United States	Air and Radiation	EPA420-R-01-044
Environmental Protection	September 2001
Agency
<&EPA Nonroad Recreational
Vehicle Technologies and
Costs
Draft Final Report
Printed on Recycled
Paper

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EPA420-R-01-044
September 2001
Nonroad Recreational Vehicle
Technologies and Costs
Draft Final Report
Assessment and Standards Division
Office of Transportation and Air Quality
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Prepared for EPA by
Louis Browning and Nalu Kaahaaina
Arthur D. Little - Acurex Environmental
EPA Contract No. 68-C-98-170
Work Assignment No. 1-13 and 2-13
NOTICE
This technical report does not necessarily represent final EPA decisions or positions.
It is intended to present technical analysis of issues using data thatC are currently available.
The purpose in the release of such reports is to facilitate the exchange of
technical information and to inform the public of technical developments which
may form the basis for a final EPA decision, position, or regulatory action.

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No n road
Recreational
Vehicle
Technologies and
Costs
Draft Final Report
July 2001
Report to
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Assessment and Standards Division
2000 Traverwood Drive
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
Disclaimer
This report was prepared by Arthur D. Little under
subcontract to ICF Consulting for U.S. EPA. This report
represents Arthur D. Little's best effort in light of the existing
situations made available to us. Any use the reader makes
of this report or any reliance upon or decisions to be made
based upon this report are the responsibility of the reader.
Prepared by
Louis Browning and Nalu Kaahaaina
Arthur D. Little - Acurex
Environmental
10061 Bubb Road
Cupertino, California 95014
Tel: 408 517-1550
Fax: 408 517-1553
Work Assignment No. 1 -13 and 2-13
U.S. EPA Contract No.68-C-98-170
Subcontract No. 80577-T-001
Arthur D. Little Case No.73230

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Table of Contents
1.	Introduction 	1-1
2.	Background 	2-1
3.	Technology Description 	3-1
3.1	Baseline Technologies	3-1
3.1.1	Two-Stroke Engines 	3-1
3.1.2	Four-Stroke Engines 	3-2
3.2	Advanced Technologies	3-3
3.2.1	Engine Modification	3-3
3.2.2	Advanced Carburetion	3-4
3.2.3	Electronic Fuel Injection 	3-4
3.2.4	Direct Fuel Injection	3-4
3.2.5	Two-Stroke Calibration Engine Replacement	3-5
3.2.6	Four-stroke Calibration/Pulse-Air 	3-5
3.2.7	Oxidation Catalyst	3-6
4.	Cost Methodology	4-1
4.1	Hardware Costs	4-1
4.2	Fixed Cost to Manufacturer	4-2
4.3	Fuel Economy 	4-3
4.4	Results 	4-4

