United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of
Pollution Prevention and Toxics (7404)
Washington, D.C. 20460
EPA747-R-00-001
June 2000
Basis for Educational
Recommendations on Reducing
Childhood Lead Exposure
-------
EPA 747-R-00-001
June 2000
BASIS FOR EDUCATIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
ON REDUCING CHILDHOOD LEAD EXPOSURE
Program Assessment and Outreach Branch
National Program Chemicals Division (7404)
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
-------
EPA DISCLAIMER
The material in this document has not been subject to Agency technical and
policy review. Views expressed by the authors are their own and do not necessarily
reflect those of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of trade names,
products, or services does not convey, and should not be interpreted as conveying,
official EPA approval, endorsement, or recommendation.
This report is copied on recycled paper.
-------
CONTRIBUTING ORGANIZATIONS
This report presents the results of investigations into educational programs
on reducing childhood lead exposure and gives recommendations on the content of
those programs. Efforts to produce this report were funded and managed by the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency. The report was prepared by Battelle under
contract to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Each organization's
responsibilities are listed below.
Battelle Memorial Institute (Battelle)
Battelle was responsible for procuring relevant articles and reports, reviewing
these publications, and preparing the report.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was responsible for providing
report objectives, for contributing relevant information for the report, for reviewing
the report, and for arranging the peer review of the report. The EPA Work
Assignment Manager was Mr. Bradley D. Schultz. The EPA Project Officer was
Ms. Sineta Wooten.
-------
(This page intentionally left blank.)
IV
-------
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vii
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 OVERVIEW OF REPORT 2
1.2 PEER REVIEW 3
2.0 REDUCING LEAD DUST ON HARD SURFACES 5
2.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 5
2.2 SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE ON REDUCING LEAD DUST ON
HARD SURFACES 6
2.2.1 Cleaning Agents 6
2.2.2 Cleaning Practices 8
2.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 11
3.0 REDUCING LEAD DUST ON CARPETING 13
3.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 13
3.2 SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE ON REDUCING LEAD DUST ON
CARPETING 14
3.2.1 Vacuum Cleaning Equipment 14
3.2.2 Vacuum Cleaner Filtration 16
3.2.3 Cleaning Practices 17
3.2.4 Carpet Removal 18
3.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 19
4.0 REDUCING EXPOSURE TO LEAD FROM PAINT 21
4.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 21
4.2 SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR EDUCATIONAL CONTENT 22
4.2.1 Limiting Exposure when Paint is Not Removed 22
4.2.2 Limited Paint Removal by Occupant 23
4.2.3 Limiting Exposure During Abatement 24
4.2.4 Limiting Exposure During Renovation and Remodeling 24
4.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 25
5.0 REDUCING EXPOSURE TO LEAD FROM SOIL 27
5.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 27
5.2 SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE ON REDUCING LEAD EXPOSURE
FROM SOIL 27
5.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 28
6.0 NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS 29
6.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 29
6.2 SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR EDUCATIONAL CONTENT 29
6.2.1 Iron 30
6.2.2 Calcium 30
6.2.3 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid/Ascorbate) 31
6.2.4 Protein 32
-------
6.2.5 Vitamin D 32
6.2.6 Zinc 33
6.2.7 Fat 33
6.2.8 Total Caloric (Food) Intake 33
6.2.9 Selenium 34
6.2.10 Other Vitamins and Minerals 34
6.2.11 Food Choices 35
6.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 35
7.0 HYGIENE RECOMMENDATIONS TO REDUCE LEAD EXPOSURE 37
7.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 37
7.2 SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR EDUCATIONAL CONTENT 37
7.2.1 Personal Hygiene 37
7.2.2 Reducing Exposure to Occupational Lead 38
7.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 39
8.0 RELATED TOPICS 41
8.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 41
8.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTIONS 42
8.3 SOURCES AND PATHWAYS OF LEAD EXPOSURE 44
9.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 49
9.1 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGE IN CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL
PROGRAMS 49
9.2 SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT FOR EDUCATIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS 50
9.2.1 Cleaning Methods 50
9.2.2 Limiting Exposure to Lead in Paint and Soil 51
9.2.3 Other Means of Reducing Lead Exposure 51
9.2.4 Nutrition 52
9.2.5 Hygiene 52
9.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS 52
10.0 REFERENCES 55
APPENDIX A: SELECTED WEB SITES FOR INFORMATION ON LEAD DUST AND
LEAD POISONING A-1
VI
-------
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Education is the primary type of intervention recommended by the Centers for Disease
Control and other organizations for households in which children are found to have blood-lead
concentrations between 10 and 20 |ig/dL. Approximately 90 percent of children with elevated
blood-lead levels fall into this range. Thus, education is an important component to the success
of lead risk reduction efforts.
EPA is currently undertaking several initiatives to encourage and enhance educational
programs nationwide. In order to support these initiatives, there is a need for a comprehensive
reference on the scientific basis for educational recommendations. In addition to immediate use
in developing new educational programs or re-evaluating current programs, this document
provides an ongoing reference for evaluating future research results in the context of existing
evidence.
The recommendations made in many existing educational programs operated by state and
local health departments and other organizations vary in detail, but they are usually consistent in
providing information on cleaning methods; practical ways to reduce exposure to lead in paint,
dust, and soil; non-hazardous methods of paint removal; nutrition; and behavioral modifications
to reduce lead exposure. This report examines the scientific basis for specific educational
recommendations in each of these areas. This report does not attempt to evaluate the overall
effectiveness of educational interventions. However, it should be noted that education alone
should not be expected to completely eliminate lead hazards, but rather should be viewed as a
component of a comprehensive program.
This report indicates that most current educational recommendations are supported by
some scientific evidence. Other recommendations correspond to conventional wisdom. Very
few changes to the most common educational recommendations are suggested by the scientific
evidence reviewed in this report. The most important recommended changes to current
education resulting from this review are summarized below.
Many educational programs recommend a trisodium phosphate (TSP) solution for
cleaning hard surfaces. Based on the scientific studies reviewed, many cleaning products
perform as well as TSP in cleaning lead dust from hard surfaces. These products include
common household cleaners or lead-specific cleaning products other than TSP. These findings,
along with the environmental concerns associated with using high phosphate detergents, result in
not recommending TSP for cleaning hard surfaces.
Most educational programs recommend using a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)
vacuum for cleaning carpeted areas, although it is recognized that, at present, HEPA vacuum
cleaners are too costly for many families to use on a regular basis. If a HEPA vacuum is not
available, we recommend that conventional vacuum cleaners be used with "HEPA-type" or
vii
-------
"allergy" filter bags, to remove a higher proportion of fine dust particles from carpets and indoor
air. Although these bags have not been scientifically tested for lead dust cleaning efficiency, they
are designed to capture smaller particle sizes than standard vacuum cleaner bags and, hence,
should collect a greater proportion of fine lead dust particles than standard vacuum cleaner bags.
Most educational programs fail to address steam cleaning of carpets, as this method has
not been considered effective for removing lead dust. It has been shown, however, that the
addition of sodium hexametaphosphate (which is found in products such as Calgon®) to the
cleaning solution increases the amount of lead removed from the carpets by steam cleaning. This
practice is recommended for consideration in educational programs.
Cleaning is more easily performed on smooth surfaces. Current educational programs
often do not suggest simple steps that can be taken to provide smooth, easily cleaned surfaces.
These steps include painting window sills with semi-gloss paint, installing aluminum liners in
window wells, and sealing wood floors with polyurethane or durable paint. These steps are
modest in cost and do not require special equipment.
Given the results of the investigations made in this report, suggestions on the
recommended content of educational programs to reduce lead exposure follow. In presenting this
list, it is recognized that it will not be practical to cover every item in every educational session.
The specific recommendations made in an educational session should be tailored to the location
and audience. Rather, the list is intended as a comprehensive summary of reasonable educational
recommendations. The list does contain some recommendations that are based on conventional
wisdom or only limited scientific study. These recommendations were included, as no evidence
was found at this time to suggest they should not be recommended.
Hard Surfaces
• mop floors once a week with soapy water;
• clean window sills and wells once a week with soapy water;
• use paper towels or set aside a sponge for lead cleaning only;
• use separate buckets for wash and rinse water;
• lightly spray floors with water before sweeping;
seal wood floors to provide a smooth cleanable surface;
• place a blanket or rug on floor when a child plays there;
• keep children and their belongings away from windows; and
• open double-hung windows from the top.
Carpeted Surfaces
• use a HEPA vacuum for cleaning, if possible;
• if a HEPA vacuum is not available, use "HEPA-type" or "allergy" filter bags;
• if these bags are not available, lightly coating new vacuum bags by spreading and
vacuuming flour or cornstarch is advised;
viii
-------
use a vacuum with an agitator head;
vacuum for an extended time;
when steam cleaning carpets, consider adding sodium hexametaphosphate (found in
Calgon®, for example) to the cleaning solution; and
use care in removing older carpets that are heavily contaminated with lead dust.
Limiting Paint Exposure
clean up loose paint chips immediately;
wipe off loose paint using damp disposable cloths or rags;
block access to chipping paint with furniture;
put contact paper over chipping paint;
hose off porch or place a blanket or rug down when children play there;
seal or enclose areas with small amounts of chipping paint;
do not use hazardous methods of removing paint, such as mechanical sanding
(without a HEPA attachment), open-flame burning, or chemical removal using
methylene chloride;
recommend safer alternatives for removing paint, such as wet scraping and wet
sanding;
if abatement is required, use a certified abatement contractor;
if abatement is required, describe what to expect during abatement, ways to protect
family and belongings.
Limiting Soil Exposure
Nutrition
cover bare soil with grass, plants, gravel, or wood chips;
do not let children play near walls of house or garage or on bare soil;
have children play in grassy area or sandbox that can be covered;
wash children's hands after playing outside, or playing with pets;
remove shoes before entering the house; and
use a doormat to reduce track-in of outdoor dust and soil.
provide a balanced diet as recommended by the FDA;
ensure children receive sufficient amounts of calcium, iron, zinc, and vitamin C;
reduce consumption of foods high in fat if a lot of fat is eaten, especially foods with
little nutritional value;
prepare or store food in lead-free containers;
if lead in water is a concern
flush pipes for 1 minute before drinking water or using it for cooking; and
- use only cold water for cooking or preparing infant formula.
IX
-------
Hygiene
wash children's hands, toys, bottles, and pacifiers often;
do not allow children to eat food off the floor;
if parents work or hobby is a source of lead exposure
shower at work or change out of work clothes before returning home;
wash work clothes separately from other clothes;
- protect the inside of cars with blankets or sheets;
shower or change clothes and shoes after working on hobbies that may be a source
of lead; and
keep children away from hobby areas.
-------
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), along with other organizations,
recommend family lead education as the primary intervention for children with blood-lead levels
between 10 and 20 |ig/dL (CDC, 1997a). Approximately 90 percent of children with elevated
blood-lead levels fall into this range (CDC, 1997b).
In support of family lead education efforts, the US. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) provides outreach materials such as the pamphlet, "Protect Your Family from Lead in
Your Home" (USEPA, 1999), or the guidebook, "Lead in Your Home: A Parent's Reference
Guide" (USEPA, 1998a). Additional materials in the form of an outreach toolkit for public
health officials will be available in the near future. In addition to printed materials, EPA has
provided family lead education support in the form of grants to encourage educational outreach
in under-reached communities. As EPA continued its role in educational outreach, it was
recognized that there is a need for a comprehensive reference on the scientific basis for
educational recommendations. In addition to immediate use in developing new educational
programs or re-evaluating current programs, this report provides an ongoing reference for
evaluating research results in the years to come in the context of existing evidence. This report
examines the scientific basis for individual recommendations. The overall effectiveness of
educational interventions is evaluated in the EPA technical report, "Review of Studies
Addressing Lead Abatement Effectiveness: Updated Edition" (USEPA, 1998b).
Ideally, family lead education efforts begin prior to the birth of a child and prior to the
diagnosis of an elevated blood-lead level. Specifically, CDC recommends that health care
providers educate parents prenatally, and at age 3-6 months, 12 months, and 1-2 years, by
providing "anticipatory guidance" at well-child visits in order to prevent lead exposure and
elevated blood-lead levels. CDC further recommends that families of all children with
blood-lead levels greater than or equal to 10 |ig/dL be given prompt and individualized education
about the following:
• Their child's blood-lead level and what it means.
• Potential adverse health effects of the elevated blood-lead level.
• Sources of lead exposure and suggestions on how to reduce exposure.
• Importance of wet cleaning to remove lead dust on floors, window sills, and other
surfaces; and the ineffectiveness of dry methods of cleaning, such as sweeping.
