PREDICTION
This exercise lets students practice making predictions, experiment-
ing to test their hypotheses, and refining their predictions based on
the results. It can be used with the activities called "Finding Sources
of Air Pollution" and "Climate and the Greenhouse Effect," which
include use of prediction skills.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Recognize role of predictions in science
^ Refine predictions based on observation and experimentation
^ Test hypotheses
SKILLS
Forming and refining predictions
Observing
Comparing
Interpreting and using results
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters for this exercise could include atmospheric scien-
tists, environmental scientists, EPA environmental protection special-
ists, or meteorologists.
BACKGROUND
Making predictions and developing theories are central to the scien-
tific method. History is replete with examples of scentists using their
imagiNations and sound logic to hypothesize explaNations for things
they observed and predict what should, or could, come next. While
scientific predictions generally speculate about future observations or
events, they also can focus on the past. For example, scientists may
use observations from the present to predict where evidence related
to the origins of humans might be found.
Environmental scientists and others use data collected in a variety of
different experiments to examine trends and changes in the atmo-
sphere and air quality. Using their observations and data from these
experiments, they can predict, for example, whether the Earth's tem-
perature is warming or cooling, what conditions will influence these
changes, and how long it will take for each increase or decrease in
temperature to occur.
There is always some uncertainty involved in making such predic-
tions, because we still do not know everything about how individual
RELATED
ACTIVITIES
9,13
REFER TO
READING
MATERIAL
"Weather and Air
Quality"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
5th - 8th
DURATION
45 minutes
VOCABULARY
Hypothesis
Precursor
Prediction
Variable
MATERIALS
Current day's
newspaper
Three 12-oz. glasses
An 8-oz. plastic or
styrofoam container
(small enough to fit
inside one of the
glasses)
Tray of ice cubes
Chalkboard
Graph paper
Pencils
Project A.I.R.E.
Prediction
-------
environmental processes work, much less how they interact. But the pro-
cess of making predictions is important because it helps us gain more knowl-
edge about unobserved phenomena and potential problems. (For example,
predictions enable local government officials to warn health authorities
and the public of the potential for conditions, like air inversions and smog,
that could be harmful to people with respiratory difficulties and advise
them how to protect themselves.)
The ability to make predictions like these has been honed over time by con-
tinuously testing predictions and hypotheses and revising them based on
observed results. It is through this process, for example, that scientists have
been able to identify specific variables in the weather (called "precursors")
that signal the formation of smog. (See reading material on "Weather and Air
Quality.")
WHAT TO DO
Ask the class why we would want to know what will happen tomor-
row? Let students give their answers. Try to have them analyze and
group their answers by category. For example, which answers have
to do with "feeling secure"? How many relate to "being in control"
or "being able to plan"? (This serves to illustrate the significance of
the process of prediction.)
2« Hold up today's newspaper. Read the local weather forecast, includ-
ing the information on air quality. Ask students how they think fore-
casters decide what to predict? What do they base their predictions
on?
J« Explain that the class is going to do an experiment to see how well
the students make predictions. (Make sure all students have a sheet
of graph paper.) Instruct students to draw a graph on graph paper
like the one shown below. Put a similar graph on the chalkboard.
Minutes £
#1 #2 #3
Glass
4« Place the three glasses on a desktop or shelf in plain view of the class.
Explain that you are going to put the same amount of ice in each
glass. (Do not do it yet.) Explain that the ice will be surrounded by
water in glass #1, by another container in glass #2, and by air in glass
#3.
Prediction 2 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
5« (Group students in teams if you prefer.) Ask the students to predict
how long it will take the ice in each glass to melt (completely). Ask
them to mark their predictions on the graph. (Glass #1 will have the
water, glass #2 the plastic cup, and glass #3 the ice cubes alone.) In
addition, have them write a hypothesis (basis for their reasoning) for
each prediction (next to the graph or on another sheet of paper).
6« Explain that you will be checking their predictions and hypotheses in 5
minutes. Explain that they will
have an opportunity to revise
their predictions and hypotheses,
if necessary, at that time. Call on
a number of students to share
their initial predictions with the
class. Record them on the graph
on the chalkboard.
7« Now put three ice cubes in
glasses #1 and #3. Put the same
amount of ice in the plastic cup
and put it into glass #2. Pour
water into glass #1 to fill it half
full.
8« In the 5-minute interval, have stu-
dents discuss the predictions
shown on the chalkboard. Do
they cluster? Do they differ
widely? Why? Ask students to
share their hypotheses—how
they arrived at their predictions.
Then ask if predictions or fore-
casts, like the examples on the
chalkboard, are always right. If
not, what is the value in making
predictions? How do the stu-
dents think forecasters—weather
forecasters, for example—learn to make accurate predictions? (The dis-
cussion should point out that accurate weather forecasts result from
forecasters' understanding of the scientific principles involved in weather
and learning from their mistakes—analyzing the results of one predic-
tion, making adjustments, and making another, more informed pre-
diction.)
9« After five minutes, have students examine the three glasses. Did the
ice melt in any of the glasses? If not, in which glass has the ice melted
the most? Have the students participate in checking the predictions
recorded on the chalkboard against the results at this point. Did any-
one make an accurate prediction? How many students are on the
Project A.I.R.E.
Prediction
-------
right track in terms of choosing the glass in which the ice will melt the
fastest?
1O« Ask students to revise their predictions and hypotheses. Have them
record their new predictions and hypotheses on the same graph. (Make
sure they mark which is the second prediction.)
11* Ask students to share their revised predictions (record these on the
graph on the chalkboard) and what they considered in revising the
predictions.
12* Have students examine the new set of predictions recorded on the
graph on the chalkboard. Is the pattern generally the same or different
than before? Ask students what conclusions they can draw about the
process for making predictions from this exercise?
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Repeat the experiment on another day, but divide the class in half and
add a variable (the addition of heat). Duplicate the original setup of
glasses for each half of the class and have each group select a student
to participate in the experiment. Explain that one group will use a hair
dyer to blow warm air at the side of the glasses. The other group will
use a hair dryer to blow warm air down from above the glasses. Have
each group discuss and arrive at predictions about the ice in the other
group's glasses. Remind everyone to consider what happened in the
first set of trials. During the 5-minute interval, encourage students to
share their predictions (record them on the chalkboard) and discuss
how the heat variable affected their hypotheses. When the time has
passed, examine the results and discuss what students observed, what
conclusions they can draw, and how they would use that information
in revising their predictions.
SUGGESTED READING
Cosgrove, Brian. Eyewitness Books: Weather. New York: Alfred A. Knopf (1991).
Gibbons, Gail. Weather Forecasting. New York: Chelsea House Publishers
(1992).
Root-Bernstein, Robert. "Future Imperfect (Incomplete Models of Nature
Guarantees All Predictions Are Unreliable)." Discover, 14 (November
1993) p. 42.
Prediction 4 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
READ MY DATA
Most environmental decisions and regulations are based upon large
quantities of numerical data and trends. This exercise introduces stu-
dents to the fundamentals of reading and analyzing data and extract-
ing comparisons and averages. It can be delivered by the teacher or a
guest presenter, or by both together. It is related to the "Breathing
Room," "The Greenhouse Effect," and "Smog" activities.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
~@i Understand how data is collected and analyzed
^ Recognize air pollutants the government requires to be monitored
SKILLS
^ Computing
^ Analyzing data
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include air quality engineers, environmental
scientists, EPA risk assessment specialists, EPA environmental protec-
tion specialists, meteorologists, or statisticians.
BACKGROUND
No matter where you live, but especially in urban areas, each breath
you take contains gases or particles that may be unhealthy. We know
this from the analysis of air quality data from around the country. We
also know that much of the air pollution is invisible and cannot be
detected by human senses. Realistically, in our industrial society, it is
not practical to expect that air pollutants can be eliminated totally
anywhere, so it becomes important to determine what "acceptable"
concentrations will be allowed, and equally important to monitor
ambient air quality so that these "acceptable" limits are not exceeded.
Most air quality monitoring is done automatically by specialized equip-
ment located strategically throughout the country. These monitoring
stations collect vast quantities of data and create a record of the con-
centrations and durations of specific pollutants. The Clean Air Act
establishes certain "standards," or acceptable levels, for various "crite-
ria" pollutants. Most laws and regulations have separate standards for
averaged concentrations over certain short- and long-terms (such as
maximum 8-hour average concentrations). The Clean Air Act estab-
lishes National Ambient Air Quality Standards for six criteria pollut-
ants: carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone,
particulate matter, and lead. The short-term National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) for several pollutants are shown on the
accompanying table.
RELATED
ACTIVITIES
5,12,14
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"The Clean Air Act"
"Air Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
5th-12th
DURATION
40 minutes (or
additional session
with guest presenter)
VOCABULARY
Air quality monitoring
Ambient air
Data
Pollutant
Standards
Trend
MATERIALS
Paper
Pencils
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
2
Project A.I.R.E.
Read My Data
-------
This exercise will look at concentrations for the first four pollutants in sev-
eral cities around the country. Just how clean is your air? You could guess—
but check the accompanying data and find out. (See reading materials on
"The Clean Air Act," and "Air Pollution.")
WHAT TO DO
1« Write "1 ppm" on the chalkboard, and next to it write the fraction:
1
1,000,000
Explain that "ppm" means "parts per million" and is similar to "per-
cent" in that "percent" means "parts per hundred." Explain that, like
"percent," ppm has no units or dimensions (such as grams or cubic
meters). Challenge the class to state which quantity is smaller, 1 ppm
or 1 percent. For older students, ask them to compute how much
smaller 1 ppm is than 1 percent. Point out that since there are 10,000
"hundreds" in a million, 1 ppm must be 10,000 times smaller than 1
percent.
2« Using Student Worksheet 1, explain to the class what the numbers
represent and ask the students to answer the questions. (For more
advanced students, request the answers in quantitative terms.)
3. Using Student Worksheet 2, direct the students to calculate the per-
centage change in pollutant concentrations from 1975 to 1991 for the
listed pollutants. Call students' attention to the fact that two of the six
pollutants have units of |ig/m3 which means micrograms per cubic
meter, while the other four pollutants have units of ppm, or parts per
million. Explain to them that both represent concentrations of pollut-
ants in the air. The four ppm pollutants are all gases, and most fluids
(gases and liquids) normally have concentrations expressed as millili-
ters per liters (part per thousand) or microliters per liter (parts per mil-
lion). Lead and particulates are solids, and their density cannot be arbi-
trarily established in relation to air. Therefore, their concentrations are
normally expressed as a unit of weight (mass) per volume of air. The
difference in the units of measure does not affect the calculation of
percentage change.
4. Ask the students to identify significant changes. Have them speculate
as to why the changes might have occurred. Discuss their answers
with the guest speaker.
5« Point out to the students that the standards are very different from
each other. Ozone's permissible level, for instance, is 75 times lower
than that of carbon monoxide. Ask the class to speculate why the
standards may be different for different substances. Explain that the
human health tolerances are different for each pollutant and each pol-
lutant may cause different health effects. The regulations account for
these differences.
Read My Data 6 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
~@i Call your Regional EPA contact (see the Project A.I.R.E. Contacts listed
at the back of this package) for information about where to obtain
similar data for your geographic location. Conduct a similar analysis.
SUGGESTED READING
Baines, John. Conserving Our World, Conserving the Atmosphere. Austin, TX:
Steck-Vaughn Company (1990).
Gay, Kathlyn. Acid Rain. New York: Franklin Watts (1983).
Pollution (Science Kit). Delta Education (1990).
Project A.I.R.E. 7 Read My Data
-------
WB
READ MY DATA
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS FOR
SELECTED CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES - 1991
City
(National Standards)
Atlanta
Boston
Chicago
Detroit
Houston
Indianapolis
Los Angeles
New Orleans
New York City
Pittsburgh
San Francisco
St. Louis
Carbon
monoxide*
9 ppm
7
4
6
8
7
6
16
4
10
6
8
7
Ozone**
0.12 ppm
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.20
0.11
0.31
0.11
0.18
0.12
0.07
0.12
Sulphur
Dioxide***
0.030 ppm
0.008
0.012
0.019
0.012
0.007
0.012
0.005
0.005
0.018
0.024
0.002
0.016
Nitrogen
Oxides***
0.053 ppm
0.025
0.035
0.032
0.022
0.028
0.018
0.055
0.019
0.047
0.031
0.031
0.026
Second highest 8-hour average
* Second highest 1-hour average
** Yearly average
1. Which cities have carbon monoxide levels above the National Standards? Express the
answers in percentages over or under the limit.
For example, New York's 10 ppm is
(10 -9) -s-9 = 1/9 = 0.111 = 11% over the National Standard.
(data - permissible limit) •*• (permissible limit) = ? x 100 = % over limit
2. Speculate why any of the cities would exceed the permissible limits.
3. Do the same for the other three air pollutants.
Read My Data
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
READ MY DATA
CHANGES IN AVERAGE CONCENTRATION POLLUTANTS
IN THE UNITED STATES - 1975-1991
Pollutant
Carbon Monoxide
Lead
Nitrogen Oxides
Ozone
Particulates
Sulphur Dioxide
1975
10 ppm
0.68 u,g/m3
0.021 ppm
0.147 ppm
63 u,g/m3
0.0132 ppm
1991
6 ppm
0.048 u,g/m3
0.021 ppm
0.115 ppm
47 ux|/m3
0.0075 ppm
% Change
Show
increase
with plus
(+) sign
and
decrease
with a
minus (-)
sign in
front of
percentage.
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Reports. 1981 and
1991
Calculate the percentage change for each pollutant. To do this, subtract the 1991 value from the
1975 value (to get the actual difference), then divide that answer by the 1975 value, to get the
percentage change since 1975.
1. What was the percentage change (either increase or decrease) in each pollutant for
each city from 1975 to 1991?
For example, sulphur dioxide went down by 43%:
(0.0132 - 0.0075) + 0.0132 = 0.4318 x 100 = 43.18%
(rounded to 43%)
(1975 value -1991 value) H- (1975 value) = ? x 100 = % change
Round your answers to whole percentages.
2. Did any pollutant concentrations go up?
3. Which pollutant changed the most?
Project A.I.R.E.
Read My Data
-------
Read My Data
10
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
SEEING THE BIG PICTURE
This exercise lets students examine our tendency for short-term versus
long-term thinking and how it affects the environment. The exercise
highlights how short-term thinking has resulted in actions that have
contributed to air pollution. It stresses that individuals, by focusing
more on the future, can help reduce air pollution. Related activities
include "How Green Are We?," "Action = Savings in CO2 + $," "Is Your
Air Clean?," "Acid Rain," "Smog," and "Deciding to Clean the Air."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Recognize the tendency for people to focus on the short-term
^ Appreciate the impact that short-term thinking has had on the
problem of air pollution
~@i Understand that every individual can have an impact on air
pollution
^ Identify ways to reduce air pollution
SKILLS
5^ Organizing data
^ Considering alternatives
^ Drawing conclusions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include conservationists, environmental scien-
tists, or EPA environmental protection specialists.
BACKGROUND
The expression "can't see the forest for the trees" means that most
people focus on the short-term. They get so overwhelmed by the little
things of daily life—all the "trees" around them—that the bigger, more
long-term picture, like the "forest," gets lost. For example, as popula-
tion grew and our standard of living rose, consumption of natural re-
sources increased. We needed to burn coal, oil, wood, and other fuels
to run factories, cars, and the power plants that generate energy to
heat and light our homes. The focus was on supporting immediate
needs rather than the long-term environmental impact of these ac-
tions. But burning more fuels and increasing industrial activity helped
to pollute the air.
Every individual has the ability to help protect the environment. If we
all would set our thermostats to a lower temperature in winter and a
higher temperature in summer, walk or bike instead of always using
our cars, and turn off lights when we leave a room, we would cut
RELATED
ACTIVITIES
3, 4, 10, 11, 14, 15
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
'Automobiles and Air
Pollution"
"Clean Fuels"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
5th - 6th
DURATION
45 minutes (with
possible extensions)
VOCABULARY
Consumption
Pollution
Standard of living
MATERIALS
Sheets of letter-size
paper
Pencils
Chalk
Chalkboard
Project A.I.R.E.
11
Seeing the Big Picture
-------
down the amount of energy used and the amount of pollution released into
the atmosphere.
The cumulative effect of many individual actions can preserve the environ-
ment for future generations. Often, however, we do not understand or
appreciate the value of their individual actions. While it can be hard to
always keep the big picture in mind, it is important. And with practice,
everyone can contribute to cleaner air. (See reading materials on "Air Pol-
lution," "Automobiles and Air Pollution," and "Clean Fuels.")
WHAT TO DO
1« Before telling students anything about the activity, have them write
down ten things they need to do or want to do. They can be anything
at all. Beside each, have them write down when they think they should
do it. Don't give any other instructions or information.
Once everyone has made a list, draw a big rectangle on the chalk-
board. Make five rows and five columns in the rectangle. Each of the
columns has to do with time. Label the columns "tomorrow," "next
week," "sometime this year," "sometime in my life," and "sometime in
my children's lives." Each of the rows has to do with people. Label the
rows "family," "friends/neighbors," "city/region," "country/ethnic
group," and "world." (See sample.)
J« Have each student, in
turn, put dots in the
boxes where the items on
his or her list belong. For
example, if someone
listed going to the shop-
ping mall with friends to-
morrow, a dot belongs in
the box where the
"friends/neighbors" row
meets the "tomorrow"
column. If someone listed
joining the park clean-up
campaign next week, a
dot belongs in the box
where the "friends/neigh-
bors" row meets the
"next week" column.
When everyone has filled in their dots, step back and look at the big
picture. Have the students discuss why most of the dots cluster in the
rows representing people they know and columns representing the
short-term (if they do). Have students speculate about how the results
of this exercise would apply to reducing air pollution.
Family
Friends and
Neighbors
City or Region
Country or
ethnic group
World
Tomorrow
Next
week
Sometime
this
year
Sometime
in my
life
Sometime
in my
children's
lives
Seeing the Big Picture
12
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
~@i Ask students to keep a diary of all the things they do to reduce air
pollution. Periodically, discuss these efforts and their impact on
future pollution.
~@i Have an EPA representative visit the class to discuss efforts EPA is taking
to address air pollution.
SUGGESTED READING
Baines, John. Exploring: Humans and the Environment. Austin, TX: Steck-
Vaughn Company (1993).
Elkington, John, et al. Going Green: A Kid's Handbook to Saving the Planet.
New York: Puffin Books (1990).
Greene, Carol. Caring for Our Air. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers (1991).
Gutnik, Martin J. The Challenge of Clean Air. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Company
(1990).
Langone, John. Our Endangered Earth: The Fragile Environment and What We
Can Do To Save It. Boston: Little, Brown (1992).
Leggett, Jeremy K. AirScare. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corp. (1991).
Stille, Darlene. Air Pollution. Chicago, IL: Children's Press (1990).
Project A.I.R.E. 13 Seeing the Big Picture
-------
Seeing the Big Picture 14 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
D
LEARNING FROM
STORIES
This exercise uses fiction designed for young children as a basis for les-
sons about ecology and environmental responsibility. It can be used
independently or in conjunction other classroom activities. It is related
to the "The Rain Forest Is Alive" activity.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Recognize the relationship of plants, animals, and humans in the
world
^ Explore and observe their environment
^ Recognize humans' influence on the environment, as individuals
and as a group
SKILLS
Listening
Observing
Questioning
Comparing ideas
BACKGROUND
Storytelling is a time-honored teaching tool used in many cultures. The
storybooks listed below all have environmental themes. They can serve
as a starting point for conversations that call on children to synthesize
information and experiences and think creatively about themselves and
the world around them.
WHAT TO DO
Choose a book from the following reading list:
Keepers of the Earth by Michael J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac
Chadwick Forever by Pricilla Cummings
The Violators by Gunnard Landers
The Great Kapok Tree by Lynne Cherry
The Talking Earth by Jean Craighea George
Mushroom Center Disaster by N.M. Bodecker
Alvin Fernald, Superweasel by Clifford B. Hicks
Canyon Winter by Walt Morey
Poison Factory by John Branfield
Baney's Lake by Nan Hayden Agle
Beaver Valley by Walter Dumau Edmonds
Who Really Killed Cock Robin? by Jean Craighea George
The Lorax (picture book) by Dr. Seuss
RELATED
ACTIVITY
2
TARGET
GRADE LEVEL
K - 5th (with
modification for
grades 6 and
higher)
DURATION
one or more class
periods,
depending on the
choice of books
MATERIALS
One of the books
from the reading
list shown
Project A.I.R.E.
15
Learning From Stories
-------
If I Built A Village (picture book) by Kazue Mizumura
All Upon A Stone (picture book) by Jean Craighea George
The Salamander Room (picture book) by Anne Mazer
Once There Was A Tree (picture book) by N. Natali Romanov
Tree House Town (picture book) by Miska Miles
Depending on your students' reading level, you may choose to read
the story aloud to the class or have children take turns reading.
2« Follow up the story by leading children in a conversation about it. Ask
questions that challenge their thinking. For example, explore why things
happened or people acted in given ways, what changed during the
story, how something in the story is alike (or different) from something
the child knows or believes. Challenge students to find ways they can
use the lesson in the story. For example, what can they do to help save
the rain forests, or take care of animals, or help their parents conserve
energy?
J« Whenever possible, create activities to follow up on the lessons taught
by the stories to enhance the experience. Use your imagination. If the
story is about industrial pollution, take students for a walk and have
them point out smokestacks and other things that might be visible
examples.
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ For students in grades 6 and above, you may wish to assign book re-
ports based on fiction involving environmental themes. Have students
present book reports to the class and discuss the environmental mes-
sages gleaned from the stories. Following is a list of books you may
want to consider for this purpose:
TAKE NOTE1 These books should be reviewed to verify
their appropriateness for your class. Your school or local
librarian can help you choose other environment-related
titles suited to your class.
Emerald River of Compassion by Rowena Pattee Kryder
A Most Unusual Lunch by Robert Bender
Dear Children of the Earth by Schim Schimmel
Necessary Risks: A Novel by Janet Keller
Winter in the Heart by David Poyer
California Blue by David Klass
In Cahoots: A Novel of Southern California by Malcolm Cook
McCampbell's War by Robert Herring
Oh, What a Paradise It Seems by John Cheever
Heyduke Lives: A Novel by Edward Abbey
Learning From Stories 16 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
The Monkey Wrench Gang by Edward Abbey
The Profeteers: A Novel by Max Apple
The Forest Prime Evil by Alan Russell
The Killing Winds: A Novel by Clare Francis
A View from the Air: Charles Lindbergh's Earth and Sky by Reeve
Lindbergh
Covered Bridge by Brian Doyle
Bushmaster Fall by Carl A. Posey
Project A.I.R.E.
17
Learning From Stories
-------
Learning From Stories 18 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
TRACKING AIR QUALITY
This exercise lets students graph changes in the weather that have
implications for air quality in the community. It is related to the activi-
ties called "The Greenhouse Effect," and "Climate and the Green-
house Effect." This exercise is best conducted over a long period of
time (especially in the Fall) in order for students to observe significant
variations in the Air Quality Index and correlate them with weather
parameters.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Observe the impact of weather on air quality
^ Demonstrate data gathering, analysis, graphing, and presentation
skills
^ Apply techniques of comparison and critical thinking
SKILLS
^ Researching
Observing
Collecting and analyzing
Graphing
^ Interpreting
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include air quality engineers, environmental
scientists, or meteorologists.
BACKGROUND
Graphing—the ability to depict information, relationships, and trends—
is a basic skill for communicating ideas and sharing information. It is a
skill that supports endeavors in science and mathematics. It is with
graphical analysis that scientists and engineers at EPA look for relation-
ships and processes that are not immediately apparent with single,
one-time measurements.
Conceivably, this activity could be conducted througsulphurhe year or
periodically to build a data set large enough to establish seasonal trends
and determine indicators of change. When the same collecting tech-
niques are applied to air pollutants, the accuracy, frequency, location,
and testing protocol become critical for obtaining useful data with which
to explain the movement of pollution in the environment and the ex-
tent to which we are exposed to air pollutants.
Pollutants in the air come from many sources. Natural air pollution caused
by volcanoes, forest fires, and other natural sources has always existed,
RELATED
ACTIVITIES
12, 13
REFER TO
READING
MATERIAL
"Weather and Air
Quality"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
6th-10th
DURATION
Class #1: 15 minutes;
Classes #2-5 (over 2-
to-6-week period): 5
minutes each;
Class #6: 40 minutes
VOCABULARY
Air Quality Index
Carbon monoxide
Criteria pollutant
Lead
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone
Paniculate matter
Precipitation
Relative humidity
Sulphur dioxide
Temperature
Thermal inversion
MATERIALS
Five sheets of white
(or light colored)
poster board or heavy
construction paper
each measuring 2 feet
by 2 feet
Felt-tip markers in
black, green, blue,
red, purple, orange (1
in each color)
Project A.I.R.E.
19
Tracking Air Quality
-------
and naturally produced pollutants are present in
greater amounts than those made by humans.
They do not present as serious a problem as man-
made pollutants, however, because they are dis-
persed over large areas and many are less harm-
ful. Air pollutants from man-made sources are the
result of our increasing use of large quantities of
fuel to produce electricity and to run everything
from factories to automobiles and other vehicles.
Not only are some of these pollutants very harm-
ful, but also they tend to be concentrated in ur-
ban areas where most people live and work. Six
of the major man-made pollutants—sulphur di-
oxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and particulate mat-
ter—have been designated "criteria" pollutants and are regulated by the
federal government.
Daily weather conditions directly affect whether and how much we are ex-
posed to pollutants in the air. Shifting air masses (weather systems) and wind
can move pollutants from one place to another. On the other hand, stationary
air systems, like thermal inversions, can trap harmful pollutants over an area for
days at a time. Rain, snow, and other forms of precipitation help wash pollut-
ants from the air and onto the ground. While precipitation cleanses the air we
breathe, it also may increase pollution of the land and surface water.
Meteorologists use the Air Quality Index to classify and measure contami-
nants in the air and report conditions to the public. The index is used to
convert data from air monitoring stations at various locations around a com-
munity to a scale that indicates the potential effects of measured levels of
various contaminants, including the "criteria" pollutants (listed above), on
human health, property, and vegetation. This information enables local
government officials to take appropriate protective steps in
thchalkboardarmful conditions like thermal inversions and smog. (See read-
ing material on "Weather and Air Quality.")
WHAT TO DO
Class #1
1« Divide the class into five teams and assign each team one of the follow-
ing five weather parameters: Temperature, Wind Direction, Precipita-
tion, Air Quality Index, and Relative Humidity.
2« Explain that each team will record daily changes in these aspects of the
weather on posted graphs over a period of time (specify the period).
At the end of the selected period, each team will prepare their findings
and make a short presentation defining the aspect of the weather they
have been tracking. Where appropriate, students should record the
range of values (for example, the high and low temperatures for the
day) and a mean value.
Tracking Air Quality
Project A.I.R.E.
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Give each team a sheet of poster board. Instruct them to draw a graph
on their posters that will allow them to track published information
about the weather aspect they have been assigned. (Teams should
share the black markers for this task.) The "x" axis for all the graphs
should be "date."
y
date x
4« Encourage students to call the local weather bureau or the weather
reporter at the local television station for help in determining the ap-
propriate "y" axis range for the parameter they have been assigned.
Suggest that the students obtain data to fill in their graphs from the
local weather bureau, weather reporter, or newspaper.
5« Hang or otherwise display the posters in the classroom where students
can see them and record data on them each day. The teams should be
given the flexibility to organize themselves to ensure that the record-
ing of data is accomplished every day.
Classes #2-5
1« Take five minutes during each class to call attention to the status of the
graphs and give students a few questions to consider in preparation
for the discussion at the end of the exercise. For example: Would you
expect some aspects of the weather to have more (or less) influence on
the quality of the air we breathe? If so, which ones and why? The Air
Quality Index is usually expressed for particular contaminants—such as
ozone, sulphur dioxide, and ragweed pollen. From your observation,
does it appear that changes in weather have more (or less) effect on air
quality for some contaminants? If you have found no correlation, does
that mean there is no effect? Is there another, better approach for
determining a correlation?
2« During one of the classes near the end of the data collection period,
give students a few additional questions to address in the presenta-
tions to be made in the final class. For example: How would you de-
scribe the weather in our area? What causes the weather to be like it
is? Is the weather different elsewhere? If so, what causes it to be different
in different places? Suggest that students brainstorm with their team-
mates and present the group's perspective in their presentations.
Class #6
1« Before teams prepare their data for presentation, repeat the questions
you posed during the periodic status checks—Would you expect some
aspects of the weather to have more (or less) influence on the quality
of the air we breathe? If so, which ones and why? The Air Quality
Project A.I.R.E. 21 Tracking Air Quality
-------
Index is usually expressed for particular contaminants—such as ozone,
sulphur dioxide, and ragweed pollen. From your observations, does it
appear that changes in weather have more (or less) effect on air quality
for some contaminants? Encourage discussion.
2« Have each team make 5-minute presentations defining the weather
parameter they have been assigned, reporting on the data collected,
and addressing the general questions you posed in an earlier class.
(See item 2 in the previous section.)
J« Ask the teams to compare the graphs. Now that they have seen all the
data, ask if they would change their answers to any of the questions dis-
cussed at the beginning of class. Ask them to explain why (or why not).
4« Give each team one of the colored felt-tip markers. Encourage stu-
dents to use the markers to point out similarities (or wide variances) be-
tween data on different graphs to illustrate and support their answers.
5« Encourage students to discuss what the results of this exercise might
mean (for example, if the data collection period is "typical" for this
time of year, how the weather might stress people with asthma or
other respiratory problems, and how it might affect plants and trees in
the area, or even their pets.) Have them discuss possible options for
making the air quality better in these kinds of weather conditions.
6« Ask the students how they would determine whether their assump-
tions and conclusions are correct. End the class by recording on the
chalkboard a list of their ideas. (The list should include going to the
library to do research and talking to the local weather bureau, meteo-
rologists, physicians, or local Health Department personnel.)
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Assign each team to act on one of the ideas offered for verifying the
validity of conclusions and write a report to present in class.
~@i Look up historical weather data (go through local newspapers or other
sources recommended by the weather bureau) for the same period in
previous years. See if a pattern or relationship can be found between
the conditions in previous years and the data collection period for this
exercise by graphing the historical data in the same manner as the
current data and comparing it with the current graphs.
SUGGESTED READING
Albers, Daniel. "What Makes a Rainy Day?" Sierra, 74 (November 1989) p.
104.
Baines, John. Conserving Our World, Conserving the Atmosphere. Austin, TX:
Steck-Vaughn Company (1990).
Tracking Air Quality 22 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
Catherall, Ed. Exploring Weather. Austin, TX: Steck-Vaughn Company (1990).
Clark, John Owen Edward. The Atmosphere. New York: Gloucester Press
(1992).
"Climate: Worldwide Weather Threatens Millions." USA Today Magazine,
117 (April 1989) p. 1.
Cosgrove, Brian. Eyewitness Books: Weather. New York: Alfred A. Knopf (1991).
Freiman, Ghana, and Nancy Karkowsky. "Weathering the Summer of 1993."
Science World, 50 (22 October 1993) p. 10.
Gibbons, Gail. Weather Forecasting. New York: Chelsea House Publishers
(1992).
Trefil, James. "Modeling Earth's Future Climate Requires Both Science and
Guesswork." Smithsonian, 21 (December 1990) p. 28.
Project A.I.R.E. 23 Tracking Air Quality
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Tracking Air Quality 24 Project A.I.R.E.
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WHERE'S THAT ODOR!
This exercise lets students use their noses as monitoring devices to
determine the source of odors introduced into the classroom atmo-
sphere and to demonstrate the importance of monitoring air pollu-
tion sources. It is related to the "Breathing Room," "Inventing a
Monitor," and "Finding Sources of Air Pollution" activities.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
%$ Recognize the importance of environmental monitoring
Recognize that this experiment serves as a model for how moni-
toring is accomplished
Explain the purpose and placement of monitoring devices
Recognize conflicting information
Recognize the role citizens can play in environmental cleanup
SKILLS
Observing
Collecting and analyzing data
Graphing
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include air quality engineers, environmental
scientists, EPA air quality monitoring specialists, or state or local air
quality managers.
BACKGROUND
The Earth's atmosphere is almost completely made up of invisible
gaseous substances. Most of the major air pollutants also are invis-
ible, gaseous substances that can adversely affect human health, as
well as damage the environment. Among the major ambient air pol-
lutants that may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health
are carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, ozone,
and particulate matter. (A table describing these pollutants, their
sources, and effects is included as a student handout.) To protect
public health and welfare, the EPA has set national emissions stan-
dards for these pollutants. However, in order to prevent these and
other potentially dangerous air pollutants from reaching harmful lev-
els, it is important to be able to detect their presence and to identify
their emission sources.
This exercise allows students to use their ability to detect and recog-
nize odors as a model of an air monitoring device. Odor is the subjec-
tive perception of the sense of smell (olfaction). Odor intensity refers
RELATED
ACTIVITIES
5,7,9
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
"Indoor Air Quality"
"Health Effects"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
4th - 12th
DURATION
40 minutes
VOCABULARY
Concentration
Intensity
Monitoring
Odor detection
threshold
Odor recognition
threshold
MATERIALS
6 shallow plastic
containers with lids
Vanilla extract
Nail polish remover
(use type with strong
odor)
Food coloring (blue,
red, and yellow)
Chalkboard
Chalk (white and one
other color)
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
25
Where's That Odor?
-------
to the perceived strength of the odor stimulus. The minimum concentra-
tion (threshold) of an odor that can be detected (smelled) and identified is
dependent primarily on the sensitivity of the olfactory cells, which vary
considerably, and the method of presenting the odor stimulus (such as flow
rate and purity). The odor detection threshold relates to the minimum
concentration required to perceive the existence of the stimulus. An odor
recognition threshold relates to the minimum concentration required to
identify the odor. Detection occurs at a lower concentration than recogni-
tion. For example, the detection threshold for ammonia is about 17 parts-
per-million (ppm) volume/volume, and the recognition threshold is 37 ppm
(v/v). Odor thresholds are statistical values determined by sampling indi-
viduals in a given population. (See reading materials on "Air Pollution,"
"Indoor Air Quality," and "Health Effects.")
WHAT TO DO
Before class begins
1« Mix the blue, red, and yellow food coloring to make a color that is
similar to the color of vanilla extract. (You may use any substance or
combination of substances to approximate the color of the vanilla, but
they should create as little odor as possible. The idea is to use this
mixture as blanks or decoys for the real vanilla extract.)
2« Put a small amount (just enough to cover the lid surface) of vanilla
extract into one of the container lids. (Sandwich-size containers with
lids that have a lip work best for this exercise.)
J« Put an equal amount of nail polish remover in another container lid.
4« Put equal amounts of a look-alike liquid in the remaining containers
lid.
5« Place the lids around the room and cover them by inverting the con-
tainers over them.
6« On the chalk board, draw two maps (with white chalk) of the class-
room, one for charting time and the other for charting intensity. (Stu-
dents will have one worksheet for tracking both measures.)
When class begins
1« Explain how determining what and where air pollutants come from
(monitoring) is an important part of protecting people and the envi-
ronment. Detection (what is there) of pollutants can be accomplished
by different kinds of monitoring devices (tools). A simple example of
visual detection is the dirt on the classroom window where pollutants
have stuck to (or deposited on) the glass. When you breathe, the hairs
in your nose act like a monitoring tool by filtering dust, and special
cells (olfactory) in the back of the nose allow you to identify some
chemicals in the air. Explain that because monitoring tools are expensive
and take longer to use than you have in class, the students are going to
Where's That Odor? 26 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
use their noses to detect and identify air chemicals. Instruct them to
use their noses like scientists would use a monitoring device to detect
and estimate the strength (volume or intensity) of an odor and to de-
termine the source of that odor.
2« Explain that they will need to map the classroom to chart the results of
the experiment. Hand out the worksheets. You fill in the maps on the
chalkboard as each student fills in his or her own. Fill in the maps to
show the location of each student. (Use white chalk.) Make
sure the students understand where they are on the map.
J« When the maps are complete, briefly describe the experi-
ment. Tell them the idea is to record when they first smell
an odor and to measure how strong it is at various times. Go
over the time and intensity (strength) measurements and
make sure everyone understands how to fill out his or her
worksheet. (Plan on taking extra time for the lower grades.)
4« Remove the covers from the sources throughout the room
containing the liquids. Leave the lids uncovered for 2 min-
utes. Announce the time every 30 seconds (for example,
"A" on the worksheet would be T+30 seconds; "B" would
be T+60 seconds, and so on). Remind students to find their
place on their worksheet map and fill in the letter (time) and
number (intensity) the FIRST TIME they smell an odor. If
they detect more than one odor, they should fill in the letter
(time) and number (intensity) the first time they smell EACH
odor.
5« At the end of two minutes, cover all the sources again.
6« Call on a number of students in different parts of the room.
(If time permits, let all students participate.) Have each, in
turn, come forward and mark their location (in colored chalk)
on each of the maps on the board with the time and inten-
sity information they have recorded on their worksheet.
7« Lead a student discussion of the results of the experiment.
Ask why some students recorded stronger odors sooner than
others. Did the odor move in one direction more than an-
other? If so, what does that suggest about the way pollut-
ants move in the air? Did anyone detect more than one
odor? Where did the odor(s) come from? The students'
answers should point you to the real sources. (If not, be
prepared to point out the real sources and explain how real
scientists might use additional trials or put out more moni-
tors to be sure the results are accurate.)
Project A.I.R.E.
21
Where's That Odor?
-------
8« Describe why it is necessary to determine where contaminants, par-
ticularly invisible ones, are coming from (health effects, environmental
and ecological effects). Give some examples. Explain that if the con-
taminants in the experiment had been harmful, finding out where they
were coming from would make it possible for their local officials and
EPA to take steps to remove them.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Expand the discussion following the experiment by suggesting vari-
ables (such as what if a door or window were opened? What if there
were more people in the room?) that could influence the path and
speed with which the odor moves. Encourage the students to discuss
the potential impact of these variables and, by extension, how vari-
ables complicate the process of monitoring air pollution.
^ Ask the students how they might design a monitoring system that could
locate the worst source (that which releases the highest volume) of a
pollutant among multiple emission sources of the same pollutant? Sug-
gest that they use the classroom model to help structure their thinking.
SUGGESTED READING
Bailey, Donna. What Can We Do About Noise and Fumes. New York: Franklin
Watts (1991).
Baines, John. Conserving Our World, Conserving the Atmosphere. Austin, TX:
Steck-Vaughn Company (1990).
Bearden, Nancy. "Ah! The Aroma: Coming to Our Senses." Total Health, 13
(June 1991) p. 24.
Black, Pamela J. "No One's Sniffing at Aroma Research Now." Business Week,
(23 December 1991) p. 82.
Monmaney, Terence. "Are We Led By the Nose?" Discover, 8 (September
1987) p. 48.
Pacchiolo, David. "Potent Aromas." Discover, 12 (November 1991) p. 16.
Rifkin, Janey M. "When Breathing is Hazardous to Your Health." Let's Live,
59 (August 1991) p. 62.
"What Noses Don't Know (How the Brain Identifies Odors)." USA Today
Magazine, 120 (October 1991) p. 16.
Where's That Odor? 28 Project A.I.R.E.
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FINDING SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
MAJOR MAN-MADE AIR POLLUTANTS
POLLUTANT
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Lead (Pb)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Ozone (O3)
Particulate matter
Sulphur dioxide
(S02)
DESCRIPTION
• colorless, odorless gas
• metallic element
• gaseous compounds
made up of nitrogen and
oxygen
• gaseous pollutant
• very small particles of
soot, dust, or other
matter, including tiny
droplets of liquids
• gaseous compound
made up of sulphur
and oxygen
SOURCES
• vehicles burning gasoline
• indoor sources, including
kerosene, wood-burning,
natural gas, coal, or
wood-burning stoves and
heaters
• vehicles burning leaded
gasoline
• metal refineries
• vehicles
• power plants
burning fossil fuels
• coal-burning stoves
• vehicle exhaust and
certain other fumes
• formed from other air
pollutants in the presence
of sunlight
• diesel engines
• power plants
• industries
• windblown dust
• wood stoves
• coal-burning power
plants and industries
• coal-burning stoves
• refineries
SIGNS/
EFFECTS
• headaches,
reduced mental
alertness, death
• heart damage
• brain and kidney
damage
• contaminated
crops and livestock
• lung damage
• react in atmosphere
to form acid rain
• deteriorate
buildings and
statues
• damage forests
• form ozone &
other pollutants
(smog)
• lung damage
• eye irritation
• respiratory tract
problems
• damages vegeta-
tion
• smog
• lung damage
• eye irritation
• damages crops
• reduces visibility
• discolors buildings
and statues
• eye irritation
• lung damage
• kills aquatic life
• reacts in atmo-
sphere to form
acid rain
• damages forests
• deteriorates
buildings and
statues
Project A.I.R.E.
29
Where's That Odor?
-------
WHERE'S THAT ODOR?
CLASSROOM MAP
Front of
classroom
Back of
classroorr
TIME
A =
B = .
C =
D =
E =
1
2
3
4
INTENSITY
No odor detected at all
Begin to smell the odor
Odor is strong
Odor is very strong
Where's That Odor?
30
Project A.I.R.E.
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MAKING DECISIONS
This exercise lets students explore how decisions are made and prac-
tice solving problems that require choices. It is related to the activities
entitled "Lifestyles and the Environment," "The Radon Game," "De-
signing a Clean-Air Environment," "Is Your Air Clean?," "Deciding the
Clean the Air," "Choosing a Better Future," "The Business of Clean
Air," "Air Pollution Allowance Trading," and "The Cost of Polluting."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
Understand that solving problems requires a strategy or plan
Recognize that "common sense" is really practiced decision-making
Recognize that decisions involve trade-offs
^ Understand that making decisions is part of everyone's life
SKILLS
Listening
Asking questions
Comparing ideas
Drawing conclusions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include air quality engineers, economists, EPA en-
vironmental protection specialists, EPA policy analysts, or meteorologists.
BACKGROUND
Making decisions is an important part of life for everyone—students,
executives, homemakers, shopkeepers, or scientists. Solving a prob-
lem requires comparing alternatives and thinking about the probable
results of one's choices. Every choice, or decision, leads to certain
direct results and more indirect results. Many choices will end up in-
fluencing or limiting future decisions. For example, choosing a ham-
burger for lunch might mean that one is less inclined to choose meatloaf
for dinner. Or deciding to spend money for a new bike now may mean
forfeiting the money for a new computer game. The worst kind of
decisions are those made on a whim, without thinking through the
consequences. The best kind of decisions are those made after think-
ing about the possible alternatives, and the advantages and disadvan-
tages of each.
