CLIMATE READY
ESTUARI ES
SYNTHESIS OF
ADAPTATION
OPTIONS FOR
COASTAL AREAS
w
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You can download this document from EPA's Climate
Ready Estuaries Website at:
http://www.epa.gov/cre/adaptationoptions.html
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II. Overview of Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Areas
Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to Climate Change
III.Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas 4
Adaptation Options Relevant to Estuarine Management Goals 4
Management Goal A: Maintain/Restore Wetlands 6
Management Goal 8: Maintain Sediment Transport 8
Management Goal C: Preserve Coastal Land/Development (Including Infrastructure) 10
Management Goal D: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing "Soft" Measures 12
Management Goal E: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing "Hard" Measures /5
Management Goal F: Invasive Species Management 16
Management Goal G: Preserve Habitat for Vulnerable Species 17
Management Goal H: Maintain Water Quality 19
Management Goal I: Maintain Water Availability 2 /
IV. Summary: Moving Forward on Adaptation 11
V. References 23
Appendix A 24
Useful Websites 24
Appendix B 25
General Contact Information for Governments, NGOs, and Program Managers 25
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IV SYNTHESIS OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR COASTAL AREAS
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I. Introduction
Climate change is being observed in many of our nation's natural systems. Estuaries and other coastal systems are
particularly vulnerable to many of the projected impacts of climate change. Regardless of future action to reduce
emissions, the atmospheric buildup of greenhouse gases has committed the earth to some level of future climate change.
Projected effects on estuaries include sea level rise, altered frequencies and intensities of precipitation, increased water
temperatures, and more intense storm events.These effects will impact the health of our coastlines, including the people
and species that inhabit them.
While not all of these changes will directly affect day-to-day management of estuarine systems, many of them will require
some adjustment in management strategies and decision making. Managing for a changing climate is further complicated
by ongoing population growth in coastal areas. As estuarine areas face an increasing risk from both the direct and indirect
impacts of climate change and the consequences of human responses to climate change, managers will be faced with
new and different challenges on top of existing system stressors.
Management actions can ameliorate or exacerbate a system's vulnerability to climate change. Actions taken to reduce
impacts or exploit beneficial opportunities resulting from climate change are commonly referred to as climate change
adaptation. Consideration of climate change impacts and appropriate adaptation options can help to ensure that
managers' actions reduce risk, improve resiliency, and ameliorate rather than exacerbate the vulnerability of their coastal
ecosystems.
This guide provides a brief introduction to key physical impacts of climate change on estuaries and a review of on-
the-ground adaptation options available to coastal managers to reduce their systems' vulnerability to climate change
impacts. Reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases, referred to as "mitigation," is a necessary component of the overall
response to climate change, and can help avoid, reduce, or delay future impacts. However; this guide focuses on climate
change adaptation for estuaries and coastal areas because: ) estuaries are highly and uniquely vulnerable to climate
change, 2) adaptation will be necessary to address impacts resulting from warming which is already unavoidable due to
past and current emissions, and 3) adaptation can help reduce the long-term costs associated with climate change.1 For
more information on how communities and individuals can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, please visit EPA's Climate
Change Website (http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/index.html).
The guide is organized as follows:
Overview of key climate change impacts on coastal areas;
Existing adaptation options; and
Selected resources for further information.
II. Overview of Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Areas
Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to Climate Change
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) describes climate vulnerability as a function of: (I) the character;
rate, and magnitude of the climate change stressor (e.g., I °C increase in water temperature over the next decade),
(2) the sensitivity of the system to the climate stressors, and (3) the ability of the system to adjust to climate change,
moderate potential damages, take advantage of opportunities, or cope with the consequences (referred to as "adaptive
capacity")2
The character; rate, and magnitude of climate change stressors will vary regionally. For example, sea level rise will impact
the bedrock coasts of New England and Oregon differently than the sandy barrier island shorelines of North Carolina.
Climate change adaptation is an evolving field. As the science advances on both coastal vulnerability and adaptation options, this document will need to be revised
2 IPCCAR4WGII: lmpacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability, Introduction.
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The nation's diverse estuarine systems will thus be vulnerable to different climate stressors and the ability of these
systems to adjust to climate change will vary The specific vulnerability of any single estuary will depend on physical
features (e.g., elevation gradient, estuarine depth, size), geomorphology and species composition. All estuaries, however;
are expected to be vulnerable to climate change to some degree.3
Table provides an overview of key climate change stressors and projected impacts on estuarine systems, which have
been gleaned from several recent publications:
The IPCC released its Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) in 2007, which is organized according to three working
groups focused on: (I) The Physical Science Basis; (II) Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; and (III) Mitigation of Climate
Change.The report considers climate change impacts globally and regionally, as well as what actions can be taken to
address these impacts.
The U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) is developing 2 Synthesis and Assessment Products (SAPs)
to provide information on climate change that is useful to policymakers, resource managers, stakeholders, and the
public. SAP 4.1 addresses the vulnerability of coastal areas to sea level rise. SAP 4.4 focuses on adaptation options
for climate sensitive ecosystems and resources. SAP 4.7 examines the impacts of climate change on transportation
systems, focusing on the Gulf Coast4
The National Research Council (NRC) recently published a study entitled Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered
Coasts, which addresses options to protect sheltered coasts against erosion.
The overview of projected impacts inTable I provides context for understanding how adaptation options can reduce
vulnerability and address various management goals.Table should not be considered as a comprehensive source of
information for climate change impacts to estuaries and coastal systems.There are many other sources of information not
captured here that should be consulted to obtain a more complete understanding.
Table I. Overview of Potential Climate Change Impacts on Estuarine Systems
Climate
Change
Stressor
Sea level rise
Vulnerable
Area
Ocean shores and
estuarine shores
Wetlands
Estuarine open
water
Species
Potential Impact on Estuarine Systems
Coastal change (e.g., erosion, landward migration, barrier island disintegration)
Change in coastal water quality - saltwater intrusion, rising water tables
Migration of estuarine salinity gradients
Inundation and erosion of coastal marshes, beaches, mudflats, and other wetlands (leading to loss
of habitat for many species)
Altered tidal range and tidal asymmetry (leading to tidal mixing and changes in sediment
transport)
Increased salinity
Increased water depths
Inundation and/or migration inland of marsh species (including vegetation, birds, invertebrates, and
fish nurseries)
Altered structural diversity of foundation species (e.g., intertidal marsh plants)
Habitat changes (both structural and functional), which could impact a variety of species within
marsh and wetland ecosystems
Less sunlight available to submerged aquatic vegetation
IPCC AR4WGII: Impacts.Adaptation and Vulnerability, Chapter 6
CCSP Synthesis and Assessment Products are available online at http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap-summary.php.