• Importance of good nutrition in reducing the absorption and effects of lead. If there
are poor nutritional patterns, discuss adequate intake of calcium and iron and
encourage regular meals.
• Need for follow-up testing to monitor the child's blood-lead level, as appropriate.
• Results of environmental investigation, if applicable.
• Hazards of improper removal of lead-based paint. Particularly hazardous are open-
flame burning, power sanding, water blasting, methylene chloride-based stripping,
and dry scraping and sanding.
-------
CDC notes that education should be reinforced during follow-up visits and that health
departments can often furnish educational materials to the health-care provider. More extensive
interventions are recommended for children with blood-lead levels greater than or equal to
20 |ig/dL, or when blood-lead levels remain between 15 and 19 |ig/dL as indicated by multiple
readings at least 3 months apart, along with the education described above (CDC, 1997a). It
should be noted that neither education, nor the more extensive interventions recommended for
children whose blood-lead levels are elevated to 20 |ig/dL or above, have been proven effective
in reducing blood-lead levels below 10 |ig/dL, the current level of concern. In addition, the
effectiveness of an educational intervention is dependent on the willingness and ability of the
family to implement the recommended actions.
In addition to the health-care provider, many state and local health departments provide
lead poisoning prevention education, often in the form of home visits, as part of case
management of lead-poisoned children. The recommendations made in educational sessions vary
in detail, but they are usually consistent in providing information on cleaning methods; practical
ways to reduce exposure to lead in paint, dust, and soil; non-hazardous methods of paint
removal; nutrition; and behavioral modifications to reduce lead exposure. Education in the home
usually includes pointing out areas where cracked or peeling paint are commonly found and a
demonstration of cleaning methods. Lead educators may recommend that paint and dust be
tested for lead in a lead inspection, but normally do not collect samples or perform these tests.
Cleaning kits are sometimes distributed and educational materials given to the families.
Many state and local health departments, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and nonprofit agencies,
such as the National Center for Lead Safe Housing (NCLSH) and Center for Community Action
for Primary Prevention of Childhood Lead Poisoning (CCAPP), have prepared educational
materials that may be distributed to parents as part of an educational session. These materials
take many forms, including one-page fliers, pamphlets, or videos. The purpose of this report is
to evaluate the scientific basis of educational recommendations to reduce lead exposure and
resulting health effects and to make recommendations for changes based on the scientific
evidence.
1.1 OVERVIEW OF REPORT
Chapters 2-7 of the report address specific topic areas for educational interventions.
Chapters 2 and 3 consider recommendations for cleaning lead dust from hard surfaces and
carpeted surfaces, respectively. Chapters 4 and 5 address ways to limit exposure to lead-based
paint and soil. Chapter 6 examines the scientific basis for nutritional recommendations to reduce
the effects of lead exposure and Chapter 7 considers personal hygiene and occupational hygiene
recommendations. For the purpose of this report, hygiene is broadly defined to include any
personal habit that may reduce lead exposure to oneself or others. These chapters share a
common format, wherein the current content of educational programs is summarized, the
scientific basis for educational recommendations is evaluated, and the recommended content of
educational programs is presented. Chapter 8 considers topics related to educational
-------
intervention, including a brief summary of the current content of educational programs, the
effectiveness of educational interventions as documented in the scientific literature, and sources
and pathways of lead exposure. Chapter 9 presents the report conclusions in the form of topics
that should be covered in a model program. Appendix A summarizes resources available to aid
in planning an educational program.
1.2 PEER REVIEW
This report was reviewed independently by members of a peer review panel. In general,
the reviewers agreed that the report was comprehensive, accurate, and relevant to current policy
concerns. However, the peer reviewers did provide useful suggestions for revisions, as well as
important issues to consider when interpreting the results. The major concerns of the reviewers
are discussed below.
A concern expressed by more than one peer reviewer was that the report does not address
the effectiveness of educational interventions. Although evaluation of the effectiveness of
educational interventions is not the objective of this report, we added statements that indicate
(1) that neither education, nor the more extensive interventions that are recommended for
children with higher blood-lead levels, have been proven effective in reducing blood-lead levels
to levels below 10 |ig/dL; and (2) that the effectiveness of an educational intervention is
dependent on the willingness and ability of the family to implement the recommended actions.
Reviewers also noted that many of the cleaning studies summarized in the report used
professional contractors and the results may not be representative of those achieved through
resident education. The reviewers are correct. However, we believe these studies do have value
in the context of this report, in that the cleaning methods employed by the contractors were
similar to those commonly recommended in educational sessions. Thus, the reported results are
the best available estimate of what could be achieved following careful, conscientious cleaning at
regular intervals by residents. Cleaning studies that employed more extensive interventions were
not included in the report.
Finally, one reviewer pointed out the importance of post-intervention clearance testing.
This reviewer provided an example from personal experience, stating that in an unpublished
study of the effectiveness of Maryland House Bill 760, which requires owners to carry out hazard
reduction treatments at turnover but does not require dust testing, a majority of units failed dust
tests after having passed the required visual inspection. Although we recognize the importance
of clearance testing, we made only minor changes in the report to address this comment, as
testing for lead in dust is not usually within the scope of educational interventions.
EPA has established a public record for the peer review under Administrative
Record 224. The record is available in the TSCA Nonconfidential Information Center, which is
open from noon to 4 PM Monday through Friday, except legal holidays. The TSCA
Nonconfidential Information Center is located in Room NE-B607, Northeast Mall, 401 M Street
SW, Washington, D.C.
-------
(This page intentionally left blank.)
-------
2.0 REDUCING LEAD DUST ON HARD SURFACES
2.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Lead-contaminated house dust has been found to be a major source of lead exposure for
children. Because it is such a significant exposure source, it has been a major focus of much of
the educational programs currently in place. Most, if not all, of the educational programs stress
that lead in dust cannot be seen and that because it is heavy, it often remains after other dirt has
been removed. On that basis, current educational programs usually make several types of
recommendations for protecting children from lead in dust on hard surfaces. Common cleaning
recommendations include:
• mopping floors once a week with soapy water or special detergent;
cleaning window sills and wells once a week with soapy water or special detergent;
• wet wiping furniture once a week using soapy water or special detergent;
• using paper towels or setting aside a sponge for lead cleaning only;
• using separate buckets for wash and rinse water; and
• lightly spraying floors with water before sweeping.
The scientific basis for these cleaning recommendations is considered in this chapter.
Additional recommendations to reduce dust on hard surfaces or provide barriers between
the surface and the child are also a part of some educational programs. For example, the booklet
"Where is the Lead?" (CCAPP, 1999a) makes specific recommendations for floors and windows.
For floors, it is recommended that doormats be used and shoes be removed on entering
the home, in order to reduce the amount of soil and dust tracked in from outdoors. (The
scientific basis for recommendations to reduce exposure to lead in soil is examined in Chapter 5
of this report.) Recommendations that provide temporary or permanent barriers between the
child and the floor include placing a blanket on the floor, covering floors with rugs, installing
linoleum, or sealing wood floors. The latter also provides a smooth, easily cleaned surface. The
scientific basis for these and other recommendations to reduce exposure to lead in paint is
examined in Chapter 4 of this report.
For windows, the CCAPP recommends that double-hung windows be opened from the
top. This advice serves to limit access to window wells, where dust-lead levels are usually
greater, and may also make the window area less attractive to children. It is also recommended
that children and their belongings be kept away from windows. For example, toys, bottles, and
pacifiers should not be placed on window sills, so that lead containing dust is not transferred to
the object, and again to make the window area less attractive to children.
-------
2.2 SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE ON REDUCING LEAD DUST ON HARD
SURFACES
Scientific research on cleaning hard surfaces (e.g., uncarpeted floors of vinyl, hardwood,
or linoleum; walls, cabinets, countertops, wood trim, and window sills) emphasizes that frequent,
vigorous scrubbing with a solution of water and some cleaning agent is the best way to loosen
and remove lead dust and prevent lead poisoning. The cleaning agents most frequently
recommended are dishwashing detergent, common household cleaning agents, TSP, or other
lead-specific cleaners (often recommended generically without naming products specifically). It
is usually recommended that cleaning be done weekly or biweekly (every two weeks) and should
include wet mopping/wet wiping and rinsing with clean water, using separate buckets for wash
and rinse water. Hard, scientific evidence from controlled field studies of cleaning agents and
cleaning methods tends to be scarce.
2.2.1 Cleaning Agents
Trisodium Phosphate (TSP). For some time, trisodium phosphate (TSP, CAS Registry
Number 7601-54-9, chemical formula Na3O4P) has been recommended by HUD, EPA, and
others as an effective cleaning agent for lead dust. One chemical supplier, for example, Sentinel
Products, Inc. (Fridley, MN), markets products such as towels presoaked with a solution of TSP,
especially for lead dust cleanup. In its advertisement, the supplier indicates that TSP "meets
HUD Guidelines and Maryland Procedures."
According to the HUD Guidelines (1995a), "TSP detergents are thought to work by
coating the surface of dusts with phosphate or polyphosphate groups which reduces electrostatic
interactions with other surfaces and thereby permits easier removal." The HUD Guidelines note
that TSP has some disadvantages, and that environmental concerns have caused some states to
restrict the use of TSP. The guidebook Maintaining a Lead Safe Home (Livingston, 1997)
indicates that TSP can burn skin, damage furniture, and damage paint; can leave a film that is
harmful to paint; and can be bad for the environment.
Alternatives to TSP. Recently, questions have been raised on the level of scientific
evidence used in making recommendations to use TSP for cleaning lead-dust from surfaces.
Cleaning agents other than TSP have been evaluated and recommended for their effectiveness in
reducing lead dust on hard surfaces.
A recent EPA-sponsored laboratory evaluation of products used to clean leaded soil and
dust from surfaces (USEPA, 1997a) compared 32 commercially available cleaning agents, TSP,
and tap water of average hardness. The cleaning agents represented general all-purpose cleaners,
hand or machine dishwashing products, laundry detergents, and bathroom, floor, and glass
cleaners, plus lead-specific cleaners. Some of these products, such as automatic dishwashing
detergent, have been recommended for lead cleaning because of the relatively high phosphate
content compared to non-detergent cleaners. The controlled evaluation determined that cleaning
using a general, all-purpose cleaner or a cleaner made specifically for lead was as effective as
-------
TSP and more effective than cleaning with tap water alone. EPA noted the aquatic toxicity
concerns associated with the use of high-phosphate cleansers such as TSP and concluded that the
results "do not support the recommended use of TSP for the reduction of lead dust exposure."
EPA educational materials have been updated to reflect these findings.
Milar and Mushak (1982) found sodium hexametaphosphate (marketed as Calgon®) to be
effective in reducing the lead content of house dust measured in parts per million. Calgon (CAS
Registry Number 68915-31-1) was chosen in part because it has low toxicity. In the Milar and
Mushak study, Calgon was used as part of a steam-cleaning procedure on both carpeted and
uncarpeted surfaces, as discussed in Section 3.2.3 of this report. The cleaning recommendation
appears to be one developed from experience, with limited testing as follows: A single
12x15 foot room was divided into four quadrants. Two quadrants were steam cleaned using a
Calgon® solution followed by detergent steam cleaning 24 hours later, resulting in a 61 percent
reduction in lead concentration of house dust and a 91 percent reduction in lead loading. The
other two quadrants were detergent steam cleaned both times, resulting in a 12 percent reduction
in lead concentration and 38 percent reduction in lead loading. Based on this limited testing, it
appears that the Calgon/detergent method was selected and applied in additional homes. The
authors indicate that lead concentrations were reduced by 30 to 50 percent, and lead loadings
were reduced by 60 percent on average in other homes. The number of homes is not stated. The
authors also report reductions in blood-lead concentrations following reduction in lead content of
household dust. The dust-reduction efforts were probably not limited to carpet cleaning,
although this is not explicitly stated in the article.
The HUD Guidelines (1995a) cite Wilson (1993), who performed an independent
examination sponsored by the National Center for Lead-Safe Housing. Wilson studied
Ledizolv™ as an alternative to TSP for cleaning lead dust from hard surfaces. Ledizolv is an
anionic liquid detergent currently on the market. Specific mechanisms of cleaning lead dust by
dissolving the lead dust are said to be "acid solubilization, chelation, sequestration,
de-flocculation, and suspension" (LSZ, 1999). The report compares the detergent characteristics
of Ledizolv and TSP and finds Ledizolv to be superior (Wilson, 1993).