One way to begin a thoughtful decision-making process is to ask your-
self questions and find honest answers for them. Typically, a number
of limitations affect the quality or cost of the decisions we make. Cost
does not necessarily mean money. It could also be any valuable thing
RELATED
ACTIVITIES
1,6,8,10,15, 16,
17, 18, 19
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
3rd-9th
DURATION
40 minutes
VOCABULARY
Benefit
Cost
Risk
MATERIALS
Chalk
Chalkboard
(or flip chart and
marking pens)
Project A.I.R.E.
31
Making Decisions
-------
that is given up in order to implement the choice, such as time or lost
opportunities. Clearly, there is a trade-off between getting all the best in-
formation and spending too much time fussing over the choice. Some-
times, one can spend so much effort collecting or weighing alternatives
that you run out of time or money or both and loose much of the benefits
of careful decision-making. Sometimes, what we all call "common sense"
is the best decision, but if you think about it, simple common sense usually
has a good reason behind it.
Many important decisions are made after a careful and formal analysis, some-
times called a "benefit-cost" analysis. It usually is structured by writing
down all the advantages or "pros" on one side of a page, and all the disad-
vantages or "cons," on the other side. Then by comparing the pros and
cons one can systematically arrive at a "best" decision. One mark of a good
decision based on careful thought is that none of the results or consequences
of the decision—good or bad—should come as a surprise. If one makes a
decision with too little information about its consequences, then there is a
greater "risk" involved that the decision may not solve the problem or that
the decision may cause some other problem not thought of.
Making good decisions is a skill that comes about with practice and experi-
ence. Nobody is "born" with it. Also, the confidence that comes with
practice often results in better and quicker decisions.
There are seven steps in good public decision-making:
(1) What is the problem or issue? Ignore all the complicating issues, or
"red herrings," and articulate a clear, simple problem. Identify who
and what may be affected by the problem, and who and what may
benefit from the decision.
(2) What are the options for solving the problem? Leave out all the really
unlikely solutions, and just list the ones that are most realistic. Keep
them as straightforward as possible.
(3) Do I know enough about each alternative? Compare each alternative
solution to the problem, and write down what is known and what we
need to find out about each alternative.
(4) What are the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative? Some-
times, advantages or disadvantages include the effort required to get
all the necessary information. If it seems that the effort, or "cost," of
getting the necessary information outweighs the benefits, the deci-
sion-maker may need to consider his or her willingness to accept the
consequent risks.
(5) Which advantages and disadvantages are critical? Cross out those that
don't really matter; these arejust confusing extras.
(6) Which of the options seem to best solve the problem, considering the
advantages and disadvantages of each?
(7) Finally, share and discuss results publicly and with those affected by
the decision even if you have already involved some of them in the
process.
Making Decisions 32 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
WHAT TO DO
1« Introduce the topic of decision-making to the class, write the seven
decision-making steps on the chalkboard or flip chart and explain them.
Have the students suggest several real or invented air-pollution prob-
lems that require decisions to solve, such as, "Should I convert all my
electric lights to energy-savers at home?" or "Why should we work to
save the rain forest?" or "What is the best way I can contribute to the
reduction of greenhouse gases?" or "How can we control the quality
of the air in the classroom or school?" Assign one student to record on
the chalkboard or flip chart suggestions by the students during the
problem-solving process. You can use current events articles that raise
issues yet unresolved as a means of jogging students' thoughts on se-
lecting problems. Have students formulate a problem statement for
each question suggested.
J« Select a few problems to focus on and have students volunteer an-
swers to each of the first six problem-solving steps. For each answer,
get the student to specify which problem it addresses and which step it
fits under. Note that the class can be considering all the problems at
once. Allow students to question or comment on each others' sugges-
tions.
4« Once each problem has answers under each of the first six steps, begin
narrowing the selections by encouraging the class to evaluate each of
the steps. Have the scribe annotate the chalkboard or easel as deci-
sions are made. Encourage dissenters or skeptics, but get the class to
consider all angles.
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ For lower grades, decision-making can be fun but also frustrating. Use
a decision-making exercise that addresses group activities such as the
best way to spend time. Let the students decide how the day or an
hour should be spent, and why. Modify the seven decision-making
steps, as appropriate, and use them to facilitate such a discussion. For
lower grades, the decision-making steps may have to be stated more
simply to help students participate in the process.
^ For upper grades, have students develop a subset of questions (be-
tween the lines) to explore each of the seven decision-making steps in
more depth. Use the expanded list to facilitate the discussion.
^ You may want to ask a guest presenter to add to the list some real-
world problems or issues with which he or she is currently working.
^ Have students select a news clipping that raises a problem or issue that
others are working to resolve. Assign a special project in which stu-
dents will use the steps presented here to research and develop a po-
tential resolution. When completed have the student present his or her
findings and the rationale for the selected option.
Project A.I.R.E. 33 Making Decisions
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SUGGESTED READING
Berry, Joy. Every Kid's Guide to Decision Making and Problem Solving. Children's
Press (1987).
Citizenship with Bambi and Friends (Filmstrip). Walt Disney (1988).
The Environment (Apple II computer program). Tom Snyder (1990).
A role playing simulation in which students address crucial environ-
mental questions.
I Don't Know What To Do: Decision-Making Skills (Videotape). Guidance (1988).
A Kid's Guide to Decisions (Filmstrip). Learning Tree (1988).
The Oil Game (Apple II computer program). AV System (1988).
Smith, Sandra Lee. Coping with Decision-Making. New York, NY: Rosen Pub-
lications Group (1989).
Ulrich-Hagner, Linda. Decisions in Action. South-Western Publishers (1988).
Understanding Decisions (Filmstrip). Learning Tree Publishing (1990).
Yes? No? Maybe? Decision Making Skills (VMS videotape). Sunburst (1990).
Making Decisions 34 Project A.I.R.E.
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KALES, RULES, POLICY,
STANDARDS AND
SCIENCE
This exercise examines the role of opinions, values, attitudes, beliefs,
and science on the development of standards. Students will answer a
series of abstract questions designed to demonstrate how a standard
is developed. Students also will answer questions related to ecologi-
cal standards. From the results of the survey, classroom-wide stan-
dards will be developed to reflect the "consensus" of the class. This
exercise is related to the "Writing Environmental Laws" and "Translat-
ing Science into Public Policy" activities.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
Identify methods to obtain information for developing standards
Recognize conflicts that may exist between what people want
and what can be achieved
Translate objective and subjective data into standards
SKILLS
^ Collecting, tabulating, and analyzing data
^ Drawing conclusions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include environmental scientists, EPA environ-
mental protection specialists, or EPA risk assessment specialists.
BACKGROUND
Governments rely on the development of standards as the basis of
most regulations. For example, most environmental regulations are
based on public or environmental health standards that help gauge
the dangers posed by a certain level of pollution or contamination.
However, people should understand that such standards are not purely
scientific: "hard" scientific data is always subject to the political pro-
cess before it is written into regulations. What's more, there is often
much disagreement within the scientific community over the data
itself. Standards, then, are the result of these processes.
This exercise poses the question "How do we decide what a standard
should be?" and focuses on the interplay of personal belief, opinion,
and scientific facts and evidence in the development of standards and
rules. Air quality policy and regulations are a result of the synthesis of
scientific information and public attitudes and values. What costs
RELATED
ACTIVITIES
20, 21
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"The Clean Air Act"
"Air Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
7th - 12th
DURATION
30 minutes
VOCABULARY
Scale
Standards
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
35
Scales, Rules, Policy, Standards and Science
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people are willing to tolerate to maintain air quality is as critical to the
development of air quality standards as the scientific health risks posed by
air pollution.
In one sense, an air pollution standard reflects how much air quality the
public is willing to buy. Often, there is a conflict between what people are
willing to tolerate and what may be good for them. For example, smog is
a major health concern in southern California, but people in Los Angeles
have consistently resisted the imposition of restrictions on automobile driv-
ing even though auto exhaust is a major factor in smog production. Be-
tween the two extremes on this issue lies a position which, presumably,
most people would be willing to adopt. This exercise demonstrates how
such conclusions are reached. (See reading materials on "The Clean Air
Act" and "Air Pollution.")
WHAT TO DO
Discuss scales and methods by which things are measured: size, weight,
volume, time, temperature. For example, time passes whether or not
it is broken up into days. Discuss how it is reduced to discrete units
(days, hours, weeks, years) in ways that all agree upon so that it may
be used. In what ways are scales and measures useful? (Answer: so
that one thing may be compared with another thing.)
Discuss standards and where they come from. For example, how would
your class decide what the temperature of the room should be? Each
person could be asked, and the result would be a
range of temperature values. From there, the sta-
tistical mean temperature would represent a "fair"
determination of the classroom-wide consensus.
Mention Goldilocks and the Three Bears and the
"just right" standard. How do we know what is
"just right?" What effect does custom and con-
vention have on an individual's belief?
J« Discuss the concept of rules and how standards
are fashioned into rules. Ask students for examples
of rules that govern their lives. What is the ratio-
nale for these rules? Distinguish the roles of objec-
tive facts and subjective beliefs. For example, young
children may have a certain bedtime. Is this the
result of extensive studies on the effects of sleep
deprivation or because parents think it is a good
idea? Discuss how sound rule-making requires in-
formation collection and the application of shared
values.
4« Distribute the student worksheet. Ask each of
the survey questions and have students mark their answers. Collect
and tabulate the results. Discuss how to determine the classroom-
Scales, Rules, Policy, Standards and Science 36
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
wide standards based on the results? Discuss the tradeoffs that are
inherent in developing standards based on opinions and beliefs rather
than strictly scientific conditions. (For example, how did they decide
how much is "too much" pollution?)
5« Discuss the roles of scientific evidence and personal belief in answering
these questions. Ask individual students what led them to answer a
question in a certain way. Select students who answered the same
question in opposite ways to "make their case."
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ For grades 10 through 12, have students follow up this exercise by
researching how generally accepted standards get translated into gov-
ernment policies, regulations, or laws. Have them make short presen-
tations of their findings.
SUGGESTED READING
"Green, Greener, Greenest." Economist, 311 (6 May 1989) p. 67.
Project A.I.R.E. 37 Scales, Rules, Policy, Standards and Science
-------
ti
SCALES, RULES, POLICY, STANDARDS, AND
SCIENCE
SURVEY
This questionnaire will be used to determine a classwide standard for a healthy environment. It
also will ask questions about what individuals would be willing to do to achieve a healthy environ-
ment. Since it is Clean Air Month™, the questions focus on air pollution reduction and prevention.
AIR POLLUTION: HOW MUCH IS TOO MUCH?
1) Air pollution is not a major problem in the United States.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
2) Air pollution is not a major problem in our town.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
3) Air pollution should be reduced to levels that do no harm to the environment or to people.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
4) Air pollution should be reduced to levels that do no harm to people and the environment
regardless of cost.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
5) There is a safe level of air pollution (that is, some level of air pollution should be tolerated).
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
6) A safe level of air pollution should be achieved regardless of cost.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
7) The cost of air pollution reduction and prevention should determine the amount of pollution
permitted.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
8) Activities that pollute the air should be prohibited.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
AIR POLLUTION: WHERE DOES IT COME FROM?
1) Human activity is the source of most air pollution.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
2 Visible air pollution is the most significant problem.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
3) Most air pollution is the kind that can be seen coming from smokestacks.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
Scales, Rules, Policy, Standards and Science 38 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
4) Most air pollution is emitted from automobiles.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
5) If it can not be smelled or seen, it does not matter.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
AIR POLLUTION: WHAT IS THE SOLUTION?
1) I am willing to change some of my everyday habits and ways of doing things that may cause
air pollution (for example, conserve energy, use mass transit rather than drive, purchase envi-
ronmentally friendly products).
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
2) I am willing to pay reasonably higher prices when necessary if it will help reduce air pollution.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
3) Future changes in technology will probably eliminate most causes of pollution by the time I
am an adult.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
4) I am willing to have the government tell me how to reduce pollution.
1 - strongly agree 2 - agree 3 - neutral 4 - disagree 5 - strongly disagree
Project A.I.R.E. 39 Scales, Rules, Policy, Standards and Science
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Scales, Rules, Policy, Standards and Science 40 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
LIFESTYLES AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
This activity demonstrates that our lifestyles are supported by com-
plex industrial activities that consume vast quantities of natural re-
sources and result in large quantities of air pollution. As the popula-
tion grows and the standard of living increases, the consumption of
resources and emission of pollutants also increase. These trends have
significant implications for the lifestyles of students and their families.
This activity is related to the warm-up exercise called "Making Deci-
sions." Related activities include "Deciding To Clean the Air" and
"Choosing a Better Future."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
%$ Distinguish between renewable, non-renewable, and recyclable
resources
%$ Recognize the impact that lifestyle changes have had on the level
of industrial activities that cause air pollution
^ Recognize the relationship between population and consumption
^ Understand the effect of supply and demand on the price of
resources
^ Identify ways to use less resources and to reduce air pollution
SKILLS
Graphing
Comparing data
Defining problems
Drawing conclusions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include conservationists, economists, envi-
ronmental scientists, or EPA environmental protection specialists.
BACKGROUND
The manufacture and consumption of many goods and services
results in the production of pollution as a side effect. Much pollu-
tion, if not controlled, can cause diseases in humans and other
species, as well as property damage. In addition, these air pollut-
ants can cause changes in the Earth's climate that may make it
more difficult and, therefore, more costly to produce food and
the resulting melting of polar icecaps may cause the sea level to
rise to dangerous levels.
RELATED
WARM-UP
G
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
"The Greenhouse
Effect"
"Automobiles and Air
Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
9th - 12th
DURATION
40 minutes in class
#1, with a take-home
assignment;
40 minutes in class #2
VOCABULARY
Free good
Non-renewable
resource
Raw material
Recyclable resource
Renewable resource
Scarce good
Supply and demand
MATERIALS
Chalk
Chalkboard
Two student
worksheets
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
2
Project A.I.R.E.
41
Lifestyles and the Environment
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There have always been pollutants in the atmosphere, both from natural
and human sources. The most important human source is combustion of
fuels (wood, coal, natural gas, petroleum) for transportation, heating and
cooling, electricity generation, and manufacturing. In the past, human
sources represented just one of many sources of pollutants. However, the
importance of human sources has increased in recent years because of sev-
eral developments:
^ The products we use in our everyday lives (automobiles, electric equip-
ment) have been growing more and more sophisticated, thereby re-
quiring more industrial processes that emit large quantities of pollut-
ants. Some chemicals are toxic even in small amounts.
^ The per person consumption of goods and services has increased
substantially.
~@i The U.S. and world populations have increased substantially over the
past 100 years.
Because the Earth's atmosphere is a finite size, it will not sustain the contin-
ued growth of the current patterns of consumption. The following are
among options available to us:
^ Continue our current practices: this strategy ultimately might result in
a crisis sometime in the future.
^ Change our consumption patterns and, as necessary, our lifestyles to
use fewer resources and use resources that pollute less.
^ Improve our technology so we can produce the materials and offer the
services we want with fewer resources. For example, a solid state radio
may consume less steel, plastic, and glass, and use less electricity, than
an old vacuum-tube-based radio, and more efficient electronic data
communications may lead to a reduction of travel, because many people
can work at home several days a week.
WHAT TO DO
Class #1
1« Distribute the student handout called "Major Man-Made Air Pollut-
ants." Review the sources and the basic health and environmental
effects of air pollution with the class.
2« Present and discuss the concepts of a "free good," "scarce good," "sup-
ply and demand," "renewable," "non-renewable," and "recyclable"
resources. After defining each concept, ask the class for examples.
J« Put the following table on the chalkboard and assign a student to fill it
in as the class discussion progresses. Have the class list things they
currently have (such as a car, TV, Walkman, Nintendo) and their typical
activities (such as traveling to school, playing softball, going to the
movies). Then list the associated raw materials and direct and indirect
pollutants. (The first entry is provided as an example.)
Lifestyles and the Environment
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
Current Goods
and Activities
Driving to
school
Raw Materials
Required
Fuel, oil, lubri-
cants
Pollutants Directly
Resulting
CO2, NOx, lead,
hydrocarbons
Pollutants/ Activities
Indirectly Resulting
Steel, rubber, glass, electric-
ity to manufacture car
4« Put a second table (shown below) on the chalkboard and assign a
student to fill it in as before. Have the class list things they would like
to have and activities they would like to undertake in the future. Then,
list the associated raw materials and pollutants. (A call to local manu-
facturing companies prior to the class may be useful in helping stu-
dents with the quality and quantity of the information.)
Future Goods and
Activities
Raw Materials
Required
Pollutants Directly
Resulting
Pollutants/ Activities
Indirectly Resulting
5« Compare the two tables. Ask the class what conclusions they can draw
from the comparison and speculate about the implications for our store
of raw materials and pollution.
6« Distribute the student worksheet called "Growth in the Use of Critical
Resources," which provides examples of historical trends in consump-
tion of raw materials, as well as trends of population and energy con-
sumption. Have students enumerate products and activities in our
daily lives that use these materials and speculate what the future con-
sumption of these materials might be. In discussing the data in the
table, you may note the following as needed:
Per capita use of lumber has been declining. This decline was caused
by several factors: Diminishing supply and relative to the growing popu-
lation, substitution of other materials such as plastics and metals for
wood, and increased price of wood over time.
• Although the United States accounts for 26 percent of world petro-
leum consumption, it is only 5 percent of the world population. If per
capita consumption does not change, the U.S. would consume 26.8
million barrels of oil per day, which is about 26 percent of current
annual production. It is not known whether there is enough petroleum
in the ground to increase world production substantially higher than cur-
rent production.
• The per person consumption of steel and aluminum decreased from
Project A.I.R.E.
43
Lifestyles and the Environment
-------
1960 to 1990. This is not necessarily indicative of the long-term trend.
During this period, imports of products such as automobiles and elec-
trical and electronic equipment that contain these metal have also in-
creased.
7« Assign different students or teams of students to take a different raw
material and prepare a graph illustrating the data on the handout and
their projections for the future.
Class #2
1« Review the graphs prepared in the previous class.
2« Have the class discuss potential problems if we continue our current
consumption and production patterns. Focus the discussion on the
following questions:
What does this imply for the prices and availability of the goods you
want?
If you earned a fixed amount each month, would you be able to afford
all the things you want?
If everyone could afford all the things they wanted in the future, what
would happen to air quality?
J« Ask for ideas on how we could reduce these problems and obtain the
things we want. If necessary, prompt students with the following:
Change our desires?
Change how products are designed to use fewer resources and pollute
less (smaller cars, simpler packaging of consumer products)?
Use more recyclables and renewable materials?
Reduce consumption of fuels for transportation, heating, and cooling?
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
~@i Give students a library assignment to compare the energy use of differ-
ent models of cars. Include small, medium, large, sports, "muscle"
and utility vehicles, and vans. They can estimate the average miles
driven per year by their families, compare these to National averages,
and look up EPA fuel consumption estimates for specific car models.
(Consumer Reports, which is available at most libraries, publishes this
information in the April edition each year.) Have them do the calcula-
tions in both gallons of fuel and dollars per year. Then have them
discuss the following questions:
If the cost of gasoline doubles by the year 2004, will you buy a differ-
ent car?
What characteristics of the car (size, comfort, acceleration, safety) would
you be willing to trade for better fuel consumption?
^ Ask the students to take an inventory of their families' energy use for a
typical week (or year) using the student worksheet called "Family Re-
source Use." Have them take the worksheet home, fill it in with their
family's help, and bring it back to class. After the worksheets have
Lifestyles and the Environment 44 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
been completed, have students discuss the reasons for differences and
how their families could improve their resource use. (To facilitate this
discussion, you may want to divide students into groups according to
the type of fuel used, then record the fuel usage on the chalkboard for
heating, cooling, and water heating. Within each group, have stu-
dents discuss differences by referring to the other factors on the
worksheet such as insulation, storm windows and doors, and the use
of set-back thermostats.)
^ Ask students to look up in the library, or in articles you may supply, the
energy required (in kilowatt-hours) and the air pollution emitted (in
pounds or tons) in the manufacture a ton of aluminum, steel, and paper.
SUGGESTED READING
Bright, Michael. Traffic Pollution. New York, NY: Gloucester Press (1991).
"Green, Greener, Greenest." Economist, 311 (6 May 1989) p. 67.
"A Guilt-Free Guide to Garbage." Consumer Reports (February 1994) p. 91.
Lowe, Marcia D. "Reinventing the Wheel: From Denmark to Japan." Tech-
nology Review, 93 (May 1990) p. 60.
Rauber, Paul. "Key to Gridlock? The Free Ride Goes the Way of the Free
Lunch." Sierra, 79 (March 1994) p. 45.
"Recycling, Is It Worth the Effort?" Consumer Reports (February 1994) p. 92-
98.
Saunders, Linda. "Uneasy Riders (Cars and Pollution)." Health, 22 (February
1990) p. 46.
Stambler, Irwin. "'We Can Meet Energy Needs and Not Destroy Our Envi-
ronment' (William Ruckelshaus Tells Engineers)." Research and Devel-
opment, 30 (September 1988) p. 32.
What You Can Do To Reduce Air Pollution. Washington, DC: U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency EPA/450/K-92/002 (1992).
"Where Household Goods Go." Consumer Reports (February 1994) p. 99-
100.
Wood, Daniel S. "L.A. Sends Its Workers Home—To Work." Christian Science
Monitor, 86 (1 December 1993) p. 7.
Project A.I.R.E. 45 Lifestyles and the Environment
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TI
LIFESTYLES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
GROWTH IN USE OF CRITICAL RESOURCES
TAPE SID'S TABLE HERE
Lifestyles and the Environment 46 Project A.I.R.E.
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LIFESTYLES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
FAMILY RESOURCE USE
Use the following questions and table to record your family's energy use for a typical year or
week. This information is most likely available in your home. Discuss it with your family.
Home Heating:
Indicate the followin:
Type of fuel (for example, oil, natural gas, coal)
Volume used last year (in gallons, cubic feet, therms, or other measure)
Cost last year $
Do you use a set-back thermostat? ,
Days of the week are they used? , hours used?
Size of your house in square feet, not including garage, basement, or unfinished attic
Water Heating:
Indicate the following:
Type of fuel (for example, natural gas, electricity)
Do you use a set-back thermostat? ,
Days of the week are they used? , hours used?
Size of water heater in gallons
Home Cooling:
Indicate the following:
Type of fuel (for example, natural gas, electricity)
Volume used last year (in cubic feet, therms, or kilowatt hours)
Cost last year $
Do you use a set-back thermostat?
Days of the week are they used? hours used?
Size of your house in square feet, not including garage or basement
Home Insulation:
Indicate the following:
Roof insulation Material (for example fiberglass, rockwool, cellulose, none)
Roof insulation thickness (for example, 3.5 inches, 6 inches, 7.5 inches)
Wall insulation material (for example fiberglass, rockwool, cellulose, none)
Wall insulation Thickness (for example, 3.5 inches, 6 inches, 7.5 inches)
Type of wall (for example, masonry, wood frame)
Do most of the windows have storm windows?
Do most of the windows have double glazing (two pains of glass separated by an air space)?
Project A.I.R.E. 47 Lifestyles and the Environment
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Recycling:
What products do you recycle in your home (plastic, aluminum foil, aluminum cans, steel cans,
plastic jars and bottles, newspaper, other paper)?
Travel:
How do you get to school (school bus, public transportation, auto, car pool)?
Distance from house to school? How long would it take to walk? , Bike?
Skate?
How do your other family members travel to school or work?
What other methods might they use? Why are these not used?
Lifestyles and the Environment 48 Project A.I.R.E.
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THE RAIN FOREST IS
ALIVE
This activity uses role-playing and empathy to encourage students to
learn about the life and purpose of the rain forest. Students create
stick puppets to represent animal inhabitants of a South American
rain forest and use the puppets to act out the story in "The Great
Kapok Tree." The activity serves as a useful illustration of how to
adapt environmental reading material for classroom learning. It is
related to the warm-up exercise called "Learning from Stories."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
%$ Appreciate that animals, plants, and humans need each other to
maintain the balance in nature
~^t Work with others on environmental projects
~$i Understand that the destruction of the rain forests may cause
some animals to become extinct
^ Recognize that plants and trees in rain forests absorb carbon di-
oxide
~$i Recognize that carbon dioxide absorption is important in regu-
lating climate
SKILLS
^ Asking questions
^ Cooperating with others
%$• Coloring, cutting, pasting
^ Acting out
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters for this activity could include EPA environmental pro-
tection specialists, conservationists, or environmental scientists.
BACKGROUND
Rain forests are very large and very dense. They are usually in tropical
areas—areas near the equator where the temperature is very warm
and where rain is very heavy throughout the year. The largest tropical
rain forest covers a large part of South America, including the Ama-
zon River and parts of the country of Brazil. Rain forests are made up
mainly of evergreens (trees and shrubs that have leaves or needles all
year round), but they also are the home for many rare flowering plants,
ferns, and herbs. In addition, rain forests provide a habitat for a rich
variety of animals and have been the home for many people through-
out history.
RELATED
WARM-UP
D
REFER TO
READING
MATERIAL
"Greenhouse Effect"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
K-2nd
DURATION
1 class period (40
minutes) to create
puppets;
1 class period (40
minutes) for role-
play exercise
VOCABULARY
Carbon dioxide
Climate
Rain forest
MATERIALS
Brown paper (3 ft.
by 6 ft.)
Green construction
paper (optional)
Popsicle sticks (1 per
student)
Crayons or marking
pens in various
colors
Scissors
Clear tape
Glue or stapler and
staples
"The Great Kapok
Tree" by Lynne
Cherry
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
20
Project A.I.R.E.
49
The Rain Forest Is Alive
-------
All rain forests have five main layers, and each layer is populated with plant
and animal life specifically suited to it. The Emergent layer is made up of
the tallest trees, some as high as 165 feet. In this layer, Harpy eagles and
other birds of prey watch for animals to feed on, and it is here that the
"great kapok tree" in the story grows. The Canopy is 100 to 130 feet above
ground and about 30 feet thick. The majority of plants, vines, and animal
life is found in this layer. The Understory, made up of the tops of small
trees, gets less light than the Canopy. Palm trees are typical of growth in
this layer. The Shrub layer contains shrubs and small trees. Sunlight can
reach this layer and help the plants to grow wherever there is a gap in the
Canopy. The Herb layer, closest to the ground, is made up of ferns and
herbs. It is the habitat for ground dwelling animals, such as the tapir, and
many varieties of insects.
Tropical rain forests play an important role in regulating the world's climate
by rapidly recycling dead plants and by absorbing carbon dioxide that is
produced when humans breathe, coal and other materials are burned, and
exhaust is emitted by car engines. Without the rain forests our climate
could change, causing droughts, damaging food crops, and causing some
types of animal life to die out. In addition, rare animals could become
extinct without the rain forest, and rare plant life, useful in making many
medicines for treating human diseases, could disappear. (See the reading
material called "Greenhouse Effect.")
Many rain forests are being destroyed because people are cutting them
down, using the plants and trees to produce products like rubber, oils, medi-
cines, and dyes, and clearing the land for timber and farming. This not only
affects the environmental balance but also has caused people, like Brazil's
Indian population, to be driven from their homes.
A number of organizations have programs to help save the rain forests.
Some give deeds as tokens for monetary contributions that they use to buy
up rain forest land to protect it from destruction. Information about these
organizations should be available in the local library. Organizations that
provide information about how to help save rain forests and the animals,
insects, and people who live in them are listed below.
Friends of the Earth (FOE), Earth Action (the youth section), 530 7th
St., NE, Washington, DC 20003
Rainforest Action Network, 466 Green St., San Francisco, CA 94133
Defenders of Wildlife, 1244 19th St., NW, Washington, DC 20036
• World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 1250 24th St., NW, Washington,
DC 20037
Survival InterNational, 2121 Decatur Place, NW, Washington, DC 20008
• Intermediate Technology, 777 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY
10017
The Rain Forest Is Alive 50 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
WHAT TO DO
Before class begins
Make enough copies of the worksheets so that the class will have the
following:
1 Boa Constrictor 1 Cock of the Rock 1 Bumble Bee
1 Tree Frog 4 Night Monkeys (Troupe) 1 Hummingbird
1 Leaf Cutter Ant 1 Jaguar 1 Tarantula
1 Iguana 1 Amazonian Umbrella Bird 2 Anteaters
1 Scarlet Macaw 1 Three-Toed Sloth 1 Macaw
4 Tree Porcupines 1 Black-handed Monkey 1 Ocelot
1 Butterfly 1 Blue Morpho Butterfly
Other characters will include two men and one child. These characters will
be acted out by the students.
When class begins
1« Show the class the map of South America inside "The Great Kapok
Tree." Explain the make-up of rain forests.
2« Read the story of "The Great Kapok Tree" to the class.
J« Have students draw and color a kapok tree on the brown paper. (If you
have green construction paper, have students draw leaves, cut them
out, and glue or staple them on the tree.) The picture will be used as
background for the role-playing activity.
4« Have each student choose a picture of one of the rain forest animals or
insects from the selection included at the back of this activity. (You
may prefer to copy or paste the pictures onto more rigid material be-
fore using them in class.) Have students color their pictures using the
illustrations in the book as examples. When the pictures have been
colored, have students cut out and glue or staple their pictures to a
Popsicle stick to make a puppet.
5« While the students are making their puppets, tape the picture of the
kapok tree to a wall in the classroom that has enough room in front of
it for all the students to sit.
6« Gather the students with their puppets in front of the tree and read the
story again. Have students use their puppets to act out the story as
you read it. At the end of the story, discuss the importance of the rain
forests to humans and to the Earth's environment. Use some of the
following questions to stimulate discussion:
How tall do you think the great kapok tree is?
How can all these animals and insects live in just one tree?
How are rain forests important to you?
What can you do to help save our rain forests?
Project A.I.R.E. 51 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ In making puppets, a number of options exist. The puppet idea and
pictures included can be modified depending on the type of class,
skills of students, and willingness of the teacher. Modifications include
making face masks using colored construction paper and crayons or
using papier mache and tempera paints; creating the animals' and in-
sects' shapes using glued-together pieces of construction paper; or cre-
ating a coloring book. Pictures of animals and insects cut from maga-
zines also may be used in addition to or in place of the included pic-
tures.
^ If the students become proficient with the puppet show, consider pre-
senting the show for other classes and for parents on a Parents' Night.
~@i Take students on a field trip to see rain forest exhibits at local zoos,
museums, or botanical gardens.
^ Use this activity as a model for adapting other environmental stories,
such as those listed in the Warm-up exercise called "Learning from
Stories."
^ For students proficient at reading, encourage them to read all or parts
of the story.
^ For higher grades, students need not make paper puppets. They can
use face paints to paint their own faces with a schoolmate or alone.
They can paint one hand and arm to resemble the species, and using
their painted arm as the puppet.
^ Encourage students to empathize with their species and learn more
about them.
The Rain Forest Is Alive 52 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
BOA CONSTRICTOR
Project A.I.R.E. 53 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
BUMBLE BEE
The Rain Forest Is Alive 54 Project A.I.R.E.
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
NIGHT MONKEY (MAKE 4)
Project A.I.R.E. 55 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
LEAF CUTTER ANT
The Rain Forest Is Alive 56 Project A.I.R.E.
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
TARANTULA
Project A.I.R.E. 57 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
AMAZONIAN UMBRELLA BIRD
The Rain Forest Is Alive 58 Project A.I.R.E.
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
SCARLET MACAW
Project A.I.R.E. 59 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
MACAW
The Rain Forest Is Alive 60 Project A.I.R.E.
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
COCK OF THE ROCK
Project A.I.R.E. 61 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
TREE FROG
The Rain Forest Is Alive 62 Project A.I.R.E.
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tra
THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
HUMMINGBIRD
Project A.I.R.E. 63 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
JAGUAR
The Rain Forest Is Alive 64 Project A.I.R.E.
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
IGUANA
Project A.I.R.E. 65 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
ANTEATER (MAKE 2)
The Rain Forest Is Alive 66 Project A.I.R.E.
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us
THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
THREE-TOED SLOTH
Project A.I.R.E. 67 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
TREE PORCUPINE (MAKE 4)
The Rain Forest Is Alive 68 Project A.I.R.E.
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
BUTTERFLY
Project A.I.R.E. 69 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
OCELOT
The Rain Forest Is Alive 70 Project A.I.R.E.
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
BLUE MORPHO BUTTERFLY
Project A.I.R.E. 71 The Rain Forest Is Alive
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THE RAIN FOREST IS ALIVE
BLACK-HANDED MONKEY
The Rain Forest Is Alive 72 Project A.I.R.E.
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HOW GREEN ARE WEI
This activity enables students to audit their homes, their school, and
their community to evaluate steps being taken to prevent or reduce air
pollution. It is related to the "Seeing the Big Picture" warm-up. Re-
lated activities include "Lifestyles and the Environment," "Designing a
Clean-Air Environment," "Deciding to Clean the Air," and "Action =
Savings in CO2and $."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
~@i Understand the importance of energy efficiency in connection with
air pollution
^ Communicate with families and peers about ways to more effec-
tively contribute to cutting down on air pollution
SKILLS
Collecting data
Observing
Drawing conclusions
Making oral presentations
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could includes an air quality engineer, economist, ecolo-
gist, or conservationist.
BACKGROUND
Air pollution has become a major problem in many areas of the United
States. Even though some of this pollution comes from natural sources,
such as volcanoes, forest fires, and other natural occurrences, much of
it can be traced to man-made sources. Air pollution from human sources
is the result of our increasing use of large quantities of fuel to produce
electricity and to power automobiles, trucks, and other vehicles. Many
of these air pollutants come from burning coal, oil, wood, and other
fuels used to run factories, cars, and the power plants that generate
heat and light for our homes.
Many air pollutants are not only harmful, but also tend to be concen-
trated in urban areas where industrial activity is greatest and energy use
by the community is highest. Even though these areas are affected the
most by pollutants, there are things that individuals and families, schools,
and communities can do to reduce this effect.
Individuals and families can play a role in cutting down on air pollution
by cutting electrical and fuel costs. Electrical costs can be reduced by
RELATED
WARM-UP
C
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
"Smog"
"Automobiles and
Air Pollution"
"Clean Fuels"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
3rd - 6th with
modifications for
7th - 12th
DURATION
Two class sessions
and one week to
conduct the audit
VOCABULARY
Compact
fluorescent
Energy-efficiency
Incandescent
MATERIALS
Paper
Pencil
Chalk
Chalkboard
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
5
Project A.I.R.E.
73
How Green Are We?
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using fluorescent or compact fluorescent
_^» bulbs in the home, adjusting the setting
*""VV of the thermostat during the summer and
winter, turning off appliances when they
are not in use, and using alternative
sources for accomplishing tasks that tra-
ditionally use electricity, such as drying
clothes outdoors instead of always using
the clothes dryer. Other measures can
be taken, such as using sunlight instead
of electricity for warmth and light, buy-
ing appliances with low wattages and fa-
vorable efficiency ratings, and keeping
filters clean on furnaces, air conditioners, and refrigerators. Fuel costs can
be reduced by walking or driving instead of using the car orby consolidat-
ing errands so that only one trip needs to be made to accomplish every-
thing.
Schools also can cut down on electrical and fuel costs by taking similar
measures that individuals can take in the home. Turning off lights at night,
using solar energy instead of electricity to heat the homes, and keeping the
temperatures at 68°F (20°C) in the winter and 77°F (25°C) in the summer
arejust a few measures they can take to conserve energy. In addition, they
can alter bus routes to accommodate more students so that fewer buses are
on the road and encourage their employees to use public transportation,
walk, bike, or carpool to get to work.
Communities can help cut down on air pollution by participating in the
"Green Lights" program, which is a "clean-air" effort sponsored by EPA.
The program works with business and industry to help them cut down on
electricity while at the same time save money. The program focuses on
upgrading lighting systems and encourages the use of fluorescent and com-
pact fluorescent light bulbs, which last ten times as long as traditional in-
candescent bulbs and emit more light per watt. The direct result is im-
proved lighting and cost savings for participating businesses, as well as a
reduction in air pollution. Communities also can reduce air pollution by
promoting use of public transportation, designating High-Occupancy Ve-
hicle lanes on major roads during rush-hour, improving bus routes to reach
more citizens, and designating bike routes to encourage use of bikes in-
stead of cars. This could reduce harmful emissions from cars, as well as
heavy congestion on major roads.
The focus of this exercise is to learn about energy conservation practices in
the home and to find out how energy efficient your students' families are.
To do this, the students will compile an audit. This audit will be conducted
by filling out the student worksheet on conservation practices in the home.
(See reading materials on "Air Pollution," "Smog," "Automobiles and Air
Pollution," and "Clean Fuels.")
How Green Are We? 74 Project A.I.R.E.
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WHAT TO DO
Class #1
1« Explain to students the causes of air pollution and how air pollution
can be reduced through the use of energy efficient appliances and
light bulbs and fuel efficient cars.
2« Introduce the exercise by telling the students that they will be con-
ducting an audit. Explain to them that the audit will be a formal ex-
ami Nation of each student's home and family practices related to en-
ergy use. Data will be collected and observations will be recorded on
the student worksheets.
J« Hand out "Student Worksheet 1" with specific instructions to answer
all of the questions. Explain to the class that data collected from the
audit will be used as part of a future in-class discussion to assess the
energy efficiency of their homes and to discuss the importance of en-
ergy conservation.
4« Give the students one week to complete the audit of their home. Be
sure to tell them that they should feel free to make additional observa-
tions and to collect data related to energy use that is not necessarily on
the student worksheets.
Class #2
1« Meet with the class to discuss the data collected from their audits.
2« Discuss the importance of energy conservation and how it relates to
reduced air pollution. Tell students that there are many measures their
families can take to conserve energy, such as purchasing new appli-
ances that have energy efficiency ratings or setting the thermostat to
68°F (20°C ) in the winter and 77°F (25°C) in the summer.
J« Explain how energy conservation measures not only reduce air pollu-
tion, but save money as well.
4« Discuss the importance of fuel conservation and how it relates to air
pollution.
5« Discuss how car emissions contribute to the air pollution problem, but
that this can be combatted by more people using public transporta-
tion, carpools, and biking or walking.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ In addition to the extended audits, have students fill out "Student
Worksheets 4 and 5," an exercise that enables students to calculate the
costs of running common appliances in the home and the school. This
Project A.I.R.E. 75 How Green Are We?
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exercise could be used as part of a discussion of how reduced electrical
costs not only save a family or a school money, but also can reduce air
pollution.
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ For grades 7-9, have students conduct an audit
of the school in addition to auditing their homes.
Using "Student Worksheet 2," they can answer
questions related to energy conservation by the
school and its students and personnel.
^ For grades 10-12, expand the activity to include
an audit of the community. Have students use
"Student Worksheet 3." This additional activity will
require time to do research outside of class and in-
cludes an evaluation of energy use by industry and businesses in the
community and the efforts that the community takes to encourage
energy efficient practices by its citizens.
£U&dECTdiPI-RElADiNGid Maureen Sangiorgio. "Pollution-Fighting
Plants." Prevention, 44 (September 1992) p. 10.
Javna, John, et al. 50 Simple Things Kids Can Do To Save the Earth. Andrews
and McMeel (1990).
What You Can Do To Reduce Air Pollution. Washington, DC: U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency EPA/450/K-92/002 (1992).
Willis, Terri, and Wallace B. Black. Cars: An Environmental Challenge. Children's
Press (1992).
How Green Are We?
76
Project A.I.R.E.
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n
HOW GREEN ARE WEI
HOME AUDIT
1. How many light bulbs do you have in your home?.
2. How many are fluorescent or compact fluorescent bulbs?.
3. What is the total wattage of all bulbs in your home?
4. What temperature does your family set your thermostat set at in the winter?
Summer?
5. Is your home properly insulated to help keep the house warm in the winter and cool in the
summer?
6. What locations in the house should be insulated the most?
7. Does your family wait until there is a full load of laundry to wash clothes?_
8. Do you dry washed clothes outside or use a clothes dryer?
9. How many miles per gallon does your family's car get?
10. How many gallons of gas does your car use in a week?
11. What kind of gas does your family use in their car?
12. How often do you walk, ride your bike, or use public transportation instead of riding in a car
per month?
Project A.I.R.E. 77 How Green Are We?
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HOW GREEN ARE WEI
SCHOOL AUDIT
1. How long do the lights stay on in the school after the students have left for the day?.
2. Who is responsible for turning off the lights?
3. Do you ever see the lights turned on in the evening hours?
4. What kinds of light bulbs are used in the lighting fixtures at the school?
5. Are the windows in the school properly insulated? (Find this out by holding a piece of tissue
paper or a ribbon next to the windows. If it moves, there is probably a draft, which means
that cold air is getting in and the school's furnace has to use more electricity to keep the
school warm.)
6. What are ways to fix the windows?
7. Who is responsible for getting this done?
8. How do you and your friends get to school each day?
9. Does the bus system reach enough students so that no one has to rely on other transporta-
tion?
10. If a parent drives you, do other students ride with you?
11. What alternate modes of energy-efficient transportation could students use to get to school?
12. Can you make arrangements to pick up a friend or several friends to ride to and from school
with you and your parents?
13. How do most teachers and other school personnel (such as the principal, teachers, or your
guidance counselor) get to school each day?
14. What other forms of transportation would you suggest them to use for getting to and from
school each day?
15. Do you see parents picking up children from school?
16. If so, do they leave their car running while they wait?
17. What measures could the school take to discourage drivers from doing this?
How Green Are We? 78 Project A.I.R.E.
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HOW GREEN ARE WEI
COMMUNITY AUDIT
1. What industries in your community are major polluters?
2. What federal regulations that relate to air pollution affect their business?.
Do they abide by these regulations?
If not, why?
3. What local regulations affect their business?.
4. What other businesses in your community indirectly contribute to air pollution?
5. What measures do these companies take to cut down on air pollution?.
6. Are there enough buses and subways to help people get around town easily without having
to get into their car?
Could the routes be changed to accommodate more people?
7. Do major streets have bicycle lanes to make it easier for people to ride bikes as an alternative
to driving their car?
8. Does the community sponsor a car pool program?
How many people are participating?
9. Do the major roads in your community encourage carpooling by designating High-Occu-
pancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes during rush hour?
10. Are traffic signals timed to reduce the amount of time that cars sit at lights?
11. Are gas stations required to install special devices on pumps to capture gas fumes that can be
released into the atmosphere, causing air pollution?
12. Does your community require emissions inspections for all registered vehicles?
How often are these inspections required?
