goals (Cook et al. 1972; Karr and Dudley 1981).
This philosophy advocates a holistic management methodology that recognizes the matrix of
interdependencies that exist in nature. These relationships may exist between closely or distantly
related taxa. A prime example of such a relationship exists between the fishes and native
freshwater mussels of North America. Because the freshwater mussel life cycle possesses an
obligate parasitic phase that requires a fish host, the composition of fish communities is important
in maintaining mussel communities. Both game and non-game fishes (e.g. darters, daces,
madtoms, and suckers) have been confirmed by laboratory analysis to function as hosts for
numerous mussel species. Freshwater mussels are important members of aquatic ecosystems
- filtering paniculate matter, biodepositing nutrients, stabilizing substrates, and mixing sediments
(Vaughn and Hakencamp 2001). Perturbations or management philosophies that alter fish
communities are likely to adversely impact mussel communities, thereby altering nutrient and
sediment dynamics.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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BASIC FISH ANATOMY
Figure 1. Mouth orientations. (A) Inferior
(B) Subterminal (C) Terminal (D) Superior.
Figure 2. Caudal fin shapes.
(A) Truncate (B) Rounded
(C) Forked (D) Emarginate.
Figure 3. Branchiostegal membranes. (A) Bound
to isthmus (B) Gill membranes broadly joined
and not bound to isthmus (C) Gill membranes
moderately joined and not bound to isthmus
Figure 4. Basic body regions.
Figure 5. Basic fin anatomy.
opordotlap
opwcular spine
check
pefopercle
interppercle
subopettfe
Figure 6. Basic head anatomy.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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FISH AS BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS
Photo 5: Cacapon River, WV.
The use of fish as biological indicators has been historically alluded to by several investigators
(Ortmann 1909; Forbes and Richardson 1913; Brinley 1942;Trautman 1957). More recently,
with the systematic sampling of fish populations to evaluate biological integrity, scientists have
described the specific advantages and disadvantages of fish as indicator organisms. What follows
is a list based largely on Karr (1981) and Hocutt (1981):
Advantages
1. Long-lived: some families possess long lifespans.
2. Ubiquitous: fishes occur in a wide variety of habitats.
3. Extensively studied; there is a large amount of published
information regarding the occurrence, habits, and habitats of
fishes.
4. Diversity: North American fishes exhibit a wide range of feeding
habits, reproductive traits, and tolerances to environmental
perturbations.
5. Easily identified: relative to other groups of aquatic biota, fishes
are among the easier groups to identify to the species level.
6. Well-known: many fish species are familiar to the general public
and provide recreational opportunities.
7. Toxicity trends: presence/absence, growth, and recruitment data
analysis may detect acute and sublethal effects.
Disadvantages
1. Manpower: with most sampling equipment, a three person crew
is required to effectively and safely sample fish communities.
2. Migratory: the movement of fishes may provide misleading data.
3. Sampling bias: each sampling method (electroshocking,
seining, etc.) has associated biases.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Commonly used terms
It is helpful to recognize commonly used terms for using freshwater fish as indicators of
ecological health as well as the trophic classification of fish which is a critical attribute
using in most fish indices.
Biological Indicator: A numerical value(s) derived from actual measurements, has
known statistical properties, and conveys useful information for environmental decision
making. It can be a measure, an index of measures, or a model that characterizes an
ecosystem or one of its critical components (USEPA 2008).
Biological Integrity: The capability of supporting and maintaining a balanced,
integrated, adapted community of organisms having a species composition, diversity,
and functional organization comparable to the natural habitats of the region (Karr and
Dudley 1981, adapted from Frey 1975).
Indicator Organism: An organism whose characteristics are used to point out the
presence or absence of environmental conditions which cannot be feasibly measured
from other taxa or the environment as a whole (slightly modified from Landres et al.
1988).
Ecological Health: A biological system can be considered healthy when its inherent
potential is realized, its condition is stable, its capacity for self-repair when perturbed is
preserved, and minimal external support for management is needed (Karr et al. 1986).
Trophic Classification of Fish
Trophic classifications of fish can be quite useful in bioassessments. For instance, the
predominance of one type of feeding group over another may be a sign of decreased food
supply or the potential harmful effects of pollutants. Typical trophic designations for fish
include:
Piscivores
Feed on other fish (e.g., Rock Bass, Northern Pike, Largemouth Bass).
Herbivores
Feed on plant material (e.g., Chiselmouth, Grass Carp, Eastern Silvery Minnow).
Omnivores
Feed on anything available (e.g., Fathead Minnow, White Sucker).
Insectivores
Feed on insects (e.g., Lake Chub, Spotfin Shiner).
Filter feeders
Feed on zooplankton by straining the water through the gill rakers (e.g., Alewife,
Paddlefish, Blueback Herring).
Invertivores
Feed on insects, mollusks, and crustaceans (e.g., Lake Sturgeon, American Shad).
Generalists
Known to feed on fish and macroinvertebrates (e.g., Fallfish, Blacknose Dace).
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
INDEX OF BIOTIC INTEGRITY (IBI)
Originally developed by Dr. James Karr, the Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) (see Karr 1981) has been
instrumental in evaluating the integrity of surface waters nationwide since the early 1980s. While
initially developed to assess wadeable Midwestern streams, the index has since been adapted and
calibrated for use in numerous regions and habitat types (e.g. Ohio EPA 1987; Simon and Emery
1995). Today, it remains an effective and adaptable tool, capable of detecting changes in the
biological integrity of surface waters.
In general, the index is designed to evaluate changes in fish assemblages, using an integrated,
multimetric approach. Karr (1981) advocated a method based on two fundamental community
characteristics: species composition and richness and ecological factors. These two characteristics
can be further broken down into seven overarching community traits: species richness and
composition, presence of indicator species, trophic function, fish abundance, reproductive function,
Table 1. Original IBI Metrics (Karr 1981; Karr et al. 1986).
1. Total number of species
- A measure of the total number of species weighted to biogeographic
region, stream size, and season.
2. Number of darter species
- Benthic fishes intolerant of environmental perturbations.
3. Number of sunfish species
- Quiet water inhabitants sensitive to changes in pool habitat; excludes
black basses.
4. Number of sucker species
- A long-lived taxa sensitive to environmental perturbations.
5. Number of intolerant species
- Species sensitive to various environmental perturbations.
6. Percentage of Green Sunfish
- A species tolerant to changes in habitat and water quality.
7. Percentage omnivores
- Omnivores increase as specialist feeders decrease.
8. Percentage insectivorous cyprinids
- Specialist feeders that indicate the presence of a sufficient
invertebrate food source.
9. Percentage top carnivores
- Top predators occur in balanced, trophically diverse ecosystems.
10. Number of individuals
- An overall measure of production; low catch per unit efforts may
suggest toxic stressors.
11. Percentage hybrids
- Habitat degradation often decreases reproductive separation.
12. Percentage disease, tumors, fin damage, and skeletal anomalies
- Associated with toxic pollutants and biological contaminants.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
and condition. The community traits are measured by twelve metrics, which may vary according to
habitat type (e.g. wadeable stream vs. large river). The original IBI metrics proposed by Karr (1981)
and Karr et al. (1986) are presented in Table 1. A modification of the original IBI metrics proposed
by Simon and Emery (1995) for use in great rivers may be found in Table 2.
Once a study site is sampled, the results are compared to a baseline community or reference
condition which represents a relatively undisturbed or "least impaired" state (Stoddard et al. 2006).
Each individual metric is then assigned a numerical value by a qualified biologist in relation to the
reference condition (Fore et al. 2003).
Table 2. Great River IBI Metrics (Simon and Emery 1995).
1. Total number of species
- A measure of species relative to including exotic species.
2. Proportion of round-bodied sucker species
- A long-lived taxa sensitive to environmental perturbations.
3. Proportion of large river fauna! group
- A group of typical large river inhabitants (Pflieger 1971) that declines
in proportion with habitat degradation.
4. Number of centrarchid species
- Quiet water inhabitants sensitive to changes in pool habitat; includes
black basses.
5. Number of sensitive species
- Species sensitive to various environmental perturbations.
6. Number of tolerant species
- Species tolerant of various environmental perturbations.
7. Percentage simple lithophilous spawning fish
- Reduced with degraded habitat.
8. Percentage insectivores
- Insectivores are generally associated with higher quality systems.
9. Percentage carnivores
- Top predators occur in balanced, trophically diverse ecosystems.
10. Percentage omnivores
- Omnivores increase as specialist feeders decrease; an indicator of
stream degradation.
11. Catch per unit effort
- An overall measure of production; low catch per unit efforts may
suggest toxic stressors.
12. Percentage of individuals with disease, eroded fins, lesions and
tumors
- Associated with toxic pollutants and biological contaminants.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
SAMPLING FISH POPULATIONS
A wide array of procedures and protocols have
been developed to sample inland fish populations.
Electroshocking techniques (Photo 6) remain
the most common approach to capture fishes,
although seines (Photo 7) are also employed.
Sampling designs and techniques are often based
on several considerations, including desired
standardization, sampling objectives, target
population, the resources available, and time
constraints.
Photo 6: A sampler using a backpack
electroshocker.
The site selection process depends heavily
on the objectives of the study. Basin-wide
studies may include multiple sites selected
systematically or randomly to reduce bias,
or consist of sites sampled historically.
Watercourse access is also an important
consideration, as private property often
requires landowner permission and may impact
logistical planning (boat access, etc.).
When sampling with the intent of performing
a bioassessment of an individual study site, a
representative stream reach is chosen, away
from the influence of tributaries and bridges
(Barbour et al. 1999). Sampling is conducted from a downstream barrier (photo 8) or
riffle and proceeds in an upstream direction. U.S. EPA protocol calls for a minimum of two
samplers to conduct one sweep of the sample area. Fishes are held in live wells before
being identified, measured (if needed), and enumerated. Dubious specimens are preserved
for laboratory identification. Voucher collections are made with the purpose of having all
identifications confirmed by a second experienced taxonomist.
Photo 7: A pair using a seine to capture
various darters.
8
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Electrofishing and seining techniques possess
their own advantages and disadvantages. In order
to understand how a sample may be biased, it's
important to recognize the shortcomings of an
individual methodology or technique. The following
is paraphrased from Barbour et al. (1999):
Advantages/Disadvantages of
electroshocking:
1. Time efficient
2. Appropriate for a wide array of habitats
3. Easily standardized
4. Selective of large fishes
Advantages/Disadvantages of seining:
1. Inexpensive and easy to maintain
2. Minimal impact on fish populations
3. Generally less effective for large fishes
4. Standardization is difficult
Photo 8: A downstream sampling
blockade.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
9
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FISH HABITATS
The fishes of North America occupy a variety of habitats, ranging from narrow roadside ditches
to large rivers and lakes. The factors that may dictate the distribution of a particular species
include climate, physiography, hydrology, stream size, biogeography, geochemistry, and human
disturbance. The last factor has become increasingly important as a growing human population
increases its demands on the natural environment.
While some fish species may be well distributed throughout a watershed, others may possess a
more restricted range. For example, on a watershed scale, a species list made at point A (Fig. 7)
and point D would likely be quite different. However, seasonal spawning migrations may place the
species commonly found at point D at point A. Many species use these headwater habitats as
nurseries for their young, including well-known game fishes such as Northern Pike (Esox lucius).
Humans often fragment such pathways by constructing dams or altering swamp-like headwaters
by ditching and draining. When this occurs, the reproductive success of highly migratory species
becomes precarious if alternative waters cannot be found.
Figure 7: A hypothetical watershed. (A) Headwater, (B) Creek,
(C) Small river, (D) Large river.
10
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
An interesting and often asked question is: "Why does species X occur in river system Y but not
Z?"The answer may be related to available habitat or "biogeography." Biogeography is the study
and interpretation of the past to explain present distributional patterns. It can greatly affect the
expected species in a waterway or even the pollution tolerance of a species. For instance, Fausch
et al. (1984) showed that the number of fish species will increase in proportion to the size of a
watershed. When assigning pollution tolerance, some fish species at the edge of their range may
be classified as intolerant since they are rare, so pollution tolerance throughout their entire range
should be considered. So to answer the question above, biogeographers may look at historical
connections between drainages, disturbance events (e.g. ice ages), and/or geology.
Photo 9: Floodplain during spring. The backwater channels
and pools of floodplains are often breeding sites for a
number of migratory fish species.
Photo 10: An agricultural headwater channel in a low-
gradient region of the Midwest. Such channels are often
highly modified and dominated by turbid flow regimes.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
11
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FAMILY AND SPECIES ACCOUNTS
In North America, scientists have identified 1,151 extant fish species belonging to 37 taxonomic
families (Jelks et al. 2008). This section details over 60 common freshwater species and
subspecies and are organized within 11 families, with information on identification, habitat,
pollution tolerance, and IBI use. The families include:
Lampreys (Petromyzontidae) 13
Sturgeons (Acipenseridae) 16
Minnows (Cyprinidae) 19
Suckers (Catostomidae) 30
Catfishes (Ictaluridae) 36
Trouts (Salmonidae) 40
Pikes (Esocidae) 44
Topminnows and Killifishes (Fundulidae) 47
Sculpins (Cottidae) 50
Sunfishes (Centrarchidae) 53
Perches (Percidae) 62
12 An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
LAMPREYS (PETROMYZONTIDAE)
The lampreys are an ancient family of
fishes, with fossils dating back to at least
280 million years ago. They are among
the most distinctive fishes, lacking hinged
lower jaws, paired fins, and possessing
crudely developed skeletons. Some
species are parasitic, while others,
termed "brook lampreys," spend the
majority of their life filter-feeding from
the water column while in the larval
"ammocoete" stage.
Family Level Identifiers: Jaws and
paired fins absent. Seven gill openings
present on each side of fish. Body long,
slender, and "snake-like."
Habitat: The Petromyzontidae occur
primarily in the Northern Hemisphere
(Etnier and Starnes 1993), with
approximately 20 species found in North
America. They occupy a wide range
of habitats, from headwater creeks to
large glacial lakes. While probably most
abundant in sand and gravel substrates,
ammocoetes often burrow into organic
sands. Ammocoetes and adults may
significantly differ in habitat requirements.
Pollution Tolerance: In general, the
lampreys are considered "intermediate"
to "intolerant" of pollution and habitat
disturbance (Barbour et al. 1999).
Ammocoetes generally require clear water,
permanent flow, and stable beds of fine
textured substrates mixed with organic matter
(Pflieger 1997).Trautman (1981) reported the
sensitivity of a number of lamprey species to
disturbance and siltation, including the Silver
Lamprey (Ichthyomyzon unicuspis), Mountain
Brook Lamprey (Ichthymyzon greeleyi), and Least Brook Lamprey (Lamptera aepyptera). Jenkins
and Burkhead (1994) suggested that /. bdellium functions an "indicator of good water and substrate
quality". Rice and Michael (2001) noted that the decline of the Ohio Lamprey (Ichthyomyzon
bdellium) was likely a result of the systematic damming of the Ohio River.
Adult Chestnut Lamprey
(Ichthyomyzon castaneus)
Table 3. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Petromyzontidae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1999)
Tolerant
0%
Intermediate
37%
Intolerant
63%
*8 species rated
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
13
-------
Ammocoetes
The Petromyzontidae have a unique life cycle, where a significant period of time is spent as an
"ammocoete," or larval lamprey. Ammocoetes are quite different than adult lamprey, lacking teeth,
the disc-like mouth, and functional eyes. They feed by burrowing into fine substrates and filtering
microorganisms and detritus until metamorphosis occurs.
Use in IBI: The Petromyzontidae are not evaluated
by a single metric, but may be accounted for under
general metrics such as Metric 1: Total number of
fish species and Metric 10: Number of individuals.
If alternative metrics that account for exotic species
are utilized, the Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus)
(photo left) may be enumerated under such a metric
if collected outside its native range. In addition, due
to a number of lamprey being intolerant species, the
Petromyzontidae may also be included under Metric 5:
Number of intolerant species.
Table 4. Tolerance designations for selected petromyzontids.
Common Name
Ohio Lamprey
Chestnut Lamprey
Northern Brook Lamprey
Southern Brook Lamprey
Mountain Brook Lamprey
Silver Lamprey
Least Brook Lamprey
American Brook Lamprey
Sea Lamprey
Scientific Name
Ichthyomyzon bdellium
Ichthyomyzon castaneus
Ichthyomyzon fossor
Ichthyomyzon gagei
Ichthyomyzon greeleyi
Ichthyomyzon unicuspis
Lamptera aepyptera
Lamptera appendix
Petromyzon marinus
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14
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Chestnut Lamprey
(Ichthyomyzon castaneus)
Identification: Adult parasitic. Adults (A): Body long and
cylindrical, with a low dorsal fin separated by a small notch.
Coloration brown to brownish-olive dorsally; belly lighter in
color. Sides may be mottled. Ammocoetes (B): Coloration
generally paler than adults (Boschung and Mayden 2004).
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
Mississippi River basin, Lake Michigan basin, Red River (of
the North) basin, and a few Gulf drainages. Adults occur
in rivers and reservoirs, while ammocoetes and breeding
adults are found in small, headwater streams. Adults are
generally found in current over sand and gravel, whereas
ammocoetes are often more abundant in low-gradient
headwaters in organic sand, muck, and silty substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): The Chestnut Lamprey is
vulnerable to river and stream modifications that fragment
its habitat and disconnect historical spawning sites. State
and regional tolerance classifications rank /. castaneus as
both an "intermediate" (Barbour et al. 1999) and "intolerant"
species (Jester et al. 1992). The Chestnut Lamprey scores
under IBI metrics 1 and 10. If considered a sensitive
species, the Chestnut Lamprey also scores under metric 5.
American Brook Lamprey
(Lamptera appendix)
Identification: Adult non-parasitic. Adults: Body long and
cylindrical, with "2" dorsal fins separated by a deep notch.