Two different terms are commonly used to describe sea level rise: relative and global (oreustatic) sea level rise. As defined in IPCCAR4WGII,'"Eustatic [global]
sea-level rise' is a change in global average sea level brought about by an increase in the volume of the world ocean. 'Relative sea-level rise' refers to a local increase
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Climate Vulnerable
Change vumeraoie Potential Impact on Estuarine Systems
Stressor Area
Increases
in water
temperatures
Altered
timing of
seasonal
changes
Increases
in air
temperatures
Changes in
precipitation
Ocean shores and
estuarine shores
Wetlands
Estuarine open
water
Species
Ocean shores and
estuarine shores
Wetlands
Species
Wetlands
Species
Ocean shores and
estuarine shores
Wetlands
Species
Increased stratification/changed circulation
Greater vulnerability to coral bleaching events
Shift in species composition (e.g., mangroves and cypress swamps moving northward)
Reductions in water quality due to increased growth of nuisance algae and to lower oxygen levels
Lower oxygen levels
Increased algal blooms
Changes to microbial processes (nitrogen fixation and denitrification)
Altered species distributions (especially seasonal distributions of birds, fish and shellfish) and
increased invasive species
Increased species mortality rates (e.g., greatly increased coral reef die-off)
Extirpation of cool water species due to temperature spikes after precipitation events
Altered reproductive rates and maturation leading to declining populations
Altered winter-spring discharge rates, leading to increased erosion and runoff in some areas
(West Coast in particular)
Increased/decreased precipitation (depending on region) affecting water balance/availability
Changes in timing of spring flow of pollutants
Changes in precipitation affecting river discharge balance
Altered species migration and species distribution (especially seasonal distributions of birds, fish,
and shellfish) and increased invasive species
Disruption of predator/prey availability (especially within fisheries)
Disruption in the synchronicity of food and reproductive pulses (notably in bird populations)
Decreased water availability and drought in some regions
Altered species distributions
Altered species interactions and metabolic activity
Increased risk of disease and parasitism, especially in species engaged in symbiotic partnerships
Opened niches for invasive species
Flooding of coastal areas due to higher peak stream discharge rates
Increased erosion due to high-flow discharge
Changes in volume and timing of runoff and sediment distribution
Altered winter-spring discharge rates, leading to more pronounced flooding (especially if high flow
coincides with heavy precipitation events)
Reduced water quality due to changes in freshwater runoff
Changes in precipitation affecting pollutant loading levels in water bodies
Altered salinity gradient from increase/decrease of streamflow
Local extirpations of fish, amphibians, or water-dispersed plants due to drought conditions that
isolate tributaries
in the level of the ocean relative to the land, which might be due to increased volume and/or land subsidence (IPCCAR4WGII: Glossary). The use of the term "sea
level rise" throughout this document refers to relative sea level rise.
For example, SAP 4.4 finds that "warm water species of zooplankton, intertidal invertebrates, and fish in marine systems have migrated into areas previously too'cool'
to support growth" (SAP 4.4, Chapter 7).
SAP 4.4 reports that, "marine diseases in corals, turtles, mollusks, marine mammals, and echinoderms have increased sharply over the past three decades, especially
in the Caribbean" (SAP 4.4, Chapter 7). As with most climate change stressors, temperature will interact with other stressors such as chemical pollutants and excess
nutrients, which will complicate the ability to predict species responses.
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Climate
Change
Stressor
Elevated
atmospheric
CO,
Vulnerable
Area
Ocean shores
Wetlands
Species
Potential Impact on Estuarine Systems
Reduced carbonate deposition in marine taxa
Increased coral reef die-off
Increased algal blooms
Changes in plant growth and turnover
Ocean acidification, impacting upon pH-sensitive organisms
Changes
in storm
intensity
Oceans shores
and estuarine
shores
Estuarine open
water
Increased intensity of coastal storms in some areas, causing coastal erosion, altered sediment
transport, inundation of tidal wetlands, and loss of established upland vegetation and structures
Increased magnitude of coastal storms in some areas, altering hydrological regimes
All of the above impacts statements are derived from the following reports: IPCC AR4WGII: Chapters 3,6,19; SAP 4.1: Chapters I-4; SAP 4.4:
Chapters 6-8; SAP 4.7: Chapter 3; NRC: Chapter 2
111. Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas
Climate change adaptation options vary based on the timing of the management response (prior to or after a climate
event has occurred) and the type of action (e.g., physical, technological, institutional).Two different time frames for
adaptation options are generally considered: (I) proactive measures to preserve and protect resources in anticipation
of climate change impacts (a.k.a., anticipatory options); or (2) reactive measures that are implemented after climate
change impacts are observed. Reactive adaptation options can be further categorized into (a) responses that are
developed immediately but planned to be initiated once climate change impacts are observed; and (b) ad hoc reactive
responses to climate change impacts after they have been observed. Managers can select among these options based on
available information on risks and reversibility of the negative consequences and costs associated with action taken now
versus later Adaptation strategies undertaken in any of these time frames may involve physical changes, technological
advancements, or simply management decisions that reflect awareness of climate change impacts on the region.
Different stakeholders may also be involved depending on the type of option or may all be involved in different aspects
of any given adaptation strategy. Key actors could include local governments (e.g., county and city agencies, planning
and zoning commissions), state governments (e.g., environmental, land, and coastal management agencies), the federal
government (e.g., EPA, NOAA, Army Corps of Engineers), businesses (e.g., contractors, engineers, developers, commercial
fishing operations), non-governmental organizations, research institutions, and the public.
Adaptation Options Relevant to Estuarine Management Goals
Adaptation options are organized below according to some of the major categories of management goals common to
estuarine programs, including:
Management Goal A: Maintain/restore wetlands
Management Goal B: Maintain sediment transport
Management Goal C: Preserve coastal land/development (including infrastructure)
Management Goal D: Maintain shorelines utilizing "soft" measures
Management Goal E: Maintain shorelines utilizing "hard" measures
Management Goal F: Invasive species management
Management Goal G: Preserve habitat for vulnerable species
Management Goal H: Maintain water quality
Management Goal : Maintain water availability
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Some adaptation options may apply directly or indirectly to multiple management goals. For example, allowing wetlands
to migrate inland will not only maintain wetlands, but could also directly address management goals of maintaining water
quality and preserving habitat for vulnerable species. Adaptation options are categorized according to the management
goal they most directly affect or address.
It is also important to note that some adaptation options may contribute to the protection of human infrastructure,
while causing detrimental effects to natural systems. For example, shoreline hardening could adversely affect wetlands
by preventing sediment transport essential to that ecosystem. Since shoreline hardening, softening, and retreat options
(i.e., promote wetland migration) all have individual benefits for shoreline and coastal protection, it may be beneficial to
develop a comprehensive shoreline plan outlining which areas can benefit from the appropriate shoreline protection
approach. A comprehensive shoreline plan allows managers to take into consideration priorities and tradeoffs and
consider implementing different options in different areas according to which resources are most in need of protection.
The text boxes throughout this section provide specific examples of measures undertaken by states or localities.
The tables in this section provide examples of adaptation options for each management goal.
Each option is characterized according to the following categories:
Climate Stressor Addressed - identifies one or more of the key climate stressors described in Section II
(andTable I) that the adaptation option could address.
Additional Management Goals Addressed - indicates additional management goals that the adaptation option may
help address.
Benefits - lists some of the environmental, economic, or other benefits of the adaptation option.
Constraints - lists some of the limitations of the adaptation option.
Examples - includes references to specific locations and/or organizations that have implemented this adaptation
option (where known/available).
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Management Goal A: Maintain I Restore Wetlands
Adaptation options for maintain ing/restoring wetlands
primarily focus on facilitating wetland migration through
changes in legislation and regulations (e.g., rolling
easements) and prohibitions on shoreline hardening.
Examples of these types of policies are presented inTable 2.
Programs seeking to protect existing wetlands from
development, pollution, and habitat changes that may be
exacerbated by sea level rise could consider developing
legislation or modifying land use rules (e.g., zoning) to facilitate
wetland migration inland. Programs that are not constrained
by existing institutions or policies could focus on prohibiting
bulkheads and allowing marshes to migrate inland.