Project A.I.R.E. 79 How Green Are We?
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WORKSHEET S (SCHOOL)
How Green Are We? 80 Project A.I.R.E.
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WORKSHEET 6 (HOME)
Project A.I.R.E. 81 How Green Are We?
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How Green Are We? 82 Project A.I.R.E.
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ACTION = SAVINGS IN
This activity uses a take-home survey to inventory current use and cal-
culate the savings a household could achieve in dollars and carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions by undertaking certain conservation measures.
It is related to the "Seeing the Big Picture" warm-up and the "How
Green Are We?," "The Greenhouse Effect," and "Climate and the Green-
house Effect" activities.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
~@i Identify sources of CO2 emissions
^ Measure savings in CO2 emissions resulting from undertaking en-
ergy conservation measures
^ Recognize additional dollar savings resulting from lower energy
consumption
SKILLS
Collecting data
Organizing data
Analyzing and interpreting data
Computing
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include EPA environmental protection special-
ists or economists.
BACKGROUND
This exercise requires an understanding and appreciation of the car-
bon cycle and the importance of maintaining global equilibrium be-
tween oxygen and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a by-
product of most living things and many commercial processes. Or-
ganisms "burn" food (fuel) to release the energy required for life activi-
ties. Humans also burn fossil fuels such as coal and oil for energy. CO2
is a waste product of these processes. Plants use carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis, but concern is growing that the amount of CO2 is ac-
cumulating in the atmosphere because fossil fuel consumption world-
wide is outpacing plants' ability to use it.
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere absorbs and traps heat emitted by
the Earth, much as heat is trapped in a greenhouse. The concern of
scientists is that if the amount of CO2 and similar gases in the atmo-
sphere continues to rise, the average temperature of the Earth could
RELATED
WARM-UP
C
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"The Greenhouse
Effect"
"Air Pollution"
"Smog"
"Automobiles
and Air Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
8th-12th
DURATION
40 minutes in first
class, plus take-
home survey; 40
minutes in second
class
VOCABULARY
Carbon cycle
Carbon dioxide
Emissions
Fossil fuel
Greenhouse effect
Photosynthesis
MATERIALS
Chalk
Chalkboard
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
2
Project A.I.R.E.
83
Action = Savings in CO + $
-------
rise 8 to 10°F (4 to 6°C). This is called the "greenhouse effect." While such
an increase may sound small, climatologists foresee dramatic impacts on
future climates. For example, it could cause polar ice cap melting and a
subsequent rise in sea levels, possibly inundating coastal cities and popula-
tions. In addition, it could cause species that cannot adapt to these relatively
sudden climate changes to die out. (See reading materials on "The Green-
house Effect," "Air Pollution," "Smog," and "Automobiles and Air Pollution.")
There are many simple energy conservation steps an individual can take to
help reduce fossil fuel consumption and cut CO2 emissions. In addition to
the benefits conservation provides for the environment, conservation is a
money-saver as well and can provide dollar savings through lower fuel
bills. This activity stresses the both of these types of benefits of energy
conservation.
WHAT TO DO
First class
1« Review with the students the greenhouse effect concept, including the
process by which global CO2 levels rise and the ramifications for the
global climate.
Distribute both student worksheets. Explain that the worksheet called
"Inventory of Current Use" will help them collect information about
the way they and their families use the family car, lighting, and home
heating and cooling systems, and their recycling practices. This, in
turn, will let them calculate how much CO2 they may be releasing to
the atmosphere. The worksheet called "CO2 and $ Savings" will let
them calculate the CO2 their families could save by taking some simple
conservation steps. In addition, the
worksheet can be used to calculate how
much money the family can save by
conserving.
J« Instruct the students to take the
worksheets home and fill them out with
their parents. Set a date for them to
bring the completed worksheets back,
so the class can discuss the results. (If
you want to calculate the class-wide CO2
use and savings potential prior to the
class discussion, have students turn in
the completed worksheets several days
in advance of the discussion.)
Second class
1« Put the potential conservation mea-
sures from the "CO2 and $ Savings"
worksheet on the chalkboard. Beside
the list draw two columns. Label one
Action = Savings in CO2 + $
84
Project A.I.R.E.
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"Current" and the other "Future." With a show of hands, count the
number of students whose families currently conserve in each of the
ways listed and record it on the chalkboard beside each item. Encour-
age students to share the reasons for taking (or not taking) specific
conservation actions.
2« With a show of hands, count the number of students whose families
are willing to conserve in the future in each of the ways listed and
record it on the chalkboard in the "Future" column. Explore whether
financial savings are expected to result from these actions. If so, ask
how much the students' families considered that in the decision to
conserve. Would they have done it anyway? Or were the prospect of
financial savings a major motivation?
J« Calculate (you may have done this already) current class-wide CO2
conservation. Congratulate them on a job well done. Calculate (you
may have done this already) potential class-wide savings in CO2
and in dollars.
5« Suggest that the class consider a year long (or school-year long) analy-
sis to see if there is a limit to what they can save as individuals and as a
group. If students express interest, divide up and coordinate assignments.
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ For upper grades, encourage students to make predictions on CO2
savings that may be achieved by their school, town or city, region, or
the entire United States if conservation steps are undertaken. These
measures could include, for example, increased use of mass transit,
more efficient insulation and lighting of public buildings, developing
High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) programs for local highways to en-
courage car pooling, and restricting traffic in specific areas of the city.
Results could be presented to the local school board or the city (town)
council to introduce students to the political aspects of conservation.
SUGGESTED READING
Baker, Susan. First Look at Using Energy. Milwaukee, Wl: Gareth Stevens (1991).
Javna, John, et al. 50 Simple Things Kids Can Do To Save the Earth. Andrews and
McMeel (1990).
Klaber, K. A., K. N. Weiss, and J. W. Gallagher. "Charting a Course through the
Clean Air Act Amendments." National Environmental Journal, (November
1993)
U.S. EPA. Office of Radiation and Indoor Air: Program Description. Washington,
DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Radiation EPA/402/K-93/002 (June 1993).
Yanda, Bill. Rads, Ergs, and Cheeseburgers: The Kid's Guide to Energy and the
Environment. Norton (1991).
Project A.I.R.E. 85 Action = Savings in CO + $
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ACTION = SAVINGS IN CO2 + S
INVENTORY OF CURRENT USE
1) AUTOMOBILES
Rule of thumb: Every gallon of gasoline used by an automobile costs approximately $1.10
and releases about 20 Ibs. of CO2.
For each automobile in your household, calculate the daily and annual fuel cost and CO2
emissions:
TABLE 1
Miles per Gallon (MPG)
Cost per Mile (CPM) = $1.1CMVIPG
CO? Emissions per Mile (EPM) = 20 Ibs.-MPG
Daily Miles (DM)
Daily Cost = CPM x DM
Daily Emissions of CO2 = EPM x DM
Annual Miles (AM) = DM x 365 or actual mileage if known
Annual Cost = CPM x AM
Annual Emissions of CO2 = EPM x AM
Auto 1
Auto 2
Auto 3
Daily commuting: A bus gets about 8 miles per gallon of gasoline (CPM = $0.14) and releases
about 22 Ibs. of CO2 per gallon (EPM = 2.75 Ibs.). Using the above daily cost and emission figures
for Auto 1, calculate the savings if 20 people rode the bus rather drove the same distance in the
same type of car.
20 Cars
Daily Cost (from above) x 20 =
Daily Emissions (from above) x 20 =
1 Bus
Daily Cost = DM (from above) x $0.14 =
Daily Emissions = DM (from above) x 2.75 Ibs. =
If you or anyone in your family uses an alternative to driving for daily commuting (for example, to
work or school), calculate the total annual savings in money and CO2:
Action = Savings in CO2 + $
86
Project A.I.R.E.
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2) ELECTRIC LIGHTING
Rule of thumb: Every kilowatt-hour of electricity consumed costs $0.085 releases 0.5
Ibs. of CO2.
Calculate the CO2 and money you save at home now.
For each 27-watt compact fluorescent light bulb:
160 Ibs. of CO2 and $58/year
For each 18-watt compact fluorescent light bulb:
120 Ibs. of CO2 and $43/year
3) HOME HEATING AND COOLING
Type of heating fuel (for example, electric, oil*, natural gas*):
* Dollar figures associated with oil and natural gas savings are not available.
If you turn the heat down in your home overnight or when no one is home:
By 10 degrees, save: electric: 2,070 Ibs. CO and $745/year
By 5 degrees, save:
oil:
gas:
electric:
oil:
gas:
1,260 Ibs./year
900 Ibs./year
1,000 Ibs. CO2 and $360/year
610 Ibs./year
440 Ibs./year
If your furnace has received tune-up within last year:
electric: 1,030 Ibs. CO2 and $371/year
oil: 640 Ibs./year
gas: 450 Ibs./year
If your air conditioner has received tune-up within last year:
220 Ibs. CO2 and $80/year
If doors and windows are insulated (weather-stripping):
electric: 1,600 Ibs. CO2 and $576/year
oil: 1,000 Ibs./year
gas: 700 Ibs./year
If your home water heater has an insulation jacket:
electric: 600 Ibs. CO2 and $216/year
oil: 360 Ibs./year
gas: 260 Ibs./year
Project A.I.R.E. 87 Action = Savings in CO + $
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4) RECYCLING
What products do you recycle in your home (aluminum cans, steel cans, plastic jars and bottles,
newspaper)?
Estimate the number of aluminum and steel cans and the number of glass bottles that you recycle
annually. If you are not sure, keep track of the number of items recycled in one week and multiply
by 52.
Every 10 aluminum or steel cans recycled saves 4 Ibs. of CO2. Every 10 glass bottles recycled saves
3 Ibs. of CO2. Calculate the amount of CO2 you currently save annually by recycling aluminum,
steel, and glass:
If you recycle newspapers: 50 Ibs./year
5) TOTAL
Add up the amount of CO2 and the money you and your family save every year as a result of the
steps listed above:
C02=
$=
Action = Savings in CO2 + $ 88 Project A.I.R.E.
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ACTION = SAVINGS IN CO2 + S
CO. AND S SAVINGS
1) AUTOMOBILES
CPM (from Table 1 of the Inventory of Current Use):
EPM (from Table 1 of the Inventory of Current Use):
Automobile miles and gasoline consumption may be reduced in a number of ways:
~@i a person walks, bikes, or takes public transportation instead of driving
^ car errands are combined
^ car pooling
In addition, if your family switches to a more fuel efficient car, it will save money and reduce CO2
emissions. If your family1 car(s) gets less than 30 miles per gallon (MPG), compare to a car that
gets 30 MPG. Use the data from Table 1 of the Inventory of Current Use to complete Table 2 for
up to two cars.
TABLE 2
Miles per Gallon (MPG)
Cost per Mile (CPM) = $1.1CMVIPG
CO, Emissions per Mile (EPM) = 20 Ibs.-MPG
Daily Miles (DM)
Daily Cost = CPM x DM
Daily Emissions of CO2 = EPM x DM
Annual Miles (AM) = DM x 365 or actual mileage if known
Annual Cost = CPM x AM
Annual Emissions of CO2 = EPM x AM
Auto 1
Auto 2
Compare
30
$0.037
0.67
How much would you and your family save if you switched to more fuel efficient cars?
$=
C02 =
For every annual mile saved from current automobile usage, add one CPM and EPM unit. Total
your savings in fuel costs and CO2 if you reduce driving and switch to fuel efficient automobiles:
$=
C02 =
Project A.I.R.E.
89
Action = Savings in CO + $
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2) ELECTRICITY
Rule of thumb: Every kilowatt-hour of electricity consumed costs $0.085 releases 0.5 Ibs. of
C02.
If you replace conventional incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent light bulbs, you will
save money on electricity and reduce CO2 emissions. (27-watt compact fluorescent bulbs replace
75-watt incandescent bulbs; 18-watt fluorescent bulbs replace 60-watt incandescent bulbs.)
For each 27-watt compact fluorescent light bulb:
160 Ibs. of CO2 and $58/year
For each 18-watt compact fluorescent light bulb:
120 Ibs. of CO2 and $43/year
3) HOME HEATING AND COOLING
Type of heating fuel (for example, electric, oil*, natural gas*):
* Dollar figures associated with oil and natural gas savings are not available.
If you begin to turn the heat down in your home overnight or when no one is home:
By 10 degrees, save:
electric: 2,070 Ibs. CO2 and $745/year
oil: 1,260 Ibs./year
gas: 900 Ibs./year
By 5 degrees, save:
electric: 1,000 Ibs. CO2 and $360/year
oil: 610 Ibs./year
gas: 440 Ibs./year
If your furnace receives a tune-up within the next year:
electric: 1,030 Ibs. CO2 and $371/year
oil: 640 Ibs./year
gas: 450 Ibs./year
If your air conditioner receives a tune-up within the next year:
220 Ibs. CO2 and $80/year
If you insulate doors and windows with weather-stripping:
electric: 1,600 Ibs. CO2 and $576/year
oil: 1,000 Ibs./year
gas: 700 Ibs./year
If you put an insulation jacket on your home water heater:
electric: 600 Ibs. CO2 and $216/year
oil: 360 Ibs./year
gas: 260 Ibs./year
Action = Savings in CO2 + $ 90 Project A.I.R.E.
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4) RECYCLING
Every 10 aluminum or steel cans recycled saves 4 Ibs. of CO2. Every 10 glass bottles recycled
saves 3 Ibs. of CO2. What products can you begin to recycle in your home (aluminum cans, steel
cans, plastic jars and bottles, newspaper)?
Estimate the number of aluminum and steel cans, and the number of glass bottles that you will
recycle annually. If you are not sure, keep track of the number of items recycled in one week and
multiply by 52.
Calculate the amount of CO you can save annually by recycling aluminum, steel, and glass:
If you begin to recycle newspapers:
50 Ibs./year
5) TOTAL
Add up the amount of CO2 and the money you and your family could save every year as a result
of the steps listed above:
C02=
$=
Project A.I.R.E. 91 Action = Savings in CO + $
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Action = Savings in CO2 + $ 92 Project A.I.R.E.
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BREATHING ROOM
This activity lets students calculate the volume of air in the classroom
and illustrates the importance of preserving the quality of indoor air.
It also introduces concepts of human exposure, and draws a parallel
between indoor air and ambient air. This activity is related to the warm-
ups called "Read My Data" and "Where's That Odor" and the activity
called "The Radon Game."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
%$ Define some visible or invisible and odorous and non-odorous
indoor air pollutants
~^t Describe the link between illness and breathing polluted air
~$i Explain how the amount of air in a given space is related to the
size of the space
^ Calculate the amount of air in the classroom and how much air
people breathe per minute and in one hour
SKILLS
Observing
Collecting data
Organizing data
Computing
Drawing conclusions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include air quality engineers, architects,
EPA environmental protection specialists, or heating and ventila-
tion technicians.
BACKGROUND
Most people are aware that outdoor air pollution can damage their
health but may not know that the quality of the air indoors can be
very poor, too. Studies of human exposure to air pollutants indicate
that indoor levels of many pollutants may be two to five times, and
occasionally more than 100 times, higher than outdoor levels. Com-
parative risk studies performed by EPA have consistently ranked in-
door air pollution among the top five environmental risks to public
health. Carpeting, manufactured wood products, and combustion
appliances (gas and oil cooking stoves and furnaces, for example)
are the three most important sources of hundreds of indoor air pol-
lutants. Typical examples are methyl methacrylate, aliphatic hydro-
carbons, ketones, formaldehyde, xylene, lead, bacteria, mold, dust
mites, and known carcinogens like benzene, trichloroethylene, vinyl
RELATED
WARM-UPS
B, F
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Indoor Air Quality"
"Health Effects"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
9th - 12th
DURATION
40 minutes
VOCABULARY
Odor detection threshold
Odor recognition
threshold
Tidal volume
Total minute volume
Ventilation rate
MATERIALS
Metric conversions
Ventilation volumes in
human lungs
Tape measure for
teacher/presenter
Large wall clock with
second hand
Adhesive tape
Paper
Marker
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
93
Breathing Room
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chloride, and tobacco smoke. Some three hundred volatile organic com-
pounds are known, and many of them are common in houses. Some houses
are filled with synthetic materials that can release a wide range of hazard-
ous chemicals into the air over time. In addition, many common house-
hold products, used without proper ventilation, and gases like radon, pose
a serious health threat to people—most of whom spend over 90 percent of
their time indoors. To make matters worse, while insulating our homes is
important for energy conservation, it can decrease air exchange and in-
creases pollutant concentrations indoors. The air in tightly sealed homes
and buildings can constitute a health hazard. Air pollutants enter the body
primarily through the lungs, which have a total surface area about 25 times
greater than that of the body's skin surface. This large surface area makes
the lungs an excellent filter. (Seethe reading materials on "Indoor Air Qual-
ity" and "Health Effects.")
WHAT TO DO
1« Ask students where they spend most of their time. Have students esti-
mate the percentage of time they spend at home, at school, in the car,
and so on. Have them draw a pie chart on a sheet of paper, illustrating
this information. This process should reveal that most of their time is
spent indoors. Ask students to estimate how much of a 24-hour day
they spend indoors in winter and summer.
2« Discuss the importance of ensuring that the places they spend most of
their time are free of pollutants that could make them sick. Ask students
if they know of any pollutants in their homes that could make them sick.
If necessary, prompt students by suggesting, for example, tobacco smoke,
dust, particulates, paint thinners, grease cleaners, pesticides, radon gas
seeping into the house through cracks in the basement walls or floor, dry-
cleaned clothing and drapes, chemically formulated personal care prod-
ucts, faulty heating units, cooking appliances, wood burning fireplaces
and stoves, some synthetic building materials, wall coverings, carpet, and
furniture.
J« Ask students how they would know whether there are pollutants in the
air at home or school? Can such pollutants be seen or smelled? Dis-
cuss the fact that only some indoor air pollutants like tobacco smoke
and insecticides are visible or smelly enough to detect easily at certain
concentrations.
4« Explain that many pollutants, such as radon, have no odor and are
invisible.
5« Burn a candle or incense to produce visible and invisible (carbon diox-
ide) pollutants. Ask the students if all pollutants smell bad. Discuss
odor detection threshold (minimum odorant concentration required
to perceive the existence of the pollutant) and odor recognition threshold
(minimum odorant concentration required to identify the pollutant). For
example, ammonia has a detection threshold of 17 parts per million (ppm)
and a recognition threshold of 37 ppm. Ask the students if they think that
if they can't smell a pollutant it is safe to breathe.
Breathing Room 94 Project A.I.R.E.
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6« Explain that concentrations in the air are measured as parts per million
(ppm), not as percentages (as in the pie chart they drew).
7« Explain that pollutants in the air can make people sick depending in
large part on how much air is in the space people occupy, how much
pollutant is in that space, how much air people breathe, and the sensi-
tivity of the individual.
8« Explain that it is often necessary to rely on specialized scientific equip-
ment to measure the presence and amounts of such substances in the
air.
9« Introduce the activity. Hand out the student worksheet. Go over with
students the formulas on the worksheet for calculating cubic feet and
to convert cubic feet to liters for easy comparison to human lung vol-
umes. Tape measurements to the walls to show the height of the room.
Tape measurements to the floor showing the length and width. (If you
prefer, do this before class begins). Point out the location of the mea-
surements, and notify the students that they have three minutes to
gather and record the measurements on their worksheets. (You also
could challenge the students to make these measurements without
your assistance.)
1O« Ask the students to do the calculations on their worksheets using the
room measurements they have gathered.
11* Go over with students the formula on the worksheet for calculating
human ventilation volumes. Ask the students to measure their own
ventilation rates per minute and to compare their own rates with the
average adult rate (14 breaths/minute) at rest. Using the formula and
assumptions (0.5 L tidal volume) provided on the worksheet, ask the
students to calculate total minute volume and the ventilation volumes
over one hour.
12* Compare the calculated ventilation volumes in liters
with the amount of air in the room and discuss the
implications to health if air pollutants are present.
Have students consider the following questions:
How much air do you and your classmates need to
breathe comfortably?
Is there enough air in the room for you and all your
classmates too?
Where is the fresh air you need in the classroom com-
ing from? Is it really fresh?
If the room were sealed (no outside air coming into
the room), how long would you and your classmates
survive at your current breathing rates?
Project A.I.R.E.
95
Breathing Room
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SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Compare ventilation volumes over eight hours with the volume of air
in the room. Facilitate a student discussion of how increased physical
activity would affect their exposure to air pollution.
SUGGESTED READING
Becker, Brenda L. "Is Your Home Hazardous to Your Health." Woman's Day,
56 (21 September 1993) p. 36.
"Can a Building Really Make You Sick?" University of California, Berkeley
Wellness Letter, 7 (July 1991) p. 1.
Delaney, Lisa. "The Air Doctors' Report: How to Protect Yourself from Dan-
gers Blowing Through Your House." Prevention, 43 (August 1991) p.
44.
Greenfield, Ellen J. House Dangerous: Indoor Pollution in Your Home and Of-
fice—And What You Can Do About It. New York, NY: Random/Vintage
(1987).
"How to Improve Indoor Air." University of California, Berkeley Wellness Let-
ter, 8 (February 1992) p. 6.
"Indoor Air Pollution." Mayo Clinic Health Letter, 11 (November 1993) p. 4.
Lecard, Marc. "Better Homes in Gardens." Sierra, 78 (January 1993) p. 20.
Rifkin, Janey M. "When Breathing is Hazardous to Your Health." Let's Live,
59 (August 1991) p. 62.
Safran, Claire. "Schools That Make Kids Sick." Good Housekeeping, 214
(March 1992) p. 176.
Turiel, Isaac. Indoor Air Quality and Human Health. Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press (1985).
Breathing Room 96 Project A.I.R.E.
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INDOOR AIR MEASUREMENT
Measure Indoor Air Volumes
1. Follow your instructor's directions for collecting the measurements of the room.
2. Put the room measurements in their appropriate places on the lines below and calculate the
volume of air in the room in cubic feet:
Length,
(ft) x Width.
(ft) x Height,
(ft) =
ft3
3. To convert cubic feet to liters (L), multiply by 28.317.
Calculate Human Ventilation Volumes
1.
Use the following formula to calculate the ventilation volume per minute (total minute vol-
ume). Assume the tidal volume is 0.5 L of air for each breath. Follow your instructor's direc-
tions for measuring the number of breaths you take per minute (ventilation rate). Put your
measurement and the 0.5 L tidal volume in their appropriate places on the lines below and
calculate total minute volume:
Tidal volume
(L) x Ventilation rate_
(breaths/min) =
L/min
2. Multiply the total minute volume by 60 minutes to obtain the volume of air breathed during
one hour.
Compare Volumes
1. Compare the volume of air you breathe in one hour with the total volume of air in the
room.
2. Calculate how much air is breathed by all those in the room. Multiply the total hourly
volume by the number of people in the room, and compare this value to the total volume
of air in the room
TAKE NOTE!
This exercise does not consider the exchange of fresh air in an enclosure depend-
ing on the ventilation capacity. Be sure to discuss this with your students so that
they do not get the impression that their classroom is hazardous to their health.
Project A.I.R.E.
97
Breathing Room
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Breathing Room 98 Project A.I.R.E.
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w ©
RADON GAME
This activity lets students test what they may have heard or know
about radon and challenges them to think about why radon is differ-
ent in many ways from other indoor air pollutants. It is related to the
"Making Decisions" warm-up. Related activities include "How Green
Are We?" and "Breathing Room."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
Identify the special aspects of radon pollution that distinguish it
from other indoor air pollutants
Identify correct from incorrect information about radon
Devise methods for minimizing indoor radon levels
SKILLS
^ Comparing
Organizing
Explaining
Developing solutions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include EPA environmental protection special-
ists, heating and ventilation technicians or engineers, or radon detec-
tion experts.
BACKGROUND
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas, produced from the
radioactive decay of uranium in rocks such as granite. Uranium and
radon gas are widely distributed throughout the Earth's crust in virtu-
ally all types of rock and soil. Radon continually escapes from soils
and rock into the atmosphere. Most of the radon in homes enters
through cracks and holes in the foundation. Other sources include
drinking water (especially well water) and bricks and concrete. As
radon decays, it emits radioactive particles that could damage lung
tissue and lead to lung cancer. An estimated 7,000 to 30,000 radon-
related deaths occur each year in the United States (about 10 percent
of the lung cancer deaths attributed to cigarette smoking). Radon
detection is easy and inexpensive. The most common home detec-
tors are the charcoal canister, alpha track monitor, and electret ion
chamber. Common mitigation strategies include natural ventilation
(such as open windows) on the lower levels, forced ventilation with or
without heat recovery into (never out of) the lower levels, sealing
entry points (such as foundation cracks and floor drains), and soil
ventilation.
RELATED
WARM-UP
G
REFER TO
READING
MATERIAL
"Radon"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
7th - 8th
DURATION
20 minutes (additional
time may be needed
for the presenter to
illustrate some of the
answers, and display
equipment if possible)
VOCABULARY
Radioactivity
Radon detector
Vacuum
MATERIALS
Student worksheet (or
large chalkboard on
which the information
can be listed)
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
99
Radon Game
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Because the radon problem involves large numbers of private homes and
varies greatly in concentration in these homes, the EPA and the states work
together to address the problem. EPA developed a non-regulatory, technical
assistance and public information program in 1985 to help citizens make
informed decisions about radon. This program involves the states and over
a dozen National organizations, such as the American Lung Association. In
1989, EPA published guidance for radon testing in schools and began a
survey of schools Nationwide. Legislation requires federal agencies to test
for radon in its own buildings. EPA developed the New Construction
Demonstration Program and standards for use by states to develop building
codes and issued guidance on techniques to reduce radon in schools. EPA
also is involved in a voluntary program to test the proficiency of companies
that measure indoor radon levels. (See reading material on "Radon.")
WHAT TO DO
1« Hand out a student worksheet or write the following points on the
chalkboard (mix the true and false information if you use a blackboard):
2« Split the class into groups of two to five students, and give each stu-
dent a worksheet. Give each group one extra worksheet and appoint
someone in each group to record the group's answers on the extra
worksheet. Ask each group to put a check mark by all of the informa-
tion points on the worksheet that are true for radon. Discourage them
True for Radon
Not synthetic (occurs naturally)
Can't see, smell, or taste at any concentration
Radioactive gas
Comes from rocks and soil
Enters the house through cracks and holes in
the foundation/basement
Is in the water supply, especially well water
Building materials like concrete and brick can
be a source of the pollutant
Accumulates in basements and lower floors
Levels of the pollutant in one house can vary a
lot from the house next door
Levels of the pollutant tend to be higher indoors
when its cold outside
Emits particles (radioactive decay products) that
damage lungs
Causes lung damage that leads to lung cancer
Only cigarette smoking causes more lung can-
cer deaths than this pollutant
Testing indoor air for the pollutant is easy and
inexpensive
Using exhaust fans (stove top/bathroom) tends
to increase the pollutant levels in the house
Using a fireplace tends to increase the pollutant
levels in the house
NOT True for Radon
Synthetic (human-made) air pollutant
Made by manufacturing or refining it from other
chemicals
Smells vaguely like ammonia
Smells slightly metallic
Can be produced in the house by a faulty heating
unit like a furnace
Comes from petroleum
Can enter indoor air from improperly sealed
canisters stored in the house
Found in some household cleaners
Levels of the pollutant tend to be higher indoors
when the temperature outside is 70-80° F (21 -27°C)
Health problems occur when the pollutant is used
without proper ventilation
Causes liver damage that leads to liver cancer
Causes vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, cramps,
coughing, and nerve disorders
Damages kidneys
Irritates eyes
Radon can only be detected or tested by using spe-
cial equipment operated by professionals
Using exhaust fans that vent to the outdoors (stove
top/bathroom) tends to decrease the pollutant lev-
els in the house
Using a fireplace tends to decrease pollutant levels
in the house
Radon Game
WO
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
from guessing without a good explaNation. (If you have to use a chalk-
board to list the information points, ask students to write their answers
on paper.)
J« After each group has completed its list, ask one of the groups to read its
first entry and explain the reason for the answer. Continue querying
each group until all information points have been discussed. Ask the
students why venting air out of a house, such as through a bathroom
exhaust fan or fireplace, may increase indoor radon levels. Discuss the
difference between natural ventilation, such as opening windows, and
forcing air out of the house. You may keep score and determine a
winner among the groups.
4« Ask the students to devise some methods for minimizing radon levels in
a house or other building.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Hand out copies of the attached map of the United States that indi-
cates where the greatest levels of radon are found. Have the students
discuss what the map means. For example, should homes in areas with
low levels of radon be tested?
^ Invite a radon detection expert to demonstrate radon detection equip-
ment and devices used to lower indoor radon levels.
^ Build a model (using smoke, glass, or a plastic cylinder and a balloon)
to illustrate the effect of a vacuum on the amount of radon seeping into
a house.
SUGGESTED READING
Indoor Radon and Its Hazards. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press (1987).
Lafavore, Michael. Radon: The Invisible Threat (What It Is, How To Keep Your
House Safe). Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press (1987).
"Radon Detectors: How to Find out if Your House Has a Radon Problem."
Consumer Reports, 52 (July 1987) p. 440.
"Radon: Risk or Rubbish?" Medical Update, 14 (March 1991) p. 2.
Silberner, Joanne. "What To Do about Radon." U.S. News and World Report,
105 (26 September 1988) p. 62.
Stone, Richard. "New Radon Survey: No Smoking Gun." Science (28 January
1994)
U.S. EPA. A Citizen's Guide to Radon. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air
and Radiation EPA/402/K-92/001 (1992).
Project A.I.R.E. 101 Radon Game
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RADON
POLLUTANT DESCRIPTIONS
Place a check mark by the following points that apply to radon. If you guess, you should have a good reason for your
answer.
1. Synthetic (human-made) gas
2. Comes from automobile exhaust
3. Radioactive gas
4. Made by manufacturing or refining it from other chemicals
5. Smells vaguely like ammonia
6. Smells slightly metallic
7. Can't see, smell, or taste at any concentration
8. Comes from rocks and soil
9. Comes from petroleum
10. Can be produced in the house by a faulty heating unit like a furnace
11. Enters the house through cracks and holes in the foundation/basement
12. Can enter the house from improperly sealed canisters stored in the house
13. Found in some household cleaners
14. Is in the water supply, especially well water
15. Building materials like concrete and brick can be a source of the pollutant
16. Accumulates in basements and lower floors
17. Levels of the pollutant in one house can vary a lot from the house next door
18. Levels of the pollutant tend to be higher indoors when it's cold outside
19. Levels of the pollutant tend to be higher indoors when the outside temperature is 70-80° F (21-27° C)
20. Health problems occur when the pollutant is used without proper ventilation
21. Only cigarette smoking causes more lung cancer deaths than this pollutant
22. Causes liver damage that leads to liver cancer
23. Only carbon tetrachloride causes more deaths from liver disease than this pollutant
24. Causes vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, cramps, coughing, and nerve disorders
25. Emits particles (radioactive decay products) that damage lungs
26. Damages kidneys
27. Causes lung damage that could lead to lung cancer
28. Irritates eyes
29. Testing indoor air for the pollutant is easy and inexpensive
30. Radon can only be detected/tested by using special equipment operated by porfessionals
31. Using exhaust fans (stove top/bathroom) tends to decrease the pollutant levels in the house
32. Using exhaust fans (stove top/bathroom) tends to increase the pollutant levels in the house
33. Using a fireplace tends to increase the pollutant levels in the house
34. Using a fireplace tends to decrease the pollutant levels in the house
Radon Game 102 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
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Project A.I.R.E.
103
Radon Game
-------
THE RADON CAME
FACTS ABOUT THE MAP OF AREAS
WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH RADON LEVELS
PURPOSE:
• EPA is required to identify and list areas of U.S. with the potential for elevated indoor radon levels.
• EPA's Map of Radon Zones assigns each of the 3,141 counties in the United States to one of three zones
based on radon potential:
- Zone 1 counties have a predicted average indoor screening level greater than 4 pCi/L (dark grey)
- Zone 2 counties have a predicted average screening level between 2 and 4 pCi/L (light grey)
- Zone 3 counties have a predicted average screening level less than 2 pCi/L (white)
AUDIENCES:
• National, state, and local governments and organizations - to assist in targeting their radon program
activities and resources.
• Building code officials - to help determine areas that are the highest priority for adopting radon-
resistant building practices.
MAP DEVELOPMENT:
• Five factors were used to determine radon potential:
- indoor radon measurements, geology, aerial radioactivity, soil permeability and foundation type
• Radon potential assessment is based on geologic provinces:
- Radon Index Matrix is the quantitative assessment of radon potential
- Confidence Index Matrix shows the quantity and quality of the data used to assess radon potential
• Geologic provinces were adapted to county boundaries for the Map of Radon Zones.
MAP DOCUMENTATION:
• Detailed booklets are available for each state that discuss the matrices and data used.
• State booklets are an essential tool in employing the map's information.
IMPORTANT POINTS:
• All homes should test for radon, regardless of geographic location or zone desigNation.
• There are many thousands of individual homes with elevated radon levels in Zones 2 and 3. Elevated
levels can be found in Zone 2 and Zone 3 counties.
• All users of the map should carefully review the map documentation for information on within-county
variations in radon potential and supplement the map with locally available information before making
any decisions.
• The map is not to be used instead of testing during real estate transactions.
Radon Game 104 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
INVENTING A
MONITOR
This activity lets students brainstorm and problem-solve to find meth-
ods for collecting particulates as a first step in finding what pollutants
may be in their classroom or outdoors. It is related to the "Where's
That Odor?" warm-up. Related activities include "Breathing Room,"
"Finding Sources of Air Pollution," and "Is Your Air Clean?"
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Explain the importance of monitoring air pollution
^ Describe various methods that could be used to monitor air
pollution
^ Participate in problem-solving to determine the most effective
method for particulate matter (as an example)
SKILLS
Defining problems
Comparing ideas
Drawing conclusions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include air quality engineers, environmental
scientists, EPA air quality monitoring specialists, state or local air qual-
ity managers, or toxicologists. (Give preference to presenters who can
display and describe some monitoring equipment for particulates).
BACKGROUND
Air pollution is caused by many types of contaminants, including chemi-
cals, microorganisms, and particulate matter. Particulate matter in-
cludes visible and invisible particles of liquids and solids, including dust,
smoke, and other matter carried in the air. Particulate matter contain-
ing acids (dry deposition) can deteriorate buildings and other struc-
tures. Particulate matter larger than about ten micrometers (microns)
in diameter is filtered out in the nose or caught by mucus in the respi-
ratory tract and propelled up to the throat by tiny hairs (cilia). Al-
though the cilia can be damaged by air pollutants, the particulate matter
below ten microns (PM-10) in diameter is of greatest concern to
human health, because it is not filtered and thus reaches the critical
areas of the lungs where oxygen exchange takes place and where
there are no cilia or mucus to remove it. (See reading material on
"Air Pollution.")
RELATED
WARM-UP
F
REFER TO
READING
MATERIAL
"Air Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
6th - 12th
DURATION
45 minutes
VOCABULARY
Carbon monoxide
Cilia
Lead
Micrometer (micron)
Monitoring
Mucus
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone
Particulate matter
Sulphur dioxide
Toxic Release Inventory
MATERIALS
Chalkboard
Chalk
Monitoring equipment
(if available)
Paper
Pencils
Project A.I.R.E.
105
Inventing a Monitor
-------
The most common source of PM-10 and other suspended particles in air is
smoke from commercial and industrial combustion sources, forest fires, burn-
ing leaves, fireplaces, wood stoves, diesel engines, and poorly maintained
motor vehicles. Dust is another important source of particulate matter.
Wind storms carry dust and fine sand. Farmland, when plowed or left ex-
posed to wind, construction sites of all kinds (including highway sites), and
logging and mining operations are major sources of dust.
WHAT TO DO
1« Explain the importance of monitoring to determine if air pollutants are
being released. The air around us is more polluted than ever before,
and with the increasing number of pollution sources, especially in ur-
ban and industrialized areas, reducing the risks to human health and
the environment presents a major challenge to society. In order to
design and evaluate pollution reduction programs, it is necessary to
determine which air pollutants are reaching harmful levels. An exten-
sive monitoring and emissions tracking program is in place for ambi-
ent carbon monoxide, lead, nitrous oxides, sulphur dioxide, ozone,
and PM-10, but there is no similar program for the emissions of 189
hazardous air pollutants considered toxic to people. The EPA's Toxic
Release Inventory (TRI) is currently the only database available for as-
sessing trends in emissions of these air toxics. The TRI requires certain
facilities emitting above specified quantities of air toxics to submit an-
nual reports to EPA on their releases. Some non-manufacturing facili-
ties such as mining, electric utilities, and mobile sources are not re-
quired to report. Monitoring equipment generally is expensive and
difficult to maintain. Consequently, cost-effective air monitoring de-
vices are needed.
2« Explain that for the purposes of this activity students are to assume
they have to design a monitoring device to collect particulate matter
(PM) in the air in this classroom. Ask what would be their first step?
Remember, many pollutants cannot be easily seen or smelled. If nec-
essary, prompt the discussion with some of the following questions:
What kind of particulate matter is likely to be in the classroom—smoke,
dust?
How is it likely to enter the classroom air—via the ventilation system,
windows, peoples' clothing?
Is there likely to be more than one type of particulate matter in the
classroom air?
Would it be necessary to monitor them all, or would monitoring one
be adequate to draw conclusions about the others?
Could molds, bacteria, and other pollutants affect monitoring results?
Could the humidity (high or low) of the air in the room affect the
accuracy of the results?
Would it be necessary to control the movement of air through the room?
If so, how would you do it?
Inventing a Monitor 106 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
J« Help students brainstorm different ideas for collecting particulates (for
example, filters, collection dishes, electrostatic materials). Record their
ideas on the chalkboard. Encourage students to explain how and why
their suggestions would work. (Their suggested designs should show
consideration of the size of the particulate matter they are trying to
monitor, how to eliminate bogus materials, and how the particulate
matter collected in the monitor could be measured—for example, with
a microscope, by washing and counting electronically, or through
chemical analysis.)
4« Poll the rest of the class to see if they agree or disagree with each
suggestion. Ask them to explain why. When you have elicited two or
three good, supportable alternatives, ask the class to choose the best
one and ask several to explain their choices.
5« When some consensus has been reached on the best method for col-
lecting particulates, ask if one of the chosen monitoring devices will be
sufficient to get accurate results. What would be the advantage, if any,
in locating monitors in several locations around the classroom? Record
students' answers on the chalkboard.
6« Have students draw the outline of the classroom on a sheet of paper.
Instruct them to mark the locations of the classroom's doors and win-
dows. Assuming they would use the monitor chosen by the class, have
students mark on this "map" where they
think the device, or devices, should be placed
to ensure the best results. When the activity
is completed, encourage students to share
their suggestions and explain why. (You may
want to draw a classroom "map" on the
chalkboard for students to use in presenting
their ideas.)
7« Have students discuss the alternatives pre-
sented and choose the best one. Suggest
that accurate monitoring only yields part of
the answer to what is in the air.
8« Help the students examine what they can do
to reduce particulate air pollution in their
classroom. If necessary, prompt the discus-
sion by asking the following questions:
What factors influence the quality of the air
in the classroom? For example, what kinds
of pollutants do humans generate? Which
of those do we bring into the indoor envi-
ronment? Can all of these pollutants be
measured? Can you or the school change
any of those factors?
Project A.I.R.E.
107
Inventing a Monitor
-------
9« Record answers on the chalkboard. (Make sure the following sugges-
tions are brought out in the discussion: Change the filters in the ven-
tilation system; clean the ventilation system regularly; close the win-
dows on high smog days (not relevant for many schools with sealed
windows); increase the air humidity.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ If a light microscope is available and the classroom has an electronic
device like a computer or television that is used often, place a glass
slide on the electronic device (for example, on top of the computer
monitor) for at least three days before the lesson. (Electronic devices
tend to attract particulates.) During the lesson, examine the slide under
the microscope, and discuss the magnification limits of the microscope.
SUGGESTED READING
Gutnik, Martin J. The Challenge of Clean Air. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Company
(1990).
Inventing a Monitor 108 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
DESIGNING A CLEAN
AIR ENVIRONMENT
This activity gives students an opportunity to explore how air pollution
in a city can be minimized by the arrangement of living areas, working
areas, and landscaping. It is related to the warm-up called "Making
Decisions" and the activities "How Green Are We?," "Deciding to Clean
the Air," and "Lifestyles and the Environment."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Recognize that the arrangement of living areas, workplaces, and
landscaping affects air pollution levels
^ Realize that necessary choices are not always clear cut
^ Understand that automobile exhaust and the power produc-
tion required to run air conditioning units contribute to air pollution
SKILLS
^ Making decisions
^ Hypothesizing
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters for this activity could include architects, EPA environ-
mental protection specialists, or urban planners
BACKGROUND
By giving some thought to the location of different required elements
of a city, we can reduce the use of polluting fuels and use environmen-
tal processes to aid us in our goals. If the places we go to often are
near one another, we drive less and pollute the air less.
The nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in automobile
exhaust contribute to the greenhouse effect. The global temperature
rise that is a predicted result of the greenhouse effect could cause ma-
jor shifts in global weather patterns and a rise in sea-levels. These
same components of automobile exhaust are also the ingredients that
react with sunlight to form "smog."
By planting trees near highways, CO2 in automobile exhaust will be
absorbed by the leaves and turned into oxygen through photosynthe-
sis. By planting trees and shrubs to shade the roofs, windows, and air
conditioning units of our homes in the summer, we don't need to run
the air conditioner as much. This, in turn, reduces air pollution be-
cause it reduces electricity generation at power plants. Power plants
RELATED
WARM-UP
G
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
"Smog"
"Automobiles
and Air Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
4th - 9th
DURATION
30 minutes in first
class; 40 minutes in
second class with
guest presenter
VOCABULARY
Carbon cycle
Electricity
Energy
Greenhouse effect
Planning
Smog
MATERIALS
Chalk
Chalkboard
Pencils
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
109
Designing a Clean Air Environment
-------
that run on fossil fuels typically emit many pollutants, including sulphur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and suspended particulates.
Perhaps more importantly, burning fossil fuels or wood produces large
amounts of carbon dioxide, which contributes to the greenhouse effect.
While designing a city with these considerations in mind, students will see
that their choices have important consequences and that not all problems
have satisfactory solutions. This is related to real tradeoffs such as short-
term gain versus long-term benefit and convenience versus conservation.