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1. Introduction
This report assesses the economic implications of adopting emission controls on currently
unregulated nonroad recreational vehicles as proposed by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). For the purposes of this effort, nonroad recreational vehicles are meant to include
snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), and off-road motorcycles.
Due to the importance of a national standard, the long-term economic results of employing
emission controls must be understood, particularly in a currently uncontrolled market segment. Specific
economic components examined in this report include hardware costs, fixed costs to manufacturers, and
end-user fuel savings.
Nonroad recreational vehicles have several technical barriers that impact emission control costs.
Because recreational vehicles are not subject to inspections, it is difficult to insure that emission controls
are not tampered with or otherwise defeated. This is of particular concern for nonroad recreational
vehicles equipped with catalysts. The rugged use of recreational vehicles requires that controls used on
these platforms be engineered to meet demanding durability standards.
These challenges have been addressed in this report in two ways. Some potential technologies
have been eliminated from consideration or limited to platforms that are well suited to their use.
Durability testing and research costs incurred by vehicle manufacturers necessary to overcome these
hurdles has been included in this costing effort.
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2. Background
Recreational vehicles generally use either two-stroke or four-stroke gasoline engines, with
displacements ranging between 50cc and lOOOcc, and power ratings from 5hp to over 175hp. Annual
production levels are shown in Table 2-1. In order to capture the variety of engine packages used by these
vehicles, yet limit the permutations of cases examined, representative or "average" vehicles were
developed based on vehicle populations and usage. As a result, each vehicle type is analyzed by engine
type and displacement, independent of other nonroad vehicles.
Table 2-1. Vehicle Summary by Application
Vehicle Applications
Engine Type
Annual
Production1
(%)
Cooling
Air
Liquid
Snowmobiles
2-Stroke
100
--
--
4-Stroke
--
70%
30%
All-Terrain Vehicles
2-Stroke
12
25%
75%
4-Stroke
88
65%
35%
Off-Road Motorcycles
2-Stroke
63
65%
35%
4-Stroke
37
80%
20%
These engines are categorized by engine type (two- or four-stroke) and engine displacement. It is
estimated here that all engines use gasoline. This report focuses on seven representative vehicles: two
each for ATVs and snowmobiles, and three off-road motorcycle packages. These average vehicles are
summarized in Section 3, Table 3-1.
The nonroad vehicles considered in this report account for just under a million units in annual
production. This volume in tandem with relatively high emissions levels for these uncontrolled vehicles
results in a significant emissions inventory problem.
1 "Control of Emissions From Nonroad Large Spark Ignition Engines, Recreational Engines (Marine and
Land-Based) and Highway Motorcycles," Federal Register, Vol. 65, No. 236, Pages 76797-76829.
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3. Technology Description
Currently nonroad recreational vehicles such as snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), and
off-road motorcycles are not subject to federal emission standards except in California. California
currently regulates off-road motorcycles and ATVs to 1.2 g/km HC and 15 g/km CO for 1997 and later
model years2. As such, these vehicles are virtually uncontrolled. The following sections describe current
vehicle equipment and potential emissions controls.
3.1 Baseline Technologies
The baseline technologies listed below capture the representative or "average" vehicles present in
the marketplace. While some exceptions to these characterizations exist, they represent a marginal
fraction of vehicle production. This study is meant to support U.S. EPA rule-making for gasoline-
powered, recreational, nonroad vehicles only. It is not intended to fully capture all nonroad vehicle
activity. Two-stroke and four-stroke engines are covered by application below.
3.1.1 Two-Stroke Engines
Two-stroke engines power nearly all snowmobiles as well as 63% of off-road motorcycles, and
12% of ATVs. This extensive vehicle population, combined with elevated engine emissions, results in a
significant emissions inventory problem. The emissions from two-strokes are many times higher than
those of four-stroke power plants, particularly for unburned hydrocarbons and particulate matter. Fuel
short-circuiting during the scavenging process causes significant amounts of fuel to escape the
combustion process. This unburned fuel is directly emitted as hydrocarbon emissions. Traditional two-
stroke engines also have increased hydrocarbon emissions that stem from routing the intake charge
through the crankcase. In most cases, crankcase scavenged two-stroke engines mix lubricating oil with
the fuel, which also contributes to hydrocarbon emissions.
Two-stroke engines used on snowmobiles typically have two or three cylinders, with total
displacements between 300cc and lOOOcc. Carburetion is the most common method of fuel delivery used
on snowmobile engines, with most vehicles employing a carburetor for each engine cylinder. While
carburetion is most common, several newer models employ electronic fuel injection (EFI). Engines with
displacement less than 300cc are primarily air cooled, and engines with displacements greater than 550cc
are generally liquid cooled.
2
These California emissions standards for engines at or below 90cc begin with the 1999 model year.
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ATV two-stroke engines are typically single cylinder and between 200cc and 500cc in
displacement. A few entry-level models have smaller, single-cylinder engines with displacements of
approximately 80cc. ATV engines are almost exclusively carbureted and mostly air cooled, though some
larger displacement engines do employ liquid cooling.
Off-road motorcycles equipped with two-stroke cycle engines tend to have displacements
between 125cc and 500cc. Several competition and entry-level models use smaller engines that vary
between 50cc and lOOcc. Cooling on off-road motorcycle engines varies, with larger engines using liquid
cooling and smaller engines relying on air-cooling.
3.1.2 Four-Stroke Engines
Four-stroke engines are widely used in recreational vehicles. Approximately 88% of ATVs and
37% of off-road motorcycles have four-stroke power plants. Four-stroke engines have significantly lower
emissions and fuel consumption as compared to two-stroke engines because of the differences in the
scavenging process.
While a few niche-market snowmobiles use four-stroke engines, these vehicles represent a very
small market segment. As such, this report does not consider snowmobiles equipped with four-stroke
engines as a baseline technology.
Many ATV models use four-stroke engine technology. These engines tend to be single-cylinder,
carbureted units that vary in displacement between 200cc and 600cc. A small fraction of ATVs, primarily
entry-level models, use smaller engines with displacements of 200cc or less. As a rule, these engines are
also air cooled, though several larger displacement, high-output engines are liquid cooled.
Off-road motorcycles that use four-stroke engines generally have displacements between 200cc
and 600cc. A few entry-level models use engines as small as 50cc, and some models have engines as
large 780cc. These models represent a small fraction of vehicle production. These engines are typically
assembled in air-cooled, carbureted, single-cylinder packages.
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Table 3-1. Baseline Technology Summary
Engine Type
Snowmobiles
ATVs
ORMCs
Two-Stroke
400cc, Carbureted,
Air-Cooled
700cc, Carbureted,
Liquid-Cooled
50cc, Carbureted,
Air-Cooled
250cc, Carbureted,
Air-Cooled
50cc, Carbureted, Air-Cooled
125cc, Carbureted, Air-Cooled
250cc, Carbureted, Air-Cooled
Four-Stroke
--
90cc, Carbureted,
Air-Cooled
400cc, Carbureted,
Liquid-Cooled
90cc, Carbureted, Air-Cooled
250cc, Carbureted, Air-Cooled
400cc, Carbureted, Liquid-Cooled
3.2 Advanced Technologies
The technologies in this report are focused on reducing hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide
emissions. This is not meant to discount the impact from oxides of nitrogen, but the discussion of these
and other species is beyond the purview of this report. Moreover, this report is aimed solely at cost issues
and is not a feasibility study. As such, any listed emission reduction percentages are provided to give the
reader a general sense of the impacts that are possible; they do not represent definitive research and
testing. Several of the emission control techniques listed are already in place on nonroad and on-highway
vehicles. As such the projected development costs are relatively small. [See Section 4 for details.]
3.2.1 Engine Modification
Two-stroke engine modifications include exhaust tuning, optimizing bore/stroke ratios,
optimizing intake, scavenge, and exhaust port shape and size, and port placement. These modifications
increase trapping efficiency and reduce fuel short-circuiting, which directly reduces hydrocarbon
emissions. In addition, optimized swirl, squish, and tumble will provide better combustion of the intake
charge. Engine modifications can result in a 30-40%3 reduction in hydrocarbon emissions from two-
stroke engines and reduce fuel consumption by about 10%3. By reducing over fueling, however, exhaust
temperatures are increased and some care must be taken to prevent a reduction in engine life. As
discussed here, we would expect 2-stroke engine modifications to include durability improvements as
well as more precise atomization and improved fuel delivery. Improved fuel control is covered in the
discussions of Advanced Carburetion, Electronic Fuel Injection, and Direct Fuel Injection.
3
Estimates based on confidential conversations with vehicle manufacturers and technology vendors.
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3.2.2	Advanced Carburetion (for Two-Stroke Engines)
Hydrocarbon emissions can be reduced with improved fuel atomization. By changing the jets and
venturi in existing carburetor designs, fuel atomization can be refined without resorting to more
expensive fuel injection systems. This reduces droplet fall-out and wall wetting, thereby decreasing
hydrocarbon emissions. While the emissions reductions from advanced carburetion are relatively
modest, they cost very little and can be employed on virtually any carbureted engine. Hydrocarbon
emissions are estimated to decrease 5%-10%3 and fuel consumption by approximately 3-5%3 with
advanced carburetion.
3.2.3	Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
EFI can provide significant reductions in HC emissions through better fuel atomization and better
transient control. In addition, if the fuel injection system is sequential, (i.e., fuel individually injected to
each intake port at the proper time), wall wetting is greatly reduced. Furthermore, injection of the fuel
can be timed to minimize fuel short-circuiting during scavenging. Positioning a fuel injector at each