Coloration gray to grayish-olive dorsally; belly white; fins
may have a yellowish tinge. Ammocoetes: Dorsal fins may
be separate (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). Coloration
generally brown dorsally; belly white.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely but somewhat
disjunctly distributed throughout the Mississippi River
basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin, and Atlantic
slope. Generally found in large creeks and small rivers.
Adults occur over sand and gravel substrates, whereas
ammocoetes may be more common in organic sand or
organic sand and fine gravel substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,5,10): The American Brook Lamprey
is generally considered sensitive to pollution, turbidity,
siltation, and migrational barriers such as dams (Eddy and
Underhill 1974; Becker 1983). State and regional tolerance
classifications rank L. appendix as an "intolerant" species
(Ohio EPA 1987; Halliwell et al. 1999). As a sensitive
species, the American Brook Lamprey scores under IBI
metrics 1,5, and 11.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
15
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STURGEONS (ACIPENSERIDAE)
In the freshwater systems of North America, there are few creatures as large, primitive, and
enigmatic as the sturgeon. Unfortunately, populations of these magnificent fishes have been
declining since the turn of the century, a result of large river impoundment, siltation, and the
overharvesting of females for caviar. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service currently lists four species
of sturgeon as federally endangered.
Family Level Identifiers: Body robust.
Several rows of longitudinal plates. Dorsal
and anal fin set posteriorly. Four barbels
underneath snout. Sturgeon are among
the largest fish found in the freshwater
systems of North America.
Habitat: Most sturgeon species
inhabit large rivers, lakes, and marine
environments. It should be noted that
some species are chiefly marine, and
migrate to freshwaters only to spawn
(anadromous). Preferred substrates
include clean sand and gravel, where
they feed on snails, small mussels, and a
variety of benthic organisms.
Pollution Tolerance: Pollution tolerance
among the sturgeons varies from species
to species. River modifications, mainly
dams, have perhaps had the greatest
impact on this family, severely limiting
the ability of many species to access
historic spawning waters and silting
formerly suitable habitats (Trautman
1981).Trautman (1981) commented on
the decline of Lake Sturgeon in Lake
Erie and its tributaries: "The decline in
sturgeon abundance appears to have
been chiefly caused by the inability of the
fish to reach its spawning grounds because
of dams; by having the former spawning
habitat destroyed by silting, pollution, or
drainage; and by destruction of the great
quantities of mussels and gastropods in
both the streams and Lake Erie." Jenkins
and Burkhead (1994) commented that the
Acipenseridae may also be particularly
susceptible to overfishing due to their long
lifespans.
Shpvelnose Sturgeon
(Scaphirhynchus ptitorynchus)
Table 5. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Acipenseridae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1 999)
Tolerant
0%
Intermediate
50%
Intolerant
50%
*4 species rated
16
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Evolution, Diversity, and Distribution
The sturgeons are among the most ancient fishes found in North America, with fossils
dating back to at least the upper Cretaceous period (70 million years ago). At present
25 species have been identified worldwide, with the majority of species found in
central and eastern Europe. In North America, eight species belonging to two genera
occur, with diversity maximized in the waters of the southern United States.
Use in IBI: Karr's (1981) IBI does not include
a metric for the sturgeon family. When
appropriate, intolerant sturgeon species
might be included in Metric 5: Number of
intolerant species. Otherwise, their presence
is recorded under general metrics such as
Metric 1: Total number of fish species and
Metric 10: Number of individuals.
Table 6. Tolerance designations for selected acipenserids.
Common Name
Shortnose Sturgeon
Lake Sturgeon
Green Sturgeon
Atlantic Sturgeon
White Sturgeon
Pallid Sturgeon
Shovelnose Sturgeon
Scientific Name
Acipenser brevirostrum
Acipenser fulvescens
Acipenser medirostris
Acipenser oxyrhynchus
Acipenser transmontanus
Scaphirhynchus albus
Scaphirhynchus platorynchus
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An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
17
-------
Lake Sturgeon
(Acipenser fulvescens)
Identification: Body elongate and robust, with a short,
pointed, conical snout (B). Caudal peduncle partially
plated. Barbels on lower snout 4, smooth in texture.
Coloration dusky gray dorsally; sides gray; belly grayish
white to white. Dorsal plates 9-17; dorsal fin rays 35-
40; anal fin rays 25-30. Caudal fin forked and without a
filament.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed in the upper
Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin,
and Hudson Bay basin. Generally rare throughout is range.
Occurs in large rivers and lakes. Often found over coarse
substrates where mollusks, crustaceans, and insects are
abundant.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): A highly migratory species, the
decline of the Lake Sturgeon has been attributed to the
widespread damming of rivers, pollution, siltation, and
overfishing (Trautman 1981; Boschung and Mayden 2004).
In a review of state and regional tolerance classifications,
Barbour et al. (1999) reported an "intermediate" ranking
for A. fulvescens. The Lake Sturgeon scores under IBI
metrics 1 and 10, although may also score under metric 5
if considered an "intolerant" species.
Shovelnose Sturgeon
(Scaphirhynchus platorynchus)
Identification: Body elongate and robust, with a long, wide,
pointed, and flattened snout (B). Tail tapering and slender;
caudal peduncle completely plated. Barbels on lower snout
4, coarsely fringed. Dorsal plates 13-19; dorsal fin rays 29-
36; anal fin rays 18-24. Caudal fin asymmetrically forked and
often with a long filament.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
Mississippi River basin and historically from the Rio Grande
River (Etnier and Starnes 1993). Occurs mainly in rivers
where the current is moderate to swift. Most abundant over
clean-swept, coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): The Shovelnose Sturgeon
has experienced declines throughout its range due to
the impoundment of large rivers, which inhibit access to
historical spawning grounds and reduce current (Helms
1974; Robison and Buchanan 1988; Etnier and Starnes
1993). It has been reported to tolerate turbid waters
(Robison and Buchanan 1988). Regional and state tolerance
classifications range from "intermediate" (Barbour et al. 1999)
to "intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992). The Shovelnose Sturgeon
scores under IBI metrics 1 and 10, although may also score
under metric 5 if considered an "intolerant" species.
18
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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MINNOWS (CYPRINIDAE)
Cyprinidae represents the most diverse family of fishes in all the world. Presently, over 2000
species and 210 genera have been described (Boschung and Mayden 2004). Of the 2000
identified species, nearly 300 are found in North America, with the greatest diversity occurring in
the waters of the southern United States. While often thought of as small, silvery fish, members of
the minnow family often possess elegant characters and magnificent coloration.
Family Level Identifiers: Body often elongate (with exceptions). Dorsal rays 9 or fewer. Fins
generally soft and flexible.
Habitat: Minnows occupy nearly every freshwater habitat found in North America, including
headwater streams, creeks, rivers, ponds, lakes, swamps, and marshes. They are well-known for
their tendency to form large schools, which they may utilize for protection, spawning, or enhanced
foraging (Morgan and Colgan 1987; Freeman and Grossman 1992; Pitcher 1993).
Pollution Tolerance: Pollution tolerance among the cyprinids varies from species to species.
To illustrate this, consider the following: two geographically ubiquitous minnows, the Bluntnose
Minnow (Pimephales notatus) and Spotfin Shiner (Cyprinella spiloptera) have exhibited tolerance
to turbidity, disturbance, and pollution (Trautman 1981). Another cyprinid with a more restricted
distribution, the Streamline Chub (Erimystax
dissimilis), is only found in pristine large creeks
and rivers (Etnier and Starnes 1993), and
serves as an excellent indicator of high quality
habitat. Interspecific disparities like these
and the intolerance of some species to all but
near pristine habitats promote the use of the
Cyprinidae as sensitive indicators of waterway
integrity (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).
Table 7. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Cyprinidae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1999)
Tolerant
17%
Intermediate
47%
Intolerant
36%
*76 species rated
Bluenose Shiner (Pteronotropis welaka)
Tricolor Shiner (Cyprinella trichroistia)
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
19
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Nest Builders
Among the nest building behaviors exhibited by the Cyprinidae, the expertise of the genus
Nocomis may be unmatched. While some minnow species excavate simple pits, the Nocomis
chubs have been known to assemble nests consisting of several thousand stones (Reighard 1943).
Nest construction such as this may take 20 to 30 hours (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994) while the
male transports stones with his mouth.
Use in IBI: Cyprinids are an integral part of IBI scoring
in most regions. For example, Metric 8: Percentage
insectivorous cyprinids, utilizes specialist minnow species
who feed chiefly on insects. Alternatively, Metric 7:
Percentage omnivores accounts for cyprinids that are
generalist feeders, an indicator of stream degradation
(i.e. specialists vs. generalists). Cyprinids such as the
Creek Chub and some dace species are often substituted
for Green Sunfish in Metric 6: Percent Green Sunfish.
Additionally, pollution intolerant cyprinids would be
accounted for in Metric 5: Number of intolerant species.
20
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Table 8. Tolerance designations for selected cyprinids.
Common Name
Stoneroller Minnow
Redside Dace
Rosyside Dace
Spotfin Shiner
Tricolor Shiner
Common Carp
Streamline Chub
Gravel Chub
Crescent Shiner
Striped Shiner
Common Shiner
Pearl Dace
Hornyhead Chub
River Chub
Bigeye Chub
Bigeye Shiner
Silverjaw Minnow
Rosyface Shiner
Pugnose Minnow
Southern Redbelly Dace
Bluntnose Minnow
Fathead Minnow
Blacknose Dace
Longnose Dace
Creek Chub
Fallfish
Scientific Name
Campostoma anomalum
Clinostomus elongatus
Clinostomus funduloides
Cyprinella spiloptera
Cyprinella trichroistia
Cyprinus carpio
Erimystax dissimilis
Erimystax x-punctatus
Luxilus cerasinus
Luxilus chrysocephalus
Luxilus cornutus
Margariscus margarita
Nocomis biguttatus
Nocomis micropogon
Notropis amblops
Notropis boops
Notropis buccatus
Notropis rubellus
Opsopoeodus emiliae
Phoxinus erythrogaster
Pimephales notatus
Pimephales promelas
Rhinichthys atratulus
Rhinichthys cataractae
Semotilus atromaculatus
Semotilus corporalis
i-.
|
2
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1
S
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-
T
R
M
-
-
-
-
1
1
1
R
-
1
R
-
T
T
T
R
T
-
Jester etal. 1992
WQ
Ml
-
-
I
-
T
-
I
-
Ml
-
-
-
-
I
Ml
-
I
-
I
MT
T
-
-
Ml
-
Habitat
Ml
-
-
I
-
T
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I
-
Ml
-
-
-
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MT
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Ml
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CM
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-
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T
-
-
-
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-
-
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-
I
-
-
T
T
T
-
T
-
Whittier and Hughes 1998
-
-
-
-
-
T
-
-
-
-
M
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I
-
-
M
M
Barbouretal. 1999
M
I
I
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-
T
I
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-
M
M
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I
I
I
I
M
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I
M
T
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Halliwelletal. 1999
Habitat
T
I
-
T
-
T
I
I
-
T
M
M
M
M
M
-
T
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Pirhalla 2004
Ml
-
Ml
Ml
-
-
-
-
-
-
I
-
-
I
-
-
I
I
-
-
Ml
T
T
Ml
T
Ml
I = intolerant M =
P = moderately
intermediate Ml = moderately intolerant MT = moderately tolerant
tolerant R = rare intolerant S = special intolerant T = tolerant
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
21
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Stoneroller Minnow
(Campostoma anomalum)
Identification: Body somewhat cylindrical and robust
anteriorly; becoming quite deep in older individuals.
Coloration olive-brown dorsally with brassy and brown sides;
belly white. Breeding males often covered with tubercles;
also with dark medial bands present on the dorsal and anal
fin. Mouth subterminal to slightly inferior, with cartilaginous
edge on lower lip. Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin rays 7; pectoral
fin rays 15; pelvic fin rays 8. All fins somewhat small.
General Distribution/Habitat: Well distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes basin, western Gulf
slope, and mid-Atlantic region. Occurs in flowing sections of
creeks and rivers, less common in lakes and impoundments
(Becker 1983). Most abundant over coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): The Central Stoneroller may
be best described as an "intermediate" species, capable
of spawning under various conditions (Becker 1983) and
tolerant of moderate turbidity (Trautman 1981; Becker 1983).
Regional and state tolerance classifications have ranked the
Central Stoneroller as "tolerant" (Halliwell et al. 1999) as well
"moderately intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992; Pirhalla 2004). C.
anomalum under metrics that evaluate community diversity
and abundance.
Redside Dace
(Clinostomus elongatus)
Identification: Body slender, moderately deep, and laterally
compressed. Coloration generally olive dorsally and silvery,
with a conspicuous red streak or smudge posterior of opercle.
Breeding males with small, irregularly spaced tubercles. Mouth
terminal, large, with a projecting lower jaw. Dorsal fin rays 8;
anal fin rays 9; pectoral fin rays 14-16; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal
fin emarginate to forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Disjunctly distributed
throughout the upper Mississippi basin, Great Lakes basin,
and upper Susquehanna River basin. Generally confined to
small, headwater streams and creeks. Thrives in flowing pools
where the water is cool and clear. Most abundant over clean
substrates of gravel and sand.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,5, 8,10): With somewhat narrow habitat
requirements, the Redside Dace is a sensitive headwater
species confined to relatively undisturbed habitats. It is
reportedly sensitive to turbidity, thermal stress, and channel
modification (Scott and Grossman 1973; Trautman 1981;
Becker 1983). State and regional tolerance classifications
generally rank C. elongatus as an "intolerant" species (Ohio
EPA 1987; Halliwell et al. 1999). As a sensitive insectivorous
cyprinid, the Redside Dace scores under numerous IBI
metrics, including metrics 1, 5, 8, and 10.
22
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Common Carp (Mirror variety)
(Cyprinus carpio)
Identification: Body robust, deep, with a "humped" profile
anterior of the dorsal fin. Coloration dark olive to smoky brown;
color fading on belly to yellow-white. Mouth subterminal, with
two barbels present on each side of mouth. Breeding males
with fine tubercles. Dorsal fin with 1 spinous ray and 15-23 soft
rays; anal fin with 1 spinous ray and 4-6 soft rays; pectoral fin
rays 14-17; pelvic fin rays 8-9. Caudal fin emarginate to forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widespread throughout the
United States. A habitat generalist, the carp is found in creeks,
rivers, lakes, and marshes. It is most abundant in shallow,
warmwater habitats where the current is sluggish. The carp
may be found over coarse or soft substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI: A tolerant exotic species introduced into
North America during the 1800s, the Asian Carp is capable of
tolerating low dissolved oxygen levels, thermal stress, turbidity,
and pollution (McKay 1963; Becker 1983). Several state and
regional tolerance classifications rank the carp as a "tolerant"
species (Ohio EPA 1987; Jester et al. 1992; Halliwell et al.
1999; Whittier 1999). As an exotic species, the Asian Carp
may or may not be included in general community diversity
and abundance metrics. If exotic species are included in the
IBI, Asian Carp may be enumerated under Metric 7: Percent
Omnivores.
Streamline Chub
(Erimystax dissimilis)
Identification: Body slender, elongate, and terete. Coloration
olive dorsally with a silvery belly; several lateral blotches
present extending from the opercle to caudal peduncle.
Mouth small and horizontal. Breeding males with very small
tubercles. Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin rays 7; pectoral fin rays
16-19; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Disjunctly distributed
throughout the Ohio River basin. Typically found in large
creeks and rivers in relatively shallow water (<1.5 m) and
moderate current. Most abundant over substrates of clean
sand, gravel, and rubble.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,5, 8,10): The Streamline Chub occurs
in clear, relatively pristine large creeks and rivers (Etnier and
Starnes 1993).Trautman (1981) noted the disappearance of
E. dissimilis from several silted riffles and shoals throughout
Ohio. The return of the Streamline Chub to historically
disturbed or polluted creeks and rivers may indicate progress
towards recovery. State and regional tolerance classifications
generally rank the Streamline Chub as an "intolerant"
species (Ohio EPA 1987; Halliwell et al. 1999). As a sensitive
insectivorous cyprinid, the Streamline Chub scores under
numerous IBI metrics, including metrics 1, 5, 8, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
23
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Gravel Chub
(Erimystax x-punctatus)
Identification: Body slender, elongate, and terete. Coloration
generally olive dorsally with a silvery belly and conspicuous
mid-lateral "X" or "Y" markings (B). Mouth small and
horizontal. Breeding males with very small tubercles. Dorsal
fin rays 8; anal fin rays 7; pectoral fin rays 13-16; pelvic fin
rays 8. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
Mississippi River basin. Occurs in large creeks and rivers in
moderately shallow water (<2 m) and slow to swift current.
Generally most abundant over substrates of clean sand,
gravel, and rubble. Trautman (1981) noted that the Gravel
Chub may utilize habitats deeper and slower than the
Streamline Chub (E. dissimilis).
Indicator Use/IBI (1,8,10): Like its close relative the
Streamline Chub, the Gravel Chub is found mainly in
pristine large creeks and rivers. It is considered sensitive
to turbidity, siltation, impoundment, and pollution (Trautman
1981; Becker 1983; Robison and Buchanan 1988). Regional
and state tolerance classifications have conferred both an
"intermediate" (Ohio EPA 1987) and "intolerant" status (Jester
et al. 1992; Halliwell 1999) to this species. As an insectivorous
cyprinid, the Gravel Chub generally scores under IBI metrics
1,8, and 10.
Crescent Shiner
(Luxilus cerasinus)
Identification: Body deep and laterally compressed; often
with darkened and distinctive "crescents." Body coloration
silvery; olive dorsally. Fins often with red edges. Breeding
males with brilliant cherry red fins, lips, and body; moderate
sized tubercles. Mouth terminal. Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin rays
9; pectoral fin rays 14-17; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Restricted to the mid-Atlantic
slope, perhaps most abundant in the Roanoke drainage
(Jenkins and Burkhead 1994) (B). Occurs in creeks and
small rivers in flowing pools, runs, and riffles. Generally found
in moderate to high-gradient stream sections (Jenkins and
Burkhead 1994). May be found over both coarse and soft
substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,8,10): Although the Crescent Shiner
may be sensitive to sharp decreases in temperature and
dissolved oxygen, L. cerasinus has been reported as tolerant
of turbidity (Matthews and Styron 1981; Jenkins and Burkhead
1994). Due to its relatively restricted range, tolerance rankings
have not been developed for L. cerasinus. As an insectivorous
cyprinid, the Crescent Shiner scores under IBI metrics 1, 8,
and 10.