An unpublished report of field research (Pinchin Environmental Consultants, 1995)
prepared for a Canadian government agency, the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation,
describes a study that further compares Ledizolv and TSP for cleaning effectiveness. Twenty
uncarpeted test rooms were chosen in houses scheduled for demolition. The painted walls of test
rooms were intentionally power sanded to create "very high" dust levels before pre-cleaning dust
measurement, cleaning, and post-cleaning measurement. Four cleaning methods were tested:
1. Dry sweep, vacuum with a utility (wet/dry) vacuum.
2. Vacuum with a regular household vacuum, mop with Mr. Clean® solution mixed
according to package directions.
3. Vacuum with utility vacuum, mop with Ledizolv solution, rinse with clear water.
4. HEPA vacuum, mop with TSP, rinse with clear water, HEPA vacuum.
-------
Floor concentrations were measured in jig/square meter as determined by wipe sampling.
The study showed that Ledizolv and TSP had comparable effectiveness in reducing floor
concentrations of lead on uncarpeted floors to below the HUD clearance criteria, and were more
effective than simpler methods using combinations of dry sweeping, utility vacuuming, and
mopping with a household cleaner. Pinchin also showed that TSP could be effective in achieving
lead clearance levels at "a much lower concentration than recommended in the HUD guidelines."
A randomized, controlled field study by Lanphear et al. (1996) showed no significant
benefit to providing families with cleaning supplies including Ledizolv, in terms of reducing
blood-lead in children with low or moderately elevated blood-lead levels. Families in the
"intervention group" were given Ledizolv, along with paper towels and spray bottles. Families
also received brief (5-minute) instructions on cleaning methods predicted to reduce lead dust
exposure. The intervention in this case was fairly limited in scope, compared to home education
outreach methods used in other studies. Blood was sampled in 96 children at baseline and after
7 months. Although the sample size may appear large in comparison to other lead hazard
intervention studies, the study had limited power to detect the small differences that would be
expected in a population of children with low blood-lead levels, especially with the limited
intervention strategy employed. Approximately 75 percent of the children had base-line blood-
lead levels at or below 10 |ig/dL. Median blood-lead levels were not significantly different for
intervention group families who reported using Ledizolv, intervention group families who
reported not using Ledizolv, and control group families, who received only a brochure about lead
poisoning prevention (no cleaning supplies or other instruction). Ledizolv, however, did appear
to have a "marginally [but not statistically] significant" effect in reducing dust lead loadings on
window sills. Overall declines were observed in dust lead levels for carpeted and noncarpeted
floors and window wells in both groups, but the declines were not statistically significant. It was
noted that the average baseline dust lead levels across all house surfaces sampled were
113.2 |ig/ft2 in the intervention group and 160.6 |ig/ft2 in the control group. Median blood-lead
levels at baseline were 6.85 |ig/dL and 6.10 |ig/dL in the intervention and control groups,
respectively. These levels are low when compared with lead levels in dust and blood as reported
in the literature on residential lead.
2.2.2 Cleaning Practices
One EPA guide to parents (USEPA, 1998a) is representative of many of the prevailing
recommendations for cleaning practices: "Use a mop or a sponge with a solution of water and an
all-purpose cleaner or a cleaner made specifically for lead to clean up dust Use one bucket
for a mixture of water and cleaning solution and another bucket for rinse water." The guide
recommends changing rags often or using paper towels. Similarly, the Milwaukee Health
Department recommends the following temporary measures to help prevent lead poisoning:
• Clean up lead chips and lead dust with a wet mop or a wet cloth.
• Clean your floors and inside window sills with soap. Then rinse areas well and throw
out dishrags and/or towels.
-------
• Clean your floors and inside your windows with a high-efficiency particulate air
(HEP A) vacuum (City of Milwaukee, 1999).
The Coalition to End Childhood Lead Poisoning (based in Baltimore), also recommends wet
cleaning methods using all-purpose household cleaners for window wells and sills, tables and
counters, and floors. A HUD field guide on lead paint safety points out that "Lead [paint chips
and dust] needs scrubbing, not just wiping" (USHUD, 1999).
These guidelines tend not to cite specific scientific studies to justify their
recommendations, but a number of quantitative studies have been published in the area of
cleaning methods for removing lead dust from hard surfaces. The studied cleaning interventions
were usually conducted by trained workers rather than resident families. Thus, the interventions
were not necessarily typical of cleaning that would be performed by a family after receiving lead
poisoning prevention education. The studies do, however, provide relevant information on the
success of cleaning methods that are usually recommended in an educational session. Studies
that evaluated cleaning methods that were clearly more extensive than those commonly
recommended by lead educators were not summarized in this report. Some studies point to the
benefits of specific cleaning activities, while others found little differences among cleaning
methods. The weight of evidence does seem to support the frequent, thorough mopping and wet
wiping of hard surfaces.
Sustained Cleaning. In a preliminary report of a controlled field study in 1981 in
Baltimore (Charney, 1982), researchers examined the effects of a sustained cleaning program on
the blood-lead levels of children having blood-lead levels greater than 30 |ig/dL. Homes of the
experimental group (about 13 children) were cleaned approximately biweekly by trained
personnel, with cleaning methods including thorough wet mopping and washing of window sills
in areas where children were said to play and where high levels of lead dust had previously been
found. Families of the control group (about eight children) were advised to wet mop their
homes. After 20 to 27 weeks of study, the experimental group children had statistically
significant and greater reductions in blood-lead compared with the control group children.
In a subsequent article based on the same research, Charney et al. (1983) reported on
results involving 14 children in an experimental group and 35 children in a control group.
Children in both groups received the lead-based paint intervention that was standard in Baltimore
at the time of the study. In addition, twice-monthly lead dust control interventions (wet
mopping) were conducted for one year by trained members of a "dust control team" in the homes
of the experimental group. The blood-lead levels of the children in the experimental group fell
by an average of 6.9 |ig/dL, compared with a decrease of 0.7 |ig/dL among children in the control
group. Charney et al. noted that it took from "several weeks to several months before all homes
had a reduction in lead-containing dust that persisted between visits." That is, brief, or
infrequent, dust cleaning interventions did not appear to be adequate to keep lead dust from
becoming available on windowsills and floors of homes of children having blood levels of
between 30 and 49 |ig/dL.
-------
Hilts et al. (1995) evaluated the effects of a single intervention — repeated HEPA
vacuuming on carpeted and uncarpeted floors — in more than 110 homes in
Trail, British Columbia. Trail is the site of a long-time lead and zinc smelting industry that emits
300 kg/day of lead to the air from its stack. The homes of the treatment group (55 children)
received seven HEPA vacuumings of all accessible, finished floors over a period of 10 months
(once every six weeks). Vacuuming was done a rate of 4 seconds per square meter for
noncarpeted floors and between 22 and 32 seconds per square meter for carpeted floors. The
researchers reported no statistically significant reduction in geometric mean blood-lead levels. A
40 percent reduction in floor lead loadings was observed immediately after vacuuming, but floor
lead loadings returned to pre-vacuuming levels prior to the next scheduled vacuuming. In a
follow-on study of recontamination rates following the final vacuuming, it was found that homes
became recontaminated with lead dust within 3 weeks.
Vigorous Dust Clean-Up. In a randomized field trial involving 99 children (Rhoads
et al., 1999) effects of maternal education and "vigorous dust clean-up" were evaluated. The
study was conducted in New Jersey over approximately one year by trained lay workers who wet
mopped floors, damp-sponged walls and horizontal surfaces, and vacuumed with a HEPA
vacuum. The mopped and wet-wiped surfaces were cleaned with a commercial household
cleaning solution that was low in phosphate (<0.1%) in conformance with New Jersey state law.
On average, the homes of 46 children in the intervention group were cleaned every 8 to 13 days.
On average, blood-lead levels fell 17 percent in the intervention group and did not change in the
53 children in the control group. Household dust and dust lead measures also fell significantly in
the intervention group. The willingness of families to cooperate with the cleaning program
varied considerably. In children in the intervention group whose homes were cleaned fewer than
10 times, there was no change in blood-lead levels, whereas children in homes cleaned 20 or
more times throughout the year had an average blood-lead reduction of 34 percent. The cleaning
methods were very intensive, typically 5 person-hours every two weeks.
Dixon et al. (1999) studied the effectiveness of a simpler alternative to the three-step
HUD-recommended method for cleaning smooth surfaces (i.e., walls, ceilings, floors, and other
horizontal surfaces) following lead hazard control interventions. The HUD method entails
HEPA vacuuming followed by wet washing with a TSP solution and then a second HEPA
vacuuming. The study findings indicated that HEPA vacuuming followed by wet washing with a
lead cleaner was just as effective as the HUD method. The study was conducted in Vermont and
looked at lead dust on uncarpeted floors, window sills, and window troughs. It was further found
that the second HEPA vacuuming typically took only a small amount of the total cleaning time
(10 percent on average), so omitting the third step would not save substantial time or labor costs.
Potentially Effective Methods. In a randomized field study of 63 children with elevated
blood-lead levels whose homes were scheduled for abatement, Aschengrau et al. (1998) found
that a one-time dust removal and surface cleaning intervention by trained staff reduced mean
blood-lead levels, but the differences were not statistically significant. The intervention
consisted of (1) HEPA vacuuming all window wells, window sills, and floors, (2) wet washing
window well and window sill surfaces with a solution of TSP and water, (3) repainting window
10
-------
well and window sill surfaces, and (4) repairing holes in walls. Small sample sizes and high loss
to follow-up were problems in assessing this intervention. Children whose homes were abated
during the follow-up period were not included in the analysis.
A field study in New Zealand of various clean-up practices following residential paint
removal showed no correlation between any clean-up or disposal practice and blood-lead levels
two years later in resident children aged 12 to 24 months (Bates et al., 1997).
2.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Based on the scientific studies reviewed, it is recommended that cleaning products other
than trisodium phosphate (TSP) be used for cleaning lead dust from hard surfaces. However,
cleaning products are more effective than water alone. Cleaners may include common household
cleaners or lead-specific cleaning products. This recommendation is based on controlled tests in
the laboratory (USEPA, 1997a) and in the field (Rhoads et al., 1999), which indicate that other
cleaning products are effective in reducing dust-lead levels on hard surfaces. Thus, given the
environmental concerns associated with high phosphate detergents, TSP is not recommended for
cleaning hard surfaces.
It is recommended that extensive cleaning be repeated frequently, at least biweekly, based
on studies in Baltimore (Charney, 1982; Charney et al., 1983) and Trail, British Columbia (Hilts,
1995). In both studies, recontamination occurred within two to three weeks of the cleaning
intervention, although dust-lead levels eventually remained low between biweekly cleanings in
the Baltimore study. This recommendation is consistent with most educational programs, which
tend to recommend weekly cleaning.
Scientific evidence of the effectiveness of other specific cleanup methods, such as
changing rags often, using (disposable) paper towels, and using separate buckets for wash and
rinse water, was not found. It is reasonable to expect, however, that these actions would serve to
reduce redistribution of lead within the home when cleaning. No evidence was found to suggest
that these practices should not be recommended.
Similarly, recommendations such as placing a clean blanket or rug under a child playing
on the floor, opening double-hung windows from the top, and keeping children and their
belongings away from windows, do not appear to have received scientific study. Nonetheless,
these recommendations appear to have merit. A blanket or rug placed on the floor provides a
clean surface for play and is easily kept clean by machine washing periodically. It is
well-established that window sills and wells are problem areas in terms of elevated dust-lead
levels. Thus, actions that limit access to these areas or make them less attractive to children
make sense.
11
-------
(This page intentionally left blank.)
12
-------
3.0 REDUCING LEAD DUST ON CARPETING
3.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Vacuum methods are emphasized by most current educational programs for cleaning
carpets embedded with lead-containing dust. Most educational programs recommend the use of
high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) vacuums rather than conventional vacuums for this
purpose. HEPA vacuums are designed to collect 99.9 percent of particles greater than 0.3 jim in
diameter, whereas most conventional vacuum cleaners are inefficient in collecting fine dust
particles. It has been suggested that conventional vacuums may, in fact, exhaust lead dust back
into the ambient air, thus creating a potential hazard for occupants.
An historical problem with the recommendation to use HEPA filter-equipped vacuums is
that the cost may be prohibitively high for much of the population at greatest risk of lead
exposure, although lower-cost (under $200) HEPA vacuums for residential use are becoming
available in the marketplace. Some educators recommend that a HEPA vacuum should be rented
or borrowed if possible, especially for cleanup following home repair or renovations (USEPA,
1998a). Limited scientific research suggests that extended vacuuming with conventional vacuum
cleaners can be effective in reducing surface lead loadings on carpets (Roberts et al., 1997;
Roberts and Ruby, 1998). In addition, research suggests that partially filled conventional
vacuum cleaner bags are more efficient at collecting small particles than new bags (Figley and
Makohon, 1994). These findings have led to the somewhat novel suggestions contained in the
booklet "Where is the Lead?" (CCAPP, 1999a), which recommends:
• vacuuming rugs and carpets three times longer than normal;
coating new vacuum bags by spreading flour or corn starch on the floor and then
vacuuming; and
• using allergy-safe vacuum bags manufactured for conventional vacuum cleaners.