Table 2. Adaptation Options for Maintaining/Restoring
Wetlands
Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Allow coastal
wetlands to migrate
inland (e.g., through
setbacks, density
restrictions, land
purchases )
Promote wetland
accretion by
introducing sediment
Prohibit hard shore
protection
Sea level rise
Sea level rise
Sea level rise
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Preserve coastal
land/development
Maintain sediment
transport
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Maintain sediment
transport
Maintains species
habitats; maintains
protection for inland
ecosystems
Maintains sediment
transport to
wetlands, which
protects coastal land
from storms
Allows for species
migrations inland
In highly developed
areas, there is often
no land available for
wetlands to migrate,
or it can be costly to
landowners
Requires continual
management; can be
very costly
Alternatives
of bulkhead
construction are
more expensive and
more difficult to
obtain permits for
Buzzards Bay,
Massachusetts
Southern Louisiana
Numerous states and
local governments
have drastically
reduced permits
for hard protection
(e.g., King County,
Washington ).
This adaptation option may not be appropriate in some locations due to biologic or geologic processes that prevent wetland migration inland, or due to lack of land
available for wetlands to migrate.
Buzzards Bay Action Plan: Planning for a Shifting Shoreline (1991 CCMP), http://www.buzzardsbay.org/ccmpold/ccmp-ap-shift.pdf
Louisiana Comprehensive Master Plan for a Sustainable Coast, http://www.lacpra.org/index.cfm?md=pagebuilder&tmp=home&nid=24&pnid=0&pid=28&fmid=0&ca
tid=0&elid=0
King County Shoreline Erosion Control Bulletin, http://www.metrokc.gov/DDES/acrobat/cib/! 6.pdf
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Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Remove hard
protection or other
barriers to tidal and
riverine flow (e.g.,
riverine and tidal
dike removals)
Incorporate wetland
protection into
infrastructure
planning (e.g.,
transportation
planning, sewer
utilities)
Preserve and restore
the structural
complexity and
biodiversity of
vegetation in tidal
marshes, seagrass
meadows, and
mangroves
Identify and
protect ecologically
significant ("critical")
areas such as
nursery grounds,
spawning grounds,
and areas of high
species diversity
Establish rolling
easements
Sea level rise
Sea level rise;
Changes in
precipitation
Increases in water
temperatures;
Changes in
precipitation
Altered timing of
seasonal changes;
Increases in air and
water temperatures
Sea level rise
Maintain sediment
transport; Maintain
shorelines
Maintain water
quality; Preserve
habitat for
vulnerable species
Maintain water
quality; Maintain
shorelines; Invasive
species management
Invasive species
management;
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species
Maintain water
quality; Maintain
sediment transport
May allow for
wetland migration
Protects valuable
and important
infrastructure
Vegetation protects
against erosion,
protects mainland
shorelines from tidal
energy, storm surge,
and wave forces,
filters pollutants, and
absorbs atmospheric
C02
Protecting critical
areas will promote
biodiversity and
ecosystem services
(e.g., producing and
adding nutrients
to coastal systems,
serving as refuges and
nurseries for species)
Lower long-term
costs; sediment
transport remains
undisturbed; property
owner bears risks of
sea level rise
Costly and
destructive to
shoreline property
May require federal
or state protection
Does not prevent
migration of salinity
gradient
King County,
Washington12
Houston-Galveston
long-range
transportation plan
(see text box on
page 6)
Chesapeake Bay
Living Shorelines
Initiative13
Massachusetts
Climate Protection
Plan14
Worcester
County, Maryland;
South Carolina
Coastal Council;
California Coastal
Commission
King County, WA - Land Use, Planning, and Infrastructure Actions for Estuary/Nearshore, ftp://dnrmetrokc.gov/dnr/library/wria8/chapterl 0-comprehensive-lists/
part34-lu-nearshore-estuarypdf
See Appendix B
Massachusetts Climate Protection Plan, http://www.newamerica.net/files/MACIimateProtPlan0504.pdf
Rolling easements are a type of easement placed along the shoreline to prevent property owners from holding back the sea but allow other types of use and activity
on the land. As the sea advances, the easement automatically moves or "rolls" landward. Because shoreline stabilization structures cannot be erected, sediment transport
remains undisturbed and wetlands can migrate naturally. Unlike setbacks, which prohibit development near the shore and can often result in "takings" claims if a property
is deemed undevelopable due to the setback line, rolling easements place no restrictions on development.They allow the landowner to build on their property with
the understanding that they will not be able to prevent shoreline erosion by armoring the shore, or the public from walking along the shoreno matter how close
the shoreline gets to their structure. If erosion threatens the structure, the owner will have to relocate the building or allow it to succumb to the encroaching sea.Titus,
James, 1998, Rising Seas, Coastal Erosion, and the Takings Clause: How to Save Wetlands and Beaches Without Hurting Property Owners, Maryland Law Review, 57:
1279-1399, http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/UniqueKeyLookup/SHSU5BVU5C/$File/takings.pdf
NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/initiatives/shoreline_ppr_easements.html
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Management Goal B: Maintain Sediment Transport
Many adaptation options that maintain sediment transport
are reactionary, in that they seek to reverse changes that
have already occurred or changes that will continue to
occur Because sediment transport is based on a constant
cycle of gains and losses, all of these options require
maintenance. However; when combined with other actions,
these adaptation options may work to prevent loss of
coastal habitats and enable marshes to accrete at a rate
consistent with sea level rise.
Beach Nourishment to Protect Horseshoe
Crab Habitat in Delaware Bay
Management Goal: Management Goal B: Maintain sediment
transport
Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise
The Delaware Department of Natural Resources and
Environmental Control and the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers
combined efforts to conduct a study on the impact of beach
nourishment on horseshoe crab populations in the Delaware
Bay. Habitats that received beach nourishment were shown to
increase horseshoe crab spawning and abundance.The study
also showed that the type of sediment used for nourishment
is critical, with coarser estuarine beach sediments providing a
more suitable habitat for horseshoe crabs.
Source: Delaware Division of Soil and Water Conservation, 2002, http:ll
el.erdc.usace.army.milltessplpdfslNew%20Horseshoe%20Crab%20
Habitat.pdf
Adaptation options to maintain sediment transport include
either trapping sediment that would otherwise migrate
or reintroducing sediment into systems (seeTable 3).
Constructing groin structures traps sand from traveling down
shore. Adding sand to beaches through beach nourishment
projects that extend the shoreline or create dunes
encourages sediment transport and reverses losses due to
erosion. Creating a regional sediment management (RSM) plan to manage sediments from source to sink within a watershed
can potentially save money, solve engineering problems, and restore natural processes.