24
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Striped Shiner
(Luxilus chrysocephalus)
Identification: Body somewhat robust and moderately
compressed. Coloration olive-gray dorsally with silvery sides;
may have a metallic sheen. Mouth terminal. Breeding males
(A-B) with a brassy sheen, pinkish-red fin margins, and
moderate to large tubercles (B). Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin
rays 9; pectoral fin rays 14-16; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin
forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widespread throughout the
Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes basin, and Gulf slope.
Most common in small and large creeks, although it may be
found in rivers. Usually occurs in flowing pools where the
current is moderate. Generally found over both coarse and
fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 8,10): In Ohio, Trautman commented
that the Striped Shiner seemed to adapt better to warmer
and turbid water than the Common Shiner (Luxilus cornutus).
Interestingly, Pflieger (1971) observed that the Common
Shiner was more common in turbid, prairie streams while
the striped shiner was abundant in cool, clear, upland
streams. State and regional tolerance classifications range
from "moderately intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992) to "tolerant"
(Halliwell et al. 1999). As an insectivorous cyprinid, the
Striped Shiner scores under IBI metrics 1, 8, and 10.
Common Shiner
(Luxilus cornutus)
Identification: Body somewhat deep and moderately
compressed. Coloration olive-blue or olive-gray dorsally with
silvery sides; may have a metallic sheen. Scales crowded
anterior of dorsal fin. Mouth terminal. Breeding males (A) with
a brassy sheen, pinkish-red fin margins, and moderate to
large tubercles. Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin rays 9; pectoral fin
rays 15-17; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed in the upper
Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes basin, and northern
Atlantic slope. Typically occurs in creeks (B) and rivers,
although L. cornutus may also be found in lakes (Becker
1983). Most abundant in sluggish or moderate current over
coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,8,10): In Ohio, Trautman (1981)
considered the Common Shiner more sensitive to silt and
turbid waters than the Striped Shiner (L. chrysocephalus).
Becker (1983) noted that the "common shiner in nature
adjusts to a wide range of average temperatures". State
and regional tolerance classifications for L. cornutus range
from "intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999; Whittier 1999) to
"intolerant" (Pirhalla 2004). As an insectivorous cyprinid, the
Common Shiner scores under IBI metrics 1, 8, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
25
-------
River Chub
(Nocomis micropogon)
Identification: Body robust with small eye. Coloration dark
olive to yellow dorsally, often with a faint rosy hue present
on the belly and head (especially breeding males). Breeding
males with conspicuous tubercles on snout (B). Mouth
subterminal. Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin rays 7; pectoral fin
rays 15-19; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin emarginate to slightly
forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
eastern Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes basin, and
Atlantic slope. Occurs in creeks and rivers in shallow water
where the current is moderate to strong. Generally found
over coarse substrates such as gravel, cobble, boulder, and
bedrock rubble.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,5,8,10): The River Chub is an
inhabitant of high quality stream reaches of clear water and
good current. Excessive turbidity and siltation often results
in rapid population declines or outright extirpation (Trautman
1981). State and regional tolerance classifications rank N.
micropogon as both an "intermediate" (Halliwell 1999) and
"intolerant" species (Ohio EPA 1987; Halliwell et al. 1999;
Pirhalla 2004). As a sensitive insectivorous cyprinid, the river
chub scores under numerous IBI metrics, including metrics 1,
5, 8, and 10.
Silverjaw Minnow
(Notropis buccatus)
Identification: Body elongate and head dorsally depressed.
Large "chambers" occur on the cheek and jaw (B, see
arrow). Coloration olive or yellowish dorsally; side silvery with
a dark lateral line. Breeding males with minute tubercles.
Mouth subterminal. Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin rays 8; pectoral
fin rays 14-16; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Generally (and disjunctly)
distributed throughout the eastern Mississippi River basin,
Great Lakes basin, mid-Atlantic slope, and Gulf slope.
Occurs in creek and rivers in sluggish to moderate current.
Often most abundant in sandy pools, although may occur
over a variety of substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 8,10): The Silverjaw Minnow is
moderately tolerant of turbidity, industrial pollutants, and
has been documented to persist in streams impacted by
coal mining waste (Trautman 1981; Jenkins and Burkhead
1994). However, Trautman (1981) noted that it may be
sensitive to excessive siltation. State and regional tolerance
classifications rank N. buccatus as both "tolerant" (Halliwell
1999) and "intolerant" (Pirhalla 2004). As an insectivorous
cyprinid, the Silverjaw Minnow scores under IBI metrics 1, 8,
and 10.
26
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Rosyface Shiner
(Notropis rubellus)
Identification: Body elongate and laterally compressed.
Coloration olive-gray dorsally with a silvery side; lateral stripe
often faint. Breeding males with a brilliant rose colored snout
and cheek (B); small tubercles may also be present. Mouth
terminal. Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin rays 10; pectoral fin rays
12-14; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin,
Red River (of the North) basin, and Atlantic slope. Most
common in creeks and rivers where the water is shallow and
the current moderate. Generally found over sand, gravel,
cobble, and boulder substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,5,8,10): The Rosyface Shiner is
intolerant of turbidity and siltation, with marked declines
occurring where such conditions predominate (Trautman
1981; Robison and Buchanan 1988). Interestingly, Becker
(1983) noted the development of a turbidity resistant strain
in the Pecatonica and Sugar River basins of southwestern
Wisconsin. State and regional tolerance classifications
consistently rank the Rosyface Shiner as an "intolerant"
species (Ohio EPA 1987; Jester et al. 1992; Halliwell et al.
1999; Jennings et al. 1999; Pirhalla 2004). As a sensitive
insectivorous cyprinid, N. rubellus scores under IBI metrics 1,
5, 8, and 10.
Pugnose Minnow
(Opsopoeodus emiliae)
Identification: Body slender and somewhat compressed
laterally. Coloration brownish-yellow to greenish dorsally;
silvery sides, with a distinctive lateral stripe. Breeding males
with tubercles around snout; anal and caudal fins may have a
pinkish-red hue. Mouth distinctive, small, and superior (B, see
arrow). Dorsal fin rays 9; anal fin rays 8; pectoral fin rays 15;
pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed in the
Mississippi River basin, Gulf slope, southern Atlantic slope,
Lake Michigan drainage, and Lake Erie drainage. Most
abundant in large creeks and rivers where the current is
sluggish to absent. May also occur in lakes. Often found near
stream vegetation over both fine and coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 5,8,10): The Pugnose Minnow has
been considered intolerant of siltation and turbidity (Smith
1979; Trautman 1981). Becker (1983) noted that populations
were being reduced or extirpated throughout its northerly
distribution. State and regional tolerance classifications
have ranked the Pugnose Minnow as an "intolerant" species
(Ohio EPA 1987). As a sensitive insectivorous cyprinid, the
Pugnose Minnow scores under IBI metrics 1, 5, 8, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
27
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Bluntnose Minnow
(Pimephales notatus)
Identification: Body cylindrical and somewhat compressed.
Coloration olive-gray dorsally with silvery sides; often with a
prominent lateral stripe. A wedge-shaped blotch on the caudal
peduncle may be present. Breeding males with moderately-
sized tubercles on snout (B). Mouth subterminal. Dorsal fin
rays 8; anal fin rays 7; pectoral fin rays 15-16; pelvic fin rays 8.
Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
basin, northern and mid-Atlantic slope, Gulf slope, and Red
River (of the North) drainage. Occurs in headwater streams,
creeks, river, impoundments, and glacial lakes. May be found
in sluggish or moderate current over both coarse and fine
substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,7,10): A habitat generalist, the
Bluntnose Minnow is one of the most successful fishes in
the United States (Trautman 1981; Becker 1983). It has
been reported to tolerate disturbance, turbidity, and siltation
(Trautman 1981; Becker 1983; Boschung and Mayden 2004).
State and regional tolerance classifications rank P. notatus
as "moderately intolerant" (Pirhalla 2004) to "tolerant" (Ohio
EPA 1987; Halliwell et al. 1999). As an omnivorous cyprinid, P.
notatus scores under IBI metrics 1, 7, and 10.
Blacknose Dace
(Rhinichthys atratulus)
Identification: Body elongate and somewhat robust.
Coloration brown-gray dorsally; side yellowish-white or silvery,
often with a prominent dark brown or black lateral stripe.
Breeding males characterized by bright red fins and rusty
colored lateral band (A). Mouth subterminal. Dorsal fin rays 8;
anal fin rays 7; pectoral fin rays 13-16; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal
fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the upper Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
basin, Red River of the North drainage, and northern to
mid-Atlantic slope. Generally confined to headwater streams
and creeks (B) where the water is cool to warm and the
current moderate to strong. Occurs over both coarse and fine
substrates.
Indicator Use (1,7,10): In Ohio, Trautman (1981) observed
that R. atratulus was susceptible to habitat alterations that
modify headwater streams. However, regional and state
tolerance classifications generally confer a "tolerant" ranking
to Ft. atratulus (Ohio EPA 1987; Halliwell 1999; Pirhalla 2004).
The use of the Blacknose Dace as an indicator species is
somewhat precarious due to its propensity for being abundant
in both high quality and marginal habitats. The Blacknose
Dace scores under IBI metrics 1, 7, and 10.
28
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Longnose Dace
(Rhinichthys cataractae)
Identification: Body elongate and somewhat compressed;
snout long and overhanging. Body with charcoal-gray
coloration and a dusky, faint lateral stripe. Breeding
males with red lips and fins. Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin
rays 7; pectoral fin rays 13-15; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin
moderately forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Sporadically distributed
throughout Canada, the upper Mississippi River basin, Great
Lakes-St. Lawrence basin, the northern and mid-Atlantic
slope, and the northwestern United States south to Mexico.
Occurs in mainly in creeks (B) and rivers, although may be
found in lakes. Most abundant in shallow water where the
current is moderate to swift. Generally found over sand,
gravel, cobble, and boulder substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,8,10): Becker (1983) reported that the
Longnose Dace may tolerate abrupt environmental changes
(e.g. low D.O., high temperatures, and turbidity) for short
periods of time. State and regional tolerance classifications
have ranked the Longnose Dace as both an "intermediate"
(Halliwell 1999) and "moderately intolerant" species (Pirhalla
2004). As an insectivorous cyprinid, the Longnose Dace
scores under IBI metrics 1, 8, and 10.
Creek Chub
(Semotilus atromaculatus)
Identification: Body elongate and cylindrical; head large.
Large individuals often robust. Coloration dark olive dorsally
with iridescent blue overtones; belly white. Prominent dusky
lateral line. Breeding male with tubercles and rose colored fins.
Mouth large and terminal (B). Anterior base of dorsal fin with
black blotch. Dorsal fin rays 8; anal fin rays 8; pectoral fin rays
16-17; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin emarginate to forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widespread east of the Rocky
Mountains. Generally found in small headwater streams and
creeks, less common in rivers and lakes. May be abundant
in moderate or sluggish current. Occurs over both fine and
coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,7,10): An adaptable species, the Creek
Chub is tolerant of disturbance, pollution, and moderate levels
of silt (Smith 1979; Trautman 1981; Becker 1983). Becker
(1983) wrote that S. atromaculatus possessed the "tenacity
of a weed" while Trautman and Gartman (1974) noted its
increased abundance following stream channelization.
State and regional tolerance classifications have ranked S.
atromaculatus as both "tolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987; Pirhalla
2004) and "moderately intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992). The
Creek Chub scores under IBI metrics 1, 7, 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
29
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SUCKERS (CATOSTOMIDAE)
$
Northern Hog Sucker (Hypentilium nigricans)
The relatively large family of Catostomidae
contains roughly 70 species, the vast majority of
which are native to North America. Catostomids
can serve as excellent indicators of habitat and
water quality as they are primarily benthic or
epibenthic in nature. Small groups are often
seen in foraging for food in clear, gravelly runs of
creeks and rivers.
Family Level Identifiers: Abdominal pelvic fin. Cycloid scales. Dorsal fin with ten or more rays.
Many species have fleshy, downturned lips that are either plicate or papillose.
Habitat: Suckers are found in a variety of habitats, including ditches, streams, rivers, and glacial
lakes. They often account for the majority of the fish biomass in healthy large creeks and rivers. As
a group, they prefer clear water and clean, coarse substrates such as sand, gravel, and cobble.
Pollution Tolerance: The suckers of North
America are, for the most part, sensitive to
pollution and habitat degradation (see table
10, Karr 1981; Trautman 1981; Becker 1983).
Because they are a long-lived taxon, commonly
reaching 10-20 years old, they are ideal long-
term biomonitors. Etnier (1997) noted that
sucker imperilment is most often attributed
to stream alterations and nonpoint source
pollution.
Identifying Suckers - Lips
A helpful tip in identifying
the various sucker species
is to examine the texture,
form, and dissection of the
lip(s). Generally, the lip(s)
are either described as
papillose or plicate, with
some species exhibiting an
intermediate form between
the two. See the individual
species descriptions for
detail on lip morphology.
Table 9. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Catostomidae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1 999)
Tolerant
22%
Intermediate
43%
Intolerant
35%
*23 species rated
Plicate
Papillose
White Sucker
(Catostomus commersoni)
Blacktail Redhorse
(Moxostoma poecilurum)
30
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Use in IBI: Metrics that directly evaluate the
presence and diversity of the sucker family include
Metric 4: Number of sucker species. Ohio EPA
substitutes % round-bodied suckers for Metric 2:
Number of darter species in large streams and
rivers (boat sampling sites). When appropriate,
pollution intolerant suckers would be used in
Metric 5: Number of intolerant species. Due to the
pollution tolerance of the White Sucker, this species
is sometimes utilized as an alternative to Metric 6:
Percent Green Sunfish. On a generic level, suckers
would also be used in a few other metrics, such as
Metric 1: Total number of species and Metric 10:
Number of individuals.
Table 10. Tolerance designations for selected catostomids.
Common Name
River Carpsucker
Quillback Carpsucker
Highfin Carpsucker
White Sucker
Blue Sucker
Creek Chubsucker
Lake Chubsucker
Northern Hog Sucker
Smallmouth Buffalo
Bigmouth Buffalo
Spotted Sucker
Silver Redhorse
River Redhorse
Black Redhorse
Golden Redhorse
Greater Jumprock
Shorthead Redhorse
Greater Redhorse
Scientific Name
Capiodes carpio
Carpiodes cyprinus
Carpiodes velifer
Catostomus commersoni
Cycleptus elongatus
Erimyzon oblongus
Erimyzon sucetta
Hypentilium nigricans
Ictiobus bubalus
Ictiobus cyprinellus
Minytrema melanops
Moxostoma anisurum
Moxostoma carinatum
Moxostoma cervinum
Moxostoma erythrurum
Moxostoma lachneri
Moxostoma macrolepidotum
Moxostoma valenciennesi
1
2
m
.0
IS
O
X
X
X
T
R
X
X
1
X
X
X
M
1
1
M
X
M
R
Jester etal. 1992
WQ
T
MT
MT
Ml
Ml
Ml
Ml
I
MT
MT
Ml
X
I
Ml
Ml
X
I
X
Habitat
T
MT
MT
I
I
I
Ml
I
MT
MT
I
X
Ml
Ml
Ml
X
I
X
3
O)
VI
I
X
X
X
T
X
X
X
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I
Whittier and Hughes 1998
X
X
X
MT
X
M
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Barbouretal. 1999
M
M
I
T
I
M
M
I
M
M
M
M
I
I
M
I
M
I
Halliwelletal. 1999
Habitat
-
T
-
T
-
I
-
M
-
-
-
M
I
I
I
-
M
I
Pirhalla 2004
X
X
X
Ml
X
T
X
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I = intolerant M = intermediate Ml = moderately intolerant MT = moderately tolerant
P = moderately tolerant R = rare intolerant S = special intolerant T = tolerant
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
31
-------
Quillback
(Carpiodes cyprinus)
Identification: Body deep, stout, and somewhat
compressed. Dorsal fin long, with elongated anterior rays.
Coloration olive-gray to brassy dorsally; sides silvery; belly
white. Fins dusky. Mouth inferior with thin lips (B). Dorsal fin
rays 22-30; anal fin rays 7-8; pectoral fin rays 15-17; pelvic
fin rays 8-10. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed
throughout the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St.
Lawrence basin, mid-Atlantic slope, and eastern Gulf
slope. Known mainly from rivers, lakes, and impoundments.
It generally occurs in quiet waters over coarse and fine
substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,4,10): The Quillback is reportedly
tolerant of turbidity, although less so than a close relative,
the River Carpsucker (C. carpid) (Etnier and Starnes 1993).
In some regions, the Quillback has apparently expanded
its range and increased in abundance since the turn of the
20th century (Smith 1979). State and regional tolerance
classifications for C. cyprinus range from "intermediate"
(Barbour et al. 1999) to "tolerant" (Jester et al. 1992; Simon
and Emery 1995). The Quillback scores under IBI metrics 1,
4, and 10.
White Sucker
(Catostomus commersoni)
Identification: Body tubular with a rounded snout. Coloration
olive-gray dorsally with dark mottles; sides often with patches
of dark gray or black (especially in young individuals [A]);
belly white. Fins dull yellow or orange. Mouth inferior with
fleshy, papillose lips (B). Dorsal fin rays 9-14; anal fin rays
7-8; pectoral fin rays 16-19; pelvic fin rays 9-11. Caudal fin
forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin,
Atlantic slope, and north into Canada. Known from creeks,
small rivers, and lakes. Highly migratory; may be found in
very small or ephemeral habitats when spawning. Occurs
over coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,4,10): The White Sucker is a wide-
ranging species apparently tolerant of low oxygen levels,
siltation, and organic and inorganic pollutants (Trautman
1981). Saint-Jacques et al. (2000) found the White Sucker
to be a flexible feeder adaptable to changing environmental
conditions. State and regional tolerance classifications for
C. commersoni range from "tolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987; Lyons
1992; Halliwell et al. 1999) to "moderately intolerant" (Jester
et al. 1992; Pirhalla 2004). The White Sucker scores under IBI
metrics 1, 4, and 10, and may be substituted for metric 6.