intake port also minimizes fuel mal-distribution between cylinders. A potential fuel economy
improvement also results. Implementing fuel injection on nonroad vehicles requires an electronic control
module (ECM) to time and phase fuel delivery. In addition to the ECM, fuel injection systems also
require a medium-pressure (20-40 psi) fuel pump, a fuel pressure regulator, and more extensive fuel
plumbing than carbureted engines. In addition to mechanical hardware, fuel injection systems also
require sensors and wiring that add to the overall system cost. Hydrocarbon emission reductions due to
EFI are estimated between 15%-30%3 as compared to conventional carburetion. Fuel consumption is
expected to decrease by 5-15%3 using EFI instead of conventional carburetors.
3.2.4	Direct Fuel Injection
Direct fuel injection technology delivers fuel directly to the combustion chamber. When installed
on two-stroke engines, direct injection systems can eliminate fuel short-circuiting, significantly reducing
unburned hydrocarbon emissions. Direct injection systems require many of the components used in EFI
systems - an ECM, a fuel pump, and engine position sensors. Hydrocarbon emissions could be reduced
between 50% and 75%3 and fuel consumption between 25-30%3 using direct injection techniques. Two
basic direct injection strategies are examined in this report: air-assisted direct fuel injection and pump-
assisted direct fuel injection.
Air-assisted direct fuel injection systems utilize an air pump in combination with a fuel metering
solenoid to deliver fuel to the combustion chamber. Under this configuration, a transfer pump is used to
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send fuel from the tank to a metering valve located at the engine head. An air nozzle, supplied by an air
pump, is combined with a fuel-metering valve and placed directly above the combustion chamber. When
fuel is required, the metering valve releases a measured quantity of fuel in conjunction with a pulse of
pressurized air. The air pulse assists in atomizing the metered fuel, and the resulting mixture is forced
directly into the engine cylinder. The timing of these events are controlled by an ECM equipped with
appropriate sensors for engine position/speed, throttle position, intake air temperature, and barometric
pressure.
Pump-assisted direct fuel injection is achieved using a high-pressure fuel pump to atomize and
deliver fuel to the engine's combustion chamber. While these fuel pumps can be configured several ways,
it is envisioned that the fuel will most likely be compressed using a fuel pump assembly similar to a
diesel jerk pump. A jerk pump uses an eccentric cam lobe to squeeze a quantity of fuel in a chamber,
pressurizing it. The pump's fuel outlet is routed to the engine head and terminated with a metering
solenoid valve. The solenoid valve is actuated by the ECM, enabling precise timing of the injection
event that can be continuously varied. Just as with air-assisted systems, the ECM must be linked to a
sensor network that determines engine operation conditions.
3.2.5	Two-Stroke to Four-Stroke Engine Replacement
Another method to reduce hydrocarbon short-circuiting in two-stroke engines is to replace them
with four-stroke engines. The costs to re-engineer a 2-stroke engine are significant as two-stroke engines
lack several components found in four-stroke engines such as camshafts, poppet valves, and timing
chains/gears/belts. Additionally, several two-stroke engine components require substantial re-design to be
compatible with four-stroke engines. Realistically speaking, recreational vehicle manufacturers will use
existing four-stroke engines, with some R&D to install the engine and optimize performance. These
modifications and differences include changes to the clutch/transmission, engine mounts, and increased
vehicle weight from four-stroke engines. Hydrocarbon emissions are estimated to decrease by 70-90%3
and fuel consumption approximately 25%3 over a carbureted two-stroke engine.
3.2.6	Four-stroke Calibration/Pulse-Air
Depending on the level of the standards adopted, some calibration work may be needed for four-
stroke engines to comply. For example, several manufacturers offer off-road motorcycles in "California
Compliant" and 49-state versions. The so-called California Compliant motorcycles meet the off-road
CARB emissions requirements to be eligible for sale in the state. Often the difference between California
Compliant and 49-state versions lies in minor modifications to valve or ignition timing, carburetor
settings, or other such adjustments that require minimal additional hardware. In addition, pulse-air
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injection into the exhaust stream can also be used. Pulse-air injection mixes oxygen with the relatively
high temperature hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide present in the exhaust. This combination of high
temperature, residual gases, and oxidizer enables hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide to be reduced, or
"burned up" between the combustion chamber and tailpipe exhaust.
It is proposed that four-stroke calibration and pulse-air systems be used to reduce nonroad
vehicle emissions. This report estimates that such modifications come at the cost of additional engine
testing and tuning, and a pulse-air valve. Four-stroke calibration/pulse-air can reduce hydrocarbon
emissions by 10% to 40%3 over an uncontrolled four-stroke engine. Fuel consumption is expected to be
approximately the same as an uncontrolled four-stroke engine.
3.2.7 Oxidation Catalysts
Catalytic after-treatment is another technology that can be employed on recreational vehicles to
achieve emission reduction. For the purposes of this study open loop, oxidation catalysts were costed
assuming a 30-50% hydrocarbon reduction from baseline (i.e. uncontrolled) two-stroke engines and 50%
for four-stroke engines. Catalyst volumes are estimated to be 50% of engine displacements to achieve
desired hydrocarbon reductions. To be conservative, this report estimates that catalyst volumes would be
no less than lOOcc. While smaller catalysts, some as small as lOcc, have been explored on handheld
devices such as chainsaws, this report does not believe that such devices are widely available for use. It is
possible that catalysts smaller than lOOcc may be practical. If these smaller catalysts are mass-produced,
the figures listed here form an upper bound for the catalyst costs.
A precious metal loading of 1.8g/L was used based on SAE Paper 1999-01-3282 that identified a
range of 1.76 to 2.11 g/L for catalysts using a 5:1 Platinum/Rhodium ratio. Detailed catalyst assumptions
used in this report are shown in table 3-2. Lower precious metal loadings (-0.18 g/liter) might be used
for two-stroke engine oxidation catalysts to minimize heat release that could result from the high
hydrocarbon emissions characteristic of those engines.
Table 3-2. Oxidation Catalyst Characteristics
Catalyst size
50% of engine displacement
with a minimum of 100cc
Substrate
Metallic, 100 cells per inch
Washcoat
50% ceria / 50% alumina
Loading 160 g/liter
Precious Metals
Pt/Pd/Rd 5/0/1
Loading 1.8 g/liter
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4. Cost Methodology
In order to determine the estimated cost of compliance with potential future emission regulations,
representative models of snowmobiles, off-road motorcycles, and all-terrain vehicles were chosen among
several manufacturers' engine lines and cost information was collected for each. No single model's costs
were used to develop the estimates presented in this report, but rather representative averages of all costs
collected were used for each technology.
Costs for the technologies discussed in Section 3 are presented in this section. These costs
include hardware costs and fixed costs. Fuel economy improvement savings are also discussed. All
costs represent the incremental costs for engines to meet the proposed emission standards.
4.1 Hardware Cost to Manufacturer
Component costs were developed for each technology discussed in Section 3. Separate costs
were derived for each of the various engine displacements and vehicle types shown in Table 3-1.
Manufacturer costs of components were estimated from various sources including confidential
information from motorcycle, snowmobile, and ATV manufacturers, fuel systems manufacturers, and
previous work performed by Arthur D. Little4'5'6. Dealer and parts supplier prices less various mark-ups
were used to verify the range of component prices.
Catalyst prices were determined through a bottom up analysis similar to work done by in
previous studies by Arthur D. Little4'5'6. This approach calculates costs based upon catalyst dimensions,
precious metal loadings and washcoat loadings. The prices of precious metal per troy oz., washcoat, and
steel per pound were similar to those used to develop Tier 2 standards for automobiles and light trucks.
A medium scale production of catalysts of a similar size of several thousand units per year and an
average labor time of one-half hour per unit including the time necessary to weld the catalyst to the
muffler are estimated in this report. Because of the diversity of vehicle types and sizes, the catalyst
manufacturers' process will be somewhat less automated than in the automotive industry. Labor rates
used in this study are $17.50 per hour plus a 60 percent fringe rate for a total labor cost of $28 per hour.
4	Browning, Louis and Kassandra Genovesi. "Cost Estimates for Heavy-Duty Gasoline Vehicles,"
prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, September 1998.
5	Browning, Louis and Fanta Kamakate. "Sterndrive and Inboard Marine SI Engine Technologies and
Costs," prepared for the U.S.. Environmental Protection Agency, September 1999.
6	Browning, Louis and Fanta Kamakate. "Large SI Engine Technologies and Costs," prepared for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, November 2000.
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All hardware costs are subject to a 29 percent mark up, which represents an average
manufacturer mark up of technologies on new engine sales.7 The 5 percent warranty markup was added
to the incremental hardware cost to represent an overhead charge covering warranty claims associated
with new parts.
4.2 Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
The fixed costs to the manufacturer consist of the cost of researching, developing and testing a
new technology. They also include the cost of retooling the assembly line for the production of new
parts. Research and development will focus on adapting emission controls to specific recreational
nonroad applications, with significant engine calibration needed to optimize these controls over a large
range of vehicle models and operating conditions. Two categories of R&D are used in this analysis. It is
assumed that the manufacturer will apply a new technology to one engine line and then apply this
experience to all its other engine lines. This base R&D is estimated at $60,333 per month which includes
engine or vehicle test time utilizing 2 engineers and 3 technicians/vehicle operators as shown in Table 4-
1. Testing costs include $1,250 per day for dynamometer costs and $500 per day for allocated test engine
costs for 20 days of testing per month.
Table 4-1. Base R&D Costs
Cost Item
No
Cost per
Month
Amount
Engineers
2
$4,167
$8,333
Techs/Operators
3
$2,500
$7,500
Total Salaries