The scientific basis for these recommendations is examined in this chapter.
In addition to recommendations concerning vacuuming practices, several other
recommendations are made in some of the current educational programs. These
recommendations are designed to reduce the accumulation of lead-containing house dust and to
keep children from coming into contact with lead on carpeted surfaces. These recommendations
include:
• removing very old carpet that cannot be cleaned effectively;
• using a solution containing sodium hexametaphosphate (found in Calgon®, for
example) when steam cleaning carpet;
• using a doormat to reduce dust track-in;
• not wearing shoes on carpeted surfaces;
• keeping babies and young children from crawling or playing on carpeted surfaces; and
• placing a clean blanket under the child.
13
-------
The scientific basis for the first two recommendations, above, is considered in this chapter. The
scientific basis for using a doormat and not wearing shoes is examined in Chapter 5 of this
report. As noted in the previous chapter, the last recommendations do not appear to have
received scientific study. Nonetheless, these recommendations appear to have merit.
3.2 SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE ON REDUCING LEAD DUST ON CARPETING
According to a recent EPA report summarizing scientific studies of lead dust control for
carpets, furniture, and air ducts (USEPA, 1997b), "the following variables were found to be
statistically significant predictors of dust-lead loadings in carpets: soil-lead concentrations,
exterior dust-lead loadings, the practice of removing shoes prior to entry, use of walk-off mats at
entrances, and use of vacuums with agitators. The first four predictors imply that a major source
of lead dust in carpets is track-in from exterior sources.
The report continues, "The extent that lead within carpet dust is made available to
children tends to be heightened when any of the following is present: having shag rugs, using
either a canister vacuum (with no agitator) or no vacuum cleaner, using a vacuum cleaner with
loose belts or a full dust collection bag, vacuuming less than once per week, location of [housing]
unit near heavy traffic, and exposure to remodeling activities, deteriorated paint, or paint removal
activities."
This report also says that "behavioral techniques that limit the amount of exterior
contamination, such as removing shoes prior to entry and use of walk-off mats, have been found
to significantly reduce the likelihood of lead contamination of carpets." Chapter 5 of this report
which covers soil dust, and Chapter 7, which covers hygiene, have further information on
behavioral approaches to reducing exposure to lead dust.
3.2.1 Vacuum Cleaning Equipment
HEPA Vacuum Cleaners. Most published guidelines for cleanup of lead dust in carpets
recommend the use of HEPA-filter vacuum cleaners (e.g., USHUD, 1995a). EPA's guide for
parents (USEPA, 1998a) says residents should use a HEPA filter-equipped vacuum cleaner to
clean up lead dust during home repair or renovation.
Figley and Makohon (1994) conducted a controlled laboratory test of cleaning equipment
and methods for carpets and vinyl floors. Although the data set was not extensive enough to
permit detailed statistical analysis, the authors presented general trends and observations. They
concluded that central vacuums and HEPA vacuums (with or without agitator heads) had the
highest dust mass removal efficiency (57.4% to 65.3%). Conventional portable vacuum cleaners
without agitator heads, by comparison, provided between 18.5 and 28.9 percent efficiency. The
mass balance of lead in the dust could not be fully quantified. In addition, it was noted that
mechanical agitator heads on the conventional portable and central vacuums tended to produce
less airborne dust than plain floor cleaning tools. One disadvantage of central vacuum systems is
their relatively high cost to install.
14
-------
The HUD Guidelines note some anecdotal evidence of the effectiveness of HEP A spray
cleaner vacuums, which are similar to home carpet-cleaning machines. These spray cleaner
vacuums are most effective on carpet in open areas; their usefulness is limited for cleaning hard
surfaces such as ceilings, vertical areas, and other hard-to-reach areas (USHUD, 1995a).
Other Types of Vacuum Cleaners. EPA's parents' guide (USEPA, 1998a) is in line
with many other published recommendations in claiming that regular residential vacuum cleaners
are not effective for removing lead dust particles from surfaces without resuspending them in the
air. A common assertion is that conventional vacuum cleaners do not collect particles as small as
the sizes commonly seen in lead dust, and that in fact these vacuums can exhaust lead dust back
into the ambient air.
An EPA report on dust and dust lead recovery by vacuum cleaners (EPA, 1995a),
however, found that relatively little dust escaped via the exhaust of four commercially available
vacuum cleaners that were tested in a controlled laboratory setting. Among 13 tests conducted,
at most 0.02 percent of the dust was expelled as exhaust emissions. Emissions testing was done
with dust of the smallest particle size used in this study (<53 jim). Although these results are
encouraging, caution should be taken in generalizing the results, since only a limited number of
vacuum cleaners were tested and the dust particle size was large compared to that collected
efficiently by HEPA vacuums. In other tests, it was found that most surface dust was collected in
the first 40 seconds of vacuuming over an area of 6.8 square feet. Thus, vacuuming for
approximately 10 to 20 minutes in a normal size room would be expected to remove most surface
dust. Additional vacuuming was found to be effective only for carpets with ground-in dust.
Roberts et al. (1995) compared the lead dust collected by a conventional household
vacuum cleaner from the surface of carpets to the dust collected from deep within the carpet.
Surface dust was defined as that collected in the vacuum filter bag after eight vacuuming passes,
and deep dust was collected after up to 132 additional passes. The researchers concluded that
"Less than 10 percent of the total Pb in the carpet would be removed by normal vacuuming," and
that "Intensive vacuuming efforts can recover substantial additional dust and lead."
In a laboratory study of new vacuum cleaners and their efficiency at collecting fine
particles (0.3 to 0.5 jim in diameter), Lioy et al. (1999) found that vacuums without HEPA filters
were highly variable in their collection efficiency. Of the nine non-HEPA vacuums tested with
laboratory-generated fine particles in an aerosol, the collection efficiency ranged from 29 to
99 percent, with a mean efficiency of 79 percent. The laboratory-generated aerosol particles used
in the study consisted of potassium chloride, ranging in diameter from 0.3 to 3 jim, with the
majority of particles being toward the smaller end of that range. Including the two HEPA-filter
models, the 11 vacuums tested by Lioy et al. (1999) had retail prices ranging from $200 to $700,
which the authors acknowledge to be higher than the prices of vacuum cleaners typically used in
many households. Lioy et al. (1999) also evaluated the contribution of motor dust to the
emissions from vacuum cleaners, and concluded that a HEPA filter placed downstream of the
motor provides the best collection efficiency.
15
-------
It has often been argued that conventional vacuum cleaners may actually make a lead dust
problem worse, by bringing embedded lead dust out of carpeted surfaces and distributing it more
widely at the surface, making the lead dust more available to children. According to EPA
(1997b), "Repeated vacuuming of old, contaminated carpets may increase lead-loading in surface
dust if deeply-embedded dust cannot be removed in its entirety. Carpet removal may be
preferable if the carpet is a shag carpet, or if it has been highly contaminated."
One alternative to HEPA and conventional vacuum cleaner technology are vacuums with
dirt sensors that indicate whether dirt can be detected in carpets. These devices measure
incoming dust and show the user a colored light when no dirt is coming from the carpet. Roberts
et al. (1997) tested one of these vacuums and found that extended vacuuming, until the device
indicated no dirt was being collected, was found to reduce median surface loading of lead on
carpets in nine homes and two offices by 86 percent. The buildings tested ranged in age from
15 to 72 years, and the length of time spent vacuuming ranged from 48 minutes to 15 hours. The
authors noted that the vacuum used in the testing cost $330, and that a similar, less efficient
model cost $165. The time spent in removing dust with such a vacuum in 11 older Seattle
carpets ranged from less than 1 minute to 4.5 minutes per square foot (Roberts and Ruby, 1998).
3.2.2 Vacuum Cleaner Filtration
Adgate et al., in a study of the sources of lead in house dust (1998), indicate that house
dust adhering to children's hands is thought to be less than 200 jim in diameter, with the vast
majority being less than 10 |im in diameter. By comparison, most conventional vacuum cleaner
filter bags are claimed to retain about 99 percent of dust particles greater than 5 jim in diameter
(Ristenbatt, 1999). Hilts et al. (1995), in a study of HEPA vacuuming, also noted that regular
vacuum cleaners fail to retain fine dust particles (<5 jim in diameter) that typically have higher
concentrations of lead.
The standard methods for measuring the effectiveness of vacuum cleaners at removing
embedded dirt from carpet are ASTM Standards F608-96 (household vacuum cleaners) and
F1284-92 (central vacuum systems). These methods specify that 100 grams of "test dirt"
(90 percent sand and 10 percent talcum) be spread on test carpets, and then vacuumed. The
effectiveness of the vacuum cleaner is measured using the weight of the dirt collected in the filter
bag as compared with the 100 grams of dirt applied to the carpets. The methods do not provide
for the measurement of the particle sizes collected by the filtration medium. The methods do
stipulate that 96 percent (by weight) of the silica sand in the test dirt consist of particles between
149 and 419 |im (micrometers, formerly known as microns), and that the talcum range from
0.9 to 44 jim. A third ASTM Standard (F494-98) specifies the integrity of the paper bags used in
vacuum cleaners, but again makes no reference to particle sizes of the dirt to be retained by the
bags.
Figley and Makohon (1994) found that, for standard portable vacuum cleaners and bags,
partially filled bags are more efficient at reducing levels of fine dust in the air than are new bags.
16
-------
Presumably this is because the smaller pores in the bag become clogged with particles of dust,
allowing fewer of the finer lead particles to escape the bag.
As noted above, HEPA-equipped vacuum cleaners remove 99.9 percent of particles
greater than 0.3 jim, and are required for asbestos, lead, and hazardous waste abatement
(Roberts et al., 1997). ULPA (ultra-low penetration air) filters are available that are
99.9995 percent efficient at removing particles of 0.13 jim or greater. The HUD Guidelines note
that ULPA vacuums are more expensive and harder to obtain than HEPA vacuums. ULPA
vacuums are designed to relieve the symptoms of allergy sufferers by removing house dust, dust
mite waste, pet dander, etc., and they could be used to remove fine lead dust particles, but have
apparently not been tested for this specific purpose.
3.2.3 Cleaning Practices
As early as 1982, researchers were evaluating the effectiveness of various methods of
cleaning lead dust from carpeted surfaces. Milar and Mushak (1982) assessed the effectiveness
of steam cleaning both carpeted and uncarpeted surfaces using commercial detergent in a
two-step process: steam cleaning, followed 24 hours later by a second steam cleaning. This
method was compared to a different method, in which a solution containing sodium
hexametaphosphate (Calgon®) was used in the steam cleaning equipment for the first step.
Results showed that the Calgon-detergent combination reduced lead concentration in house dust
by 61 percent, and the overall quantity of lead per unit area by 91 percent. By contrast, the
detergent-detergent combination reduced these values by only 12 percent and 38 percent,
respectively. Further detail on the cleaning method is presented in Section 2.2.1.
Based in part on this study, EPA (1997b) advises the use of sodium hexametaphosphate
or similar cleaning agents for steam cleaning carpets: "cleaning solutions that contain phosphate
or polyphosphate groups .... bind to dust particles and reduce the electrostatic interaction
between the carpet and lead-dust. The detergents within the solution can remove the dust and the
accompanying lead. An accompanying reduction in blood-lead concentration may occur if
repeated cleaning is done."
In addition, as an interim dust control measure, EPA recommends that, for carpets that
can be lifted from the floor, residents should HEPA vacuum the top, then fold the carpet over and
vacuum the backing of the carpet. If there is a pad, residents should HEPA vacuum both sides of
the pad the same way, then HEPA vacuum the subfloor under the carpet or pad. For carpets that
cannot be lifted, EPA recommends a three-step process: (1) HEPA vacuum the carpet
completely in one direction, (2) HEPA vacuum the carpet again at a right angle (90 degrees) to
the direction of the first vacuuming, and (3) steam-clean the carpet using detergent specifically
for reducing the electrostatic attraction between the carpet material and the lead dust (USEPA,
1998a).
Clark et al. (1988) evaluated differing HEPA vacuuming patterns on residential carpeting
as part of the Cincinnati Soil-lead Abatement Demonstration Project. They found that increasing
17
-------
the number of repetitive passes across the carpet with the vacuum cleaner's carpet attachment
was effective in reducing the surface dust lead loading. Two, four, and seven up/back passes
with the HEPA vacuum reduced lead loadings in three areas of a house by an average of
69 percent, 70 percent, and 84 percent, respectively.