WHAT TO DO
Explain that the students are going to do two related activities. They
will work alone on the first project. Hand out a copy of the attached
worksheet to each student and ask them to cut out and arrange the
elements from the worksheet on another piece of paper to layout a
"city" that looks like the one they live in. For this exercise, define the
boundaries of the city: the neighborhood near the school, each
student's home neighborhood, or the whole city. You may want to get
them started by identifying the relative location of a few important
landmarks or highways. You can decide which of the elements on the
worksheet the students are to use.
2. While the students are working, lead a discussion about how much
time families must spend driving around in their cars because of the
distances between places. Does the layout of the city contribute to air
pollution by separating, for example, working and living areas? Stu-
dents can analyze their city layouts as the discussion progresses. Have
them save their layouts for the second part of the exercise on another
day.
J« For the second exercise, you or the guest presenter will need to review
with students the concepts of the carbon cycle, the greenhouse effect,
smog, and how the production and use of energy (heating, electricity,
cooling) causes air pollution. This second exercise will be done in small
groups. Form the groups and hand out a clean worksheet to each
group. Explain that the students are going to pretend to be urban
planners. Urban planners are professionals who determine the arrange-
ment of roads, buildings, and parks in a city. Students are to design a
city from the ground up. When deciding on the placement of the
necessary elements and choosing energy sources, their primary
goal will be to minimize air pollution.
J« After the students have designed their "perfect" cities, lead a discus-
sion with the goal of coming to consensus on the best location for
each element. Layout the elements on the students' worksheets. Erase
and reposition the elements as students debate the best arrangement
of elements.
Designing a Clean Air Environment 110 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
4« Compare the drawings of the actual cities from the first class to the
"perfect" cites designed in the second. Have the class discuss the fol-
lowing questions:
• How are the two cities different?
• What are some reasons you would want the workplaces—factory, of-
fice building—near homes? Far from homes? (They are more conve-
nient if they are nearby. The farther away, the more pollution caused
by cars.)
Does the city have a public transportation system? Why or why not?
Do people use them? Why or why not?
• What are the advantages of urban areas and their high population
density? Disadvantages? (Fewer trees per person need to be cut down
in order to build apartments as compared to suburban single family
homes. Smog is more apparent in downtown areas.)
What are advantages of suburban areas and their lower population
density? Disadvantages? (Residents have to use cars more often for
everyday activities, but residents get to have yards, trees, landscaping,
gardens.)
• Is there a limit to the size a city can be for it to be efficient?
• How can the placement of trees help lower the use of utilities? (For
example, by shading buildings to lower the use of air conditioning and
as windbreaks to lower use of heating.)
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Students may enjoy trying this activity using commercially available
computer programs like Sim City™. While the program allows the user
to design a city, numerous built-in modules reflect the effects of the
user's decisions. For example, if the user builds a freeway, air pollution
levels rise and are displayed in a pop-up graph. If the user builds ten
new office buildings, smoke starts belching from the stacks at the power
plant.
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ For higher grades, expand the project to be a multi-session activity,
exploring in more depth each of the pollutant sources and reduction
measures discussed in the activity. A different guest presenter could be
invited to discuss each topic.
^ For grades 8 and 9, have students collect data to support the decisions
they made during the discussions in the second exercise. For example,
they may locate actual figures on energy savings from not running the
air conditioner, data on air pollution from cars, and case studies that
Project A.I.R.E. 111 Designing a Clean Air Environment
-------
show how the use of public transportation reduces pollution or ways
factories can cut emissions. Have them make presentations on their
findings.
SUGGESTED READING
Bruning, Nancy. Cities Against Nature. Chicago, IL: Children's Press (1992).
Shaffer, Carolyn. City Safaris: A Sierra Club Explorer's Guide to Urban Adven-
tures for Grownups and Kids. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books (1987).
Designing a Clean Air Environment 112 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
DESIGNING A CLEAN AIR ENVIRONMENT
single-family
homes
apartments &
townhouses
bike trails
schools
highways
LX~"\V
office buildings
industries
playgrounds &
ballfields
gas stations
DRESS BARN PEOPLES AUID PORTS
stores &
shopping malls
walking &
jogging trails
trees, parks, forests
JLJ/VTSJ
restaurants
bus & subway
routes
Project A.I.R.E.
113
Designing a Clean Air Environment
-------
Designing a Clean Air Environment 114 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
FINDING SOURCES OF
AIR POLLUTION
This activity calls for students to locate on a map the potential areas of
air pollution in their community. It is related to the "Prediction" and
"Where's That Odor?" warm-ups. Related activities include "Is Your
Air Clean?" and "Deciding to Clean the Air."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Identify the possible sources and types of air pollution in the com-
munity based on observations
~@i Predict and locate on a map potential areas of pollution in the
community
SKILLS
^ Researching
Observing
Organizing information
Predicting
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include EPA enforcement specialists, EPA envi-
ronmental protection specialists, EPA policy analysts, lawyers, or state
air pollution permit writers.
BACKGROUND
The atmosphere is necessary for plants, animals, and people to live.
Air pollution is any visible or invisible particle or gas found in the air
that is not part of the normal composition of air. Natural air pollution
caused by volcanoes, forest fires, and other natural occurrences has
always existed. Naturally produced pollutants are present in greater
amounts than those of human origin. They do not present as serious a
problem as man-made pollutants, however, because they are dispersed
over large areas, and many are less harmful than man-made ones. Air
pollution from man-made sources is the result of our increasing use of
large quantities of fuel to produce electricity and to power automo-
biles, trucks, and other vehicles and industrial activity. Not only are
some of these pollutants very harmful, but also they tend to be con-
centrated in urban areas where many people live and work. Many of
these air pollutants come from burning the coal, oil, wood, and other
fuels we use to run factories, cars, and the power plants that generate
heat and light for our homes. Six have been designated "criteria"
pollutants: particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, car-
, RELATED
WARM-UP
A
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
"Health Effects"
"Smog"
"Acid Deposition"
"Automobiles and Air
Pollution"
"The Clean Air Act"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
8th - 12th
DURATION
40 minutes
VOCABULARY
Ambient air quality
standards
Carbon monoxide
Clean Air Act
Criteria pollutants
Lead
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone
Particulate matter
Sulphur dioxide
Toxic Release
Inventory
MATERIALS
A large street map of
the community
Push pins in several
colors
Chalkboard
Chalk
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
115
Finding Sources of Air Pollution
-------
bon monoxide, ozone, and lead. (A table describing these pollutants, their
sources, and their effects is included as a student handout.) The EPA has set
National ambient air quality standards to protect health and welfare in con-
nection with these pollutants. When these standards are exceeded, the EPA
can take steps to control pollutant emissions. (See reading materials on
"Air Pollution," "Health Effects," "Smog," "Acid Deposition," "Automobiles
and Air Pollution," and "The Clean Air Act.")
WHAT TO DO
1« Explain that in a few days (use specific date if you have it) someone
who works for the EPA is coming to visit the class. To prepare for the
visit, the class is going to talk about pollution, air pollution in particu-
lar.
2« Pass out the worksheets. Ask the students if they think there is air
pollution in your community. If they say yes, ask if air pollution is
always visible. If they say no, ask how they can tell it's there. What are
some of the signs of pollution that they might see? Record the signs
of air pollution suggested by students on the chalkboard and instruct
students to list them on their worksheets under the "Signs of Pollu-
tion" heading. If necessary, prompt the brainstorming by listing
"smoke" as a sign of pollution. The completed list should include smoke,
odors, smog, stunted or discolored plants and trees, and damaged or
discolored buildings and statues.
J« Ask the students if air pollution affects
people. If they say yes, ask how. Record
students' answers on the chalkboard and
instruct them to list them on their
worksheets under the " Health Effects of Pol-
lution" heading. (If necessary, prompt
students by asking if they know anyone
who has asthma or other breathing prob-
lems. The criteria air pollutants can cause
or contribute to problems like these, plus
headaches; irritated eyes; and brain, heart,
kidney, and lung damage.)
4« Ask students where they think the
pollution in your community comes from.
What are the sources of the pollution?
Record the sources suggested by students
on the chalkboard and instruct students to
list them on their worksheets under the
"Sources of Pollution" heading. (If neces-
sary, prompt students by listing "cars and
trucks" as the first example. The completed
list should include cars and trucks, local in-
dustries, and local electric power plants, at
Finding Sources of Air Pollution
116
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
a minimum. Other possibilities could include dry cleaners, gas sta-
tions, and windblown dust.)
5« Place the map on an easel or hang it on a wall where it can be seen by
the students. Point out significant landmarks such as the school, the
city/town hall, major factories, and shopping malls. Ask students to
help you mark on the map some of the possible sources of air pollution
in the community. Explain that the map will be used as a starting point
for discussion when the EPA official comes to visit.
6« Divide the class into teams. Assign each team the responsibility for
gathering information outside of class to help refine the map by add-
ing other pollution sources and finding out what pollutants various
sources release. Suggest that the local health department, planning
department, or environmental board (office) can provide information
on sources of pollution in the community. In addition, access to EPA's
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) may be available in your area. The TRI is
a database containing information about the amount of toxic chemi-
cals released into the air by manufacturing and other facilities. Infor-
mation on the libraries and other facilities in your area with access to
the database can be obtained by calling the Emergency Planning and
Community Right-To-Know Hotline, 1-800-535-0202.
7« Select (or let the class nominate) students to make short presentations
on the information the students have developed about signs, effects,
and sources of air pollution at the beginning of the EPA official's visit.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Assign each team the responsibility of designing an attractive way (pos-
sibly a poster) to present the lists developed in today's class. For ex-
ample, one team could prepare a poster on signs of pollution; one
team could work on health effects of pollution; the third team on
sources.
SUGGESTED READING
Air and Water: Concerns for Planet Earth (VHS videotape). United Learning (1991).
Bailey, Donna. What Can We Do About Noise and Fumes. New York: Franklin
Watts (1991).
Baines, John. Conserving Our World, Conserving the Atmosphere. Austin, TX: Steck-
Vaughn Company (1990).
Becklake, John. Thinking for the Future: Pollution. New York: Gloucester Press
(1990).
Gutnik, Martin J. The Challenge of Clean Air. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Company (1990).
Hare, Tony. Save Our Earth: Acid Rain. New York: Gloucester Press (1990).
Project A.I.R.E. 117 Finding Sources of Air Pollution
-------
Leinwand, Gerald. The Environment: American Issues. New York: Facts on
File (1990).
Moos, Shawna. "Pollution-Prevention Power to the People (EPA's Toxics
Release Inventory Database)." Technology Review, 95 (October 1992)
p. 15.
O'Neill, Catherine. "Cleaner Air! Cough! Wheeze! Gasp!" Washington Post
(Washington Health), 115 (6 October 1992) p. WH18.
Penny, Malcolm. Our World: Pollution and Conservation. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Silver Burdette Press (1988).
Stille, Darlene. The Ozone Hole. Chicago: Children's Press (1991).
Finding Sources of Air Pollution 118 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
fl
FINDING SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
SIGNS OF POLLUTION
HEALTH EFFECTS OF POLLUTION
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Project A.I.R.E.
119
Finding Sources of Air Pollution
-------
FINDING SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
MAJOR MAN-MADE AIR POLLUTANTS
POLLUTANT
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Lead (Pb)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Ozone (O3)
Particulate matter
Sulphur dioxide
(S02)
DESCRIPTION
• colorless, odorless gas
• metallic element
• gaseous compounds
made up of nitrogen and
oxygen
• gaseous pollutant
• very small particles of
soot, dust, or other
matter, including tiny
droplets of liquids
• gaseous compound
made up of sulphur
and oxygen
SOURCES
• vehicles burning gasoline
• indoor sources, including
kerosene, wood-burning,
natural gas, coal, or
wood-burning stoves and
heaters
• vehicles burning leaded
gasoline
• metal refineries
• vehicles
• power plants
burning fossil fuels
• coal-burning stoves
• vehicle exhaust and
certain other fumes
• formed from other air
pollutants in the presence
of sunlight
• diesel engines
• power plants
• industries
• windblown dust
• wood stoves
• coal-burning power
plants and industries
• coal-burning stoves
• refineries
SIGNS/
EFFECTS
• headaches,
reduced mental
alertness, death
• heart damage
• brain and kidney
damage
• contaminated
crops and livestock
• lung disorder
• react in atmosphere
to form acid rain
• combines to
deteriorate build-
ings and statues
• adds to forest
damage
• form ozone & other
pollutants (smog)
• lung disorder
• eye irritation
• respiratory tract
problems
• damages vegeta-
tion
• smog
• lung disorder
• eye irritation
• damages crops
• reduces visibility
• discolors buildings
and statues
• eye irritation
• lung damage
• kills aquatic life
• reacts in atmo-
sphere to form
acid rain
• damages forests
• deteriorates
buildings and
statues
Finding Sources of Air Pollution
120
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
IS YOUR AIR CLEAN!
This activity is a follow-up to the activity called "Finding Sources of Air
Pollution" in which students located potential areas of air pollution
on a map of the community. It calls on students to develop an action
plan for investigating air pollution in the community more thoroughly
and communicating their findings to different audiences. The activ-
ity begins with student presentations of the map and information
developed in the earlier activity. It also is related to the warm-ups
called "Seeing the Big Picture" and "Making Decisions."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
~^t Identify local, state, and federal resources for obtaining accurate
information on air pollution
%$ Identify local laws governing air pollution control
^ Identify individuals and organizations responsible for enforcing
air pollution control in the community
~$i Plan how to determine what the local government is doing to
enforce air pollution control laws and what local industry and
other organizations are doing to control air pollution
SKILLS
Researching
Observing
Investigating
Developing and carrying out plans
Making oral presentations
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include EPA environmental protection special-
ists, EPA policy analysts, or EPA risk assessment specialists.
BACKGROUND
Every citizen has the ability to participate in building and protecting
his or her community. But, in order to do so, citizens must be aware
of the problems that exist. Citizens also must have some sense of
confidence that they can have an impact. Knowing how to recognize
pollution and identify its sources is the first step in protecting the
environment in a community. This awareness, however, serves little
purpose if students do not also learn to use research and investigation
skills to verify their assumptions. Determining who controls sources
of pollution and finding out what they are doing to limit adverse im-
pacts are important next steps in becoming a responsible citizen. (See
reading materials on "Air Pollution," "Health Effects," "Smog," "Acid
, RELATED
WARM-UPS
C, G
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
"Health Effects"
"Smog"
"Acid Deposition"
"Automobiles and Air
Pollution"
"The Clean Air Act"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
8th-12th
DURATION
45 minutes (with
possible extensions)
VOCABULARY
Pollution
Toxic Release
Inventory
MATERIALS
The map prepared by
students in the warm-
up exercise
An easel or some
other method of
displaying the poster
Chalk
Chalkboard
Project A.I.R.E.
121
Is Your Air Clean?
-------
Deposition," "Automobiles and Air Pollution," and "The Clean Air Act.")
WHAT TO DO
Before class begins
1« Display the map prepared by the students in the "Finding Sources of
Air Pollution" activity.
2« Call on the three previously selected students for 5-minute presenta-
tions. These presentations are to describe the signs, health effects, and
possible sources of pollution in the community and the reasoning that
led students to these conclusions.
J« Following the presentations, begin the discussion by commenting on
(encouraging, offering constructive criticism) their observation and
mapping effort.
4« Now that they have developed a theory about the pollution sources in
the community, ask how they would investigate and verify their infor-
mation. How would they find out what is being done to control the
pollution? Through this discussion students will identify some specific
ways to carry out a more detailed investigation of the air pollution in
the community. Most of the work involved may have to be done out-
side of class.
5« Ask for a student volunteer to record ideas contributed during the dis-
cussion on the chalkboard, and ask for a second volunteer to record
them on paper, so they can be copied and distributed to the class later.
6« To begin, ask who in the community students would expect to know
about air pollution. (If necessary, prompt students by asking if the
local health department would know.) The completed list might in-
clude the local health department, the local library, doctors, someone
who works for the EPA, the local Heart or Lung Association, and others.
7« Ask students which of these knowledgeable people they would want
to talk to. Do they think any one of these people would be able to
answer all their questions? If not, how many others would they talk
with? Ask what they would do if they got different, conflicting infor-
mation from their sources. How would they decide what is correct?
(The point here is to reinforce that it may be necessary to examine
information from several sources to sort out the most definitive infor-
mation.) You may want to take this opportunity to describe the Toxic
Release Inventory (see Glossary for definition) and discuss how it might
be used in this investigation. A sample record from the TRI is shown on
Student Handout 1.
8« Besides verifying that the information on the map is correct, ask what
other kinds of information they would want to get? For example, would
Is Your Air Clean? 122 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
it help to know if the government has made any laws requiring the
control of air pollution? How would they find out what laws exist?
What would they need to know about them? (The list should include
items such as what the requirements are, who is responsible for enforc-
ing them, how they are being enforced, the penalties for breaking the
laws, if there are plans for making the laws stricter or more lenient, and
why these changes are being considered.)
9« Ask how they would go about finding out what currently is being done
to control air pollution. (If necessary, prompt students by suggesting
they might interview some of the polluters they have identified.) En-
courage them to suggest others who might be doing things to control
pollution? (The point here is to help students recognize that the local
government and other organizations may be taking other actions to
control pollution in the community and, therefore, they should be in-
terviewed also.)
1O« Ask how they would use all the information once they have gathered
it. Who would they want to tell about it? What would be the best,
most effective way to present the information? (The point here is to
elicit some ideas for presentation formats. The list might include writ-
ing a report, writing an article for the school newspaper, designing a
display and putting it in the school lobby or taking it to local malls,
making a presentation at a school assembly or at a PTA meeting.)
11* Explain that through this discussion the students have begun to de-
velop an "action plan." At this point, suggest that copies of the plan
be made and distributed to all students in the class and that they dis-
cuss (in class on another day) which, if any, of the actions they want to
pursue.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Assign a student or a team of students to write an article for the school
newspaper about the visit from the EPA representative and the action
plan the class developed.
^ Divide the class into teams and assign each team a part of the "action
plan" to pursue. (For example, one team would be responsible for in-
terviewing potentially polluting industries and others about what kinds
and how much pollutants they release and about what they are doing
to control releases. Another team would research existing pollution
control laws. Another would interview appropriate sources about what
the local government is doing to control pollution. When their work is
completed, the same EPA employee could be invited back to hear each
team report on their activities. Teams also could be tasked to present
the information in one of the formats suggested during the class dis-
cussion (see step 10).
Project A.I.R.E. 123 Is Your Air Clean?
-------
SUGGESTED READING
Edelson, Edward. Clean Air. New York: Chelsea House Publishers (1992).
Moos, Shawna. "Pollution-Prevention Power to the People (EPA's Toxics
Release Inventory Database)." Technology Review, 95 (October 1992)
p. 15.
O'Neill, Catherine. "Cleaner Air! Cough! Wheeze! Gasp!" Washington Post
(Washington Health), 115 (6 October 1992) p. WH18.
Is Your Air Clean?
124
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
L!
IS YOUR AIR CLEAN?
SAMPLE RECORD FROM
THE TOXIC RELEASE INVENTORY
FACN - 20851SMITH2355L
FNM - XXX PAINT WORKS CO.
FAD - 0000 SMITH AVE.
FCTY - ROCKVILLE
FST - MD (MARYLAND)
FZIP-20851-1234
PUBC - JOHN SMITH
TEL -(301)555-5555
SIC - (2851) Paints and allied products
SIC -NA
FDBN - 00-324-1234
NAME - ETHYLENE GLYCOL
RN - 107-21-1
MUSE - NO DATA
FUSE - (2b) As a formulation component
OUSE - NO DATA
MAX - (03) 1,000-9,999 lbs.(5,OOOM)
o AIRNR- NON-POINT AIR RELEASE : 11 -499 Ibs. (250m)/rep yr - 1991
o AIRNB- BASIS OF ESTIMATE : (O) Other Approaches
o AIRPR- POINT AIR RELEASE : 1-10 Ibs. (5m)/rep yr - 1991
o AIRPB- BASIS OF ESTIMATE : (O) Other Approaches
AIRT-255 Ibs./repyr-1991
o RSTR - RECEIVING STREAM : NA
oWR -WATER RELEASE : 0/0 Ibs./repyr-1991
oWB - BASIS OF ESTIMATE : NA
o SPER - PERCENT FROM STORMWATER : 0.00%
o RSTR - RECEIVING STREAM : NA
oWR -WATER RELEASE : 0/0 Ibs./repyr-1991
oWB - BASIS OF ESTIMATE : NA
o SPER - PERCENT FROM STORMWATER : 0.00%
o RSTR - RECEIVING STREAM : NA
oWR -WATER RELEASE : 0/0 Ibs./repyr-1991
oWB - BASIS OF ESTIMATE : NA
o SPER - PERCENT FROM STORMWATER : 0.00%
WT -0 Ibs./repyr-1991
o LANDM- DISPOSAL METHOD : (D02) On-site Landfill
o LANDR- LAND RELEASE : 0/0 Ibs./rep yr -1991
o LANDB- BASIS OF ESTIMATE : NA
o LANDM- DISPOSAL METHOD : (DOS) Land Treatment/Application/Farming
o LANDR- LAND RELEASE : 0/0 Ibs./rep yr -1991
o LANDB- BASIS OF ESTIMATE : NA
o LANDM- DISPOSAL METHOD : (DOS) Surface Impoundment
o LANDR- LAND RELEASE : 0/0 Ibs./rep yr -1991
o LANDB- BASIS OF ESTIMATE : NA
o LANDM- DISPOSAL METHOD : (D99) Other Disposal
o LANDR- LAND RELEASE : 0/0 Ibs./rep yr -1991
o LANDB- BASIS OF ESTIMATE : NA
LANDT-0 Ibs./repyr-1991
o UTNJR- UNDERGROUND INJECTION : 0/0 Ibs./rep yr - 1991
RELEASE
o UTNJB- BASIS OF ESTIMATE : NA
UTNJT-0 Ibs./repyr-1991
Project A.I.R.E. 125 Is Your Air Clean?
-------
ERELT- 255 Ibs./rep yr - 1991
o TWNM - NAME : NA
o TWNM - NAME : NA
POTWT- 0/0 Ibs./rep yr - 1991
o OTR - OFF-SITE LOCATION TRANSFER: 0 Ibs./rep yr - 1991
OLOCT-0 Ibs./rep yr-1991
o QREL - QUANTITY RELEASED
o ONRV - ON-SITE ENERGY RECOVERY
o OFRV - OFF-SITE ENERGY RECOVERY
o ONCC - ON-SITE RECYCLING
o OFCC - OFF-SITE RECYCLING
o ONTRT- ON-SITE TREATMENT
o OFTRT- OFF-SITE TREATMENT
PRIOR(90) CURRENT(91) % CHANGE
QREL
ONRV|
OFRV|
ONCC|
OFCC
ONTRTI
OFTRTI
156
0
0
0
0
0
0
| 123
0
0 1
0
o 1
1 o
1 o
|-21.15%|
0.00%|
0.00%|
0.00%|
0.00%|
| 0.00%|
0.00%|
TOTAL 156
123
-21.15%
o SRRTP- SOURCE REDUCTION & RECYCLING TOTAL PRIOR YEAR : 156 Ibs./rep yr - 1991
o SRRTC- SOURCE REDUCTION & RECYCLING TOTAL CURRENT YEAR : 123 Ibs./rep yr - 1991
o SRRTN- SOURCE REDUCTION & RECYCLING TOTAL NEXT YEAR : 100 Ibs./rep yr - 1991
o SRRTF- SOURCE REDUCTION & RECYCLING TOTAL FUTURE YEAR : 80 Ibs./rep yr - 1991
ARELT- 0 Ibs./rep yr - 1991
FCO -MONTGOMERY
Is Your Air Clean?
126
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
ACID RAIN AND PLANTS
This activity lets students observe the effects of acid rain on plants in a
simulated experiment using vinegar or lemon water. The results from
the experiment could be used as an introductory presentation to an
EPA representative who is an expert on acid rain. The representative
could then follow up with a presentation to the class about EPA's ef-
forts to reduce acid rain in the United States and internationally. This
activity is related to the "Seeing the Big Picture" warm-up and the
"Finding Sources of Air Pollution" and "Is Your Air Clean?" activities.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Observe the impact of acids on plants
^ Recognize how acid rain can affect the environment
SKILLS
^ Observing
^ Comparing
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include EPA acid rain specialists, botanists, chem-
ists, ecologists, EPA environmental protection specialists, or environmen-
tal scientists.
BACKGROUND
Acid rain is precipitation that is more acidic than normal. The terms
"acidic" and "basic" (or "alkaline") are used to describe two chemical
extremes, much like hot and cold describe two temperature extremes.
Mixing acids and bases can cancel out their extreme effects, much like
mixing hot and cold water moderate the temperature. A substance
that is neither acidic or basic is called "neutral." The pH scale measures
how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH lower than 7 is acidic; higher than 7 is basic.
Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the
mixture can become either acidic or basic. For example, lemon juice is
acidic; the pH of lemonade is between 2 and 3. Ammonia, on the
other hand, is alkaline; its pH is just over 11. Each unit of pH is ten
times greater or smaller than the next unit. For example, a pH of 5 is 100
times more acidic than a pH of 7. This is called a "logarithmic" scale.
Air pollution is a major cause of acid rain. When precipitation becomes
more acidic than normal, it can damage soil, water, building materials,
plants, animals, and humans. The effects of acid rain may not be im-
mediately apparent in all places. For example, at a glance, a lake might
RELATED
WARM-UP
C
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
"Acid Deposition"
TARGET
GRADE LEVEL
4th - 6th
DURATION
45 minutes (with
possible
extensions)
VOCABULARY
Acid rain
Acidic
Alkaline
Base
Logarithm
Neutral
pH
Precipitation
MATERIALS
Three small and
healthy potted
plants, all the
same type
Three large jars
with lids
Vinegar
Water
Measuring cup
Masking tape
Paper
Pen
Project A.I.R.E.
127
Acid Raid and Plants
-------
look clear and beautiful. But when you look closely, you might begin to see
some problems. Where are the fish? Why are there few or no plants?
Many lakes in the Adirondack Mountains of New York, the upper midwest,
and many streams in the Appalachian Mountains, in particular, have expe-
rienced losses of aquatic life. Nature can cope with some changes in acid-
ity. Areas with limestone (which reacts with acid) are able to neutralize
acidic rainfall so the damage is reduced. However, large parts of the world
do not have this acid rain coping ability and, in any case, no area can handle
very large amounts of acid rain.
Acid rain can affect plants in many ways. It takes nutrients away from the
soil so that plants can't grow. It weakens trees so that they become dis-
eased more easily. Branches at the top of trees lose their leaves. Tree leaves
might be an unusual color. Trees may not have as many leaves or may lose
their leaves earlier each year. Eventually, trees die. In this experiment, with
potted plants, the more acid rain in the plant water, the sooner a plant dies.
The plants are watered with solutions that have a lower pH than most rain-
fall. (See reading materials on "Air Pollution" and "Acid Deposition.")
WHAT TO DO
1« Divide the class into 3 teams. Give each group a 1-gallon container (a
milk container would work). Have one team fill their container with 1
gallon (3.8 liters) of tap water. They can use a piece of masking tape to
label the container "tap water."
2« Have another team fill their container with 1 pint (0.5 liters) of vinegar
and 7 pints (3.3 liters) of tap water. Have them use a piece of masking
tape to label the container "slightly acidic."
J« Have the third team fill their container with 2 pints (0.9 liters) of vin-
egar and 6 pints (2.8 liters) of tap water. Have them use a piece of
masking tape to label the container "very acidic."
4« Give each team one of the plants and have them label it the same as
their container. Make each team responsible for watering their plant
from the container with the matching label.
5« Place all three plants in the same spot so that they get the same amount
of light. Students should water the plants when they need it (every
two to four days). Make sure the plants get the same amount of water
in each watering cycle. Have team members examine their plants
every day and write down what they look like—what color they are, if
their leaves are dropping, whether they look healthy.
6« Continue this activity for two to three weeks. Then have students ex-
amine the plants and discuss the results of the experiment. What
happened to the plants watered with acid solutions? How long did it
take to see the effects of the acid? Do the plants differ in color? If so,
why? Which plant showed the most effects?
Acid Raid and Plants 128 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
~@i If you live in an area affected by acid rain, take students on a field trip
and have students write down what they observe about the area. Can
they see dying or dead plants or trees, stained or eroded building sur-
faces or statues? If there is a lake or stream nearby, can they see any
wildlife? Discuss ways that the area may be saved. Discuss the sources
of the pollution that may have contributed to the acid rain that falls in
the area.
5^ In a follow-up class with an EPA representative working on acid rain,
have the students present their results from the experiment. The EPA
representative could discuss the results and provide some additional
information on acid rain.
SUGGESTED READING
Acid Rain Kids Handbook. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society
(1988).
Acid Rain: The Invisible Threat (VHS videotape). Scott Resources (1992).
Baines, John. Conserving Our World, Conserving the Atmosphere. Austin, TX:
Steck-Vaughn Company (1990).
Berreby, David. "The Parasol Effect."
Discover, 14 (July 1993) p. 44.
Boyle, Robert H., and Alexander R.
Boyle. Acid Rain. New York:
Schocken Books (1983).
Gay, Kathlyn. Acid Rain. New York:
Franklin Watts (1983).
Gould, Roy. Going Sour: Science and
Politics of Acid Rain. Cambridge,
MA: Birkhauser Boston, Inc.
(1985).
Gutnik, Martin J. The Challenge of Clean
Air. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Company
(1990).
Hare, Tony. Save Our Earth: Acid Rain.
New York: Gloucester Press
(1990).
Lucas, Eileen. Acid Rain. Chicago:
Children's Press (1991).
Project A.I.R.E.
129
Acid Raid and Plants
-------
McCormick, John. Acid Rain. Gloucester Press (1986).
Miller, Christina G., and Louise A. Berry. Acid Rain: A Sourcebook for Young
People. New York: Julian Messner (1986).
O'Neill, Catherine. "Saving Statues from Acid Rain." Washington Post (Wash-
ington Health), 116 (6 April 1993) p. WH18.
Pringle, Laurence P. Rain of Trouble: The Science and Politics of Acid Rain. New
York, NY: Macmillan (1988).
Problems of Conservation: Acid Rain (VMS videotape). EBE (1990).
Stubbs, Harriet, Mary Lou Klinkhammer, and Marsha Knittig. Acid Rain Reader.
Raleigh, NC: Acid Rain Foundation (1989).
Acid Raid and Plants 130 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
This activity introduces the concepts of climate change and the "green-
house effect." While global warming may sound great, thinking through
the possible effects upon plants, sea levels, and the world's food sup-
ply may cause the students to better appreciate how complex a role
the atmosphere has in our lives. It is related to the "Read My Data"
and "Tracking Air Quality" warm-ups and the "Climate and the Green-
house Effect" activity.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Understand that the atmosphere traps heat and makes the sur-
face of the Earth warm enough for life
^ Recognize that air pollution can cause a rise in temperature and
ecological decline
^ Recognize that human activities can cause air pollution
SKILLS
^ Observing
Comparing
Interpreting test results
Drawing conclusions
GUEST PRESENTER
Guest presenters could include air quality engineers, chemists, ecolo-
gists, meteorologists, or physicists.
BACKGROUND
The greenhouse effect is a term scientists use to describe the trapping
of heat on the surface of the Earth by the atmosphere, a normal atmos-
pheric occurrence. As a result of this, the Earth's surface is about 53°F
(12°C) warmer than it would be without this trapping. This effect is
magnified by certain greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, most nota-
bly carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, and chlorofluorocar-
bons (CFCs). Methane is a product of natural decay from living (or
once-living) things; nitrogen oxides are generally a result of man-made
burning and automobile and similar internal-combustion engines; and
CFCs are a class of chemicals used often in air conditioners, refrigera-
tors, and as the pressurizing gas in aerosol spray cans. While all of
these pollutants contribute to air pollution, and contribute to the green-
house effect, carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas.
Scientists believe that concentrations of greenhouse gases in the at-
mosphere will double over the next hundred years, producing average
RELATED
WARM-UPS
B, E
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
"The Greenhouse
Effect"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
5th - 7th
DURATION
20 minutes (suggested
optional extensions
can further time).
VOCABULARY
Albedo
Carbon dioxide
Chlorofluorocarbons
Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gas
Methane
Nitrogen oxides
MATERIALS
Two clean, dry, wide-
mouth glass jars with
lids (such as
mayonnaisejars)
Heavy aluminum foil
Piece of dark cloth or
construction paper
Stop watch or watch
with a second hand
Two identical
thermometers that fit
into the jars ("Instant-
read" meat
thermometers work
well)
Paper
Pencils
Project A.I.R.E.
131
Climate and the Greenhouse Effect
-------
temperature rises of about 8 to 10°F (4 to 6°C). While most scientists believe
that the greenhouse effect will gradually warm up the Earth's climate, there
are some who believe that increased cloud cover will eventually reflect more
sunlight away from the Earth and lower the average temperature. This
increased reflectivity is called the Earth's albedo. (See reading material on
"Air Pollution" and "The Greenhouse Effect.")
WHAT TO DO
Divide the class into two work groups. Give each group one of thejars.
Have each group put a piece of dark cloth or paper into theirjar. Have
them put a thermometer in each jar so that the scale can be read
through the side. Have one group screw the cover onto theirjar. Have
the other group leave theirjar open.
Have the groups place thejars, on their
sides, in the sunshine so that their bot-
toms face the sun.
Instruct each group to watch the ther-
mometers and have one person from the
group record the temperature shown in
theirjar every minute. Instruct the group
with the closed jar to announce when the
thermometer in theirjar levels off or
reaches 140°F (60°C). Stop the experi-
ment at that point.
4« Have students discuss the following
questions:
In which jar does the temperature rise
fastest?
How much faster did it rise? Why?
How is this like a greenhouse?
How is this like the real world's atmosphere?
What was the role of the dark cloth in thejars?
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Have students wrap one of thejars with aluminum foil, leaving a clear
area away from the sun to read the thermometer. Repeat the experi-
ment, and compare the times to reach 140°F (60°C). Discuss why it
took longer.
^ Have students try the experiment on a cloudy day. Discuss the differ-
ence in results. Have them try the experiment without the dark cloths
and discuss the difference in results.
Climate and the Greenhouse Effect
132
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
SUGGESTED READING
Berreby, David. "The Parasol Effect." Discover, 14 (July 1993) p. 44.
Bright, Michael. The Greenhouse Effect. New York: Gloucester Press (1991).
Gay, Kathlyn. Ozone. New York, NY: Franklin Watts (1989).
Morgan, J. "Greenhouse America." Scientific American (January 1989) p.
20.
Jones, P. D., and T. M. L. Wigley. "Global Warming Trends." Scientific Ameri-
can (August 1990) p. 89.
Nardo, Don. Ozone. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books (1991).
Schneider, S. H. "The Changing Climate." Scientific American (September
1989) p. 89.
Project A.I.R.E. 133 Climate and the Greenhouse Effect
-------
Climate and the Greenhouse Effect 134 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
CLIMATE AND THE
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
This module is intended to help educators guide an experiment to
demonstrate the greenhouse effect and to stimulate discussion among
students on the effects of global climate changes upon the environ-
ment. While global warming may sound great ("endless summer"),
thinking through the possible effects upon plants, sea levels, and the
world's food supply may cause the students to better appreciate how
complex a role the atmosphere plays in the way we live. This activity
is related to the warm-ups called "Prediction" and "Tracking Air Qual-
ity." Related activities include "The Greenhouse Effect."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Recognize that relatively small changes to our environment can
stimulate significant climate changes
^ Understand that the "scientific method" is a process of testing
hypotheses
^ Appreciate that global climate changes will affect us far beyond
simply warming the outdoor air temperatures
SKILLS
^ Observing
^ Forming hypotheses
5^ Predicting
^ Graphing
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include chemists, ecologists, environmental
scientists, EPA environmental protection specialists, meteorologists,
or physicists.
BACKGROUND
Most of the electromagnetic energy (light) radiated from the sun that
reaches the Earth passes through our atmosphere and is absorbed at
the surface. Some of the incoming, or "incident," light waves are
reflected away by clouds in the atmosphere or light-colored surface
features such as large snow or ice fields. The energy that is absorbed
is converted in part to heat energy that is re-radiated back into the
atmosphere. Heat energy waves are not visible, and are generally in
the infrared (long-wavelength) portion of the spectrum compared to
visible light. Physical laws show that atmospheric constituents—nota-
bly water vapor and carbon dioxide gas—that are transparent to vis-
RELATED
WARM-UP
A, E
REFER TO
READING
MATERIAL
"Greenhouse Effect"
"Air Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
8th - 12th
DURATION
35 minutes (or two
class periods with
extensions)
VOCABULARY
Baseline
Carbon dioxide
Convection
Energy
Greenhouse effect
Hypothesis
Prediction
Scientific method
Temperature
MATERIALS
A clean, dry, wide-
mouth glass jar with a
tight cap (such as a
mayonnaise jar)
Thermometer capable
of fitting into the jar
(meat thermometer
works well)
Heavy aluminum foil
Stop watch (or clock
with a second hand)
Wooden kitchen
matches
Graph paper
Colored pencils
Project A.I.R.E.
135
Climate and the Greenhouse Effect
-------
ible light are not transparent to heat waves. Hence, re-radiated energy in
the infrared portion of the spectrum is trapped within the atmosphere, keep-
ing the surface temperature warm. This phenomenon is called the "green-
house effect" because it is exactly the same principle that heats a green-
house (or in a glass jar as in this experiment) where the glass performs the
same function as the atmosphere. On the moon, for example, where there
is no atmosphere, re-radiated energy is entirely lost to space. Thus, objects
on the surface of the moon would feel hot if they were in direct sunlight
while the side turned away from the direct rays of the sun would be as cold
as space. Obviously, the Earth's atmosphere serves a function beyond
providing air to breathe: the atmosphere mediates the extremes of en-
ergy received from the sun, and serves as an energy storehouse. (See read-
ing materials on "The Greenhouse Effect" and "Air Pollution.")
WHAT TO DO
Before class begins
1« Make a number of match holders (see illustration) that will keep the
burning match away from the thermometer.
When class begins
1« Students should be challenged throughout
the activity to volunteer predictions of what will hap-
pen in each step of the experiment. Where appropri-
ate, ask them to write down actual numbers that they
expect to see during the experiments. They should
then be encouraged to suggest reasons why their hy-
potheses were (or were not) substantiated by experi-
ment. Finally, they should be encouraged to explain
the real-world implications of the experiments in the
glassjar.
2« Have the students create a graph with tem-
perature along the vertical axis (50° to 200°F, in 5° in-
crements) and time along the horizontal axis (0 min-
utes to 20 minutes). Tell the students to label each
axis. Have them use a different colored pencil to enter
data for each version of the experiment so they can
compare data.
J« Select a student or group of students to perform the experiment. Have
them wrap one half the jar's circumference with heavy aluminum foil,
shiny side out, making sure that the foil extends the entire height of
the jar. They can tape it in place if necessary.
4« Have them put the thermometer in thejar so that it can be read through
the side of thejar that is not covered with foil. Leave the lid off for
now.
Climate and the Greenhouse Effect
136
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
5« Let them measure the air temperature in the room, making sure that
the thermometer is not in direct sunlight or close to an electric light
bulb. Have all students read and write down the temperature.
6« Have the experimenter(s) place the jar in a sunny window, or next to
the spotlight. Caution that the thermometer should be completely
shadowed by the aluminum foil (rotate the jar so that the foil faces the
sun). Have each student write down the temperature. Have the stu-
dents predict whether the temperature will be different from the first
temperature, and by how many degrees, and make them give a hy-
pothesis. If they think that the temperature will go up, ask them to
explain the mechanism by which the heat is added to the jar. (The
temperatures should not be appreciably different, because you are read-
ing the room air temperature both times.) Ask the students to con-
sider what temperature is really being measured. (It is really the tem-
perature of the air within the jar.)
7« Have the experimenter(s) rotate
the jar so that sunlight hits the
clear side of the jar and the ther-
mometer directly. Ask the stu-
dents to predict what the tem-
perature will now do. Get them
to suggest reasons. The tem-
perature should be much
warmer, because the energy in
the sunlight is directly warming
the mercury in the thermometer
as it converts from visible light
energy to invisible heat energy.
If anyone guesses the answer,
challenge them to think of a way
to test that theory. The next ex-
periment will test the theory.
8« Rotate the jar again so that the
thermometer is shadowed.
Start the stopwatch. Call stu-
dents' attention to how long it
takes for the temperature to fall
back to normal room tempera-
ture. It should fall fairly quickly
because the increase was due
only to the sunlight. The air
within the jar was not warmed
much because it is open to the
room and any heated air es-
caped and was replaced by cold
air through convection.
Outgoing Energy
(infrared heat)
Incoming Energy
(visible light)
^Energy Trapped
a Atmosphere
Project A.I.R.E.
137
Climate and the Greenhouse Effect
-------
9« Cover the jar with the lid snugly, and repeat steps 6, 7, and 8. Have
the students use a different colored pencil to record the temperature
curve on their graph paper. Ask the students to predict whether the
results will be the same, and why or why not. Even with the cover on,
the repeat of 6 should not increase the temperature significantly be-
cause the sunlight is being reflected away from the jar. When the
sunlight hits the clear part of thejar in the repeat of experiment 7, the
temperature will go up just as quickly as before. However, when you
turn thejar away in the repeat of 8, the temperature will fall much
more slowly because of the greenhouse effect. Ask why the tempera-
ture fell more slowly than before? If heat was stored in thejar, what
part of the system was probably the heat "bank"? The gases in the
system, including water vapor.
1O« Open thejar and drop in a lighted kitchen match attached to the match
holder and quickly close the lid again.
When the oxygen is gone, the match will die out by itself in about ten
seconds. Challenge the students to guess what the burning matches
are doing in the closed system. The
fire is combining the oxygen in the
TAKE NOTE1 Be careful that the flame does not
touch the thermometer or any plastic or cardboard
casing around it.
enclosed air with the carbon from
the burning wood to produce car-
bon dioxide. Ask them what in the
real world might create a similar
situation in the atmosphere. Ask them why the match went out even
though not all of the wooden match stick was burned up. Set thejar
aside away from sunlight for a couple of minutes to let the heat cre-
ated by the fire equilibrate. The match didn't give off much heat, but
the temperature will likely go up about 5°F (3°C). Have the students
read the thermometer (to get a temperature baseline). Repeat steps 7
and 8, asking the students to again predict what will happen and why.
This time, emphasize that they should consider and speculate on
whether the carbon dioxide in thejar will accelerate or retard the tem-
perature rise and later fall. This time, the temperature will warm up
much more quickly and will stay warm longer because of the green-
house effect of the carbon dioxide.