32
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Northern Hog Sucker
(Hypentilium nigricans)
Identification: Body thick and robust anteriorly; tapering
posteriorly. Head concave between eyes. Coloration light
brown, olive-green or bronze, with dark saddles and mottles;
belly white. Mouth inferior with fleshy, papillose lips. Pectoral
fins broad and large. Dorsal fin rays 10-12; anal fin rays 7;
pectoral fin rays 15-18; pelvic fin rays 10. Caudal forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widespread in the Mississippi
River basin, Great Lakes basin, and sporadically occurring
throughout the Atlantic slope. Disjunctly distributed on the Gulf
slope. Occurs in creeks and rivers in flowing glides, runs, and
riffles. Generally most abundant over clean sand, gravel, and
cobble substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,4,5,10): Sensitive to heavy siltation,
pollution, and channel modification, the Northern Hog Sucker
is most abundant in clean streams with good current (Smith
1979; Trautman 1981; Boschung and Mayden 2004). State
and regional tolerance classifications for H. nigricans range
from "intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999) to "intolerant" (Ohio
EPA 1987; Jester et al. 1992; Lyons 1992; Pirhalla 2004). As a
sensitive benthic inhabitant, the Northern Hog Sucker scores
under IBI metrics 1, 4, 5, and 10. In addition, "% round-bodied
suckers"(which includes H. nigricans) may replace Metric 2:
Number of darter species at boat sites.
Smallmouth Buffalo
(Ictiobus bubalus)
Identification: Body deep and compressed with large
scales. Coloration dusky brown, olive-brown, or gray
dorsally; sides light gray, often with a coppery or bronze
cast; belly white. Fins dusky to dark gray. Mouth small and
inferior, with a thick upper lip. Dorsal fin rays 26-31; anal fin
rays 9; pelvic fin rays 9-11. Caudal fin widely forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
Mississippi River basin and Gulf Slope. Typically found in
large rivers where the current is moderate, although may
adapt to impounded conditions (Boschung and Mayden
2004). Occurs over both coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,4,10): Trautman (1981) and Etnier
and Starnes (1993) noted that the Smallmouth Buffalo is
less tolerant of turbidity and more common in swift current
than its congeners. Becker (1983) reported the Smallmouth
Buffalo as a species that "prefers clean, clear water". State
and regional tolerance classifications for /. bubalus range
from "tolerant" (Simon and Emery 1995) to "intermediate"
(Barbour et al. 1999). The Smallmouth Buffalo scores
under IBI metrics 1, 4, and 10. The genus Ictiobus may be
excluded from metric 4 under some IBI interpretations.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
33
-------
Spotted Sucker
(Minytrema melanops)
Identification: Body somewhat cylindrical, slender, and
elongate. Lateral line incomplete to absent. Coloration olive-
brown to bronze with numerous dark spots (A); belly silvery-
white. Mouth inferior with thin, plicate lips (B). Dorsal fin rays
11-12; anal fin rays 7; pectoral fin rays 16-18; pelvic fin rays
9-10. Caudal fin widely forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Well-distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, lower Great Lakes, southern
Atlantic slope, and Gulf slope. Occurs in creeks, rivers, lakes,
and reservoirs. Typically found in lowland habitats where
the current is sluggish to moderate. May be found over both
coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,4,10): The Spotted Sucker is reportedly
intolerant of industrial pollutants, siltation, and turbidity (Smith
1979;Trautman 1981). White and Haag (1977) suggested
that "changes in range and abundance of Minytrema may
be related to stream alterations that alter its food supply and
feeding habits". Regional and state tolerance classifications
range from "intermediate" (Barbour et a. 1999) to "intolerant"
(Jester et al. 1992). The Spotted Sucker scores under IBI
metrics 1, 4, and 10. In addition, "% round-bodied suckers"
(which includes Minytrema) may replace Metric 2: Number of
darter species at boat sites.
Golden Redhorse
(Moxostoma erythrurum)
Identification: Body elongate and somewhat robust. Lateral
line generally 40-43 scales. Coloration brassy or gold; belly
white. Fins dusky gray or reddish-orange. Mouth inferior with
plicate lips that form a U-shape posteriorly. Breeding males
with conspicuous tubercles on the snout, cheek, anal, and
caudal fins. Dorsal fin rays 12-14; pectoral fin rays 17-18; anal
fin rays 7; pelvic fin rays 9. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
Mississippi River basin, the lower Great Lakes, Red River
(of the North) drainage, Mobile basin, and a few mid-Atlantic
drainages. Typically found in creeks and rivers, less common
in lakes and impoundments. Most abundant in sluggish to
moderate current where clean substrates of sand, gravel,
cobble, and bedrock are present.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,4,10): The Golden Redhorse is
intolerant of domestic and organic pollutants, continuous
turbidity, and heavy siltation (Trautman 1981; Becker 1983).
Becker (1983) noted that it is intolerant of cold and warm
water, preferring instead to find an intermediate temperature.
Regional and state tolerance classifications range from
"intermediate" (Ohio EPA 1987) to "intolerant" (Halliwell et al.
1999). The Golden Redhorse scores under IBI metrics 1, 4,
and 10.
34
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Shorthead Redhorse
(Moxostoma macrolepidotum)
Identification: Body elongate and somewhat robust.
Coloration brown-olive dorsally; sides silver with olive-
yellow overtones; belly white. Fins reddish-orange to silvery
translucent. Mouth inferior and somewhat small; lips plicate;
lower lip much deeper than upper lip (B). Breeding males
with minute tubercles. Dorsal fin rays 12-14; anal fin rays 7;
pectoral fin rays 16-17; pelvic rays 9. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widespread in the Mississippi
River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin, Atlantic slope,
and Hudson Bay basin. Typically found in small to large rivers,
although may be found in lakes and impoundments. Occurs
in sluggish to moderate current over both coarse and fine
substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,4,10): In Arkansas, Robison and
Buchanan (1988) reported M. macrolepidotum as the most
tolerant Moxostoma sucker to turbidity. It has also been
documented as intolerant of heavy siltation and pollution
(Trautman 1981; Sule and Skelly 1985). Regional and state
tolerance classifications for M. macrolepidotum range from
"intermediate" (Ohio EPA 1987; Halliwell et al. 1999) to
"intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992). The Shorthead Redhorse
scores under metrics 1, 4, and 10. In studies where % round
bodied suckers replace Metric 3: Number of darter species,
the Shorthead would be included in this substitute metric.
Black Jumprock
(Scartomyzon cervinum)
Identification: Body cylindrical, slender, and elongate.
Coloration greenish-yellow to brassy, with irregular
dark blotches or mottles; belly white. Dorsal and caudal
fin with distinctive dark edges. Mouth inferior and
small; lips plicate. Dorsal fin rays 10-12; anal fin rays
7; pectoral fin rays 14-16; pelvic fin rays 9. Caudal fin
forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Restricted to several
Atlantic slope drainages in Virginia and North Carolina.
Occurs in creeks and small rivers (B, upper Roanoke
River). Most abundant in moderate current where the
streambed is comprised of coarse, clean substrates.
Juveniles may be found in silty and detritus laden
pools or backwaters (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).
Indicator Use/IBI (1,4,10): Perhaps due to its limited
distribution, there is little information available on the
tolerance of S. cerinum to environmental changes.
Likewise, tolerance classifications have not been
developed for S. cervinum. By default, the Black
Jumprock would score under IBI metrics 1, 4, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
35
-------
CATFISHES (ICTALURIDAE)
Brindled Madtom (Noturus miurus)
With their barbels and scaleless bodies,
ictalurids are among the most distinctive
fishes in North America. Some might also be
surprised to learn that Ictaluridae is the largest
family of fishes indigenous to North America
(Burr and Mayden 1992). Most of this diversity
is found in the genus Noturus, a taxon of
small, cryptic catfish known commonly as
madtoms.
Family Level Identifiers: Head either depressed or moderately depressed. Body scaleless. Dorsal
fin short and usually with 1 spine. Mouth with 8 barbels. Adipose fin present.
Habitat: Catfish occupy a variety of freshwater habitats, from wetlands and lakes to rivers and
small streams. Most of the physically larger species occupy medium to large river habitats, in
addition to lakes and reservoirs. The smaller species (Noturus genus) vary to such a degree that it
is difficult to make general statements regarding habitat preference.
Table 11. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Ictaluridae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1999)
Tolerant
12%
Intermediate
53%
Intolerant
35%
"17 species rated
Pollution Tolerance: Generally, catfishes of
the Ameirus, Ictalurus, and Pylodictis genera
are "intermediate species" in terms of pollution
tolerance. The pollution intolerant ictalurids are
primarily from the Noturus genus (madtoms).
The madtoms also account for the majority
of the imperiled catfish species, which Etnier
(1997) attributes to pollution, altered stream
flows, and small ranges. Of the 25 described
madtom species, five are federally listed as endangered or threatened (Burr and Stoeckel 1999).
Madtoms. The common name "madtom" refers to the genus Noturus, currently represented by 25
species (Sabaj et al. 2006). Due to their small size, cryptic coloring, and reclusive behavior, these
small catfishes have gone largely unnoticed by the general public and may even be overlooked
during fish surveys. They are also among the most sensitive aquatic taxa to disturbance and
pollution. In fact, Boschung and Mayden (2004) commented that madtoms are the ultimate
"ecological canary" and are often "the first to disappear as a result of ecological downturns".
Tadpole Madtom (Noturus gyrinus) .
Mountain Madtom (Noturus eleutherus)
36
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Use in IBI: While there is not a specific metric
that measures ictalurids, there are circumstances
when they are used in conjunction with other
benthic species. The genus Noturus (madtoms), for
example, might be used in conjunction with darters
or other benthic insectivores in Metric 2: Number
and darter species. Many madtoms are also
considered intolerant species, and therefore would
be used under Metric 5: Number of intolerant
species. It should also be noted that where
alternative insectivore metrics are used, madtoms
might also be included in this grouping, as many
smaller species feed primarily on aquatic insects.
Table 12. Tolerance designations for selected ictalurids.
Common Name
White Catfish
Black Bullhead
Yellow Bullhead
Brown Bullhead
Blue Catfish
Channel Catfish
Elegant Madtom
Mountain Madtom
Slender Madtom
Yellowfin Madtom
Stonecat Madtom
Tadpole Madtom
Margined Madtom
Speckled Madtom
Brindled Madtom
Freckled Madtom
Northern Madtom
Scioto Madtom
Flathead Catfish
Scientific Name
Ameiurus catus
Ameiurus me/as
Ameiurus natalis
Ameiurus nebulosus
Ictalurus furcatus
Ictalurus punctatus
Noturus elegans
Noturus eleutherus
Noturus exilis
Noturus flavipinnis
Noturus flavus
Noturus gyrinus
Noturus insignis
Noturus leptacanthus
Noturus miurus
Noturus nocturnus
Noturus stigmosus
Noturus trautmani
Pylodictis olivaris
i-.
|
2
HI
o
O
X
p
T
T
X
X
X
R
X
X
1
X
X
X
1
X
R
S
X
Jester etal. 1992
WQ
T
T
T
MT
X
MT
X
I
Ml
X
I
Ml
X
X
I
Ml
X
X
MT
Habitat
MT
T
MT
Ml
X
MT
X
I
I
X
I
I
X
X
I
Ml
X
X
MT
CM
|
(A
C
O
5
X
X
T
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Whittier and Hughes 1998
M
X
MT
T
X
M
X
X
X
X
X
Ml
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Barbour etal. 1999
M
M
T
T
M
M
X
I
I
X
I
M
M
X
I
M
I
I
M
Halliwelletal. 1999
Habitat
M
X
T
T
X
M
X
X
X
X
M
M
M
X
M
X
X
X
X
Pirhalla 2004
X
X
T
T
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
T
Ml
X
X
X
X
X
X
I = intolerant M = intermediate Ml = moderately intolerant MT = moderately tolerant
P = moderately tolerant R = rare intolerant S = special intolerant T = tolerant
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
37
-------
Channel Catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus)
Identification: Body elongate, slender, and scaleless; head
small. Older individuals often robust. Coloration brownish-olive
dorsally; sides with irregularly spaced dark spots; belly white.
Mouth large and subterminal. Dorsal fin rays 6; anal fin rays
24-29; pectoral fin rays 9; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widespread throughout
the United States; except for discrete areas in the Atlantic
drainage and the western United States. Occurs in small and
large rivers, reservoirs, lakes, and ponds. Often occupies
deep runs and pools during the day, frequents shoals to feed
at night. Typically found over sand, gravel, cobble, bedrock,
and rubble substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): An adaptable and wide-ranging
species, the Channel Catfish is capable of maintaining
populations in turbid streams where the rate of silt deposition
is not too severe (Trautman 1981; Robison and Buchanan
1988). State and regional tolerance classifications for /.
punctatus range from "intermediate" (Whittier and Hughes
1998; Halliwell et al. 1999) to "tolerant" (Simon and Emery
1995). The Channel Catfish scores under IBI metrics 1 and
10. In great rivers, the Channel Catfish scores as a tolerant (6)
and great river species (3) (Simon and Emery 1995).
Stonecat Madtom
(Noturus flavus)
Identification: Body elongate, slender posteriorly and
scaleless; head depressed. Adipose fin joined to caudal with
a notch present between the two Coloration olive-brown or
gray dorsally, becoming grayish-white or yellowish-white
ventrally. Mouth subterminal. Dorsal fin rays 6; anal fin rays
15-18; pectoral fin rays 9-11; pelvic fin rays 8-10. Caudal fin
truncate to slightly rounded.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed in the Mississippi
River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin, and Red
River (of the North) drainage. Typically occurs in creeks and
small rivers where the current is moderate to rapid. Most
abundant over gravel, cobble, boulder, or bedrock rubble
substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): Of the madtoms found in the
Noturus genus, the Stonecat Madtom may be among
the more adaptable species (Cross 1967). Becker (1983)
commented that the Stonecat tolerates "pollution and
oxygen depletion which few other fish can survive".
Regional and state tolerance classifications for N.
flavus range from "intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999)
to "intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987; Jester et al. 1992). The
Stonecat Madtom scores under IBI metrics 1 and 10.
38
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Tadpole Madtom
(Noturus gyrinus)
Identification: Head and trunk stout before posterior
base of dorsal fin; tail thin. Coloration brown, brownish-
yellow or brownish-gray; usually with a conspicuous lateral
stripe on body. Mouth terminal and moderately large for
size. Adipose fin joined to caudal fin; small notch present
between the two. Dorsal fin rays 6; anal fin rays 14-16;
pectoral fin rays 7; pelvic fin rays 8. Caudal fin rounded to
slightly emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Occurs in the Mississippi
River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin, Atlantic
slope, and Gulf slope. Typically found in creeks, rivers,
lakes, marshes, backwaters, and ditches. Prefers sluggish
or lentic habitats where the substrate is comprised of mud,
sand, or organic matter.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): From Ohio to Alabama,
experts have reported the extirpation of Tadpole Madtom
populations due to ditching, draining, turbidity, and siltation
(Trautman 1981; Boschung and Mayden 2004). Regional
and state tolerance classifications for N. gyrinus range from
"tolerant" (Pirhalla 2004) to "intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992).
The Tadpole Madtom scores under IBI metrics 1 and 10.
Brindled Madtom
(Noturus miurus)
Identification: Head and trunk moderately robust before
posterior base of dorsal fin. Coloration light yellowish-tan
with numerous dark mottles and speckles. Distinctive dark
blotch on anterior/distal edge of dorsal fin (see drawing on
page 29). Black band continuous over adipose fin. Mouth
subterminal. Dorsal fin rays 6; anal fin rays 13-17; pectoral
fin rays 8; pelvic fin rays 9. Caudal fin truncate to slightly
rounded.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
Mississippi River basin and lower Great Lakes. Typically
occurs in creeks and small rivers where the current is
sluggish to moderate. Most abundant in lightly silted sand
and gravel substrates. Often found underneath organic
debris or freshwater mussel shells (A-B).
Indicator Use/IBI (1,5,10): The Brindled Madtom has
been described as relatively intolerant of siltation and
industrial pollutants (Trautman 1981; Parker 1987). State
and regional tolerance classifications for N. miurus range
from "intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999) to "intolerant"
(Ohio EPA 1987; Jester et al. 1992). The Brindled Madtom
scores under IBI metrics 1, 5, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
39
-------
TROUTS (SALMONIDAE)
There are few families as attractive to fisherman as the salmonids. No other taxa has been so
extensively stocked, introduced, researched, and genetically altered as this group (Boschung and
Mayden 2004). In fact, trout species have been so widely stocked that most do not realize their
status as an "exotic." The Brown Trout (Salmo trutta), for example, is native to Europe, while the
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is indigenous to the Pacific Northwest.
Family Level Identifiers: Scales very small. Head missing scales. Adipose fin present. Fins do not
have spines.
Habitat: Salmonids occupy a variety of habitats, but most require clean, cool water where food
is plentiful and dissolved oxygen is high. Many stockings have failed due to water temperatures
exceeding 70° F in the summer months. While some salmonids are primarily marine dwelling
species (e.g. Pacific Salmon), all reproduce in freshwater.
Table 13. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Salmonidae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1999)
Tolerant
0%
Intermediate
76%
Intolerant
24%
*21 species rated
Pollution Tolerance: Like other families,
salmonids vary in pollution tolerance.
Many species, as previously mentioned,
are temperature sensitive. Etnier and
Starnes (1993) commented that Brook Trout
(salvelinus fontinalis) do not tolerate maximum
water temperatures much higher than 61° F.
