United States • Canada
Air Quality Agreement
*r*
PROGRESS REPORT 2008
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The International Joint Commission
Requests Your Comments on This Report
The International Joint Commission (IJC) is responsible for inviting comment on the
Air Quality Agreement (AQA) Progress Report and providing a synthesis of the comments
to governments to assist them in implementing the agreement. The Air Quality Committee
will have the benefit of this synthesis as it implements the agreement and prepares the next
progress report. Comments on any aspect of the agreement are appreciated. More information
about the IJC and its comment process can be found at .
Written comments on this report should be sent by Friday, April 24, 2009, to:
Secretary, United States Section
International Joint Commission
2401 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
4th Floor
Washington, DC 20440
E-mail: commission@washington.ijc.or£
Secretary, Canadian Section
International Joint Commission
234 Laurier Avenue West
22nd Floor
Ottawa, Ontario K1P6K6
E-mail: commission@ottawa.ijc.or£
American spelling is used throughout this report.
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Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Section 1: Commitments 3
Acid Rain Annex 3
Overview 3
Key Commitments and Progress: Sulfur Dioxide Emission Reductions 3
Key Commitments and Progress: Nitrogen Oxides Emission Reductions 5
Emissions/Compliance Monitoring 6
Acid Deposition Monitoring, Modeling, Maps, and Trends 8
Preventing Air Quality Deterioration and Protecting Visibility 10
Consultation and Notification Concerning Significant Transboundary Air Pollution 13
Ozone Annex 15
Overview 15
Key Commitments and Progress 15
Anticipated Additional Control Measures and Indicative Reductions 22
Reporting PEMA Emissions 25
Reporting Air Quality for All Relevant Monitors within 500 km of the Border between
Canada and the United States 30
New Actions on Acid Rain, Ozone, and Particulate Matter 33
Section 2: Related Air Quality Efforts 36
New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers 36
PM Annex Negotiations 37
Section 3: Scientific and Technical Cooperation and
Research 38
Emission Inventories and Trends 38
Air Quality Mapping, Monitoring, and Reporting 41
Health Effects 45
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Research in the Great Lakes Basin Airshed 45
Research in the Georgia Basin-Puget Sound International Airshed 46
Canadian Air Quality Health Index 46
Canadian Air Health Indicator 47
U.S. Report on Health Effects of Ozone and PM 47
Review of U.S. Ozone and Particulate Matter Air Quality Standards 49
U.S. Health and Exposure Research 49
Ecological Effects 50
Aquatic Effects Research and Monitoring 50
Critical Loads and Exceedances 52
Conclusion 59
Appendix A: U.S.-Canada Air Quality Committee 60
Appendix B: List of Acronyms 62
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List of Figures and Tables
Figures
Figure 1. Canadian S02 Emissions from Acid Rain Sources, 1980-2006 4
Figure 2. U.S. S02 Emissions from Acid Rain Program Electric Generating Units, 1980-2007 5
Figure 3. U.S. Title IV Utility Unit NOX Emissions, 1990-2007 6
Figure 4. Monitoring Methodology for the Acid Rain Program, Total S02 Mass 7
Figure 5. 1990 Annual Sulfate Wet Deposition 8
FigureG. 1995 Annual Sulfate Wet Deposition 8
Figure 7. 2000 Annual Sulfate Wet Deposition 8
Figures. 2005 Annual Sulfate Wet Deposition 8
Figure 9. 1990 Annual Nitrate Wet Deposition 9
Figure 10. 1995 Annual Nitrate Wet Deposition 9
Figure 11. 2000 Annual Nitrate Wet Deposition 9
Figure 12. 2005 Annual Nitrate Wet Deposition 9
Figure 13. Annual Average Standard Visual Range in the Contiguous United States, 2000-2004 12
Figure 14. PEMA Region and NOX SIP Call States 20
Figure 15. Ozone Season NOX Emissions under the NOX Budget Trading Program 20
Figure 16. Canadian Transportation N0xand VOC PEMA Emissions and Projections, 1990-2020 23
Figure 17. Canadian NOX and VOC PEMA Emissions and Projections 24
Figure 18. U.S. NOX and VOC PEMA Emissions and Projections 25
Figure 19. U.S. NOX Emission Trends in PEMA States, 1990-2006 28
Figure 20. U.S. VOC Emission Trends in PEMA States, 1990-2006 28
Figure 21. Canada NOX Emission Trends in the PEMA Region, 1990-2006 29
Figure 22. Canada VOC Emission Trends in the PEMA Region, 1990-2006 29
Figure 23. Ozone Concentrations along the Canada-U.S. Border
(Three-Year Average of the Fourth Highest Daily Maximum 8-Hour Average), 2004-2006 30
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Figure 24. Annual Average Fourth Highest Maximum 8-Hour Ozone Concentration for Sites
within 500 km of the Canada-U.S. Border, 1995-2006 31
Figure 25. Average Ozone Season 1-Hour NOX Concentration for Sites within 500 km of the
Canada-U.S. Border, 1995-2006 31
Figure 26. Annual Average 24-Hour VOC Concentration for Sites within 500 km of the
Canada-U.S. Border, 1997-2006 32
Figure 27. Network of Monitoring Sites Used to Create Graphs of Ambient Ozone, NOX,
and VOC Levels 33
Figure 28. U.S. and Canadian National Emissions by Sector for Selected Pollutants, 2006 39
Figure 29. National S02 Emissions in the United States and Canada from All Sources,
1990-2006 40
Figure 30. National NOX Emissions in the United States and Canada from All Sources,
1990-2006 40
Figure 31. National VOC Emissions in the United States and Canada from All Sources,
1990-2006 40
Figure 32. AIRNow Map Illustrating the AQI for 8-Hour Ozone 41
Figure 33. Regional Surface Water Concentration Trends (ueq/L/yr) for Eight Regions of Northeastern
North America, 1990-2004 51
Figure 34. Sulfur Plus Nitrogen Critical Loads for Upland Forest Soils across Canada 53
Figure 35. Exceedances of Sulfur Plus Nitrogen Critical Loads for Upland Forest Soils across Canada
Based on Average (1994-1998) Measured Deposition 54
Figure 36. Exceedances of Sulfur Plus Nitrogen Critical Loads for Upland Forest Soils across Canada
Based on Preliminary Estimates of Current Deposition (2002) from the AURAMS Model 55
Figure 37. Estimated Sulfur Plus Nitrogen Critical Loads for Lakes in Northeast United States 56
Figure 38. Eastern U.S. Lakes Exceeding the Estimated Critical Load (Sulfur + Nitrogen) for Total
Nitrogen and Sulfur Deposition for the Period 1989-1991 57
Figure 39. Eastern U.S. Lakes Exceeding the Estimated Critical Load (Sulfur + Nitrogen) for Total
Nitrogen and Sulfur Deposition for the Period 2004-2006 58
Tables
Table 1. PEMA Emissions, 2006 27
Table 2. U.S. Air Quality Monitoring Networks 43
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ntroduction
In 1991, the United States and Canada committed to reduce the impact of transboundary
air pollution through the United States-Canada Air Quality Agreement (AQA). The Acid
Rain Annex, negotiated with the original 1991 agreement, established specific objectives
related to reducing the emissions of acid rain precursors sulfur dioxide (S02) and nitrogen
oxides (NOX). In 2000, the United States and Canada negotiated an Ozone Annex to the
Agreement. This annex established commitments related to the reduction of NOX and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ozone-forming air pollutants. Currently, negotiations
are underway between the United States and Canada to develop an annex that addresses
particulate matter (PM).
This 2008 Progress Report, prepared by the bilateral Air Quality Committee, is the ninth
biennial report completed under the 1991 United States-Canada AQA. The report discusses
key actions undertaken by the United States and Canada in the last two years to address
transboundary air pollution within the context of the agreement. Specifically, the report
highlights progress made toward meeting the commitments established in the acid rain and
ozone annexes of the agreement.
To prepare this report, the Air Quality Committee took into consideration the public comments
received through the International Joint Commission (IJC) regarding the 2006 Progress
Report. The IJC received 24 comments, more than half of which came from state, provincial,
or regional governments representing millions of people. A synthesis of the comments can
be found on the IJC Web site at . Almost all
of the comments expressed strong support for the agreement and its success in fostering
cooperation on transboundary air pollution control, monitoring, research, and information
exchange. Additionally, the majority of the comments expressed satisfaction with the progress
made by each country toward SO NO and VOC reductions.
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SECTION 1:
Commitments
Acid Rain Annex
Overview
The Acid Rain Annex to the 1991 Air Quality Agreement (AQA) established commitments
for both countries to reduce emissions of the primary precursors to acid rain, sulfur
dioxide (S02) and nitrogen oxides (NOX). The commitments include prevention of air quality
deterioration, visibility protection, and continuous emission monitoring. Both countries have
been successful in significantly reducing the impact of acid rain on each side of the border.
Despite these achievements, studies in each country indicate that although some damaged
ecosystems are showing signs of recovery, further efforts are necessary to restore these
ecosystems to their pre-acidified conditions.
Key Commitments and Progress: Sulfur Dioxide Emission Reductions
.•f. /"Canada has been successful in
^p- V^ reducing emissions of S02, a
principal cause of acid rain. In 2006,
Canada's total S02 emissions were 2
CANADA mi||jon tonnes, or about 38 percent
below the national cap of 3.2 million tonnes.1 This
represents more than a 55-percent reduction
from Canada's total SCL emissions in 1980 and a
35-percent decrease from the 1990 emission level
(see Figure 1). This overall reduction in national
S02 emission levels can be attributed to the S02
emission reductions undertaken as part of the
eastern Canada Acid Rain Program. S02 emissions
in the seven easternmost provinces were 1.4 million
tonnes in 2005, or nearly 40 percent below the (now
expired) eastern Canada cap of 2.3 million tonnes.
1 One tonne is equal to 1.1 short tons.
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Figure 1. Canadian SO2 Emissions from Acid Rain Sources,
1980-2006
National S02 Cap: 3.2 million tonnes
E 2.5-
E l.O-
1980
1984
1988
1 1992
1996 '
2000 '
2004 '
2006 '
Source: Environment Canada, 2008
The largest source of S02 emissions in Canada
continues to be the base metals smelting sector, which
accounted for more than 30 percent of national S02
emissions in 2006, despite a greater than 50-percent
decrease in S02 emissions from this sector since 1990.
Canada is committed to further reducing acidifying
emissions through the more recent Canada-wide
Acid Rain Strategy for Post-2000. This strategy
serves as a framework for addressing the country's
acid rain problem. The long-term goal of the strategy
is to achieve critical loads for acid deposition for
aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. A critical load
is the maximum amount of acidifying deposition an
ecosystem can tolerate in the long term without being
damaged. As part of the Strategy, the provinces of
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario
set new, stricter S02 emission reduction targets that
are 50 percent below their 1985 eastern Canada Acid
Rain Program targets, to be achieved by 2010 (2015
for Ontario). Provincial measures planned to meet the
stricter S02 targets include setting caps on emissions
from power generating stations, refurbishing industrial
and power generating sources with pollution control
equipment, and reducing the sulfur content of fuels.
All provinces are well on their way to meeting their
new S02 targets.
Despite these efforts, the control of acidifying
emissions has not occurred to the extent necessary
to reduce acid deposition below critical loads
and ensure the recovery of aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems.
UNITED
STATES
*The United States succeeded in
meeting its commitment to reduce
annual S02 emissions by 10 million tons
from 1980 levels by 2000. Additionally,
in 2007, emissions of S02 from the
electric power sector in the United
States fell below the 2010 national emission cap of
8.95 million tons for the first time, achieving the U.S.
commitment three years early.
Most of the reductions in S02 emissions in the United
States are due to the Acid Rain Program (ARP)
established under Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act
Amendments. The ARP requires major reductions of
S02 and NOX emissions from the electric power sector,
the highest S02 emitting sector. Under the ARP, the
S02 program set a permanent cap on the total amount
of S02 that may be emitted by electric generation
units in the contiguous United States starting in 1995.
The reductions are phased in over time, with the final
2010 S02 cap set at 8.95 million tons.
To achieve S02 emission reductions, the ARP uses
a market-based cap and trade program that allows
flexibility for individual combustion units to select
their own method of compliance. The number of S02
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allowances allocated in a given year to a particular
unit is determined by Clean Air Act provisions, and the
total allowances allocated each year must not exceed
the national cap. Every year, each individual source
must hold enough allowances to cover its annual
emissions. Unused allowances can be sold (traded)
or banked (saved) for future use. Banking allowances
gives sources the flexibility to determine how they will
comply with program requirements over time.
In 2007, the ARP's S02 program affected 3,536
electric generating units (EGUs). The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) allocated
more than 9.5 million S02 allowances under the
ARP. Actual emissions from affected sources were
8.94 million tons of SO (see Figure 2), down from
9.4 million tons in 2006 and below the 2010 cap of
8.95 million tons. Additionally in 2007, the number
of banked allowances grew, from about 6.3 million
available for 2007 compliance to approximately 6.7
million available for 2008 and future years.
In addition to the electric power generation sector,
emission reductions from other sources not affected
by the ARP—including industrial and commercial
boilers and the metals and refining industries, and
the use of cleaner fuels in residential and commercial
burners—have contributed to an overall reduction of
annual S02 emissions. National S02 emissions from
all sources have fallen from nearly 26 million tons in
1980 to less than 13 million tons in 2007 (see ).
Figure 2. U.S. SO2 Emissions from Acid Rain Program
Electric Generating Units, 1980-2007
All Affected Electric Generating Units
Phase II (2000 on) Sources
Phase I (1995-1999) Sources
Allowances Allocated
o
in
HIM
9.5 .=9.5 9.5
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
Source: EPA, 2008
Key Commitments and Progress: Nitrogen Oxides Emission Reductions
•f /"Canada has surpassed its NOX
K V^emission reduction target at
power plants, major combustion
sources, and metal smelting operations
CANADA by ioo,000 tonnes below the
forecasted level of 970,000 tonnes.
This commitment is based on a 1985 forecast of
2005 NOX emissions; in 2006, industrial emissions
of NOX totaled 765,480 tonnes. The country is
continuing to develop programs to further reduce
NOV emissions nationwide.
Transportation sources contribute the majority of
NOX emissions, accounting for just over half (52
percent) of total Canadian emissions, with the
remainder generated by power plants and other
sources (see Figure 28: U.S. and Canadian National
Emissions by Sector for Selected Pollutants, 2006
on page 40). Additional information on Canadian
emissions can be found at . The
Canadian government recently passed stringent
standards for NOX emissions from on-road and off-road
sources effective from 2004 to 2009.
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*
UNITED
STATES
The United States has achieved and
exceeded its goal under the Acid Rain
Annex to reduce total annual NOX
emissions by 2 million tons below
projected annual emission levels for
2000 without the ARP (8.1 million tons).
Title IV of the Clean Air Act requires NOX emission
reductions from certain coal-fired EG Us. Unlike the
market-based S02 program, the NOX program under
the ARP uses rate-based emission limits based on
boiler type to achieve reductions.
In 2007, 978 coal-fired units were affected by the
NOX program. Of those units, all 978 met their NOX
emission requirements under the ARP. Emissions
of NOX from all NOX program-affected units were 3
million tons, and total NOX emissions from all sources
covered by the ARP were 3.3 million tons (Figure 3).
This level is 4.8 million tons less than the projected
NOX levels for 2000 without the ARP, or more than
double the NOX emission reduction goal under the
Acid Rain Annex.
While the ARP is responsible for a large portion of
these annual NOX reductions, other programs—such
as the Ozone Transport Commission, the NOX
Budget Trading Program (NBP) under EPA's NOX
State Implementation Plan (SIP) Call, and state
NOX emission control programs—also contributed
significantly to the NOX reductions that sources
achieved in 2007.
Figure 3. U.S.Title IV Utility Unit NOX Emissions, 1990-2007
NOX Program Affected Sources
Title IV Sources Not Affected for NOX
5-
o
1 4
t 2
1-
0-| • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I • • I
1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Source: EPA, 2008
Year
Emissions/Compliance Monitoring
™f^ /"Canada has met its commitments
B- V^to estimate emissions of NOX
and S02 from new electric utility units
and existing electricity units greater
CANADA j-nan 25 megawatts (MW) using a
method comparable in effectiveness to
continuous emission monitoring systems (GEMS),
and to investigate the feasibility of using GEMS by
1995. Continuous emissions monitoring installation in
Canada's electric utility sector has been widespread
since the late 1990s. In 2008, almost all new and
existing base-loaded fossil steam plants with high
emission rates have operating GEMS. Coal-fired
facilities, which are the largest source of emissions
from the sector, have S02 and NOX GEMS installed at
more than 94 percent of their total capacity.
Under Canada's Regulatory Framework for Air
Emissions, unveiled in April 2007, the government
indicated its support for requiring maximum use of
continuous emission monitoring technology to ensure
effective compliance and enforcement. Details on
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the regulatory framework can be found in the New
Actions on Acid Rain, Ozone, and Particulate Matter
section on page 33 of this report.
Under Canada's National Pollutant Release Inventory
(NPRI) mandatory reporting program, electric power
generating facilities are required to report their air
pollutant emissions annually.
UNITED
STATES
*The ARP requires affected units to
measure, record, and report S02 mass
emissions and NOX emission rates
using CEMS or an approved alternative
measurement method. The vast majority
of emissions are monitored with CEMS,
while the alternatives provide a cost-effective means
of monitoring mass emissions for smaller and/or
cleaner units. Figure 4 shows the percentage of S02
emissions monitored using CEMS.
Affected sources are required to meet stringent
quality assurance and control requirements and
report hourly emission data in quarterly electronic
reports to EPA. In 2007, the average percent of
monitoring data available (a measure of monitoring
systems' reliability) was 98.7 percent for coal-fired
units. This number is based on reported monitor
data availability for S02 monitors (99.1 percent),
Figure 4. Monitoring
Methodology for the Acid Rain
Prog ram. Total SO2 Mass
,11 Other Units
with CEMS
.50%
NOX monitors (98 percent), and flow monitors
(99 percent).