Figley and Makohon (1994) determined that "extended cleaning cycles will result in
higher dust mass removal from carpeting." They found that agitator heads on a conventional
portable or central vacuum cleaner could achieve a mass removal efficiency of greater than
90 percent when used for 10 to 12 minutes per square meter, acknowledging that that investment
of time may prove impractical in most situations.
A report by the U.S. EPA (1997e) on lead hazards from renovation and remodeling
activities indicated that high dust-lead levels are associated with carpet removal.
Lioy et al. (1998) conducted a controlled study of home cleaning interventions in homes
in New Jersey where children with moderately elevated blood-lead levels were living. In this
study, cleaning was done by a trained crew of two persons, who discussed lead exposure and
children's play habits with the mother in each household, and cleaned floors and other smooth
surfaces with water and a household detergent, especially the areas where children were apt to
play. Rugs and carpets were cleaned using a HEPA filter vacuum. The researchers found that
HEPA vacuuming of rugs was associated with a substantial decrease (>75%) in house dust and
lead loadings.
3.2.4 Carpet Removal
Some scientific research suggests that carpet replacement is preferable to carpet cleaning,
especially when the carpet is older and has lead dust deeply embedded. Ewers et al. (1994)
evaluated cleaning methods for carpet and for wood and vinyl floors. For the carpets, they
cleaned the carpets in the laboratory using HEPA-equipped vacuum cleaners on used residential
carpet samples and on new carpet samples with artificially embedded dust. For smooth surfaces,
they evaluated HEPA-equipped vacuum cleaner vacuuming speed and numbers of vacuuming
cycles, and evaluated the effectiveness of wet washing after the final vacuuming. They
concluded that carpets from poorly maintained houses containing lead-based paint could not be
cleaned effectively, even with repeated HEPA-filtered vacuum cleaning and/or shampooing. For
carpets newly contaminated with dust, HEPA vacuuming for at least 6 minutes per square meter
of carpet was required to remove more than 70 percent of the dust. This is the equivalent of
spending about 1 hour to vacuum a 9 x 12 ft area rug.
Following a study of the residences near the Bunker Hill CERCLA site in Idaho, CH2M
HILL (1991) concluded that it is doubtful that vacuuming and shampooing are viable remedial
options if the objective is to substantially reduce lead loadings or concentrations in carpets.
18
-------
When carpet containing lead dust is to be removed, EPA (USEPA, 1998a) recommends
that residents:
1. Mist the surface of the carpet with water
2. Roll the carpet inward
3. Wrap the carpet and pad in thick plastic sheeting
4. Seal the enclosed roll with duct tape
5. HEPA vacuum the subfloor before removing the rolled-up carpet
6. HEPA vacuum the subfloor again after rolled-up carpet has been removed.
3.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
The following practices are generally recommended:
• Buy, rent, or borrow a HEPA vacuum, especially following any type of home
remodeling or renovation that has disturbed lead dust in the home.
• If a HEPA vacuum is not available, use "HEPA-type" or "allergy" filter bags on
conventional vacuum cleaners, to remove a higher proportion of fine dust particles
from the carpets and indoor air.
• If using a conventional vacuum cleaner, try to use a mechanical agitator head or
attachment to clean carpets, and try to vacuum for an extended period of time when
cleaning carpets contaminated with lead dust.
• When steam cleaning carpets, consider adding sodium hexametaphosphate (found
in Calgon®, for example) to the cleaning solution.
• Use care in removing older carpets that are heavily contaminated with lead dust.
The CCAPP suggests that normal housekeeping will not reduce lead dust on carpets and
recommends that residents vacuum carpets three times longer than normal in areas where
children play (CCAPP, 1999a). Although the specification of "three times longer" appears to be
somewhat arbitrary, this recommendation is consistent with the scientific evidence that suggests
extensive vacuuming can be effective in reducing lead dust on carpets (Clark et al., 1988;
USEPA, 1995a; Figley and Makohon, 1994; Roberts et al., 1997; Roberts and Ruby, 1998). It is
not known, however, how long dust-lead levels will remain low following extended vacuuming.
For example, if a resident spends one hour vacuuming a single room to reduce lead dust, the time
required for subsequent vacuum cleanings may be shorter. The initial, deep cleaning may allow
residents to follow up with briefer, maintenance vacuuming.
Vacuum cleaners equipped with HEPA filtration devices are recommended for lead
cleaning, as they have greater collection efficiency for small particle sizes consistent with fine
lead-dust particles. HEPA vacuums have been tested and shown to be more efficient than
conventional vacuum systems in removing lead dust from carpets (Figley and Makohon, 1994;
Lioy, 1999). It should be noted that prices for HEPA vacuum cleaners are declining and several
models are being marketed for home use. In the future, the question of HEPA versus
conventional vacuum cleaners may be of less concern.
19
-------
A concern with conventional vacuum cleaners is that fine particles of lead dust may blow
out through the exhaust and spread through the home. For this reason, "HEPA-type" or
"Allergy" filter bags are recommended when HEPA vacuum equipment is not available.
Although the use of "HEPA-type" or "Allergy" filter bags on conventional vacuum cleaners has
not been tested for lead cleanup, based on manufacturers' specifications these bags should
improve the collection efficiency of conventional vacuum cleaners. And vacuuming even
without the special filtration may still be quite valuable, as the exhaust from conventional
vacuums may not necessarily contain high dust-lead levels (USEPA, 1995a).
If "HEPA-type" or "Allergy" filter bags are not available, the CCAPP recommends that
residents coat new vacuum cleaner filter bags by spreading 1 to 2 cups of flour or corn starch on
a clean floor when first using a new bag, then vacuuming the flour or corn starch to "clog up the
bag to help it keep in the lead". This recommendation is based in part on the findings of Figley
and Makohon (1994), who found that partially filled bags were more efficient than new bags in
trapping small particles. The effectiveness of these specific materials and quantities has not been
scientifically tested (Jones, 1999). This quantity of material should not prove inconvenient to the
user.
20
-------
4.0 REDUCING EXPOSURE TO LEAD FROM PAINT
4.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Peeling and cracking paint is known to be a major contributor to lead in indoor dust, and
it can also be a direct source of exposure to children when they place paint chips in their mouths.
These two points are made in most of the current lead education programs. These educational
programs also emphasize that the threat of lead in paint exists in houses that were built more than
20 years ago, while the threat is greatest in houses built before 1960. Educational programs
recommend actions that can be taken to lessen the exposure of children to lead in paint. These
recommended actions can be divided into two categories: interior paint and exterior paint.
For interior paint, recommendations are made in educational programs that address
cleaning and other methods to reduce or eliminate exposure to peeling or cracking paint and paint
chips. Cleaning recommendations that are made include:
• cleaning up paint chips immediately; and
• wiping off loose paint using damp disposable cloths or rags.
Recommendations about reducing exposure to peeling or cracking paint include:
• blocking chipping paint with furniture;
• putting contact paper over chipping paint;
covering painted floors with carpet or linoleum; and
• sealing or enclosing areas with chipping paint.
Most educational programs also address the issue of removing and repainting areas where paint
is chipping. Many of the educational programs warn about hazards associated with sanding,
scraping, and burning off old chipping paint. In most cases, the educational program suggests
that proper instructions on safe methods of paint removal should be given to those participating
in the education program.
Most educational programs focus less on exterior paint than on interior paint. When they
do address exterior paint, the programs address paint on the sides of the house and painted
porches. The educational programs recommend that children be kept away from the sides of the
house and prohibited from playing on the porch. If allowed to play on the porch, measures
should be taken to reduce exposure to lead-based paint and lead-containing dust by sealing the
porch, hosing off the porch, or placing a sheet, heavy blanket, or plastic sheeting down in the
play area. Most programs that address the issue of exterior paint provide either a warning about
safe removal of paint or recommend that trained professional painters be hired to perform the
removal and repainting.
21
-------
4.2 SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR EDUCATIONAL CONTENT
Limited research has been conducted that demonstrates the effectiveness of educational
recommendations to limit exposure to lead-based paint hazards. This section examines the
scientific basis for recommendations that may be made to (1) limit exposure to lead from paint
that is not removed, (2) residents who want to remove small amounts of deteriorated paint
themselves, (3) residents whose home will be abated, and (4) residents whose homes will be
subject to renovation and remodeling.
4.2.1 Limiting Exposure when Paint is Not Removed
There are circumstances when a child may live in a home that is known to contain
lead-based paint and the lead-based paint does not need to be abated. For example, there is
evidence to suggest that well-maintained homes that contain lead-based paint pose less of a
health risk than those with deteriorated paint (Clark et al., 1985; USHUD, 1995b) and that
abatement may be of limited value to children with moderately elevated blood-lead levels, at
least for the current resident children (Swindell et al., 1994). Thus, in some cases, it is expected
that children will live in a home that contains lead-based paint without reaching severely elevated
blood-lead levels. In other cases, abatement of a lead hazard may have been scheduled, but not
completed. This section addresses the scientific basis for educational recommendations on
limiting exposure to lead-based paint, when the paint is not removed.
Areas with chipping or peeling paint are clearly hazardous. Cleaning recommendations
for these areas include wiping off loose paint using damp disposable clothes or rags and cleaning
up paint chips immediately. Practical recommendations to limit access, such as careful
placement of furniture to form a barrier or covering the area with cardboard or contact paper, are
also common. The latter suggestion also provides a smooth, easily-cleaned surface.
Little evidence is available to demonstrate the effectiveness of such educational
recommendations on limiting exposure to lead-based paint, when the paint is not removed. A
study conducted in Granite City, Illinois, suggested that educational efforts can be effective in
reducing lead exposure (Kimbrough et al., 1994). The study findings were limited, however, as
no control group was available. Parents of 78 children with elevated blood-lead levels were
advised on ways to make lead-based paint inaccessible by installing barriers, such as placing a
couch in front of a window sill, or to carefully remove small quantities of paint. In addition, they
were instructed on cleaning methods, nutrition, and hygiene. Substantial reductions in
blood-lead concentrations were reported one year later in 30 children receiving this intervention,
for whom follow-up blood-lead measurements were available. The effectiveness of
recommendations that would limit exposure to paint, however, could not be separated from that
of other recommendations made in this educational intervention.
More extensive recommendations include covering painted floors with carpet or linoleum
and sealing or enclosing areas with chipping paint. These strategies are better studied. It should
be noted that in the following studies, floor treatments were not limited to floors previously
22
-------
coated with lead-based paint. Providing a smooth, easily cleaned surface on any floor was
considered valuable.
In a pilot project to evaluate experimental abatement practices, dust-lead loadings were
greatly reduced on wooden floors that were covered with vinyl tile, or sealed with 1-2 coats of
polyurethane or deck enamel (Farfel and Chisolm, 1991).
Substantial reductions in floor, window sill, and window well dust-lead loadings were
observed in the Baltimore Repair and Maintenance study (USEPA, 1998c), in which a range of
treatments were tested. The lowest cost intervention included installation of a doormat at the
main entry, interior paint stabilization and repainting of treated areas, installation of an aluminum
cap on window wells, and repainting interior window sills with semigloss paint. The next
treatment level included these interventions and, additionally, sealing of wood floors to provide a
smooth, easy to clean surface; installation of durable coverings such as vinyl tile on floors that
had been painted with lead-based paint; limited use of encapsulant or enclosure methods on
interior walls and treads and risers on stairways when lead-based paint was present; treatments to
reduce friction on windows and doors where lead-based paint was present; and other treatments
to make surfaces smooth and cleanable. Many of these strategies are simple and easily
undertaken by individuals and, thus, could be recommended in an educational intervention. The
effects of these specific actions cannot be separated from other interventions that were conducted
in these homes, yet the combined strategies were clearly effective in reducing dust-lead levels on
floors, window sills, and window wells.
4.2.2 Limited Paint Removal by Occupant
There are cases where limited paint removal by the residents has been recommended, for
example, in well-maintained homes where small amounts of deteriorated lead-based paint are
found.
In educating parents, it is important to point out that many of the traditional methods for
paint removal can be hazardous when dealing with lead-based paint. These methods include
mechanical sanding (without a HEPA filter) or burning lead-based paint. In a study where
blood-lead levels were monitored during the deleading process, it was found that elevations in
the blood-lead levels were more likely to occur when dry scraping or sanding (increase of
9.1 |ig/dL among children living in 41 homes) or burning with a propane torch (35.7 |ig/dL
increase in 9 homes) methods were used and the children were not removed from the home
(Amatai et al., 1991).