Consequently, native Brook Trout populations
are confined to streams fed by groundwater,
and are likely susceptible to stressors such as siltation, urbanization and riparian destruction, all of
which are known to raise stream temperatures. Another indirect stressor to native trout populations
involves the introduction of exotic species, such as the Rainbow and Brown Trout in Tennessee
and Northern Georgia, where success of these exotic species has been to the detriment of the
native Brook Trout (Etnier and Starnes 1993). Finally, although some dams have been made
"fish friendly" (fish ladders, etc.), many of these structures still impede highly migratory (and
anadromous) salmonids from carrying out essential life migrations.
Brook Trout (Salvelinus foutinalis)
Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
40
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Lake Trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
Use in IBI: While a specific metric does not
evaluate the presence and diversity of the
Salmonidae, they are often substituted into
numerous metrics throughout the United
States. For example, salmonids may be
substituted for, or used in conjunction with,
sunfish in Metric 3: Number of sunfish
species. Salmonid diversity and abundance
may also be substituted for intolerant
species in Metric 5: Number of intolerant
species. The salmonids are also evaluated
under Metric 9: Percent top carnivores and
general metrics such as Metric 1: Total
number of species and Metric 10: Total
number of individuals.
Table 14. Tolerance designations for selected salmonids.
Common Name
Lake Herring
Cutthroat Trout
Pink Salmon
Coho Salmon
Rainbow Trout
Chinook Salmon
Atlantic Salmon
Brown Trout
Brook Trout
Lake Trout
Scientific Name
Coregonus artedi
Oncorhynchus clarki
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Salmo salar
Salmo trutta
Salvelinus malma
Salvelinus namaycush
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P = moderately
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tolerant R = rare intolerant S = special intolerant T = tolerant
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
41
-------
Rainbow Trout
(Orcorhynchus mykiss)
Identification: Body elongate and slender. Coloration
silvery to olive dorsally with numerous dark spots; sides with
many to few dark spots and a pinkish-red streak (A-B); belly
silvery to white. Caudal, adipose, and dorsal fin with dark
spots. Mouth moderate to large and terminal. Dorsal fin rays
10-13; anal fin rays 10-13; pectoral fin rays 11-17; pelvic fin
rays 9-10. Caudal fin truncate to slightly emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Native to Asia and the
Pacific coast. Extensively stocked and now disjunctly
distributed throughout the United States and Canada.
Generally occurs in cool creeks and rivers where the flow is
moderate to swift (Becker 1983). Reportedly thrives in the
cool tailwaters of dams (Robison and Buchanan 1988).
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): Of the trout species, the Rainbow
is considered the most tolerant of high temperatures
(Becker 1983). State and regional tolerance classifications
for O. mykiss range from intermediate (Barbour et al. 1999)
to intolerant (Jester et al. 1992; Halliwell et al. 1999). The
Rainbow Trout generally scores under IBI metrics 1 and 10.
When appropriate, it may be considered a top carnivore
under metric 9. In addition, in some regions, O. mykiss may
score as an intolerant species (metric 5).
Brown Trout
(Salmo trutta)
Identification: Body elongate and slender. Coloration
tannish-olive to brown dorsally with dark sports, usually with
a pale outline; sides with numerous red spots possessing a
pale outline; belly yellowish. Caudal fin without dark spots.
Mouth moderate to large and terminal. Dorsal fin rays 12-14;
anal fin rays 10-12; pectoral fin rays 13-14; pelvic fin rays
9-10. Caudal fin truncate to forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Native to Asia and Europe.
Extensively stocked and now disjunctly distributed
throughout the United States and Canada. May occupy a
wide range of habitats, including cool creeks, rivers, lakes,
and ponds. Occurs in sluggish to swift current and over both
fine and coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): Like the Rainbow Trout, the Brown
Trout is more tolerant of higher temperatures than many
of its relatives (Etnierand Starnes 1993). Becker (1983)
considered the Brown Trout tolerant to episodic turbidity,
persisting in areas intolerable to the Brook Trout. State and
regional tolerance classifications for S. trutta range from
"intermediate" (Barbour et al. 1999) to "intolerant" (Jester et
al. 1992; Halliwell et al. 1999). If exotic species are included,
the Brown Trout scores under IBI metrics 1 and 10. It may
also be considered a top predator by some programs.
42
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Brook Trout
(Salvelinus fontinalis)
Identification: Body elongate, slender, and laterally
compressed. Coloration smoky olive to brassy dorsally with
numerous small vermiculations; sides with dark vertical bars
and red spots; belly red, yellowish, or white. Caudal, adipose,
and dorsal fin with dark spots or blotches. Mouth large and
terminal. Dorsal fin rays 10-14; anal fin rays 9-13; pectoral fin
rays 11-14; pelvic fin rays 8-10. Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widespread throughout
eastern North America. It has also been widely introduced
outside of its native range (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).
Typically occurs in cool, well-shaded sections of headwater
streams and creeks that possess considerable influxes of
groundwater. Generally found over both fine and coarse
substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,5,10): An intolerant native salmonid
species, the Brook Trout is more sensitive to changing
environmental conditions and higher temperatures than the
exotic Rainbow Trout and Brown Trout (Etnier and Starnes
1993). The formerly mentioned species may complicate
matters by competing with native Brook Trout (Kelly et al.
1979; Etnier and Starnes 1993). State and regional tolerance
classifications for S. fontinalis range from "moderately
intolerant" (Pirhalla 2004) to "intolerant" (Lyons 1992).
Lake Trout
(Salvelinus namaycush)
Identification: Body slender and laterally compressed.
Coloration grayish-olive dorsally with numerous irregular,
pale spots; may have a rosy tinge subdorsally (A); sides also
with numerous spots; belly white. Mouth large and terminal.
Dorsal fin rays 8-10; anal fin rays 8-10; pectoral fin rays 12-
17; pelvic fin rays 8-11. Caudal fin forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the northern United States and Canada. It has also been
extensively introduced. Typically occurs in lakes at depths
of up to 300 feet (Becker 1983). May be found over fine or
coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 5, 9,10): The Lake Trout is a species
adapted to cruising deep, cold waters while searching for
food. At the southern boundary of its range, this species has
apparently severely declined as a result of Sea Lamprey
predation and overfishing (Trautman 1981; Becker 1983).
Becker (1983) noted that reproducing populations no
longer occur in Lake Michigan and stocked populations
have limited reproductive success. State and regional
tolerance classifications generally for S. namaycush range
from "moderately intolerant" (Whittier and Hughes 1998) to
"intolerant" (Lyons 1992; Halliwell et al. 1999). The Lake Trout
scores under IBI metrics 1,5,9, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
43
-------
PIKES (ESOCIDAE)
Northern Pike (Esoxlucius)
Family Esocidae contains some of the most
popular sport fishes in North America,
including the well known Northern Pike and
Muskellunge. Diversity among the family is
limited to just one genus, with four species
native to areas east of the Rocky Mountains.
Stocking has occurred throughout the
United States, however, as the "Northern"
and "Muskey" continue to be fisherman
favorites.
Family Level Identifiers: Body elongate. Dorsal fin and anal fin set posteriorly. Abdominal pelvic
fins. Mouth often described as "duckbill-like." Cycloid scales.
Habitat: The pike family occurs in both lotic and lentic habitats where an abundance of aquatic
vegetation, woody debris, or other cover is present. During breeding season, esocids may be found
in small channels or even ephemeral habitats, including ditches, wet prairies, backwaters, and
marshes.
Pollution Tolerance: In general terms, family
Esocidae is moderately tolerant of pollution
and habitat disturbance. It should be noted,
however, that pikes are susceptible to channel
and backwater modification (ditching, dredging
and draining) due to their habitat and spawning
requirements. For example, White et al.
(1975) found that Northern Pike populations
in Lake Erie and its tributaries have continued
Table 15. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Esocidae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1999)
Tolerant
0%
Intermediate
1 00%
Intolerant
0%
*5 species rated
to decline since 1885 where dredging and draining were extensive. Several experts have also
suggested that members of this family are sensitive to excessive turbidity (Trautman 1981; Robison
and Buchanan 1988; Etnierand Starnes 1993).
Northern Pike
(Esoxlucius)
Grass Pickerel
(Esox americanus vermiculatus)
44
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Ambush Predators
With nicknames like "water wolf," "perch killers," and "slew sharks," members of family Esocidae
are clearly fearsome predators beloved by fishermen. The hunting strategy of an esocid is pretty
straightforward; lie-in-wait for unsuspecting prey and strike with lightning-quick acceleration and
razor sharp teeth. Pikes use this stealthy technique to feed on a wide assortment of prey, including
aquatic insects, fish, crayfish, turtles, frogs, and even muskrats and ducks!
Use in IBI: Family Esocidae contains top-tier
predators that are reported under Metric 9:
Percent top carnivores. In addition, the general
presence of this family is accounted for in
several other metrics, such as Metric 1: Total
number of fish species and Metric 10: Total
number of individuals.
Notes/Comments: The pike family is holartic in
distribution, with the Amur Pike (Esox reicherti)
endemic to the Amur River of Siberia and the
Northern Pike occurring in North America,
Europe, and Asia. The remaining species are
only found in North America.
Table 16. Tolerance designations for selected esocids.
Common Name
Redfin Pickerel
Grass Pickerel
Northern Pike
Muskellunge
Chain Pickerel
Scientific Name
Esox americanus americanus
Esox americanus vermiculatus
Esox lucius
Esox masquinongy
Esox niger
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An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
45
-------
Grass Pickerel
(Esox americanus vermiculatus)
Identification: Body elongate and tubular, with a duckbill-
like snout. Coloration usually dark green, brown, or yellow
with whitish-yellow vermiculations; belly white. Distinctive
tear-drop marking below eye. Cheek and opercle scaled.
Teeth conspicuous. Dorsal fin rays 12-13; anal fin rays 11-
12; pectoral fin rays 14-15; pelvic fin rays 9-10. Caudal fin
moderately forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
Mississippi River basin and southern Great Lakes. Typically
inhabits ditches and small creeks where the current is
sluggish or absent. May also occur in marshes and inland
lakes. Generally found near cover; may be found over both
fine and coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): This small pike species requires
in-stream cover and clear to moderately turbid water to
thrive. In agricultural or urban areas where stream or ditch
vegetation is routinely removed, E.a. vermiculatus may be
reduced in numbers or eliminated (Trautman 1981). It has
been documented to tolerate elevated temperatures and
low dissolved oxygen levels (Scott and Grossman 1973).
State and regional classifications range from "intermediate"
(Barbour et al. 1999) to "moderately intolerant" (Jester et al.
1992). The Grass Pickerel scores under metrics 1 and 10.
Northern Pike
(Esox lucius)
Identification: Body tubular and robust, with a large, duckbill-
like snout (A). Coloration dark olive-green dorsally; sides with
numerous, irregular spots; belly white. All fins with dark blotches
except pectorals. Cheek fully scaled; opercle scaled on the
upper half. Dorsal fin rays 15-19; anal fin rays 12-15; pectoral fin
rays 14-17; pelvic fin rays 10-11. Caudal fin moderately forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: The Northern Pike is
distributed throughout the Mississippi River basin and Great
Lakes basin all the way north into the Arctic. It has also been
widely introduced. Typically found in creeks, rivers, lakes,
impoundment, and marshes. It may move into small, ephemeral
habitats during the breeding season, including ditches and
wetlands. Occurs over both fine and coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 9,10): The Northern Pike is vulnerable
to habitat alterations that modify backwater and swamp-like
spawning grounds including dredging and draining activities
(Trautman 1981). This large predator may tolerate low dissolved
oxygen levels, but is sensitive to elevated temperatures
(Casselman 1978; Becker 1983). Regional and state tolerance
classifications range from "intermediate" (Whittier and Hughes
1998) to "intolerant" (Halliwell et al. 1999). The Northern Pike
scores under IBI metrics 1, 9, and 10.
46
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
TOPMINNNOWS AND KlLLIFISHES (FUNDULIDAE)
The Fundulidae are an attractive and rather unfamiliar group of native fishes widely distributed
throughout North America. The family contains 4 genera, with Fundulus being the largest and
most prevalent group in the United States. Fundulids possess interesting adaptations that enhance
surface feeding capabilities and allow them to dwell in hypoxic environments.
Family Level Identifiers: Overall body size small; often with a flattened head. Fins without spines;
dorsal fin often set posteriorly; pelvic fin abdominal. Mouth small and terminal to superior. Often
strongly sexually dimorphic.
Habitat: Topminnows and killifishes occur in small headwaters, creeks, rivers, lakes, and wetlands.
They are generally most abundant where the current is sluggish or absent; occurring in both open
water or near aquatic vegetation. They are found over coarse or fine substrates.
Pollution Tolerance: The killifishes and
topminnows of North America are, like many
other families, variable in their tolerance to
pollution and habitat disturbance. Some, such
as the Western Banded Killifish (Fundulus
diaphanus menona), inhabitat clear, vegetated
waters where substrates are free of silts
(Trautman 1981). Etnierand Starnes (1993)
noted that channelization had eliminated the
Table 17. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Fundulidae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1999)
Tolerant
17%
Intermediate
50%
Intolerant
33%
*6 species rated
swamp habitat needed to support Northern Starhead Topminnow (Fundulus dispai) populations
in western Tennessee. Interestingly, fundulids may be found in hypoxic environments due to
morphological adaptations that allow them to utilize the oxygen-rich surface layer of the water
column (Lewis 1970; Killgore and Hoover 2001).
Russetfin Topminnow
(Fundulus escambiae)
Lined Topminnow
(Fundulus lineolatus)
Longnose Killifish
(Fundulus si mills)
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
47
-------
Use in IBI: As originally proposed by Karr
(1981), fundulids are not directly evaluated
under a specific IBI metric. However, the
presence and abundance of the Fundulidae
may be included under general metrics such
as Metric 1: Total number of fish species
and Metric 10: Total number of individuals.
Alternative metrics to Metric 8: Percent
insectivorous cyprinids may enumerate
all insectivorous species, which would
include most of the Fundulidae. Pollution
intolerant topminnows and killifishes would
be enumerated under Metric 5: Number of
intolerant species.
Table 18. Tolerance designations for selected fundulids.
Common Name
Blair's Starhead Topminnow
Northern Studfish
Golden Topminnow
Banded Killifish
Starhead Topminnow
Mummichog
Blackstripe Topminnow
Blackspotted Topminnow
Plains Topminnow
Plains Killifish
Scientific Name
Fundulus blairae
Fundulus catenatus
Fundulus chrysotus
Fundulus diaphanus
Fundulus dispar
Fundulus heteroclitus
Fundulus notatus
Fundulus olivaceus
Fundulus sciadicus
Fundulus zebrinus
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P = moderately tolerant R = rare intolerant S = special intolerant T = tolerant
48
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Western Banded Killifish
(Fundulus diaphanus menona)
Identification: Body elongate and noticeably wider anteriorly
than posteriorly; head flattened. Coloration light olive-yellow
dorsally, often with dark speckles; sides lighter with irregular,
narrow vertical bars; belly pale yellow-white. Mouth terminal
and small to moderate in size. Males generally with large
dorsal and anal fins. Dorsal fin rays 12-13; anal fin rays 9-11;
pectoral fin rays 16-17; pelvic fin rays 6. Cadual fin rounded to
truncate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed in the upper
Mississippi River basin and lower Great Lakes basin. Typically
found in lakes (B) and sluggish sections of creeks and rivers.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): The Western Banded Killifish
is generally most abundant in clear, quite waters. In
Ohio, F.d. menona has reportedly undergone population
reductions due to loss of habitat and siltation (Trautman
1981). However, small populations still persist in streams
degraded by channelization, siltation, and agricultural runoff
(Poly and Miltner 1995). Most regional and state tolerance
classifications do not separate between the two subspecies
- the Western Banded and Eastern Banded Killifish (F.d.
diaphanus). The Western Banded Killifish scores under IBI
metrics 1 and 10.
Blackstripe Topminnow
(Fundulus notatus)
Identification: Body elongate and moderately robust; head
flattened. Coloration olive-yellow dorsally; sides with a
distinctive longitudinal stripe that extends from the snout to
caudal peduncle (diamond shaped accented with vertical
bars in males [B]); belly silvery-white. Mouth oblique and
small. Dorsal fin rays 9-10; anal fin rays 12; pectoral fin rays
14-15; pelvic fin rays 6. Cadual fin rounded.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, lower Great Lakes basin, and
several Gulf slope drainages. Occurs in small creeks to
rivers, lakes, and impoundments. Typically present where
the current is sluggish or absent. Found over both fine and
coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): The Blackstripe Topminnow is
reportedly tolerant of low dissolved oxygen and turbidity
(Trautman 1981; Boschung and Mayden 2004). This
adaptative topminnow appears to have recently expanded its
range and invaded new habitats where it was not previously
recorded (Trautman 1981; Becker 1983; Poly and Miltner
1995). State and regional tolerance classifications generally
rank F. notatus as an "intermediate" species (Jester et al.
1992; Barbour et al. 1999). The Blackstripe Topminnow
scores under IBI metrics 1 and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
49
-------
SCULPINS (COTTIDAE)
Family Cottidae is largely marine in distribution, with the northern Pacific Ocean maintaining the
majority of the species. In the freshwater systems of North America, two genera and less than
30 species have been identified. Much like the darters (Ammocrypta, Crystallaria, Etheostoma,
and Percina), sculpins are primarily benthic-dwelling fishes lacking a swim bladder. They are
aggressive predators, feeding chiefly on macroinvertebrates, crayfish, and smaller fishes.
Family Level Identifiers: Head and mouth large. Body dorsally depressed. Often scaleless,
although a few ctenoid scales may be present. Pectoral fins large. Pelvic fin with one spine and two
to five rays.
Habitat: Most sculpin species dwell in of areas swift current and considerable groundwater
influence (cool water streams). Although they are often more common in small to medium-sized
streams, they are also found in rivers and lakes. Favored substrates include gravel, cobble, and
boulders.