Using automated software audits, EPA rigorously
checks the completeness, quality, and integrity of
monitoring data. The Agency promptly sends results
from the audits to the source and requires correction
of critical errors. In addition to the electronic audits,
EPA conducts targeted field audits on sources that
report suspect data. In 2007, source compliance with
ARP emission monitoring requirements was more
than 98 percent, with only 43 units out of 3,526 out
of compliance. All 43 units were small units that did
not require further follow-up from EPA. All emission
data are available to the public within two months of
being reported to EPA. Data can be accessed on the
Data and Maps Web site maintained by EPA's Clean
Air Markets Division at .
All Units without CEMS
1.35%
Source: EPA, 2008
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Acid Deposition Monitoring, Modeling, Maps, and Trends
Airborne pollutants are deposited on the earth's
surface by three processes: 1) wet deposition (rain
and snow); 2) dry deposition (particles and gases); and
3) deposition by cloud water and fog. Wet deposition
is comparatively easy to measure using precipitation
samplers, and wet sulfate and nitrate deposition are
regularly used to assess the changing atmosphere
as it responds to decreasing or increasing sulfur
and nitrogen emissions. In Canada, to facilitate this
comparison, measurements of wet sulfate deposition
are typically corrected to omit the contribution of sea
salt sulfate at near-ocean sites (less than 62 miles, or
100 kilometers [km], from the coast).
Figures 5 through 8 show the U.S.-Canada spatial
patterns of wet sulfate (sea salt-corrected) deposition
for four years: 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2005. Figures
9 through 12 show the patterns of wet nitrate
deposition for the same four years. Deposition
contours are not shown in western Canada because
Canadian experts judged that the locations of the
contour lines were unacceptably uncertain due to the
paucity of long-term measurement sites in all of the
western provinces except Alberta. To compensate for
the lack of contours, wet deposition values in western
Canada are shown as colored circles at the locations
of the federal/provincial/territorial measurement sites.
Figure 5. 1990 Annual Sulfate
Wet Deposition
Figure 6. 1995 Annual Sulfate
Wet Deposition
Figure 7. 2000 Annual Sulfate
Wet Deposition
Figure 8. 2005 Annual Sulfate
Wet Deposition
Source: National Atmospheric Chemistry (NAtChem) Database (www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/natchem/index_e.html) and the
National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP)
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The four maps indicate that wet sulfate deposition is
consistently highest in eastern North America around
the lower Great Lakes, with a gradient following an axis
running from the confluence of the Mississippi and
Ohio rivers through the lower Great Lakes. The pattern
from 1990 to 2005 illustrates that significant reductions
occurred in wet sulfate deposition in both the eastern
United States and much of eastern Canada, particularly
in the periods from 1990 to 1995 and 2000 to 2005.
By 2005, the region receiving more than 20 kilograms
per hectare per year (kg/ha/yr) of wet sulfate deposition
had essentially disappeared, with the exception of
three small areas: at the Illinois-Indiana border, at the
West Virginia-Ohio border, and at the Pennsylvania-
Maryland Border. The wet sulfate deposition reductions
are considered to be directly related to decreases in
S02 emissions in both Canada and the United States.
The emission reductions are outlined in the Key
Commitments and Progress: Sulfur Dioxide Emission
Reductions section beginning on page 3.
The patterns of wet nitrate deposition (Figures 9
through 12) show a similar southwest-to-northeast
axis, but the highest deposition area is located further
north than that of sulfate. Reductions in wet nitrate
deposition have generally been more modest than for
Figure 9. 1990 Annual Nitrate
Wet Deposition
Figure 10. 1995 Annual Nitrate
Wet Deposition
Figure 11. 2000 Annual Nitrate
Wet Deposition
Figure 12. 2005 Annual Nitrate
Wet Deposition
Source: National Atmospheric Chemistry (NAtChem) Database (www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/natchem/index_e.html) and the
National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP)
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wet sulfate deposition, except during the period from
2000 to 2005, when large NOX emissions reductions
occurred in the United States and, to a lesser degree,
in Canada.
Wet deposition measurements in Canada are made by
the federal Canadian Air and Precipitation Monitoring
Network (CAPMoN) and networks in a number of
provinces/territories, including Alberta, Northwest
Territories, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.
Dry deposition estimates are made at a subset of
CAPMoN sites using combined air concentration
measurements and modeled dry deposition
velocities—the so-called inferential technique. In the
United States, wet deposition measurements are made
by two coordinated networks: the National Atmospheric
Deposition Program/National Trends Network (NADP/
NTN), which is a collaboration of federal, state, and
nongovernmental organizations (http://nadp.sws.
uiuc.edu/), and the NADP/Atmospheric Integrated
Research Monitoring Network (AIRMoN), which is a
sub-network of NADP funded by the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (http://nadp.sws.uiuc.
edu/AIRMoN/). Dry deposition estimates in the United
States are made using the inferential technique based
on modeled dry deposition velocities and ambient air
concentration data collected by EPA, the National Park
Service (NPS), and the Clean Air Status and Trends
Network (CASTNET) (www.epa.gov/castnet).
Wet deposition measurements in the United States
and Canada are comparable, and the data are
available from the individual networks and from
a binational database accessible to the public at
.
Dry deposition estimates in the two countries, while
demonstrating the importance of dry deposition
to total deposition in certain areas, are not as
comparable. This appears to be due to major
differences in the inferential models used to calculate
dry deposition velocities and fluxes. The United States
and Canada are working collaboratively to reconcile
these differences and obtain validation data to
evaluate the models.
Preventing Air Quality Deterioration and Protecting Visibility
^^ I n October 2007, a joint U.S.-Canada
^ ^ I visibility workshop was held in
Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina. EPA, the U.S. Federal Land
Managers, and Canadian government
* representatives came together to
review the history of the U.S. visibility
program, including visibility impairment
JOINT monitoring and tracking, and to share
EFFORTS information and lessons learned from
joint analyses between the two countries,
discuss international transport in general, and
investigate future collaboration.
tArf A s re Ported 'n Previous progress
^ ^ /xreports, Canada is addressing
the commitment to prevent air quality
deterioration and ensure visibility
CANADA Protection by implementating the
Canadian Environmental Assessment
Act, the Canadian Environmental Protection Act
(CEPA) of 1999, and the continuous improvement
(CD and keeping clean areas clean (KCAC) principles
that are part of the Canada-wide Standards (CWS)
for PM and ozone. The federal government's Turning
the Corner initiative to regulate air pollution emissions
across Canada has the potential to benefit visibility.
Federal and provincial environmental assessment
legislation requires that air quality be considered
for all major new point sources or modifications to
existing sources to ensure that Canadian objectives to
protect human health and the environment are met.
Mandatory provincial reporting processes require
new and existing sources to file notifications, which
are reviewed to determine the scale of environmental
assessment appropriate to each case. CEPA
prefers to use pollution prevention in its approach
to environmental protection. Implementing similar
principles—pollution prevention, Cl, and KCAC—is
also part of the CWS.
There are numerous locations across Canada where
ambient levels of PM and ozone are below the CWS.
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Actions are required to ensure that levels in these
areas do not rise to the CWS, but rather, are reduced
over time, and that clean areas are maintained. For
example, although Metro Vancouver experiences
good regional air quality relative to most other
Canadian urban areas, the region adopted a new Air
Quality Management Plan (AQMP) in October 2005 to
maintain and improve air quality in the Lower Fraser
Valley airshed. The new AQMP aims to minimize
the risk to human health from air pollution, improve
visibility, and reduce metro Vancouver's contribution
to global climate change. As the CWS for PM25
(particulate matter less than or equal to 2.5 microns)
is being met throughout the Lower Fraser Valley and
the CWS for ozone is exceeded only in the eastern
part, the AQMP supports the CI/KCAC provisions
of the CWS. Also, visibility degradation in the Lower
Fraser Valley occurs at concentration levels of PM25
well below the CWS. The AQMP's emission reduction
actions aim to reduce direct emissions of PM and
ozone, as well as PM precursors.
The province of British Columbia has recently taken
steps to establish a framework to specifically address
visibility. An interagency Visibility Coordinating
Committee consisting of representatives from the air
quality management agencies was formed in 2007
and is now exploring the development of a visibility
management program for urban and rural areas.
The early work of the committee involved a multi-
stakeholder workshop on visibility management and
a report on visibility management options in British
Columbia. This report can be viewed at .
Current efforts are focused on a review of visibility
standards/goals for urban and rural areas in the
United States and an assessment of the U.S.
Regional Haze Rule. The results of these initiatives
will inform a path forward for the development of a
visibility management pilot program for the Lower
Fraser Valley.
*The United States has various programs
to ensure that air quality is not
significantly degraded by the addition
of air pollutants from new or modified
UNITED major sources. The Clean Air Act
STATES
requires major new stationary sources
of air pollution and extensive modifications to major
existing stationary sources to obtain permits before
construction. The permitting process is called New
Source Review (NSR) and applies to both areas that
meet the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) (attainment areas) and areas that exceed
the NAAQS (nonattainment areas). Permits for
sources in attainment areas are prevention of
significant deterioration (PSD) permits, while permits
for sources located in nonattainment areas are
Nonattainment Area (NAA) permits.
PSD permits require air pollution controls that
represent the best available control technology
(BACT). BACT is an emission limitation based on
the maximum degree of reduction of each pollutant
subject to regulation. BACT is determined on a case-
by-case basis and considers energy, environmental,
and economic impacts.
NAA permits require the lowest achievable emission
rate (LAER). BACT and LAER must be at least as strict
as any existing New Source Performance Standard
(NSPS) for sources. One important difference
between NSR permits and the NSPS program is that
NSR is applied on a source-specific basis, whereas
the NSPS program applies to all sources nationwide.
The NSR program protects the air quality and visibility
in Class I areas (i.e., national parks exceeding
6,000 acres and wilderness areas exceeding 5,000
acres). The federal land management agencies are
responsible for protecting air quality-related values,
such as visibility, in Class I areas by reviewing and
commenting on construction permits.
The Clean Air Act established the goal of improving
visibility in the nation's 156 Class I areas and returning
these areas to natural visibility conditions (visibility
that existed before manmade air pollution); the 1999
Regional Haze Rule prescribes the requirements
that states must meet to reach that goal by 2064.
In July 2005, EPA finalized amendments to the
Regional Haze Rule. These amendments require
the installation of emission controls, known as best
available retrofit technology (BART), on certain older,
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existing combustion sources within a group of 26
source categories, including certain EGUs that cause
or contribute to visibility impairment in Class I areas.
Many of these older sources have never been regulated,
and applying BART will help improve visibility in Class
I areas. States were required to submit their Regional
Haze SIPs by December 17, 2007. The first planning
period establishes an assessment of expected visibility
conditions in 2018. The SIPs are revised every 10
years, and states revise their visibility goals accordingly
to ensure that reasonable progress is being made
to achieve natural visibility conditions. There is also
a reporting check every five years, in which states
report their interim progress toward reaching the goals.
Additional information on EPA's Regional Haze Program
can be found at .
Figure 13 shows the annual average standard
visual range within the United States for the period
2000 to 2004. "Standard visual range" is defined
as the farthest distance a large dark object can
be seen during daylight hours. This distance is
calculated using fine and coarse particle data from
the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual
Environments (IMPROVE) network. Increased
particle pollution reduces the visual range. The
visual range under naturally occurring conditions
without pollution in the United States is typically 45
to 90 miles (75 to 150 km) in the East and 120 to
180 miles (200 to 300 km) in the West. Additional
information on the IMPROVE program and visibility
in U.S. national parks can be found at
.
Figure 13. Annual Average Standard Visual Range in the Contiguous
United States, 2000-2004
Visibility Range
IMPROVE Aerosol Network
km
20 to 40
40 to 60
60 to 80
80 to 100
100 to 120
120 to 140
140 to 160
160 to 180
>180
Urban IMPROVE Sites d km = 0.62 mile)
Source: Spatial and Seasonal Patterns and Temporal Variability of Haze and Its Constituents in the United States, Report IV, November 2006, IMPROVE, National Park
Service
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Consultation and Notification Concerning Significant Transboundary
Air Pollution
•f /"Canada and the United States
K V^are continuing notification
procedures—initiated in 1994—to
identify potential new sources and
* modifications to existing sources of
transboundary air pollution within 62
miles (100 km) of the U.S.-Canada
border. Additionally, the governments
can provide notifications for new or
existing sources outside of the 62-
mile region if they believe there is potential for
transboundary air pollution. Since publication of
the 2006 United States-Canada AQA Progress
Report, Canada has notified the United States of
eight additional sources, for a total of 52 Canadian
notifications. The United States has notified Canada
of nine additional sources, bringing the total number
of U.S. notifications to 56.
JOINT
EFFORTS
Transboundary notification information is available on
the government Web sites of each country at:
Canada:
www.ec.gc.ca/cleanair-airpur/CAOL/canus/
canus_applic_e.cfm
United States:
www.epa.gov/ttn/gei/uscadata.html
Following guidelines approved by the Air Quality
Committee in 1998 for a consultation request by a
party on transboundary pollution concerns, Canada
and the United States report ongoing progress on
joint discussions concerning Essar Steel Algoma, Inc.
(ESAI), formerly known as Algoma Steel Inc., in Sault
Ste. Marie, Ontario.
Essar Steel Algoma, Inc.
The EASI mill is an integrated primary steel producer
located on the St. Mary's River in Sault Ste. Marie,
Ontario, approximately one mile from the U.S.-
Canada border.
The Canada-U.S. Algoma informal consultation group
was formed in 1998 to address concerns regarding
local cross-border pollution. Representatives from the
United States and Canada hold regular discussions
to coordinate monitoring programs in the Sault Ste.
Marie area and to address progress in abating potential
transboundary air pollution from the EASI facility in
Ontario. Air quality monitoring on the Canadian side
has been ongoing since the 1960s, and monitoring on
the U.S. side was initiated by the Intertribal Council of
Michigan in 2001. Sampling of fine PM and toxic air
pollutants continues on both sides of the border.
During the last two years, Canadian and U.S.
representatives have continued to meet to discuss
progress toward reducing emissions from EASI and to
share results of air monitoring studies. In November
2006, the data analysis subgroup of the Algoma
informal consultation group completed a report
summarizing results of the ambient air monitoring
program in the binational area between 2001 and
-------
2003. The executive summary and full technical
report are posted on the EPA Region 5 Web site at
.
To date, the air measurements recorded at the Michigan
sites do not violate U.S. ambient air quality standards,
nor do they exceed air toxics levels of concern for long-
term exposure. However, several pollutants, including
total suspended particulates and coarse particulate
matter (i.e., particulate matter less than or equal to 10
microns, or PM10), exceed Ontario air quality criteria in
the west end of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
Trend data from the consultation indicate that
although emission rates have declined, total steel
production at EASI has increased. The combined
impact of these changes on air quality is not yet
known, and local agencies are still receiving U.S.
citizen complaints.
In 2007, the Intertribal Council of Michigan installed
a camera, facing toward Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario,
as part of the Midwest Hazecam Network (see
). The Intertribal Council
provided the bilateral consultation group with a
series of photographs documenting reddish particle
plumes emanating from EASI on multiple dates. The
consultation team discussed the photographs in
October 2007. Ontario Ministry of the Environment
(MOE) staff confirmed that the emissions were coming
from a blast furnace at the company's plant. The
blast furnace was largely uncontrolled at the time, but
EASI has committed to install a particulate-controlling
baghouse on the unit by December 31, 2008.
In September 2008, MOE confirmed that ESAI was in
the process of constructing a permanent baghouse
and that the company was operating portable
baghouse units in the interim. In order to meet the
demand for increased steel production, another pre-
existing blast furnace at ESAI was restarted in August,
2008. MOE reported that this unit is also operating with
temporary particulate controls and that ESAI made
a commitment to build a permanent baghouse by
December 2009. The EASI bilateral consultation group
will continue to monitor and report on this facility.
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Ozone Annex
Overview
The Ozone Annex was added to the AQA in 2000 to address transboundary ground-level
ozone. The annex commits both the United States and Canada to reducing emissions of
NOX and VOCs, the precursors to ground-level ozone. The commitments apply to a defined
region in both countries known as the Pollutant Emission Management Area (PEMA), which
includes central and southern Ontario, southern Quebec, 18 U.S. states, and the District of
Columbia. The states and provinces within the PEMA are the areas where emission reductions
are most critical for reducing transboundary ozone.
Key Commitments and Progress
Vehicles, Engines, and Fuels
^^ K lew stringent NOX and VOC emission
l^^^^f I N reduction standards for vehicles,
Jf including cars, vans, light- and heavy-
I duty trucks, off-road vehicles, small
CANADA engines, and diesel engines, as well
as fuels.
Emissions from vehicles, off-road equipment, and
fuels account for more than 60 percent of the NOX
emissions and more than 30 percent of the VOC
emissions in the Canadian portion of the PEMA. To
address these emissions, the Ozone Annex commits
Canada to controlling and reducing NOX and VOC
emissions from vehicles and fuels by regulating sulfur
content in gasoline and on-road diesel fuel and by
establishing new emission standards for light-duty
vehicles and trucks; heavy-duty vehicles and engines;
and motorcycles, recreational marine engines, and
small engines (e.g., lawn mowers).
Consistent with its obligations under the Ozone
Annex, Canada has implemented a series of
regulations to align Canadian emission standards for
vehicles and engines with corresponding standards
in the United States. By 2020, it is estimated that
NOX and VOC emissions combined from on-road and
off-road vehicles and engines in the Canadian portion
of the PEMA will be reduced by 41 and 35 percent,
respectively, relative to 2005 emissions.