In addition, chemical stripping can be hazardous because the chemicals used are generally
toxic. In particular, methylene chloride, a common component of chemical stripping products, is
a suspected carcinogen that can cause kidney and liver damage along with carbon monoxide
poisoning (ACGIH, 1992; IARC, 1990). It is advised not to use this particular chemical during
any paint removal.
23
-------
Wet scraping/sanding is probably the simplest of the methods recommended by
HUD (1995a) for removing lead-based paint. This method is similar to dry scraping/sanding,
except that the area being worked on is kept moist at all times. For wet sanding, sanding sponges
are useful, since they can be rinsed in a bucket of water periodically to remove paint. Wet
scraping or sanding generates less dust than dry scraping/sanding and the dust that is produced is
more easily contained. A more detailed description can be found in "Lead Safe Painting"
(CCAPP, 1999b) or "Lead Paint Safety: A Field Guide for Painting, Home Maintenance, and
Renovation Work" (USHUD, 1999). The scraped chips of paint should be placed on the
containment plastic in the work area and cleaned up promptly, making sure that no pieces are
tracked throughout the area or outside the area. This method is recommended for small areas
working on a few square feet at a time. HUD also recommends limited use of dry
sanding/scraping in areas, such as near electrical outlets, where wet sanding/scraping would be
dangerous. These methods are most effective with proper set-up prior to the work, clean-up once
the work has been done, and continual cleaning long after the job has been completed.
4.2.3 Limiting Exposure During Abatement
Many educational programs provide only limited information on lead-based paint
abatement. If an abatement is ordered and the family rents, the parents likely have no control of
the abatement. If the family owns the home, they may be tempted to carry out the abatement
themselves. In either case, education on what to expect during an abatement and how to protect
the family and possessions in parts of the home not undergoing abatement would be useful.
It is strongly recommended that a licensed abatement contractor be hired if paint removal
is deemed necessary. It has been found that abatements performed by homeowners/friends posed
a greater risk to resident children than abatement performed by contractors using the same
methods (Bates, 1997). Improperly performed abatements can lead to further elevations in
blood-lead levels (Amitai et al., 1991; Farfel and Chisolm, 1991).
EPA recommends the use of a certified abatement contractor to help safeguard the family
before, during, and after an abatement. It is important to find a contractor that is licensed in
lead-based paint removal and to check the contractor's credentials and references as suggested by
the EPA. Precautions should be taken when having a room or area abated, such as sealing off
that portion of the home, removing all furniture from that area, and covering all vents. Because
abatement has the potential to generate large amounts of lead containing dust, EPA and HUD
recommend that it be followed by specialized cleaning and clearance testing. Recommendations
on precautions and steps that should be taken for lead paint removal can be found in pamphlets
such as "Lead In Your Home: A Parent's Reference Guide" (USEPA, 1998a) or "Lead Paint
Safely: A Field Guide for Painting, Home Maintenance, and Renovation Work" by HUD (1999).
4.2.4 Limiting Exposure During Renovation and Remodeling
EPA has studied a number of renovation and remodeling activities that can cause lead
exposure. Guidance on renovation and remodeling activities is found in the pamphlet "Reducing
24
-------
Lead Hazards When Remodeling Your Home" (USEPA, 1997d). A summary of the renovation
and remodeling studies can be found in the report "Lead Exposure Associated with Renovation
and Remodeling Activities: Final Summary Report" (USEPA, 2000).
4.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Most educational programs note that areas with chipping or peeling paint are clearly
hazardous. Cleaning recommendations for these areas include wiping off loose paint using damp
disposable cloths or rags and cleaning up paint chips immediately. Practical recommendations to
limit access, such as careful placement of furniture to form a barrier or covering the area with
cardboard or contact paper, are also common. The latter suggestion also provides a smooth,
easily-cleaned surface. Limited scientific evidence was found to support these recommendations.
No evidence for changing any of these current recommendations was found in the literature.
Cleaning is more easily performed on smooth surfaces. Educational programs often do
not suggest simple steps that can be taken to provide smooth, easily cleaned surfaces. These
steps include painting window sills with semi-gloss paint, installing aluminum liners in window
wells, and sealing wood floors with polyurethane or durable paint. These methods were
implemented in the Baltimore R&M study and were effective in reducing dust-lead loadings
(USEPA, 1998c). Although contractors performed the work in the Baltimore study, these steps
may be simple enough to be undertaken by individuals.
Most programs take care to point out that traditional methods of paint removal can be
hazardous when dealing with lead-based paint. These methods include mechanical sanding
(without a HEPA filter), burning lead-based paint, or using a heat gun at too high a temperature.
In addition, chemical stripping with methylene chloride can be hazardous since methylene
chloride is toxic. These recommendations are supported by the scientific evidence and, in some
cases, these methods are banned by law.
Given that traditional methods should not be used, some educational programs do not
provide recommendations on safe alternatives. Wet scraping or sanding is probably the simplest
of the methods recommended by HUD for removing lead-based paint. HUD also recommends
limited use of dry sanding/scraping in areas, such as near electrical outlets, where wet
sanding/scraping would be dangerous (USHUD, 1995a). These recommended methods should
be included in educational programs.
Many educational programs provide only limited information on lead-based paint
abatement. It is strongly recommended that a licensed abatement contractor be hired if paint
removal is deemed necessary. Education on what to expect during an abatement and how to
protect the family and possessions in parts of the home not undergoing abatement would be
useful for families whose homes will be abated. Families aware of abatement procedures are
more able to take action if the abatement is inadequate or performed improperly. In addition, it is
important to make families aware of unsafe renovation and remodeling practices, as outlined in
the EPA pamphlet on renovation and remodeling (USEPA, 1997d).
25
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
26
-------
5.0 REDUCING EXPOSURE TO LEAD FROM SOIL
5.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Besides the dust and chips from deteriorating lead-based interior and exterior paint, one
of the major sources of lead for children is soil and exterior dust. Soil lead, in turn, originates
primarily from three sources: (1) lead-based paint; (2) point source emitters [such as mining,
smelting, and battery manufacturing facilities]; and (3) leaded gasoline emissions [from the
period before lead additives were removed from the market]. Most educational programs offer
advice on how to reduce children's exposure to soil.
Current educational programs teach that children can be exposed to lead in soil when they
play outdoors. They often note that lead has collected in the soil as a result of fallout from leaded
gasoline as well as from erosion of lead-based paint from the exterior walls of the house. Current
educational programs make several recommendations on ways to reduce the risk of exposure to
lead in soil. These recommendations include:
covering bare soil with grass, plants, gravel, or wood chips;
• testing garden soil for lead;
• not letting children play near walls of house or garage or on bare soil;
• having children play in grassy area or sandbox that can be covered;
• removing shoes before entering the house; and
• using a door mat to reduce track-in of outdoor dust and soil.
The programs also suggest that parents or caregivers wash children's hands after they have
played outdoors. The programs also recommend that children be fed prior to letting them play
outdoors because absorption of lead occurs more readily when the child's stomach is empty.
5.2 SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE ON REDUCING LEAD EXPOSURE FROM
SOIL
Compared with other routes of exposure and methods of reducing risk, exposure from
soil has been less studied, with few scientific evaluations appearing in the literature.
Methods of cleaning up soil dust and interior dust in inner-city areas of Minneapolis and
St. Paul were evaluated by Mielke et al. (1994). The interventions resulted in significant
reductions in blood-lead levels, especially among children with higher blood-lead levels. Dust
control treatment was performed by a contractor, and consisted of (interior): wall washing,
HEP A vacuuming, mopping with high phosphate detergent, and some carpet removal;
(exterior): covering bare soil with sod or wood chips, addition of sandbox at all residences, and
provisions to prevent soil from washing onto sidewalks and being tracked into homes. The
cleaning supplies and materials were estimated to cost about $600 per residence. It was found
that interior and exterior dust control management and education worked to lower lead exposure
in the treatment group.
27
-------
The impact of soil track-in was investigated by Roberts et al. (1991) in a study of the
effectiveness of low cost lead control measures in the home. Results indicated that the lead
surface loading of carpets was correlated with the lead concentration of the surface soil near the
foundation and wearing shoes indoors. Shoe removal and the use of a walk-off mat were
estimated to produce ten- and six-fold reductions, respectively, in carpet lead loadings in a small
number of homes. Testing the walk-off doormats indicated that lead levels in the doormat were
almost twice that on the floor inside, which further supports the idea of track-in as a major source
of floor lead in homes. Shoe removal and doormat use were not suggested as replacement
practices for lead paint and soil abatement, but they were highly effective measures that could be
implemented while waiting to finance more expensive abatement procedures.
A national survey of homes sponsored by HUD found that soil in the drip line tends to
have higher concentrations of lead dust from deteriorating exterior paint, and soil near streets
tends to have higher concentrations of lead dust from past use of leaded fuels in vehicles
(USEPA, 1995c). This supports the recommendation that exposure to lead from soil can be
reduced by not letting children play near the foundation (or drip line) of the house, and also away
from the street.
5.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Recommended ways to reduce exposure to lead in soil include not letting children play
near the walls of the house or garage, where soil-lead levels are highest; not letting children play
in bare soil by providing a sandbox to play in and covering bare soil with plants, grass, mulch, or
wood chips; and reducing soil track-in by removing shoes at the door and providing a walk-off
mat. These recommendations are supported by limited scientific evidence. No evidence for
changing these recommendations was found in the literature.
28
-------
6.0 NUTRITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Many current educational programs address nutritional aspects of lead poisoning. One
example is the California "Bright Futures" program of the Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention
branch (CLPPB, 1999). Most educational programs that address nutrition examine it from two
angles: foods that help protect against lead poisoning, and nutritional habits that may contribute
to lead poisoning.
Educational programs uniformly point out that calcium-rich foods and iron-rich foods can
help protect children from lead poisoning. Foods high in vitamin C are also commonly
recommended. Calcium and iron work to prevent bodies from absorbing lead. Vitamin C helps
the body to absorb more iron. Most programs give examples of foods that are rich in calcium,
iron, and vitamin C to assist parents and caregivers to identify foods that should be part of the
child's diet. Some educational programs also point out that fatty foods help the body to absorb
lead, so they should be controlled within a child's diet.
It is also noted in some educational programs that certain vegetables grown in gardens
may contain high levels of lead if there are high levels of lead in the soil of the garden. Also,
lead is absorbed more easily when a child's stomach is empty. As a result, most current
educational programs recommend that children be fed three meals a day with supplemental
snacks.
Recommendations on food preparation and storage may include advice to use containers
and dishes that are free from lead, avoid food stored in lead-soldered cans, use only cold water
for drinking and food preparation, run water to flush pipes for 1 minute or more, and test all
home remedies for lead. That lead in water is only a minor source of lead is noted in many
programs, although programs that note that fact also make the preceding recommendations
regarding use of water.
In the area of nutrition, educational programs currently recommend that children consume
a well balanced diet, paying special attention that daily recommended intakes of calcium and iron
are met. In areas where children are at greatest risk for lead exposure, calcium and iron
supplementation programs have been implemented. Some programs only address iron in the
context of a medical evaluation for sickle cell disease and iron deficiency anemia.
6.2 SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR EDUCATIONAL CONTENT
There is a large body of research on the relationship between lead and nutritional
elements, which has been previously reviewed in articles by Mahaffey (1977, 1981, 1983, 1985,
1986, 1990, and 1995), DeMichele (1984), Goyer (1995), Levander (1977 and 1979), and others.
This summary relies heavily on those previous reviews.
29
-------
6.2.1 Iron
The relationship between iron levels and lead uptake has been widely studied, both in
animals and in humans. In a frequently-cited 1972 article, Six and Goyer performed a study on
rats to assess the importance of iron in reducing lead toxicity. Lead was given to rats who were
either fed a diet with adequate amounts of iron, calcium, and phosphorus or a diet that was
deficient in iron. The iron deficient group showed increased retention of lead in liver, kidneys,
and bone along with increased excretion of lead in urine. In turn, the increased body burden of
lead that results from iron deficiency enhances the biochemical changes that are associated with
lead toxicity.
Hammad et al. (1996) studied 299 children 9 months to 5 years in age to investigate the
relationship between dietary intake of iron and blood-lead levels. A negative association
between blood-lead and dietary iron intake was observed, and the authors concluded that this was
sufficient evidence that a higher dietary intake of iron was associated with lower levels of lead in
blood. Secondary intervention, such as proper nutrition, was purported to be a possibly valuable
tool in reducing blood-lead levels.
Iron supplementation was included as part of a broader intervention strategy undertaken
by Markowitz et al. (1996). However, the effect of correcting iron deficiency was not significant
at reducing blood-lead levels in the population. The authors suggested this may be due to the
high level of lead poisoning in the study population.