$15,833
Fringe & Overhead

60%
$9,500
Test Costs


$35,000
Total Cost per Month


$60,333
The second phase will be optimizing this new technology on a specific engine line. This effort is
estimated at $39,667 per month based upon engine or vehicle testing utilizing one engineer and 2
technicians/vehicle operators as shown in Table 4-2.
-j
Jack Faucett Associates. "Update of EPA's Motor Vehicle Emission Control Equipment Retail Price
Equivalent (RPE) Calculation Formula", Report No. JACKFAU-85-322-3, September 1985.
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Table 4-2. Individual Engine Line R&D Costs
Cost Item
No
Cost per
Month
Amount
Engineers
1
$4,167
$4,167
Techs/Operators
2
$2,500
$5,000
Total Salaries


$9,167
Fringe & Overhead

60%
$5,500
Test Time


$25,000
Total Cost per Month


$39,667
Durability testing is costed for several two-stroke engine technologies, as many of the
technologies reduce over-fueling and we would expect manufacturers to conduct testing to ensure that an
adequate level of durability remains. Durability testing is estimated at $19,000 per month, which
includes field test time utilizing one engineer three-quarters time and two technicians/vehicle operators
full time as shown in Table 4-3.
Table 4-3. Durability Testing Costs
Cost Item
No
Cost per
Month
Amount
Engineers
0.75
$4,167
$3,125
Techs/Operators
2
$2,500
$5,000
Total Salaries


$8,125
Fringe & Overhead

60%
$4,875
Field Test Time


$6,000
Total Cost per Month


$19,000
Fixed costs are estimated to be recovered in five years with a cost of money of seven percent per
annum. R&D and durability testing is estimated to occur over a three year period ending one year before
vehicle production. The number of units per year, derived from confidential sales data from major
manufacturers, was supplied by EPA. Five years is a typical length of time used in the industry to
recover an investment in a new technology.
4.3 Fuel Economy
As discussed in Section 3, many of the technologies can lead to fuel cost savings for the user.
An estimate of these savings is developed in this report by using engine characteristics such as annual use
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(hrs/year), load factors, and lifetime provided from the EPA nonroad inventory data8. These data are
reproduced in Table 4-4.
Table 4-4. Load factors, Lifetimes, and Annual Use for Recreational Nonroad Vehicles
Vehicle Type
Load
Factor
Annual Use
(hrs per yr.)
Lifetime
(years)
ATVs
0.34
350
13
Off-road Motorcycles
0.34
120
9
Snowmobiles
0.34
57
9
The brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) was also provided by EPA. For off-road motorycles
and ATVs, two-stroke bsfc was estimated at 1.05 lb/bhp-hr and four stroke bsfc was estimated at 0.79
lb/bhp-hr. For snowmobiles, we used a bsfc estimate of 1.66 lb/bhp-hr. The price of gasoline
($1.10/gallon) was based on year 2000 averages from the Energy Information Administration without
highway taxes9. The taxes were estimated from national average data provided by the American
Petroleum Institute10 and U. S. DOE Transportation Energy Data Book11.
Using the following formulas, an estimate of the yearly fuel consumption and yearly fuel cost for
a 10% improvement in fuel economy is determined. Actual cost savings can be scaled from this value
using the ratio of actual fuel consumption reductions to the 10% reduction calculated here. The present
value of yearly fuel cost was calculated using a 7% interest rate per annum.
Hp * Load Factor * Annual Operation (hrs / yr) * bsfc (lb / bhp - hr)
Yearly Fuel Consumption (gal / year) =	
Fuel Density (lbs / gal)
Yearly Fuel Cost ($/ yr) = Yearly Fuel Consumption (gal / year) * Fuel Cost ($ / gal)
Wehrly, Line, "Emissions Modeling for Recreational Vehicles" , EPA Memorandum EPA420-F-00-051,
November 13, 2000.
9
US Energy Information Administration, "Monthly Energy Review, April 2001,"
www.eia.doe.gov\emeu\mer.
10	Barnes, Tina. "Nationwide and State-by-State Motor Fuel Taxes", American Petroleum Institute, May
1999.
11	Davis, Stacy. "Transportation Energy Data Book," U.S. DOE, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Edition
19, 1999.
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4.4 Results
Table 4-5 shows estimated costs to consumers of engine modifications for two-stroke engines
that would be used in snowmobiles. Modified pistons that enable better combustion and more resistance
to damage from leaner mixtures are calculated to increase the cost of pistons in 400cc engines by $2 per
piston and 700cc engine by $3 per piston. Changes to port locations and sizes are part of the tooling
costs. Six months of calibration and engine testing and 6 months of durability testing would be applied
to the first engine line to develop the technology and prevent durability issues from reducing over
fueling, then three months of testing would be done to finish product development for each specific
engine line.
Table 4-5. Snowmobile Engine Modification Costs for Two-Stroke Engines

400cc
700cc
Engine Modification Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Hardware Costs
Improved Pistons
$10
$12
$12
$15
Number Required
2
2
3
3
Hardware Cost to Manufacturer
$20
$24
$36
$45
Labor @ $28 per hour
$6
$6
$8
$8
Labor Overhead @ 40%
$2
$2
$3
$3
Manufacturer Mark-up @ 29%
$8
$7
$10
$13
Warranty Mark-up3 @ 5%

$0

$0
Total Component Costs
$36
$39
$57
$69
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs per line
$0
$178,500
$0
$178,500
Tooling Costs
$0
$25,000
$0
$25,000
Units/yr.
4,600
4,600
4,600
4,600
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$12
$0
$12
Total Costs ($)
$36
$51
$57
$81
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$15

$24

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$362,000
$0
$362,000
Durability Testing0
$0
$114,000
$0
$114,000
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$476,000
$0
$476,000
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$59,500
$0
$59,500
Individual line R&Dd

$119,000

$119,000
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$178,500
$0
$178,500
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 6 months of base R&D
c 6 months of durability testing
d 3 months of individual engine line R&D
4-5