11* Challenge the students to extrapolate the results of the experiments to
the real world. The conclusion of these experiments should demon-
strate that the greenhouse effect is real, that a colorless atmospheric
gas (carbon dioxide) is a significant contributor to atmospheric warming.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Divide the class into three groups and have Group One conduct and
record the experiments with thejar open to the air; Group Two should
conduct the experiments with thejar sealed, and Group Three with
thejar sealed after the matches are burned in it. (Don't forget to pre-
Climate and the Greenhouse Effect 138 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
pare the match holders before class). If results from measurements of
more than one thermometer are to be compared, be sure to calibrate
the thermometers with each other first to cancel out analytical errors.
~@i Divide the class into three groups and have each group conduct the
identical experiments. Compare their results. Discuss why the values
were different? Discuss calibration of the thermometers, "experimen-
tal errors," and different conditions.
^ Have the students plant a tree. Explain that they can make a small
dent in the carbon dioxide surplus by planting trees. Have the stu-
dents contact a local nursery to see if the owners will donate some tree
seedlings to help combat climate change.
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ For grades 10 through 12, divide the class into two groups. Have one
group represent the position of the United States and our citizens. The
other group should represent a poor country that relies upon subsis-
tence agriculture, fishing, and the sale of its forests for lumber to the
United States. The groups should work separately. Each group should
make a list of the benefits it (the represented country) would receive if
global warming was halted. Each group should list the things it can do
within its own borders to help stop global warming. Each group then
should list the "costs" it would be required to bear to help stop global
warming. Have students discuss whether the benefits to both groups
are the same. Can both countries contribute equally to slow down or
stop global warming? Are the costs to both groups the same?
^ Have students in higher grades research and present oral reports to the
class to answer the following questions:
How can greenhouse gases be controlled, and is the greenhouse
effect reversible?
If temperatures are warming, what are the consequences to humans
from melting polar icecaps?
If the greenhouse effect is raising global temperatures to an appre
ciable degree, what will happen to the world's food supply in the
next century?
SUGGESTED READING
Abrams, Isabel. "The Earth in Hot Water." Current Health, 18 (2 May 1992)
p.11.
Bazzaz, F. A., and E. D. Fajer. "Plant Life in a CO2-rich World." Scientific
American (January 1992) p. 68.
Begley, Sharon. "Was Andrew a Freak or a Preview of Things to Come."
Newsweek, 120 (7 September 1992) p. 30.
Project A.I.R.E. 139 Climate and the Greenhouse Effect
-------
Broecker, Wallace S. "Global Warming on Trial." Natural History (April 1992)
p. 6.
"Climate: Worldwide Weather Threatens Millions." USA Today Magazine ,
117 (April 1989) p. 1.
Fossel, Peter V. "Weather Report (Discussion of Detrimental Effects of Envi-
ronmental Pollution)." Country Journal, 15 (October 1988) p. 8.
Gay, Kathlyn. Ozone. New York, NY: Franklin Watts (1989).
Gribbin, John R. The Hole in the Sky: Man's Threat to the Ozone Layer. New
York, NY: Bantam (1988).
Morgan, J. "Greenhouse America." Scientific American (January 1989) p. 20.
Jones, P. D., and T. M. L. Wigley. "Global Warming Trends." Scientific Ameri-
can (August 1990) p. 89.
Mackenzie, James J. Breathing Easier: Taking Action on Climate Change, Air
Pollution, and Energy Insecurity. World Resources Institute (1989).
Matthews, Samuel W., and James A. Sugar. "Under the Sun: Is Our World
Warming?" National Geographic, 178 (October 1990) p. 66.
Nardo, Don. Ozone. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books (1991).
Our Endangered Atmosphere: Global Warming and the Ozone Layer. GEM
(1987).
Passell, Peter. "Warmer Globe, Greener Pastures?" New York Times, 141 (18
September 1991) p. D2.
Root-Bernstein, Robert. "Future Imperfect (Incomplete Models of Nature
Guarantees All Predictions Are Unreliable)." Discover, 14 (November
1993) p. 42.
Silverberg, Robert. "Greenhouse Effect: Apocalypse Now or Chicken Little."
Omni, 13 (July 1991) p. 50.
Udall, James R., and Douglas Scott. "Nature Under Glass." Sierra, 74 (July
1989) p. 34.
White, R. M. "The Great Climate Debate." Scientific American (July 1990) p.
36.
Climate and the Greenhouse Effect 140 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
SMOG
This activity lets students create artificial "smog" in ajar. Teachers can
use this module as an introduction to a planned visit from an air-qual-
ity scientist, or as the basis for extended discussions on the health prob-
lems associated with smog. This activity is related to the warm-up
exercises called "Read My Data" and "Seeing the Big Picture." Related
activities include "Lifestyles and the Environment," "Is Your Air Clean?,"
"Deciding To Clean the Air," and "Choosing a Better Future."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Recognize that invisible air pollutants and weather conditions are
involved in creating smog
^ Understand that not all air pollution is visible
~@i Appreciate that human activities can cause air pollution
SKILLS
^ Observing
^ Drawing conclusions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include EPA air quality monitoring specialists,
state or local air quality managers, chemists, laboratory technicians, or
meteorologists.
BACKGROUND
The expression "smog" was first used in "Turn-of-the-Century" Lon-
don to describe a combiNation of "smoke" and "fog." Smog occurred
when water vapor in the air condensed on small particles of soot in the
air, forming small smog droplets. Thousands of Londoners died of
pneumonia-like diseases due to the poisonous air. Today, smog is usu-
ally produced photochemically, when chemical pollutants in the air
(notably nitrous oxide and hydrocarbons from automobile exhausts)
are baked by the sun and react chemically. Ground-level ozone is pro-
duced by a combiNation of pollutants from many sources such as au-
tomobile exhausts, smokestacks, and fumes from chemical solvents
like paint thinner or pesticides. When these smog-forming pollutants
(called "precursors") are released into the air, they undergo chemical
transformations and produce smog. Weather conditions, such as the
lack of wind or a "thermal inversion," also cause smog to be trapped
over a particular area.
Smog causes health problems such as difficulty in breathing, asthma,
reduced resistance to lung infections, colds, and eye irritation. The
RELATED
WARM-UPS
B, C
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Smog"
"Air Pollution"
"Ozone"
"Automobiles and Air
Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
3rd - 5th
DURATION
20 minutes
VOCABULARY
Hydrocarbons
Ozone
Photochemical
Precursor
Smog
Thermal inversion
MATERIALS
Clean, dry, wide-
mouth glass jar (such
as a mayonnaise jar)
Heavy aluminum foil
Two or three ice cubes
Ruler
Scissors
Stop watch or watch
with a second hand
Matches
Project A.I.R.E.
141
Smog
-------
ozone in smog also can damage plants and trees, and the haze reduces visibil-
ity. This is particularly noticeable from mountains and other beautiful vistas
such as National Parks.
Severe smog and ground-level ozone problems exist in many major cities,
including much of California from San Francisco to San Diego, the mid-
Atlantic seaboard from Washington, DC to southern Maine, and over major
cities of the Midwest. (See reading materials on "Smog," "Air Pollution,"
"Ozone," and "Automobiles and Air Pollution.")
WHAT TO DO
1« Explain that the class will perform an experiment in which they will
create artificial "smog" in ajar. Make sure that students understand
that thejar is only a model, and models by nature are limited. For
example, the purpose of this model is to illustrate the appearance
and behavior of smog, not the composition or effects. It is impor-
tant to understand that smog is notjust a "smoky fog," but a spe-
cific phenomenon.
2« Select students to perform the experiment. Have them cut a strip of
paper about 6 inches by 2 inches. Fold the strip in half and twist it into
a rope.
J« Have them make a snug lid for thejar out of a piece of aluminum foil.
Shape a small depression in the foil lid to keep the ice cubes from
sliding off. Carefully remove the foil and set it aside.
4« Have the students put some water in thejar and swish it around to wet
all the inside of thejar. Pour out the extra water.
TAKE NOTE1 Be careful to supervise students using
matches. DO NOT let anyone breathe the "smog"
produced in the experiment, and when the experiment
is completed, be sure to release the "smog" outside.
5«Have them light the
paper "rope" with a
match and drop it and
the match into the damp
jar. Put the foil lid back
on the jar and seal it
tightly. Put ice cubes on
the lid to make it cold.
(The ice cubes will make the water vapor in thejar condense.) You
must do this step very quickly, perhaps with some assistance.
6« Ask students to describe what they see in thejar. How is this like real
smog? What conditions in thejar produced "smog"? (Moisture plus
soot particles from the burning matches plus carbon dioxide and other
solvent vapors.)
7« Ask the students if they have ever seen smog (not fog). Have they ever
breathed air outside that smelled funny?
Smog 142 Project A.I.R.E.
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SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
~@i Have students put a glass thermometer (not plastic) into thejar before
they do the experiment. Have them record the temperature before
proceeding to step 4. Have them record the temperature during step
5. Ask them to describe what the temperature did and why. Let them
try it again without adding water.
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ For grades 7-12, assign students to small groups to answer the follow-
ing questions and report back to class in two weeks. One group will
consider the physical and chemical sciences and the other group will
consider the health and ecological sciences. Each group should con-
sider referring to several sources of information to answer the ques-
tions. Students could possibly interview the weather reporter or me-
teorologist at the local television or radio station or airport, or inter-
viewing a health scientist from the city or county health department or
air quality agency.
(a) What conditions are necessary to produce smog in the air? Under
what circumstances will these con-
ditions exist in the city? How of-
ten are they likely? Can they be
predicted in advance?
(b) What are the health effects of
smog on people? On plants and
trees? Why doesn't everyone in
the city get sick or have similar
symptoms from smog? What
types of people are most sensitive
to smog?
SUGGESTED READING
Bailey, Donna. What Can We Do About
Noise and Fumes. New York:
Franklin Watts (1991).
Baines, John. Exploring: Humans and the
Environment. Austin, TX: Steck-
Vaughn Company (1993).
Easterbrook, Gregg. "Winning the War
on Smog." Newsweek, 122 (23
August 1993) p. 29.
Krupnick, Alan J., and Paul R. Portney.
"Controlling Urban Air Pollution:
A Benefit-Cost Assessment." Sci-
ence, 252 (26 April 1991) p. 522.
Project A.I.R.E.
143
Smog
-------
Pasternak, Judy. "Long-Term Lung Damage Linked to Air Pollution; Respi-
ratory Deterioration Is Found in Areas Where Air Is Dirtiest." Los Angeles
Times, (29 March 1991) p. A1.
—. "Smog Blamed for Increase in Asthma Cases." Los Angeles Times (2
December 1991) p. A1.
Penny, Malcolm. Our World: Pollution and Conservation. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Silver Burdette Press (1988).
Rock, Maxine. The Automobile and the Environment. New York: Chelsea House
Publishers (1992).
Scott, Geoff. "Two Faces of Ozone." Current Health, 19 (2 September 1992)
p. 24.
"Study Finds Source of Canyon Haze." National Parks, 63 (July 1989) p. 10.
Wald, Matthew L. "Northeast Moving Toward Auto-Emission Goals." New
York Times, 142 (25 March 1993) p. A12.
Smog 144 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
DECIDING TO CLEAN THE
AIR
This activity lets students practice making choices and experience the
sometimes difficult process of making decisions related to air pollu-
tion. It is related to the warm-ups called "The Big Picture," and "Mak-
ing Decisions." Related activities include "Lifestyles and the Envi-
ronment," "How Green Are We?," "Designing a Clean-Air Environ-
ment," "Choosing a Better Future," and "Writing Environmental
Laws."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Understand the impact of choices on the nature and quality of life
^ Understand the process for making decisions
^ Recognize that different people have different perspectives on the
same air pollution issue
SKILLS
Researching
Comparing ideas
Considering alternatives
Making and justifying decisions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include EPA environmental protection, risk
assessment, or enforcement specialists, environmental scientists, or
lawyers.
BACKGROUND
Whether we are children or adults, our lives are influenced by a con-
stant series of choices. Some choices we make for ourselves. Some are
made by parents for their children, and many are made by people we
don't even know. The combinations of all of these choices determine
the quality of each of our lives. Making these choices is not easy be-
cause sometimes what a person perceives as the right choice for him
or her as an individual may be perceived as the wrong choice for the
neighborhood, the community, or the Nation. For example, a person
may not want to join a car pool to get to school or work in the morn-
ing because it means coordinating his or her schedule with someone
else's and, maybe, getting up earlier in the morning to be ready on time.
The combination of choices made by individuals, business and indus-
try owners, and government over the years has had a huge impact on
RELATED
WARM-UPS
C, G
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Automobiles and Air
Pollution"
"The Clean Air Act"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
6th - 12th
DURATION
2 class periods (80-
90 minutes)
VOCABULARY
Acetaldehyde
Auto emissions
Benzene
Carcinogens
Clean fuel
Criteria pollutants
Formaldehyde
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
Non-attainment area
Ozone
Particulate matter
Smoke
Soot
Standards
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
145
Deciding to Clean the Air
-------
the quality of the air we breathe and the air pollution problems the world
faces today. For example, as a country, we have chosen to pay the higher
prices of cars with emission control systems in order to reduce pollution
from motor vehicles.
Auto exhaust is a major contributor to air pollution. Automobiles emit sev-
eral pollutants that EPA classifies as probable or definite carcinogens, in-
cluding benzene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and particulates (soot or
smoke, especially from diesel vehicles). EPA estimates that toxic emissions
from cars, trucks, and buses could be responsible for as many as 1,500
cases of cancer each year. (See reading material on "Automobiles and Air
Pollution.")
In addition, automobile exhaust contains hydrocarbons and nitrogen ox-
ides that react with sunlight to create ozone, the major component of smog.
Ozone at ground level is responsible for the choking, coughing, and sting-
ing eyes associated with smog. Ozone also inhibits plant growth and can
cause widespread damage to crops and forests. In typical urban areas, at
least half of the hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides come
from motor vehicles. Nitrogen oxides also are produced
by power plants, factories, and even lawnmowers. Hy-
drocarbons are found in many consumer products, includ-
ing paints, hair spray, charcoal starter fluid, solvents, and
plastic "popcorn" or "bubble" packaging. EPA sets national
standards for ozone (one of the six widespread "criteria
pollutants"), and the states must take action to ensure
that standards are met. Areas that fail to meet the stan-
dards for at least one criteria air pollutant are called "non-attainment ar-
eas." (See reading material on "The Clean Air Act.")
Many of the smog clean-up requirements involve motor vehicles (cars, trucks,
buses) because virtually everyone is exposed to their emissions. Also, as the
pollution gets worse, pollution controls are required for smaller sources.
Strategies that may be required by law to reduce and control these toxic
emissions include state permitting programs, changes in the composition
of gasoline, use of alternative fuels (such as natural gas and electricity), and
use restrictions imposed by individual communities.
Many new and innovative approaches are being taken by local govern-
ments across the country to reduce air pollution in non-attainment areas.
Some of these options include:
Banning charcoal barbecues and wood burning in stoves or fire places
when pollution levels are high
Developing high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) programs for local high-
ways to encourage car pooling
Restricting traffic in specific areas of the city
• Providing incentives for citizens to use public transportation systems
Expanding public transportation systems using clean-fueled vehicles,
Deciding to Clean the Air
146
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
such as municipal buses that use compressed natural gas (CNG) or
electric trolley buses
• Eliminating payments by employers that reduce parking costs of em-
ployees who do not car pool
• Requiring employers to contribute to employee mass transit costs
Assessing "smog fees" on cars in proportion to the number of miles
driven and vehicle emissions produced
Requiring more stringent vapor recovery at gas stations
• Requiring large companies to purchase fleet cars that run on clean fuel
Buying and scrapping older cars
WHAT TO DO
Class #1
1« Explain that the class is going to act out a situation that illustrates the
difficult process of making clean air choices. For the exercise, students
are to assume that there has been a proposal brought before the city
(town) council to close the downtown commercial district to automo-
bile traffic because of the pollution level and traffic congestion. Under
the proposal, only fire and police emergency and public transit (buses)
vehicles would be allowed on downtown streets between the hours of
8:00 am and 6:00 pm.
2« Divide the class into 8 teams. Explain that each team will represent
one of the "players" in this drama: three city (town) council members,
two citizens, two downtown business owners, and one impartial ex-
pert that has been paid to evaluate the impacts of the proposal and
report to the council (you may choose to be more specific about the
roles to approximate the makeup of your community). Assign a role to
each team and explain that each team will have to choose (not now)
one team member to be the actor when the drama is played out at
next week's class (give a specific date but allow a few days to prepare).
J« Explain that in order to act out the role they have been assigned, each
team will have to define the characteristics and views of that person.
Does the character live in the city (town) or out in the suburbs (in a
rural area)? What does the person do for a living and where does he or
she work? How does the person get to and from work? Does the
person have a family? Where does the person shop? The last page of
this activity is a sample "Character Attribute" worksheet that each team
can fill out to help define its role.
4« Explain that once each team has defined its character, the team should
define the character's concerns related to the proposal. Stress that this
should go beyond deciding whether the character would be "for" or
"against" the proposal and should include defining why this particular
character might feel one way or the other. Encourage students to talk
to their parents, local city (town) council members, and business own-
ers to help develop these perspectives.
Project A.I.R.E. 147 Deciding to Clean the Air
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5« Explain that for the role-play activity, the actor from each team will
have to describe the team's character and make a statement about
that person's views on the proposal as if the character were addressing
the council members during a meeting. (Remind the council mem-
bers that they have a broader responsibility to the community and
should be prepared, if necessary, to make a choice between their own
individual views and what's best for the community as a whole.)
6« Give students the remainder of the class to work together and assign
them to continue work outside of class in order to be prepared for the
role-play activity.
Class #2
1« Arrange desks or a table at the front of the room with chairs to accom-
modate the three city (town) council members. Place a lectern, desk,
or small table somewhere else in the room from which the expert,
citizens, and business owners will make their statements.
2« Instruct the actor from each team to describe the team's character
(based on the worksheet completed by the team). Have the expert
deliver his or her impartial report to the council members and audi-
ence at the council meeting. Have the citizens and business owners
state their views on the proposal. Have each council member make a
similar statement.
TAKE NOTE1 In the event that all teams take the same
position on the proposal, be prepared to offer an opposing
argument yourself, so that both sides of the issue will be
heard by the class.
J« Ask the council members to vote. Examine the results. How did each
member vote? How did they decide what to vote? Discuss the results
and the choices involved with the class.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Have students bring in examples throughout the year, from the news-
paper or local television news, of real air pollution-related decisions
made by your local government or major local businesses. Set aside
time periodically to discuss the choices involved in these decisions and
their impact on the quality of life.
SUGGESTED READING
Asay, Gregory. "Acting Locally (Students and College Administration Work
Together on Environmental Programs)." Environmental Action Maga-
zine, 24 (December 1993) p. 21.
Deciding to Clean the Air 148 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
Becklake, John. Thinking for the Future: Pollution. New York: Gloucester Press
(1990).
Environmental Crisis—Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press
(1991).
Krupnick, Alan J., and Paul R. Portney. "Controlling Urban Air Pollution: A
Benefit-Cost Assessment." Science, 252 (26 April 1991) p. 522.
Leinwand, Gerald. The Environment: American Issues. New York: Facts on
File (1990).
Watson, Bates, and Kennedy. Air Pollution, the Automobile, and Public Health.
National Academy Press (1988).
Willis, Terri, and Wallace B. Black. Cars: An Environmental Challenge. Children's
Press (1992).
WorldWatch Paper 98: Alternatives to the Automobile. Washington, DC:
WorldWatch (1990).
Project A.I.R.E. 149 Deciding to Clean the Air
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DECIDING TO CLEAN THE AIR
CHARACTER ATTRIBUTES
Name:
Family Members (include ages of children, if any):
Occupation (include type of business, if any):
Where Do You Live (in the city, suburbs, rural area)? _
Where Do You Work (in the city, suburbs, rural area)?
How Do You Get To And From Work?
How Long Does Your Commute Take?
Where Do You Do The Shopping?
Are There Other Occasions You Need To Be Downtown During The Restricted Hours?
What Do You Like About The Proposal?
What Don't You Like About The Proposal?
Are You For Or Against The Proposal? How Strongly Do You Feel About It?
Are There Any Modifications To The Proposal You Want to Suggest to the Council?,
Deciding to Clean the Air 150 Project A.I.R.E.
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CHOOSING A BETTER
FUTURE
This activity is designed to illustrate how students' choices today can
impact future air quality. It lets them trace how the choices of earlier
generations have increased air pollution over the last 40 years. It is
related to the "Making Decisions" warm-up. Related activities include
"Lifestyles and the Environment" and "Deciding To Clean the Air."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Appreciate the differences between lifestyles today and 40 years
ago
~@i Realize that the lifestyle choices made by previous generations have
impacted the current air quality and air pollution problems
^ Understand the increase in demand for selected manufactured
goods, automobiles, and energy sources over the last 40 years and
its impact on air pollution
^ Determine practical and useful alternatives for reducing negative
impacts
^ Understand the cumulative nature of pollution problems
SKILLS
^ Researching
^ Comparing ideas and situations
^ Considering alternatives
~@i Making decisions
^ Making oral presentations
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include conservationists, economists, environmental
scientists, or EPA environmental protection specialists.
BACKGROUND
Air pollution levels have grown over the years because our demand for
manufactured goods, automobiles, and energy, among other things,
has grown. Overall, demand for goods and services continues to in-
crease. Air pollution is an important concern because it causes sickness
and damage to property and the environment. In order to ensure that
we have the resources needed to sustain life into the future, measures
need to be taken now to cure some of the problems we created over
time. This will involve sorting out conflicts and making choices be-
tween the things we need and the things we want. (See reading ma-
terials on "Air Pollution," "Health Effects," and "Indoor Air Quality.")
RELATED
WARM-UPS
G
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution"
"Health Effects"
"Indoor Air Quality"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
7th-12th
DURATION
2 class periods (80-90
minutes), plus library
research outside class
VOCABULARY
Demand
Energy
Manufactured goods
Natural gas
MATERIALS
Chalk
Chalkboard
Project A.I.R.E.
757
Choosing a Better Future
-------
WHAT TO DO
Class #1
1« Start by asking students what they think life was like when their par-
ents were children. What were their houses like? How many cars did
they have? What was the traffic like? Do you think they worried about
air pollution? Why (or why not)? What about your life is different than
your parents'? What made things change? How did the choices your
parents made influence how you live today? Explain briefly that our
lives are influenced by a constant series of choices—some made by
each of us as individuals, some made by our parents, and many made
by people we don't even know. The combinations of all of these choices
determine the quality of each of our lives.
2« The combination of choices made by individual citizens, business and
industry owners, and government over the years has had a sizeable
impact on the quality of the air we breathe and the air pollution prob-
lems the world faces today. Ask the class to name a few of these choices.
J« Explain that the class is going to look more closely at how things have
changed since their parents were children, the air pollution problems
that are the result of those changes, and what options we have for
fixing those problems so the environment is healthy for future genera-
tions.
4« Divide the class into five teams. Assign each team a topic: refrigera-
tors, computers, automobiles, electricity, natural gas.
5« Assign the teams to do research
in their topic area to answer four
questions: (1) How has the need
and demand for it changed in the
last 40 years? (2) How was the de-
mand met? (3) What, if any, im-
pact has that had on the environ-
ment, on the level of air pollution
in particular, in the community
(the nation) (the world)? (4) What
alternatives are available for reduc-
ing the impact (or reversing the
effect)?
6« Allow teams to organize them-
selves and distribute the work.
Suggest that each team appoint a
representative who will be respon-
sible for making a short (5-minute)
presentation during another class
(give specific date but allow several days preparation time) to summa-
rize the team's research findings. Encourage the teams to interview
Choosing a Better Future
152
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
their parents (and, possibly, grandparents), local government officials,
and business owners in addition to doing research in the library.
7« Give students the remainder of the class to work together and assign
them to continue work outside of class in order to be prepared for the
second class.
Class #2
1« Have each team representative present the research findings from his
or her team. Following each, open discussion to the class and allow
students to suggest and discuss environmental (air pollution) impacts
and options for improving the situation that may not have been men-
tioned in the presentation.
2« After all presentations have been made and discussed, have students
make a list of the most useful and practical measures for reducing air
pollution (at home, at school, in the community, in the nation, in the
world). Record these on the chalkboard. Ask how students think the
community will be different when their children are in school? Have
students discuss which of these measures they will take at home and at
school. Also discuss which measures students could help get started in
the community (in the Nation) (in the world). Explore how they would
accomplish that.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Have students track, using the newspaper or television news, real air
pollution-related decisions made by government and industry. Set aside
time periodically to discuss these actions and their potential impact on
improving the environment in the future.
SUGGESTED READING
Becklake, John. Thinking for the Future: Pollution. New York: Gloucester Press
(1990).
Miller, Willard E. Environmental Hazards: Air Pollution, A Reference Handbook.
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio (1989).
Rock, Maxine. The Automobile and the Environment. New York: Chelsea House
Publishers (1992).
Santrey, Laurence. Conservation and Pollution. Troll Associates (1985).
Project A.I.R.E. 153 Choosing a Better Future
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Choosing a Better Future 154 Project A.I.R.E.
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w
THE BUSINESS OF CLEAN
AIR
This activity uses a structured discussion with the class to help educa-
tors introduce the concept that air pollution control is caused by a
combiNation of market incentives and government regulation. While
nobody "likes" air pollution, or causes it intentionally, there are tradeoffs
associated with pollution control. Businesses are motivated by profit,
and will change their way of doing business if they can see a demon-
strated benefit. This activity is related to the warm-up called "Mak-
ing Decisions." Related activities include "The Greenhouse Effect,"
"Climate and the Greenhouse Effect," and "The Cost of Polluting."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
~^t Realize that businesses exist to make profits for their owners
~$i Recognize that governments make rules for individuals and busi-
nesses in order to establish minimum standards to protect soci-
ety (human health and well being, ecology)
^ Understand that businesses change as a result of market forces
and regulations
%$ Appreciate that pursuing environmental concerns and realizing a
profit can be competing objectives for a business
^ Realize that pursuing environmental concerns and realizing a profit
can be complementary objectives for a business
SKILLS
^ Observing
~^t Collecting data
~$i Computing
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters for this activity could include air quality engineers,
business administrators, economists, industrial engineers, lawyers, or
mechanical engineers.
BACKGROUND
Air pollution in this country is largely a result of business decisions, set
in motion many years ago, that emphasize profit without balancing
environmental concerns. In the 1960s, the federal government be-
gan to regulate pollution. The Clean Air Act was one of the first laws
intended to govern the release of certain pollutants into the atmo-
sphere. In recent years, many businesses have embraced the "green"
approach to marketing, recognizing the image value of environmen-
RELATED
WARM-UP
G
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"The Greenhouse
Effect"
"Air Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
8th - 12th
DURATION
1 or 2 45-minute class
periods, depending on
the depth of
discussions
VOCABULARY
Amortization
Capital costs
Kilowatt-hour
Lumens
Market forces
Mitigation
Pollution
Power consumption
Profit
Regulations
MATERIALS
Chalk
Chalkboard
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
155
The Business of Clean Air
-------
\
tal consciousness. However, the primary motivation for business is to make
a profit.
Pollution control and environmental improvement is big business. An esti-
mated $115 billion is spent annually on environmental protection. The
federal government will spend $1.9 billion during the six-year period 1994-
2000 to implement its Climate Change Action Plan. This plan, which is ex-
pected to save the government $2.7 billion during
that same period, is designed to slow the greenhouse
. effect, reduce air emissions, and stimulate the
/ economy.
EPA and other organizations have instituted volun-
tary compliance programs using the "penny-saved,
penny-earned" principles of business to encourage
wholesale improvements in energy efficiency and
waste minimization. Such initiatives as the "Green
Lights" program, which encourages businesses to cut
back on electric lighting, are estimated to have a po-
tential National savings of $16 billion in electricity
i bills and reduce carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and
A nitrogen oxides (the principle ingredients of air pol-
lution and smog) by 12 percent, thereby slowing the
greenhouse effect. What's in it for business? The
obvious answer is significantly reduced costs of op-
eration, providing capital for newjobs and increased
productivity. In addition, in return for signing an
agreement with EPA to upgrade its lighting, a business will receive techni-
cal advice, free publicity, and possible financial support. EPA's newer "En-
ergy Star" program is a sequel, encouraging business to improve energy
efficiency throughout the building—beyond just installing energy-saving
light bulbs. (See the reading materials called "The Greenhouse Effect" and
"Air Pollution.")
WHAT TO DO
Tell the class to consider all the reasons why air pollution exists, why it
isn't cleaned up, and what the possible roles of government, the pub-
lic, and businesses are as forces in the issue. Write the responses on
the chalkboard. Suggest that someone volunteer a couple of indus-
tries that might be associated with air pollution. (Common examples
might be electric power generation, pulp and paper manufacturing,
or oil refining. Less common, but also good, examples are surface
mining (dust), steel manufacturing (coke/coal burning), agriculture
(dust and chemical aerosols), or airlines (fuel vapors and exhaust).
2. As one example of how businesses can contribute to reducing air pol-
lution, tell the class about EPA's voluntary "Green Lights" program.
This program encourages businesses to conserve electricity by identi-
fying and implementing lighting upgrades in their buildings wherever
The Business of Clean Air
156
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it is "profitable" within five years. "Profitable" means, in this case, that
the savings are greater than about six percent per year. In return for
their participation in the program, EPA helps businesses obtain the most
current information about energy-efficient lighting technologies, as-
sists them in deciding which technologies are best for them, and pro-
vides guidance on how to finance the upgrades.
J« Explain that, for the purpose of this activity, students are to pretend
that the school building is a commercial business building. Have them
identify any "costs" to the "business" involved in conserving electricity
that might offset any savings realized. For example, shutting down
the school totally, while a popular suggestion that would certainly save
electricity, would prevent the school from conducting its business. Ask
the class to identify the beneficiaries of this "profit." Ask them to iden-
tify the secondary effects if such a practice were really implemented
widely in their community (less generation costs, fewer brownouts,
less pollution, less fuel used to produce electricity, etc.)
Energy efficiency is based on "getting something for nothing." For
electric lighting, we want to obtain the same level of light (usually
measured in lumens) for less consumption of power (usually measured
in watts). The student worksheet called "Light
Conversion" is formatted for conversion of incan-
descent lights to compact fluorescents, but the
same principle applies for replacing older, low-ef-
ficiency fluorescents with high-efficiency fluores-
cent lighting. The same principle applies in turn-
ing off electrical devices when they are not in use,
such as computers, televisions, air conditioners,
and motors.
4« Hand out the worksheet. Divide the class into
workable groups to identify all the electric lights
in the school. The groups should look at common
rooms such as the auditorium, gym, and cafeteria
as well as the classrooms. The teacher may wish to
assign certain rooms or locations to different
groups to check at a time when rooms are not
occupied by students. Students should not over-
look spotlights or floodlights. Have the class com-
pile a list of electricity reductions that could be
accommodated within the school. For each re-
duction, have them identify what the potential
savings could be, or at least how they could mea-
sure the savings. Get them to talk about the need
to invest money up-front (for example, replacing
incandescent lamps with fluorescent ones) in or-
der to realize a long-term payback.
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5« It obviously costs money to buy more energy-efficient equipment, even
lightbulbs. In order to determine the true savings of such devices,
have the class calculate a "payback" period for some devices. For ex-
ample, a 60-watt bulb costs 89C and will last for 1,000 hours. A 13-
watt compact replacement tube costs $6, but will last 10,000 hours.
What is the savings, and what is the payback period? Explain to the
class about two types of costs: capital costs and operating costs. Capital
Costs are costs involved in purchasing or building something that is
necessary to have. For example, a business's capital costs include the
purchase prices of the furniture and equipment needed to provide the
services or produce the goods it sells. Capital costs are usually divided
by the expected life-span of the equipment to get an annualized cost.
Operating Costs are the day-to-day costs involved in providing the ser-
vices or producing the goods. For example, the total cost of transpor-
tation includes buying a car and then keeping it running. The capital
(one-time) cost might be $15,000. If the car is expected to last 5
years, the annualized capital cost would be $3,000. Operating (recur-
ring) costs include gasoline, oil, tires, insurance, normal repairs, and
anything else needed to keep it running.
6« Have the class calculate the payback period of investing in high-effi-
ciency light bulbs to replace existing bulbs throughout the school.
Purchasing one high-efficiency tube requires a capital investment of
$16, but lasts as long as 10 of the 89C bulbs.
To obtain 1,000 hours of light from the incandescent bulb, it costs:
60 watts x 1000 hours H- 1000 = 60 kilowatt-hours x S.SC/kWh =
$5.10 (operating cost) + $0.89 (capital cost) = $5.99
To obtain 10,000 hours from the high-efficiency bulb, it costs:
13 watts x 10,000 hours H- 1000 = 130 kilowatt-hours x 8.5C/kWh =
$11.05 (operating cost) + $16.00 (capital cost) = $27.05
Put another way, it will have cost us about $60 to obtain the same
lighting from 60-watt incandescent bulbs as we could get for about
$27 from one compact fluorescent tube.
For example, the chart below shows the costs for each type of bulb
measured against hours of use. While the compact fluorescent costs
more to start, its lower operating costs allow the incandescent bulb to
catch up and become more expensive after about 3,100 hours of use.
This "payback" graph shows how long it will take to amortize the higher
The Business of Clean Air 158 Project A.I.R.E.
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capital cost of the fluorescent. If we use about 250 hours per month,
our payback time will be about 12.4 months or just over one year.
7« Compile the "Green Lights" suggestions and audit results and forward
them to the Principal and the School Board with an explaNation of
how and why they were developed.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Organize the class into several groups. Each will role-play a particular
segment of business or industry. The groups could include: the local
electric power utility, the local car dealer, a major local industry (let's
say an airplane manufacturer or shipbuilder), and the local downtown
business council. Tell them that their community is in danger of violat-
ing the federal and state air pollution standards for hazardous air pol-
lutants. No one knows where the pollutants are actually coming from,
but it is known that they exist in the aircraft/shipbuilding industry and
as a by-product of automobile and truck emissions.
Have each group write down a list of actions that should be taken by
each of the groups and the reasons why. Instruct them to focus on the
actions that their own group should take first, then the others. The
groups should work independently, and should not exchange views
until the end. Caution the groups that they should anticipate the ac-
tions that they think the other groups will expect them to take and be
prepared to explain (defend) their choices. This activity could take
portions of several days, or be done as homework over a weekend.
Project A.I.R.E. 159 The Business of Clean Air
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When the groups are ready, have them present to the class their "ac-
tion plans" to solve the problem. Write down the key actions for each
group on the chalkboard. Have the class compare and discuss them.
~@i Have students find a large business in your community that has an
energy-conservation program in place like "Green Lights." Select a
team of students to contact the company and ask them for data and
computations on the savings they are realizing. Ask how the company
is investing the savings realized from lower electricity bills. Have the
students report back to class and discuss the information obtained.
^ Does your local utility ever have a "brownout?" A "brownout" is when
the power company reduces the line voltage from the normal 110 to
90 or even 80 volts. Most household equipment will work at the lower
voltage. Have students contact the local power company and ask why
and when the power company uses "brownouts?" Does this save watt-
age? How much?
^ Have selected students contact a lighting supplier or lighting contrac-
tor (look in the Yellow Pages) and ask them for pricing data and speci-
fications for "T-8 Lamp-ballast upgrades" for the standard 40-watt fluo-
rescent tube systems in your school. Based upon the number of fix-
tures and the number of lamps, have the students calculate the annual
savings in operating costs and the payback period for the conversion,
taking into account the initial capital investment for the new lighting.
SUGGESTED READING
Bhargava, Sunita Wadekar. "Growing Clean Air Down on the Algae Farm."
Business Week, (24 February 1992) p. 72.
Brooks, Philip L., Laura J. Davidson, and Jodi H. Palamides. "Environmental
Compliance: You Better Know Your ABCs." Occupational Hazards, 55
(February 1993) p. 41.
Business and the Environment: Toward Common Ground. Washington, DC:
Conservation Foundation (1984).
Frosch, Robert A., and Nicholas E. Gallopoulos. "Strategies for Manufactur-
ing." Scientific American (September 1989) p. 144.
Griffin, Rodman D. "Barriers Remain (Alternative Energy)." CQResearcher, 2
(10 July 1992) p. 588.
"How Green Is My Company." The Economist, 314 (10 March 1990) p. 88.
Kleiner, Art. "What Does It Mean To Be Green?" Harvard Business Review, 69
(July 1991) p. 38.
The Business of Clean Air 160 Project A.I.R.E.
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Knickerbocker, Brad. "Cleaner Environment vs. Economic Growth." Chris-
tian Science Monitor, 84 (9 April 1992) p. 11.
Lambert, Wade. "Businesses Must Wean Workers from Their Cars." Wall
Street Journal (4 November 1993) p. B1.
Menagh, Melanie. "The Business of Going Green." Omni, 13 (June 1991)
p. 42.
Nelson-Horchler, Joani. "Greening or Greenwashing? Industry Efforts Get
Praise and Punches." Industry Week, 239 (16 April 1990) p. 77.
O'Hara, Gregory P. "Compliance Audit Can Keep Firm Out of a Tangled
Web of Regulations." Business Journal, 9 (17 February 1992) p. S18.
"Pollution for Sale." U.S. News and World Report, 111 (29 July 1991) p. 9.
Ruckelshaus, William D. "Towards a Sustainable World." Scientific American
(September 1989) p. 166.
Sheridan, John H. "Pollution Prevention Picks Up Steam." Industry Week,
241 (17 February 1992) p. 36.
U.S. EPA. Green Lights: An Enlightened Approach to Energy Efficiency and Pol-
lution Prevention. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Radia-
tion EPA/430/K-93/001 (July 1993).
Weinstock, Matthew P. "Environmental Auditing: A Measure of Safety."
Occupational Hazards, 55 (May 1993) p. 73.
Project A.I.R.E. 767 The Business of Clean Air
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ti
THE BUSINESS OF CLEAN AIR
LIGHT CONVERSION
The Business of Clean Air 162 Project A.I.R.E.
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AIR POLLUTION
ALLOWANCE TRADING
This exercise introduces students to pollution abatement measures
based on free market trading of pollution allowances. The class is
broken up into six groups, each representing an industry subject to a
fictitious Air Pollution Allowance Trading System. They are given a set
of facts and conditions and will be required to make a series of deci-
sions in order to comply with environmental regulations, as well as
determine the price of a pollution allowance, and whether to imple-
ment pollution control measures. This activity is related to the "Mak-
ing Decisions" warm-up and the "Cost of Polluting" activity.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Recognize the costs of pollution abatement
^ Recognize how costs are allocated and can be shared
~@i Decide how to allocate scarce resources
^ Recognize the benefits of the free market in pollution abatement
(rewarding good behavior)
^ Learn to analyze environmental issues
SKILLS
Computing
Analyzing data
Drawing conclusions
Explaining results
BACKGROUND
There are several different types of pollution control measures that
the government imposes on polluters to achieve compliance with
environmental regulations. "Point source" controls impose standards
on the emissions coming out of a facility (such as a factory) without
regard to the cost of achieving the standard or the mixture of that
discharge with other point source discharges in the local environment.
Another method concentrates on the level of pollution in the local
area (such as a river segment or air within a city's boundaries), requir-
ing some sort of pollution reduction measures when the area is out of
compliance. This latter method is used under the Clean Air Act, but
has been difficult to enforce given the large number of individual air
pollution sources that exist (for example, automobiles).
Under an allowance trading system, large stationary sources of air
pollution, such as power plants, receive a certain number of "pollu-
tion allowances" for a specified period of time, based on local clean
RELATED
WARM-UP
G
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution
Allowance Trading"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
7th - 12th
DURATION
45 minutes
VOCABULARY
Allowance
Bank
Compliance
Discharge
Point source
MATERIALS
Scratch paper
Calculators (optional)
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
6
Project A.I.R.E.
163
Air Pollution Allowance Trading
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air standards and allocated to the sources according to their historic fuel
consumption and a specified emissions rate for the source. Allowances are
in units of pollutant emitted, so a polluter will use up its allowances as it
pollutes. The key to the system is that these allowances may be traded
between sources, or may be "banked." At the end of the period, each
source must have enough allowances to balance its emissions for that pe-
riod, otherwise a penalty on each excess unit of pollution is imposed. The
goal of this system is to use market incentives of rewards and penalties to
reduce pollution, allowing polluters to make their own decisions as to how
to expend their allocation of pollution allowances.
EXAMPLE
An electric utility, Metropolis Power and Light (MP&L) wants
to install a certain pollution reduction technology at one of
its electricity generation plants that will cost $100,000. With-
out an allowance system, MP&L may not be rewarded for
doing the right thing, and has no other incentive to do so.
However, under an allowance trading system, MP&L would
save four allowances if it installs the clean air equipment and
reduces its emissions of pollution. MP&L can sell the allow-
ances in the pollution allowance market and recover part or
all of the money it spent on the equipment, or even receive
compensation above the amount spent.
Another utility, Commonwealth Gas and Electric (CG&E) does
not implement any pollution reduction measures. During
the year, CG&E has used up all of its allowances and is going
to pay $250,000 in fines for pollution in excess of its allow-
ances. CG&E estimates that it is 4 allowances short for the
period and is willing to pay MP&L up to $250,000 for four
allowances. Hence, MP&L, by implementing pollution re-
duction measures at a cost of $100,00, is rewarded the dif-
ference between that cost and the market value of the allow-
ances it saves (in this example, $250,000 - $100,000 =
$150,000 to MP&L).
WHAT TO DO
1« Discuss the material presented in the above background section. Dis-
cuss the different ways that air pollution laws are enforced, and the
different methods that may be used to reduce pollution. Explain how
the pollution allowance system can reduce pollution by using incen-
tives and market forces to encourage pollution reduction. Present the
above example on the blackboard.
2« Break the class up into six groups and distribute facts and conditions.
Each group receives the one page sheet entitled "Pollution Allowance
Trading Game." Each individual group also receives the appropriate "scor-
Air Pollution Allowance Trading
164
Project A.I.R.E.
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ing" sheet, labeled "Group 1," "Group 2," and so on. Briefly explain the
concepts and rules of the game, reading the fact sheets along with the
students. The goal of the game is to make the most money through
the trading and saving of pollution allowances. Have students read
the fact sheets and answer any questions. Tell them that the game will
be played for five rounds. A round represents one year. Each year they
will receive a number of allowances that may increase or decrease, but
they do not know what those changes will be.
Have the groups complete questions 1 through 3 on each worksheet.