Numerous reviews have been published summarizing the large body of research on the
effects of iron on lead. DeMichele (1984) concluded that iron stores had an impact on
gastrointestinal absorption of lead and may lead to a decrease in lead toxicity. In two reviews of
animal studies, Levander (1977 and 1979) found that iron deficiencies increased susceptibility to
the toxic effects of lead in animals and that this effect was expected to translate to humans. After
a summary of various research over a number of years, Mahaffey (1981, 1983, 1990, and 1995)
concluded that an inverse relationship exists between iron intake and lead absorption. Goyer
(1995) concluded that research indicated a link between iron deficiency and increased lead
absorption to the extent that iron supplementation should be recommended for children,
especially those at risk for lead toxicity. Neggers et al. (1986) point out that while good nutrition
is not a cure for lead poisoning, adequate amounts of iron are associated with reduced lead
absorption. There is a consensus among researchers and various reviewers that iron deficiencies
are linked to increased levels of lead absorption. This indicates that an adequate daily intake of
iron, or even iron supplementation, is a valuable means of reducing susceptibility to lead toxicity.
It should be noted, however, that caution should be taken when recommending dietary
supplements as iron toxicity may occur at moderately elevated iron levels.
6.2.2 Calcium
Calcium is another essential nutrient whose relationship with lead has been thoroughly
researched. Two surveys of nutrition in children indicate that dietary intake of calcium is
30
-------
inversely associated with blood-lead concentrations. Sorrell and Rosen (1977) evaluated the
relationships between lead levels, calcium, and vitamin D. Their findings showed that children
in the high blood-lead group had lower mean daily intakes of both calcium and vitamin D. This
inverse relationship between calcium and lead was also found in an analysis of the Second
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II) data involving
2,926 African-American and Caucasian children aged 1 to 11 years (Mahaffey et al., 1986). The
authors concluded that dietary calcium levels were inversely associated with blood-lead levels.
The relationship between calcium and lead has been widely reviewed. DeMichele (1984)
and Neggers et al. (1986) present various studies indicating an inverse relationship between
calcium and lead. Goyer (1995) also found this inverse relationship and concluded that
insufficient dietary calcium can lead to an increase in lead concentration in critical organs. In
various literature reviews over a number of years, Mahaffey (1977, 1981, 1983, 1985, 1990, and
1995) indicates that there is a link between low dietary calcium and increased lead absorption. In
his reviews of animal studies, Levander (1977 and 1979) found that deficiencies in calcium
resulted in increased body retention of lead and thus an increased likelihood of observing lead
toxicity in the animals and suggests that this effect may also occur in humans. Lead appeared to
exert a pro-oxidant stress on red blood cells, causing them to be destroyed more rapidly.
Beyond recommending that children eat foods rich in calcium, Bogden et al. (1997)
recommended fortification of foods since diet is often inadequate. Goyer (1995), too, suggests
calcium supplementation since calcium naturally found in food and dairy products is often
inadequate for the prevention of lead toxicity.
In one study of calcium supplements, Bourgoin, et al. (1993) evaluated 70 brands of
calcium supplements to determine their lead content. The study determined that 25 percent of
the products were above the tolerable level (FDA) for daily lead intake and that less than 20
percent had normalized lead levels that were less than or equal to those found in cow's milk.
This information suggests that if supplementation is to be done, then sources with low lead levels
should be used, especially in children. Calcium supplements derived from refined calcium
carbonate powders had lead content similar to that of cow's milk, while the highest lead levels
were found in products derived from bonemeal and other natural sources.
More recently, Consumer Reports magazine tested 13 calcium supplements, and found
that six of the supplements had less than 1 jig of lead per 1,000 mg of calcium (1999). There are
no federal standards for lead in calcium supplements, but the state of California has set a limit of
1.5 jig per 1,000 mg of calcium in supplements or antacids.
6.2.3 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid/Ascorbate)
The antioxidant qualities of vitamin C have been investigated to determine if it can offer
any protection from the effects of lead. This hope exists because of positive evidence produced
in animal studies. Vij et al. (1998) performed a study on the impact of vitamin C
supplementation on the reduction of lead induced toxicity in rats. Lead administered
31
-------
intraperitoneally at 20 mg/kg was found to inhibit heme synthesis and drug metabolism,
accompanied by the depletion of vitamin C levels in several body systems and by declines in
total and non-protein sulfhydryl levels. Oral supplementation of vitamin C restored various
blood measures and appeared to reduce the uptake of lead. Vitamin C supplementation also led
to a marked reduction in liver and blood-lead concentrations. Indications from this animal study
are that vitamin C supplementation is protective against lead's effects on inhibiting heme
synthesis and drug metabolism that occur when lead depletes non-supplemented vitamin C
levels.
Human studies have provided some evidence of such a link. Simon and Hudes (1999)
performed a study using the NHANES III data from 19,578 participants to look at the
relationship between blood-lead levels and ascorbic acid. Results showed that serum ascorbic
acid level was inversely related to blood-lead levels among adults and children in the population
of interest, but that the relationship between dietary ascorbic acid intake and blood-lead levels
was not significant.
Hernandez-Avila et al. (1997) found that reduced maternal blood-lead levels and
umbilical cord blood-lead levels were associated with orange juice consumption in a study of
1,849 mother-and-child pairs participating in a lead surveillance program in Mexico City.
DeMichele (1984) indicated that dietary ascorbate enhances the absorption of lead by
binding with it and increasing solubility. It may, however, also enhance the absorption of other
minerals that reduce lead absorption, such as calcium and iron, and, thus, have a net positive
effect.
6.2.4 Protein
Numerous literature reviews concerning the relationship between lead and protein
indicate a general lack of understanding of the influence of protein on lead. DeMichele (1984)
noted that protein, along with certain other substances, bound to lead and enhanced its absorption
by increasing its solubility. Excessive amounts of protein were shown to lead to increased lead
uptake in animal studies reviewed by Levander (1979). However, Neggers et al. (1986) cite
research indicating that inadequate protein enhanced susceptibility to lead toxicity. Similarly,
Levander's review (1977) of animal studies found that deficiencies in protein increased
susceptibility to the toxic effects of lead in the animals. These opposing findings on the impact
of protein intake on lead indicate that further research needs to be done in this area before any
nutritional recommendations can be made.
6.2.5 Vitamin D
Vitamin D is another nutrient whose relationship with lead absorption is unclear. Sorrell
and Rosen (1977) investigated children who took part in a nutritional survey to evaluate the
relationships between lead levels, calcium, and vitamin D. Findings showed that children in the
high blood-lead group had lower mean daily intakes of both calcium and vitamin D. A review by
32
-------
DeMichele (1984) concluded that vitamin D, along with certain other substances, bound to lead
and enhanced its absorption by increasing its solubility. In an additional set of review papers,
Mahaffey (1981 and 1983) suggests that vitamin D is linked to increased lead absorption.
Neggers et al. (1986) suggested that an increase in vitamin D can increase gastrointestinal
absorption of lead, but that a dietary deficiency of vitamin D is also associated with high blood-
lead levels.
6.2.6 Zinc
A large number of papers have reviewed the effect of zinc on lead toxicity. Mahaffey
(1981, 1983, and 1985) cited various research reports indicating a link between low dietary zinc
and increased lead absorption. DeMichele (1984) and Neggers et al. (1986) presented various
studies indicating an inverse relationship between zinc and lead. Goyer (1995) also cited
evidence to support this inverse relationship, but cautioned that the relationship between zinc and
lead was not yet as well defined as lead's link with both calcium and iron. Levander (1977 and
1979) presented a review of various animal studies that also found that zinc deficiencies led to a
susceptibility to the toxic effects of lead in the animals.
6.2.7 Fat
There appears to be a consensus among researchers that there is a strong relationship
between the dietary intake of fat and lead absorption. Lucas et al. (1996) investigated some of
the less studied nutritional elements using 296 children as subjects and found a significantly
positive correlation existed between blood-lead and dietary fat.
Numerous reviewers also note a link between dietary fat and elevated blood levels.
DeMichele (1984) found that fat, along with certain other substances, bound to lead and
enhanced its absorption by increasing its solubility. In numerous review papers written by
Mahaffey (1977, 1981, 1983, and 1995), a diet high in fat was linked to increased lead
absorption. Neggers et al. (1986) cited research showing that increased dietary fat content is also
associated with increased lead in animal tissues, and a review of animal studies presented by
Levander (1979) concluded that quantity and kind of fat had an impact on increased lead
absorption. Specifically, fats containing large proportions of polyunsaturated fats (rapeseed and
sunflower oils) had little effect on lead absorption, while butterfat caused the greatest increases in
lead absorption.
6.2.8 Total Caloric (Food) Intake
The relationship between total food intake and lead absorption is less clear. Lucas et al.
(1996) performed a study of 296 children and found a significant positive correlation between
blood-lead and total caloric intake. Schwartz et al. (1986), using the NHANES II data, found a
positive relationship between blood-lead levels and total calories. Various reviews of literature
point to different relationships. DeMichele (1984) cited research indications of an inverse
relationship between total food intake and lead absorption, while Mahaffey (1981, 1983, 1990,
33
-------
and 1995) cited a variety of studies that indicated that the lower the total food intake, the greater
the amount of lead absorbed by the body.
6.2.9 Selenium
The impact of selenium on blood-lead absorption is not widely studied. Selenium is a
naturally occurring nonmetallic trace mineral that is a by-product of copper smelting. It is also in
use as an antioxidant and a dietary supplement. Osman et al. (1998) conducted a study with
157 children in Poland that investigated the possible interactions between lead and less studied
elements such as selenium, zinc, and copper. The results showed an association between
selenium in whole blood and reduced blood-lead levels, which the authors suggested may
indicate an influence of selenium on the kinetics of lead. No other research findings were found
in the literature to help support or refute this conclusion. Given the importance of selenium in
the diet and the lack of solid evidence of a detrimental effect, it would not seem prudent at this
time to recommend controlling selenium in the diet.
6.2.10 Other Vitamins and Minerals
Lactose. A review article by DeMichele (1984) presented various studies that indicated
that lactose, along with certain other substances, bound to lead and enhanced its absorption by
increasing its solubility. However, this has not been studied in humans. Since lactose is found in
milk, which is also high in calcium, the question may arise about whether this impacts upon
dietary recommendations related to calcium. However, Hernandez-Avila et al. (1997) found that
greater milk consumption was associated with lower blood-lead levels. Thus, lactose
recommendations do not seem to have a place in nutritional recommendations at this time.
Vitamin E. Levander (1977 and 1979) reviewed various studies and found that
deficiencies in vitamin E increased susceptibility to the toxic effects of lead in the animals in his
two separate reviews of research focusing on animal studies.
Phosphorous. In animal studies presented in Levander (1979), a diet low in phosphorous
was shown to exaggerate lead toxicity. Mahaffey (1977 and 1983) also reviewed various
research that also indicated an inverse relationship between dietary phosphorous and lead uptake.
Sodium Citrate. A review of studies by DeMichele (1984) indicated that dietary sodium
citrate enhanced the absorption of lead by binding with it and increasing solubility. Another
review of research by Mahaffey (1977) indicated that lead absorption was increased by the
presence of sodium citrate and by consuming orange juice.
Copper. Very little is known about copper and its impact on lead absorption. In animal
studies reviewed in Levander (1979), exaggerated lead toxicity resulted when animals were fed a
diet low in copper. No references to human studies on copper were found.
34
-------
6.2.11 Food Choices
Freeman et al. (1997) provided some interesting, if inconclusive, insight on the
differences in eating habits found for children in two age groups (13-24 months versus
25-36 months). Food-related habits were found to be associated with blood-lead levels. A diet
including hamburgers, donuts, peanut butter and jelly (PBJ), and cold cuts was associated with
elevated blood-lead levels in 13-24-month olds, while a diet including vitamin supplements, raw
vegetables, and yogurt was associated with lower levels in this group. In the 25-36-month old
group, a diet including hamburgers and PBJ was associated with elevated levels while yogurt
consumption was associated with lower levels. Foods associated with elevated levels tend to be
low in nutritional value, high in fat and are "sticky" foods that may pick up lead dust from
around the home that is then consumed. The confound between the nutritional value of the food
and its exterior "stickiness" limit the ability to draw detailed conclusions. Chapter 7 of this
report also indicates that personal hygiene may play a role in interpreting the results of this study.