Table 3.Adaptation Options for Maintaining Sediment Transport
Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Trap or add sand
through beach
nourishment -the
addition of sand to a
shoreline to enhance
or create
a beach area
Trap sand through
construction of
groins - a barrier-
type structure
that traps sand
by interrupting
longshore transport
Sea level rise
Sea level rise
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Preserve coastal
land/development;
Maintain shorelines
Preserve coastal
land/development;
Maintain shorelines
Creates protective
beach for inland
areas; replenishes
sand lost to erosion
Creates more
natural shore face
than bulkheads or
revetments; quick fix
Periodic
maintenance cycle
required; high costs
to import beach
material
Can trigger or
accelerate erosion
on downdrift side
and loss of beach
habitat
Cape Charles,
Virginia; Ocean
City, Maryland;
Virginia Beach,
Virginia '7;Avalon,
New Jersey; Bethany
Beach, Delaware18,
Delaware Bay (see
text box above)
Rappahannock River,
Virginia; Ocean City,
Maryland19; Long
Beach, New York
NRC 2007, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
Bethany Beach Beach Nourishment and Storm Damage Reduction Project, http://www.swc.dnrec.delaware.gov/Pages/Beach%20nourishment%202007.aspx
19 NRC 2007, Mitigating Shore ErosionAlong Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
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Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Create a regional
sediment
management (RSM)
plan
Develop adaptive
storm water
management
practices (e.g.,
promoting natural
buffers, adequate
culvert sizing)
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise
Changes in
precipitation;
Changes in storm
intensity
Maintain water
quality
Maintain water
quality
Considers entire
watershed, including
upstream reaches
Preserves natural
sediment flow
and protects
water quality of
downstream reaches
Will require more
coordination across
regions, including
private lands
Improvements can
be costly
Currently under
development: New
York-New Jersey
Harbor Estuary
Program
St.John's River
Water Management
District21
NY-NJ Harbor Estuary Program, http://harborestuary.org/rsm.htm
St.John's RiverWater Management District -The Guana Marsh Renovation Project, http://agcj.tamu.edu/404/pdf/fs-guana-ex.pdf
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Management Goal C: Preserve Coastal Land/
Development (Including Infrastructure)
Adaptation options that preserve coastal land and
development focus on land use planning and management,
land exchange and acquisition programs, and changes
to infrastructure (SeeTable 4).These adaptation
options primarily aim to preserve coastal land on which
development is planned or already exists. Land use
management involves using integrated approaches to
coastal zone management as well as land use planning. Land
exchange and acquisition programs allow for coastal land to
be freed up for preservation uses. Changes to infrastructure
can include limiting where hazardous and polluting
structures can be built (including landfills and chemical
facilities) as well as changing engineering structures that
affect water bodies and will be impacted by climate change.
Land use planning and management, as well as changes
to infrastructure, would be appropriate adaptation options for programs that are looking to implement anticipatory
changes.These options require working with various key stakeholders and a longer timeline for implementation. Land
exchange and acquisition programs would be viable options for estuaries that have a management goal of acquiring
more land in order to protect currently threatened areas.
Table 4.Adaptation Options for Preserving Coastal Land/Development (Including Infrastructure)
New Jersey Coastal Blue Acres
Land Acquisition Program
Management Goal: Management Goal C:
Preserve coastal land/development (including infrastructure)
Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise
The Coastal Blue Acres program, organized by the New
Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, is a land
acquisition program that takes into account the impacts of
climate change on coastal areas.The program acquires coastal
lands damaged or prone to damages by storms to provide a
buffer for other lands, as well as providing space for recreation
and conservation. For example, program funds were used to
acquire 18.5 acres in Lower Township, Cape May County as an
addition to the Higbee Beach Wildlife Management Area.
It provides critical undeveloped, upland and wetland habitat at
the southern end of the Cape May Peninsula, and will be used
for habitat and species restoration.
Source: IPCCAR4 WGII, Chapter 17; New jersey Department of
Environmental Protection, http://www.state.nj.us/dep/greenacres/index.htm/
Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Land exchange
programs - owners
exchange property
in the floodplain
for county-owned
land outside of the
floodplain
Integrate coastal
management into
land use planning
Create permitting
rules that constrain
locations for landfills,
hazardous waste
dumps, mine tailings,
and toxic chemical
facilities
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise; Changes in
storm intensity
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise; Changes in
storm intensity
Sea level rise;
Increases in water
temperatures;
Changes in storm
intensity
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Maintain
water quality
Preserves open
spaces; more land
available to protect
estuaries
Requires more
state agency
oversight; allows for
conservation and
management goals to
be incorporated
Zones accordingly
to protect estuaries
and coastal zones
Program is
voluntary; land
must be available
for development
elsewhere
Can be difficult to
have local and state
agencies agree;
private property
rights
Can be difficult to
enact these zoning
regulations
Suffolk County,
NewYork22
Oregon;
Chesapeake Bay
(Virginia); Florida;
North Carolina23
Many states have
recognized the
impacts sea level
rise and flooding will
have on these types
of facilities , but few
have taken action
The Trust for Public Land, 2008 Conservation Award Winners, http://www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?contentjtem_id=22135&folder_id=2867
23 NR.C 2007, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 5
San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/planning/climate_change/climate_change.shtml
-------
Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Manage realignment
and deliberately
realign engineering
structures affecting
rivers, estuaries, and
coastlines
Land acquisition
program - purchase
coastal land that is
damaged or prone
to damage and use it
for conservation
Integrated Coastal
Zone Management
(ICZM)- using
an integrated
approach to achieve
sustainability
Incorporate
consideration of
climate change
impacts into
planning for new
infrastructure (e.g.,
homes, businesses)
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise; Changes in
storm intensity
Altered timing of
seasonal changes;
Increases in air and
water temperatures;
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise; Increases
in air and water
temperatures;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in
precipitation;
Changes in storm
intensity
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Maintain
sediment transport
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Maintain
water availability;
Maintain water
quality; Maintain
sediment transport;
Maintain shorelines
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Reduces engineering
costs; protects
ecosystems and
estuaries; allows for
natural migration of
rivers
Can provide a
buffer to inland
areas; prevents
development on the
land
Considers all
stakeholders in
planning, balancing
objectives; addresses
all aspects of climate
change
Engineering could
be modified to
account for changes
in precipitation or
seasonal timing of
flows; siting decisions
could take into
account sea level rise
Can be costly
Can be expensive;
land may not be
available
Stakeholders
must be willing to
compromise;
requires much more
effort in planning
Land owners
will likely resist
relocating away
from prime coastal
locations
United Kingdom/
European Union
New Jersey Coastal
Blue Acres (see text
box on page 1 0)
European Union;
Australia26
Rhode Island State
Building Code27
IPCC AR3 WGII: Chapter I 3, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/tar/wg2/5 I I .htm;The Effects of Biological and Physical Processes on Saltmarsh Erosion and Restoration
in SE England, http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/research/theme4/workshop I/chapter_5.pdf
European Commission Coastal Zone Management, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/iczm/home. htm; Australian Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts: National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal Zone Management - Framework and Implementation Plan, http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/
publications/framework/index.html; Integrated Coastal Zone Management, http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/iczm/index.html
Rhode Island Sea Grant- Coastal Resources Center, http://seagrant.gso.uri.edu/ccd/slr/SLR_policies_summary_Mar6_final.pdf
-------
Management Goal D:
Maintain Shorelines Utilizing "Soft"Measures
Approaches for maintaining shorelines in the face
of sea level rise include both "soft" measures and
"hard" measures. Each of these approaches or some
combination of them may be appropriate depending
on the characteristics of a particular location (e.g., shore
protection costs, property values, the environmental
importance of habitat, the feasibility of protecting shores
without harming the habitat). "Soft" measures aim to
develop living shorelines through beach nourishment,
planting dune grasses, marsh creation, and planting
submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) (SeeTable 5).
Table 5. Adaptation Options for
Maintaining Shorelines through "Soft" Measures
Creating Marshes in the Chesapeake Bay,
Maryland Shore Erosion Control Program
Management Goal: Management Goal D:
Maintain shorelines utilizing "soft" measures
Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise
Through the Maryland Department of Natural Resources,the
Shore Erosion Control program has created over 300 marsh
fringe sites along the Chesapeake Bay.The marshes have been
created as "living shoreline" in order to control erosion and
reduce land lost to sea level rise.These non-structural shoreline
stabilization methods create a vegetative buffer for the land,
improve water quality,and provide habitat to many species.The
marshes were created with sand fill and stabilized through the
planting of marsh grasses and the use of soils, stones, gravels, and
biodegradable protective materials. Individual property owners
who wish to construct these types of erosion control measures
can also receive financial assistance to do so through the Shore
Erosion Control program.
Source: IPCCAR4WGII, Chapter 3; Maryland Department of Natural
Resources, http:llwww.dnr.state.md.uslccwslsedindex.asp
Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Replace shoreline
armoring with living
shorelines - through
beach nourishment,
planting vegetation,
etc.