The On-Road Vehicle and Engine Regulations were
in effect as of January 1, 2004, and introduced
more stringent national emission standards, aligned
with U.S. federal standards, for new 2004 and later
model year light-duty vehicles and trucks, heavy-duty
vehicles, and motorcycles. The primary purpose of
the Regulations Amending the On-Road Vehicle and
Engine Emission Regulations (November 15, 2006)
is to introduce new requirements for 2006 and later
model year on-road motorcycles. The changes will
ensure that Canadian emission standards for on-
road motorcycles remain aligned with more stringent
standards adopted by EPA. In addition, Canada plans
to amend the On-Road Vehicle and Engine Emission
Regulations to require onboard diagnostic (OBD)
systems for on-road heavy-duty engines such as
trucks and buses.
The Off-Road Small Spark-Ignition Engine Emission
Regulations were in effect as of January 1, 2005,
and established emission standards, aligned with
U.S. federal standards, for 2005 and later model
year engines found in lawn and garden machines,
light-duty industrial machines, and light-duty logging
machines. It is anticipated that these regulations
will be amended to extend their scope to include
standards to reduce air pollutant emissions from large,
off-road spark-ignition (SI) engines, such as forklifts.
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V—
;^r>' -• -
^•^^-'': >
The Off-Road Compression-Ignition Engine Emission
Regulations were in effect as of January 1, 2006,
and introduced emission standards aligned with
U.S. federal standards (Her 2 and 3) for new 2006
and later model year diesel engines, such as those
typically found in agricultural, construction, and
forestry machines. Environment Canada plans to
amend these regulations to incorporate the more
stringent U.S. Tier 4 standards.
The proposed Marine Spark-Ignition Engine and
Off-Road Recreational Vehicle Emission Regulations
were published in the Canada Gazette, Part I, on
December 30, 2006. The proposed regulations will
introduce new emission standards, aligned with U.S.
federal standards, for new outboard engines, personal
watercraft, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), snowmobiles,
and off-road motorcycles.
Regulatory initiatives for fuels include the Sulphur in
Gasoline Regulations, which limit the level of sulfur
in gasoline to 30 milligrams (mg)/kg (equivalent to 30
parts per million [ppm]) as of January 1, 2005; and
the Sulphur in Diesel Fuel Regulations, which reduce
the level of sulfur in diesel fuel used in on-road
vehicles to 15 mg/kg (15 ppm) as of June 1, 2006.
Environment Canada amended the Sulphur in Diesel
Fuel Regulations to reduce the level of sulfur in diesel
fuel used in off-road, rail, and marine engines to 500
mg/kg (500 ppm) as of 2007. Levels will be further
limited to 15 mg/kg (15 ppm) beginning in 2010 for
off-road and 2012 for rail and marine engines.
Environment Canada and EPA have agreed to work
together on integrated vehicle and fuel programs to
reduce emissions from the transportation sector, and
to work toward harmonized programs for sustainable
transport and goods movement.
Stationary Sources of NOX
Annual caps by 2007 of 39 kilotonnes (kt) of NOX
(as nitrogen dioxide [N02]) emissions from fossil fuel
power plants in the PEMA in central and southern
Ontario, and 5 kt of NOX in the PEMA in southern
Quebec.
In the Canadian portion of the PEMA, the largest
source of NOX emissions from industry is the fossil
fuel-fired power sector. Canada's commitment in the
Ozone Annex, therefore, focuses on achieving an
emission requirement for this sector in the Canadian
portion of the PEMA comparable to that in the U.S.
portion of the PEMA.
Canada is expected to comply with its commitment
to cap NOX emissions from large fossil fuel-fired
power plants in the Ontario and Quebec portions of
the PEMA at 39 kt and 5 kt, respectively, for 2007.
Emissions from power plants in the Ontario portion
of the PEMA were approximately 78 kt in 1990. In
2007, NOX emissions from Ontario fossil fuel-fired
power plants are estimated to be 35.9 kt, or 8 percent
below the cap. Annual NOX emissions for 2007 from
Quebec fossil fuel-fired power plants in the PEMA are
being assessed.
Ontario's Cessation of Coal Use Regulation (0. Reg.
496/07) under the Environmental Protection Act
was in effect as of August 24, 2007. This regulation
ensures that coal is not to be used to generate
electricity at the Atikokan, Lambton, Nanticoke, and
Thunder Bay generating stations after December 31,
2014. Lakeview Generating Station was closed in April
2005 (0. Reg. 396/01), eliminating annual emissions
of approximately 4,000 tonnes of NOX and 15,000
tonnes of S02 upwind of the Greater Toronto Area in
the PEMA.
-------
Ontario has been engaged in a number of clean
energy projects to offset coal-fired electricity
generation. On August 27, 2007, the Ministry of
Energy announced that the Ontario Power Authority
will procure an additional 2,000 MW of renewable
energy, which will double the amount of renewable
energy acquired by the Ontario government to 4,000
MW. As of June 2008, 522 MW of renewable energy
projects were in service.
To ensure that the 5 kt cap is met for the Quebec
portion of the PEMA, Quebec's Draft Air Quality
Regulation is introducing a specific cap of 2,100
tonnes per year for the Tracy plant. This plant is used
mainly during peak periods, and it easily met the caps
in 2006 (71 tonnes of NOX) and 2007 (139 tonnes).
Proposed National Guideline on Renewable
Low-Impact Electricity
Control and reduce NOX emissions in accordance with
a proposed national Guideline on Renewable Low-
Impact Electricity.
A notice of a draft Guideline on Renewable Low-
Impact Electricity (Green Power Guideline) was
published in the Canada Gazette, Part I, in 2001.
This guideline is providing national guidance on
environmentally preferable electricity products and
generation in Canada and is establishing criteria
for environmental labeling of qualifying electricity
products under the Canadian government's EcoLogo
Program. Certification criteria derived from the
draft guideline are being used to certify qualifying
electricity products.
Canada intends to monitor the application of these
criteria as an indicator of improvement in the
environmental performance of electricity generation
and distribution. Canada intends to review and update
these criteria to promote continuous improvement in
the environmental performance of this industry.
Measures to Reduce VOCs
Reduce VOC emissions by developing two
regulations—one on dry cleaning and another on
solvent degreasing—and using VOC emission limits for
new stationary sources.
The Tetrachloroethylene (Use in Dry Cleaning and
Reporting Requirements) Regulations became law
on February 27, 2003, and the last provision of these
regulations went into effect on August 1, 2005. The
regulations phased out the use of older technology
dry cleaning machines, which used and released
larger quantities of tetrachloroethylene (commonly
called perchloroethylene or PERC). The goal of the
regulations was to achieve a 71-percent reduction
of PERC releases at dry cleaning facilities from 1994
levels by August 2005. Analysis is underway by
Environment Canada to determine whether this goal
has been achieved.
The Solvent Degreasing Regulations took effect
in July 2003 and froze the consumption of
trichloroethylene and PERC on cold and vapor solvent
degreasing for three years (2004 to 2006) at then-
current levels based on historical use. Beginning in
2007, the annual consumption levels were reduced
by 65 percent.
Measures for NOX and VOC Emissions to Attain
the CWS for Ozone
If required to achieve the CWS for ozone in the PEMA
by 2010, measures will be in place to reduce NOX
emissions by 2005 and implemented between 2005
and 2010 for key industrial sectors and measures
to reduce VOC emissions from solvents, paints, and
consumer products.
The CWS committed provincial jurisdictions to
developing implementation plans outlining the
comprehensive actions being taken within each
jurisdiction to achieve the standards. In 2004, the
province of Ontario unveiled its implementation plan,
which described its approach to reducing smog-
causing emissions. As part of this implementation
plan, in 2005, Ontario finalized its Industry
Emissions—Nitrogen Oxides and Sulphur Dioxide
Regulation, which will lead to incremental reductions
of NOX and S02 from facilities in seven industrial
sectors. Further details on Ontario's implementation
plan can be found at and on Ontario's Regulation
194/05 (Industry Emissions—Nitrogen Oxides and
Sulphur Dioxide) at .
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As the province of Quebec is not a signatory to the
CWS, it is not required to develop an implementation
plan. However, the following sections describe the
measures that Quebec and Ontario have put in place
to reduce emissions of NOX and VOCs.
Federal actions to reduce ozone-causing emissions
from key industrial sectors are being proposed as part
of Canada's Regulatory Framework for Air Emissions.
VOC emissions from manufacturing and using
consumer and commercial products, such as
cleaning products, personal care products, and
paints, contribute significantly to the formation of
smog. The federal government is therefore taking
action to reduce VOC emissions from consumer and
commercial products.
Three proposed regulations to limit the concentrations
of VOCs in consumer products, architectural coatings,
and automotive refinishing products were published
in the Canada Gazette, Part I, on April 26, 2008.
The proposed VOC concentration limits are aligned
with a number of current and upcoming regulations
in California and other U.S. sectors. The proposed
regulations are predicted to result in an average
annual reduction in VOC emissions by 28 to 40
percent in the covered sectors. The regulations are
expected to be finalized in 2009.
Actions by the Province of Quebec
Quebec has made progress in meeting its Ozone
Annex commitments by way of several regulatory
actions. The Draft Air Quality Regulation, which is an
overhaul of Quebec's current Regulation Respecting
the Quality of the Atmosphere, contains stricter
standards aimed at reducing NOX emissions from
new and modified industrial and commercial boilers,
in accordance with Canadian Council of Ministers
of the Environment (CCME) guidelines. In addition,
when burners on existing units must be replaced,
the replacements must be Iow-N0x burners. The
Draft Air Quality Regulation, published in November
2005, has been revised, taking into consideration
the comments received from interested stakeholders,
and currently is being finalized. Since the Air
Quality Regulation is a multisectoral regulation, the
finalization process is lengthy.
With respect to VOC emissions, the amendments
to the Regulation Respecting the Quality of the
Atmosphere are aimed at reducing emissions from
the manufacture and application of surface coatings,
commercial and industrial printing, dry cleaning,
aboveground storage tanks, petroleum refineries, and
petrochemical plants.
Pursuant to its Regulation on Petroleum Products
and Equipment, Quebec is currently applying
provisions aimed at reducing gasoline volatility
during the summer months in the city of Montreal
and the Gatineau-Montreal section of the Windsor-
Quebec City corridor. Quebec is evaluating the
possibility of introducing amendments to the above
regulation to address vapor recovery initiatives,
including gasoline storage, transfer depots, and
service stations supplying both new and existing
installations in the Quebec portion of the Windsor-
Quebec City corridor. The city of Montreal is
currently enforcing regulatory provisions concerning
gasoline vapor recovery in its territory.
Actions by the Province of Ontario
Ontario has met its commitments under the Ozone
Annex to reduce emissions of NOX and VOCs
in the Ontario portion of the PEMA. Ontario has
implemented the following programs, regulations,
and guidelines:
• The Ontario Emissions Trading Regulation (0. Reg.
397/01), which establishes caps for NOX and S02
emissions from the electricity sector.
• The Ontario Drive Clean Program (0. Reg. 361/98),
which is a mandatory inspection and maintenance
program for motor vehicles that identifies
vehicles that do not meet provincial emission
standards and requires them to be repaired.
The Vehicle Emissions Enforcement Unit (Smog
Patrol) complements the Drive Clean Program by
conducting road-side inspections of heavy-duty and
light-duty vehicles.
• Stage 1 Recovery of Gasoline Vapor in Bulk
Transfers (0. Reg. 455/94), which requires gasoline
facility operators to install, maintain, and operate
gasoline vapor recovery systems.
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• Gasoline Volatility (0. Reg. 271/91, as amended by
0. Reg. 45/97), which sets limits for gasoline vapor
pressure during the summer.
• Dry Cleaners (0. Reg. 323/94), which requires
mandatory environmental training every five
years for at least one full-time employee of all dry
cleaning establishments in Ontario.
• Guideline A-5: New and Modified Combustions
Turbines, which sets limits for NOX and S02
emissions from new and modified stationary
combustion turbines.
• Guideline A-9: New Commercial/Industrial Boilers
and Heaters (2001), which imposes a NOX
emission limit on new or modified large boilers and
heaters in industrial installations.
• The Airborne Contaminant and Discharge
Monitoring and Reporting Regulation (0. Reg.
127/01), amended in February 2006, which
harmonizes Ontario's air emission reporting system
with Environment Canada's NPRI.
NO, and VOC Program Updates
*
UNITED
STATES
Implementing the NOX transport
emission reduction program,
known as the NOX SIP Call, in
the PEMA states that are subject
to the rule.
• Implementing existing U.S. vehicle, nonroad engine,
and fuel quality rules in the PEMA to achieve both
VOC and NOX reductions.
• Implementing existing U.S. rules in the PEMA for
the control of emissions from stationary sources of
hazardous air pollutants and of VOCs from consumer
and commercial products, architectural coatings,
and automobile repair coatings.
• Implementing 36 existing U.S. NSPS to achieve VOC
and NOV reductions from new sources.
NOX SIP Call: EPA finalized the NOX SIP Call in
1998. The rule was designed to reduce the regional
transport of NOX, one of the precursors of ozone,
in the eastern United States. It requires affected
states to reduce ozone season NOX emissions that
cross state boundaries and contribute to ozone
nonattainment in downwind states.
As of 2007, 20 states and the District of Columbia
are affected by the NOX SIP Call. All affected
states and the District of Columbia chose to meet
the mandatory NOX SIP Call reductions primarily
through participating in the NBP, a market-
based cap and trade program for EGUs and large
industrial units. Fourteen of the 20 NBP states
plus the District of Columbia are located within the
PEMA (see Figure 14).
Further information on the NOX SIP Call and NBP
can be found at . Compliance and emission data for
all sources participating in the NBP can be found at
.
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Figure 14. PEMA Region and NOX SIP Call States
| NO, SIP Call Areas within PEMA
| | PEMA States not in NOX SIP Call
1 NO, SIP Call Areas not in PEMA
NJ
Source: EPA, 2008
Emission Reductions: In the 2007 ozone season,
NBP sources emitted 506,312 tons of NOX. This is
almost 28,000 tons, or 5 percent, below the 2007
NOX budget. Figure 15 shows total ozone season NOX
emissions from all NBP sources. These data include
ozone season emissions prior to the start date of
the NBP for some states. For example, the totals in
this section include the 2003 to 2007 ozone season
emissions for affected units in Missouri, even though
those sources were not subject to the NBP emission
reduction requirements until 2007.
Figure 15. Ozone Season NOX Emissions under the
NOX Budget Trading Program
2,500
2,000- 1924
Ozone Season NOX Emissions (thousand tons)
Total State Trading Budget
1,500-
1,000-
500
1,256
849
I I I
508
1990
Source: EPA, 2008
2000
2003
2004
Year
2005
2006
2007
-------
Compliance: Under the NBP, affected sources must
hold sufficient allowances to cover their ozone season
NOX emissions each year. In 2007, 2,594 units
were affected under the NBP. Of those units, only
12 did not hold sufficient allowances to cover 2007
emissions. Overall, affected sources achieved over
99.5 percent compliance in 2007.
New Source Performance Standards: All of the 36
categories of NSPS identified in the Ozone Annex for
major new NOX and VOC sources are promulgated
and in effect. In addition, EPA finalized the NSPS for
Stationary Compression-ignition Internal Combustion
Engines in July 2006, which is helping these sources
achieve significant reductions of NOX and VOC
emissions. Furthermore, in December 2007, EPA
finalized an additional nationally applicable emission
standard—an NSPS for NOX, carbon monoxide (CO),
and VOC emissions from new stationary spark ignited
internal combustion engines (for more information on
the Spark Ignited Internal Combustion Engine rule, see
).
In February 2006, EPA promulgated the NSPS
for utility and industrial boilers and combustion
turbines. The updated standards for NOX, S02, and
direct filterable PM are based on the performance
of recently constructed boilers and turbines. EPA is
currently reviewing the NSPS for petroleum refineries
and for equipment leaks at chemical plants and
petroleum refineries. The equipment leak standards
were completed in October 2007, and the petroleum
refineries standard was completed in April 2008.
VOC Controls on Smaller Sources: In 1998, EPA
promulgated national rules for automobile repair
coatings, consumer products, and architectural
coatings. The compliance dates for these rules were
January 1999, December 1998, and September 1999,
respectively. From a 1990 baseline, the consumer
products and architectural coatings rules are each
estimated to achieve a 20-percent reduction in VOC
emissions, and the automobile repair coatings rule is
estimated to achieve a 33-percent reduction in VOC
emissions. Currently, EPA is developing amendments
to the consumer products rule and the architectural
coatings rule based on the Ozone Transport
Commission model rules for these categories. Both
amended rules will have a compliance date of January
1, 2009. In addition, EPA had previously scheduled
for regulation 15 other categories of consumer and
commercial products under section 183(e) of the Clean
Air Act. To date, EPA has regulated or issued guidance
on 10 of the 15 categories, including flexible packaging
printing materials; lithographic printing materials;
letterpress printing materials; industrial cleaning
solvents; flatwood paneling coatings; aerosol spray
paints; paper, film, and foil coatings; metal furniture
coatings; large appliance coatings; and portable fuel
containers. Rules for the remaining five categories have
been proposed, and final rules for these are scheduled
for September 30, 2008. To that end, EPA is developing
national rules or guidance on miscellaneous metal
products coatings, plastic parts coatings, auto and light-
duty truck assembly coatings, miscellaneous industrial
adhesives, and fiberglass boat manufacturing materials.