Pollution Tolerance: Pollution tolerance varies
among this cool water-dwelling family. In general,
sculpins are intolerant to moderately tolerant
of polluted conditions. Trautman (1981) found
that Mottled Sculpin (Cottus bairdi) populations
decreased in the presence of silts, pollution,
and disturbance, while flourishing populations
occurred in the clearest and cleanest brooks of
higher gradients.
Table 19. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Cottidae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1999)
Tolerant
0%
Intermediate
60%
Intolerant
40%
*5 species rated
Mottled Sculpin (Cottus bairdi)
Headwater habitat of the
Banded Sculpin (Cottus carolinae)
50
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
Use in IBI: Family Cottidae is sometimes used
as an alternative taxa to Metric 2: Number and
identity of darter species or in conjunction with
other benthic taxa such as madtoms or darters.
These taxa are generally more vulnerable to stream
degradation because they feed and reproduce in
benthic habitats (Kuehne and Barbour 1983, Ohio
EPA 1987). Cottids that are intolerant of pollution
are included in Metric 5: Number and identity of
intolerant species. The general presence and
abundance of sculpin is enumerated under Metric
1: Total number of fish species and Metric 10: Total
number of individuals.
Table 20. Tolerance designations for selected cottids.
Common Name
Prickly Sculpin
Mottled Sculpin
Paiute Sculpin
Banded Sculpin
Slimy Sculpin
Scientific Name
Coitus asper
Coitus bairdi
Cotus beldingi
Coitus carolinae
Coitus cognatus
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An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
51
-------
Mottled Sculpin
(Cottus bairdi)
Identification: Body robust and dorsally depressed.
Coloration cryptic; body grayish-brown with patchy dark
speckles and black saddles. Breeding males often with
brilliant orange bands on the first dorsal fin. Mouth very large
and terminal. Pectoral fins large. First dorsal fin spines 6-9;
second dorsal rays 15-18; anal fin rays 12-14; pectoral fin
rays 14-17. Caudal fin rounded.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely and disjunctly
distributed in the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St.
Lawrence basin, Atlantic slope, the western United States,
and north into Canada. Occurs in cool water creeks and
rivers. Found over coarse substrates such as gravel, cobble,
boulder, and bedrock rubble.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,5,10): Mottled Sculpin require clear,
cool, oxygenated water that is relatively free of clayey silts
and pollutants (Trautman 1981). Due to their propensity
for small cool water streams, they are vulnerable to
thermal stress resulting from riparian corridor destruction
or groundwater lowering. Regional and state tolerance
classifications for C. bairdi range from "moderately intolerant"
(Pirhalla 2004) to "intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987; Lyons 1992;
Halliwell et al. 1999). The Mottled Sculpin scores under IBI
metrics 1, 5, and 10.
Banded Sculpin
(Cottus carolinae)
Identification: Body robust and dorsally depressed.
Coloration cryptic; body often reddish-brown with 4 dark
saddles. First dorsal fin with a reddish-orange band. Chin
mottled. Mouth very large and terminal. Pectoral fins large.
First dorsal fin spines 6-9; second dorsal rays 14-18; anal fin
rays 11-15; pectoral fin rays 12-18; pelvic fin rays 3-4. Caudal
fin rounded.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
Mississippi River basin and Mobile basin. Occurs in small
creeks (B) to rivers where the current is moderate to swift.
Most abundant over clean sand, gravel, cobble, and rubble
substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,5,10): Generally widespread and
common throughout its range, the Banded Sculpin inhabits
clear, cool to coldwater habitats. However, Pflieger (1975)
observed that C. carolinae may be more tolerant of warmer
waters than its congeners. Regional and state tolerance
classifications for C. carolinae range from "intermediate"
(Barbour et al. 1999) to "intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992).
The Banded Sculpin scores under IBI metrics 1 and 10. As
benthic inhabitants, the Cottidae may also be substituted for
Metric 2: Number of darter species in certain regions.
52
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
-------
SUNFISHES (CENTRARCHIDAE)
Beloved by anglers, this well-known family contains about 30 species, including popular fishes
such as the Smallmouth Bass, Largemouth Bass, Black Crappie, and Bluegill Sunfish.The term
"panfish" often refers to the tasty, smaller fish species of the sunfish family. The sunfish are among
the most notorious of the hybridizing fishes, especially species belonging to the genus Lepomis.
Family Level Identifiers: A spinous dorsal fin with 6-13 spines followed by a soft dorsal fin. Three
or more anal fin spines. Scales ctenoid.
Habitat: Most sunfish species inhabit quiet waters, such as sluggish stream and river reaches,
pools, wetlands, and lakes. Many favor the cover of macrophytes and woody debris.
Table 21. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Centrarchidae.*
Pollution Tolerance: Generally, the sunfish
family is moderately tolerant of pollution
and habitat alterations. As pool inhabitants,
centrarchids are vulnerable to pool degradation
and the loss of adequate midwater and
benthic food items (Ohio EPA 1987). Intolerant
species are represented by fishes such as
the Blackbanded Sunfish (Enneacanthus
chaetodori) and Longear Sunfish (Lepomis
megalotis). Well known sunfishes, such as the Green Sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) and Bluegill
Sunfish (Lepomis macrochims), are among the more hardy tolerant North American fishes,
reportedly tolerant of low dissolved oxygen and habitat disturbance (Baker 1983; Matthews 1987;
Killgore and Hoover 2001).
(Review by Barbour et al. 1 999)
Tolerant
5%
Intermediate
86%
Intolerant
9%
*22 species rated
Dollar Sunfish (Lepomis marginatus)
Spotted Bass (Micropterus punctulatus)
Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu) Orangespotted Sunfish (Lepomis humilis)
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
53
-------
Use in IBI: The sunfish family is an integral part of IBI
scoring. Metrics that evaluate the family directly include
Metric 3: Number of sunfish species. Hybrid sunfishes are
often excluded from this metric. Metric 6: Percent Green
Sunfish measures the quality of headwater fish communities
by calculating the abundance of Green Sunfish versus other
fish species. In addition to these metrics, sunfishes are
speciated and enumerated for a number of other metrics that
evaluate the fish community as a whole (e.g. Metric 1: Total
number of species and Metric 5: Total number of intolerant
species). Due to the extensive hybridization observed in this
family, the sunfish may also be a large part of Metric 11:
Percentage hybrids.
Table 22. Tolerance designations for selected centrarchids.
Common Name
Mud Sunfish
Rock Bass
Flier
Banded Pygmy Sunfish
Blackbanded Sunfish
Bluespotted Sunfish
Banded Sunfish
Redbreast Sunfish
Green Sunfish
Pumpkinseed Sunfish
Warmouth Sunfish
Orangespotted Sunfish
Bluegill Sunfish
Dollar Sunfish
Longear Sunfish
Redear Sunfish
Spotted Sunfish
Smallmouth Bass
Spotted Bass
Largemouth Bass
White Crappie
Black Crappie
Scientific Name
Acantharchus pomotis
Ambloplites rupestris
Centrarchus macropterus
Elassoma zonatum
Enneacanthus chaetodon
Enneacanthus gloriosus
Enneacanthus obesus
Lepomis auritus
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis gibbosus
Lepomis gulosus
Lepomis hum His
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis marginatus
Lepomis megalotis
Lepomis microlophus
Lepomis punctatus
Micropterus dolomieu
Micropterus punctulatus
Micropterus salmoides
Pomoxis annularis
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
1
i
HI
o
O
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
T
MT
-
-
MT
-
Ml
-
-
Ml
-
-
-
-
Jester etal. 1992
WQ
-
Ml
I
I
-
-
-
MT
T
-
MT
T
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT
I
Ml
MT
T
MT
Habitat
-
I
I
I
-
-
-
MT
T
-
MT
MT
MT
Ml
MT
MT
I
I
Ml
MT
MT
MT
(A
!
-
i
-
-
-
-
-
-
T
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I
-
-
-
-
Whittier and Hughes 1998
-
M
-
-
-
-
M
M
-
T
-
-
T
-
-
-
-
M
-
T
-
T
Barbour etal. 1999
M
M
M
M
I
M
M
M
T
M
M
M
M
-
I
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
Halliwelletal. 1999
Habitat
M
M
-
-
I
I
I
M
T
M
-
-
T
-
-
-
-
M
-
M
T
M
Pirhalla 2004
-
Ml
-
-
-
T
T
Ml
Ml
T
-
-
T
-
-
-
-
Ml
-
T
-
-
I = intolerant M = intermediate Ml = moderately intolerant MT = moderately tolerant
P = moderately tolerant R = rare intolerant S = special intolerant T = tolerant
54
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Rock Bass
(Ambloplites rupestris)
Identification: Body deep and somewhat robust. Coloration
olive or brown dorsally; sides lighter with dark patches and
spots; belly white. Eye red. Mouth terminal to slightly oblique
and large. Dorsal fin spines 10-12; second dorsal fin rays
10-12 ; anal fin spines 5-7 and 9-11 soft rays; pectoral fin
rays 13-15; pelvic fin rays 1 spine and 5 rays. Caudal fin
emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Well-distributed throughout
the upper Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
basin, Hudson River basin, Red River (of the North)
drainage, and Atlantic slope. Occurs in creeks, rivers, glacial
lakes, and impoundments. Most abundant in sluggish current
or still water where plenty of cover is present. Found over
both coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,3,10): The Rock Bass is reportedly
intolerant of high turbidity, siltation, and low dissolved
oxygen levels (Bouck 1972; Robison and Buchanan 1988;
Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). Regional and state tolerance
classifications range from "intermediate" (Whittier and
Hughes 1998; Halliwell et al. 1999) to "intolerant" (Lyons
1992). The Rock Bass scores under IBI metrics 1, 3, and 10.
It may also be considered a top carnivore.
Bluespotted Sunfish
(Enneacanthus gloriosus)
Identification: Body deep and laterally compressed.
Coloration somewhat olive-gray and dusky; numerous light
blue, light green or gold spots irregularly scattered on body
and fins. Males with enlarged second dorsal and anal fin.
Mouth terminal and moderate in size. Dorsal fin spines 8-9;
second dorsal fin rays 10-12; anal fin spines 3 and 9-10 soft
rays; pectoral fin rays 12-13. Caudal fin rounded to slightly
emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed along the
Atlantic slope and Gulf slope. Generally confined to lowland
and circumneutral or acidic streams, rivers, swamps, and
oxbow backwaters (Peterson and VanderKooy 1997). Most
abundant in heavily vegetated habitats in sluggish current
or still water. Found over both coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 3,10): An inhabitant of silt-free,
vegetated backwaters, the habitat of the Bluespotted
Sunfish may be compromised where coastal development
has occurred (Boschung and Mayden 2004). Regional
and state tolerance classifications for E. gloriosus range
from "intolerant" (Halliwell et al. 1999) to "tolerant" (Pirhalla
2004). The Bluespotted Sunfish scores under IBI metrics 1,
3, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
55
-------
Redbreast Sunfish
(Lepomis auritus)
Identification: Body deep and laterally compressed.
Opercle flap dark, long, and thin (A). Often less distinctive
in younger individuals (B). Coloration dark olive dorsally;
sides with orange and blue mottling; cheek with blue-
green mottles. Breeding males with a bright red-orange
breast. Mouth terminal and somewhat small to moderate
in size. Dorsal spines 10-11; dorsal fin rays 11-12; anal
spines 3; anal fin rays 9-10; pectoral rays 14-15. Caudal fin
emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed on the
Atlantic slope and sporadically occurring throughout the Gulf
slope. It has also been introduced to a number of drainages.
Occurs chiefly in creeks and rivers in flowing pools, although
it may be found in lakes and impoundments.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,3,10): The Redbreast Sunfish has
exhibited considerable tolerance to thermal stress, occurring
in waters up to 39° C (102.2° F) (Saecker and Wolcott
1988). State and regional tolerance classifications for L.
auritus range from "moderately intolerant" (Pirhalla 2004)
to "moderately tolerant" (Jester et al. 1992). The Redbreast
Sunfish scores under IBI metrics 1, 3, and 10.
Green Sunfish
(Lepomis cyanellus)
Identification: Body somewhat elongate for Lepomis genus;
robust. Coloration dark olive dorsally; with blue-green flecks
and yellow-orange belly. Snout and cheek with blue-green
mottles. Conspicuous black blotch present near posterior
base of dorsal fin. Mouth terminal and large. Dorsal spines
9-11; dorsal fin rays 10-11; anal spines 3; anal fin rays 9-10;
pectoral fin rays 13-14. Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed
throughout the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes basin,
and Gulf slope. Introduced elsewhere throughout the
United States (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). Found in small
streams, ditches (B), creeks, lakes, ponds, and marshes.
Usually most abundant in shallow water where the current
is sluggish or absent. Found over both coarse and fine
substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 3, 6,10): An adaptive species, the
Green Sunfish is known to tolerate turbidity, siltation,
and elevated temperatures (Sigler and Miller 1963;
Trautman 1981; Becker 1983). State and regional tolerance
classifications for L. cyanellus range from "moderately
intolerant" (Pirhalla 2004) to "tolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987;
Jester et al. 1992; Lyons 1992; Halliwell et al. 1999). The
Green Sunfish scores under IBI metrics 1, 3, 6, and 10.
56
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Pumpkinseed Sunfish
(Lepomis gibbosus)
Identification: Body deep and laterally compressed.
Coloration dark olive dorsally; sides with blue-green and
orange-yellow mottling; belly orange-yellow. Ear flap with a
pale margin; with or without red spot on posterior end. Mouth
terminal and small. Dorsal fin spines 10; dorsal fin rays 11-12;
anal fin spines 4; anal fin rays 9-10; pectoral fin rays 12-13.
Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Well-distributed throughout
the upper Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
Basin, and Atlantic slope. It has been modestly introduced
elsewhere (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). Occurs in creeks,
rivers, ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. Most abundant where the
current is sluggish or absent. May be found over both coarse
and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 3,10): The Pumpkinseed is often most
abundant in clear, vegetated waters (Trautman 1981; Becker
1983). It has demonstrated some tolerance to acidic waters
and high temperatures (Becker 1983; Graham and Hastings
1984). Regional and state tolerance classifications range
from "tolerant" (Pirhalla 2004) to "intermediate" (Halliwell et al.
1999). The Pumpkinseed scores under IBI metrics 1, 3, and
10.
Warmouth Sunfish
(Lepomis gulosus)
Identification: Body deep and laterally compressed.
Coloration dusky dorsally; sides brownish or brassy with a
greenish sheen; belly greenish-yellow. Distinctive dark bands
radiate from eye. Mouth terminal to oblique and somewhat
large. Dorsal fin spines 10; dorsal fin rays 9-10; anal fin
spines 3; anal fin rays 8-10; pectoral fin rays 12-13. Caudal fin
emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Atlantic slope, Gulf slope, and
lower Great Lakes Basin. Occurs in creeks, ponds, lakes
(B), impoundments, and swamps. Most abundant where
the current is sluggish or absent and profuse vegetation is
present. May be found over both coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 3,10): The Warmouth has been
associated with silt-free, clear water conditions (Trautman
1981) as well as turbid, muddy habitats (Becker 1983).
Matthews (1987) and Killgore and Hoover (2001) have
documented L. golosus to occur in hypoxic (D.O. <1 mg/L)
environments. Regional and state tolerance classifications
range from "moderately tolerant" (Jester et al. 1992) to
"intermediate" (Barbour et al. 1999). The Warmouth scores
under IBI metrics 1, 3, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
57
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Orangespotted Sunfish
(Lepomis hum His)
Identification: Body deep and laterally compressed.
Coloration olive-gray dorsally; side, cheek, and opercle with
large orange spots; belly orange. Breeding males display
magnificent colors and possess a metallic sheen (B). Ear
flap elongate; often with a strong white margin (A-B). Mouth
terminal and small. Dorsal fin spines 10-11; dorsal fin rays
10; anal fin spines 3; anal fin rays 8-9; pectoral fin rays 14-15.
Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Gulf Slope, and lower
Great Lakes basin. Occurs in creeks, rivers, lakes, and
impoundments. Most abundant in sluggish current or still
water. Found over both coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,3,10): Becker (1983) reported the
Orangespotted Sunfish as the most tolerant centrarchid to
turbidity. Boschung and Mayden (2004) considered L. humilis
tolerant to low flow conditions, warm water, and silt. It has
also demonstrated tolerance to hypoxia (Gould and Irwin
1962). State and regional tolerance classifications generally
range from "tolerant" (Jester et al. 1992) to "intermediate"
(Barbour et a. 1999). The Orangespotted Sunfish scores
under IBI metrics 1, 3, and 10.
Bluegill Sunfish
(Lepomis macrochirus)
Identification: Body moderately deep and laterally
compressed. Coloration variable; olive to olive-brown dorsally;
sides often a patchy matrix of blue, brown, and green; belly
white to orange. Dark, chain-like vertical bars often visible in
younger individuals (B). Mouth terminal to oblique and small to
moderate in size. Dorsal spines 10; dorsal fin rays 10-12; anal
spines 3; anal fin rays 10-12; pectoral fin rays 13-14. Caudal
fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin,
southern Atlantic slope, and Gulf slope. Widely introduced.
Found in creeks, rivers, lakes, ponds, and impoundments.
Often most abundant in still water or sluggish current. Found
over both coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 3,10): An adaptive species, the Bluegill
Sunfish is known to tolerate turbidity, moderate variations in
pH, and low dissolved oxygen (Becker 1983; Graham and
Hastings 1984; Matthews 1987; Killgore and Hoover 2001).
State and regional tolerance classifications for L macrochirus
range from "tolerant" (Whittier and Hughes 1998; Halliwell et
al. 1999; Pirhalla 2004) to "intermediate" (Barbour et al. 1999).
The Bluegill Sunfish scores under IBI metrics 1, 3, and 10.
58
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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^i
Dollar Sunfish
(Lepomis marginatus)
Identification: Body deep and laterally compressed.