After completing questions 1 through 3, each group will have to make
three decisions: whether to sell or buy allowances; whether to pay for
pollution abatement technology; and whether to bank allowances or
pay fines. Remind the groups that pollution abatement technology is
permanent, and will carry over year to year. Tally the number of allow-
ances that are available from all groups. Have any groups complete
question 4, and re-tally the number of extra allowances available. Then
commence the trading of allowances through the auctioning of allow-
ances (the teacher or a student may act as auction-
eer). Have groups answer remaining questions. If
allowances are bought and sold, how much does an
allowance cost? Why?
4« For the second round, each group will again receive
ten allowances. Repeat the steps from the previous
round, making sure that they carry over any banked
allowances and taking into account units of technol-
ogy purchased. Has the price of an allowance
changed? Why?
5« For the third round, each group receives only 8 al-
lowances. Do not let students know that this change
is coming. Repeat steps on worksheets. Record
changes in allowance prices, technology purchasing
patterns, fines paid out, and allowance banking.
6« For the fourth round (Year 4) distribute 11 allowances
per group. Record changes as above.
7« Year 5 is back to 10 allowances per group. Record
changes and determine the winner based on the value
of the allowances in hand minus any fines paid. Have
students discuss the results. Who did the best? Why?
At the beginning of the game, Group 5 was in the
best position. Did they maintain their lead? How did
Group 4 fare? Why? Compare Groups 1 and 2, who
began on even footing. Did one do better than the
other? Why?
Project A.I.R.E.
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Air Pollution Allowance Trading
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8« Have students discuss the usefulness of an allowance trading system,
in particular the incentive to reduce emissions through the use of pol-
lution reduction technology. Note that the number of allowances dis-
tributed for the first round was less than the total amount of emis-
sions? Ask students how and why they think fines would be built into
the game from the outset.
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Teachers should feel free to alter the facts. For example, the price of
pollution abatement technology may change from year to year, or
fines may change. The results need only reflect the current conditions
and prices, and some results may be "unreasonable."
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ For higher grades, have students consider alternatives to this system
and consider the choices they would face and make if they were the
regulator. Focus a class discussion on the topic or have students pre-
pare and deliver oral presentations about their ideas.
SUGGESTED READING
Kohn, Robert E. "Exposure Trading: An Approach to More Efficient Air Pol-
lution Control." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management,
21 (July 1991) p. 82.
Mann, Eric. "Trading Delusions." Environmental Action Magazine, 25 (De-
cember 1994) p. 22.
Miller, William H. "Free Market Comes to Environmentalism." Industry Week,
242 (19 April 1993) p. 59.
"Pollution for Sale." U.S. News and World Report, 111 (29 July 1991) p. 9.
"Pollution Swap May Halve Utility Emissions." National Geographic, 184
(December 1993) p. 142.
Sheridan, John H. "Pollution Prevention Picks Up Steam." Industry Week,
241 (17 February 1992) p. 36.
Air Pollution Allowance Trading 166 Project A.I.R.E.
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STUDENT HANDOUT 1
/a\ 11ID) '~^ "~" " "
AIR POLLUTION ALLOWANCE TRADING GAME
For this exercise, each group has been given a role and an individual set of facts outlining the rules
and circumstances going into the pollution allowance trading game. Each group represents a
public utility that emits air pollution, however, the amount each can emit is limited by the govern-
ment. A group will be penalized for exceeding air pollution limits. For each round of the game,
each group will receive a certain number of air pollution allowances that represent a portion of the
amount of pollution they are allowed to emit. If a group does not use up all of its allowances, it
can trade or bank remaining allowances. For example, if a group receives 5 allowances, and each
allowance permits 1,000 tons of pollution, then the group's factory can emit 5,000 tons of pollu-
tion. Any excess would be subject to a fine. If the group emits 3,000 tons, then it will only use up
3 of its allowances, and may then sell or bank the other 2. If the group emits 7,000 tons of
pollution, it will be penalized unless it purchases extra allowances or has banked allowances.
There will be five rounds of trading. Each round represents one year. At the beginning of each
round, each group will receive an allocation of allowances. For each round, the number of allow-
ances received will be the same for each group, however, the number of allowances may increase
or decrease from round to round. Extra allowances banked during one round may be used during
subsequent rounds.
In addition to deciding whether to buy, sell, or bank allowances, a group may also decide to
purchase pollution reduction technology. Technology units cost $2,000. Each unit provides 500
tons of annual pollution reduction. Technology units reduce pollution beginning in the year they
are purchased and will continue to provide pollution reduction in subsequent rounds. In no event
can a group emit less than 5,000 tons per year.
An allowance permits the emission of 1,000 tons of air pollution. The penalty for exceeding the
allowance limit is $1 per ton per year.
TO RECAP:
5 rounds of trading.
Allowances are distributed at the beginning of each round.
An allowance permits 1,000 tons of pollution.
Extra allowances may be bought and sold, or banked (saved for use in future rounds).
Penalties = $1 per ton in excess of allowances.
Pollution reduction technology costs $2,000 per unit.
Technology reduces pollution by 500 tons per round.
Technology is permanent.
A group can not emit less than 5,000 tons per round
Project A.I.R.E. 167 Air Pollution Allowance Trading
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STUDENT WORKSHEET 1
™©K] zm©w^M(S[§ W
AIR POLLUTION ALLOWANCE TRADING GAME
GROUP 1
You are a coal-burning electric power utility with a single power plant. You have received 10
pollution allowances for the first year. The number of allowances you will receive in future rounds
is unknown. Based on your current projections, you will emit 10,000 tons of pollution annually in
the coming 5 years.
1. Calculate your pollution emission allowance for the year.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
2. Do you have any extra allowances for the year (is your annual pollution emission less than
your total allowances in hand)?
a) NO, skip to question 3
b) YES, how many (you can skip question 3)?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
3. Did you exceed your allowances (is your annual pollution emission greater than your total
allowances in hand)?
a) YES, how many extra allowances do you need?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
b) Calculate any penalties you will pay if you are not able to purchase extra allowances.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
c) How much would you be willing to pay for an allowance? Divide the penalty amount by
the number of allowances you need.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer (your teacher) will now tally the number of allowances available.
4. Before trading begins, would you like to purchase pollution reduction technology? If yes, how
many units?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Recalculate your annual pollution emissions.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer will now re-tally the number of allowances available. Now begin trading. Some
groups have extra allowances that they may wish to sell, while others will be paying fines if they
do not acquire extra allowances. Note that groups with extra allowances do not have to sell them
if the selling price is not high enough. They can bank them for use or sale in later rounds.
Air Pollution Allowance Trading 168 Project A.I.R.E.
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5. How did your group end up at the end of the year (+/-)? (include money received for extra
allowances sold, money paid in penalties or for extra allowances needed, money paid for
pollution reduction technology, and the number of allowances banked)
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
6. What is the current price of an allowance?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Now go on to the next round. Your teacher will tell you the number of allowances each group
will receive. Remember that this number may go up or down. For each round, fill in the above
work sheet, recording the results of each round of trading. Be sure to keep track of your current
account: the amount (+ or -) that your group has had earned or spent.
Project A.I.R.E. 169 Air Pollution Allowance Trading
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STUDENT WORKSHEET 2
iL™(2)K] /m©W^M(S[§ ff
AIR POLLUTION ALLOWANCE TRADING GAME
GROUP 2
You are a coal-burning electric power utility with a single power plant. You have received 10
pollution allowances for the first year. The number of allowances you will receive in future rounds
is unknown. Based on your current projections, you will emit 10,000 tons of pollution annually in
the coming 5 years.
1. Calculate your pollution emission allowance for the year.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
2. Do you have any extra allowances for the year (is your annual pollution emission less than your
total allowances in hand)?
a) NO, skip to question 3
b) YES, how many (you can skip question 3)?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
3. Did you exceed your allowances (is your annual pollution emission greater than your total
allowances in hand)?
a) YES, how many extra allowances do you need?
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
b) Calculate any penalties you will pay if you are not able to purchase extra allowances.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
c) How much would you be willing to pay for an allowance? Divide the penalty amount by the
number of allowances you need.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer (your teacher) will now tally the number of allowances available.
4. Before trading begins, would you like to purchase pollution reduction technology?
If yes, how many units?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Recalculate your annual pollution emissions.
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer will now re-tally the number of allowances available. Now begin trading. Some
groups have extra allowances that they may wish to sell, while others will be paying fines if they do
not acquire extra allowances. Note that groups with extra allowances do not have to sell them if
the selling price is not high enough. They can bank them for use or sale in later rounds.
Air Pollution Allowance Trading 170 Project A.I.R.E.
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5. How did your group end up at the end of the year (+/-)? (include money received for extra
allowances sold, money paid in penalties or for extra allowances needed, money paid for pollu-
tion reduction technology, and the number of allowances banked)
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
6. What is the current price of an allowance?
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Now go on to the next round. Your teacher will tell you the number of allowances each group will
receive. Remember that this number may go up or down. For each round, fill in the above work
sheet, recording the results of each round of trading. Be sure to keep track of your current
account: the amount (+ or -) that your group has had earned or spent.
Project A.I.R.E. 171 Air Pollution Allowance Trading
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STUDENT WORKSHEET
[M©M /m©w^Mcsg
AIR POLLUTION ALLOWANCE TRADING GAME
GROUP J
You are a coal-burning electric power utility with a single power plant. You have received 10
pollution allowances for the first year. The number of allowances you will receive in future rounds
is unknown. Based on your current projections, you will emit 9,000 tons of pollution annually in
the coming 5 years.
1. Calculate your pollution emission allowance for the year.
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
2. Do you have any extra allowances for the year (is your annual pollution emission less than your
total allowances in hand)?
a) NO, skip to question 3
b) YES, how many (you can skip question 3)?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
3. Did you exceed your allowances (is your annual pollution emission greater than your total
allowances in hand)?
a) YES, how many extra allowances do you need?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
b) Calculate any penalties you will pay if you are not able to purchase extra allowances.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
c) How much would you be willing to pay for an allowance? Divide the penalty amount by the
number of allowances you need.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer (your teacher) will now tally the number of allowances available.
4. Before trading begins, would you like to purchase pollution reduction technology?
If yes, how many units?
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Recalculate your annual pollution emissions.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer will now re-tally the number of allowances available. Now begin trading. Some
groups have extra allowances that they may wish to sell, while others will be paying fines if they do
not acquire extra allowances. Note that groups with extra allowances do not have to sell them if
the selling price is not high enough. They can bank them for use or sale in later rounds.
Air Pollution Allowance Trading 172 Project A.I.R.E.
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How did your group end up at the end of the year (+/-)? (include money received for extra
allowances sold, money paid in penalties or for extra allowances needed, money paid for pollu-
tion reduction technology, and the number of allowances banked)
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
6. What is the current price of an allowance?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Now go on to the next round. Your teacher will tell you the number of allowances each group will
receive. Remember that this number may go up or down. For each round, fill in the above work
sheet, recording the results of each round of trading. Be sure to keep track of your current ac-
count: the amount (+ or -) that your group has had earned or spent.
Project A.I.R.E. 173 Air Pollution Allowance Trading
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STUDENT WORKSHEET 4
DMTIMN] /m©W^M(?g ff
AIR POLLUTION ALLOWANCE TRADING GAME
GROUP 4
You are a coal-burning electric power utility with a single power plant. You have received 10
pollution allowances for the first year. The number of allowances you will receive in future rounds
is unknown. Based on your current projections, you will emit 16,000 tons of pollution annually in
the coming 5 years.
1. Calculate your pollution emission allowance for the year.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
2. Do you have any extra allowances for the year (is your annual pollution emission less than your
total allowances in hand)?
a) NO, skip to question 3
b) YES, how many (you can skip question 3)?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
3. Did you exceed your allowances (is your annual pollution emission greater than your total
allowances in hand)?
a) YES, how many extra allowances do you need?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
b) Calculate any penalties you will pay if you are not able to purchase extra allowances.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
c) How much would you be willing to pay for an allowance? Divide the penalty amount by the
number of allowances you need.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer (your teacher) will now tally the number of allowances available.
4. Before trading begins, would you like to purchase pollution reduction technology?
If yes, how many units?
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Recalculate your annual pollution emissions.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer will now re-tally the number of allowances available. Now begin trading. Some
groups have extra allowances that they may wish to sell, while others will be paying fines if they do
not acquire extra allowances. Note that groups with extra allowances do not have to sell them if
the selling price is not high enough. They can bank them for use or sale in later rounds.
Air Pollution Allowance Trading 174 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
5. How did your group end up at the end of the year (+/-)? (include money received for extra
allowances sold, money paid in penalties or for extra allowances needed, money paid for pollu-
tion reduction technology, and the number of allowances banked)
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
6. What is the current price of an allowance?
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Now go on to the next round. Your teacher will tell you the number of allowances each group
will receive. Remember that this number may go up or down. For each round, fill in the above
work sheet, recording the results of each round of trading. Be sure to keep track of your current
account: the amount (+ or -) that your group has had earned or spent.
Project A.I.R.E. 175 Air Pollution Allowance Trading
-------
STUDENT WORKSHEET 5
[M©M /m©w^Mcsg ff
AIR POLLUTION ALLOWANCE TRADING GAME
GROUP 5
You are a coal-burning electric power utility with a single power plant. You have received 10
pollution allowances for the first year. The number of allowances you will receive in future rounds
is unknown. Based on your current projections, you will emit 7,000 tons of pollution annually in
the coming 5 years.
1. Calculate your pollution emission allowance for the year.
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
2. Do you have any extra allowances for the year (is your annual pollution emission less than your
total allowances in hand)?
a) NO, skip to question 3
b) YES, how many (you can skip question 3)?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
3. Did you exceed your allowances (is your annual pollution emission greater than your total
allowances in hand)?
a) YES, how many extra allowances do you need?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
b) Calculate any penalties you will pay if you are not able to purchase extra allowances.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
c) How much would you be willing to pay for an allowance? Divide the penalty amount by the
number of allowances you need.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer (your teacher) will now tally the number of allowances available.
4. Before trading begins, would you like to purchase pollution reduction technology?
If yes, how many units?
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Recalculate your annual pollution emissions.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer will now re-tally the number of allowances available. Now begin trading. Some
groups have extra allowances that they may wish to sell, while others will be paying fines if they do
not acquire extra allowances. Note that groups with extra allowances do not have to sell them if
the selling price is not high enough. They can bank them for use or sale in later rounds.
Air Pollution Allowance Trading 176 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
5. How did your group end up at the end of the year (+/-)? (include money received for extra
allowances sold, money paid in penalties or for extra allowances needed, money paid for pol-
lution reduction technology, and the number of allowances banked)
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
6. What is the current price of an allowance?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Now go on to the next round. Your teacher will tell you the number of allowances each group will
receive. Remember that this number may go up or down. For each round, fill in the above work
sheet, recording the results of each round of trading. Be sure to keep track of your current
account: the amount (+ or -) that your group has had earned or spent.
Project A.I.R.E. 177 Air Pollution Allowance Trading
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STUDENT WORKSHEET 6
M 11 ID) '"" ^ "
AIR POLLUTION ALLOWANCE TRADING GAME
GROUP 6
You are a coal-burning electric power utility with a single power plant. You have received 10
pollution allowances for the first year. The number of allowances you will receive in future rounds
is unknown. Based on your current projections, you will emit 12,000 tons of pollution annually in
the coming 5 years.
1. Calculate your pollution emission allowance for the year.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
2. Do you have any extra allowances for the year (is your annual pollution emission less than your
total allowances in hand)?
a) NO, skip to question 3
b) YES, how many (you can skip question 3)?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
3. Did you exceed your allowances (is your annual pollution emission greater than your total
allowances in hand)?
a) YES, how many extra allowances do you need?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
b) Calculate any penalties you will pay if you are not able to purchase extra allowances.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
c) How much would you be willing to pay for an allowance? Divide the penalty amount by the
number of allowances you need.
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer (your teacher) will now tally the number of allowances available.
4. Before trading begins, would you like to purchase pollution reduction technology? If yes, how
many units?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Recalculate your annual pollution emissions.
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
The auctioneer will now re-tally the number of allowances available. Now begin trading. Some
groups have extra allowances that they may wish to sell, while others will be paying fines if they do
not acquire extra allowances. Note that groups with extra allowances do not have to sell them if
the selling price is not high enough. They can bank them for use or sale in later rounds.
Air Pollution Allowance Trading 178 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
How did your group end up at the end of the year (+/-)? (include money received for extra
allowances sold, money paid in penalties or for extra allowances needed, money paid for pol-
lution reduction technology, and the number of allowances banked)
YeaM: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
6. What is the current price of an allowance?
Year 1: Year 2: Year 3: Year 4: Year 5:
Now go on to the next round. Your teacher will tell you the number of allowances each group
will receive. Remember that this number may go up or down. For each round, fill in the above
work sheet, recording the results of each round of trading. Be sure to keep track of your current
account: the amount (+ or -) that your group has had earned or spent.
Project A.I.R.E. 179 Air Pollution Allowance Trading
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Air Pollution Allowance Trading 180 Project A.I.R.E.
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THE COST OF POLLUTING
Though there are laws restricting almost every type of pollution, there
are still polluters. This activity sheds light on why this occurs, focusing
on the decisions that lawmakers and regulators have to make on the
severity of penalties for violation of environmental laws. It outlines
the considerations leading up to the imposition of a non-compliance
penalty that will help students understand how the government de-
termines the severity of those penalties. This activity is related to the
"Making Decisions" warm-up and the "Air Pollution Allowance Trad-
ing" and "Writing Environmental Laws" activities.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
^ Recognize the costs of pollution abatement
^ Recognize why pollution is regulated
~@i Understand decision-making for penalizing violations
SKILLS
Computing
Defining issues
Interpreting data
Making decisions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters for this activity could include environmental regu-
lators, economists, or lawyers.
BACKGROUND
There are several different types of pollution control measures that the
government imposes on polluters to achieve compliance with envi-
ronmental regulations. "Point source" controls impose standards on
the discharge coming out of any facility (such as a factory), typically
through the issuance of a permit and a compliance monitoring sys-
tem. Other types of pollution control measures may focus on overall
environmental quality or other measures, but the one thing all pollu-
tion control methods share are penalties imposed on violators of envi-
ronmental laws and regulations.
Although most of the regulated community complies or intends to
comply with environmental laws and regulations, each year there are
cases where regulated entities violate regulations and risk being caught
and penalized, or fail to make themselves aware of the laws and regula-
tions and are penalized. Penalties usually serve three functions: restitu-
tion, retribution, and deterrence. Restitution, usually through
RELATED
WARM-UP
G
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"Air Pollution
Allowance Trading"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
7th-8th
DURATION
30-40 minutes
VOCABULARY
Compliance
Compliance monitoring
Deterrence
Permit
Point source
Restitution
Retribution
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
181
The Cost of Polluting
-------
compensation, serves to cover any damage caused by the violation. Retri-
bution is the penalty imposed for the violation itself, while deterrence is
meant to prevent future violations. In environmental regulatory practice,
restitution can be difficult or impossible to quantify, since damage to the
environment is not easily reduced to dollars. Most penalties for environ-
mental law violations are meant to punish bad behavior and serve to deter
others from the same behavior.
Monetary fines are the most common type of penalty for violating environ-
mental regulations, though jail terms for more egregious violations (willful
circumvention, outright fraud) serve as an important deterrent. Specific
penalties are not written into the law, but are set by government officials
that weigh a variety of factors in determining a penalty. To serve as an
important deterrence signal to the regulated community, a penalty should
reflect the degree of harm or potential harm to the environment. At a
minimum, monetary penalties should recover any economic benefit a vio-
lator may have gained by ignoring the law. This type of penalty ensures
that facilities are not economically disadvantaged for complying with the
law. Other factors that may affect the amount of a penalty include the
ability to pay, degree of cooperation with regulating agencies, whether
the violation was self-reported, and the strength of the case if litigation
is likely.
WHAT TO DO
Before class begins
1« Write the following "Problem Statement" on the chalk board:
It has been discovered that Anytown Light and Power Company has
been releasing nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from its smokestack in concen-
trations of 75 parts per million (ppm) for the last 15 days. The company's
permit allows the release of NO2 in concentrations not to exceed 60
ppm.
When class begins
1« Explain how environmental regulations are enforced like other laws,
through the imposition of penalties, including fines and imprisonment.
2« Call students attention to the "Problem Statement," containing the
basic facts and circumstances surrounding a fictitious violation of an
environmental regulation. Explain that the students will serve as gov-
ernment regulators and use this class period to determine a penalty to
be imposed.
J« Inform students that they will be limited to imposition of monetary
fines. Ask the class to identify any other information that they would
like to have about the situation before making this decision. List these
on the chalkboard. If necessary, prompt students by suggesting they
might want to know something about the seriousness of the violation.
For example, did the violation cause potential or actual harm? The
The Cost of Polluting 182 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
completed list could include any or all of the following considerations
(which are actually weighed in determining penalties):
Factor 1: Seriousness of the violation
- extent of deviation from requirements
- potential or actual harm
Factor 2: Economic benefit for non-compliance
- costs avoided
- costs postponed
Factor 3: Duration of the violation
Factor 4: Degree of cooperation with regulators
Factor 5: History of compliance
Factor 6: Ability to pay
4« After the students have completed their list, compare it with the fac-
tors actually used by government regulators. (Use the list above, but
the presenter should feel free to supplement it based on his/her own
experience.) Discuss how the lists differ (if they do) and why. Then
come to a consensus on the factors to be used in this class to deter-
mine the penalty for the problem violation.
5« Hand out the worksheet. Divide the class into small groups if you wish.
Explain that students should use the worksheet to compute the fine (or
range of fines) to be imposed. In order to do that, however, discuss
how to quantify or attach a value to each factor. For each step in this
process, ask students to suggest appropriate values, discuss the pros
and cons of suggestions, and come to a consensus on the amount to
be used. (If the class is working in small groups, each group should
come to its own consensus.) The presenter's role should be to facilitate
the discussion. The presenter also may add facts and circumstances to
the case study, if required, to introduce more real-world issues into the
decision-making experience.
6« In facilitating the discussions, the presenter should introduce the fol-
lowing ideas if they do not surface on their own.
• In determining the seriousness of the violation, the class should con-
sider what indicators or evidence it
would use to determine potential harm.
(More than any other element, this may
be a judgement call since environmen-
tal damage is not easily quantified.)
Students should recognize that serious-
ness is a function of personal judgement
based on the two elements listed un-
der Factor 1 above. On the chalkboard,
you may want to draw the following _
payment calculation matrix bringing ®*
Project A.I.R.E.
183
The Cost of Polluting
-------
the two elements together. Have students decide the penalty amount
to enter in each box.
Potential or
Actual Harm
Extent of Deviation from Requirements
High
Medium
Low
High
Medium
Low
• In determining any economic benefits that may have accrued for
non-compliance, the class should recognize the difference between
avoided costs (for example, the cost of required pollution reduction
equipment), and postponed costs. Students also may want to con-
sider other recoverable costs: costs the government has incurred in
enforcing the law or the value of other advantages the violator may
have held over competitors that complied with regulations. All eco-
nomic benefits are simply added together.
• To help students in determining the relevance of the duration of the
violation, explain that some environmental laws apply "seriousness"
penalties for each day of non-compliance. In some cases, the total
penalty attributed to the seriousness of the violation may be dis-
counted for the number of days of non-compliance. For this activ-
ity, students should assume that 10 percent of the penalty accrues
for each day of non-compliance. This means that 30 days of non-
compliance would triple the penalty assessed for the seriousness of
the violation.
• The other factors listed in step #3 above are less important than the
first three. The students should use them to fine-tune the penalty to
reward good behavior or further punish bad behavior.
• It is important to understand that ability to pay is a baseline ele-
ment. That is, it presumes that the violator has the ability to pay.
When students have completed the worksheet, ask students if their
decision might have changed for a case in which a business was un-
aware of the regulations and the risks of failing to act. Explain why, in
reality, "ignorance of the law" is not a valid excuse. (If an EPA employee is
a guest presenter, he or she may wish to cite examples of actual penalties
assessed and discuss the factors EPA considered in setting the penal-
ties, especially if factors, other than those cited in this activity, were
considered.)
The Cost of Polluting
184
Project A.I.R.E.
-------
SUGGESTED EXTENSION (OPTIONAL)
~@i Have students discuss the following two questions, in addition to com-
pleting the activity above.
•If no penalties could be imposed, why would a business comply with
regulations?
•Are there other "penalties" that may be associated with violating en-
vironmental regulations, such as damage to reputations, that serve as
incentives for compliance?
Discuss the implications of their answers in the broad context of "be-
ing a good citizen."
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
^ For grades 10 through 12, ask students to consider and suggest alter-
natives to the current penalty system. For instance, why wouldn't all
violators be automatically shut down? Why are environmental dam-
ages difficult to quantify?
SUGGESTED READING
The Oil Game (Apple II computer program). AV System (1988).
Sheridan, John H. "Pollution Prevention Picks Up Steam." Industry Week,
241 (17 February 1992) p. 36.
U.S. EPA. Principles of Environmental Enforcement. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Enforcement (February 1992).
Project A.I.R.E. 185 The Cost of Polluting
-------
n
THE COST OF POLLUTING
CALCULATE A MONETARY PENALTY
Facility Name: Anytown Light and Power Company
Money the Facility Saved by Not Complying with Regulations
Costs avoided
Costs postponed
Total (a)
Seriousness of the Violation
Penalty required based on potential for harm and extent of de-
viation from requirement (b)
Adjustment for the Duration of the Violation
Number of days of non-compliance (c)
Total = [(b)x(10%)]x(c) (d)
SUBTOTAL
Subtotal = (a) + (d) (e)
Penalty Adjustment Factors
1. Degree of cooperation (+/-) (0
2. History of compliance (+/-) (g)
3. Supplemental environmental projects (+/-) (h)
4. Ability to pay (-) (0
Total = [(f) + (g) + (h) + (i)] x (e) 0)
TOTAL PENALTY
Total Penalty = (e) + (j)
The Cost of Polluting 186 Project A.I.R.E.
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WRITING
ENVIRONMENTAL
LAWS
This activity walks students through the steps and decisions that are
made when drafting an environmental statute. It examines the inter-
play of opinions, values, beliefs, and science in the development of
law. It is related to the "Scales, Rules, Standards, Policy, and Science"
warm-up. Related activities include "Deciding To Clean the Air," "Air
Pollution Allowance Trading," and "The Cost of Polluting."
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
Recognize why governments need laws and regulations
Identify methods to obtain information for developing laws
Recognize conflicts that may exist between what is wanted and
what is achievable
Translate objective and subjective data into laws
SKILLS
Comparing ideas
Considering alternatives
Writing reports
Making decisions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest presenters could include air quality engineers, environmental
scientists, lawyers, or politicians.
BACKGROUND
There are many approaches to managing environmental problems.
Some approaches are voluntary and set goals, but do not require com-
pliance. Other approaches are regulatory and impose requirements
for compliance. Wholly regulatory approaches that both set goals
and impose requirements are often called "command and control"
regulations. An enforcement mechanism is needed to ensure compli-
ance with requirements. Voluntary and other approaches, on the
other hand, may use economic incentives to induce behavior or im-
pose pollution control technologies on pollution sources.
The enforceability of requirements impacts the cost and effectiveness
of enforcement and the ultimate degree of compliance. Requirements
must be clear and practical, so that both the regulated community
RELATED
WARM-UP
H
REFER TO
READING
MATERIAL
"The Clean Air Act"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
7th-12th
DURATION
Two class periods (80-
90 minutes)
VOCABULARY
Compliance
Regulations
Smog
MATERIALS
Chalk
Chalkboard
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
1
Project A.I.R.E.
187
Writing Environmental Laws
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and the enforcement authority understand "the rules of the game." They
must be backed up by adequate enforcement authority in order to be effec-
tive. They also should rely on inexpensive, reliable, or available technology
so that unreasonable or impossible burdens will not be placed on the regu-
lated community. Requirements that are unclear, imprecise, ambiguous,
inconsistent, or contradictory will be difficult or impossible to enforce. (See
reading material on "The Clean Air Act.")
WHAT TO DO
Before class #1 begins
1« Write the following Problem Statement on the chalkboard:
PROBLEM: Traffic congestion and smog levels in the downtown
area of our community have increased substantially in recent years.
Traffic is so bad most times during the day that local buses cannot
keep their schedules. Emergency vehicles cannot get through the
congestion either. There have been several incidents in which heart
attack victims have died, and a delay in the arrival of the ambu-
lance or fire department has been blamed. In addition, local health
authorities have reported an increase in cases of asthma and upper
respiratory problems among people who live or work in the down-
town area.
Class #1
1« Explain that the class is going to write legislation to deal with the prob-
lem described on the chalkboard.
2« Divide the class into 5 teams. Assign one of the teams to serve as the
city (town) council. Explain that each of the other teams will write and
present a proposal to the council. The council then will vote and choose
one of the proposals.
J« Hand out the student worksheet to all but the city (town) council team.
Explain that the teams should use this checklist in drafting their pro-
posals. Allow teams the maximum flexibility in preparing their propos-
als, but no team should be allowed to propose maintaining the status
quo. All proposals should include any needed enforcement mecha-
nisms—for example, methods to be used to enforce the law (such as
citations for violations), authorization for a specific party or group (such
as local police) to carry out enforcement, penalties for violations, and
so on. Encourage students to talk to their parents, local city (town)
council members, and business owners to help develop their propos-
als.
4« Instruct each team to choose one team member to be the spokesper-
son and present the team's proposal at the next class (give a specific
date but allow a few days to prepare)
Writing Environmental Laws 188 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
5« Instruct the city (town) council team that they will be responsible for
choosing a proposal to enact into law following the proposals. Indicate
that they should be prepared to justify their choice and remind them
that they have a broader responsibility to the community and should
be prepared, if necessary, to make a choice between their own indi-
vidual views and what's best for the community as a whole.
6« Give students the remainder of the class to work together and assign
them to continue work outside of class in order to be prepared for the
next class.
Class #2
1« Arrange desks or a table at the front of the room with chairs to accom-
modate the city (town) council team members. Place a lectern, desk,
or small table somewhere else in the room from which the spokesper-
sons for the other team can present their proposals.
2« Have the spokespersons make their presentations. (You may want to
suggest that one of the council team members write the salient points
from each presentation on the chalkboard to help in comparing the
proposals.) Allow the council team to question spokespersons as nec-
essary to be sure they understand
the proposals.
J« When presentations have been
completed, give the council team
a copy of the student worksheet.
Have team members deliberate on
the sufficiency of the proposal, us-
ing the worksheet.
4« Ask the council members to vote.
Examine the results. Have the
council team explain why they
made the choice they did. Let stu-
dents discuss the results and the
process involved in writing laws.
Ask students whether any of the proposals would be applicable in your
community and how they would proceed to bring their ideas to the
attention of local legislators.
SUGGESTED MODIFICATIONS
~@i For higher grades, have students research actual local laws related to
smog prevention or other air pollution issues. Have them make short
presentations of their findings.
SUGGESTED READING
Bryner, Gary C. Blue Skies, Green Politics: The Clean Air Act of 1990. Washing-
ton, DC: CQ Press (1992).
Project A.I.R.E.
189
Writing Environmental Laws
-------
Cushman, John H., Jr. "Clinton to Order Effort To Make Pollution Fairer."
New York Times, 143 (10 February 1994) p. A1.
Hogan, Barbara. "M2/P2...A Better Pollution Control Approach." Conserva-
tionist, 48 (September 1993) p. 46.
Liroff, Richard A. Reforming Air Pollution Regulations: The Toil and Trouble of
EPA's Bubble. Washington, DC: Conservation Foundation (1986).
Stevens, Leonard A. How a Law Is Made: The Story of a Bill Against Air Pollu-
tion. New York, NY: Crowell (1970).
Willis, Terri, and Wallace B. Black. Cars: An Environmental Challenge. Children's
Press (1992).
Writing Environmental Laws 190 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
ti
WRITING ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
PROPOSED LEGISLATION CHECKLIST
[ ] Does the proposal describe requirements clearly?
[ ] Is the regulated community adequately described?
[ ] Are the actions required or prohibited stated clearly?
[ ] Are requirements practical?
[ ] Can requirements be met by the regulated community?
[ ] Have exceptions or exemptions been included for extraordinary circumstances or contingencies?
(In this example, groups may wish to allow ambulances and firetrucks to travel downtown as
needed.)
[ ] Does the proposal include sufficient enforcement provisions?
[ ] Are any necessary enforcement bodies sufficiently authorized?
[ ] Have other enforcement mechanisms been described adequately?
[ ] Are penalties for violations included?
[ ] If so, are they stated clearly?
[ ] Has an appeal process been included?
Project A.I.R.E. 191 Writing Environmental Laws
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Writing Environmental Laws 192 Project A.I.R.E.
-------
TRANSLATING SCIENCE
INTO PUBLIC POLICY
In this activity, the students will role-play participants at a panel on
climate change and will represent either scientists or policymakers.
"Scientists" will use the information they've learned in other classes
and assignments to present information to "policymakers," who will
weigh that information, develop their own opinions, and decide what—
if anything—should be done about climate change. This activity is re-
lated to the "Scales, Rules, Standards, Policy, and Science" warm-up
and the "Writing Environmental Laws" activity.
CRITICAL OBJECTIVES
Research, organize, and present information from the perspective
of a scientist or policymaker
Make informed decisions backed by evidence
Describe the process and complexity of making policy decisions
SKILLS
^ Researching
Comparing ideas
Considering alternatives
Making decisions
GUEST PRESENTERS
Guest Presenters for this activity could include EPA Environmental
protection specialists, lawyers, research scientists, conservationists,
orjournalists.
BACKGROUND
Air quality laws and regulations attempt to govern behavior in order to
improve the quality of life for people and protect nature. When people
"know" that air pollution causes harm, or when regulations stipulate
precise quantities of allowed or illegal pollutants, we take for granted
that the numbers are based upon scientific research, and are not just
made up. Thus, scientific research plays a major role in supporting
laws and policies governing environmental pollution and natural re-
source management. Scientific research is often categorized into "ba-
sic" or "applied" science. Basic, or "pure" research usually refers to
fundamental principles that do not have a specific result or application
in mind, and is conducted mainly for the sake of improving knowl-
edge. On the other hand, applied research is designed to solve a par-
ticular societal or commercial problem or collect information in order
RELATED
WARM-UP
H
REFER TO
READING
MATERIALS
"The Greenhouse
Effect"
"Air Pollution"
TARGET GRADE
LEVEL
8th-11th
DURATION
3 class periods (120
minutes), plus
library research
outside class
VOCABULARY
Applied science
Policy
Pure science
Regulations
MATERIALS
Flip charts
Blank overhead
transparencies
Marking pens
Projector
2-3 sheets of
butcher paper
Note pads for
studentjournals
WORKSHEETS
INCLUDED
6
Project A.I.R.E.
193
Translating Science into Public Policy
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to enforce specific laws. Sometimes, research is hard to categorize this way,
because the results can be both useful to the science in general as well as
specifically destined to resolve some commercial or policy-related goal. In
general, though, most applied research is based upon sound principles
learned from "basic" research. While "policy" usually means government
decisions or regulations, it can also include business or personal decisions.
Scientists and policymakers each have critical roles to play in translating
applied research results into sound government policies and actions. Sci-
entists are trained in recognizing and describing the nature of the physical,
chemical, and biological world, and in being able to predict natural behav-
ior from certain facts or data. Scientists are also responsible for communi-
cating their research to non-scientists. They must assist policymakers and
others in understanding the relevance of the research, and to recognize the
limitations of the conclusions. Scientists do not necessarily tell us what to
do. Their role is to tell us what would happen if we did this or that.
Policymakers, on the other hand, do more thanjust listen to scientists. They
have to understand the conclusions that the scientists have reached, and
they have to understand the limitations of the data. However, they must
balance the scientific facts, principles, and uncertainties against social val-
ues and economic issues as well. They then have to make often-difficult or
controversial public policy decisions. (See reading materials on "The Green-
house Effect" and "Air Pollution.")
In our system of government, laws, regulations, and policies are generally
determined by elected or appointed officials charged with balancing com-
peting interests to the benefit of society or a constituency. In the environ-
mental arena, policymakers usually rely upon recognized scientific or engi-
neering experts to sift through the complex scientific data and (often) com-
peting theories. In the activity below, the students will take the part of
policymakers and technical experts in role-playing the type of hearings of-
ten held prior to policy decisions.
WHAT TO DO
First class
1« Divide the class into two groups. About eight of the students in the
first group should be the "policymakers"—Members of Congress and
their staff, and the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency
and her staff—and the remainder of the class will be members of the
expert scientific panel. Just as many different areas of scientific exper-
tise are represented in the climate change research community, the
"scientist" students should represent different scientific disciplines.
Divide the scientists into six or more teams, each representing a differ-
ent discipline. Student worksheets are provided for the policymaker
group and five possible scientist groups, but the students should be
encouraged to identify and define additional interest groups (such as
citizen groups, lobbies, or additional scientific communities). Team
members should be encouraged to research their team's positions at
the libraries or by discussions with real experts from government or
Translating Science into Public Policy 194 Project A.I.R.E.
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the community. You also may want to provide appropriate groups
with copies of some of the reading materials included in this package.
J« Discuss with the class the description of each group, what information
each group will need, the goals of the panel, and how the panel will be
conducted. Stress that the presentations, questions and answers, and
discussions are for the purpose of giving policymakers the best avail-
able scientific information to help them make decisions. The personal
feelings of the scientists should not be allowed to affect the way the
scientists present data; however, the conclusions the scientists reach
based on those objective data may enter into the discussions.
4« Stress that groups should develop their own conclusions based on the
data at their disposal. They may decide, for example, that there is
insufficient scientific evidence to be concerned with climate change,
or they may decide that the evidence for climate change is very strong
and convincing and that severe problems will result. In either case, the
scientist groups should be prepared to present their evidence and re-
spond to challenges or questions from the policymakers who may be
unconvinced.
5. Policymakers may ask for the scientists' "best professional opinion."
The policymakers have to listen carefully to the information, making
notes as they proceed, and consider their options. They have a par-
ticularly tough job because they have to consider not only the scien-
tific evidence but also the effects their decisions will have on the eco-
nomic and social welfare of the Nation.
6« Assign each of the scientist teams to prepare a 5-minute summary of
the most important issues they want the policymakers to know about.
(The presentations are to be made in a follow-up class.) Give them 15-
20 minutes to begin deciding what they want to say and what visual
aids they will need to support their positions and to select a spokesper-
son.
7. Have the policy group also select a chairperson, and study and discuss
among themselves the list of possible policy options they may wish to
consider. They must also consider the nature of the information they
need from the scientists, and may wish to formulate questions for each
scientist group. Some of the possible policy options include:
• Business as usual. Insufficient evidence that a problem exists at all.
• All-out control strategies. Stringent CO2 controls, accelerated refor-
estation, careful monitoring
of planetary health, inter-
National cooperation de-
manded.
Small concern. Some energy
efficiency improvements,
TAKE NOTE
Spend some time helping students consider the
economic and social implications of some of these
choices.
Project A.I.R.E. 195 Translating Science into Public Policy
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but wait for more evidence before instituting controls that affect
lifestyles.
Class #2
1« Arrange the room so the policymakers are sitting at desks or tables
facing the class. Set one desk facing the head table, near the center.
This will be the "witness table" for the scientists to present their expert
testimonies. Arrange the overhead projector, flip charts, or other vi-
sual aids nearby, so that everyone can see them. You may add to the
official atmosphere by making a poster or banner with "U.S. Panel on
Climate Change" printed on it, and by preparing place cards and name
tags for each participant.
2« You, the teacher, or the guest presenter could serve as moderator and
give opening remarks and introduce the scientist teams and
policymakers.
J« Call on each teams' spokesperson to present their 5-minute summaries
of the team's research to the policymakers. The teams should be en-
couraged to keep their presentations within the time limit, and to be
very clear and direct in their summary remarks. In presenting their
remarks, spokespersons should begin by stating the policy they rec-
ommend, and then present the scientific evidence for their position.
For example, the Atmospheric Science team might decide to begin by
urging immediate, drastic efforts to curb CO2 emissions. They may
cite the steady, measurable rise in CO2 across the world and the known
physical ability of CO2 to absorb heat as their primary reasons to sup-
port the control policy. The policymakers should ask questions during
and after the presentations, but the total time for each team should
not exceed 8-10 minutes. If the policy group needs more information,
they can request that the scientists provide it the following day. All the
teams should be able to complete their presentations during this class
period.
4« All students should take notes on the presentations in their journals.
Class #3
1. Arrange the room as for Class #2
2« Allow about 20 minutes of the class period for the policymakers to
confer and make their decisions. During this time, the scientist groups
should quietly discuss what might happen if their recommendations
were not accepted by the policymakers, and what kind of additional
evidence might be important to fill in gaps from their presentations
the day before.
J« Have the policy chairperson announce their decisions and their rea-
sons, paying particular attention to missing or weak evidence that they
Translating Science into Public Policy 196 Project A.I.R.E.
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did not hear from the scientists. One of the policy group should write the decisions and
reasons on a flip chart or butcher paper.
4« For the rest of the period, let the class as a whole explore the implications of the decisions,
paying attention to the most convincing evidence the policymakers heard. Equal attention
should be paid to reasons the policymakers did not accept certain scientific arguments, and
whether additional data or evidence that was not heard might have changed the outcome.
This consideration, in reality, would be a good reason for additional applied research.
5. Provide a wrap-up during the last five minutes, stressing the difficulties of the decision-mak-
ing process and explaining that the 3-hour exercise would have taken many months in real
life. (You also may choose to have the guest presenter provide the wrap-up.)
SUGGESTED EXTENSIONS (OPTIONAL)
^ Have students select aspects of the policy decisions and write a short essay to support or
refute the decisions based upon the evidence presented, or upon the need for additional
evidence (research).
SUGGESTED READING
Barke, Richard. Science, Technology, and Public Policy. Washington, DC: CQ
Press (1986).
Bryner, Gary C. Blue Skies, Green Politics: The Clean Air Act of 1990. Washing-
ton, DC: CQ Press (1992).
Cushman, John H., Jr. "Clinton to Order Effort To Make Pollution Fairer."
New York Times, 143 (10 February 1994) p. A1.
Hiskes, Anne L, and Richard P. Hiskes. Science, Technology, and Policy Deci-
sions. Boulder, CO: Westview Press (1986).
Hogan, Barbara. "M2/P2...A Better Pollution Control Approach." Conserva-
tionist, 48 (September 1993) p. 46.
Liroff, Richard A. Reforming Air Pollution Regulations: The Toil and Trouble of
EPA's Bubble. Washington, DC: Conservation Foundation (1986).
Pringle, Laurence P. Lives at Stake: The Science and Politics of Environmental
Health. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishers (1980).