Controls on Hazardous Air Pollutants: EPA has
promulgated regulations to control hazardous air
pollutant emissions for all of the 40 categories of
industrial sources listed in the Ozone Annex. These
regulations will help reduce VOC emissions. Most of
the sources are either already in compliance or are
required to be in compliance with the regulations
by the end of 2008, with the exceptions of paint
stripping and gasoline distribution facilities, which
are not required to be in compliance until January
2011. Most recently, EPA proposed new standards to
control hazardous air pollutants from fuel, passenger
vehicles, and gasoline cans to further reduce benzene
emissions and other mobile source air toxics. By 2030,
the proposed Mobile Source Air Toxic Regulations, in
addition to fuel and vehicle standards already in place,
will reduce toxic emissions from passenger vehicles
to 80 percent below 1999 emissions. The proposed
Mobile Source Air Toxic Regulations would take
effect in 2009 for fuel containers, 2010 for passenger
vehicles, and 2011 for fuel requirements.
Motor Vehicle Control Program: To address motor
vehicle emissions, the United States committed to
implementing regulations for reformulated gasoline;
reducing air toxics from fuels and vehicles; and
implementing controls and prohibitions on gasoline
and diesel fuel quality, emissions from motorcycles,
light-duty vehicles, light-duty trucks, highway heavy-
duty gasoline engines, and highway heavy-duty
diesel engines.
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On the vehicle and engine side, EPA continues to
tighten emission standards for vehicles and engines
sold in the United States. EPA is implementing much
tighter emission standards for highway heavy-duty
engines from 2007 to 2010; and Tier 2 exhaust and
evaporative standards for light-duty cars and trucks
from 2004 to 2009. EPA has also implemented
onboard refueling standards and OBD II requirements
for these vehicles. In 2004, EPA published new
motorcycle emission standards, which take effect in
2006 and 2010.
On the fuel side, EPA fully phased in requirements
for reformulated gasoline in nonattainment areas in
1995 and implemented low-sulfur requirements for
gasoline beginning in 2005 and for on-road diesel fuel
beginning in fall 2006 (30 ppm and 15 ppm sulfur
levels, respectively).
Nonroad Engine Control Program: EPA has applied
engine standards in all five nonroad engine categories
identified in the Ozone Annex: aircraft, compression-
ignition engines, SI engines, locomotives, and marine
engines. Nonroad diesel fuel will align with on-highway
diesel fuel at 15 ppm sulfur by 2010. Locomotive and
marine diesel fuel has been limited to 500 ppm sulfur
since 2007 and will align with on-highway and nonroad
diesel fuel at 15 ppm in 2012.
In addition, EPA has promulgated more stringent
(Tier 4) standards for nonroad compression-ignition
engines and Phase 2 standards for SI engines.
The Tier 4 standards for nonroad diesels will phase
in through 2014, and the Phase 2 standards for
SI engines were fully phased in as of 2007. New
locomotive and marine engine standards (for
engines less than 30 liters/cylinder) were finalized
in March 2008 and will take effect as early as 2008
for remanufactured locomotive and marine engines.
Stringent Tier 3 standards will begin as early as 2009
for newly manufactured engines. Even more stringent
Tier 4 standards requiring catalytic aftertreatment
will phase in for most newly manufactured engines
beginning in 2014.
Anticipated Additional Control Measures and Indicative Reductions
National Reductions
I n addition to measures to
\ regulate emissions from vehicles,
off-road equipment, and fuels, the
federal government developed an
CANADA ecoTRANSPORT Strategy to further
reduce the environmental impacts
of transportation. It includes the following three
programs: 1) the ecoTechnology for Vehicles Program
involves the purchase and testing of advanced
technologies, including hydrogen, advanced electric,
hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles; 2) the ecoMOBILITY
Program seeks to reduce urban-passenger
transportation emissions by encouraging commuters
to choose public transit or other sustainable
transportation options like carpooling; and 3) the
ecoEnergy for Personal Vehicles Program provides
decision-making tools to encourage consumers to
purchase fuel-efficient vehicles and tips for motorists
on driving and maintaining their vehicles to reduce
fuel consumption and emissions that cause air
pollution.
On October 21, 2006, the federal government
published a Notice of intent to develop and
implement regulations and other measures to reduce
air emissions. A key feature of the approach is
addressing greenhouse gases, acid rain, and smog-
forming pollutants in a coordinated manner, because
most of these emissions and pollutants originate from
the combustion of fossil fuels from transportation,
electricity generation, and other industrial sources.
The resulting reductions in air pollutant emissions
and improvements to air quality would occur
across the country, including in regions currently in
attainment of the CWS for ozone and in the PEMA,
where ozone levels still exceed the CWS.
In 2007, the federal government announced
Turning the Corner: An Action Plan to Reduce
Greenhouse Gases and Air Pollution and made
public the Regulatory Framework for Air Emissions.
The Regulatory Framework operationalizes the
government's intention, as conveyed in 2006. More
-------
details are provided in this report in the section, New
Actions on Acid Rain, Ozone, and Particulate Matter
on page 33.
The federal government also has committed to setting
national air quality objectives to complement the
emission regulations and support improving air quality
across Canada. The objectives could be used to trigger
specific actions in areas where they are exceeded.
National air quality objectives will initially be set for PM
and ozone, the main components of smog.
Area-Specific Reductions
Quebec's Regulation respecting environmental
standards for heavy vehicles came into force on
June 1, 2006. The regulation sets VOC and CO
emission standards for gasoline-powered heavy-
duty vehicles and particulate emission standards for
diese I-powered heavy-duty vehicles.
Quantitative Estimates
In the Ozone Annex, parties provided 2010 NOX and
VOC emission reduction estimates associated with
applying the control measures identified under Part
III of the annex. The parties further agreed to update
these reduction forecasts to demonstrate that the
obligations are being implemented and to ensure that
quantitative estimates reflect any emission estimation
methodology improvements. The largest source
of NOX and VOC emissions in the Canadian PEMA
region is transportation. Figure 16 shows that NOX
and VOC emissions from transportation sources in the
PEMA are expected to decrease by 24 percent and
43 percent, respectively, by 2010 from 1990 levels.
Figure 16. Canadian Transportation NOX and VOC PEMA Emissions
and Projections 1990-2020
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0 -
-
Total On- & Off-road VOC
Off-road N0y
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
Source: Environment Canada, 2008
-------
Using national emission data and an improved
methodology for emission projections, the specific
NOX and VOC emission reduction obligations in
the annex are estimated to reduce annual NOX
emissions in the PEMA by 34 percent and annual
VOC emissions in the PEMA by 29 percent by 2010,
from 1990 levels (see Figure 17). Canada is currently
in the process of finalizing its updated emissions
projections based on the 2006 emissions data.
These projections will be available later in 2008. The
information shown in Figure 17 is the same as that
presented in the 2006 progress report.
Figure 17. Canadian NOX and VOC PEMA Emissions and Projections
1,600,000
1,200,000
800,000
400,000
1990 ^ 2010
Note: 2010 reflects all emission categories including those committed in
the specific obligations in Part III of Annex 3 Specific Objectives Concerning
Ground-Level Ozone Precursors.
Source: Environment Canada, 2006
UNITED
STATES
National Reductions
*ln March 2008, EPA published new
standards for locomotive and marine
engines less than 30 liters per cylinder.
These standards will begin to phase
in for remanufactured locomotive and
marine diesels beginning as early
as 2008. Tier 3 standards will begin for newly
built locomotive and marine diesels beginning in
2009. Tier 4 standards, which will require exhaust
aftertreatment, will begin in 2014 for new marine
diesels and 2015 for new locomotives. Tier 4 engines
will have 80 percent lower NOX and 90 percent
lower PM than current engines. By 2030, the new
locomotive and marine emission standards will
reduce annual NOX emissions by about 800,000
tons and PM emissions by 27,000 tons. Further
information about these standards can be found at
and .
EPA began regulating nonroad SI engines in 1997
with its small SI engine rule, which applied to lawn
and garden engines under 25 horsepower (hp)
(19 kilowatts [kw]). Marine outboard engines and
personal watercraft engines were first regulated in
1998 and 1999, respectively. Since then, EPA has
implemented tighter standards covering a wider range
of engines. EPA published regulations for recreational
vehicles and large SI engines in November 2002.
These regulations cover snowmobiles, ATVs, off-
highway motorcycles, and nonroad equipment with
engines larger than 25 hp (19 kw). Phase-in of the
emission reductions began with the 2004 model year,
and full emission reductions will be achieved by the
2012 model year. Further information on these rules
can be found at .
EPA finalized Phase 3 standards for small SI engines
and the first ever standards for marine inboard and
sterndrive engines in September 2008. Further
information can be found at
-------
Area-Specific Reductions
EPA is implementing NOX and VOC control measures
in specific areas, as required by applicable provisions
of the Clean Air Act. The measures include NOX
and VOC reasonably available control technology;
marine vessel loading; treatment storage and disposal
facilities; municipal solid waste landfills; onboard
refueling; residential wood combustion; vehicle
inspection and maintenance; reformulated gasoline;
cement kilns; internal combustion engines; large
non-utility boilers and gas turbines; fossil fuel-fired
utility boilers; and additional measures needed to
attain the NAAQS.
Quantitative N0xand VOC Emission Reductions
In the Ozone Annex, the United States provided NOX
and VOC emission reduction estimates associated
with the application of the control strategies identified
under Part III.B and Part IV of the annex. EPA has
updated these estimates using national data sets that
were completed in late 2007.
The specific emission reduction obligations (see Figure
18) are now estimated to reduce annual NOX emissions
in the PEMA by 53 percent (versus the predicted
overall emission reduction rate of 43 percent) and
annual VOC emissions in the PEMA by 41 percent
(versus the predicted overall emission reduction rate of
36 percent) by 2010, from 1990 levels.
Figure 18. U.S. NOX and VOC PEMA Emissions and Projections
12 —
,10 —
in
£Z
o
^ 8-
o
1990 Base • 2010
VOC
Note: Emissions projections assume implementation of the Clean Air Interstate
Rule(CAIR).
Source: EPA, 2008
Reporting PEMA Emissions
Provide information on all
anthropogenic NOX and all
anthropogenic and biogenic
VOC emissions within the
PEMA from a year that is not
more than two years prior to
the year of the biennial progress
report, including:
JOINT
COMMITMENT
• Annual ozone season (May 1 to September 30)
estimates for VOC and NOX emissions by the sectors
outlined in Part V, Section A, of the Ozone Annex.
• NOX and VOC five-year emission trends for the
sectors listed above, as well as total emissions.
Canada and the United States have complied with
emission reporting requirements in the Ozone Annex.
-------
Canada's NPRI is a comprehensive air pollutant
emissions inventory that contains facility emissions
reported under the NPRI mandatory reporting
program. Facilities are required to report emissions of
ground-level ozone and components of smog, such
as NOX, VOCs, S02, total PM, PM10, PM25, and CO
to Environment Canada. The reported information
by facility is publicly available on the Environment
Canada Web site at .
The compilation of the comprehensive 2006 air
pollutant emissions inventory has been completed,
and the emission data have been included in the
2008 Progress Report. The 2006 emissions inventory,
along with updates to emission trends (1990 to
2006), are available, and new emission projections
(2010 to 2020) will be available in late 2008 on
Environment Canada's Web site at .
The air pollutant emissions inventory has been
revised to include new 2005 and 2006 emission
estimates, as well as updates to the on-road and
nonroad transportation sectors and the solvent
utilization sector. The new estimates for the
nonroad sector include the results of joint Canada-
U.S. work on marine transportation sources such as
ships and tankers.
The 2002 emissions inventory is the current baseline
for joint air quality modeling activities between the two
countries. New emissions inventory modeling files for
2005 are available including updated temporal and
speciation information.
In the United States, EPA developed the National
Emissions Inventory (NED as a comprehensive
inventory covering emissions in all U.S. states for
point sources, nonpoint sources, on-road mobile
sources, nonroad mobile sources, and natural
sources. The NEI includes both criteria pollutants
and hazardous air pollutants. The emissions data in
this 2008 Progress Report include 2006 projections
based on extrapolations of 2005 NEI data and also
represents monitored, source-reported emissions
under the U.S. ARP and NBP through 2007. The
U.S. regulations require that states report emissions
from all sources once every three years; the next
comprehensive U.S. emissions inventory will be for
2008 and will be issued in 2010.
Table 1 shows preliminary Canadian and U.S.
emissions in the PEMA for 2006 for NOX and VOCs.
Figures 19 and 20 show U.S. emission trends in
these areas for 1990 through 2006. The trend in the
PEMA states is similar to the U.S. national trend. For
NOX, most of the emission reductions come from
on-road mobile sources and electric utilities. Over this
same period, the reductions in VOC emissions are
primarily from on-road mobile sources and solvent
utilization. VOC emissions from non-industrial fuel
combustion increased after 1998 and then returned
to a downward trend by 2000, but saw a significant
spike upward in 2001. The general rise in VOC
emissions from 2001 to 2002 is due to emission
changes—including improved characterization—for
non-industrial fuel combustion (e.g., commercial
and institutional sources such as schools, hospitals,
and office buildings), petroleum refining, solvent
utilization, nonroad mobile sources, residential wood
combustion, and wildfires.
-------
Table 1. PEMA Emissions, 2006
2006 Annual
2006 Ozone Season
Emissions Category
Canadian PEMA Region: Annual and Ozone Season Emissions
Industrial
Non-Industrial Fuel
Combustion
Electric Power Generation
On-Road Transportation
Nonroad Transportation
Solvent Utilization
Other Anthropogenic Sources
Forest Fires
Biogenics
TOTALS
TOTALS without Forest Fires
and Biogenics
149
44
52
261
292
0
4
0
-
803
803
135
40
47
238
266
0
4
0
-
730
730
100
96
0
123
189
254
101
0
-
863
863
91
87
0
112
172
231
92
0
-
784
784
59
10
22
118
142
0
2
0
-
353
353
54
9
20
107
129
0
2
0
-
321
321
45
0
0
53
91
109
43
0
-
342
342
41
0
0
48
83
99
39
0
-
311
311
U.S. PEMA States: Annual and Ozone Season Emissions
Industrial Emissions
Non-Industrial Fuel
Combustion
Electric Power Generation
On-Road Transportation
Nonroad Transportation
Solvent Utilizaton
Other Anthropogenic Sources
Forest Fires *
Biogenics *
TOTALS
TOTALS without Forest Fires
and Biogenics
627
384
1,363
2,093
1,286
0
61
0
151
5,965
5,814
569
348
1,236
1,899
1,167
0
55
0
137
5,412
5,275
262
791
17
1,359
1,059
1,735
557
1
4,605
10,386
5,779
238
717
15
1,233
960
1,574
505
1
4,178
9,422
5,243
261
160
568
872
536
0
25
0
0
2,423
2,423
237
145
515
791
486
0
23
0
0
2,198
2,198
109
330
7
566
441
723
232
1
4,017
6,426
2,408
99
299
6
514
400
656
210
1
3,644
5,830
2,185
* Data are for 2002
Note: Tons and tonnes are rounded to the nearest thousand. Totals in final rows might not equal the sum of individual columns due to rounding.
Source: EPA, 2008
-------
Figure 19. U.S. NOX Emission Trends in PEMA States, 1990-2006
1,000
500
o-
1990 1991
I
1992
I
1993
I
1994
I
1995
I I
1996 1997
I I I I
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
T-o
( indicates data are not available)
Industrial Sources ~^^^~ Non-Industrial Fuel Combustion
On-Road Transportation • Nonroad Transportation
Other Anthropogenic Sources —^
Note: The scales in Figures 19-20 and 21-22 are significantly different.
Source: EPA, 2008
Electric Power Generation
Figure 20. U.S.VOC Emission Trends in PEMA States, 1990-2006
4,000-
3,500^.
3,000-
2500-B-- " -
2,000-
1,500-
A------
°~l 1 1 1 1 1 1
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 19
-3,500
-3,000
-2,500
^m^^ -2,000
1 r^»* ^i — *^* — • — • — • — i™
* • • •
i i i i i i i i r°
97 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Industrial Sources
On-Road Transportation
Other Anthropogenic Sources
Note: The scales in Figures 19-20 and 21-22 are significantly different.
Source: EPA, 2008
Non-Industrial Fuel Combustion
Nonroad Transportation
Solvent Utilization
-------
Figures 21 and 22 show Canadian NOX and VOC
PEMA emission trends for 1990 through 2006. For
NOX, most of the reductions come from on-road
mobile sources and electric power generation, with
increases in the non-industrial fuel combustion and
nonroad sectors and other anthropogenic sources.
Similar reductions and increases were observed
for VOC emissions. VOC emission reductions were
primarily from on-road mobile sources, electric power
generation, and industrial sources, with increases in
non-industrial fuel combustion and nonroad sectors.
Figure 21. Canada NOX Emission Trends in the PEMA Region,
1990-2006
600
500
400
300 -
200
100-
-300
-250
I
1993
I
1994
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Industrial Sources
On-Road Transportation
Other Anthropogenic Sources
Note: The scales in Figures 19-20 and 21-22 are significantly different.
Source: Environment Canada, 2008
Non-Industrial Fuel Combustion
Nonroad Transportation
Electric Power Generation
Figure 22. Canada VOC Emission Trends in the PEMA Region,
1990-2006
400-
350-
300-
250-
200-
150-
100-
50-
°~i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i r°
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Industrial Sources
On-Road Transportation
Other Anthropogenic Sources
Note: The scales in Figures 19-20 and 21-22 are significantly different.
Source: Environment Canada, 2008
Non-Industrial Fuel Combustion
Nonroad Transportation
Solvent Utilization
-------
Reporting Air Quality for All Relevant Monitors within 500 km of the
Border between Canada and the United States
JOINT
Both the United States and
Canada have extensive networks
to monitor ground-level ozone and
its precursors. Both governments
prepare routine reports summarizing
measurement levels and trends.
The latest quality-assured complete
data set from both countries is
COMMITMENT for 2006.
Ambient Levels of Ozone in the Border Region
Figure 23 illustrates ozone conditions in the border
region in the metrics of national standards. The
reference period is 2004 through 2006. Only data
from sites within 500 km (310 miles) of the Canada-
U.S. border that met data completeness requirements
were used to develop this map.