Coloration variable; olive-brown to olive-blue dorsally; sides
blue-green, red, orange, and olive-brown; belly orange or
red with blue-green flecks. Ear flap elongate and expanded,
with a well-defined pale margin. Breeding males often with a
brilliant, blood red cast (B). Mouth terminal and small. Dorsal
fin spines 10; dorsal fin rays 10-11; anal fin spines 3; anal fin
rays 9-10; pectoral fin rays 12. Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
southern Atlantic slope and Gulf slope. Occurs in creeks,
backwaters, lakes, and swamps. Most abundant where
the current is sluggish or absent and profuse vegetation is
present. Generally found over fine substrates and detritus.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,3,10): The Dollar Sunfish is most
abundant in higher quality backwater habitats. Etnier and
Starnes (1993) reported that L. marginatus was likely more
abundant historically in western Tennessee, which they
attributed to stream channelization. Jester et al. (1992)
ranked the Dollar Sunfish as "moderately tolerant" of water
quality degradation and "moderately intolerant" of habitat
degradation. The Dollar Sunfish scores under IBI metrics 1,
3, and 10.
Longear Sunfish
(Lepomis megalotis)
Identification: Body deep and laterally compressed.
Coloration generally olive-brown dorsally; sides grading to
light olive with dull blue-green mottling (A); belly yellowish.
Fins often with longitudinal red bands. Breeding males
magnificently colored (B); sides of contrasting blue-green,
olive, and orange; fins blood red or brown-red; belly orange.
Mouth terminal to oblique and small to moderate in size.
Dorsal fin spines 10; dorsal fin rays 10-11; anal fin spines
3; anal fin rays 9-10; pectoral fin rays 13-15. Caudal fin
emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes basin, and Gulf Slope.
Occurs in creeks, rivers, ponds, lakes, and impoundments.
Most abundant where the current is sluggish or absent and
profuse vegetation is present. May be found over both coarse
and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 3 10): Populations of Longear Sunfish
have reportedly been extirpated by soil erosion and siltation in
Wisconsin (Becker 1983). In Ohio, Trautman (1981) correlated
Longear population reductions with increases in turbidity and
siltation. Regional and state tolerance classifications range
from "moderately tolerant" (Jester et al. 1992) to "moderately
intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987). The Longear Sunfish scores
under IBI metrics 1, 3, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
59
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Spotted Sunfish
(Lepomis punctatus)
Identification: Body small, deep, and laterally compressed.
Coloration olive-brown or dark blue dorsally; sides olive
with a brassy or metallic blue-green cast; belly greenish
yellow, yellow, or white. Sides, cheek, opercle, and fins
may have dark spots. Ear flap short and dark; often with a
narrow, pale margin. Mouth terminal and small. Dorsal fin
spines 10; dorsal fin rays 10-11; anal fin spines 3; anal fin
rays 10; pectoral fin rays 13. Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed
throughout the Mississippi River basin, southern Atlantic
slope, and several Gulf slope drainages. Occurs in creeks,
rivers, swamps, and estuaries. Most abundant where the
current is sluggish or absent and vegetation is present. May
be found over both fine and coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 3,10): While it may occur in
moderately turbid waters (Robison and Buchanan 1988),
the Spotted Sunfish is generally considered a species
of higher quality lowland streams and backwaters. State
and regional tolerance classifications have designated L.
punctatus as both "intermediate" (Barbour et a. 1999) and
"intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992). The Spotted Sunfish scores
under IBI metrics 1, 3, and 10.
Smallmouth Bass
(Micropterus dolomieu)
Identification: Body elongate and robust. Coloration olive
to brown dorsally; sides with several chain-like vertical bars
(often more distinctive in young individuals); belly yellowish
white to white. Eye often red. Mouth terminal to slightly
obliquely and large. Dorsal fin spines 10; dorsal fin rays 13-
15; anal fin spines 3; anal fin rays 10-11; pectoral fin rays
16-18; Caudal fin emarginate to moderately forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
basin, Red River (of the North drainage), and northern to
mid-Atlantic drainage. Experts have had trouble deducing
the native range of M. dolomieu due to extensive stocking
throughout the United States (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).
Most abundant in creeks, rivers, lakes, and impoundments
in flowing or quiet pools. May be found over both coarse and
fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,3, 9,10): The Smallmouth Bass is
generally considered more sensitive to turbidity and siltation
than other black basses (Robison and Buchanan 1988). State
and regional tolerance classifications for M. dolomieu range
from "intermediate" (Whittierand Hughes 1998; Halliwell et
al. 1999) to "intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992; Lyons 1992). The
Smallmouth scores under IBI metrics 1, 3, 9, and 10.
60
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Largemouth Bass
(Micropterus salmoides)
Identification: Body elongate and moderately robust.
Coloration green to olive-brown dorsally; sides lighter, with
a distinctive longitudinal stripe, often present as a series
of irregular blotches in younger individuals (B); belly white.
Mouth terminal to slightly oblique and large; upper jaw
extends to (at least) the posterior edge of eye. Dorsal fin
spines 10; dorsal fin rays 12-14; anal fin spines 3; anal fin
rays 10-12; pectoral fin rays 14-15. Caudal fin emarginate to
slight forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widespread throughout the
United States and into parts of southern Canada. Occurs
in creeks, rivers, lakes, ponds, and impoundments. Most
abundant in quiet water or flowing pools where cover is
present. May be found over both coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,3, 9,10): The Largemouth Bass is
reportedly more tolerant of turbidity than the other basses of
the genus Micropterus (Etnier and Starnes 1993), especially
in waters where food is abundant (Miller 1975). State and
regional tolerance classifications for M. salmoides range from
"intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999) to "tolerant" (Whittier
and Hughes 1998; Pirhalla 2004). As a top predator, the
Largemouth Bass scores under IBI metrics 1, 3, 9, and 10.
Black Crappie
(Pomoxis nigromaculatus)
Identification: Body deep and laterally compressed.
Coloration dusky dorsally; sides with irregular, dark mottles
(A-B); belly white. Fins darkly pigmented and mottled. Mouth
oblique and moderate to large in size. Dorsal fin spines 7-8;
dorsal fin rays 15-16; anal fin spines 6-7; anal fin rays 16-19;
pectoral fin rays 13-15. Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
basin, Gulf slope, and southern Atlantic slope. Widely
introduced through its native range and elsewhere (Jenkins
and Burkhead 1994). Occurs in rivers, ponds, lakes, and
impoundments. Most abundant in quiet waters where cover is
present. May be found over both coarse and fine substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,3,10): The Black Crappie is
often considered less tolerant of turbidity, siltation, and
eutrophication than the White Crappie (Pomoxis annularis)
(Robison and Buchanan 1988; Etnier and Starnes 1993).
During a fish kill in Wisconsin, Woodbury (1941) reported
the Black Crappie as the most sensitive species to waters
supersaturated with oxygen resulting from an algal
bloom. Regional and state tolerance classifications for P.
nigromaculatus range from "tolerant" (Whittier and Hughes
1988) to "intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999). The Black
Crappie scores under metrics 1, 3, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
61
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PERCHES (PERCIDAE)
With roughly 200 species, Percidae is one of the most diverse fish families in North America. The
majority of the species belong to two genera, Etheostoma and Percina, commonly called "darters,"
which are colorful, benthic dwelling fishes. Also found in this family are popular sport fishes such
as Walleye, Sauger, and Yellow Perch.
Family Level Identifiers: Two dorsal fins that are separated or narrowly joined. Anal spines 1 or
2. Pelvic fins with 1 spine and 4 rays. Branchiostegal membranes not bound to isthmus. Scales
ctenoid. Male darters often display bright colors and/or different patterning than females.
Habitat: The perch family may be found in nearly every type of freshwater habitat east of the
Rocky Mountains. The larger family members, including such fishes as the Yellow Perch, Walleye,
and Sauger, are more common to lakes, reservoirs, and rivers. The smaller members (darters)
inhabit streams of all sizes, in addition to lakes and wetlands.
Pollution Tolerance: Many darter species are
intolerant of siltation, pollutants, and habitat
disturbance. Like the sculpin and madtoms,
these small fishes are generally more vulnerable
to stream degradation because they feed and
reproduce in benthic habitats (Kuehne and
Barbour 1983; Ohio EPA 1987). It should be
noted that Percids, and more specifically the
darters, are the most imperiled group of North
American fishes, with one-third of all darters in
some degree of decline (Boschung and Mayden 2004).
Table 23. Overview of Pollution Tolerance for
Family Percidae.*
(Review by Barbour et al. 1999)
Tolerant
0%
Intermediate
59%
Intolerant
41%
*39 species rated
Sexual Dimorphism: Many percids
are sexually dimorphic, or have
characteristics that differentiate
male from female. Most of the darter
(Etheostoma and Percina) males have
spectacular color during the breeding
season, while female coloring is
somewhat mottled and dull.
Bloodfin Darter (Etheostoma sanguifluum)
62
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Redline Darter (Etheostoma ruflinineatum)
Use in IBI: Darter presence and identity is measured directly by
Metric 2: Number of darter species and, when appropriate, Metric
5: Number of intolerant species. When evaluating large river
habitats, darters are often replaced by alternative metrics such
as Percentage round bodied suckers or Percentage large river
faunal group (Ohio EPA 1987; Simon and Emery 1995). However,
in large river habitats, darters may still be accounted for under
various metrics, including Percentage large river faunal group
and Percentage insectivores.\Na\\eye and Sauger populations
are enumerated under Metric 9: Proportion of individuals as top
carnivores. The general presence of family Percidae is accounted
for in several other metrics, such as Metric 1: Total number of fish
species and Metric 10: Total number of individuals.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
63
-------
Table 24. Tolerance designations for selected percids.
Common Name
Eastern Sand Darter
Greenside Darter
Rainbow Darter
Bluebreast Darter
Iowa Darter
Fantail Darter
Swamp Darter
Harlequin Darter
Greenbreast Darter
Redband Darter
Spotted Darter
Johnny Darter
Orangethroat Darter
Speckled Darter
Tippecanoe Darter
Variegate Darter
Banded Darter
Yellow Perch
Logperch
Gilt Darter
Blackside Darter
Slenderhead Darter
Dusky Darter
River Darter
Sauger
Walleye
Scientific Name
Ammocrypta pellucida
Etheostoma blennioides
Etheostoma caeruleum
Etheostoma camurum
Etheostoma exile
Etheostoma flabellare
Etheostoma fusiforme
Etheostoma histrio
Etheostoma Jordan!
Etheostoma luteovinctum
Etheostoma maculatum
Etheostoma nigrum
Etheostoma spectabile
Etheostoma stigmaeum
Etheostoma tippecanoe
Etheostoma variatum
Etheostoma zonale
Perca flavescens
Percina caprodes
Percina evides
Percina maculata
Percina phoxocephala
Percina sciera
Percina shumardi
Stizostedion canadense
Stizostedion vitreum
1
i
HI
o
O
Rl
Ml
Ml
Rl
X
X
X
X
X
X
Rl
X
X
X
X
Cl
Cl
X
Ml
SI
X
Rl
Ml
X
X
X
Jester etal. 1992
WQ
X
I
X
X
X
Ml
Ml
I
X
X
X
Ml
Ml
Ml
X
X
I
T
Ml
X
Ml
Ml
Ml
Ml
MT
MT
Habitat
X
I
X
X
X
I
I
I
X
X
X
I
Ml
Ml
X
X
I
MT
Ml
X
I
Ml
Ml
I
Ml
Ml
(A
!
X
X
I
X
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Whittier and Hughes 1998
X
X
X
X
X
X
M
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
MT
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Barbour etal. 1999
I
M
M
I
M
M
M
I
X
X
I
M
M
X
I
I
I
M
M
I
M
I
M
M
M
M
Halliwelletal. 1999
Habitat
I
I
I
I
M
M
I
X
X
X
I
M
X
X
X
M
I
M
M
I
M
X
X
X
X
M
Pirhalla 2004
X
Ml
X
X
X
Ml
T
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
T
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I = intolerant M = intermediate Ml = moderately intolerant MT = moderately tolerant
P = moderately tolerant R = rare intolerant S = special intolerant T = tolerant
64
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Eastern Sand Darter
(Ammocrypta pellucida)
Identification: Body terete. Coloration translucent; yellowish-
olive dorsally with 12-16 dark spots; sides with a series
of 12-16 longitudinal dark blotches or spots; belly pale
yellowish-green. No opercular spine. First dorsal fin spines
9-11; second dorsal fin rays 8-11; anal spine 1; anal fin rays
8-10. Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed in parts of the
Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin and upper Ohio River
drainage (B). Typically an inhabitant of creeks, rivers, and
lakes. In lotic habitats, it is most abundant where the current
is sluggish to moderate and substrates comprised of clean,
fine to medium-grained sand.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2,5,10): The Eastern Sand Darter is
known to burrow into sandy substrates leaving only the eyes
and forehead exposed (Jordan and Copeland 1877). The
Eastern Sand Darter is sensitive to siltation (Trautman 1981;
Kuehne and Barbour 2003), and it has been suggested that
siltation may interfere with its burrowing tendencies (Spreitzer
1979). Regional and state tolerance classifications rank
A. pellucida as "intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987; Halliwell et al.
1999). The Eastern Sand Darter scores under IBI metrics 1,
2, 5, and 10.
Greenside Darter
(Etheostoma blennioides)
Identification: Body elongate and moderately robust.
Breeding males with darkened bodies, brilliant blue-green
pelvic and anal fins, and vertical green bars posteriorly.
Females with mottled coloration consisting of various shades
of green (B, near). Blunt snout overhangs small, terminal
mouth. First dorsal fin spines 13-14; dorsal fin rays 12-14; anal
fin spines 2; anal fin rays 7-9; pectoral fin rays 14-16. Caudal
fin slightly emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Occurs in the Mississippi
River basin, lower Great Lakes basin, and parts of the mid-
Atlantic drainage. Most abundant in creeks and rivers where
the current is moderate to swift. Often found over coarse
substrates comprised of sand, gravel, cobble, and rubble.
Apparently favors areas of rooted aquatic vegetation, algae, or
mosses. Studies have shown this vegetative affinity is due to
olfactory stimuli (McCormick and Aspinwall 1983).
Indicator Use/ IBI (1, 2,10): The Greenside Darter is often
abundant in clear or slightly turbid waters where the current is
moderate to swift. Regional and state tolerance classifications
for E. blennioides range from "moderately intolerant" (Ohio
EPA 1987; Pirhalla 2004) to "intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992).
The Greenside Darter scores under IBI metrics 1, 2, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
65
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Rainbow Darter
(Etheostoma caeruleum)
Identification: Body somewhat deep and moderately
robust. Breeding males with intense electric blue and orange
coloration (A). Females generally yellow-brown with dark,
irregular mottles (B). Both sexes with several dark dorsal
saddles, with 2-3 often more conspicuous than the rest. First
dorsal fin spines 9-11; dorsal fin rays 12-14; anal fin spines 2;
anal fin rays 6-8; pectoral fin rays 13. Caudal fin rounded.
General Distribution/Habitat: Widely distributed in the
Mississippi River drainage and Great Lakes basin. Occurs in
small creeks to small rivers where the current is moderate to
swift. Most abundant over sand, gravel, and cobble substrates.
Juveniles often favor the shallow margins of runs and riffles.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2,10): The Rainbow Darter is reportedly
sensitive to siltation and impoundment (Robison and Buchanan
1988; Boschung and Mayden 2004).Trautman (1981)
considered the Rainbow Darter less tolerant of pollutants than
the Johnny Darter (Etheostoma nigrum) but more so than
the Bluebreast Darter (Etheostoma camurum) or Variegate
Darter (Etheostoma variatum). State and regional tolerance
classifications for E. caeruleum range from "moderately
intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987) to "intolerant" (Lyons 1992;
Halliwell et al. 1999). The Rainbow Darter scores under IBI
metrics 1, 2, and 10.
Bluebreast Darter
(Etheostoma camurum)
Identification: Body robust and elongate; snout short.
Coloration smoky olive dorsally; sides checkered; belly
light olive, blue-green, or yellow. Males with irregular red
spots on body (bright in breeding males [A]). Females with
duller coloration, spots grayish-brown (B). Mouth small and
terminal. First dorsal fin spines 10-13; second dorsal fin rays
11-13; anal fin spines 2; anal fin rays 7-9; pectoral fin rays
13-15. Caudal fin round to truncate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Disjunctly distributed
throughout the Ohio River basin. Occurs in large creeks and
rivers where the current is moderate to swift. Prefers riffles
where the water is clear, deep, and swift. Most abundant
over substrates of gravel, cobble, and boulders.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2, 5,10): The Bluebreast Darter
requires high quality, undisturbed habitats free of silts and
pollutants. Stream impoundment and siltation have likely
extirpated numerous populations throughout the eastern
United States (Etnier and Starnes, 1993). This percid is an
excellent indicator of high quality water resources. Regional
and state tolerance classifications rank E. camurum as
"intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987; Halliwell et al. 1999). The
Bluebreast Darter scores under IBI metrics 1, 2, 5, and 10.
66
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Fantail Darter
(Etheostoma flabellare)
Identification: Body elongate and shallow. Coloration dark
olive to light tan with dusky vertical bars that fade ventrally
(A). Breeding males characterized by a charcoal colored
head and large orange-yellow dorsal spine knobs (A). Mouth
terminal. First dorsal fin spines 7-8; dorsal fin rays 13-15;
anal fin spines 2; anal fin rays 8-9; pectoral fin rays 11-13.
Caudal fin broadly rounded.
General Distribution/Habitat: Occurs in the Mississippi
River basin, lower Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin, and
parts of the mid-Atlantic drainage. Typically found in small
to large creeks and rivers where the current is moderate to
swift. Most abundant over substrates of gravel, cobble, and
rubble. This small, wiry darter often seeks refuge in narrow
crevices or voids.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 2,10): The Fantail Darter is tolerant
to moderate turbidity and intermittent hypoxia (Jenkins and
Burkhead 1994; Matthews and Styron 1981). The adhesive
eggs of this species are attached to the undersides of flat
stones, likely reducing its sensitivity to siltation. Regional and
state tolerance classifications for E. flabellare range from
"intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999) to "moderately intolerant"
(Jester et al. 1992; Pirhalla 2004). The Fantail Darter scores
under IBI metrics 1, 2, and 10.