-------
Table 4-6 shows estimated costs to consumers of carburetor modifications for two-stroke engines
that would be used in snowmobiles. Modified jets and venturi are estimated at $5 per carburetor. Two
months of calibration and engine testing and 3 months of durability testing would be applied to the first
engine line to develop the technology, then one month of testing would be done to finish product
development for each specific engine line.
Table 4-6. Modified Carburetor Costs for Snowmobiles

400cc
700cc
Modified Carburetion Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Hardware Costs
Carburetor
$60
$65
$60
$65
Number Required
2
2
3
3
Hardware Cost to Manufacturer
$120
$130
$180
$195
Labor @ $28 per hour
$1
$1
$2
$2
Labor Overhead @ 40%
$1
$1
$1
$1
Manufacturer Mark-up @ 29%
$35
$38
$53
$57
Warranty Mark-up3 @ 5%

$1

$1
Total Component Costs
$157
$171
$236
$256
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$61,875
$0
$61,875
Tooling Costs
$0
$5,000
$0
$5,000
Units/yr.
4,600
4,600
4,600
4,600
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$4
$0
$4
Total Costs ($)
$157
$175
$236
$260
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$18

$24

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Durability Testing0
$0
$57,000
$0
$57,000
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$177,667
$0
$177,667
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$22,208
$0
$22,208
Individual line R&Dd

$39,667

$39,667
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$61,875
$0
$61,875
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 2 months of base R&D
c 3 months of durability testing
d 1 month of individual engine line R&D
Table 4-7 shows estimated costs to consumers of electronic fuel injection systems on two-stroke
engines. One throttle body will be used with an intake manifold and individual port injectors. Three
months of calibration and engine testing and 3 months of durability testing would be applied to the first
4-6

-------
engine line to develop timed fuel injection systems that reduce over fueling, then one month of testing
would be done to finish product development for each specific engine line.
Table 4-7. Electronic Fuel Injection Costs for Snowmobiles

400cc
700cc
Fuel Injection Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Hardware Costs
Carburetor
$60

$60

Number Required
2

3

Injectors (each)

$12

$12
Number Required

2

3
Pressure Regulator

$10

$10
Intake Manifold

$30

$35
Throttle Body/Position Sensor

$35

$35
Fuel Pump
$5
$20
$5
$20
ECM

$100

$100
Air Intake Temperature Sensor

$5

$5
Manifold Air Pressure Sensor

$10

$10
Injection Timing Sensor

$5

$5
Wiring/Related Hardware

$10

$10
Hardware Cost to Manufacturer
$125
$249
$185
$266
Labor @ $28 per hour
$1
$4
$2
$6
Labor Overhead @ 40%
$1
$2
$1
$3
Manufacturer Mark-up @ 29%
$37
$72
$54
$77
Warranty Mark-up3 @ 5%

$6

$4
Total Component Costs
$164
$333
$242
$356
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$69,417
$0
$69,417
Tooling Costs
$0
$10,000
$0
$10,000
Units/yr.
4,600
4,600
4,600
4,600
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$5
$0
$5
Total Costs ($)
$164
$338
$242
$361
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$174

$119

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$181,000
$0
$181,000
Durability Testing0
$0
$57,000
$0
$57,000
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$238,000
$0
$238,000
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$29,750
$0
$29,750
Individual line R&Dd

$39,667

$39,667
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$69,417
$0
$69,417
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 3 months of base R&D
c 3 months of durability testing
d 1 month of individual engine line R&D
4-7

-------
Tables 4-8 and 4-9 show estimated costs to consumers for an air-assisted and pump-assisted
direct injection system, respectively, that could be used on snowmobile two-stroke engines. As these
technology would be developed by an outside vendor but would probably be built by the engine
manufacturer, a 3% royalty is applied to the technology cost. Six months of calibration and engine
testing and 6 months of durability testing would be applied to the first engine line to integrate an air-
assist or pump-assist direct fuel injection system on a two-stroke engine, then three months of testing
would be done to finish product development for each specific engine line.
Table 4-10 shows estimated costs to consumers for adding an oxidation catalyst to a two-stroke
snowmobile engine. Similar costs could be applied to equipping two-stroke engines in other applications
with oxidation catalysts. Three months of calibration and engine testing and 3 months of durability
testing would be applied to the first engine line to integrate an oxidation catalyst, then one month of
testing would be done to finish product development for each specific engine line.
Tables 4-11 and 4-12 show estimated costs to consumers for repowering two-stroke engines with
four-stroke engines of equivalent power for snowmobiles and ATVs, respectively. Generally, a four-
stroke snowmobile engine has a different torque curve than a two-stroke snowmobile engine and
therefore a modified clutch is needed. In ATVs, however, the present transmission and clutch
arrangement should be adequate for the four-stroke engine In this analysis, an off-the-shelf four-stroke
engine will be used to replace the two-stroke engine, but engine mountings will need to be changed. Two
months of calibration and engine testing would be applied to the first engine line to integrate a four-
stroke engine into a two-stroke snowmobile or ATV, then two months of testing would be done to finish
product development for each specific engine line. We are projecting no additional durability testing for
the 4-stroke engines because the engines are likely to be off-the-shelf and 4-strokes generally have
superior durability characteristics relative to 2-stroke engines.
4-8

-------
Table 4-8. Air Assisted Direct Injection System Costs for Snowmobiles

400cc
700cc
Air Assisted Dl Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Hardware Costs
Carburetor
$60

$60

Number Required
2

3

Fuel Metering Solenoid (each)

$15

$15
Number Required

2

3
Air Pump

$25

$25
Air Pump Gear

$5

$5
Air Pressure Regulator

$5

$5
Throttle Body/Position Sensor

$35

$35
Intake Manifold

$30

$30
Electric Fuel Pump
$5
$5
$5
$5
Fuel Pressure Regulator

$3

$3
ECM

$140

$140
Air Intake Temperature Sensor

$5

$5
Manifold Air Pressure Sensor

$11

$11
Injection Timing Sensor/Timing Wheel

$10

$10
Wiring/Related Hardware

$20

$20
Hardware Cost to Manufacturer
$125
$324
$185
$339
Labor @ $28 per hour
$1
$14
$2
$21
Labor overhead @ 40%
$1
$6
$1
$8
OEM mark-up @ 29%
$37
$100
$55
$107
Royalty @ 3%

$10

$10
Warranty Mark-up3 @ 5%

$10

$8
Total Component Costs
$164
$464
$243
$493
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$178,500
$0
$178,500
Tooling Costs
$0
$25,000
$0
$25,000
Units/yr.
4,600
4,600
4,600
4,600
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$12
$0
$12
Total Costs ($)
$164
$476
$243
$505
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$312

$262

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$362,000
$0
$362,000
Durability Testing0
$0
$114,000
$0
$114,000
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$476,000
$0
$476,000
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$59,500
$0
$59,500
Individual line R&Dd

$119,000

$119,000
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$178,500
$0
$178,500
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 6 months of base R&D
c 6 months of durability testing
d 3 month of individual engine line R&D
4-9