Figure 23 shows that higher ozone levels occur in the
Great Lakes and Ohio Valley regions and along the
U.S. East Coast. Lowest values are generally found in
the West and in Atlantic Canada. Levels are generally
higher downwind of urban areas, as can be seen
in the western portions of Lower Michigan, though
the full detail of urban variation is not shown. For
ozone, the data completeness requirement was that
a site's annual fourth highest daily maximum 8-hour
concentration (ppb by volume) be based on 75
percent or more of all possible daily values during the
EPA-designated ozone monitoring seasons.
Figure 23. Ozone Concentrations along the Canada-U.S. Border
(Three-Year Average of the Fourth Highest Daily Maximum
8-Hour Average), 2004-2006
Note: Data contoured are the 2004-2006 averages of annual fourth highest daily values, where the daily value is the highest running
8-hour average for the day. Sites used had at least 75 percent of possible daily values for the period.
Source: Environment Canada National Air Pollution Surveillance (NAPS) Network Database, 2008 (www.etc-cte.ec.gc.ca/naps/
index_e.html); EPA Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) Database (www.epa.gov/air/data/index.html)
-------
Ambient Concentrations of Ozone, NOX,
andVOCs
Annual ozone levels over time are presented in Figure
24, based on information from longer term eastern
monitoring sites within 500 km (310 miles) of the
Canada-U.S. border. Ozone levels have decreased
over the period with a notable decline in ozone
levels since 2002. The lower ozone levels shown for
2004 were due, in part, to the cool, rainy summer
in eastern North America. There is also a complex
Figure 24. Annual Average Fourth
Highest Maximum 8-Hour Ozone
Concentration for Sites
within 500 km of the
Canada-U.S. Border, 1995-2006
regional pattern in ozone level variations, which is not
evident from the graph shown in Figure 24.
Figures 25 and 26 depict the average ozone
season levels of ozone precursors NOX and VOCs
in the eastern United States and Canada. These
measurements represent information from a more
limited network of monitoring sites than is available
for ozone. Figure 27 shows the network of monitoring
sites actually used to create the trend graphs in
Figures 24 through 26.
Figure 25. Average Ozone Season
1-Hour NOX Concentration for Sites
within 500 km of the
Canada-U.S. Border,
1995-2006
100-
°~l I I I I I I I
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Source: EPA and Environment Canada, 2008
I I I I
2003 2004 2005 2006
°-| I I I
1995 1996 1997 1998
I
1999
I I I
2000 2001 2002
Year
Source: EPA and Environment Canada, 2008
Canada
United States
I I I I
2003 2004 2005 2006
-------
Figure 26. Average Ozone Season 24-Hour VOC Concentration
for Sites within 500 km of the Canada-U.S. Border, 1 997-2006
120
60-
40-
20-
1 Canada
o
.a
80
60
o
o
~i i i i i i i i i
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
Source: EPA and Environment Canada, 2008
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0-
United States
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
The data in Figures 25 and 26 represent
measurements for the ozone season (i.e., May
through September). Although NOX and VOC
concentrations have fluctuated over recent years,
because VOC concentrations are influenced by
temperature, these fluctuations are most likely due to
varying meteorological conditions. Overall, the data
indicate a downward trend in the ambient levels of
both NOX and VOCs. The limited correspondence
between composite ozone and precursor trends could
reflect the regional complexity of the problem as well
as network limitations.
Recently in the United States, there has been much
investigation into the relationship between NOX
emission reductions under the NOV SIP Call and
observed concentrations of ambient ozone in the
states participating in the NBP. Generally, a strong
association exists between areas with the greatest
NOX emission reductions and downwind monitoring
sites measuring the greatest improvements in ozone.
This suggests that, as a result of the NBP, transported
NOX emissions have been reduced in the East,
contributing to ozone reductions that have occurred
after implementation of the NBP. More information on
the relationship between NOX emissions and ambient
ozone concentrations in the eastern United States is
available in the NOX Budget Trading Program 2007
Program Compliance and Environmental Results
report available at
-------
Figure 27. Network of Monitoring Sites Used to Create Graphs
of Ambient Ozone, NOY, and VOC Levels
Site Data Used in Graphs
• Ozone
• N°x
* Ozone & NOj
* NOX & VOC
O VOC
Ozone & VOC
Ozone, NO, & VOC
^I^
Source: EPA and Environment Canada, 2008
New Actions on Acid Rain, Ozone, and Particulate Matter
^^ The federal government's clean air
j^^^^f I initiative, Turning the Corner: An
^f Action Plan to Reduce Greenhouse
| Gases and Air Pollution, includes a
CANADA regulatory framework for air emissions
that sets out proposed mandatory and
enforceable reductions in emissions of air pollutants
and greenhouse gases from industrial sectors,
and sets out regulatory and other actions plans
for transportation and consumer and commercial
products. In addition to delivering measurable overall
health and environmental benefits, the expected
reductions in S02 and NOX emissions from industry
and transportation will lead to reductions in acid
deposition and improvements in visibility.
The industrial component of the regulatory framework
included fixed emissions caps for PM, NOX, S02, and
VOCs from key industrial sectors, including: base
metals smelting; electricity generation; oil and gas;
pulp and paper; petroleum refining; iron and steel;
iron ore pelletizing; and cement, lime, and chemicals.
The proposed targets reflect leading international
benchmarks, adjusted for Canadian circumstances
where required, and would enter into force in
2012-2015. The validation of the proposed targets
with industry, provinces and territories, and other
stakeholders, including the exact time of entry into
force, is currently ongoing.
-------
The government has also committed to setting
national air quality objectives to complement the
emission regulations and support improving air quality
across Canada. The proposed framework would be
reviewed every five years to assess the effectiveness
of measures taken to reduce air pollutant emissions
relative to the goal of achieving tangible benefits for
the health of Canadians and their environment.
For more information on the Regulatory
Framework, see http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.
asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-l&news=4F2292E9-
3EFF-48D3-A7E4-CEFA05D70C21.
In June 2008, the province of British Columbia
released the BC Air Action Plan, which directly targets
emission sources that contribute to the formation of
ground-level ozone and fine particulate matter in three
areas: transportation, industry, and communities.
Highlights of the 28 actions in the plan include:
promoting a provincewide anti-idling campaign,
retrofitting older heavy-duty diesel vehicles, supporting
greener ports and marine vessels, eliminating
beehive burners, encouraging companies to use
cleanest available pollution-control technologies,
replacing wood stoves with cleaner alternatives, and
implementing a provincial smoke management plan to
improve burning practices. Some of the actions have
already been initiated, and all are expected to be in
place by 2009.
UNITED
STATES
Ozone Standards and Implementation
*Due to recent research on health effects
from ozone, on March 12, 2008, EPA
promulgated a new tighter primary and
secondary NAAQS for ozone of 0.075
ppm, with an 8-hour average. The Clean
Air Act requires EPA to designate areas
as attainment (meeting the standards), nonattainment
(not meeting the standards), or unclassifiable
(insufficient data to classify) after the Agency sets a
new standard or revises an existing standard.
For more information on the revised ozone standards
please visit .
In April 2005, EPA designated 39 U.S. areas as
nonattainment for the 1997 PM25 standards. Thirty-
six of these areas are in the eastern United States
(including Chicago, Detroit, and Cleveland, located
on the Great Lakes); two are located in California;
and one area is located in the northwestern United
States. States had until April 2008 to submit SIPs
(which include strategies and regulations for reducing
emissions of PM25 and its precursors) to EPA.
Attainment of the standards is to be as expeditious
as practicable, with a presumptive attainment date
within five years of designation (April 2010). At the
time it approves a state plan, however, EPA can
grant an attainment date extension of one to five
years if a state provides a demonstration showing
that attainment within five years is not practicable
based on the severity of the air quality problem or
the feasibility of emission controls. The March 2007
Clean Air Fine Particle Implementation Rule provides
-------
guidance to the states for developing their plans and
can be found at .
Following the revision of the 24-hour PM25 standard
in October 2006, EPA began efforts to designate
additional areas as nonattainment for the PM25
standards. The states submitted recommended
"nonattainment" boundaries to EPA in December
2007. Nonattainment area boundaries are established
based on several factors, such as emissions and
air quality data, population density, traffic patterns,
and growth rates. For additional information on the
procedures for establishing these boundaries, please
visit . On August 19, 2008,
EPA sent letters responding to recommendations from
the governor of each state explaining EPA's intended
area designations for the revised 24-hour PM25
standard. EPA plans to finalize the area designations
in December 2008, after considering any additional
information provided by the states. States with newly
designated nonattainment areas will then have three
years to develop plans designed to achieve clean air
in compliance with the 2006 standards.
A number of programs have been established to
reduce emissions of fine particles and precursor
pollutants from important sources such as on-road
and nonroad vehicle engines and power plants.
The Clean Air Nonroad Diesel Rule, finalized in May
2004, is an important federal regulation that will lead
to future reductions in particle pollution. Under the
Clean Air Nonroad Diesel Rule, Tier 4 standards for
new nonroad diesel engines will be phased in from
2008 to 2014, leading to significant public health
benefits as older nonroad engines are replaced. The
sulfur content in nonroad diesel fuel will be reduced
by 99 percent to 15 ppm by 2010.
In 2007, EPA initiated the next review of the current
PM NAAQS, which will be completed in 2011. More
information, including supporting documents, can be
found at .
Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR)
Building on the ARP and NBP, CAIR was issued
on March 10, 2005. When fully implemented,
CAIR would reduce S02 emissions across 28
eastern states and the District of Columbia by
more than 70 percent and NOX emissions by
more than 60 percent from 2003 levels. CAIR
would deliver steep and sustained reductions in
air pollution, as well as dramatic health benefits at
more than 25 times greater than the cost by 2015.
CAIR is made up of three separate federal cap
and trade programs to achieve the required
emission reductions: an annual NOX program, an
ozone season NOX program, and an annual S02
program. Each of the programs uses a two-phased
approach, with declining emission caps based on
highly cost-effective controls on power plants. The
first phase was scheduled to begin in 2009 for the
NOX annual and NOX ozone season programs, and
in 2010 for the S02 annual program. The second
phase for all three programs was slated for 2015.
States affected under the NOX programs began
monitoring in 2008. In 2009, NBP states affected
under CAIR would transition to the CAIR ozone
season NOX program. For more information please
visit .
CAIR was challenged in federal court in 2005,
and a decision was issued on July 11, 2008,
vacating the rule in its entirety. Because of the
importance of the case and the complexity of
the issues that the decision raises, the U.S.
government sought and obtained an extension
until September 24 to decide whether to appeal.
As of the date of publication of this report, in
addition to considering appeal options, the U.S.
government is continuing to evaluate alternative
ways to achieve the emission reductions and
health benefits that CAIR would have provided.
-------
SECTION 2:
New England Governors and
Eastern Canadian Premiers
The Conference of New England Governors
and Eastern Canadian Premiers (NEG/ECP)
is a unique international relationship of six New
England state governors (from Connecticut,
Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode
Island, and Vermont) and five eastern Canadian
premiers (from New Brunswick, Newfoundland and
Labrador, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and
Quebec). The conference was created in 1973 and
addresses many topics, including the environment,
economic development, tourism, energy, fisheries,
trade, and agriculture.
At the June 2007 meeting of the NEG/ECP,
governors and premiers established a standing
committee to draft a regional Transportation and Air
Quality Action Plan and to begin implementing the
following action items:
• Support development of environmentally friendly
biofuels by assessing new technologies and
local feedstocks.
• Promote fuel efficiency in all modes of transportation.
• Expand alternative transportation and
commuter services.
• Align infrastructure funding with energy and
climate goals.
• Seek new opportunities to enhance regional
interconnectivity and efficiency of regional
freight networks.
• Seek to adopt C02 and air quality standards, such
as the California standards, for cars throughout
the region.
The NEG/ECP developed its Acid Rain Action Plan
in 1998, and activities under this plan have been
carried out by the Acid Rain and Air Quality Steering
Committee. Recent highlights of this work and other
work of the NEG/ECP can be found at
.
-------
PM Annex Negotiations
Both Canada and the United States have
committed to reducing cross-border air
pollution and recognize the significant human
health and ecosystem effects (including acid rain
and regional haze) associated with PM25 and
its precursors. Both countries are committed to
negotiating the addition of a Particulate Matter
(PM) Annex to the United States-Canada Air
Quality Agreement while actively developing and
implementing emission reduction programs to
reduce fine particle concentrations.
The United States and Canada have held two
negotiating sessions on a PM Annex under the
United States-Canada Air Quality Agreement:
one in November 2007 and one in May 2008.
Substantial progress was made during the
most recent session, particularly with respect to
several elements of the annex such as the:
• Purpose Statement.
• Pollutants of Concern—the annex will address
primary PM25 and two secondary precursors,
S02 and NOX.
• Definitions of the PEMAs for both countries—
Canada indicated that its PEMA would consist
of Canada as a whole, while the U.S. PEMA
would include 28 states across the northern
part of the country.
Intersessional work is continuing in preparation
for the next negotiating session. This includes:
• Finalizing the Purpose Statement.
• Developing annex language on mobile
source commitments with emphasis on
temporal alignment.
• Assessing ambient monitoring networks for PM
and visibility in both countries.
• Sharing information about emissions
monitoring and reporting requirements for
stationary sources, including measurement of
condensable PM25 emissions.
• Collaborating on visibility issues (e.g., U.S.
participation in the July 2008 Environment
Canada visibility monitoring workshop in
British Columbia; Canadian participation
in a planned U.S. workshop on urban
visibility issues).
Discussions continued as part of the November
2008 United States-Canada Air Quality
Committee meeting.
• Mobile source commitments that could be
included as part of the emission reduction
commitments, in recognition of the fact
that transportation is a major contributor to
particulate matter.
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SECTION 3:
Scientific and Tech
Cooperation and Research
Emission Inventories and Trends
JOINT
EFFORTS
•f The United States and Canada have
B- I updated and improved their emission
inventories and projections on PM10,
PM2 5, VOCs, NOX, and S02 to reflect
*the latest information available. The
inventories and projections are available
at , see CAP 2002-Based
Platform, Version 3).
Both countries were active participants in the
NARSTO (formally known as North American
Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone) emission
inventory assessment, which was completed in
summer 2005. The final report is titled, Improving
Emission Inventories for Effective Air Quality
Management Across North America. This report
includes recommendations for the long-term
improvement of the emission inventory programs
in both Canada and the United States, as well as in
Mexico, the third participant in NARSTO.
Emission data for both countries for 2006 are
presented in Figures 28, 29, 30, and 31. Figure
28 shows the distribution of emissions by source
category grouping for S02, NOX, and VOCs. The
following observations can be made from this figure:
• S02 emissions in the United States stem primarily
from coal-fired combustion in the electric power
sector. Canadian S02 emissions come mostly from
smelters in the industrial sector, with lower emissions
from the electric power sector, due to the large
hydroelectric and nuclear capacity in Canada. The
distribution of NOX emissions in the two countries
is similar, with nonroad and on-road vehicles
accounting for the greatest portion of NOX emissions.
• VOC emissions are the most diverse of the emission
profiles in each country. The most significant
difference is that most VOCs (35 percent) in
Canada come from the industrial sector. This is the
result of the proportionately higher contribution of
oil and gas production in Canada. In the United
States, solvents contribute the highest percentage
(26 percent) of VOCs.
-------
Figure 28. U.S. and Canadian National Emissions by Sector
for Selected Pollutants, 2006
U.S. S02 Emissions—2006
Total: 13.3 million tons/year
(12.0 million tonnes/year)
Electric
Generation
71%
Industrial
20%
Non-Industrial
4%
Canadian S02 Emissions—2006
Total: 2.0 million tons/year
(2.2 million tonnes/year)
On-Road
Electric <1%
Generating
Units
23%
Non-lndustrial-
2%
Nonroad
5%
Solvents
Industrial
70%
U.S. NOX Emissions—2006
Total: 17.4 million tons/year
(15.8 million tonnes/year)
Nonroad
24%
Solvents
<1%
Other
2% ^Industrial
16%
On-Roa
34%
Non-Industrial
4%
'Electric
Generation
20%
Canadian NOX Emissions—2006
Total: 2.4 million tons/year
(2.6 million tonnes/year) Solvents
Nonroad
32%
On-Road
22%
Industrial
33%
Non-Industrial
3%
Electric Generating
Units
U.S. VOC Emissions—2006
Total: 16.7 million tons/year
(15.2 million tonnes/year)
Industrial
8%
/-Non-Industrial
/ 9%
Electric
Generation
Solvents'
26%
•On-Road
23%
Nonroad
16%
Canadian VOC Emissions—2006
Total: 2.7 million tons/year
(2.9 million tonnes/year)
Solvents
16%
Nonroad
14%
Industrial
35%
Non-Industrial
7%
On-Road
12%
Electric
Generating
Units
Source: EPA and Environment Canada, 2008
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Figure 29. National SO2 Emissions Figure 30. National NOX Emissions
in the United States and Canada in the United States and Canada
from All Sources, 1990-2006 from All Sources, 1990-2006
10-
United States -25
1 Canada
10-
•10
•4
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i r
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
Source: EPA and Environment Canada, 2008
0
5-
•*•
J~i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i r1
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
Source: EPA and Environment Canada, 2008
The emission trends reflected in Figures 29, 30,
and 31 for S02, NOX, and VOCs, respectively, show
emissions from 1990 through 2006. In the United
States, the major reductions in S02 emissions came
from electric power generation sources. For NOX,
the reductions came from on-road mobile sources
and electric power generation sources. For VOCs,
the reductions were from on-road mobile sources,
waste disposal and recycling, and chemical and allied
products manufacturing and use.