Remove shoreline
hardening structures
such as bulkheads,
dikes, and other
engineered
structures to
allow for shoreline
migration
Plant SAV (such
as sea grasses) to
stabilize sediment
and reduce erosion
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise
Changes in
precipitation;
Sea level rise
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Preserve
habitat for
vulnerable species;
Preserve coastal
land/development
Maintain sediment
transport
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Preserve
habitat for
vulnerable species;
Preserve coastal
land/development
Reduces negative
effects of armoring
(downdrift erosion);
maintains beach
habitat
Allows for shoreline
migration
Stabilizes sediment;
does not require
costly construction
procedures
Can be costly;
requires more
planning and
materials than
armoring
Costly for, and
destructive to,
shoreline property
Seasonality - grasses
diminish in winter
months, when wave
activity is often
more severe because
of storms; light
availability is essential
Living Shorelines
Stewardship Initiative
(Chesapeake Bay)28
King County,
Washington ; Puget
Sound Action Team
Chesapeake Bay
(Living Shoreline
Stewardship
Initiative)31;
Tampa Bay NEP32
See Appendix B
Seahurst Bulkhead Removal and Beach Restoration Assessment, http://dnrmetrokc.gOV/WRIAS/9/SRFB-seahurst-park-bulkhead-study.htm
Puget Sound Alternative Shoreline Stabilization Evaluation Project, http://www.psparchives.com/our_work/restore_habitat/restore_resources.htm
See Appendix B
Tampa Bay Sea Grass Planting Initiative, http://www.tampabaywatch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=content.home&pagelD=24
-------
Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Create marsh by
planting the
appropriate species
- typically grasses,
sedges, or rushes -
in the existing
substrate
Create dunes along
backshore of beach;
includes planting
dune grasses and
sand fencing to
induce settling of
wind-blown sands
Use natural
breakwaters of
oysters (or install
other natural
breakwaters) to
dissipate wave
action and protect
shorelines
Install rock sills
and other artificial
breakwaters in front
of tidal marshes
along energetic
estuarine shores
Sea level rise
Sea level rise
Increases in water
temperatures; Sea
level rise; Changes
in precipitation;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Maintain water
quality; Maintain/
restore wetlands;
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species;
Invasive species
management
Preserve coastal
land/development
Preserve coastal
land/development;
Maintain water
quality; Invasive
species management
Preserve coastal
land/development;
Maintain water
quality
Provides protective
barrier; maintains
and often increases
habitat
Protects both the
beach and inland
areas from sea level
rise
Naturally protect
shorelines and
marshes and inhibit
erosion inshore of
the reef; will induce
sediment deposition
Naturally protect
shorelines and
marshes and inhibit
erosion inshore of
the reef; will induce
sediment deposition
Conditions must
be right for marsh
to survive (e.g.,
sunlight for grasses,
calm water); can be
affected by seasonal
changes
Costs of importing
sand; takes land away
from public use
May not be
sustainable in the
long-term, because
breakwaters are
not likely to provide
reliable protection
against erosion in
major storms
May not be
sustainable in the
long-term, because
breakwaters
are not likely to
provide reliable
protection against
erosion in major
storms; requires
encroachment
bayward or
riverward, usually
beyond the property
limit, complicating
the process for
obtaining permits for
construction
Maryland Shore
Erosion Control
33
Program ;
Chesapeake Bay
(Living Shoreline
Stewardship
Initiative)
Chesapeake
Bay (Virginia, in
particular)
South Carolina
Oyster Restoration
and Enhancement
(SCORE)36; New
York/New Jersey
Baykeeper Oyster
Restoration
Program37;VIMS
Oyster Restoration
Programs
(Virginia)38; Oyster
Reef Restoration in
the Mid-Atlantic39
St. Mary's County,
Maryland40;
Mississippi-
Alabama Sea
Grant Consortium
(MASGC)41
Maryland Department of Natural Resources, http://www.dnrstate.md.us/ccws/sec/index.asp
See Appendix B
NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3; Chesapeake Bay Living Shoreline Stewardship Initiative (see Appendix B)
South Carolina Oyster Restoration and Enhancement, http://score.dnrsc.gov/index.php
New York/New Jersey Baykeeper, http://www.nynjbaykeeperorg/programs/42
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Molluscan Ecology Program, http://www.vims.edu/mollusc/monrestoration/restoyreef.htm
University of New Hampshire - Oyster Restoration Program, http://www.oysters.unh.edu/other_restoration.html
40 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
Shoreline Protection Alternatives, http://www.masgc.org/pdf/masgp/07-026.pdf
-------
Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Restrict or prohibit
development in
erosion zones
Redefine riverine
flood hazard zones
to match projected
expansion of
flooding frequency
and extent
Increase shoreline
setbacks
Composite systems
- incorporate
elements of two
or more methods
(e.g., breakwater,
sand fill, and planting
vegetation)
Sea level rise;
Changes in
precipitation;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in
precipitation;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Preserve coastal
land/development;
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Preserve coastal
land/development;
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Preserve coastal
land/development
Preserve coastal
land/development
Allows for more
land available to
protect estuaries
Protects riverine
systems and zones
accordingly
Protects coastal
property in the long
term and prevents
development directly
on the shoreline
Incorporates
benefits of multiple
systems; can address
longer stretches of
coastline
Will not help areas
already developed;
difficult to get all
parties to agree
Impacts on flood
insurance; may
require changing
zoning ordinances,
which can be difficult
Will not help areas
already developed
"Softer approaches"
(e.g., vegetation,
beach nourishment)
require more
maintenance over
time; can become
costly
New Jersey (limits
development) ; San
Mateo, California43
King County,
Washington44
Buzzards Bay45;
North Carolina
Coastal Resources
Commission (CRC)
is developing new
setback rules46;
South Carolina
Chesapeake Bay;
James City County,
Virginia48;
Mississippi-
Alabama Sea
Grant Consortium
(MASGC)49
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection - Coastal Zone Management Rules, http://www.state.nj.us/dep/landuse/7-7e.pdf
California Environmental Resources Evaluation System - County of San Mateo Local Coastal Program Policies, http://ceres.ca.gov/planning/lcp/sanmateo/visual.html
44 King County, WA 2007 Climate Action Plan, http://www.metrokc.gov/exec/news/2007/pdf/ClimatePlan.pdf
Buzzards Bay Action Plan: Planning for a Shifting Shoreline (1991 CCMP), http://www.buzzardsbay.org/ccmpold/ccmp-ap-shift.pdf
North Carolina Coastal Resources Commission, http://dcm2.enrstate.nc.us/CRC/crc.htm
South Carolina Code of Regulations, http://www.scstatehouse.net/coderegs/c030.htm
48 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
Shore Protection Alternatives, http://www.masgc.org/pdf/masgp/07-026.pdf
-------
Management Goal E: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing "Hard"Measures
Shoreline protection can also be achieved through hardening techniques such as constructing bulkheads, seawalls,
revetments, and breakwaters, or reinforcing dikes and headlands (SeeTable 6). Adaptation options that use hardening
techniques are often preserving existing development (e.g., homes and businesses) and infrastructure (e.g., sewage
systems, roads), or protecting land available for future development or infrastructure. While these options may provide
immediate remediation, they may not be sustainable in protecting coastal land in the long term. Many of these adaptation
options have potential negative impacts on habitats and ecosystems as well, including wetland loss where migration is
blocked by hard structures.