Silverberg, Robert. "Greenhouse Effect: Apocalypse Now or Chicken Little."
Omni, 13 (July 1991) p. 50.
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TI
TRANSLATING SCIENCE INTO PUBLIC POLICY
MEMBERS OF CONGRESS AND EPA $ ADMINISTRATOR AND STAFF
As policymakers and lawmakers, you are responsible for assuring that all interests are fairly repre-
sented and that no segment or sector of the population is unduly burdened by your decisions.
There are, however, many influences on your decisions, and there are many checks and balances
to protect the public from abuses of power or authority. Members of Congress, who are elected
to represent the majority interests of a part of a single district within a state, may have different
priorities and perspectives than the Administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
who is responsible to the President for carrying out laws and setting policies Nationwide. Your
role here is to determine the forces influencing your decision-making. These forces are outside of
the testimony presented by the scientific panels. You should begin with a brief discussion sum-
marizing the different motivations of the members of the group. You may decide to all be Mem-
bers of Congress, or some of you may also represent the EPA Administrator as her senior policy
staff.
You need not find the answers to your questions during the first session. Conduct your own
research. Ask the guest presenter (if one was invited), or you may also contact the local office of
your own Congressional Representative.
You will need to ask the scientific panelists questions to do your research. Use your questions to
get to the root of the problem, and maintain a list of possible solutions as the testimony proceeds.
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TRANSLATING SCIENCE INTO PUBLIC POLICY
ATMOSPHERIC SCIENTIST}
Your expertise is primarily in the composition and nature of the atmosphere (chemistry and phys-
ics—what's in the air and what the ingredients do), and the influence of the atmosphere on
climate.
Clues for research: Atmospheric scientists could be expected to provide expert testimony on the
greenhouse effect, what greenhouse gases are, how they are changing the atmosphere, and how
that might affect climate over the short- and long term.
Project A.I.R.E. 199 Translating Science into Public Policy
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TRANSLATING SCIENCE INTO PUBLIC POLICY
ECOLOGIfTi
Your expertise is in the structure and function of the Earth's living things; how plants and animals
are distributed across the landscape, how they interact with each other and with the Earth's envi-
ronment, and how plants and animals "make their livings."
Clues for research: Ecologists may provide expert opinions on the way climate influences impor-
tant ecosystems, how changes in habitat may affect plants and animals, and how and why future
climate changes might affect ecosystems.
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TRANSLATING SCIENCE INTO PUBLIC POLICY
AGRICULTURAL SCIENTIST}
You are primarily interested in crop plants and their production in commercial quantities. You
deal with issues of crop health and stress, soil fertility, water availability, farming practices, pesti-
cides and fertilizers, and with economic issues affecting farms and food production.
Clues for research: Agricultural scientists would be expected to testify about the possible impacts
of climate upon food production and food distribution.
Project A.I.R.E. 201 Translating Science into Public Policy
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TRANSLATING SCIENCE INTO PUBLIC POLICY
OCEANOGRAPHERf
You specialize in the physical and chemical makeup of the oceans, how they circulate, how they
interact with the atmosphere, how they influence the Earth's climate, and how they store and
exchange energy with the atmosphere. Oceanographers also are concerned with the biology of
the seas, and with fisheries.
Clues for research: Oceanographers would be expected to provide information on the interac-
tions of oceans with climate, the possibilities of sea-level rise, and the impacts of changing climate
upon oceanic and coastal life.
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TRANSLATING SCIENCE INTO PUBLIC POLICY
COMPUTER MODELERS AND MATHEMATICIANS
You are experts in producing complex computer simulations of natural physical and biological
processes, often with hundreds of variables. These simulations can be used to predict the behav-
ior of natural systems (such as climate) that cannot easily be experimented upon directly.
Clues for research: Computer modelers may give expert testimony on the way computer models
are used to help the scientific community make predictions, and to discuss the strengths and
limitations of these models and their data.
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AIR POLLUTION
What Is Air Pollution?
The natural composition of air is mostly
nitrogen and oxygen, along with water
droplets, fine particles, and small amounts of
other gases, such as carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxide, methane, ammonia, and argon. These
gases can be either free in the air or associ-
ated with water vapor.
Air pollution is any visible or invisible particle
or gas found in the air that is not part of the
normal composition of air. Natural air pollu-
tion has been around for millions of years,
but during the last century, pollution created
by humans started to become a major con-
cern. We are most familiar with visible air
pollution like smog; however, many other air
pollutants, including some of the most
dangerous, are totally invisible.
Where Does Air Pollution Come From?
Natural air pollutants have always been a part
of the earth's history. Particulate matter and
a variety of different gases from volcanoes,
forest fires, and decaying organic materials in
oceans and swamps enter the atmosphere at
irregular intervals, sometimes in amounts that
have dramatic effects. Naturally produced
"greenhouse" gases, such as methane from
plant decay, may have contributed signifi-
cantly to periods of global warming in the
past. Carbon dioxide and water vapor react
to form carbonic acid, which makes rain
slightly acidic even without pollution from
other sources.
Naturally produced pollutants are present in
greater amounts than those of human origin.
However, they do not present as serious a
problem as man-made pollutants because
they are not concentrated over large cities
and many are less harmful than man-made
pollutants.
Air pollution from man-made sources is the
result of our increasing use of large quantities
of fuel and high levels of industrial activity.
Not only are some of these pollutants very
harmful, but also tend to be concentrated in
urban areas where many people live and
work. Many of these air pollutants come
from burning the coal, oil, wood, and other
fuels we use to run factories, cars, and power
plants that generate heat and light for our
homes.
Once pollutants are added to the air, they
can chemically react to form more dangerous
pollutants. The interaction of nitrogen oxides
and other components near ground level in
the presence of sunlight forms another
atmospheric gas—ozone. Ozone has two
very important but different effects. The
layer of ozone found in the upper atmo-
sphere (stratosphere) provides a major pro-
tective barrier against harmful radiation from
the sun. However, ozone near the Earth's
surface can become a serious health problem
when the ozone concentration becomes too
high, usually on long, sunny, summer days.
Pollutants of any sort can ride the air currents
for long distances. It has become very clear
that the air around us and the pollutants it
carries are neverjust a local concern but
transcend regional, national, and hemispheric
boundaries.
What Are the Effects of Air Pollution on
Plants, Animals, and Humans?
Plant and animal life has adapted to most
natural pollutants except for the rare cata-
strophic occurrences that create worldwide
climate changes. The most serious air quality
concerns are the additional, often harmful,
pollutants that humans add to the air.
205
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Most of the water droplets carried by air
eventually fall to earth as precipitation. Many
of the small particles and chemicals are
washed from the atmosphere when precipita-
tion falls. Air pollution then becomes land
and water pollution, which can influence the
structure and function of ecosystems, includ-
ing their ability for self-regulation. Numerous
small lakes in the eastern United States are
devoid of fish because of the effects of "acid
rain."
The impact of air pollution on man is broad,
causing symptoms ranging from itchy eyes to
cancer. The absorption of inhaled chemicals
can have direct consequences for health.
However, public health also can be indirectly
affected by the deposition of air pollutants on
plants, animals, and water. These chemicals,
by entering the food chain or being present
in drinking water, constitute additional
sources of human exposure.
How Do We Detect Air Pollution?
Every year millions of tons of man-made
chemicals are released into the atmosphere,
mostly by industrialized countries. However,
the toxic effects of these chemicals often are
not recognized or understood until the
chemicals have been widely used for consid-
erable periods of time. A chemical com-
pound that initially appears to have little or
no effect on plants and animals may eventu-
ally produce extremely harmful results, often
hidden for many years.
DDT and related chemicals are a classic case
of such a situation. DDT is a very effective
insecticide that showed great promise for
fighting harmful insects all over the world. It
wasn't until after many years of widespread
use that DDT was discovered to have devas-
tating toxic effects. The high DDT levels in
bald eagles caused them to produce eggs so
thin-shelled they were crushed during incu-
bation. This caused a reduction in the popu-
lation, putting bald eagles on the endan-
gered species list. Similar disastrous repercus-
sions can and are being repeated with other
toxic chemicals in other food chains.
Governments around the world have estab-
lished programs to measure and monitor
levels of airborne pollution. For many years,
cities in the United States developed and
used their own indices for reporting air
pollution levels to the public. These indi-
vidual indices have now been replaced by the
Pollution Standards Index (PSI) or the Air
Quality Index (AQI), both recognized as
standardized measures that allow comparison
from city to city.
How Do We Reduce Air Pollution?
Since little can be done by humans about
natural pollution, our main concern has to be
with the additional pollutants from human
activity. Because of the increasing concern
over toxic chemicals in the air we breathe,
many laws have been passed to control
emission sources.
Certain air pollutants are so pervasive that
they show up wherever air quality is poor.
Six have been designated "criteria pollut-
ants:" particulate matter, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone,
and lead. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency has set national ambient air quality
standards to protect health and welfare in
connection with these pollutants. Where
these standards are exceeded, the EPA takes
steps to control pollutant emissions.
Identification and control of other hazardous
air pollutants are critical steps to controlling
air quality. Seven hazardous materials (ar-
senic, asbestos, benzene, beryllium, mercury,
vinyl chloride, and radionuclides) already
have U.S. standards. However, this start
represents only a very small portion of the
whole hazardous waste problem. An ex-
panded list of 189 hazardous chemicals has
been identified for regulation. They are listed
in the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.
Some states, even some cities, have been
particularly aggressive in battling pollution of
various sorts. New legislation is constantly
being discussed. Alternative energy sources
and alternative strategies, such as mass transit
and energy conservation, are all part of the
206
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solution. Gradually, the international scope is
being recognized and international agree-
ments are being developed to try to deal
with air quality problems on a global scale.
References and Suggested Reading
Adler, Jonathan H. "Little Green Lies: The
Environmental Miseducation of
America's Children." Policy Review,
(Summer 1992) p. 18.
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Bierma, Thomas J., and Mark S. Walbert.
"Pollution Control Strategy Game: Costs
of Control Policies." Journal of Environ-
mental Education, 18 (Summer 1987) p.
19.
Climate Change Action Plan. Washington, DC:
Office of the President of the United
States (1993).
Health Effects of Ambient Air Pollution. Ameri-
can Lung Association (1989).
Hornaday, Ann. "Air Pollution (Good House-
keeping Green Watch)." Good House-
keeping, 212 (April 1991) p. 80.
"How Good Is the Air Americans Breathe (Air
Pollution Data)." Washington Post (Wash-
ington Health), 116(13 July 1993) p.
WHS.
McKee. Tropospheric Ozone: Human Health
and Agricultural Impacts. Lewis Publishing
(1994).
Ojala, Carl F., and Eric J. Ojala. "Airborne
Particles." Science Teacher, 54 (Septem-
ber 1987) p. 40.
O'Neill, Catherine. "Cleaner Air! Cough!
Wheeze! Gasp!" Washington Post (Wash-
ington Health), 115(6 October 1992) p.
WH18.
Paden, Mary E. "Global Interview: Trends in
Environment and Development." Clear-
ing, (January 1991) p. 7.
Stipp, David. "Bad Things Come In Small
Particles." Wall Street Journal, (24 April
1991) p. B1.
U.S. EPA. National Air Quality and Emissions
Trends Report, 1992. Research Triangle
Park, NC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards EPA/454/R-93/
031 (1993).
—. Office of Radiation and Indoor Air: Program
Description. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Air and Radiation EPA/402/K-
93/002 (June 1993).
207
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208
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY
How Serious Is Indoor Air Pollution?
Most people are aware that outdoor air
pollution can damage their health but may
not know that indoor air pollution also can
have significant harmful effects. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
studies of human exposure to air pollutants
indicate that indoor levels of many pollutants
may be 2-5 times, and occasionally more
than 100 times, higher than outdoor levels.
Also, people spend more than 90 percent of
their time indoors. Tightly sealed buildings
are an additional concern for the health of
those who live and work in them. The
Journal of the American Medical Association
in 1988 reported that a population living in
energy-efficient buildings contracted upper
respiratory diseases at rates 46 to 50 percent
higher than a comparable group living in
older, more ventilated housing. The EPA and
its Science Advisory Board rank indoor air
pollution among the top five environmental
risks to public health.
Where Does It Come From?
There are many potential sources of air
pollution in houses and other buildings.
Cases like carbon monoxide, ozone, sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, and particu-
late matter (less than 10 microns in size) flow
into buildings from the surrounding automo-
tive and industrial culture. Radon gas seeps
indoors from the soil and rock around the
foundation, and hundreds of other chemicals,
dust, fibers, molds, bacteria, and metals are
released into the indoor air primarily from
carpeting, wood products made with syn-
thetics, and combustion sources. Some
examples include formaldehyde, xylene, vinyl
chloride, ethylbenzene, trichloroethylene,
methacrylic acid, asbestos, textile dust, and
tobacco smoke. Old synthetic carpeting,
which becomes brittle with age, gives off
synthetic house dust. Unhealthy in itself,
dust is even more dangerous when burned
by the furnace or kitchen stove because it
may produce gases such as hydrogen cyanide
and forgene. Common sources of indoor
pollutants include household cleaners, tex-
tiles, automotive supplies, furnaces, gas
cooking appliances, pesticides, and paint.
What Are The Effects of These
Pollutants?
Some common indoor air pollutants are
known to cause cancer and are relatively well
characterized. Examples are tobacco smoke,
benzene, vinyl chloride, trichloroethylene,
and asbestos. Benzene is in fossil fuel and is
used as a solvent in the manufacturing of
paints, plastics, and pesticides. Vinyl chloride
is used in plumbing and in manufacturing
plastics. Trichloroethylene is used in dry
cleaning and in the manufacturing of pesti-
cides, paints, waxes, and paint strippers.
Many indoor air pollutants cause non-cancer
health effects (such as neurologic, reproduc-
tive/developmental, pulmonary, immune
system) and generally are not understood as
well as the cancer-causing ones. For ex-
ample, the xylenes used as a paint and ink
solvent and in some detergents are associ-
ated with liver, kidney, and nervous system
disorders. Plasticizers may cause chromo-
some damage. Dust mites and mold may
cause allergic reactions. Further research on
indoor air quality is needed to identify and
characterize the health risks associated with
exposures to indoor air pollutants, individu-
ally and in combination. Not all potential
indoor air pollutants have been identified.
How Do We Detect Indoor Air
Pollution?
With special equipment, a technician can test
for airborne particulates, specific organic
209
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and inorganic gases, vapors, and dust in
indoor air. Detecting radon gas is easy and
relatively inexpensive. (See the reading
material on "Radon.") Testing for carbon
dioxide provides an index of the amount of
outside air pollutants coming into a building.
How Do We Reduce the Hazards?
Several strategies may be used to improve
indoor air quality. A combustion furnace, if
located indoors, should be efficient and
atmospherically separated from the rest of
the house. Solar heating and electric space
heaters and kitchen ranges are better alterna-
tives to kerosene and gas versions. Insulation
of living spaces and metal conduits are
recommended. Household cleaners, paints,
and other products in the house should be
sealed and stored properly to avoid leaking
into the living area of the house. A ventila-
tion controlled system can provide fresh air
every day.
References and Suggested Reading
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Becker, Brenda L "Is Your Home Hazardous
to Your Health." Woman's Day, 56 (21
September 1993) p. 36.
Delaney, Lisa. 'The Air Doctors' Report: How
to Protect Yourself from Dangers Blow-
ing Through Your House." Prevention, 43
(August 1991) p. 44.
"Government on the Bandwagon (Address-
ing the Issue of Indoor Air Quality)."
Occupational Hazards, 54 (August 1992)
p. 35.
Gutfeld, Greg, Linda Rao, and Maureen
Sangiorgio. "Pollution-Fighting Plants."
Prevention, 44 (September 1992) p. 10.
"Hidden Life of Spider Plants." University of
California, Berkeley Wellness Letter, 10
(February 1994) p. 1.
"How to Improve Indoor Air." University of
California, Berkeley Wellness Letter, 8
(February 1992) p. 6.
Jackson, Tom. "Prescription for Indoor Air
Quality." Better Homes and Gardens, 68
(October 1990) p. 152.
Mansdorf, Jack. "Indoor Air Quality: A Mod-
ern Day Dilemma." Occupational Haz-
ards, 55 (March 1993) p. 11.
Nero, Anthony V., Jr. "Controlling Indoor Air
Pollution." Scientific American, 258 (May
1988) p. 42.
Rifkin, Janey M. "When Breathing is Hazard-
ous to Your Health." Let's Live, 59 (Au-
gust 1991) p. 62.
Samet, and Spengler. Indoor Air Pollution: A
Health Perspective. Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press (1991).
Scott, Geoff. "Your Environment and Your
Health." Current Health, 18 (2 April
1992) p. 7.
Skolnick, Andrew. "Even Air in the Home Is
Not Entirely Free of Potential Pollutants."
Journal of the American Medical Associa-
tion, 262 (December 8, 1989) p. 3102.
U.S. Congress. Researching Health Risks.
Washington, DC: U.S. Congress Office of
Technology Assessment OTA-BBS-571
(1993).
U.S. EPA. National Air Quality and Emissions
Trends Report, 1992. Research Triangle
Park, NC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards EPA/454/R-93/
031 (1993).
—. Office of Radiation and Indoor Air: Program
Description. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Air and Radiation EPA/402/K-
93/002 (June 1993).
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HEALTH EFFECTS
Ambient Air Quality and Human Health
Ambient air quality, especially in highly
industrialized and urbanized areas, is a grow-
ing concern to the health of the nation. The
magnitude and variety of these pollutants
across the country depends mainly on the
number and types of air emission sources and
meteorological conditions. To protect public
health and welfare, the EPA has set national
standards for six ambient pollutants that tend
to reach unsafe levels. They are carbon
monoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides, tropo-
spheric ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulate
matter. However, there are other pollutants
of concern, some of which occasionally reach
dangerous levels under certain conditions or
in accidental releases. The EPA is evaluating
these pollutants and may require emission
reductions for some of them. The EPA also is
implementing programs to reduce emissions
of chlorofluorocarbons and other pollutants
that are depleting stratospheric ozone.
Indoor Air Quality and Human Health
EPA studies of human exposure to indoor air
pollutants indicate that pollution levels may
be 2-5 times, and occasionally more than 100
times, higher than outdoor levels. Because
most people spend at least 90 percent of
their time indoors, indoor air quality is a
growing concern. Virtually all ambient air
pollutants can be found in indoor air, but
some also are generated indoors. For ex-
ample, carbon monoxide may be produced
from tobacco smoking and faulty heating
appliances, lead from old paint, and nitrogen
and sulfur dioxides from coal-burning stoves.
The major sources of indoor air pollution are
carpeting, wood products made with syn-
thetic glues, combustion appliances, and
tobacco products.
Determining Risk Associated with Air
Pollution
To determine the risks to human health
posed by air pollutants, the U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency (EPA) obtains the best
available toxicological data from animal stud-
ies and human studies. Risks associated with
exposure to carcinogens (chemicals with can-
cer causing potential) are analyzed separately
from those associated with exposure to non-
carcinogenic chemicals (with the potential for
causing pulmonary, liver, and kidney dam-
age, nervous system changes, birth defects,
immune system dysfunction, and other ef-
fects).
Even though some chemicals have the poten-
tial for generating both carcinogenic and
non-carcinogenic effects, the means by which
they produce them in the body is thought to
be substantially different for most chemicals.
In calculating the likelihood that someone
will develop cancer, risk assessors assume
there is some chance a person will get cancer
even from extremely low exposures to a
cancer causing substance. For a pollutant
that causes non-carcinogenic health prob-
lems, risk assessors assume that there is a
level of exposure below which people are not
likely to experience adverse health effects
over a time period, usually a lifetime. These
assumptions are based on considerable
evidence of adverse health effects in animal
and human studies, such as occupational
exposures.
Although air pollutants can enter the body by
several routes, the primary route is through
the lungs, which have a total surface area
about 25 times greater than that of the
body's skin surface. In the lungs, air pollut-
ants may damage directly the lung tissue
causing several types of diseases, including
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cancer. In addition, most air pollutants are
absorbed into the blood and transported to
sensitive organs throughout the body.
Health Effects of Ambient Air Pollution
The pollutants for which EPA has set National
Ambient Air Quality Standards produce a
wide variety of health effects. Ambient
carbon monoxide, which comes primarily
from motor vehicles, enters the blood from
the lungs and permanently binds to hemo-
globin, preventing it from carrying oxygen
needed to sustain life. Lead, from multiple
sources including leaded gasoline, accumu-
lates in the body and may cause neurological
impairments such as mental retardation and
behavioral disorders, especially in the very
young. Even at low doses, lead is associated
with changes in fundamental enzymatic and
energy transfer mechanisms in the body.
Nitrogen dioxide, mainly from coal burning
power plants and motor vehicles, can irritate
the lungs and lower resistance to respiratory
infections. It also is a precursor to acid
deposition and ozone. Ozone, formed
mainly at ground level from other air pollut-
ants in the presence of sunlight, damages
lung tissue, reduces lung function, and
sensitizes the lungs to other irritants. De-
creased lung function can be accompanied
by chest pain, coughing, and nausea. Ozone
also causes agricultural crop loss. Sulfur
dioxide, mainly from coal-burning power and
industrial plants, is associated with decreased
lung function, respiratory diseases, and
lowered resistance to lung problems. It also
damages plant life. Particulate matter (less
than 10 microns in size) comes from a num-
ber of different sources such as diesel en-
gines, burning wood, and windblown dust.
It can aggravate lung and cardiovascular
diseases, alter the body's defense systems,
and cause cancer.
Health Effects of Indoor Air Pollution
Indoor air pollutants may cause a wide variety
of adverse health effects ranging from rashes
and eye irritation to cancer, breathing diffi-
culties, kidney failure, liver damage, and birth
defects. The degree of toxicity depends on
the physical/chemical characteristics of the air
pollutant; the magnitude, frequency, and
duration of exposure; and the overall health
of those exposed. Some populations, such as
children and the elderly, often are more
susceptible to the adverse health effects of
pollution. Tobacco smoke, benzene, vinyl
chloride, trichloroethylene, and asbestos are
common indoor pollutants with the potential
for causing cancer. Some pesticides used or
accidentally leaked indoors can cause cancer
and a number of non-cancer effects including
lung, kidney, liver, and nervous system
dysfunction. Radon gas causes lung cancer.
Formaldehyde, from the outgassing of par-
ticle board and similar products, not only
irritates eyes, lungs, and skin, but also is a
potential carcinogen. Even though the list of
potentially dangerous indoor air pollutants
seems endless, not all of the pollutants—for
example, those produced during combustion
or released during the outgassing of synthetic
carpet—have been identified. Furthermore,
the combined effects of air pollutants on
human health are largely unknown.
References and Suggested Reading
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
"Air Pollution and Children." Healthline, 10
(January 1991) p. 13.
"Air Pollution and Respiratory Infections."
Pediatrics for Parents, (September 1991)
p.1.
Air Pollution and Your Health (pamphlet).
American Lung Association (April 1988).
"Battling Indoor Air Pollution." USA Today
Magazine, 120 (October 1991) p. 14.
Cotton, Paul. ""Best Data Yet Say Air Pollu-
tion Kills Below Levels Currently Consid-
ered Safe." Journal of the American
212
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Medical Association, 269 (23 June 1993)
p. 3087.
Godlee, Fiona. "Health Implications of Cli-
matic Change." British Medical Journal,
303 (16 November 1991) p. 1254.
Health Effects of Ambient Air Pollution. Ameri-
can Lung Association (1989).
Hoppin, Jane. Risk Assessment in the Federal
Government: Questions and Answers.
Boston, MA: Harvard School of Public
Health, Center for Risk Analysis (1993).
Jackson, Tom. "Prescription for Indoor Air
Quality." Better Homes and Gardens, 68
(October 1990) p. 152.
LaGanga, Maria L. "Particles—Tiny Killer in
the Air." Los Angeles Times, 112 (7 De-
cember 1992) p. A1.
McKee. Tropospheric Ozone: Human Health
and Agricultural Impacts. Lewis Publishing
(1994).
Pasternak, Judy. "Long-Term Lung Damage
Linked to Air Pollution; Respiratory
Deterioration Is Found in Areas Where
Air Is Dirtiest." Los Angeles Times, (29
March 1991) p. A1.
—. "Smog Blamed for Increase in Asthma
Cases." Los Angeles Times, (2 December
1991) p. A1.
"Populations at Risk from Air Pollution."
Journal of the American Medical Associa-
tion, 269 (19 May 1993) p. 2493.
Roach, Mary, John Hastings, and Steven
Finch. "Sun Struck: Here's the Hole Story
about the Ozone and Your Chances of
Getting Skin Cancer." Health, 6 (May
1992) p. 40.
Scott, Geoff. "Your Environment and Your
Health." Current Health, 18 (2 April
1992) p. 7.
Skolnick, Andrew. "Even Air in the Home Is
Not Entirely Free of Potential Pollutants."
Journal of the American Medical Associa-
tion, 262 (December 8, 1989) p. 3102.
Sombke, Laurence. "Is Your House...Healthy?
Sick? Toxic?" Family Circle, 105 (2 June
1992) p. 72.
U.S. Congress. Researching Health Risks.
Washington, DC: U.S. Congress Office of
Technology Assessment OTA-BBS-571
(1993).
Ziem, Grace E., and Linda L. Davidoff. "Illness
from Chemical 'Odors': Is the Health
Significance Understood." Archives of
Environmental Health, 47 (January 1992)
p. 88.
213
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214
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RADON
What Is Radon?
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive
isotope. Radon is colorless and odorless
regardless of concentration and is the only
member of a chain of decaying isotopes that
is a gas. Radon is produced from radioactive
disintegration reactions that begin with
uranium-238, which is widely distributed
throughout the Earth's crust. With a half-life
of 3.8 days, radon has time to escape from
soil and enter buildings before decaying into
polonium-218, a radioactive particle (solid).
Where Does It Come From?
The majority of radon that enters a building
comes in through cracks in the foundation
and basement floor, crawl spaces, floor
drains, joints between walls and basement
floor, water pipes, and electrical conduits.
Other sources of indoor radon include water
(primarily well water) and building materials
made of rock, such as brick and concrete.
Radon levels may vary a lot from one building
to the next in.a neighborhood. Radon levels
are higher in the basement and lower floors,
which are closer to the source, than the
upper floors. They also tend to be higher in
cold weather when doors and windows are
closed.
What Are Its Effects?
It is polonium-218, with a half-life of three
minutes, and some of its solid decay products
(such as lead-214, bismuth-214, and polo-
nium-214) that present the greatest risk to
human'health. Alpha particle emissions from
the radioactive disintegrations of these radon
decay products are sufficiently powerful to
penetrate lung tissue and damage the sensi-
tive basal epithelial cells, which leads to lung
cancer. Disintegration of the decay products
outside the lungs is of little concern because
alpha emissions are easily stopped by a
couple of centimeters of air, and they are
unable to penetrate the skin.
Although the number of deaths due to radon
is disputable, the Centers for Disease Control,
the American Lung Association, and other
major health authorities agree that radon
causes thousands of preventable lung cancer
deaths each year. Radon is certainly a danger
to uranium miners and others exposed to
high doses. In the United States, estimates of
the number of deaths from lung cancer
caused by radon range between 7,000 and
30,000 per year, which is about 10 percent of
the lung cancer deaths attributed to smok-
ing. Evidence suggests that radon and
cigarette smoking may act synergistically,
increasing the cancer risk more than simply
adding the risks of radon and smoking.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) urges home owners to reduce their
radon exposure if levels average greater than
4 picocuries per liter (pCi/L). The curie (Ci) is
the basic unit of measurement most com-
monly used in the United States for radioac-
tivity. One curie is equal to 37 billion radio-
active disintegrations per second, which is a
lot of radioactivity. The radioactivity released
by radon and its decay products is usually
measured in picocuries (pCi), or trillionths of
a curie.
How Do We Detect It?
Measuring radon levels in houses is easy and
relatively inexpensive. There are several
methods, but the three most common
detection units are charcoal canisters, alpha
track monitors, and electret ion chambers.
The charcoal canister has a radon absorption
device and can measure radon levels in 2-7
days. Usually, the canister is mailed to the
manufacturer for analysis. Alpha track moni-
tors require 3-12 months to measure radon
215
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by recording the tracks of alpha particles
emitted when the radon decays. The electret
ion chamber, which is designed for short- or
long-term testing, contains a specially
charged device that, when exposed to the
air, reacts to the radioactive decay of radon.
The recommended procedure is to begin
with a short-term test, and if the results show
high radon levels, add further tests.
How Do We Reduce Its Effects?
If the radon detection tests indicate that
radon levels are too high, one or more
mitigation strategies may be implemented to
decrease radon concentrations indoors. The
best choice of a strategy depends on how
much radon was detected, the design and air
flow patterns in the house, cost consider-
ations, and appearance. All strategies involve
keeping radon from seeping into the house,
and removing radon once it enters the house.
Specific strategies may include:
• Sealing cracks and openings, including
water and sewer lines and electrical con-
duits, in and around the foundation and
concrete slab under the house;
• Increasing natural ventilation by opening
windows to facilitate the flow of outside air
into the house, especially to the basement
and lower floors;
• Forced ventilation (fans) with or without
heat recovery into (never out of) the house
on the lower levels;
• Soil ventilation to draw soil gas away from
the foundation of the house.
Air flows in the direction of least resistance.
Consequently, if fans are used to ventilate the
house, it is important to blow the air into,
never out of, the house because radon is
pulled into the house with the creation of a
slight vacuum in the lower areas of the
house.
References and Suggested Reading
Barnes-Svarney, Patricia. "Righting the Risk of
Radon: This Invisible and Odorless
Pollutant Can Be Hazardous to Your
Health, But It's Easy To Find Out If You're
at Risk." Earth Science, 42 (Fall 1989) p.
17.
Downey, Daniel M., and Glenn Simonulas.
"Measurement of Radon in Indoor Air."
Journal of Chemical Education, 65 (De-
cember 1988) p. 1042.
Godwin, Phillip, Kristin Willenbrink, and
Bertha Kainen. "Radon Update." Chang-
ing Times, 42 (February 1988) p. 22.
"Radon: Risk or Rubbish?" Medical Update, 14
(March 1991) p. 2.
Samet, and Spengler. Indoor Air Pollution: A
Health Perspective. Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press (1991).
U.S. EPA. A Citizen's Cuide to Radon. Washing-
ton, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air and
Radiation EPA/402/K-92/001 (1992).
—. Office of Radiation and Indoor Air: Program
Description. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA,
Office of Air and Radiation EPA/402/K-
93/002 Gune 1993).
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WEATHER AND AIR QUALITY
What Is Weather?
Webster's Ninth Collegiate Dictionary defines
weather as the "state of the atmosphere with
respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness,
calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness." The
term "weather" encompasses many factors,
including temperature and precipitation
conditions and air mass movements.
Weather involves the daily variations of these
factors. Knowledge about the basic elements
of daily weather helps to explain how
weather affects air quality.
The movement of huge air masses across the
continent has the broadest impact on daily
weather. In North America, these air masses,
commonly termed weather systems, usually
flow from west to east. The exact path of
weather systems is determined by several
factors, including the prevailing direction of
"jet streams" and topographic features. The
jet streams are enormous upper air currents
of air that move across the continent at great
speeds. The trends of weather systems
depend upon whether the jet streams dip
south or stay north. Topographic features,
such as a mountain range, can alter the
direction of air masses. The collision of
different air masses also may affect the path
of each air mass.
Weather systems typically are defined as
being either a high- or low-pressure system.
High-pressure systems are air masses with
unique properties, such as warm or cool, or
moist or dry. The winds of a high-pressure
system rotate in a clockwise direction. Con-
sequently, as a high-pressure system rotates,
it will draw colder, northern air southward
and warmer, southern air northward.
Low-pressure systems are pockets of air masses
located between high-pressure systems. These
systems flow in a counter-clockwise direction
between two clockwise-rotating high-pres-
sure systems. Since several weather systems
(high- and low-pressures systems) occur at
the same time over the North America, air
masses are constantly colliding. When this
occurs, weather fronts form, which often
leads to some form of precipitation.
During the cooler seasons of the year, pre-
cipitation may encompass areas that are
hundreds of miles across. Cold weather
precipitation often falls as snow, sleet, or
freezing rain. In the hotter seasons, precipita-
tion often is limited to smaller areas. This
precipitation ranges from rain showers to
thunderstorms, and occasionally, hail.
Weather patterns also are affected by the sun
and the position of the sun throughout the
year. The amount of daylight and the angle
of sunlight reaching the earth affects the
temperature and the types of precipitation.
During the winter, because the sun is situated
in the southern sky, resulting in less daylight,
temperatures are colder. As daylight slowly
increases, as the sun shifts to the north, the
temperature also slowly increases. The sun
reaches its apex in the summer, resulting in
the hottest temperatures, and starts to shift
to the south again.
How Does Weather Affect Air Quality?
Daily weather conditions directly affect the
quality of the air. Shifting air masses and
wind can move air pollutants from one
location to another. Conversely, stagnant air
can result in increased concentrations of
harmful pollutants. All forms of precipitation
wash pollutants from the air and onto the
ground. Although this cleanses the air, it
may create land and surface water pollution.
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What Is the Air Quality Index and How
Does It Work?
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a standardized
index to classify and measure air pollution
and is used to report air pollution levels to
the public. The reason the public needs to
be informed about air pollution levels is to
warn people who may be susceptible to air
pollution. These people may need to modify
their behavior and take precautionary mea-
sures to protect themselves when air pollu-
tion is severe.
Once air monitoring data is collected, the
AQI is used to convert the data to a scale that
ranges from a 0 to 100 and over. The scale
intervals indicate the potential health effects
of measured daily levels of major air pollut-
ants, including carbon monoxide, nitrogen
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter,
and ozone. The AQI is based on the ambient
air quality standards established by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. The AQI
not only provides information about the
health effects of air pollution, but also in-
cludes information about the effects of air
pollution on property, vegetation, and aes-
thetic values.
References and Suggested Reading
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Cole, Henry S. "Air Pollution and Weather:
Activities and Demonstrations for Sci-
ence Classes." Science Teacher, 40 (De-
cember 1973) p. 38.
Kohler, Fred. Classroom Exercises Concerning
the Effect of Weather Conditions on Air
Quality in Illinois. Pittsburgh, PA: National
Council for Geographic Education (29
October 1981).
U.S. EPA. National Air Quality and Emissions
Trends Report, 1992. Research Triangle
Park, NC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards EPA/454/R-93/
031 (1993).
Yudkin, Marcia. 'The Forecast for Tomorrow
is Headaches. Are You One of the Mil-
lions of Sensitive People Whose Weil-
Being May Be Upset by the Weather?"
Natural Health, 23 Qanuary 1993) p. 40.
218
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ACID DEPOSITION
What Is Acid Deposition?
Acid deposition includes acid rain, snow, fog,
humidity, and dust with an acidity level lower
than pH 5.6. Normal rain, which has a pH of
about 5.6, is about 25 times more acidic than
"pure," neutral water. The acidity results
from the conversion of atmospheric carbon
dioxide in water vapor to carbonic acid, a
weak acid. Most acid precipitation has a pH
between 4.6 and 5.6, but scientists occasion-
ally have measured pH values in acid rain in
the eastern United States as low as 2.1 and
3.0, which is about 10,000 to 80,000 times
more acidic than pure water.
Where Does It Come From?
Nearly 95 percent of the acidity below pH 5.6
comes from atmospheric sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides, which are products of fossil
fuel combustion. Acidified rainwater contains
combinations of sulfuric and nitric acids that
form when water vapor and sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides react. Most of the acid
deposition in the eastern United States is
attributed to the release of large amounts of
sulfur dioxide and to a lesser extent nitrogen
oxides from big midwestern power plants
that burn coal. Paper and wood pulp pro-
cessing plants also contribute to sulfur diox-
ide pollution. In the United States and
Canada, sulfur dioxide contributes much
more to acid deposition than nitrogen ox-
ides, which come mainly from automotive
emissions, but over the next few decades
nitrogen oxides may catch up. Sulfur and
nitrogen oxides may be transported by the
wind in the atmosphere for many miles,
crossing regional and international bound-
aries, before falling to Earth.
What Are Its Effects?
The effects of acid rain may not be immedi-
ately apparent. For example, at a glance, a
lake might look clear and beautiful, but a
closer look may reveal few living organisms.
Some species of fish cannot reproduce in
water with a pH of less than 5. Clams, snails,
crayfish, and other crustaceans, brook trout,
walleyed pike, and bullfrogs are especially
sensitive to acidification. However, the
detrimental impact of acidification to animal
life is not necessarily caused directly by the
acidity. Trace metals such as aluminum,
mercury, manganese, and cadmium, which
are leached from sediment and rocks by the
increased acidity, are toxic to life. Thus, the
pH does not have to decrease very much
before fish kills can occur. Because many
insects cannot survive in strongly acidic
streams and lakes, birds and mammals that
depend on insects for food may suffer abnor-
mally high mortality. Acidification also inter-
rupts normal decomposition of dead plant
and animal material in lakes and streams
because many of the bacteria that assist in
decomposition perish. Without the usual
decomposition processes, dead material
settles to the bottom, making the water look
crystal clear.
The damaging effects of acid deposition on
forests and other terrestrial systems are less
well understood than on aquatic systems.
Acid deposition can alter soil chemistry,
nutrient availability, and plant growth. In
their weakened condition, trees and shrubs
become vulnerable to insects, diseases, and
fungus infestations.
Although the Norwegians were the first to
bring acid rain to the world's attention in the
1940s, one of the most severely impacted
areas of the world is the industrialized Ruhr
Valley in West Germany. There, white fir trees
became defoliated and died in the early
1970s. Diseases in spruce and other sensitive
219
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conifers soon followed, and by 1985, the
number of German trees visibly affected by
acid deposition had risen to 52 percent.
Forests in other parts of the world also display
acid deposition damage. For example, the
dominant tree in Vermont's Green Moun-
tains, the red spruce, is suffering severe
mortality and parts of the mountain range
have become denuded. Sugar maples all
over the northeastern United States and
Canada are declining. In the Shenandoah
and Great Smokey Mountains of the south-
eastern United States, spruce and fir are
failing to reproduce and are dying. Pine also
are impacted.
How Do We Recognize It?
Paniculate matter containing atmospheric
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide account for
over 50 percent of the visibility problems in
the eastern United States. In the West, these
particles have been blamed for reducing
visibility in the Grand Canyon of the Colo-
rado River and other areas. Acid deposition
contributes to the corrosion of metals and
the deterioration and soiling of the stone and
paint on buildings, statues, and other struc-
tures of cultural significance.
How Do We Reduce Its Effects?
The federal government has undertaken a
wide range of research programs, many
through the National Acid Precipitation
Assessment Program, to study the complex
processes associated with acid rain. To
measure acid deposition quantity and chem-
istry, scientists collect rainfall samples at
monitoring stations throughout the United
States. Monitoring dry deposition such as
acid dust is difficult and, consequently, has not
been as extensive as that for wet deposition.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
established an Acid Rain Program to reduce
emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides at the lowest cost to society. To
achieve reductions of 10 million tons of sulfur
dioxide by the year 2010, the Act requires a
two-phase tightening of the restrictions
placed on fossil-fuel-fired power plants.
Phase I begins in 1995 and affects 110 coal
burning electric utilities in 21 midwestern
and eastern states. Phase II begins in the year
2000 and tightens annual emissions on the
large plants and also sets restrictions on
smaller, cleaner plants burning coal, oil, and
gas. To achieve reductions of 2 million tons
of nitrogen oxides by the year 2000, the Act
requires coal-fired utilities to install low-
nitrogen-oxide technologies on their burners.
To reduce sulfur dioxide emissions, fossil fuel
burning plants can burn low-sulfur coal,
install flue-gas desulfurization equipment
(scrubbers), and implement clean combus-
tion technologies. Low-sulfur coal contains
about one percent sulfur by weight and is
found mainly in the western United States.
High-sulfur coal contains sulfur in excess of
three percent and is geographically concen-
trated in the Appalachians where coal utiliza-
tion is greatest. Scrubbers are effective at
reducing air pollution, but the sludge they
produce creates a disposal problem. Also,
they are expensive to build and operate.
Clean combustion technologies involve
mixing fuels with compounds that react with
sulfur and either collect it or convert it to a
marketable product that does not enter the
stack. Many of these innovative technologies
have the added advantage of removing
nitrogen oxides as well. Because emissions
from motor vehicles are a major source of
nitrogen oxides, catalytic converters are used
to reduce nitrogen oxides from automotive
sources.
References and Suggested Reading
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Brody, Michael, et al. "Student Knowledge of
Scientific and Natural Resource Concepts
Concerning Acidic Deposition." Journal
of Environmental Education, 20 (Winter
1989) p. 32.
220
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Godfrey, Paul J. "Acid Rain: The Scientific
Challenge." Science Probe, 1 (July 1991)
p. 71.
Miller, John A., and Irwin L. Slesnick. "Difficult
Decisions: Acid Rain." Science Teacher, 56
(March 1989) p. 33.
Schwartz, Stephen E. "Acid Deposition:
Unraveling a Regional Phenomenon."
Science, 243 (10 February 1989) p. 753.
U.S. EPA. National Air Quality and Emissions
Trends Report, 1992. Research Triangle
Park, NC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards EPA/454/R-93/
031 (1993).
221
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THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
What Is the Greenhouse Effect?
The "greenhouse effect" is so called because
it is analogous to the process that keeps the
air inside greenhouses (and parked cars)
warmer than the air outside. The glass in
greenhouse windows is transparent to visible
light radiated from the sun. This light heats
the surface of materials inside the green-
house, which emit longer wave-length
infrared radiation. Infrared radiation cannot
penetrate the glass and is trapped, causing
the inside air to warm up.
Water vapor, clouds, carbon dioxide, and
other gases in our atmosphere act like the
greenhouse glass by preventing some of the
infrared radiation emitted by the earth to
escape into space. Because the levels of
carbon dioxide and other "greenhouse
gases" in the atmosphere are increasing,
more and more of the heat radiated by the
earth's surface may become trapped in the
atmosphere. This may result in "global
warming," or the gradual warming of the
atmosphere around the world.
Where Do Greenhouse Gases Come
From?
Some greenhouse gases come from natural
sources, such as volcanoes and forest fires.
Because of the ability of these naturally
formed gases to trap heat in the atmosphere,
the Earth's surface is about 53°F (29°C)
warmer than it would be without this trap-
ping. This atmospheric heating makes the
surface of the Earth warm enough for life.