Both countries have seen major reductions in
S02 emissions. In Canada, the reductions in S02
emissions came from base metal smelters in the
industrial sector. For NOX, the reductions were from
on-road mobile sources, electric power generation
sources, and industrial sources. For VOCs, the
reductions came from electric power generation
sources, on-road mobile sources, and solvent
utilization.
Figure 31. National VOC Emissions in the United
States and Canada from All Sources, 1990-2006
30-
5-
4-
•*•
0
-10
-5
~i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i r°
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
Source: EPA and Environment Canada, 2008
-------
Air Quality Mapping, Monitoring,
and Reporting
JOINT
EFFORTS
Each country is responsible for
ensuring instrument calibration and
comparability of measurements of ozone
and PM. Since 2001, the jurisdictions
in the United States and Canada have
collaborated to contribute to the EPA-
led AIRNow program (www.airnow.gov).
In 2004, the Web site was expanded to
provide information on PM and ozone
measurements on a continental scale
year-round. Figure 32 is an example
of the Air Quality Index (AQI) based on
ozone concentration data available for portions of the
United States and Canada on the AIRNow Web site.
Canadian and U.S. efforts continue to improve air
quality characterization by combining measurements
with numerical forecasts from the operational air
quality forecasting model. Each country is improving
air quality forecasting services. In addition, the
two countries are continuing to develop national
air quality forecast models. Jurisdictions consult in
preparing routine forecasts for border regions and in
developing communication materials for the public.
Figure 32. AIRNow Map Illustrating the AQI
for 8-Hour Ozone
Note: This map is an illustration of the highest ozone concentrations reached throughout the
region on a given day. It does not represent a snapshot at a particular time of the day, but
is more like the daily high temperature portion of a weather forecast. The AQI shown in the
legend is based on 8-hour average ozone. More information on the AQI is available at
www.airnow.gov.
Source: EPA, 2008
.^^f. Environment Canada continues to
•• expand and refurbish federal and
provincial/territorial networks of
monitoring stations across the country.
CANADA Qanac|a maintains two national ambient
air quality monitoring networks—the NAPS Network
and the CAPMoN. Information about these networks
can be found at and
-------
Between 2002 and 2007, $10.9 million was invested
in new and replacement monitoring equipment.
There also were significant investments in the
associated laboratories. There are currently 231
ozone monitors and 242 continuous PM25 monitors
reporting to NAPS. In addition, there are 41 filter-
based samplers reporting PM25 on a one-in-three-day
basis. Environment Canada has developed a chemical
speciation network to characterize PM25. Seventeen
sites are now operating across Canada.
CAPMoN currently operates 18 ozone monitors,
eight of which are within 500 km (310 miles) of
the Canada-U.S. border, to characterize regionally
representative air quality. Integrated PM25and PM10
mass measurements, as well as PM speciation
measurements on a one-in-three-day schedule, were
initiated at five monitoring sites between 2004 and
2005. VOCs are also being measured at the same
five CAPMoN sites. Reactive nitrogen compounds,
including nitric oxide (NO), total oxidized nitrogen
(NO ), and N02, are being measured at three
sites—the Centre for Atmospheric Research, Egbert,
Ontario; Kejimkujik, Nova Scotia; and Saturna Island,
British Columbia.
The ozone monitors at the 18 CAPMoN sites also
continue to gather data in real time, in support of the
Air Quality Prediction Program, and for distribution to
the EPA-led AIRNow program.
UNITED
STATES
Existing Networks
*The majority of air quality monitoring
performed in the United States is carried
out by state, local, and tribal agencies
in four major categories of monitoring
stations: State and Local Air Monitoring
Stations (SLAMS), Photochemical
Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS), PM25
Chemical Speciation Network (CSN), and air
toxics monitoring stations. In addition, ambient air
monitoring is performed by the federal government
(EPA, NPS, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the
U.S. Department of Agriculture), tribes, and industry.
Air quality monitoring in the United States supports
several air quality management objectives:
• NAAQS attainment/nonattainment
determination (SLAMS).
• Human exposure assessment for health
research studies.
• Public air quality reporting and forecasting
(AQI/AIRNow).
• Accountability of control strategies (ARP, NOX SIP
Call, and NBP).
• Model evaluation.
• Determination of source receptor relationships.
• Characterization of regional air masses, transport.
• Ecological exposure assessments (acidity;
nutrients; ozone; mercury; and other persistent,
bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals).
• Assessments for toxic air pollutants: trends,
hotspots, human health exposure, research.
A summary of monitoring networks is provided in
Table 2.
-------
Table 2. U.S. Air Quality Monitoring Networks
MAJOR ROUTINE OPERATING AIR MONITORING NETWORKS: State /Local /Tribal/ Federal Networks
Network1
Sites Initiated Measurement Parameters
Source of Information and/or Data
Urban/Human-Health Monitoring
NCore2 — National Core
Monitoring Network
SLAMS— State
and Local Ambient
Monitoring Stations
CSN— PM25 Chemical
Speciation Network
PAMS— Photochemical
Assessment Monitoring
Network
75
planned
-3000
300
75
2008
1978
1999
1994
03, N0/N02/N0y, S02, CO, PM25/PM10253, PM25
speciation, NH3, HN03, Surface Meteorology"
03, NOX/N02,S02, PM25/PM10, CO, Pb
PM25, PM25 speciation, Major Ions, Metals
03, N0x/N0y, CO, Speciated VOCs, Carbonyls,
Surface Meteorology4, Upper Air
www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/monstratdoc.
html
www.epa.gov/ttn/airs/airsaqs/aqsweb/
aqswebhome.htm
www.epa.gov/ttn/airs/airsaqs/aqsweb/
aqswebhome.htm
www.epa.gov/ttn/airs/airsaqs/aqsweb/
aqswebhome.htm
Rural/Regional Monitoring
IMPROVE— Interagency
Monitoring of Protected
Visual Environments
CASTNET— Clean Air
Status and Trends
Network
GPMP— Gaseous
Pollutant Monitoring
Program
NADP/NTN— National
Atmospheric
Deposition Program/
National Trends
Network
NADP/MDN Mercury
Deposition Network
IADN— Integrated
Atmospheric
Deposition Network
110
plus 67
protocol
sites
80+
33
250+
100+
20
1988
1987
1987
1978
1996
1990
PM25/PM10, Major Ions, Metals, Light Extinction,
Scattering Coefficient
03, weekly concentrations of S02, HN03, SO/ , N03 ,
Cl , NH4+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+for Dry and Total
Deposition, Surface Meteorology"
03, NOX/NO/N02, S02, CO, Surface Meteorology4,
enhanced monitoring of CO, NO, NOX, N0y, and S02 ,
canister samples for VOC at three sites
Precipitation Chemistry and Wet Deposition for
Major Ions (S042 , N03 , NH4+,Ca2+,Mg2+,Na+,K+,
H+aspH)
Mercury measured in precipitation and Wet
Deposition
PAHs, PCBs, and organochlorine compounds are
measured in air and precipitation
http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/
IMPROVE/
www.epa.gov/castnet/
www.nature.nps.gov/air/Monitoring/
network.cfmttdata
http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/
http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/mdn/
www.epa.gov/glnpo/monitoring/air/
Air Toxics Monitoring
NATTS— National Air
Toxics Trends Stations
State/Local Air Toxics
Monitoring
NDAMN— National
Dioxin Air Monitoring
Network
23
250+
34
2005
1987
1998 - 2005
VOCs, Carbonyls, PM10 metals5, Hg
VOCs, Carbonyls, PM10 metals5, Hg
CDDs, CDFs, dioxin-like PCBs
www.epa.gov/ttn/airs/airsaqs/aqsweb/
aqswebhome.htm
www.epa.gov/ttn/airs/airsaqs/aqsweb/
aqswebhome.htm
http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/
recordisplay.cfm?deid=22423
Notes:
1. Some networks listed separately may also serve as subcomponents of other larger listed networks; as a result, some double counting of the number of individual
monitors is likely. This list of networks is not meant to be totally inclusive of all routine monitoring in the United States.
2. NCore is a network proposed to replace NAMS, as a component of SLAMS; NAMS are currently designated as national trends sites.
3. PM1025—proposed new NAAQS.
4. Surface Meteorology includes wind direction and speed, temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and solar radiation.
5. PM metals may include arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, nickel, and others.
-------
Recent Developments
EPA has developed a National Ambient Air Monitoring
Strategy for state, local, and tribal agencies and
introduced a new multipollutant monitoring network
referred to as NCore. Monitors at NCore sites will
measure particles (PM25, speciated PM25, PM1025,
speciated PM1025), ozone, S02, CO, NOX (N0/N02/
N0y), and basic meteorology. It is anticipated that
ammonia and nitric acid measurements will also be
made after further methods development. Sites will
be placed in broadly representative urban (about 55
sites) and rural (about 20 sites) locations throughout
the country. EPA will collaborate on site selection with
individual state and local agencies and multistate
organizations. Where possible, states will locate urban
NCore sites next to existing monitoring operations,
including PAMS or National Air Toxic Trends Stations
(NATTS) sites, to leverage existing resources.
Similarly, EPA will coordinate with states and other
existing monitoring network programs (i.e., IMPROVE,
CASTNET) to establish rural-based NCore sites.
The objective of this network is to gather additional
information needed to support emissions and air
quality model development, air quality program
accountability, and future health studies. On October
17, 2006, EPA finalized revisions to the ambient air
monitoring regulations that included requirements to
reflect the NCore network, which is scheduled to be
fully operational by January 1, 2011. Information on
the NCore network is available at ).
-------
Health Effects
Between 2003 and 2007, Health Canada carried
out two research programs to characterize air
pollution exposure and human health issues under the
Canadian portion of the Border Air Quality Strategy,
coordinated with research in the United States.
Health Canada also continues to develop an air health
indicator (AHI) for tracking the changes in health
outcomes over time due to changing air quality. The
Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) has completed its
development phase and is being implemented across
the country as a new index that presents the public
with information on health risk in real time and as an
air quality forecast.
Research in the Great Lakes Basin
Airshed
The results of health-related research activities
in the Great Lakes basin region included the
following:
• Windsor Children's Respiratory Health Study:
This three-phase study, conducted during 2004
and 2005, evaluated lung function in children
exposed to a relatively high level of air pollution.
Results indicate that neighborhood roadways,
the majority of which are smaller local roads,
might adversely influence respiratory symptoms
and airway inflammation. Among children with a
history of asthma, elevated pollutants in ambient
air might contribute to decreased lung function and
increased airway oxidative stress.
• Windsor Exposure Assessment Study: For this project,
researchers performed a spatial assessment of
air pollution in the Windsor region and monitored
personal exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollution
by healthy and non-smoking adults and asthmatic
school children. The spatial analysis portion of the
study was completed in 2006, and the results show
that the spatial variability of air pollution in Windsor
is dependant primarily on the local sources that
emit the specific pollutants (e.g., N02 variation is
primarily the result of local traffic emission sources).2
The personal exposure portion of the study was
completed in 2007, and the results suggest that
when increased air pollution occurs due to a smog
episode, personal exposure and indoor air pollution
levels also increase. Personal exposures to VOCs,
such as benzene, are more likely to be a result of
indoor sources than outdoor air pollution.
• Long-term Exposure to Air Pollutants and Mortality
and Morbidity Rates, Including Cancer: This study
compared mortality and morbidity rates for Windsor,
Sarnia, and London since the late 1970s with
the overall rates in Ontario province. Because of
the availability of long-term air monitoring data
in Windsor, the analysis on associations with air
pollution focused on data from Windsor, Ontario.
Results show that among adults in the Windsor
area, mortality rates of circulatory diseases
(including coronary heart disease), respiratory
diseases (including bronchitis and emphysema),
and lung cancer were statistically significantly
higher in both men and women compared to
Ontario average rates. Mortality rates for circulatory
diseases, including coronary heart disease, and for
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma
in adults were statistically significantly higher in the
high-S02 study area compared to the Iow-S02 study
area. Among women, mortality rates for lung cancer
were significantly higher in the high S02 study area
than in the low S02 area. Total suspended particles
were significantly associated with mortality rates,
mainly for cardiovascular diseases. These results
were presented at a public forum in Windsor,
Ontario, in 2007. A more refined study is underway
to adjust for the confounding effects of cigarette
smoking and occupational exposure.
Wheeler et al, 2008. Environmental Research, 106 (1): 7-16.
-------
Research in the Georgia Basin-
Puget Sound International Airshed
The University of British Columbia, the University
of Victoria, and the University of Washington
conducted health research in the Georgia Basin-
Puget Sound International Airshed, coordinated
through a partnership between Health Canada and
the British Columbia Centre for Disease Control. The
research included the following studies:
• Establishing a Childhood Disease Cohort: A birth
cohort of 120,000 children born in the Georgia
Basin airshed was established to evaluate the
relationship between air pollution exposure and
respiratory disorders. Analyses show that lifetime
exposure to PM10 and N02 was significantly
associated with an increased risk of bronchiolitis
hospitalization; traffic as a source of air pollution
appears to play an important role in elevated
bronchiolitis hospitalization. The study found
that male gender, aboriginal ethnicity, maternal
smoking during pregnancy, and the existence
of older siblings were significant risk factors for
inflammation of the middle ear.
• Birth Outcomes in the Greater Vancouver Regional
District: The British Columbia Perinatal Database
Registry and the British Columbia Linked Health
Database were used to relate maternal air pollution
exposure during pregnancy and adverse birth
outcomes. Results show that CO, NO, N02, PM25
and black carbon in ambient air, as well as distance
to highway traffic, contributed to inter-uterus growth
retardation and pre-term birth.3
• Personal Exposures and Activity Patterns of Pregnant
Women and Infants: Data were collected on
personal exposure, activity information, and traffic
exposure for 62 pregnant women as a function of
stage of pregnancy and season. Results showed
that the pregnant women spent most of their time
at or near home. Activities of women in the study
support the use of home exposures as a proxy
for their personal exposure. Modeled exposure
generally underestimates personal exposure and
variability, and therefore, land-use regression
models are unlikely to overestimate exposure in
cohort studies. Gas stove presence in the home
was significant in explaining the relationship
between personal and predicted exposures for NO
and N02. Including work location information in
the exposure assessment could improve estimates,
because results suggest that primary air pollutant
exposures occur both at home and at work.4
• Walkability Study: This geographic information
system study integrated land use and transportation
network information to link walkability and
emissions exposure for eventual application to
Vancouver and Seattle. This study provided a better
understanding of the interface between air pollution
exposure and the physical activity outcomes in
relation to community design to more effectively
implement healthy urban environments.
• Particulate Matter Exposure and Infant Health in
Puget Sound: This study involved monitoring a
birth cohort for traffic and wood smoke pollution
using individualized geospatial exposure estimates
to relate birth outcomes and air pollution.
Results suggest that there is an increased risk
of bronchiolitis hospitalization with increasing
exposure to PM25. Effect estimates were somewhat
higher for longer term exposure windows than for
acute exposure. Traffic as a source of air pollution
appears to play an important role in elevated
bronchiolitis hospitalization.
Canadian Air Quality Health Index
The AQHI, developed by Health Canada and
Environment Canada, in collaboration with
the provinces and key health and environment
stakeholders, is a new public information tool that
helps Canadians protect their health from the
negative effects of air pollution on a daily basis. The
AQHI is intended to replace AQIs currently in use for
public reporting of air quality.
The new AQHI, which is based on epidemiological
studies that relate air pollution to acute health
outcomes, employs a linear, no-threshold
Brauer et al., 2008. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110: 680-686.
Nethery et al, 2007. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. Published online December 2007 as article doi:10.1136/oem.2007.035337 at
http://www.oem.bmj.com.
-------
concentration-response relationship of short-term
health risks of the smog mixture, using three pollutants
(N02, ground-level ozone, and PM25) as a surrogate
for the complex mixture of air pollutants in the typical
urban atmosphere. The index is expressed on a 1 to
10+ scale, where higher values represent a greater
health risk.
Separate health advisories for general and "at risk"
populations have been developed for these different
health risk categories. Environment Canada will make
current (hourly) and forecasted (today and tomorrow)
AQHI values and their associated health advisories
publicly available on its Weatheroffice Web site at
and in regular weather
reports on television and radio broadcasts. This
information will allow people to make informed choices
to protect themselves and those in their care from
short-term health impacts of exposure to air pollution.
To date, the AQHI has been successfully piloted
in communities in British Columbia (2005, 2006)
and Nova Scotia (2006), and in the city of Toronto
(2007 to present). The AQHI is now available in 14
communities in British Columbia and in the Greater
Toronto Area and Saint John, New Brunswick.
Additional communities across the country will
gain access to the AQHI over the next three years.
Additional information on the AQHI is available at
.
Canadian Air Health Indicator
The AHI, proposed in May 2005, is defined as
the percentage of the number of daily deaths
attributable to exposure to the pollutant of interest.
The AHI is proportional to the level of risk, estimated
using an appropriate statistical model, and the level
of the pollutant of interest. The AHI can be used to
evaluate spatial and temporal trends of air pollution
and the related health risk in Canada starting in
1981 and also can provide a measure of progress
in air quality management over time. More analyses
are being conducted to refine the methodology. The
AHI is included in the 2008 Canadian Environmental
Sustainability Indicators Annual Report and is
comprised of the spatial-temporal risk of ozone-
related mortality from 1990 to 2005 in several
Canadian cities.
U.S. Report on Health Effects
of Ozone and PM
The health and welfare effects of ozone are
documented and critically assessed in the EPA
Ozone Criteria Document and EPA Ozone Staff Paper,
finalized and released to the public in February 2006
and July 2007, respectively. These documents can be
found at and .