-------
Table 4-9. Pump-Assisted Direct Fuel Injection System Costs for Snowmobiles

400cc
700cc
Pump Assisted Dl Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Hardware Costs
Carburetor
$60

$60

Number Required
2

3

Nozzle/Accumulator (each)

$33

$33
Number Required

2

3
High-Pressure Cam Fuel Pump

$20

$25
Cam Pump Gear

$5

$5
Throttle Body/Position Sensor

$35

$35
Intake Manifold

$30

$30
Fuel Transfer Pump
$5
$5
$5
$5
ECM

$140

$140
Air Intake Temperature Sensor

$5

$5
Manifold Air Pressure Sensor

$11

$11
Injection Timing Sensor/Timing Wheel

$10

$10
Wiring/Related Hardware

$20

$20
Hardware Cost to Manufacturer
$125
$347
$185
$385
Labor @ $28 per hour
$1
$14
$2
$21
Labor overhead @ 40%
$1
$6
$1
$8
OEM mark-up @ 29%
$37
$106
$55
$120
Royalty @ 3%

$10

$12
Warranty Mark-up3 @ 5%

$11

$10
Total Component Costs
$164
$494
$243
$556
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$178,500
$0
$178,500
Tooling Costs
$0
$25,000
$0
$25,000
Units/yr.
4,600
4,600
4,600
4,600
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$12
$0
$12
Total Costs ($)
$164
$506
$243
$568
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$342

$325

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$362,000
$0
$362,000
Durability Testing0
$0
$114,000
$0
$114,000
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$476,000
$0
$476,000
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$59,500
$0
$59,500
Individual line R&Dd

$119,000

$119,000
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$178,500
$0
$178,500
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 6 months of base R&D
c 6 months of durability testing
d 3 month of individual engine line R&D
4-10

-------
Table 4-10. Two-Stroke Engine Catalyst Costs for Snowmobiles

400cc
700cc
Two-Stroke Catalyst Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Hardware Costs
Oxidation Catalyst

$44

$52
Labor @ $28 per hour

$1

$1
Labor overhead @ 40%

$1

$1
OEM markup @ 29%

$13

$16
Warranty Mark upa @ 5%

$2

$3
Total Component Costs
$0
$61
$0
$73
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$69,417
$0
$69,417
Tooling Costs
$0
$10,000
$0
$10,000
Units/yr.
4,600
4,600
4,600
4,600
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$5
$0
$5
Total Costs ($)
$0
$66
$0
$78
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$66

$78

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$181,000
$0
$181,000
Durability Testing0
$0
$57,000
$0
$57,000
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$238,000
$0
$238,000
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$29,750
$0
$29,750
Individual line R&Dd

$39,667

$39,667
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$69,417
$0
$69,417
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 3 months of base R&D
c 3 months of durability testing
d 1 month of individual engine line R&D
4-11

-------
Table 4-11. Two-Stroke to Four Stroke Conversion Costs for Snowmobiles

400cc
-> 600cc
700cc
-> 950cc
Conversion to Four-Stroke Costs
2-Stroke
4-Stroke
2-Stroke
4-Stroke

Engine
$400
$700
$650
$1,170
Clutch
$50
$75
$80
$120
Labor @ $28 per hour
$14
$21
$14
$21
Labor overhead @ 40%
$6
$8
$6
$8
Markup @ 29%
$136
$233
$217
$383
Warranty Mark upa @ 5%

$16

$28
Total Component Costs
$606
$1,053
$967
$1,730
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$94,416
$0
$94,416
Tooling Costs
$0
$20,000
$0
$20,000
Units/yr.
4,600
4,600
4,600
4,600
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$7
$0
$7
Total Costs ($)
$606
$1,060
$967
$1,737
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$454

$770

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Durability Testing0
$0
$0
$0
$0
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$15,083
$0
$15,083
Individual line R&Dd

$79,333

$79,333
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$94,416
$0
$94,416
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 2 months of base R&D
c No durability testing
d 2 months of individual engine line R&D
4-12

-------
Table 4-12. Two-Stroke to Four Stroke Conversion Costs for ATVs

50cc
-> 90cc
250cc
-> 400cc
Four-Stroke Conversion Costs
2-Stroke
4-Stroke
2-Stroke
4 Stroke
Hardware Costs
Engine
$400
$550
$500
$750
Labor @ $28 per hour
$14
$21
$14
$21
Labor overhead @ 40%
$6
$8
$6
$8
Markup @ 29%
$122
$168
$151
$226
Warranty Mark upa @ 5%

$8

$13
Total Component Costs
$542
$755
$671
$1,018
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$94,416
$0
$94,416
Tooling Costs
$0
$15,000
$0
$18,000
Units/yr.
4,200
4,200
15,000
15,000
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$7
$0
$2
Total Costs ($)
$542
$762
$671
$1,020
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$220

$349

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Durability Testing0
$0
$0
$0
$0
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$15,083
$0
$15,083
Individual line R&Dd

$79,333

$79,333
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$94,416
$0
$94,416
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 2 months of base R&D
c No durability testing
d 2 months of individual engine line R&D
4-13

-------
Table 4-13 shows estimated costs to consumers for calibrating an uncontrolled four-stroke ATV
engine to meet projected standards. Four-stroke calibration/pulse-air can be accomplished with minimal
hardware changes, except for the addition of a pulse air valve. Two months of calibration and engine
testing would be applied to the first engine line to integrate the pulse-air valve and recalibrate an
uncontrolled four-stroke engine to meet emission standards, then one month of testing would be done to
finish product development for each specific engine line. Since this is a minor addition and recalibration
of a four-stroke engine, no durability testing will be needed .
Table 4-14 shows estimated costs to consumers for adding an oxidation catalyst to a uncontrolled
four-stroke ATV engine. Similar costs could be applied to equipping four-stroke engines in other
applications with oxidation catalysts. Two months of calibration and engine testing and 2 months of
durability testing would be applied to the first engine line to integrate an oxidation catalyst, then one
month of testing would be done to finish product development for each specific engine line.
Table 4-15 shows estimated costs to consumers for repowering two-stroke off-road motorcycle
engines with four-stroke engines of equivalent performance. In this analysis, an off-the-shelf four-stroke
engine will be used to replace the two-stroke engine, but mountings will need to be changed. The
transmission on off-road motorcycles should be able to handle a 4-stroke engine. Two months of
calibration and engine testing would be applied to the first engine line to integrate a four-stroke engine
into a two-stroke off-road motorcycle, then two months of testing would be done to finish product
development for each specific engine line. We are projecting no additional durability testing for the 4-
stroke engines because the engines are likely to be off-the-shelf and 4-strokes generally have superior
durability characteristics relative to 2-stroke engines.
Table 4-16 shows estimated costs to consumers for calibrating an uncontrolled four-stroke off-
road motorcycle engine to meet emission standards. Four-stroke calibration can be accomplished with
minimal hardware changes, except for the addition of a pulse-air valve. Two months of calibration and
engine testing would be applied to the first engine line to integrate the pulse-air valve and recalibrate an
uncontrolled four-stroke engine to meet emission standards, then one month of testing would be done to
finish product development for each specific engine line. Since this is a minor addition and recalibration
of a four-stroke engine, no durability testing will be needed.
Table 4-17 provides a summary of incremental costs for each technology for each platform.
Table 4-18 shows bottom up catalyst costs to vehicle manufacturers for two-stroke and four-stroke
4-14