Table 6. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Shorelines through "Hard" Measures
Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Fortify dikes
Harden shorelines
with bulkheads -
anchored, vertical
barriers constructed
at the shoreline to
block erosion
Harden shorelines
with seawalls
Harden shorelines
with revetments that
armor the slope face
of the shoreline
Harden shorelines
with breakwaters
- structures placed
offshore to reduce
wave action
Headland control -
reinforce or
accentuate an existing
geomorphic feature
or create an artificial
headland (e.g.,
Geotextile tubes)
Sea level rise;
Changes in
precipitation;
Increases in water
temperatures;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Sea level rise;
Changes in storm
intensity
Maintain water
quality; Preserve
coastal land/
development
Preserve coastal
land/development
Preserve coastal
land/development
Preserve coastal
land/development
Maintain water
quality; Preserve
coastal land/
development
Preserve coastal
land/development
Protect land subject
to flooding and
storm surges
Most common;
simple materials
used for
const ruction; quick
fix
Withstand greater
wave energy than
bulkheads; simple
materials used for
const ruction; quick
fix
Simple materials
used for
const ruction; quick
fix
Employs materials
that are locally
available; quick fix;
create good habitat
for marshes and
mangroves (calm
water)
Can be cost-effective
Can be costly;
salinity gradient may
still migrate
Loss of intertidal
habitats; adjacent
properties must
be bulkheaded to
maintain consistent
shorefront
Loss of intertidal
habitats
Loss of intertidal
habitats; often
constructed
poorly and lead to
destabilization of
banks, increasing
erosion
Downdrift coast
may be deprived of
sediment, increasing
erosion; loss of
habitat
May reduce
sediment supply
to adjacent snores,
increasing erosion;
loss of habitat
Tyrell County,
North Carolina
(dikes primarily
used to protect
agricultural land)
Manhattan, Long
Island, New York;
Mobile Bay, Alabama;
Delaware Bay;
Pacific Northwest51
Puget Sound,
Washington; James
River in Newport
News,Virginia
Potomac
River, Virginia;
Northumberland
County, Virginia
Chesapeake Bay
Hog Island, Virginia;
Westmoreland
County, Virginia;
Texas5
SAP 4.1, Coastal Sesitivity to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region, Appendix G
NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
-------
Management Goal F: Invasive Species Management
Limiting invasions by non-native species as climate-driven changes modify habitat conditions may involve preventing the
introduction of invasive species or removing species that are already posing a threat to native populations (seeTable 7). As a
reactive solution, the removal of invasive species allows for native species to be re-established and ecosystems to be restored.
Preventing the introduction of invasive species requires proactive planning and strengthening of rules and regulations.56
In some cases, adapting to species change will be necessary. Climate change will likely shift habitats poleward, forcing
some species to migrate in order to survive. Management options may have to consider climate change when making
long term investments based on an assumption of species persistence.
Table /.Adaptation Options for Invasive Species Management
Adaptation
Option
Climate
Stressor
Addressed
Additional
Management
Goals Addressed
Benefits
Constraints
Examples
Strengthen rules
that prevent the
introductions of
invasive species (e.g.,
enforce no discharge
zones for ballast
water)
Remove invasive
species and restore
native species
Altered timing of
seasonal changes;
Increases in air and
water temperatures
Altered timing of
seasonal changes;
Increases in air and
water temperatures
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Preserve
habitat for vulnerable
species
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Preserve
habitat for
vulnerable species
Prevents difficult
eradication of
invasives by
preventing their
introductions
Local removals of
invasives is locally
viable to improve
marsh characteristics
that promote fish
and wildlife
Difficult to regulate
Difficult (if not
impossible) on a
larger scale
Oregon57
Peconic Estuary
Program
For more information on invasive species management, see http://www.epa.gov/owow/invasive_species/invasives_management/; U.S. EPA and the Environmental
Law Institute Report: Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Invasive Species and Implications for Management and Research, http://oaspub.epa.gov/eims/eimscomm.
getfile?p_download_id=472l 14
Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife, Oregon Invasive Species Action Plan, http://www.oregon.gov/OISC/docs/pdf/oisc_plan6_05.pdf
Invasive Species Management in the Peconic Estuary, http://www.peconicestuary.org/lnvasives.html
-------
Management Goal G:Preserve Habitat forVulnerable Species
Adaptation options to preserve habitat for vulnerable species may involve actively increasing ecosystem boundaries or
removing barriers that prevent habitat expansion or migration (seeTable 8). Actions to increase ecosystem boundaries
could include purchasing upland development or property rights and expanding the planning horizons of land use
planning to incorporate longer-term climate predictions. Actions that remove barriers to expansion might include
retreating away from and abandoning coastal barriers (e.g., seawalls).The actions listed in Table 8 may be similar to those
listed under Management Goal A: Maintain/Restore Wetlands, however; the primary goal of the options listed below is to
help improve the resiliency of species that are vulnerable to climate change.
Removing existing ecosystem barriers could be either a reactionary or a proactive adaptation option, depending on
whether it is undertaken in response to observations that habitats are shifting or in anticipation that habitats may shift.
Increasing ecosystem boundaries is an anticipatory adaptation option, focusing on the potential for habitats to fluctuate
in size, and allowing for flexibility in their movement.
Table 8. Adaptation Options for Preserving Habitat forVulnerable Species
Adaptation
Option
Climate
Stressor
Addressed
Additional
Management
Goals Addressed
Benefits
Constraints
Examples
Retreat from, and
abandonment of,
coastal barriers
Purchase upland
development rights
or property rights
Expand the planning
horizons of land
use planning to
incorporate longer
climate predictions
Sea level rise
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Maintain
water quality
Preserve coastal
land/development
May help protect
estuaries, allowing
them to return to
their natural habitat
Protects habitats
downstream
Could inhibit risky
development and
provide protection
for estuarine habitats
Not politically
favored due to
the high value of
coastal property and
infrastructure
Costly; uncertainty
about sea level rise
means uncertainty
in the amount of
property purchased
Land use plans rarely
incorporate hard
prohibitions against
development close
to sensitive habitats
and have limited
durability overtime
San Francisco
Estuary Project
(planned)59;
Massachusetts
Climate Protection
Plan60
San Francisco Bay
Conservation
and Development
Commission
(SFBCDC)
has proposed
recommendations61
San Francisco Estuary Project CCMP Section on Wetlands Management, http://sfep.abag.ca.gov/pdfs/ccmp/Wetlands_Management.pdf
Massachusetts Climate Protection Plan, http://www.newamerica.net/files/MACIimateProtPlan0504.pdf
Climate Change Strategy for the San Francisco Bay Region, http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/planning/climate_change/climate_change.shtml
-------
Adaptation
Option
Climate
Stressor
Addressed
Additional
Management
Goals Addressed
Benefits
Constraints
Examples
Adapt protections
of important
biogeochemical zones
and critical habitats as
the locations of these
areas change with
climate
Connect landscapes
with corridors to
enable migrations
Design estuaries
with dynamic
boundaries and
buffers
Replicate habitat
types in multiple
areas to spread
risks associated with
climate change
Increases in air and
water temperatures;
Altered timing of
seasonal changes;
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise
Altered timing of
seasonal changes; Sea
level rise
Altered timing of
seasonal changes; Sea
level rise
Altered timing of
seasonal changes;
Increases in air and
water temperatures
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Invasive
species management
Allows for migration
of critical areas
Allows for species
migration with
climate change;
sustains wildlife
biodiversity across
the landscape
Protects breeding
and foraging habits
of highly migratory
species
Protects biodiversity
and critical areas
Will require
consistent
monitoring efforts
May require
significant effort and
resources
In highly developed
areas, boundaries
may already be
unmovable
Land may not be
available to replicate
habitats
-------
Management Goal H: Maintain Water Quality
Sea level rise and changes in the timing and intensity of
precipitation can affect the water quality of estuaries.