Redband Darter
(Etheostoma luteovinctum)
Identification: Body moderately deep. Males (A) with
alternating, red-orange vertical bars located on the breast,
belly, and caudal region. Breeding males with bold, blue-
green ventral coloration (B). Females mottled olive-brown
with dark lateral blotches. Snout somewhat blunt and short.
First dorsal fin spines 9-11; second dorsal fin rays 12-14;
anal fin spines 2; anal fin rays 7-8; pectoral fin rays 12-13.
Caudal fin slightly emarginate.
Habitat: Geographically restricted to the Duck and
Cumberland River drainages where it may be locally
abundant (Etnier and Starnes, 1993). Occurs in small to
medium-sized creeks (B) where the current is sluggish to
moderate. Typically found over gravel and rubble with a
shallow layer of silt.
Indicator Use (1,2,10): Perhaps due to its restricted
distribution, the use of the Redband Darter as an indicator
species has not been assessed. Regional and state
tolerance classifications have not evaluated the sensitivity of
E. luteovinctum to environmental perturbations. By default,
the Redband Darter scores under IBI metrics 1, 2, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
67
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Spotted Darter
(Etheostoma maculatum)
Identification: Body elongate and robust. Males (A) dark
olive dorsally; sides lighter with darkly margined red spots;
fins dusky with or without whitish border; breast blue-green.
Females olive with dusky, less distinctive spots or mottles;
breast dusky white. Pectoral fins generally short. Snout sharp
with a terminal mouth. First dorsal fin spines 11-13; anal fin
spines 2. Caudal fin rounded.
General Distribution/Habitat: Disjunctly distributed in the
Ohio River drainage. Found in large creeks and rivers where
the current is moderate to strong. Most common over sand,
gravel, cobble, and boulder substrates (A-B, Green River [KY],
in-situ photos).
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2, 5,10): The Spotted Darter is
essentially an obligate inhabitant of shallow, swiftly flowing
sections of large creeks and rivers. Clean, heterogeneous
mixtures of gravel and cobble are apparently important to
the life history of E. maculatum (Kessler and Thorp 1993). A
recent range-wide assessment of Spotted Darter populations
suggested that this small percid is sensitive to siltation,
impoundment, stream flow alteration, and adverse changes
in water quality (Mayasich et al. 2004). State and regional
tolerance classifications rank E. maculatum as "intolerant"
(Ohio EPA 1987; Halliwell et al. 1999).
Redline Darter
(Etheostoma rufilineatum)
Identification: Body moderately deep and robust. Males (A)
with a blue-green breast and checkered red-brown body. Soft
dorsal, anal, and caudal fins often with narrow red band and
white-gray margin. Females olive-brown without bright red
fins or body coloration; usually with dark spots on fins. First
dorsal fin spines 11-13; second dorsal fin rays 11-12; anal fin
spines 2; anal fin rays 7-9; pectoral fin rays 12-15. Caudal fin
rounded or slightly emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Geographically restricted to
the Cumberland and Tennessee drainages. Occurs in creeks
and rivers where the current is moderate to swift. Most
abundant over sand, gravel, cobble, and boulder substrates
(B, Powell River [TN], in-situ photo). Unlike other species of
the subgenus Nothonotus, the redline may be found in 2nd or
3rd order streams (Etnier and Starnes, 1993).
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 2,10): Generally abundant throughout
its restricted range, the Redline Darter inhabits clear,
swiftly flowing waters. It has been reported as intolerant of
hypoxic conditions (Ultsch et al. 1978). Perhaps owing to its
restricted range, regional and state tolerance classifications
have not evaluated the sensitivity of E. rufilineatum to
environmental perturbations. By default, the Redline Darter
scores under IBI metrics 1, 2, and 10.
68
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Orangethroat Darter
(Etheostoma spectabile)
Identification: Body moderately robust and deepest just
before first dorsal fin. Males (A) with alternating blue and
brick red vertical bars; usually more distinctive posteriorly.
Females (B) generally olive-brown with dark mottles. Fins
often clear or with brownish coloration. First dorsal fin spines
9-11; second dorsal fin rays 12-13; anal fin spines 2; anal fin
rays 5-7; pectoral fin rays 11-12. Caudal fin rounded to slightly
emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Fairly widespread in the
Mississippi River basin (especially the western drainages) and
lower Great Lakes. Occurs in ditches and headwater creeks
where the current is sluggish to moderate. Often found over
substrates of sand, gravel, cobble, and bedrock rubble.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2,10): The Orangethroat Darter has
exhibited tolerance to moderate levels of turbidity and silt
(Pflieger 1975;Trautman 1981). However, Orangethroat
numbers are often reduced when siltation and turbidity
become excessive, or channelization increases stream
discharge (Trautman, 1981). Regional and state tolerance
classifications for E. spectabile range from "intermediate"
(Barbour et al. 1991) to "moderately intolerant" (Jester et al.
1992). The Orangethroat scores under metrics 1, 2, and 10.
Speckled Darter
(Etheostoma stigmaeum)
Identification: Body elongate and terete. Males (A) with
electric blue vertical bars from the posterior edge of opercle
to caudal peduncle. Spinous dorsal banded with orange
and blue. Females generally light brownish with dark lateral
blotches or mottles. Snout rather blunt. First dorsal fin spines
11-13; second dorsal fin rays 10-13; anal fin spines 2; anal
fin rays 7-9; pectoral fin rays 12-15. Caudal fin slightly
emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed in the mid to lower
Mississippi River basin and several Gulf slope drainages.
Occurs in creeks (B) and small rivers where the current is
sluggish to moderate. Most abundant in sand and gravel
substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 2,10): A species of good quality
streams, the Speckled Darter may be more sensitive to
habitat alterations than other common darter species (Etnier
1972; Etniesr and Starnes 1993). In Arkansas, Robison
and Buchanan (1988) noted that the Speckled Darter
was likely more common historically in streams altered
by channelization activities. Regional and state tolerance
classifications have not been developed for E. stigmaeum. By
default, the Speckled Darter would score under IBI metrics 1,
2, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
69
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Variegate Darter
(Etheostoma variatum)
Identification: Body elongate and robust. Males with bright
blue vertical bars and irregular red blotches. Females with
duller colors and less distinctive bands, bars, and spots.
Mouth terminal and nearly horizontal. Snout blunt. Pectoral
fins large. First dorsal spines 12-13; second dorsal fin rays
13-14; anal fin spines 2; anal fin rays 9-10; pectoral fin rays
15. Caudal fin truncate to slightly emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
upper Ohio River drainage. Occurs in large creeks and
rivers where the current is moderate to swift. Generally
most abundant over substrates of sand, gravel, cobble and
boulders.
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 2, 5,10): The Variegate Darter is
reportedly susceptible to siltation, mine wastes, and other
pollutants (Trautman 1981). Jenkins and Burkhead (1994)
considered E. variatum "a canary of the health of rivers
of the coal region." Because much of their life history is
carried out on riffles (May 1969), they are vulnerable to
stream alterations that homogenize channel dynamics
such as impoundment and channelization. Regional and
state tolerance classifications for E. variatum range from
"intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999) to "intolerant" (Ohio EPA
1987). The Variegate scores under metrics 1,2,5, and 10.
Banded Darter
(Etheostoma zonale)
Identification: Body elongate, somewhat robust, and
laterally compressed. Males (A-B) yellowish-white and
mottled dorsally; sides with vertical bright green bars; first
and second dorsal fin with a red longitudinal stripe; breast
and head green. Females intensely colored; sides with dusky
mottles or blotches; breast white. Pectoral fins large. First
dorsal fin spines 10-12; second dorsal fin rays 11-13; anal fin
spines 2; anal fin rays 7-9; pectoral fin rays 13-15. Caudal fin
truncate to slightly emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin, Lake Michigan drainage,
Susquehanna drainage, and Savannah drainage. Typically
found in creeks and small rivers where the current is
moderate to swift. Most abundant over clean sand, gravel,
and cobble substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2,5,10): The Banded Darter has
reportedly declined in parts of Indiana and Illinois where
heavy siltation has occurred (Etnier and Starnes 1993).
Trautman (1981) noted the Banded Darter as tolerant
of organic pollutants. Regional and state tolerance
classifications rank E. zonale as "intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987;
Jester et al. 1992; Lyons 1992; Halliwell et al. 1999). The
Banded Darter scores under IBI metrics 1,2,5, and 10.
70
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Yellow Perch
(Perca flavescens)
Identification: A moderately deep and laterally compressed
percid. Body coloration olive-yellow dorsally with several
dark saddles; saddles extending ventrally; dark blotch on
posterior of first dorsal fin; belly white. Mouth large, terminal,
and with small teeth. First dorsal fin spines 13-15; second
dorsal fin spines 1-2; second dorsal fin rays 12-15; anal fin
spines 2; anal fin rays 6-8; pectoral fin rays 13-16. Caudal fin
moderately forked.
General Distribution/Habitat: Well-distributed in the
Mississippi River basin, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence basin,
Hudson Bay basin, Atlantic slope, and north into Canada.
Widely introduced historically (Boschung and Mayden 2004).
Occurs in large creeks, rivers, backwaters, and lakes (B).
Often most abundant in quiet waters over both fine and
coarse substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,10): The Yellow Perch is capable of
adapting to a wide range of habitat types and is relatively
tolerant of low dissolved oxygen levels (Becker 1983;
Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). Regional and state tolerance
classifications for P. flavescens range from "tolerant" (Jester
et al. 1992; Pirhalla 2004) to "intermediate" (Halliwell et al.
1999). The Yellow Perch scores under IBI metrics 1 and 10.
Logperch
(Percina caprodes)
Identification: Body elongate and robust; snout long and
pointed. Coloration greenish-yellow with numerous thin, dark,
dorsal saddles extending ventrally; belly whitish-yellow. First
dorsal fin spines 14-16; second dorsal fin rays 15-17; anal
spines 2; anal fin rays 10-11; pectoral fin rays 14-15. Caudal
fin truncate to slightly emarginated.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed in the Mississippi
River basin, Great Lakes-St Lawrence basin, Hudson Bay
drainage, and Potomac drainage. Occurs in creeks (B) and
rivers where the current is moderate. May also be found in
lakes. Generally most abundant over clean sand, gravel, and
cobble substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2,10): The Logperch is sensitive to
river impoundment and heavy siltation, which has contributed
to population reductions in several Ohio rivers, including
the Ohio River (Trautman 1981). In Virginia, Jenkins and
Burkhead (1994) associated population reductions in the
upper Big Sandy drainage and North Fork Holston River
with siltation and pollutants, respectively. Regional and
state tolerance classifications for P. caprodes range from
"intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999) to "moderately intolerant"
(Ohio EPA 1987; Jester et al. 1992). The Logperch scores
under IBI metrics 1, 2, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
71
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Channel Darter
(Percina copelandi)
Identification: Body elongate and moderately slender;
snout somewhat blunt. Coloration light brown or yellowish
dorsally with dark mottles; sides with irregularly spaced,
small lateral blotches. Dorsal fin spines 11-13; dorsal fin
rays 12; anal fin spines 2; anal fin rays 8-9; pectoral fin rays
13-15. Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout the
Mississippi River basin and Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
basin. Occurs in rivers and large creeks where the current
is moderate to swift. Most abundant in runs and riffles
comprised of clean sand, gravel, and cobble substrates.
However, the habitat preference of P. copelandi may vary
depending on season (Etnierand Starnes 1993).
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2, 5,10): The Channel Darter is
generally most abundant in silt free habitats (Trautman
1981; Robison and Buchanan 1988; Pflieger 1997).
Regional and state tolerance classifications for P. copelandi
range from "moderately intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992) to
"intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987). The Channel Darter scores
under IBI metrics 1, 2, 5, and 10.
Gilt Darter
(Percina evides)
Identification: Body elongate and robust. Males light
tannish-yellow to olive dorsally; sides with thick, oval
blotches below dorsal saddles. Breeding males may
possess brilliant red or goldish-orange coloration. Females
brown to olive dorsally with blotches and saddles; lacking
brilliant colors. First dorsal fin spines 11-13; second dorsal
fin rays 12-13; anal spines 2; anal fin rays 10; pectoral fin
rays 13-15. Caudal fin emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Disjunctly distributed
throughout the Mississippi River basin and lower Great
Lakes basin. Occurs in large creeks and rivers (B) where
the current is moderate to swift. Most abundant over sand,
gravel, cobble, and rubble substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2,10): The Gilt Darter inhabits high
quality, flowing reaches of large creeks and rivers where
the streambed is free of silt (Becker 1983; Etnier and
Starnes 1993). It has apparently been extirpated from
numerous localities across the Midwest (Trautman 1981;
Becker 1983). Regional and state tolerance classifications
rank P. evides as "intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987). The Gilt
Darter scores under IBI metrics 1, 2, 5, and 10.
72
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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Slenderhead Darter
(Percina phoxocephala)
Identification: Body elongate and laterally compressed;
snout long and pointed. Coloration olive or yellowish
dorsally with dark mottles; sides with lateral blotches; belly
white to yellow. First dorsal fin with a yellow or orange band.
Mouth subterminal and small. Dorsal fin spines 11-14;
dorsal fin rays 11-15; anal fin spines 2; anal fin rays 7-10;
pectoral fin rays 13-15. Caudal fin truncate to rounded.
General Distribution/Habitat: Fairly widespread in the
Mississippi River basin. Occurs in large creeks and rivers
where the current is moderate to swift. Most abundant over
clean sand, gravel, and cobble substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2,10): In Wisconsin, Becker (1983)
noted that the Slenderhead Darter is often found in
slightly turbid to turbid waters. Trautman (1981) attributed
decreases of P. phoxocephala in Ohio to siltation of
sand and gravel habitats. Boschung and Mayden (2004)
commented that the Slenderhead is "tolerant of turbidity
but intolerant of siltation". Regional and state tolerance
classifications for P. phoxocephala range from "moderately
intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992) to "intolerant" (Ohio EPA
1987). The Slenderhead Darter scores under IBI metrics 1,
2, and 10.
Roanoke Darter
(Percina roanoka)
Identification: Body elongate and moderately robust; snout
short and blunt. Males (A-B) light tannish-yellow to olive
dorsally; sides with thick, vertical bars to oval blotches; belly
orange. Females brown to olive dorsally; sides with mid-
lateral stripe; belly tannish-yellow to olive. First dorsal fin
spines 10-11; second dorsal fin rays 10-11; anal spines 2;
anal fin rays 8-9; pectoral fin rays 13-14. Caudal fin slightly
emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Distributed throughout
several mid to southern Atlantic drainages. Occurs in creeks
and rivers where the current is moderate to swift. Most
abundant over sand, gravel, cobble, and rubble substrates.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2,10): The Roanoke Darter inhabits
well-oxygenated, flowing habitats and has demonstrated
sensitivity to low dissolved oxygen levels under laboratory
conditions (Matthews and Styron 1981). In Virginia, the
Roanoke Darter is apparently expanding its range. Jenkins
and Burkhead (1994) noted that P. roanoke may outcompete
native darter species when invading new drainages.
Regional and state tolerance classifications have not been
developed for E. roanoka. The Roanoke Darter scores under
IBI metrics 1, 2, and 10.
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
73
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Dusky Darter
(Percina sciera)
Identification: Body elongate and laterally compressed;
moderately deep; snout short to moderate. Coloration olive
dorsally with dark mottles; sides with lateral blotches; belly
white to yellow. Mouth small and terminal. First dorsal fin
spines 12-13; second dorsal fin rays 12-14; anal fin spines
2; anal fin rays 9-10; pectoral fin rays 13-15. Cadual fin
truncate to slightly emarginate.
General Distribution/Habitat: Well distributed throughout
the Mississippi River basin and Gulf slope. Occurs in
large creeks and rivers where the current is sluggish
to moderate. Often associated with woody debris. Most
abundant over substrates of clean sand and gravel.
Indicator Use/IBI (1,2,10): Extirpations of Dusky
Darter populations in Arkansas have been attributed to
"channelization, agricultural practices, and other habitat-
altering activities" (Robison and Buchanan 1988). This
species may be vulnerable to "stream maintenance"
activities that remove woody debris or aquatic vegetation.
Regional and state tolerance classifications generally rank
P. sciera as "moderately intolerant" (Ohio EPA 1987; Jester
et al. 1992). The Dusky Darter scores under IBI metrics 1,
2, and 10.
Walleye
(Stizostedion vitreus)
Identification: Body elongate and slightly compressed.
Coloration brown to greenish-yellow dorsally; sides with
irregular mottles and speckles; belly white. First dorsal fin
with a dark blotch on posterior. Mouth large, terminal, and
with sharp teeth (B). First dorsal fin spines 13-14; second
dorsal fin rays 19-22; anal fin spines 2; anal fin rays 12-14;
pectoral fin rays 13-16. Caudal fin emarginate.
Distribution/Habitat: Widespread throughout the United
States and north into Canada. Occurs in rivers and lakes;
generally less successful in impoundments. Found over both
coarse and fine substrates. In lotic habitats, the Walleye is
frequently associated with deeper, darker water during the
day and shoals during the evening hours (Becker 1983).
Indicator Use/IBI (1, 9,10): Population reductions of the
highly migratory S. vitreum have been associated with the
damming of rivers, excessive siltation, and turbidity (Smith
1979;Trautman 1981). Rohde et al. (1994) noted that the
Walleye is intolerant of pollution and siltation. Regional
and state tolerance classifications rank the Walleye
as "intermediate" (Halliwell et al. 1999) to "moderately
intolerant" (Jester et al. 1992). As a top carnivore, the
Walleye scores under IBI metrics 1, 9, and 10.
74
An Introduction to Freshwater Fishes as Biological Indicators
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