The purpose of the revised EPA Ozone Criteria
Document, titled Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and
Other Photochemical Oxidants, was to critically
evaluate and assess the latest scientific information
published since the last review of the ozone criteria
document in 1996. The 2006 review focused on
useful new information that emerged in the last
decade, and is pertinent in evaluating health and
environmental effects data associated with ambient air
ozone exposures. The EPA Ozone Staff Paper is based
on key findings and conclusions from this document,
together with other analyses, and presents options
for the EPA Administrator's consideration regarding
review, and possible revision, of the ozone NAAQS.
The new research published in the staff paper
suggested additional health effects beyond those that
had been known when the 8-hour ozone standard
was set in 1997. Since 1997, more than 1,700 new
health and welfare studies related to ozone have
been published in peer-reviewed journals. Many of
these studies have investigated the impact of ozone
exposure on health effects such as changes in lung
structure and biochemistry,
-------
lung inflammation, asthma exacerbation and
causation, respiratory illness-related school absence,
hospital and emergency room visits for asthma and
other respiratory disorders, and premature mortality.
Aggravation of existing asthma resulting from short-
term ambient ozone exposure was reported prior
to setting the 1997 ozone standard and has been
observed in studies published subsequently. In
addition, a relationship between long-term ambient
ozone concentrations and the incidence of recent-
onset asthma in adult males (but not females)
was reported. An additional study suggested that
incidence of new diagnoses of asthma in children is
associated with heavy exercise in southern California
communities with high ozone concentrations. A
study in Toronto reported a significant relationship
between 1-hour maximum ozone concentrations and
respiratory hospital admissions in children under the
age of two. Given the relative vulnerability of children
in this age category, there is particular concern about
these findings. Increased rates of illness-related
school absenteeism have been associated with
1-hour daily maximum and 8-hour average ozone
concentrations in studies conducted in Nevada.
These studies suggest that higher ambient ozone
levels might result in increased school absenteeism.
The air pollutant most clearly associated with
premature mortality is PM. Repeated ozone
exposure, however, is a possible contributing factor
for premature mortality, causing an inflammatory
response in the lungs that could predispose elderly
and other sensitive individuals to become more
susceptible to other stressors, such as PM. The
findings of other recent analyses provide evidence that
ozone exposure is associated with increased mortality.
Most recently, new analyses of the 95 cities in the
National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study
data sets showed associations between daily mortality
and the previous week's ozone concentrations, which
were robust against adjustment for PM, weather,
seasonality, and long-term trends. Other recent
epidemiological studies have reported associations
between acute ozone exposure and mortality, as
summarized in the Ozone Criteria Document.
Exposure to PM has been associated with premature
mortality as well as indices of morbidity, including
respiratory hospital admissions and emergency
department visits, school absences, lost work days,
restricted activity days, effects on lung function and
symptoms, morphological changes, and altered host
defense mechanisms. Recent epidemiologic studies
have continued to report associations between short-
term exposures to fine particles and effects such as
premature mortality, hospital admissions or emergency
department visits for cardiopulmonary diseases,
increased respiratory symptoms, decreased lung
function, and physiological changes or biomarkers
for cardiac changes. Long-term exposure to fine
particles has also been associated with mortality
from cardiopulmonary diseases and lung cancer and
effects on the respiratory system, such as decreased
lung function and chronic respiratory disease.
There are several sensitive or vulnerable subpopula-
tions that appear to be at greater risk to PM-related
effects. These include individuals with preexisting
heart and lung disease, older adults, and children.
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Review of U.S. Ozone and Particu-
late Matter Air Quality Standards
Based on the results of recent research on the
health effects from ground-level ozone, on March
12, 2008, EPA promulgated tighter primary and
secondary NAAQS for ozone of 0.075 ppm, with an
8-hour average (see "New Actions on Acid Rain,
Ozone, and Particulate Matter" on page 33). For more
information on the revised ozone standards please
visit .
In 2007, EPA initiated the next review of the current
PM NAAQS, which will be completed in 2011. More
information, including supporting documents, can be
found at . The Clean Air Research multiyear plan has two
long-term goals (LTGs):
LTG 1—Reduce uncertainty in standard setting and
air quality management decisions.
LTG 2—Reduce uncertainties in linking health and
environmental effects to air pollution sources.
These two LTGs reflect a balanced research program
that directly supports developing and implementing
NAAQS and other air quality regulations (LTG 1),
while also conducting multidisciplinary research to
strengthen the understanding of the relationships
among sources of air pollution, ambient air
concentrations, human and ecological exposures,
and health outcomes (LTG 2). Within LTG 2, there
is particular emphasis on three research themes
that represent a strategic change in EPA's Clean Air
Research Program. These three themes are:
1) Launching a multipollutant research program.
2) Identifying specific source-to-health outcome
linkages, with initial emphasis on "near roadway"
impacts.
3) Assessing the human health and environmental
improvements due to past regulatory actions.
In recent years, human health and air pollution
exposure research at EPA has focused primarily on
PM. While PM will continue to be a significant focus,
the introduction of LTG 2 will support research that
investigates relationships between air quality and
health from an integrated, multidisciplinary, and
multipollutant perspective.
EPA's Clean Air Research Program includes several
health and exposure research studies focused
on the Detroit-Windsor area. These studies are
described below.
• The Detroit Exposure and Aerosol Research Study
(DEARS) is evaluating the relationship between
ambient levels, residential levels, and personal
exposures for air toxics, PM, PM components, and
PM from specific sources. Field data collection for
DEARS was conducted from 2004 through 2007.
Analysis and modeling studies using collected data
are currently in progress. The DEARS coordinates
with similar Canadian research efforts.
• The Detroit Children's Health Study is applying
exposure modeling data for PM and select criteria
pollutant gases from the DEARS, as well as school-
based exposure monitoring to assess the impact of
ambient-based pollutants on the health of children
ages seven through 12 in the Detroit and Dearborn
areas. One focus will be the impact of potential
automotive emission exposures on the exacerbation
of asthma.
• The Mechanistic Indicators of Childhood Asthma is
an epidemiologic study that is being conducted
to advance our current understanding of various
risk factors and triggers of childhood asthma.
This study is gathering and analyzing information
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from 2006 through 2009 on biological markers of
exposure, early effect, and susceptibility (including
gene expression data) from 100 asthmatic and 100
non-asthmatic children recruited from the Detroit,
Michigan Metropolitan area.
• The Detroit Cardiovascular Health Study is being
conducted by the University of Michigan as a
parallel study to the DEARS. Personal exposure
data from the DEARS will be integrated with
cardiovascular findings associated with brachial
artery dilation. Clinical findings have shown this
to be a sensitive marker for potential exposures to
some pollutant classes, like PM, using ambient-
based monitoring. Use of personal exposure data
potentially will provide a more sensitive analysis.
• The Detroit PM Toxicology Study will link PM source
characterization data from the DEARS to ultrafine
and other select size fractions of PM. Toxicological
assessment of each fraction combined with source
apportionment information will provide insight as
to the toxic properties of PM attributed to specific
ambient sources.
More information about the studies above can be
found at and .
Ecological Effects
Aquatic Effects Research
and Monitoring
Both the United States and Canada, along with
18 European countries, participate in the
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe's
International Cooperative Program on Assessment
and Monitoring of Acidification of Rivers and Lakes
(i.e., ICP Waters). The ICP Waters program started
in 1985 to assess, on a regional basis, the effects
of acid rain and air pollution on water and water
courses such as rivers and lakes. As part of this
program, participants contribute water chemistry
data from their respective countries to a central
database. One of the goals of the ICP Waters
program is to use the central database to provide
a joint understanding of the impacts of long-range
transboundary air pollutants.
In 2005 an ICP representative from the United
Kingdom noted the widespread observed trend of
increasing surface water dissolved organic carbon
(DOC) concentrations, which is a potential sign
of recovery from acid deposition. The ICP Waters
program evaluated this trend by using the central
database to identify factors causing increases in DOC,
and to assess the effect of this trend on acidification
recovery. As part of the evaluation, the central water
chemistry database was expanded to include 522
remote lakes and streams from Nordic countries, the
United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. In
addition to information on DOC concentrations, the
database included information on other acidification-
related chemical variables.
Taking advantage of the data compiled for the
analysis of regional DOC trends in Europe and North
America, U.S. and Canadian scientists examined
trends for other acidification-related variables
in surface water for lakes and streams in the
northeastern United States and southeastern Canada.
The scientists analyzed eight regional subsets: 31
lakes in New England, 49 lakes in the Adirondacks,
nine streams in the northern Appalachians, 71
streams in the southern Appalachians, 88 lakes in
Atlantic Canada, 28 lakes in Quebec, 72 lakes in
the Sudbury region of Ontario, and 80 lakes in the
remainder of Ontario. They examined the trends for a
given lake or stream over a 15-year period from 1990
to 2004, which approximately parallels the existence
of the U.S.-Canada AQA. The scientists determined
-------
trends for the following acidification-related variables:
sulfate (S042~), nitrate (N030, Gran alkalinity (measure
of the amount of acid-neutralizing bases in water),
hydrogen ion (H+), and the sum of base cations
(calcium + magnesium + sodium + potassium).
The results of these regional trend analyses are
shown in Figure 33. The trends were calculated
as the change in the concentration of each of the
variables per year (e.g., change in concentration of
sulfate per year). A negative value for the slope of a
regional trend indicates that the concentration of the
variable is declining in that region, while a positive
slope value means it is increasing. Movement toward
recovery is indicated by a positive trend in Gran
alkalinity and by negative trends in sulfate, nitrate,
base cations, and hydrogen ions. Monteith et al.
(see Figure 33 source information below) analyzed
and reported regional DOC trends in the ICP Waters
program DOC paper.
Figure 33. Regional Surface Water Concentration Trends (peq/L/yr)
for Eight Regions of Northeastern North America, 1990-2004
Sulfate
Nitrate
Gran Alkalinity-
Hydrogen Ion
Base Cations -
Slope of Regional Trend (ueq/L/yr)
New England Lakes (n=31)
Adirondack Lakes (n=49)
. Appalachian Streams (n=9)
So. Appalachian Streams (n=71)
Atlantic Canada Lakes (n=88)
Quebec Lakes (n=28)
Sudbury Lakes (n=72)
Ontario Lakes (n=80)
-4.0 -3.5 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5
Slope of Regional Trend (ueq/L/yr)
Note: Both positive and negative concentration trends are displayed. The length of the bar represents the median trend slope for that
regional subset, and the error bars are the 95 percent confidence limits around the median. The indicated regional trend is statistically
significant if the error bars do not overlap zero micron equivalents per liter per year (ueq/L/yr). Movement toward recovery is indicated by a
positive trend in Gran alkalinity and by negative trends in sulfate, nitrate, base cations, and hydrogen ions.
Source: Monteith, D.T., Stoddard, J.L, Evans, C.D, de Wit, H.A., Forsius, M., H0gasen, T, Wilander, A, Skjelkvale, B.L, Jeffries, D.S,
Vuorenmaa, J., Keller, W., Kopacek, J. and Vesely, J. 2007. Rising dissolved organic carbon in surface waters due to changes in atmospheric
deposition chemistry. Nature 450: 537-541.
-------
U.S. and Canadian S02 emission reductions included
in the AQA commitments have resulted in obvious,
significant, and substantial declining S042~ trends in
the surface waters of all regions except the southern
Appalachian region. The regions with declining
S042~ trends have soils that absorb little of the
atmospherically deposited S042~, so much of the S042~
input is released to nearby lakes or streams, leading
to acidification of surface waters. In these regions
there is a direct relationship between the declining
atmospheric deposition of S042~ and the decrease
in S042~ concentration in surface waters. The lack of
response recorded in southern Appalachian streams
occurs because the soils of this region adsorb most
of the atmospherically deposited S042~; therefore less
S042~ is leached to nearby surface waters. Lakes in
the Sudbury region of Ontario show by far the greatest
rate of S042~ concentration reductions, probably
because it reflects the cumulative effect of reduced
deposition and declining leaching from the larger soil
pool of sulfur that accumulated during past periods of
localized high S042~ deposition.
Small negative N03~ trends were detected in the U.S.
regions only. This is the reverse of trends observed
prior to 1990; however, the influence of N03~ on
acidification recovery (i.e., increasing alkalinity) is
relatively small compared to S042\
An observed chemical trend that demonstrates the
ecological response of decreasing atmospheric inputs
of S042~, is the decline in base cation concentration
in surface water. As S042~ is deposited to soils, it
can mobilize base cations, resulting in base cations
leaching from the soil into nearby surface waters.
A negative trend in base cations in surface waters
is expected to occur in response to declining S042~
deposition. Reduced rates of base cation leaching
into surface waters might indicate declining soil
acidification, but surface water monitoring data alone
cannot be used to confirm soil recovery. Almost all
the ecosystem response to reduced S042~ deposition
in the New England and Ontario regions is reflected in
declining base cation concentrations, except for the
Sudbury region, where the declining release of sulfur
from the soil pool also plays a role.
Surface water recovery from acidification is indicated
by increasing Gran alkalinity concentrations and/
or declining H+ concentrations (i.e., increasing pH).
When the decline in deposition of acidifying anions,
like S042~ and N03', is not completely compensated
by base cation declines in surface water, the residual
difference is usually expressed as increasing alkalinity
and/or decreasing H+, and this is exactly the case
here. The four regions with the greatest difference
between S042~ and base cation declines showed the
largest positive trends in alkalinity (Adirondack lakes,
northern Appalachian streams, and Sudbury lakes) or
the largest H+ decreases (Quebec lakes).
Atlantic Canada lakes were an exception to the
above. Atlantic Canada was also the exception in the
Monteith et al. trends paper, as it was the only North
American region that showed statistically significant
negative DOC trends. Increasing sodium ion inputs
from sea salt might account for the statistically
significant positive base cation trends observed
here. The decreasing DOC trend in Atlantic Canada
lakes might also be a causal factor in their small, but
statistically significant, negative alkalinity trend. This
is a demonstration of how the interaction of forcing
factors (declining S042~ deposition and increasing sea
salt deposition) can lead to unexpected results.
Critical Loads and Exceedances
A critical load is a quantitative estimate of exposure
to a pollutant(s) below which significant harmful
effects on specific sensitive elements of the
environment do not occur, according to present
knowledge. The critical load of acid deposition
is defined as the maximum deposition that an
ecosystem can assimilate without significant long-
term harmful effects. Deposition of both nitrogen and
sulfur compounds can contribute to a critical load
exceedanee.
I n the 2004 Canadian Acid Deposition
Science Assessment, for the first time
in North America, new and combined
critical load estimates were generated for
CANADA su'fur anc' nitrogen acid deposition for
both sampled surface waters and upland
forest soils using steady-state models.5 Because
5 Jeffries, D.S., and Ouimet, R. (2005) Chapter 8: Critical loads: Are they being exceeded? In: 2004 Canadian Acid Deposition Science Assessment [CD f
able from Environment Canada.
I], Avail-
-------
sulfur and nitrogen have different atomic weights, the
combined critical load cannot be expressed in mass
units (kg/ha/yr); instead, it is expressed in terms of
ionic charge balance as equivalents per hectare per
year (eq/ha/yr).
Since the 2004 Acid Deposition Science Assessment,
significant work has been done to expand critical load
development and estimate critical load exceedances
for upland forest soils.6 789 Until recently, efforts
in Canada were focused on developing critical
loads and exceedances for forest soils and lakes in
eastern Canada, but concern over rising emissions
of acidifying pollutants has broadened the focus to
include western Canada.
Figure 34 presents recently developed estimates of
sulfur plus nitrogen critical loads for upland forest
soils in Canada. These critical loads were developed
using the protocol established by the NEG/ECP
Environmental Task Group on Forest Mapping for all
of Canada, with the exception of British Columbia
and northern Ontario, where preliminary estimates of
critical loads are based on base cation weathering rates
as deposition data are unavailable for these regions.
Critical loads below 400 eq/ha/yr (red to yellow in
Figure 34) occur along high-elevation areas and
the coast of British Columbia and over large areas
in northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and
Ontario; south-central Quebec; and southeastern
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. The 1983 eastern
Canada Acid Rain Program established a target load
for sulfur deposition equivalent to approximately
400 eq/ha/yr to protect moderately sensitive lakes in
eastern Canada; the new science shows that for many
regions, the critical load for sulfur and nitrogen is
significantly lower than the 1983 target.
Figure 34. Sulfur Plus Nitrogen Critical Loads for Upland Forest Soils
across Canada
Critical Load leq hayeni)
^^| 0-200
^^| 201 - 300
| 301- 400
401-700
701 - 1 flOO
1.001 -8.000
Source: Carou, S., Dennis, I., Aherne, J., Ouimet, R., Arp, P.A., Watmough, S.A., DeMerchant, I., Shaw, M., Vet, R., Bouchet, V., and M. Moran (2008). A National Picture of
Acid Deposition Critical Loads for Forest Soils in Canada, Report Prepared by Environment Canada for CCME.
Ouimet, R., PA. Arp, S.A. Watmough, J. Aherne, I. Demerchant (2006). Determination and mapping critical loads of acidity and exceedances for upland forest soils in
eastern Canada. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 172: 57-66.
Aherne, J., Watmough, S. (2006) Calculating Critical Loads of Acid Deposition for Forest Soils in Manitoba and Saskatchewan: Data Sources, Critical Load,
Exceedance and Limitations. Final Report prepared for CCME. Environmental and Resource Studies, Trent University, Peterborough, ON.
Aherne, J. (2008a). Calculating Critical Loads of Acid Deposition for Forest Soils in Alberta: Critical load, exceedance and limitations. Final Report, Environmental
and Resource Studies, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Aherne, J. (2008b). Calculating Critical Load and Exceedance Estimates for Upland Forest Soils in Manitoba and Saskatchewan: Comparing Exceedance Outputs of
Different Models. Final Report, Environmental and Resource Studies, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
-------
Figure 35 presents exceedances of sulfur plus
nitrogen critical loads for upland forest soils across
Canada based on measured wet deposition plus
inferential dry deposition (using combined air
concentration measurements and modeled dry
deposition velocities) of sulfur and nitrogen over
forested areas from 1994 to 1998. During that
period, approximately 38 percent of the mapped
upland forest area in Canada received acid deposition
in exceedance of the critical loads. Critical load
exceedances in western Canada were relatively low
compared to eastern Canada.