Protecting existing infrastructure and planning for impacts
to new infrastructure can help reduce vulnerability to
these impacts (e.g., sizing drainage and sewer treatment
systems to accommodate changes in flow). Other
options for maintaining water quality of marshes and
wetlands include preventing or limiting groundwater
extraction from shallow aquifers and protecting land
subject to flooding by plugging canals (seeTable 9).
Determining the type of adaptation option to implement
is dependent on what specific management challenge
a particular estuary is facing, or is expecting to face
in the future. If the water quality is being threatened
by development, then incorporating sea level rise into
planning for new infrastructure may be appropriate.
However; if saltwater intrusion is predicted to pose future
risks, then options such as modifying or designing new
drainage/sewer systems may be more appropriate.
The Guana Marsh Renovation Project, St.
John's County, Florida
Management Goal: Management Goal H:
Maintain water quality
Climate Stressor Addressed: Changes in precipitation
The water quality of the Guana Marsh has been negatively
impacted by increasing development,agricultural runoff,
and the elevation of water tables.The St.John's River Water
Management District has developed a Guana Basin Master
Plan to improve water quality and restore the marsh.This plan
allowed for several different improvements to be completed,
including the replacement of inadequate or failing flow
structures with box culverts;the construction of a water
control weir to provide water level control and storage for
water quality treatment; and the removal of aquatic plants
that blocked the natural channel flow.The water quality of the
marsh will continue to be improved through the replacement
of septic tanks with a central sewer system.
Source: St. John's River Water Management District The Guana Marsh
Renovation Project, http:llagcj.tamu.edul404lpdflfs-guana-ex.pdf
Table 9. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Water Quality
Adaptation
Option
Climate
Stressor
Addressed
Additional
Management
Goals Addressed
Benefits
Constraints
Examples
Plug drainage canals
Prevent or limit
groundwater
extraction from
shallow aquifers
Design new coastal
drainage system
Sea level rise;
Changes in
precipitation
Sea level rise
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise; Changes in
storm intensity
Preserve coastal
land/development
Preserve coastal
land/development;
Maintain/restore
wetlands; Maintain
water availability
Prevent subsidence-
inducing saltwater
intrusion; protect
land subject to
flooding
Will limit relative
sea level rise
by preventing
subsidence and
reducing saltwater
intrusion into
freshwater aquifers
Many systems need
to be restructured
anyway
Elimination of
transportation
routes
Need to find an
alternative water
source
Planning and
construction can be
very costly and time-
consuming
Louisiana
Vancouver,
Canada (planned -
CitiesPLUS
100-year plan)63
Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, Local Coastal Programs, http://dnrlouisiana.gov/crm/coastmgt/interagencyaff/lcp/parish/cam_emu.asp
IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 14, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm
-------
Adaptation
Option
Climate
Stressor
Addressed
Additional
Management
Goals Addressed
Benefits
Constraints
Examples
Incorporate sea
level rise into
planning for new
infrastructure (e.g.,
sewage systems)
Develop adaptive
storm water
management
practices (e.g.,
remove impervious
surface, replace
undersized culverts)
Sea level rise
Changes in
precipitation;
Changes in storm
intensity
Preserve coastal
land/development
Maintain/restore
wetlands
Preserves long-term
functional integrity
of structures; pre-
vents contamination
of water supply
Minimizes pollutant
and nutrient
overloading of
existing wetlands
Measures can be
costly
May require costly
improvements
Deer Island, Boston,
Massachusetts64
Massachusetts
BaysNEP65;St.
John's River Water
Management District
(see text box on
page 1 9); New
Jersey66
pdf
IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 17, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm
Action Plan for Massachusetts Bays Program Comprehensive Conservation Management Plan, http://www.mass.gov/envir/massbays/pdf/Chapter%20V%20part9o20l.
New Jersey Coastal Management Program, http://www.nj.gov/dep/cmp/309_combined_strat_7_06.pdf
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Management Goal I: Maintain Water Availability
In order to maintain water availability, adaptation options
must either free up additional water sources or reallocate
water distribution. Creating water markets is one option
that will free up new water sources.To reallocate water
distribution,"use containment areas" (where withdrawal is
allocated and capped) can be established or broadened to
allocate and cap water withdrawal (seeTable 0).
Integrating climate change scenarios into water supply
systems is an approach that may facilitate planning to both
free up and reallocate water distribution.
Depending on the region, some programs may already
be facing water shortages or flooding, and may benefit
from reactionary adaptation options that free up new
water sources. For areas that see water availability as a future problem, anticipatory measures such as establishing "use
containment areas" or integrating climate change into water system planning may be better options to consider.
Table 10. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Water Availability
Adaptation Climate Additional Benefits Constraints Examples
Option Stressor Management
Addressed Goals Addressed
Create water
markets -
transferring land
and water from
agricultural to
community use
Establish or broaden
"use containment
areas" to allocate
and cap water
withdrawal
Integrate climate
change scenarios
into water supply
system
Manage water
demand (through
water reuse,
recycling, rainwater
harvesting,
desalination, etc.)
Changes in
precipitation;
Increases in air
temperatures
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise
Increases in air and
water temperature;
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise
Increases in air and
water temperatures;
Changes in
precipitation; Sea
level rise
Preserve habitat for
vulnerable species
Preserve coastal
land/development
Increases availability
of water for
environmental uses
Maintains sustainable
aquifer yields and
prevents saltwater
intrusion
Takes changes
in temperature,
precipitation, and
sea level rise into
account in planning
Increases availability
of water for all uses
Program is voluntary;
landowners must
be willing to give up
some water
Could be difficult to
maintain; politically
sensitive
Could show that
major restructuring
is needed; changes
could become costly
Requires
coordination among
water agencies and
districts
Metropolitan Water
District of Southern
California (see text
box above)67
New York City68
San Francisco
Estuary Project69
67
IPCCAR4WGII: Chapter 3; Metropolitan Water District of Southern California Press Release, http://www.mwdh2o.com/mwdh2o/pages/news/press_
releases/200 6-06/red amation_and_met.htm
68
IPCCAR4WGII: Chapter 17; New York City Department of Environmental Protection Climate ChangeTask Force, http://ccsrcolumbia.edu/cig/taskforce/index.html
San Francisco Estuary Project CCMP Water Use Chapter, http://sfep.abag.ca.gov/pdfs/ccmp/Water_Use.pdf
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IV Summary: Moving Forward on Adaptation
Despite a growing awareness of the threats posed by climate change, there are relatively few examples of coastal
organizations already preparing to adapt to these changes. For example, many states acknowledge sea level rise as a
concern in their coastal zone management assessments, but have not yet developed a comprehensive strategy to deal with
it. Part of this delayed response can be traced to institutional barriers to changes in management and individuals' behavior
Some of the primary institutional barriers to adaptation in estuarine systems include policy biases and decision paralysis due
to scientific uncertainty at the local scale.
Established policies often favor one type of response over another; causing institutional biases. Policies at the
federal level tend to favor shore protection over retreat in developed areas, and retreat over shore protection in
undeveloped areas. Hard structures tend to be favored over living shorelines in some longstanding federal policies,
but more recent state policies (e.g., Maryland) favor living shorelines that rely on soft solutions such as rebuilding an
eroded marsh or bay beach.70
Uncertainty surrounding impacts, the relative benefits of different adaptation options, and how others will respond to
climate change stressors may delay or impede decisions regarding whether and how to protect resources or abandon
resources that cannot be saved.The specific effects of climate change stressors on individual systems are still highly
uncertain, as are the expected responses that will result from implementing adaptation strategies. Decision makers are
hesitant to act in the face of an uncertain future. Furthermore, many estuaries are managed by interdependent agencies;
not knowing how other decision makers will respond to stressors makes it difficult to decide what actions to take.