-------
Table 4-13. Four-stroke Calibration/Pulse-Air Costs for Four-Stroke ATVs

90cc 4-Stroke
400cc 4-Stroke
Four-Stroke Calibration Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Hardware Costs
Pulse Air Valve

$8

$8
Labor @ $28 per hour

$1

$1
Labor overhead @ 40%

$0

$0
Markup @ 29%

$3

$3
Warranty Mark upa @ 5%

$0

$0
Total Component Costs
$0
$12
$0
$12
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$54,750
$0
$54,750
Tooling Costs
$0
$8,000
$0
$10,000
Units/yr.
4,200
4,200
15,000
15,000
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$4
$0
$1
Total Costs ($)
$0
$16
$0
$13
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$16

$13

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Durability Testing0
$0
$0
$0
$0
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$15,083
$0
$15,083
Individual line R&Dd

$39,667

$39,667
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$54,750
$0
$54,750
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 2 months of base R&D
c No durability testing
d 1 month of individual engine line R&D
4-15

-------
Table 4-14. Oxidation Catalyst Costs for 4-Stroke ATV

90cc 4-Stroke
400cc 4-Stroke
Four-Stroke Catalyst Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Hardware Costs
Oxidation Catalyst

$39

$44
Labor @ $28 per hour

$1

$1
Labor overhead @ 40%

$1

$1
OEM markup @ 29%

$12

$13
Warranty Mark upa @ 5%

$2

$2
Total Component Costs
$0
$55
$0
$61
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$59,500
$0
$59,500
Tooling Costs
$0
$10,000
$0
$12,000
Units/yr.
4,200
4,200
15,000
15,000
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$5
$0
$1
Total Costs ($)
$0
$60
$0
$62
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$60

$62

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Durability Testing0
$0
$38,000
$0
$38,000
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$158,667
$0
$158,667
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$19,833
$0
$19,833
Individual line R&Dd

$39,667

$39,667
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$59,500
$0
$59,500
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 3 months of base R&D
c 3 months of durability testing
d 1 month of individual engine line R&D
4-16

-------
Table 4-15. Two-Stroke to Four Stroke Conversion Costs for Off-Road Motorcycles

50cc
-> 90cc
125cc
-> 200cc
250cc
-> 400cc
Four-Stroke Conversion Costs
2-Stroke
4-Stroke
2-Stroke
4-Stroke
2-Stroke
4-Stroke
Hardware Costs
Engine
$400
$550
$450
$650
$500
$750
Labor @ $28 per hour
$14
$21
$14
$21
$14
$21
Labor overhead @ 40%
$6
$8
$6
$8
$6
$8
Markup @ 29%
$122
$168
$136
$197
$151
$226
Warranty Mark upa @ 5%

$8

$10

$13
Total Component Costs
$542
$755
$606
$886
$671
$1,018
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$94,416
$0
$94,416
$0
$94,416
Tooling Costs
$0
$15,000
$0
$15,000
$0
$15,000
Units/yr.
3,500
3,500
3,500
3,500
3,500
3,500
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$9
$0
$9
$0
$9
Total Costs ($)
$542
$764
$606
$895
$670
$1,027
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$222

$289

$357

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Durability Testing0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$15,083
$0
$15,083
$0
$15,083
Individual line R&Dd

$79,333

$79,333

$79,333
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$94,416
$0
$94,416
$0
$94,416
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 2 months of base R&D
c No durability testing
d 2 months of individual engine line R&D
4-17

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Table 4-16. Four-stroke Calibration/Pulse-Air Costs for Off-Road Motorcycles

90cc 4-Stroke
200cc 4-Stroke
400cc 4-Stroke
Four-Stroke Calibration Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Hardware Costs
Pulse Air Valve

$8

$8

$8
Labor @ $28 per hour

$1

$1

$1
Labor overhead @ 40%

$0

$0

$0
Markup @ 29%

$3

$3

$3
Warranty Mark upa @ 5%

$0

$0

$0
Total Component Costs
$0
$12
$0
$12
$0
$12
Fixed Cost to Manufacturer
R&D Costs
$0
$54,750
$0
$54,750
$0
$54,750
Tooling Costs
$0
$8,000
$0
$8,000
$0
$8,000
Units/yr.
3,500
3,500
3,500
3,500
3,500
3,500
Years to recover
5
5
5
5
5
5
Fixed cost/unit
$0
$5
$0
$5
$0
$5
Total Costs ($)
$0
$17
$0
$17
$0
$17
Incremental Total Cost ($)

$17

$17

$17

R&D Costs
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Baseline
Modified
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine lineb
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Durability Testing0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
Total Base R&D Costs
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
$0
$120,667
Engine lines per manufacturer
8
8
8
8
8
8
Base R&D per line
$0
$15,083
$0
$15,083
$0
$15,083
Individual line R&Dd

$39,667

$39,667

$39,667
Total R&D per Engine Line
$0
$54,750
$0
$54,750
$0
$54,750
a Calculated on incremental hardware costs
b 2 months of base R&D
c No durability testing
d 1 month of individual engine line R&D
4-18

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Table 4-17. Technology Incremental Cost Summary
Snowmobiles
Incremental Technology Costs
Advanced Technologies
400cc 2-cylinder
700cc 3-cylinder
Engine Modifications3
$15
$24
Modified Carburetor3
$18
$24
Electronic Fuel Injection3
$174
$119
Direct Injection315
$327
$294
Oxidation Catalyst3
$66
$78
Conversion to Four-Stroke30
$454
$770
3 Baseline engine packages use uncontrolled carburetors.
b Direct injection costs reported are the average of air and pump assisted systems.
c 400cc 2-stroke -> 600cc 4-stroke; 700cc 2-stroke -> 950cc 4-stroke
ATVs
Incremental Technology Costs
Advanced Technologies
50cc single cylinder
250cc single cylinder
Conversion to Four-Stroke3b
$220
$349
Four-Stroke Calibration/Pulse-Airc
$16
$13
Oxidation Catalyst0
$60
$62
(1)	Baseline Two-stroke engine with uncontrolled carburetors.
(2)	50cc 2-stroke -> 90cc 4-stroke; 250cc 2-stroke -> 400cc 4-stroke
(3)	Baseline Four-stroke engine with uncontrolled carburetors
Off Road Motorcycles	Incremental Technology Costs
Advanced Technologies 50cc single cylinder 125cc single cylinder 250cc single cylinder
Conversion to Four-Strokeab	$222	$289	$357
Four-Stroke Calib/Pulse-Air0	$17	$17	$17
(1)	Baseline Two-stroke engine with uncontrolled carburetors.
(2)	50cc 2-stroke -> 90cc 4-stroke; 125cc 2-stroke -> 250cc 4-stroke,; 250cc 2-stroke -> 400cc 4-stroke
(3)	Baseline Four-stroke engine with uncontrolled carburetors
4-19