For comparative purposes, a second critical load
exceedance map (Figure 36) was developed based
on a one-year model simulation of 2002 sulfur
and nitrogen deposition levels using Environment
Canada's AURAMS model (A Unified Regional Air
Quality Modeling System). Overall, the results are
consistent with those shown in Figure 35, although
substantial differences can be observed in the
magnitude of the exceedances. In eastern Canada
a decline in sulfur and nitrogen deposition and the
corresponding critical load exceedances has occurred
since the 1994-1998 measurement period and is not
captured in Figure 35. The critical load exceedance
hotspots near major emissions sources (e.g., Lower
Fraser Valley, Athabasca oil sands, Manitoba smelters,
and Sudbury), reflected in Figure 36, are not well-
represented in the deposition data used to develop
Figure 35 because the monitoring stations are located
in regions remote from large emission sources.
Overall, this recent evaluation of acid deposition
sensitivity shows that in every Canadian province
there are upland forest soils that currently receive
acid deposition levels greater than their long-term
critical loads. In southeastern Canada, in particular,
the risk for continued ecosystem damage exists,
despite past reductions in acidifying emissions.
Figure 35. Exceedances of Sulfur Plus Nitrogen Critical Loads for
Upland Forest Soils across Canada Based on Average (1994-1998)
Measured Deposition
Mean 94-98 Forest Average S+N
Exceedence (eq/ha/year)
,- -600
^H-599-
I 1-399--200
, ,-199- 0
I I 1 - 200
I |2D1 -400
I 1401 -600
••601 -800
-1,000
1.001- 7.659
Note: No deposition estimates were available for British Columbia and northern Ontario.
Source: Carou, S., Dennis, I., Aherne, J., Ouimet, R., Arp, PA, Watmough, S.A, DeMerchant, I., Shaw, M., Vet, R, Bouchet, V., and M. Moran (2008). A National Picture of
Acid Deposition Critical Loads for Forest Soils in Canada, Report Prepared by Environment Canada for CCME.
-------
Figure 36. Exceedances of Sulfur Plus Nitrogen Critical Loads for
Upland Forest Soils across Canada Based on Preliminary Estimates of
Current Deposition (2002) from the AURAMS Model
Aurams 2002 S+N
Exceedence (e<|.1uvyeiir}
^| -1,903- -600
^^| -599 - -400
[ 1-199-0
1-200
I 201.100
| | 401 - SCO
^^| 801 -1000
~~ 1.031 -7.653
Source: Carou, S., Dennis, I., Aherne, J., Ouimet, R., Arp, P.A., Watmough, S.A., DeMerchant, I., Shaw, M., Vet, R., Bouchet, V., and M. I
Acid Deposition Critical Loads for Forest Soils in Canada, Report Prepared by Environment Canada for CCME.
fan (2008). A National Picture of
UNITED
STATES
*ln the United States, the critical loads
approach is not an officially accepted
approach to ecosystem protection. For
example, language specifically requiring
a critical loads approach does not exist
in the Clean Air Act. Nevertheless,
the critical loads approach is being explored as an
ecosystem assessment tool with great potential to
simplify complex scientific information and effectively
communicate with the policy community and the
public. The critical loads approach can provide a
useful lens through which to assess the results of
current policies and programs and to evaluate the
potential ecosystem-protection value of proposed
policy options.
Recent activities within federal and state agencies, as
well as the research community, in the United States
indicate that critical loads might be emerging as a
useful ecosystem protection and program assessment
tool. In 2004, the National Research Council
recommended that EPA consider using critical loads
for ecosystem protection. In 2005, EPA included a
provision in its Nitrogen Dioxide Increment Rule that
individual states may propose the use of critical loads
information as part of their air quality management
approach, in order to satisfy requirements under
Clean Air Act provisions regarding "prevention of
significant deterioration." Between 2002 and 2006,
several federal agencies convened conferences and
workshops to review critical loads experience in other
countries, discuss critical loads science and modeling
efforts, and explore the possible future role of a
critical loads approach in air pollution control policy
in the United States. More recently, a new ad hoc
critical loads committee was formed within the NADP
(http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/clad/). This committee will
promote information sharing, scientific advances, and
applied projects in an effort to explore the potential
uses of critical loads in policy development and
program implementation in the United States.
-------
As a result of these developments, agencies such
as the NPS and the U.S. Forest Service developed
specific recommendations for using the critical
loads approach as a tool to assist in managing
federal lands. Several federal agencies are now
employing critical loads approaches to protect and
manage sensitive ecosystems. For example, in Rocky
Mountain National Park in Colorado, NPS has entered
into a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with
the Colorado Department of Public Health and
Environment (CDPHE) and EPA to address harmful
impacts to air quality and other natural resources
occurring in the park, and to reverse a trend of
increasing nitrogen deposition. The MOU requires
NPS to develop a resource management goal to
protect park resources and requires the CDPHE to
develop an air management strategy that will help
to meet park goals. Based on research results that
indicate deleterious effects on natural resources from
current levels of atmospheric nitrogen deposition,
NPS has established a resource management goal,
linked to a critical load for wet nitrogen deposition of
1.5 kg/ha/yr for high elevation aquatic ecosystems.
The Colorado Air Quality Control Commission has
also established a "Rocky Mountain National Park
Initiative Sub-committee" to involve stakeholders,
review the research, identify information needs, and
discuss options for improving conditions in the park.
In addition to activities within federal and state
agencies, the peer-reviewed scientific literature on
critical loads in the United States has increased in
recent years. Figure 37 illustrates recently developed
estimates of critical loads for sulfur plus nitrogen in
acid-sensitive lakes in the northeastern United States
(DuPont et al., 2005 and others). Additional critical
loads estimates were calculated using the model
employed in the peer-reviewed literature, combined
with data from two EPA-administered surface water
monitoring programs: the Temporally Integrated
Monitoring of Ecosystems (TIME) program and the
Long-Term Monitoring (LTM) program.
Figure 37. Estimated Sulfur Plus Nitrogen Critical Loads for Lakes
in Northeast United States
Critical Load (eq/ha/year)
Source: EPA, 2008 and DuPont J., T.A. Glair, C. Gagnon, D.S. Jeffries, J.S. Kahl, and S.J. Nelson, and J. M. Peckenham.
(2005). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 109: 275-291.
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The LTM program consists of a subset of lakes and
streams that are located in areas most impacted
by acid deposition. The LTM lake and stream sites
are monitored three to 15 times per year, with some
site records dating back to the early 1980s. In New
England, the LTM project collects quarterly data from
lakes in Maine, Vermont, and the Adirondack region
of New York.
The TIME program employs probability sampling;
each monitoring site was chosen statistically from
a predefined target population. In New England,
the target populations include lakes likely to be
responsive to changes in acidic deposition. TIME
lakes in Maine, Vermont, and the Adirondack region
of New York are monitored annually.
Both the literature-estimated critical load values and
critical load estimates calculated using the TIME and
LTM data were developed using the Steady-State
Water Chemistry model with the same underlying
assumptions. For both sets of estimates, the critical
load represents the combined deposition load of
sulfur and nitrogen to which the lake could be
subjected and still have an acid neutralizing capacity
of 50 ueq/L. Critical loads of combined total sulfur
and nitrogen are expressed in terms of ionic charge
balance as equivalents per hectare per year
(eq/ha/yr).
Figures 38 and 39 relate critical loads estimates
to total wet and dry sulfur and nitrogen deposition
estimates for two periods: 1989 to 1991 and 2004
to 2006. In these figures, estimates of wet and
dry deposition for the two periods are based on
measured values from the NADP network combined
with modeled values based on the Community
Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model, respectively.
Comparing Figures 38 and 39 provides insight into
the improvements resulting from implementing the
S02 and NOX emission reduction commitments in the
U.S.-Canada AQA.
Figure 38. Eastern U.S. Lakes Exceeding the Estimated Critical Load
(Sulfur + Nitrogen) for Total Nitrogen and Sulfur Deposition for the
Period 1989-1991
Critical Load Exceedances (eq/ha/year)
1989-91
• Exceeded estimated critical load
• Did not exceed estimated critical load
Source: EPA, 2008 and DuPont J, T.A. Clair, C. Gagnon, D.S. Jeffries, J.S. Kahl, and S.J. Nelson, and J. M. Peckenham.
(2005). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 109: 275-291.
-------
Figure 39. Eastern U.S. Lakes Exceeding the Estimated Critical Load
(Sulfur + Nitrogen) for Total Nitrogen and Sulfur Deposition for the
Period 2004-2006
Critical Load Exceedances (eq/ha/year)
2004-06
• Exceeded estimated critical load
• Did not exceed estimated critical load
Source: EPA, 2008 and DuPont J, T.A. Glair, C. Gagnon, D.S. Jeffries, J.S. Kahl, and S.J. Nelson, and J. M. Peckenham.
(2005). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 109: 275-291.
Approximately 28 percent of the lakes for which
critical load estimates were calculated (Figure 37) in
the northeastern United States currently receive acid
deposition greater than their estimated critical load
(Figure 39). This is an improvement when compared to
the period from 1989 to 1991, during which 41 percent
of those lakes received acid deposition greater than
their estimated critical load (Figure 38). Areas with the
greatest concentration of lakes where acid deposition
currently is greater than—or exceeds—estimated critical
loads include the Adirondack Mountain region in New
York, southern New Hampshire and Vermont, northern
Massachusetts, and northeast Maine (Figure 39).
Reductions in acidic deposition have occurred over the
past decade, as demonstrated by the wet deposition
maps in Figures 5 through 12 on pages 8 and 9.
However, this comparison of past and current total
deposition estimates with critical loads estimates from
the scientific literature indicates that acid-sensitive
ecosystems in the northeastern United States might
still be at risk of acidification at current deposition
levels. As a result, additional reductions in acidic
deposition from current levels might be necessary to
protect these ecosystems, a conclusion supported by
other recent analyses, such as the 2005 National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Report to Congress
(www.ostp.gov/pdf/na pap_report_2005.pdf).
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*****
* * * * *
* **************
**************
* **************
*******************
Conclusio
The United States and Canada continue to meet
the commitments set forth in the 1991 AQA.
Both countries have made significant progress in
reducing acid rain and controlling ground-level ozone
in the transboundary region. The following are key
achievements from 2006 through 2008:
• Preliminary analyses indicate that Canada has met
its 2007 Ozone Annex commitment to cap total
annual emissions of NOX from fossil fuel-fired power
plants within the PEMA at 39 kilotonnes in Ontario
and 5 kilotonnes in Quebec.
• In 2007, the United States met its Acid Rain Annex
commitment to lower its annual emissions of S02
for electric generating utilities to 8.95 million tons
by 2010.
The AQA addresses transboundary air pollution for
the benefit of the health and welfare of our citizens,
in particular through implementation of the Acid Rain
and Ozone Annexes.
Both Canada and the United States are committed
to reducing cross-border air pollution and recognize
the significant human health and ecosystem effects
(including acid rain and regional haze) associated
with PM25 and its precursors. Both countries are
committed to negotiating the addition of a Particulate
Matter (PM) Annex to the United States-Canada
Air Quality Agreement while actively developing and
implementing emission reduction programs to reduce
fine particle concentrations.
The United States and Canada have held two
negotiating sessions on a PM Annex under the
United States-Canada Air Quality Agreement: one in
November 2007 and one in May 2008. Discussions
continued as part of the November 2008 United
States-Canada Air Quality Committee meeting.
The countries remain committed to the AQA based on
historic precedent and mutual respect. As the sense
of our shared future expands, the AQA offers a model
of dynamic cooperation.
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U.S.-Canada
uality Comm
Canadian Members
Canada Co-Chair:
Cecile Cleroux
Assistant Deputy Minister
Environmental Stewardship Branch
Environment Canada
Members:
Randy Angle
Air Policy Business Unit
Strategic Policy Branch
Alberta Environment
Mike Beale
Strategic Priorities Directorate
Environmental Stewardship Branch
Environment Canada
Ross Ezzeddin
Environment Policy Division
Energy Policy Branch
Natural Resources Canada
Paul Glover
Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch
Health Canada
Jeffrey Heynen
U.S. Relations Division
Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada
Glenn MacDonell
Environmental Industries Directorate
Service Industries and Consumer Products Branch
Industry Canada
Kimberly MacNeil
Environment and Natural Areas Management Division
Nova Scotia Department of Environment and Labour
Robert Noel de Tilly
Air Policy Branch
Quebec Department of Sustainable, Development,
Environment and Parks
Hu Wallis
Environmental Quality Branch
British Columbia Ministry of Environment
Jim Whitestone
Air Policy and Climate Change Branch
Ontario Ministry of the Environment
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Subcommittee on Program Monitoring
and Reporting Co-Chair:
Kerri Timoffee
Manager, Canada-U.S.
Air Emissions Priorities
Environmental Stewardship Branch
Environment Canada
Subcommittee on Scientific Cooperation
Co-Chair:
Keith Puckett
Director, Air Quality Research
Science and Technology Branch
Environment Canada
United States Members
United States Co-Chair:
Daniel Reifsnyder
Deputy Assistant Secretary for the Environment
U.S. Department of State
Members:
Brian J. McLean
Office of Atmospheric Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Margo T. Oge
Office of Transportation and Air Quality
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Steve Page
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Daniel Fantozzi
U.S. Department of State
Richard S. Artz
Air Resources Laboratory
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA)
Mitchell Baer
Office of Policy and International Affairs
U.S. Department of Energy
Bruce Polkowsky
Air Resources Division
National Park Service
David Shaw
Division of Air Resources
New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation
G. Vinson Hellwig
Air Quality Division
Michigan Department of Environmental Quality
Subcommittee on Program Monitoring and Reporting
Co-Chair:
Brian J. McLean
Director, Office of Atmospheric Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Subcommittee on Scientific Cooperation Co-Chair:
Timothy H. Watkins
Deputy Director, Human Exposure and Atmospheric
Sciences Division, Office of Research and
Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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AMI Air Health Indicator
AIRMoN Atmospheric Integrated Research
Monitoring Network
AQA Air Quality Agreement
AQHI Air Quality Health Index
AQI Air Quality Index
AQMP Air Quality Management Plan
ARP Acid Rain Program
ASI Algoma Steel, Inc.
ATVs all-terrain vehicles
AURAMS A Unified Regional Air Quality Modeling
System
BACT best available control technology
BART best available retrofit technology
CAIR Clean Air Interstate Rule
CAPMoN Canadian Air and Precipitation Monitoring
Network
CASTNET Clean Air Status and Trends Network
CCME Canadian Council of Ministers of the
Environment
CDPHE Colorado Department of Public Health
and Environment
GEMS
CEPA
Cl
CO
C02
CSN
CWS
DEARS
DOC
EGU
hp
ICP Waters
IJC
KCAC
kg
km
kt
kw
continuous emission monitoring system
Canadian Environmental Protection Act
continuous improvement
carbon monoxide
carbon dioxide
Chemical Speciation Network
Canada-wide Standards
Detroit Exposure and Aerosol Research
Study
dissolved organic carbon
electric generating unit
horsepower
International Cooperative Program
on Assessment and Monitoring of
Acidification of Rivers and Lakes
International Joint Commission
Keeping Clean Areas Clean
kilogram
kilometer
kilotonne
kilowatt
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LAER lowest achievable emission rate
LTG long-term goal
LTM Long-Term Monitoring
MDN Mercury Deposition Network
mg milligram
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MW megawatt
NAA Nonattainment Area
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NADP National Atmospheric Deposition Program
NAMS National Air Monitoring Stations
NAPS National Air Pollution Surveillance
NARSTO (formerly) North American Research
Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone
NATTS National Air Toxics Trends Stations
NBP NOX Budget Trading Program
NEG/ECP New England Governors and Eastern
Canadian Premiers
NEI National Emissions Inventory
NO nitric oxide
N02 nitrogen dioxide
NO total reactive oxidized nitrogen
y °
NPRI National Pollutant Release Inventory
NO nitrogen oxides
NPS National Park Service
NSPS New Source Performance Standard
NSR New Source Review
NTN National Trends Network
OBD onboard diagnostics
PAMS Photochemical Assessment Monitoring
Stations
PEMA Pollutant Emission Management Area
PERC perchloroethylene
PM particulate matter
PM25 particulate matter less than or equal to
2.5 microns
PM10 particulate matter less than or equal to
10 microns
ppm parts per million
ppb parts per billion
ppbC parts per billion carbon
PSD Prevention of Significant Deterioration
SI spark-ignition
SIP State Implementation Plan
SLAMS State and Local Air Monitoring Stations
S02 sulfur dioxide
TIME Temporally Integrated Monitoring of
Ecosystems
VOC volatile organic compound
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NOTES
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To obtain additional information, please contact:
In the United States:
Clean Air Markets Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Mail Code 6204J
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Web site:
www.epa.gov/airmarkets/progsregs/usca/index.htm
Environment Canada's Web site:
www.ee.gc.ca/cleanair-airpur/Pollution_lssues/Transboundary_Air/Canada-_United_States_Air_Quality_
Agreement-WS83930AC3-l_En.htm
In Canada:
Air Emissions Priorities
Environment Canada
351 St. Joseph Boulevard
llth Floor, Place Vincent Massey
Gatineau, Quebec K1A OH3
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SEFft
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air and Radiation (6204J)
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue
Washington, DC 20460
EPA-430-R-08-013
December 2008
www.epa.gov/airmarkets
Recycled/Recyclat
table Oil Based Inks on 100% Postconsumer, Process Chlorine Free Recycled Pa:
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