Finally, the options suggested in this guide are potentially difficult and costly to implement. There may be some easy
solutions; in fact, there is a strong case to be made that the sooner they are completed, the easier and perhaps cheaper
they will be compared to the costs of inaction. However; in many cases, land managers and property owners will be
faced with difficult and potentially costly tradeoffs and actions. More work is needed to evaluate the feasibility of options,
better define the cost-effectiveness, and provide additional guidance for land managers.
Decision makers can, nevertheless, begin to take steps toward adapting to climate change. While some of the examples
presented above may not provide precise models for adapting to climate change, they do provide some ideas of how
others have begun to take adaptive measures to ensure existing management goals continue to be met. A list of relevant
Websites is also included in Appendix A, and a list of potential contacts is included in Appendix B.
NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapters I and 5
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V. References
CCSP 2008. Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-Level Rise:A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change
Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [BlundenJ., and A.M.Waple (eds.);Anderson, K.E.,
D.R. Cahoon, S.K. Gill, B.T. Gutierrez, E.R.Thieler, J.G.Titus, and S.J.Williams (Authors)]. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC, USA.
CCSP 2008. Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Transportation Systems and Infrastructure: Culf Coast Study, Phase I.
A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Savonis,
M.J.,V.R. Burkett, and J.R. Potter (eds.)]. U.S. Department ofTransportation,Washington, DC, USA, 445 pp.
CCSP 2008. Preliminary review of adaptation options for climate-sensitive ecosystems and resources. A Report by the U.S.
Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Julius, S.H.J.M.West (eds.);J.S.
Baron, L.A. Joyce, B.D. Keller, M.A. Palmer, C.H. Peterson, and J.M. Scott (Authors)]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, USA, 873 pp.
Dyer; K. I 995. Response of estuaries to climate change, n Eisma, D. (ed.) Climate Change: Impact on Coastal Habitation,
Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pages 85- I 0.
IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B.Averyt,
M.Tignor, and HI. Miller (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NX USA, 996 pp.
IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution ofWorking Croup II to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [Of. Canziani, J.P Palutikof, PJ. van der Linden, and C.E.
Hanson (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 976 pp.
IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution ofWorking Croup III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, PR. Bosch, R. Dave, and L.A. Meyer (eds.)], Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 85 pp.
NRC, 2007. Mitigating Shore Erosion along Sheltered Coasts, National Research CouncilThe National Academies Press,Washington,
DC, USA, 74pp.
Short, F.A., and H.A. Neckles, I 999. The effects of global climate change on seagrasses. Aquatic Botany 63:1 69-196. Page 78.
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Appendix A
Useful Websites
Below is a list of selected online information sources currently available to resource managers.
EPA's Climate Ready Estuaries Website http://www.epa.gov/cre/
This site provides information on climate change impacts and adaptation options; profiles member estuaries and their efforts
to address climate change; provides details on how prospective programs can become members; and provides links to
important resources, news and events, and contact information.
EPA's Climate Change Website http://www.epa.gov/climatechange
This site offers comprehensive and accessible information on climate change, including effects on public health and the
environment as well as basic information about the science of climate change.
National Estuaries Program Website http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries
The NEP establishes partnerships with State, local, and academic interests to improve the quality of estuaries of national
importance.The National Estuary Program is comprised of 28 estuaries in the U.S.
U.S. Climate Change Science Program Website http://www.climatescience.gov
The U.S. Climate Change Science Program integrates federal research on climate and global change as sponsored by thirteen
federal agencies. This site provides a library of research reports, including all 21 Synthesis and Assessment Products.
ntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Website http://www.ipcc.ch
The IPCC was established "to assess the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding
of human induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for mitigation and adaptation" (IPCC Website). The IPCC
Fourth Assessment Report, including Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, is available for download.
National Research Council Website http://sites.nationalacademies.org/nrc/index.htm
The National Research Council is part of a private, nonprofit institution that provides science, technology and health policy
advice. This site provides access to research on various issues pertinent to NEPs. Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered
Coasts is available for download at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1 I764.html
NOAA Coastal Services Center http://www.csc.noaa.gov/
This site is devoted to serving the nation's state and local coastal resource management programs. Resources available include
data, software, and decision support tools.The Center also offers training to coastal managers on these resources.
NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management http://coastalmanagementnoaa.gov/mystate/welcome.html
This site provides state-specific information on activities NOAA's Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management is
involved in, including coastal zone management, research, outreach, and funding.
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Appendix B
General Contact Information for Governments, NGOs, and Program Managers
Below is a list of organizations, many of which are mentioned in this report, that have undertaken adaptation actions
and may serve as resources for other communities as they move forward in adapting to climate change.
California Coastal Commission
45 Fremont, Suite 2000
San Francisco, C A 941 OS-2219
(415)904-5200
http://www.coastal.ca.gov/
Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana
Capital Annex, Suite 138
1051 North 3rd Street
Baton Rouge, LA 70802
(225) 342-3968
http://www.lacpra.org/
Delaware Department of Natural Resources
and Environmental Control
Division of Soil and Water Conservation
89 Kings Highway
Dover, DE 19901
http://www.swc.dnrec.delaware.gov/
Houston-Galveston Area Council
P.O. Box 22777
Houston,TX 77227-2777
http://www.h-gac.com/
King County (Washington) Shoreline Master Program
201 S.Jackson Street
Seattle,WA98l04
http://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/waterandland/shorelines.
aspx
Living Shorelines Stewardship Initiative
A partnership between NOAA, National Fish and Wildlife
Foundation, the Keith Campbell Foundation, and the
Chesapeake Bay Trust
NOAA:
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/restoration
Keith Campbell Foundation:
http://www.campbellfoundation.Org/h tml/related_projects.html
Chesapeake Bay Trust:
http://www.cbtrust.Org/site/c.enJIKQNoFiG/b.2028493/k.4D43/
Living_Shorelines_Grant_Program.htm
Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program:
http://www.deq.virginia.gov/coastal/livingshore.html
Maryland Department of Natural Resources:
http://shorelines.dnr.state.md.us/living.asp
Maryland Department of Natural Resources,
Shore Erosion Control Program
Tawes State Office Building D-3
580 Taylor Avenue
Annapolis, Maryland 21401
http://www.dnr.state.md.us/ccws/sec/index.asp
Massachusetts Water Resources Authority
Charlestown Navy Yard
100 First Ave, Building 39
Boston, MA 02129
(617)660-7971
http://www.mwra.state.ma.us/index.html
Metropolitan Water District of Southern California
P.O. Box 54153
Los Angeles, CA 90054-0153
(213)217-6000
http://www.mwdh2o.com/
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection,
Green Acres Program
Bureau of Green Trust Management
PO Box 412
Trenton, NJ 08625-0412
http://www.state.nj.us/dep/greenacres/index.html
Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council
Stedman Government Center, Suite 3
4808Tower Hill Road
Wakefield,RI02879-l900
(401)783-3370
http://www.crmc.ri.gov/
San Francisco Bay Conservation
and Development Commission
50 California Street, Suite 2600
San Francisco, C A 941 I I
(415) 352-3600
http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/
Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council
1926 Victoria Avenue
Fort Meyers, FL 33901
(239) 338-2550
http ://www.swf rp c. o rg/
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26 SYNTHESIS OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR COASTAL AREAS
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SYNTHESIS OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS FOR COASTAL AREAS 27
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