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Table 4-18. Oxidation Catalyst Costs for Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engines
Catalyst Characteristic
Unit
Value
Washcoat Loading
g/L
160
% ceria
by wt.
50
% alumina
by wt.
50
Precious Metal Loading
g/L
1.8
% Platinum
by wt.
83.3
% Palladium
by wt.
0.0
% Rhodium
by wt.
16.7
Labor Cost
$/hr
$28.00
Material
$/troy oz
$/lb
$/g
Density
(g/cc)
Alumina

$5.00
$0,011
3.9
Ceria

$5.28
$0,012
7.132
Platinum
$412

$13.25

Palladium
$390

$12.54

Rhodium
$868

$27.91

Stainless Steel

$1.12
$0,002
7.817
Catalyst Volume (cc)
100
200
350
Substrate Diameter (cm)
4.0
6.0
8.0
Substrate
$6.93
$7.87
$9.27
Ceria/Alumina
$0.18
$0.36
$0.63
Pt/Pd/Rd
$2.83
$3.97
$6.95
Can (18 gauge 304 SS)
$0.43
$0.64
$0.93
Substrate Diameter (cm)
4.00
6.00
8.00
Substrate Length (cm)
8.0
7.1
7.0
Working Length (cm)
10.8
9.9
9.8
Thick, of Steel (cm)
0.121
0.121
0.121
Shell Volume (cc)
12
16
21
Steel End Cap Volume (cc)
4
8
14
Vol. of Steel (cc) w/ 20% scrap
19
29
42
Wt. of Steel (g)
150
227
328
TOTAL MAT. COST
$10.37
$12.85
$17.78
LABOR
$14.00
$14.00
$14.00
Labor Overhead @ 40%
$5.60
$5.60
$5.60
Supplier Markup @ 29%
$8.69
$9.90
$11.69
Manufacturer Price
$38.66
$44.02
$52.01
R&D Costs3
2-stroke
4-stroke
Base R&D Costs for 1st Engine line
$181,000
$120,667
Durability Testing
$57,000
$38,000
Total Base R&D Costs
$238,000
$158,667
Engine lines per mfr
8
8
Base R&D per line
$29,750
$19,833
Individual line R&D
$39,667
$39,667
Total R&D per Engine Line
$69,417
$59,500
a Typical R&D costs to integrate oxidation catalyst
4-20

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engines. Three different sizes of catalysts are shown. Precious metal costs were taken from the 2007
heavy-duty vehicle rule analysis.12
Average fuel cost savings for snowmobiles, ATVs and off-road motorcycles are shown in Tables
4-19, 4-20, and 4-21, respectively, for a 10% reduction in fuel consumption. These savings can be scaled
relative to actual fuel consumption reductions due to new technologies.
12
EPA, "Regulatory Impact Analysis: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards and Highway Diesel Fuel
Sulfur Control Requirements," EPA420-R-00-026, December 2000.
4-21

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Table 4-19. Fuel Cost Savings for Snowmobiles
Engine
2-Stroke 400cc
2-Stroke 700cc
Fuel Economy
Baseline
Improved
Baseline
Improved

75
75
125
125
Load Factor
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
Annual Operating Hours, hr/yr
57
57
57
57
Lifetime, yr
9
9
9
9
BSFC, Ib/bhp-hr
1.66
1.49
1.66
1.49
BSFC improvement

10%

10%
Fuel Density (lbs/gal)
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
Fuel Cost ($/gal)
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
Yearly Fuel Consumption (gal/yr)
396
356
659
593
Yearly Fuel Cost ($/yr)
$435
$392
$725
$653
Present Value of Fuel Cost ($)
$2,835
$2,551
$4,725
$4,252
Incremental Fuel Cost ($)

-$284

-$473
Table 4-20. Fuel Cost Savings for ATVs
Engine
2-Stroke 50cc
2-Stroke 250cc
4-Stroke 90cc
4-Stroke 400cc
Fuel Economy
Baseline
Improved
Baseline
Improved
Baseline
Improved
Baseline
Improved

5
5
25
25
5
5
25
25
Load Factor
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
Annual Operating Hours, hr/yr
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
350
Lifetime, yr
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
BSFC, Ib/bhp-hr
1.05
0.95
1.05
0.95
0.79
0.71
0.79
0.71
BSFC improvement

10%

10%

10%

10%
Fuel Density (lbs/gal)
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
Fuel Cost ($/gal)
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
Yearly Fuel Consumption (gal/yr)
102
92
512
461
77
69
385
347
Yearly Fuel Cost ($/yr)
$113
$101
$563
$507
$85
$76
$424
$381
Present Value of Fuel Cost ($)
$942
$847
$4,708
$4,237
$708
$638
$3,542
$3,188
Incremental Fuel Cost ($)

-$95

-$471

-$70

-$354
4-22

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Table 4-21. Fuel Cost Savings for Off-Road Motorcycles
Engine
2-Stroke 50cc
2-Stroke 125cc
2-Stroke 250cc
Fuel Economy
Baseline
Improved
Baseline
Improved
Baseline
Improved

5
5
12
12
25
25
Load Factor
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
Annual Operating Hours, hr/yr
120
120
120
120
120
120
Lifetime, yr
9
9
9
9
9
9
BSFC, Ib/bhp-hr
1.05
0.95
1.05
0.95
1.05
0.95
BSFC improvement

10%

10%

10%
Fuel Density (lbs/gal)
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
Fuel Cost ($/gal)
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
Yearly Fuel Consumption (gal/yr)
35
32
84
76
176
158
Yearly Fuel Cost ($/yr)
$39
$35
$93
$83
$193
$174
Present Value of Fuel Cost ($)
$252
$226
$604
$544
$1,258
$1,132
Incremental Fuel Cost ($)

-$26

-$60

-$126

Engine
4-Stroke 90cc
4-Stroke 200cc
4-Stroke 400cc
Fuel Economy
Baseline
Improved
Baseline
Improved
Baseline
Improved

5
5
12
12
25
25
Load Factor
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.34
Annual Operating Hours, hr/yr
120
120
120
120
120
120
Lifetime, yr
9
9
9
9
9
9
BSFC, Ib/bhp-hr
0.79
0.71
0.79
0.71
0.79
0.71
BSFC improvement

10%

10%

10%
Fuel Density (lbs/gal)
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
Fuel Cost ($/gal)
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
$1.10
Yearly Fuel Consumption (gal/yr)
26
24
63
57
132
119
Yearly Fuel Cost ($/yr)
$29
$26
$70
$63
$145
$131
Present Value of Fuel Cost ($)
$189
$170
$454
$409
$947
$852
Incremental Fuel Cost ($)

-$19

-$45

-$95
4-23

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