Certain human activities can cause air pollu-
tion that magnifies the greenhouse effect in
the atmosphere. The most important air
pollutants that act as greenhouse gases are
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides,
and chlorofluorocarbons. Methane is a
product of natural decay from living (or
once-living) things. Carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxides generally are a result of man-
made burning, automobiles, and other
internal-combustion engines. Nitrogen
oxides also can enter the atmosphere from
fertilizers spread on fields. Chlorofluorocar-
bons ("CFCs") are a class of chemicals often
used in air conditioners and refrigerators and as
the pressurizing gas in aerosol spray cans.
While all of these pollutants contribute to the
greenhouse effect and other air pollution
problems, such as smog, carbon dioxide is
the most important of the greenhouse gases
because there is more of it in the atmo-
sphere. Also, carbon dioxide levels have risen
over 25 percent during the past century.
Another source of carbon dioxide is the
clearing of rain forests in countries near the
equator. The burning of tropical trees to
clear land for crops releases carbon dioxide to
the atmosphere. At the same time, trees that
use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis are
being destroyed.
What Will the Greenhouse Effect Do?
No one can predict for certain the impacts of
the increasing levels of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. Researchers think that the
average temperature of the lower atmo-
sphere will increase by 3°F to 9°F (1.6°C to
5°C) over the next 30 or so years. This may
not seem like much, but the average world
temperature during the last Ice Age was only
5.4°F (3°C) lower than it is now.
Researchers have attempted to predict the
effects of increased global temperatures using
sophisticated computer models. Most pre-
dict that warmer temperatures will be greater
in winter than in summer and greater at
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higher latitudes than the equator. One thing
seems certain, global warming of a few
degrees Celsius will cause major shifts in
global weather patterns. Tropical storms may
become more severe or hit land in different
places. Areas that now receive plenty of rain
for crops may suffer more droughts. One
area where rainfall is predicted to decrease is
the central United States, which produces
much of our food crops.
Global warming also may cause sea level to
rise. The oceans are storehouses of heat. By
storing some of the increased heat, ocean
temperatures will rise, causing them to
expand. In addition, warmer temperatures
may melt the polar ice caps to some degree.
A rise in sea level will flood low-lying areas
where many people now live, for example
low-lying parts of the state of Florida, many
major cities around the world, and the coun-
try of Bangladesh.
The increased temperatures, changes in
weather patterns, and sea level rise will have
disastrous effects on many natural habitats
and the plants and animals that live in them.
While most scientists believe that the green-
house effect will gradually warm up the
Earth's climate, some believe that warmer
temperatures will increase cloud cover,
reflecting more sunlight away from the Earth
and eventually lowering the average tem-
perature. This increased reflectivity is called
the Earth's albedo.
How Do We Detect the Greenhouse
Effect?
During this century, the average global
temperature has increased 1°F (just over
0.5°C). During the 1980s, the Earth experi-
enced four of the hottest years ever recorded.
Governments and scientists around the world
have been recording temperatures and levels
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere for
years. Measurements are taken at the
ground and aloft by airplanes and balloons.
Remote sensing instruments in satellites also
can be used to provide data on temperatures,
winds, and other atmospheric and oceanic
conditions.
How Do We Reduce Its Effects?
We can reduce the effects of global warming
by reducing or stopping the activities that
cause greenhouse gases to enter the atmo-
sphere. We should do our best to burn less
fossil fuels by switching to alternative, cleaner
sources of energy and ban the use of CFCs
and other chemicals that increase the green-
house effect. Protecting the world's forests
and planting more trees also will help. A
growing tree can take in more than 20
kilograms of carbon dioxide a year.
References and Suggested Reading
Abrams, Isabel. "Gauging the Greenhouse
Effect." Current Health, 17 (2 November
1990) p. 24.
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Ballard, M., and M. Pandya. Essential Learn-
ings in Environmental Education. Troy,
OH: North American Association for
Environmental Education (1990).
Climate Change Action Plan. Washington, DC:
Office of the President of the United
States (1993).
Fossel, Peter V. "Weather Report (Discussion
of Detrimental Effects of Environmental
Pollution)." Country journal, 15 (October
1988) p. 8.
Godlee, Fiona. "Health Implications of Cli-
matic Change." British Medical journal,
303 (16 November 1991) p. 1254.
Hall, Dorothy K. "Global Climate Change."
Science Teacher, 56 (September 1989) p.
66.
224
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Henderson, Sandra, Steven R. Holman, and
Lynn L. Mortensen. Global Climates—
Past, Present, and Future; Activities for
Integrated Science Education. Washing-
ton, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Research and
Development EPA/600/R-93/126 Gune
1993).
Hileman, Bette. "Global Warming." Chemical
and Engineering News, 67 (13 March
1989)p, 25.
Leaf, Alexander. "Potential Health Effects of
Global Climatic and Environmental
Changes." New England Journal of Medi-
cine, 231 (7 December 1989) p. 1577.
"Our Changing Atmosphere." Clearing,
(March 1988) p. 7.
Ramirez, Anthony. "A Warming World: What
It Will Mean; Rising Global Temperatures
Could Disrupt Wheat Farmers, Electric
Utilities, and Military Strategy." Fortune,
118 (4 July 1988) p. 102.
Schneider, Stephen H. "Greenhouse Effect:
Science and Policy." Science, 243 (10
February 1989) p. 771.
Stevens, William K. "Estimates of Warming
Gain More Precision and Warn of Disas-
ter; Analysis of Past Climate Bolsters
Computer Studies." New York Times, 142
(15 December 1992) p. B5.
—. "U.S. Prepares to Unveil Blueprint for
Reducing Heat- Trapping Gases: A Team
Effort with Industry on Possible Global
Warming." New York Times, 143 (12
October 1993) p. C4.
225
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OZONE
What Is Ozone?
Ozone is a colorless gas made up of three
atoms of oxygen (O3). Most of the oxygen in
the atmosphere, the oxygen that supports life,
is made up of only two atoms of oxygen (O2).
Ozone can be beneficial or harmful depend-
ing on where it is found in the atmosphere.
Ozone in the troposphere, the lower atmo-
sphere that we breathe, is considered a
pollutant and is harmful to human health and
vegetation. Automobiles, power plants, and
factories send gaseous pollutants into the
troposphere that can react in the presence of
strong sunlight to form ozone. Weather
conditions and geography can then cause
buildups in ozone levels that greatly increase
its harmful effects. More information on the
sources and harmful effects of ozone in the
troposphere can be found in the reading
materials on "Automobiles and Air Pollution"
and "Smog."
Upper-level ozone is located in the strato-
sphere, a layer of the atmosphere nine to 31
miles above the Earth. Ozone gas in the
stratosphere forms an important and very
effective protective barrier against harmful
radiation from the sun by absorbing ultravio-
let radiation.
Where Does Ozone Come From?
Ozone gas in the stratosphere forms when
oxygen molecules interact with ultraviolet
rays from the sun. Amounts of ozone in the
stratosphere are changing all the time.
Under normal circumstances, ozone is con-
tinuously being destroyed and regenerated
by the sun's ultraviolet rays. The seasons of
the year, changing winds, and even sunspots
affect ozone levels.
What Is the Problem?
In 1985, British scientists discovered a "hole"
about the size of the United States in the
ozone layer over Antarctica. The holes are
not completely devoid of ozone, but the
ozone concentrations in these areas are lower
than under normal conditions, allowing more
ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth's
surface. The hole over Antarctica has reap-
peared each year during the Antarctic winter
(our summer).
More recently, ozone thinning has been
found in the stratosphere above the northern
half of the United States. This hole extends
over Canada and up into the Arctic. The hole
was first found only in winter and spring, but
more recently has continued into summer.
Between 1978 and 1991, there was a four to
five percent loss of ozone in the stratosphere
over the United States.
Ozone holes also have been found over
northern Europe. It has become clear that
the ozone layer is thinning even more quickly
than first feared.
What Causes the Ozone Holes?
Ozone can be converted into the regular,
atmospheric oxygen (O2) by reacting with
chlorine atoms in the stratosphere. The most
common ozone-destroying pollutants are in a
class of chemical compounds called chlorof-
luorocarbons (CFCs), which have a diversity
of uses ranging from air conditioner coolants
to aerosol spray propellants. CFCs are very
stable compounds that do not react easily
with other materials. These properties make
them ideal for many industrial applications.
However, in 1974, scientists discovered that
their stable properties enable CFCs to survive
in the atmosphere long enough (up to one
227
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hundred years) to reach the stratosphere
where they can break down and destroy
ozone. Other common industrial chemicals
that destroy ozone include halons, carbon
tetrachloride, and hydro-CFCs (HCFCs).
When CFCs that are released into the tropo-
sphere rise into the stratosphere, ultraviolet
light breaks them down into other chemicals.
Eventually, chlorine is produced. Free chlo-
rine atoms (Cl) are very unstable and will
immediately react with the first ozone (O3)
molecules they find to form atmospheric
oxygen (O2) and chlorine monoxide (CIO).
Chlorine monoxide also is unstable and will
react with free oxygen atoms to form atmos-
pheric oxygen and another free chlorine
atom. The reaction is then repeated again
and again. One chlorine atom has the
potential to destroy 10,000 ozone molecules
before it sinks into the troposphere.
What Are the Effects of Depleted
Ozone?
The ozone layer is an important protective
screen for life on Earth, filtering out more
than 99 percent of the ultraviolet rays before
they reach the ground. Some scientist fear
that the increasing ultraviolet radiation will
tremendously, increase such hazards to
human health as skin cancer, immune defi-
ciencies, and cataracts. In 1987, the EPA
estimated that with a five percent increase in
CFCs per year, 40 million Americans will get
skin cancer over the next 88 years and of
those, 800,000 will die. Even more serious is
the fact that, since 1987, monitoring data
indicate that the rate of ozone depletion for
certain latitudes is now at levels predicted for
the year 2050.
Damage to the ozone layer can reduce crop
yields. Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
also will be harmed, and plant life may be
seriously affected to the point of threatening
world food supplies.
How Do We Reduce its Effects?
Scientists have been measuring the ozone
layer since the mid-1970s, when concerns
were first raised about the potentially harmful
effects of CFCs on the ozone layer. The only
practical approach to stopping the destruc-
tion of the ozone layer is reducing human-
created pollutants that contribute to its
depletion. Efforts to protect the ozone layer
now involve many different nations and
industries. An international agreement,
called the Montreal Protocol, was established
in 1987 requiring countries to cut CFC use in
half by 1999. Over 90 countries have now
signed the protocol. In addition, manufac-
turers of ozone-destroying chemicals have
made major advances in CFC-alternative
technologies. But even if all CFC use was
halted today, the CFCs already released will
continue to break down in the stratosphere
and destroy ozone for decades.
References and Suggested Reading
Abramson, Rudy. "Potential New Ozone Hole
Alarms U.S. Science Team." Los Angeles
Times, 111 (4 February 1992) p. A1.
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Ballard, M., and M. Pandya. Essential Learn-
ings in Environmental Education. Troy,
OH: North American Association for
Environmental Education (1990).
Cowen, Robert C. "Scientists Keep Wary Eye
on Record Ozone Lows." Christian
Science Monitor, 85 (27 April 1993) p. 2.
Lacoste, Beatrice. "Saving Our Ozone
Shield." Our Planet, 4 (1992) p. 4.
McElroy, Michael B., and Ross J. Salawitch.
"Changing Composition of the Global
Stratosphere." Science, 243 (10 February
1989) p. 763.
Monagle, Katie. "Here Comes the Sun." Scho-
lastic Update, 124 (17 April 1992) p. 8.
228
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Nash, Nathaniel C. "Unease Grows Under the
Ozone Hole; In Southern Chile, Sun-
glasses and Sunblock Are in Style." New
York Times, 140 (23 July 1991) p. C4.
"Our Changing Atmosphere." Clearing,
(March 1988) p. 7.
"Ozone: What Would It Be Like To Live in a
World Where the Sun Was Dangerous?"
Clearing, (March 1992) p. 10.
Roach, Mary, John Hastings, and Steven
Finch. "Sun Struck: Here's the Hole Story
about the Ozone and Your Chances of
Getting Skin Cancer." Health, 6 (May
1992) p. 40.
Scott, Geoff. "Two Faces of Ozone." Current
Health, 19 (2 September 1992) p. 24.
Svitil, Kathy. "Holey War (Ozone-Layer Hole
Could Disrupt Ecosystems)." Discover, 14
(January 1993) p. 75.
U.S. EPA. National Air Quality and Emissions
Trends Report, 1992. Research Triangle
Park, NC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards EPA/454/R-93/
031 (1993).
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SMOG
What Is It?
The term "smog" was first used in London
during the early 1900s to describe the combi-
nation of smoke and fog. What we typically
call "smog" today is a mixture of pollutants but
is primarily made up of ground-level ozone.
Ozone can be beneficial or harmful depend-
ing on its location. The ozone located high
above the Earth in the stratosphere protects
human health and the environment, but
ground-level ozone is responsible for the
choking, coughing, and stinging eyes associ-
ated with smog.
Where Does Smog Come From?
Smog usually is produced through a complex
set of photochemical reactions involving
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the
presence of sunlight that result in the produc-
tion of ozone. Smog-forming pollutants
come from many sources, such as automobile
exhausts, power plants, factories, and many
consumer products, including paints, hair
spray, charcoal starter fluid, solvents, and
even plastic popcorn packaging. In typical
urban areas, at least half of the smog precur-
sors come from cars, buses, trucks, and boats.
Major smog occurrences often are linked to
heavy motor vehicle traffic, high tempera-
tures, sunshine, and calm winds. Weather
and geography affect the location and sever-
ity of smog. Because temperature regulates
the length of time it takes for smog to form,
smog can form faster and be more severe on
a hot and sunny day. When temperature
inversions occur (warm air stays near the
ground instead of rising) and winds are calm,
smog may stay trapped over your city for
days. As traffic and other sources add more
pollutants to the air, the smog gets worse.
Smog is often more severe away from the
pollution sources because the chemical
reactions that cause smog occur in the
atmosphere while the reacting chemicals are
being moved by the wind.
Severe smog and ground-level ozone prob-
lems exist in many major cities, including
much of California from San Francisco to San
Diego, the mid-Atlantic seaboard from
Washington, DC to southern Maine, and over
major cities of the Midwest.
What Are Its Effects?
Smog is made up of a combination of air
pollutants that can injure health, harm the
environment, and cause property damage. It
has been estimated that about 90 million
Americans live in areas with ozone levels
above the established standards for health
safety. These individuals can be severely
influenced by pollutants on a daily basis.
Smog causes health problems such as diffi-
culty in breathing, asthma, reduced resis-
tance to lung infections and colds, and eye
irritation. The ozone in smog also inhibits
plant growth and can cause widespread
damage to crops and forests, and the haze
reduces visibility. This is particularly notice-
able from mountains and other beautiful
vistas, such as those in National Parks.
How Do We Recognize/Detect It?
Smog is a visible example of air pollution.
You can look at the horizon during the day to
see how much haze there is in the air. In
addition, most cities measure the concentra-
tions of pollutants in the air and report the
results to the public. Standardized measures
have been established, like the Pollution
Standards Index (PSI) or the Air Quality Index
(AQI), which allow comparison of pollution
levels from city to city.
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How Do We Reduce Its Effects?
The 1990 Clean Air Act establishes a compre-
hensive approach to reducing the widespread
"criteria" pollutants, which include the
ozone, nitrogen oxides, and particulates in
smog. EPA sets national standards for criteria
pollutants and the states must take action to
ensure the standards are met. Areas that fail
to meet the standards for at least one criteria
air pollutant are called "nonattainment
areas."
Areas of nonattainment for criteria pollutants
have been classified according to the extent
of pollution. The five classes for ozone range
from marginal (relatively easy to clean up
quickly) to extreme (will take a lot of work
and a long time to clean up). The 1990
Clean Air Act uses these classes to tailor
cleanup requirements to the severity of the
pollution and set realistic deadlines for reach-
ing cleanup goals. Many of the smog clean-
up requirements involve motor vehicles (cars,
trucks, buses). Also, as the pollution gets
worse, pollution controls are required for
smaller sources.
Strategies that may be required by law to
reduce and control air emissions include state
permitting programs, changes in the compo-
sition of gasoline, use of alternative fuels
(such as natural gas and electricity), and use
restrictions imposed by individual communi-
ties. Innovative approaches being taken by
local governments across the country to
reduce air pollution in nonattainment areas
include: banning charcoal barbecues and
wood burning in stoves or fire places when
pollution levels are high; developing pro-
grams to encourage car pooling; restricting
traffic in congested areas; expanding or
improving public transportation systems;
requiring employers to contribute to em-
ployee mass transit costs; assessing "smog
fees" on cars in proportion to the number of
miles driven and vehicle emissions produced;
and even buying and scrapping older, "su-
per-dirty" cars.
References and Suggested Reading
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Health Effects of Ambient Air Pollution. Ameri-
can Lung Association (1989).
McKee. Tropospheric Ozone: Human Health
and Agricultural Impacts. Lewis Publishing
(1994).
U.S. Congress. Researching Health Risks.
Washington, DC: U.S. Congress Office of
Technology Assessment OTA-BBS-571
(1993).
U.S. EPA. National Air Quality and Emissions
Trends Report, 1992. Research Triangle
Park, NC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards EPA/454/R-93/
031 (1993).
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AUTOMOBILES AND
AIR POLLUTION
Each of today's cars produces 60 to 80
percent less pollution than cars in the 1960s.
More people are using mass transit. Per the
Clean Air Act, leaded gasoline will be phased
out completely as of January 1995, resulting
in dramatic declines in air levels of lead, a
very toxic chemical. Despite this progress,
many types of air pollution that arise in part
from mobile sources have not improved
significantly. At present in the United States:
Motor vehicles are responsible for at
least half of the smog-forming volatile
organic carbon (VOC) and nitrogen
oxide pollutants in the air.
Nearly 100 cities exceed the EPA Na-
tional Ambient Air Quality Standard for
ozone.
• Motor vehicles release more than 50
percent of the hazardous, cancer-causing
air pollutants in the air.
Motor vehicles release about 90 percent of
the carbon monoxide found in urban air.
What Went Wrong?
Although there has been significant progress
since 1970 in reducing emissions per mile
traveled, the number of cars on the road and
the miles they travel almost doubled in the
same time frame. As lead was being phased
out, gasoline refiners changed gasoline
formulas to make up for octane loss, and the
changes made gasoline more likely to release
smog-forming vapors into the air.
Another reason that pollution levels remain
high is that emission control systems do not
always perform as designed over the full
useful life of the vehicle. Routine aging and
deterioration, poor state of tune, and emis-
sion control tampering can increase vehicle
emissions. In fact, a major portion of auto-
related hydrocarbons can be attributed to a
relatively small number of "super-dirty" cars
whose emission control systems are not
working properly.
What Are the Most Dangerous Pollut-
ants from Vehicles?
Air toxics are pollutants that cause adverse
health effects. The EPA has focused a large
part of its air toxics efforts to date on carcino-
gens, compounds that cause cancer. Motor
vehicles emit several pollutants that EPA
classifies as probable or definite carcinogens,
including benzene, formaldehyde, acetalde-
hyde, 1 -3-butadiene, and particulates (soot
and smoke, especially from diesel vehicles).
Ozone is a form of molecular oxygen that
consists of three oxygen atoms linked to-
gether. Ozone in the upper atmosphere (the
"ozone layer") occurs naturally and protects
life on earth by filtering out ultraviolet radia-
tion from the sun. But ozone at ground level
is the major component of smog and pre-
sents this country's most intractable urban air
quality problem.
What Are the Effects on Public Health?
Vehicles are such an integral part of our
society that virtually everyone is exposed to
their emissions. EPA estimates that mobile
source (car, truck, and bus) air toxics may cause
up to 1,500 cases of cancer each year, about
half of the cancers caused by all outdoor
sources of air toxics.
Ozone is responsible for the choking,
coughing, and stinging eyes associated
with smog. Ozone damages lung tissue,
aggravates respiratory disease, and makes
people more susceptible to respiratory infec-
tions. Adults with existing diseases and chil-
dren are especially vulnerable to ozone's
harmful effects. Elevated ozone levels also
inhibit plant growth and can cause widespread
damage to crops and forests.
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How Are Pollutants from Vehicles
Formed?
Some air toxics are components of gasoline,
such as benzene, which is added to gasoline
to increase octane. Cars emit benzene as
unburned fuel or as fuel vapors that evapo-
rate during refueling. Formaldehyde, particu-
lates, and 1,3-butadiene are not present in
fuel but are by-products of incomplete
combustion.
Ozone is not in fuels and is not a by-product
of combustion, but is formed in the atmo-
sphere through a complex set of chemical
reactions involving hydrocarbons, oxides of
nitrogen, and sunlight. In typical urban
areas, at least half of those pollutants come
from cars, buses, trucks, and boats. The rate
at which the reactions proceed is related to
both temperature and intensity of the sunlight.
Because of this, high ozone levels occur most
frequently on hot summer afternoons.
What Has Been Done To Control Ve-
hicle Emissions?
The Clean Air Act of 1970 gave EPA the
primary responsibility for regulating "mobile
sources," which include cars, trucks, and
buses. The EPA vehicle emission control
program has achieved considerable success in
reducing both nitrogen oxide and hydrocar-
bon emissions. Cars coming off today's
production lines typically emit 70 percent less
nitrogen oxides and 80 to 90 percent less
hydrocarbons over their lifetimes than their
uncontrolled counterparts of the 1960s.
Pre-1975 vehicles without catalytic convert-
ers, and even pre-1981 vehicles with simple
catalysts, emit far more pollutants than newer
vehicles. Air toxics from motor vehicles will
decrease during the 1990s as older cars wear
out. However, without additional control,
and with more cars driving more miles,
overall emissions of air toxics will begin to
increase again by the beginning of the next
century.
What Else Can Be Done?
Control of hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide
emissions is the most promising strategy for
reducing pollution levels in most urban areas.
EPA has established more stringent limits on
gasoline volatility, tightened tailpipe emission
standards, required improvements in inspec-
tion and maintenance programs, and re-
quired long-lasting catalytic converters.
In the most polluted cities, however, these
measures will not be sufficient. Further
exhaust emission controls for vehicles are
approaching the limit of technology. The
only way to ensure healthy air is to markedly
reduce our use of cars or to switch to cleaner
fuels.
Some fuels are inherently cleaner than gaso-
line because they emit less nitrogen oxides or
hydrocarbons that are less likely to react in
the atmosphere to form ozone. These fuels
include alcohols, electricity, natural gas, and
liquid petroleum (propane). Changes in the
composition of gasoline itself (such as reduc-
ing fuel volatility or reducing benzene con-
tent) also can reduce emissions of most air
toxics.
Unless we dramatically reduce the amount of
pollution vehicles emit in actual use or drasti-
cally cut back on the amount we drive, smog-
free air will continue to elude many cities.
References and Suggested Reading
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Bright, Michael. Traffic Pollution. New York,
NY: Gloucester Press (1991).
Chang, Tai Yup, et al. "Relationship of Vehicle
Emission Standards and Air Quality
Standards." Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association, 25 (July 1975) p.
734.
234
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Martinez, J. R. "Auto Emissions, Engine Size,
and Fuel Economy." Journal of the Air
Pollution Control Association, 25 (July
1975) p. 735.
Rauber, Paul. "Key to Gridlock? The Free Ride
Goes the Way of the Free Lunch." Sierra,
79 (March 1994) p. 45.
Saunders, Linda. "Uneasy Riders (Cars and
Pollution)." Health, 22 (February 1990)
p. 46.
U.S. EPA. Automobiles and Air Toxics (Fact
Sheet). Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office
of Mobile Sources OMS-2 (1993).
—. Automobiles and Ozone (Fact Sheet).
Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of
Mobile Sources OMS-4 (1993).
—. National Air Quality and Emissions Trends
Report, 1992. Research Triangle Park,
NC: U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards EPA/454/R-93/
031 (1993).
Watson, Bates, and Kennedy. Air Pollution, the
Automobile, and Public Health. National
Academy Press (1988).
Wilson, Richard. "Air Pollution, the Automo-
bile, and Public Health." Environment, 31
(May 1989) p. 25.
235
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CLEAN FUELS
What Are Clean Fuels?
The most familiar transportation fuels in this
country are gasoline and diesel fuel, but
some vehicle fuels, called "clean fuels," create
less pollution than today's conventional
gasolines. These include alcohols, electricity,
natural gas, and propane. There is still a
degree of scientific uncertainty regarding the
impacts of these "clean fuels," and, hence, a
need to continue research on them.
Why Switch to Clean Fuels?
Cars operating on conventional gasolines
emit a complex mixture of compounds that
are hazardous and toxic and can lead to the
formation of smog. A lot has been done to
reduce automobile pollution, including
development of innovative emission control
technologies and establishment of inspection
and maintenance programs. These gains
largely are being offset by an increasing
number of cars on the road and people
traveling more miles each year. Thus, the
pollution control measures taken so far have
not been sufficient to solve the smog prob-
lem in many large cities.
Clean fuels have a number of inherent prop-
erties that make them cleaner than conven-
tional gasoline. In general, these fuels emit
lesser amounts of hydrocarbons that are less
reactive (slower to form smog) and less toxic.
Emissions from electrical, natural gas, or
alcohol-powered vehicles can be as much as
90 percent lower in toxics and smog-forming
hydrocarbons than emissions from vehicles
fueled with conventional gasoline. In addi-
tion, new gasoline formulations ("reformu-
lated gasoline") may be able to reduce
emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles by
up to 25 percent.
Use of clean fuels also could help to slow the
atmospheric buildup of carbon dioxide, a
"greenhouse gas" that contributes to the
potential for global warming. Combustion of
any carbon-based fuel produces carbon
dioxide, but in general, fuels produced from
biomass ( such as crops and trees) and
natural gas result in less carbon dioxide
accumulation than fuels made from petro-
leum or coal.
Clean fuels have benefits that reach beyond
their air quality advantage. New fuels in
the marketplace give consumers new
choices and could decrease our depen-
dence on imported oil.
Electricity
Battery powered vehicles give off virtually no
pollution and offer one of the best options for
reducing motor vehicle emissions in polluted
cities. Power plants that produce electricity
do pollute, but these plants are often in rural
areas where the emissions do not drive
pollution levels above health standards. Also,
efficient emission controls can be installed
and maintained more easily on individual
power plants than on millions of vehicles.
The driving range of today's electric cars is
limited by the amount of power the battery
can provide. Current batteries take hours to
recharge and the cost of electric vehicles is
high. Recent developments in electric vehicle
technology show much promise for reducing
these disadvantages.
Ethanol
Ethanol ("grain alcohol") is the primary
automotive fuel in Brazil, and ethanol/
gasoline blends (known as "gasohol") have
been used in the United States for many
years. Pure ethanol fuel offers excellent
performance plus low hydrocarbon and toxic
emissions. It can be produced domestically
from corn or other crops, potentially
237
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minimizing the accumulation of greenhouse
gases. With current technology and price
structures, ethanol is more expensive than
gasoline, but new production technologies
offer the hope of significantly reduced cost.
Methanol
Methanol ("wood alcohol"), like ethanol, is a
high-performance liquid fuel that emits low
levels of toxic and smog-forming com-
pounds. It can be produced from natural gas
at prices comparable to gasoline, and also
can be produced from coal or wood. All
major auto manufacturers have produced cars
that run on "M85," a blend of 85 percent
methanol and 15 percent gasoline, and many
auto manufactures have developed advanced
prototypes that burn pure methanol ("M100").
Methanol has long been the fuel of choice for
race cars because of its superior performance
and fire safety characteristics.
Propane
Natural gas is abundant and widely used for
home heating and industrial processes. It is
easily transported through pipelines and costs
about the same or slightly less than gasoline.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles emit
low levels of toxics and smog-forming hydro-
carbons, but CNG fuel must be stored in
heavy, costly tanks. There are significant
tradeoffs for CNG vehicles among emissions,
vehicle power, efficiency, and range; how-
ever, natural gas already is used in some fleet
vehicles and appears to have a bright future
as a motor vehicle fuel.
Reformulated Gasoline
The petroleum industry is developing gaso-
line formulations that emit less hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, and toxics than today's
fuels. These new gasolines can be introduced
without major modification to existing
vehicles or the fuel distribution system. The
Clean Air Act requires some gasoline modifi-
cations to reduce carbon monoxide emissions
as early as 1992 and use of reformulated
gasoline in certain polluted cities beginning
in 1995.
Are Clean Fuels Feasible?
Clean-fueled vehicles have already been built
and widespread use in the near future is
feasible. To enable the transition, technolo-
gies must be refined so vehicles can achieve
optimum emissions performance, consumers
must accept the new vehicles and fuels, and
government and industry must cooperate to
ensure their availability. It will take a con-
certed effort by all parts of society, but a
switch to clean fuels is the most viable way
for many cities to attain clean and healthy air.
References and Suggested Reading
Abramson, Rudy. "'Superbug' Gobbles Waste
To Make Cheap, Clean Fuel; Scientist
Splices Genes To Create Bacterium that
Converts Most Plant Material into Pollu-
tion-Free Ethanol." Los Angeles Times,
112 (3 January 1993) p. A1.
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Amato, Ivan. "New Life for a National Clean
Technology Workshop." Science, 260 (25
June 1992) p. 1889.
Caruana, Claudia. "Fill 'Er Up—With Soy-
beans; Fuel." Vegetarian Times, (October
1992) p. 18.
Chiles, James R. "Tomorrow's Energy Today."
Audubon, 92 (January 1990) p. 58.
"Congress Begins New Push for Use of Etha-
nol in Clean Fuel Program." Inside EPA,
14 (13 August 1993) p. 12.
Daschle, Thomas A. "Ethanol Is a Promising
Automobile Fuel." Washington Post, 115
(19 October 1992) p. A20.
Glanz, James. "Can Fuel Cells Go Where No
Device Has Gone Before." R & D, 35
(May 1993) p. 36.
238
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Griffin, Rodman D. "Barriers Remain (Alterna-
tive Energy)." CQ Researcher, 2 (10 July
1992) p. 588.
—. "The Issues (Alternative Energy)." CQ
Researcher, 2 (10 July 1992) p. 575.
Keller, Maryann. "Have You Driven a LEV
Lately (Low-Emission Vehicle)." World
Monitor: The Christian Science Monitor
Monthly, 5 (March 1992) p. 59.
Regan, Mary Beth. "Sun Shines Brighter on
Alternative Energy: Nonfossil Sources of
Power Are Back—And Getting More
Efficient." Business Week, (8 November
1993) p. 94.
Seinfeld, John H. "Urban Air Pollution: State
of the Science." Science, 243 (10 Febru-
ary 1989) p. 745.
Stone, Judith. "Wonderful Life (Alternative
Fuel Sources)." Discover, 12 (February
1991) p. 37.
Sudo, Phil. "Liquid Gold (Oil)." Scholastic
Update, 123 (19 April 1991) p. 2.
Tarshis, Lauren, et al. "Next Generation
(Alternative Energy Sources)." Scholastic
Update, 123 (19 April 1991) p. 17.
U.S. EPA. Clean Fuels: An Overview (Fact
Sheet). Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office
of Mobile Sources OMS-6 (1993).
239
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AIR POLLUTION
ALLOWANCE TRADING
There are several different types of pollution
control measures that the government
imposes on polluters to assure compliance
with environmental regulations or otherwise
achieve pollution reduction goals. This fact
sheet briefly discusses the principal types of
control measures, then presents an incentive-
based pollution control system that allows
the accumulation and trading of pollution
allowances.
Traditional Approaches
Most Federal pollution control programs take
one of two general approaches to reduce
pollution emissions: command and control
of the source of pollution or standards for the
local environment. "Point source" controls
impose standards on the discharge coming
out of a facility (such as a factory), usually
through a permitting system. One source
control method imposes standards and
allows the permittee to select the method to
be employed to achieve the standards. Other
"technology-based" controls use standards
related to the performance standards of a
certain technology, and "force" the technol-
ogy on polluters. Either of these "end-of-the-
pipe" programs may be imposed without
regard to the cost of achieving the standard or
taking into account the effects of other pollu-
tion discharges on the local environment.
The "local environment" method concen-
trates on the level of pollution in a desig-
nated area (such as a river segment or air
within a city's boundaries), requiring some
degree of pollution reduction when the
designated area is out of compliance. This
latter method may be used under the Clean
Air Act, which requires States to prepare State
Implementation Plans (SIPs) that detail how
the State plans to enforce air standards.
However, the method has been difficult to
enforce given the large number of small
individual air pollution sources that exist
(such as automobiles).
Pollution Allowance Trading System
Under the Clean Air Act Amendments of
1990, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) established the Acid-rain Abate-
ment Program that authorized the creation of
a sulfur dioxide (SO2) allowance trading
system. An air pollution allowance trading
program introduces market forces into
pollution control, harnessing the incentives of
the free market to reduce pollution.
The pollution allowance trading system
program builds off both of the traditional
approaches. The total amount of pollution to
be allowed from certain similar sources (such
as electric generation and other large
"smokestack" plants) within the designated
area for a specified period (typically one year)
is determined based on local clean air stan-
dards and the goals of the emission reduction
program. The total is then divided into
allowance units, which are auctioned off to
the sources. "Allowances" are in units of
pollutant emitted, such that a polluter will
use up its allowances as it pollutes.
The key to the system is that these allow-
ances may be traded between sources, or
may be banked. At the end of the period,
each source must have enough allowances to
balance its emissions for that period, other-
wise a penalty on each excess unit of pollu-
tion is imposed. The program further penal-
izes a non-complying source by reducing its
allocation for the next period by the number
of excess units, which are removed from the
program. Note that the system imposes
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ceilings on the total emission from any one
source, regardless of the number of allow-
ances held.
The allowance trading system contains an
inherent incentive for utilities to conserve
energy, since for each unit of pollutant that a
source avoids emitting, one fewer allowance
must be retired. Energy-efficient sources may
then sell their surplus allowances at a profit.
As an additional incentive, the government
may set aside a reserve of allowances to
stimulate efficiency. Extra allowances from
the reserve may be available to sources that
curtail emissions or invest in non-polluting
technologies.
The following is a simple example of how the
system operates. Utility X can implement a
certain pollution control measure for
$100,000. Without an allowance system, this
cost would be passed on to consumers or
paid for by shareholders, and may not be
implemented since pollution reduction
benefits are difficult to quantify. However,
under an allowance trading system, this
measure also will save 4 allowances. Utility Y
(in the same region) does not implement
reduction measures, and is going to pay
$250,000 in fines after using up its allow-
ances. Utility Y estimates that it is 4 allow-
ances short for the period, and is then theo-
retically willing to pay up to $250,000 for 4
allowances. Hence, Utility X is rewarded
when it implements pollution control mea-
sures and sells surplus allowances, in this
example to the tune of up to $150,000 (the
$250,000 fine Utility Y is facing minus the
$100,000 invested in pollution reduction
equipment).
The goal of this system is to utilize market
incentives to reduce pollution by allowing
polluters to select their own compliance
strategy. An effective allowance trading
system should have enough decision options
open to sources to allow innovation and
reduction. For example, under a program
designed to reduce sulfur dioxide (SO2)
emissions from electric power plants that use
fossil fuels, a participating source may choose
to repower its units, switch to cleaner burn-
ing fuel (such as low sulfur coal), or shift
some of its production from dirtier units to
clean ones. The source also may choose to
install pollution reduction technology or
reduce output either through conservation of
capacity or through increased efficiency. In
any event, the program allows the participat-
ing source to combine options in any way
they see fit to tailor their compliance plan to
their present capabilities.
References and Suggested Reading
Cotter, Wes. "Utilities, Industrial Firms Ponder
Role in Pollution-Credits Market." Pitts-
burgh Business Times, 11(12 August
1991) p. 5.
"EPA Issues Rule on Emission Trading."
Nation's Health, 22 (February 1992) p. 3.
Freeman, A. M., R. H. Haverman, and A. V.
Kneese. Economics of Environmental
Policy. New York, NY: John Wiley and
Sons (1973).
Miller, William H. "Free Market Comes to
Environmentalism." Industry Week, 242
(19 April 1993) p. 59.
"Pollution Swap May Halve Utility Emissions."
National Geographic, 184 (December
1993) p. 142.
Rico, Renee. Unites States'Experience in
Designing and Implementing an Emission
Trading System for Sulphur Dioxide.
Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of
Atmospheric Programs, Acid Rain Divi-
sion (1993).
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THE CLEAN AIR ACT
What Is the Clean Air Act?
The original Clean Air Act was passed in
1963, but our national air pollution control
program is actually based on the 1970
version of the law. The 1990 Clean Air Act
Amendments revised the 1970 law.
The overall goal of the 1990 Amendments is
to reduce pollutants in our air by 56 billion
pounds a year—224 pounds for every person
in the country—by the time the law is fully
implemented in 2005. The new law builds
on the strengths of the Clean Air Act of 1970
and the environmental lessons learned over
the past 20 years. As the goals of the law are
met, we will be breathing cleaner air every
year.
What Does the Clean Air Act Cover?
Two kinds of pollutants are regulated under
the Clean Air Act. There are only six in the
first group, which are called "criteria" pollut-
ants. These pollutants—carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ozone,
lead, and particulate matter— are discharged
in relatively large quantities by a variety of
sources, and they threaten human health and
welfare across broad regions of the country.
EPA sets national standards for each of the
criteria pollutants, and the states must take
action to ensure the standards are met.
Failure to meet the standards is called "non-
attainment." Many urban areas are classified
as "non-attainment areas" for at least one
criteria air pollutant.
The other kind of pollutants—and there are
hundreds in this group—are the ones that are
immediately hazardous to human health and
are associated with specific sources. Some of
these air toxics are cancer-causing; some
produce other health and environmental
problems. The threat is highest for people
living near large industrial facilities or in
heavily polluted urban corridors.
The list of toxics emitted into the air is a long
one, and it includes some familiar names.
Benzene, for example, is a potent cancer-
causing substance. Gasoline sold in the
United States is, on average, 1.6 percent
benzene. Eighty-five percent of human
exposure to benzene comes from gasoline.
A second example is mercury. Mercury is a
metal found in trace amounts in coal and is
released to the air when the coal is burned.
Mercury also is released by incinerators
burning garbage. It is used in latex paints to
prevent mildew, and as the paint weathers,
substantial amounts of mercury may be
released into the air.
Another aspect of air-toxics regulation fo-
cuses on the sudden and potentially cata-
strophic chemical accident. For the period
1982 to 1986, accidental releases of toxic
chemicals in the United States caused 309
deaths, 11,341 injuries, and the evacuation of
464,677 people from homes and jobs. The
most publicized accidental release of danger-
ous chemicals occurred at Bhopal, India, in
1984, when 3,000 were killed and over
200,000 injured.
What Are the Requirements of the
Clean Air Act?
Areas of non-attainment for criteria pollutants
have been classified according to the extent
of pollution. The five classes range from
marginal (relatively easy to clean up quickly)
to extreme (will take a lot of work and a long
time to clean up). The 1990 Clean Air Act
uses these classes to tailor cleanup require-
ments to the severity of the pollution and set
realistic deadlines for reaching cleanup goals.
If deadlines are missed, the law allows more
time to clean up, but usually a non-attain-
ment area that has missed a cleanup deadline
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must meet the stricter requirements set for
more polluted areas.
States do most of the planning for cleaning
up criteria air pollutants using a system of
permits to make sure power plants, factories,
and other pollution sources meet their
cleanup goals. A variety of cleanup methods
are required in non-attainment areas, many
of which involve motor vehicles. Cleaner
fuels, cleaner new vehicles, better mainte-
nance programs for vehicles on the road, and
mass transportation may be required. Also,
as the pollution gets worse, pollution controls
will be required for smaller sources of pollu-
tion.
The regulatory program for air toxics in the
1990 amendments reflects an entirely new
approach. The new law names 189 toxic air
pollutants. Typically, they are carcinogens,
mutagens (substances that can cause gene
mutations), or reproductive toxins, and their
sources usually are specific industries. EPA
must identify categories of the major sources
of these chemicals and then develop "maxi-
mum achievable control technology" (MACT)
standards for each category over the next 10
years. These standards are to be based on
the best control technologies that have been
demonstrated in these industrial categories.
State and local air pollution agencies will
have primary responsibility to make sure
industrial plants meet the standards.
In setting the MACT standards, EPA will look
only at pollution control equipment and
pollution prevention methods, such as substi-
tuting nontoxic chemicals for the toxic ones
currently in use. The new law favors setting
standards that industry must achieve, rather
than dictating equipment that industry must
install. This flexibility will allow industry to
develop its own cost-effective means of
reducing air toxics emissions and still meet
the goals of the act.
The law includes unique incentives for indus-
tries to reduce their emissions early, rather
than waiting for federal standards. Sources
that reduce emissions by 90 percent or more
before the MACT standards go into effect will
have six additional years to comply with
them. This "early reduction program" should
lead to significant reductions in air toxics
both immediately and into the future.
Other parts of the Clean Air Act establish a
program for the prevention of accidental
releases of air toxics from industrial plants
and create a Chemical Safety Board to inves-
tigate accidental releases of air toxics from
industrial plants.
What Happens If You Don't Comply?
The Clean Air Act establishes "enforcement"
methods that can be used to make polluters
obey the laws and regulations. Enforcement
methods include citations (like traffic tickets)
for violators of the law, fines, and even jail
terms. The knowing violation of almost every
requirement is now a felony offense. EPA and
state and local governments are responsible
for enforcement of the Clean Air Act, but if
they do not enforce the law, members of the
public can sue EPA or the states to get action.
Citizens also can sue violators apart from any
action taken by EPA or state or local govern-
ments.
Before the 1990 Clean Air Act, all enforce-
ment actions had to be handled through the
courts. Now, in some cases, EPA has the
authority to fine violators without going to
court first. The purpose of this new authority
is to speed up compliance with the law and
reduce court time and cost.
References and Suggested Reading
Air and Waste Management Association.
Environmental Resource Guide: Air Quality.
Pittsburgh, PA: Air and Waste Manage-
ment Association (1991).
Bryner, Gary C. Blue Skies, Green Politics: The
Clean Air Act of 1990. Washington, DC:
CQ Press (1992).
Klaber, K. A., K. N. Weiss, and J. W. Gallagher.
"Charting a Course through the Clean
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Air Act Amendments." National Environ-
mental Journal, (November 1993)
Scott, Geoff. "Cleaning Up Our (Air) Act
(Clean Air Act of 1990)." Current Health,
18(2 April 1992) p. 22.
U.S. EPA. Office of Radiation and Indoor Air:
Program Description. Washington, DC:
U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Radiation EPA/
402/K-93/002 (June 1993).
—. Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act.
Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency EPA/400/K-92/002
(1993).
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