Hernandez-Avila et al. (1997) performed a study of mother-child pairs in Mexico City
and found that maternal blood-lead levels were positively related to the use of lead-glazed
ceramic ware and to traffic exposure, and inversely related to the consumption of milk and
orange juice. The association between lead and milk intake was unchanged even after taking into
consideration other predictors of blood-lead, which suggested that simple intervention could
reduce lead burden among women and newborns. Mothers who consumed at least 7 glasses of
milk per week had significantly lower blood-lead levels than those that did not. The authors
point to this as evidence of the protective effect of milk, especially in terms of the calcium
contribution. Other authors have held back on commending the benefits of milk, because the
protective effects drawn from the calcium in the milk may be mitigated by the increased
absorption effects of the lactose, vitamin D, and fat found in milk. In effect, the true relationship
between milk and blood-lead levels remains to be determined. However, the evidence at this
time does not preclude recommending milk as a source of calcium.
6.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Most educational programs address nutrition through recommendations that children
consume a well balanced diet, with adequate intake of calcium and iron and not excessive intake
of fat. These recommendations are strongly supported by scientific research. In addition, there is
substantial evidence that zinc is associated with lower blood-lead levels. Some educational
programs also recommend vitamin C. There is more limited evidence to support this
recommendation. This is a promising area for future research. These nutrients can be found
naturally in the following food items:
• calcium is found in milk, yogurt, and other dairy products, calcium fortified juices,
meat, fish, eggs, cereal products, beans, fruits, and vegetables.
• iron is found in meat, poultry, fish, clams, and oysters. Plant sources of iron include
iron-fortified cereals, enriched bread and pasta products, nuts and seeds, dark green
vegetables, and dried fruits.
35
-------
• Zinc sources include meat, poultry, seafood, whole grains, fortified cereals, nuts, and
milk.
• Vitamin C is found in citrus fruits, tomatoes, potatoes, broccoli, green peppers, and
several other fruits and vegetables.
• Fat is found in butter, margarine, cream, firench fries, high-fat meat products, and many
snack foods. Food preparation methods, such as frying, can add fat to the diet.
However, children under age 3 are generally recommended to obtain sufficient fat in
their diet and not to be on an extremely low-fat diet.
It is worth mentioning that much of dietary zinc is not absorbed and that less than 20 percent of
iron in the diet is absorbed into the body (Merck, 1997). Eating foods rich in vitamin C along
with iron-rich foods can help the body absorb more iron. If calcium supplements are considered,
an extensive study of lead levels in calcium supplements reported that calcium supplements
derived from bonemeal and other natural sources generally contained more lead than those
derived from refined calcium carbonate powders (Bourgoin, et al., 1993).
There is evidence to suggest that vitamin E and phosphorus are beneficial, in addition to
the nutrients recommended above. These nutrients can be found naturally in the following foods:
• Vitamin E is found in vegetable oil, whole grains, wheat germ, nuts and seeds, leafy
vegetables, egg yolks, and legumes.
• Phosphorus sources include milk, yogurt, cheese, meat, poultry, fish, cereals, nuts, and
legumes. However, note that many cheeses can be high in fat, much of it undesirable
saturated fat.
Of course, the FDA guidelines for daily recommended intake should continue to be followed to
maintain overall health.
36
-------
7.0 HYGIENE RECOMMENDATIONS TO REDUCE LEAD EXPOSURE
7.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
All of the reviewed educational programs contained three recommendations concerning
the basic hygiene of children. First, children's hands should be washed frequently. Since
exposure to lead in dust and soil usually comes from of hand-to-mouth behavior, keeping a
child's hands clean should reduce the exposure to lead. Second, the toys with which the child
plays should be washed regularly. As with hands, lead from dust or soil collects on toys. Lead is
then passed along to the hands of the children when they touch the toy, or direct ingestion of lead
may occur if the child puts the toy to his or her mouth. As a result, a child's exposure to lead can
be reduced with clean toys. Finally, the child's hands should be washed after he or she plays
with a pet. Dust and soil collect on a pet's coat, and it can be transferred to a child's hands from
contact with the pet. Washing the child's hands after contact with a pet should reduce potential
exposure to lead in dust and soil.
Adults are often exposed to lead from more sources than is the child. For example, many
occupations can be a source of lead and many adults participate in hobbies where there is
exposure to lead. Lead that collects on bodies and clothing during work or during hobbies can be
a source of lead exposure to children. Because of this, current educational programs provide
several recommendations for adults who are exposed to lead at work or from hobbies. These
recommendations include:
• showering at work or changing out of work clothes before returning home;
• washing work clothes separately from other clothes;
• protecting the inside of cars with blankets or sheets;
• showering or changing clothes and shoes after working on hobbies that may be a
source of lead; and
• keeping children away from hobby areas.
7.2 SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR EDUCATIONAL CONTENT
7.2.1 Personal Hygiene
Research supports the impact of hand washing and control of soil track-in in the reduction
of lead exposure hazards in the home. Gallacher et al. (1984), found that the amount of lead
removed from the children's hands with "wet wipes" was related to blood-lead concentration.
Samples were drawn from subjects near a high traffic area, near a low traffic area, and in an area
heavily contaminated by lead mining. In the most heavily contaminated area, children's hand
lead was correlated significantly with blood-lead concentrations. Elevated blood-lead levels
occurred in both mothers and children in the old mining area. The authors concluded that in
areas with high environmental lead, blood-lead levels may be reduced through improved hygiene
practices, both domestic and personal.
37
-------
Hand washing was also an important element of a study by Charney et al. (1983) in which
dust control strategies were implemented in homes of children with blood-lead levels above 30
|ig/dL to test whether dust control measures, in addition to home lead reduction, were more
effective than home lead reduction alone. Dust control measures included: home cleaning
measures of a dust control team, cleaning performed by family members between team visits,
avoidance of highly lead contaminated areas of the home, and regular hand washing before meals
and at bedtime. Results showed a decline in blood-lead levels, with those children with the
highest blood-lead levels initially showing the most marked reduction. It was not possible,
however, to isolate the effect of hand washing from other interventions in this study.
No specific evidence was found in support of the recommendation for washing toys or
other objects handled by children. However, it is reasonable to expect that the same
contaminated dirt that gets on hands can also get on toys.
A slightly different approach was taken in an article by Freeman et al. (1997) in which
differences in eating habits and hygiene behaviors were found for two age groups (13-24 months
versus 25-36 months). Primary behavior indicators of blood-lead levels were determined by
whether the child helped to prepare his/her own food and whether the child ate food that had
been on the floor (this factor was dependent on age since children 13-24 months had significantly
elevated blood-lead levels if these behaviors were exhibited). As indicated in Chapter 6 above,
results also indicated a diet including hamburgers and peanut butter and jelly sandwiches was
associated with higher blood-lead levels for both groups while yogurt was linked with lower
blood-lead levels for both groups. The hand-held nature of hamburgers and peanut butter and
jelly sandwiches has the potential to allow lead contaminated dust to pass from dirty hands to the
food surface for consumption. These results suggest a lack of vigilance in personal hygiene and
clean food preparation may be associated with elevated blood-lead levels and that attention to
proper hygiene practices would be an effective intervention strategy.
7.2.2 Reducing Exposure to Occupational Lead
Lead is an important part of various manufacturing and process industries. Strict
standards are followed in the workplace to minimize any harmful lead exposure by the employee.
Outside the workplace, a concern is that the worker might carry lead home on their person and
expose family members, especially young children who are at most risk for toxic effects of lead.
The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health provides a summary of nearly
80 reports of lead exposure in workers' families, including 34 reports on blood-lead levels in
workers' children (CDC, 1995).
A study by Morton et al. (1982) evaluated whether children of workers in lead-related
industries had higher blood-lead levels than other neighborhood children whose parents did not
work in lead-related industries, and whether personal hygiene practices of workers, such as
showering, shampooing, changing clothes and shoes, and personal hobbies affected blood-lead
levels in their children. Study subjects were matched for control subjects, and blood-lead
concentrations were compared for each pair. Results showed that merely changing clothes and
38
-------
shoes after working in a lead environment was not sufficient for reducing spread of lead
contamination. The children of fathers who added the good personal hygiene practices of
showering and shampooing, in addition to changing clothes and shoes, had blood-lead levels that
were comparable to those of control children. Additionally, children with fathers who had higher
lead exposure at work had higher blood-lead levels. These results show strong support for the
practice of strict hygiene practices to aid in the reduction of contamination of family members
from occupational lead.
Further evidence to support this assumption was found when Piccinini et al. (1986)
investigated 6-year old children in Casalgrande, a town in the ceramic tile district in Italy, to
study the effects of occupational lead. Children were divided into 3 groups: in group A were
children with at least one parent working in lead areas of the tile plant, in group B were children
of tile workers who did not work in lead areas, and group C was the control group of children
whose parents did not work in a lead environment. Results indicated that blood-lead
concentrations were higher among group A than group C, but that differences between groups A
and B and groups B and C were not significantly different. The authors concluded that attention
should be paid to preventative measures such as changing work clothes and careful personal
hygiene after work shifts.
In 1992, OSHA and NIOSH investigated blood-lead levels in workers at an Alabama
battery reclamation plant and found that workers were inadequately protected from lead due to
many things, including poor hygiene practices (failure to shower at end of shift or change into
clean clothes before leaving worksite). Investigators also looked at the effect of lead on families
of workers and found their blood-lead levels significantly higher than those of neighborhood
children. OSHA obtained a court order to remove all workers with elevated blood-lead
concentrations from the premises, making this the first time OSHA has removed an entire
workforce due to health violations (CDC, 1992).
OSHA has integrated occupational hygiene standards into their fact sheet aimed at lead
exposure in construction. OSHA recommendations on this fact sheet include implementing an
effective housekeeping program to remove any lead dust and lead-containing debris from the
area, requiring employer to provide washing, changing, and contaminate-free eating areas, lead
safe parking for workers' automobiles, proper shower areas, and closed containers for lead
contaminated clothing. All of these measures are aimed at reducing not only the workers' on-site
exposure to lead, but subsequent exposure to lead by family members (Labor, 1993).
7.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
There is evidence to suggest that washing of hands may reduce lead exposure. While no
study has been found in support of washing other objects, especially toys, that young children are
apt to put in their mouths, it is reasonable to expect that such measures can only help in reducing
chances of further lead exposure. Eating food that had been on the floor was associated with
elevated blood-lead levels in young children (Freeman et al., 1997).
39
-------
Parents who work in a lead-related industry or practice a lead-related hobby should pay
special attention to good hygiene practices, including not only changing clothes and shoes after
work, but also showering and shampooing to further reduce the chance of lead exposure.
40
-------
8.0 RELATED TOPICS
8.1 CURRENT CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
According to Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning and the National Center for
Lead-Safe Housing (1999), "[n]early all states provide some type of educational intervention,
including education focused on lead and lead exposure risks, lead-specific cleaning practices, and
nutritional counseling." In addition to materials developed and used by the states, educational
material is available from the US EPA, HUD, and non-profit agencies, such as the National
Center for Lead-Safe Housing. Because there are so many sources of educational material, there
is a large variety in the format and content of the programs.
Despite the diversity in format and content, the programs do have common elements.
Most programs present information about exposure to lead from multiple sources. The sources
that are most often presented include dust on hard floors, windows, and furniture; dust on
carpeted floors; flaking or peeling paint; and soil. Many programs also attribute lead exposure to
the occupation and hobbies of the adults in homes with children. Most programs present
information about how nutrition affects lead uptake, providing examples of foods that help
prevent lead uptake.
In addition to providing information about the sources of lead exposure, most current
educational programs also provide recommendations for actions that will reduce or eliminate
exposure to various sources of lead in and around the home. These recommendations generally
fall into three categories: cleaning practices, protective methods, and methods to help minimize
further contributions of lead to the existing sources. Cleaning recommendations are aimed at the
problem of dealing with lead on surfaces where dust collects and, to a lesser extent, address
chipping and peeling paint. These recommendations provide assistance in identifying cleaning
methods and products that are better at removing lead from the affected surfaces.
Recommendations about protective measures are aimed at all potential sources of lead. Most of
these recommendations present methods of placing barriers between the lead source and the
child. The recommended barriers can be temporary, such as blankets placed on floors, or they
can be more extensive and longer lasting, such as sealing a floor or repainting. In addition,
nutritional counseling and hygiene recommendations may be considered protective measures.
Recommendations that help minimize further contributions to existing lead sources include
wiping feet on doormats and taking off shoes before entering the house.
Despite the diversity in the manner in which current educational programs are conducted
and in the specific content of those programs, the recommendations that are made for addressing
lead hazards are consistent between the programs. While some programs present more detailed
recommendations for treating lead hazards in more different media than others, specific
recommendations are similar across educational programs. For example, although not all
programs address lead in water, those that do recommend running water from the tap for a
minute or more to flush out any lead that may accumulate in the pipes. Similarly, all programs
41
-------
that address lead in dust on hard surfaces recommend regular cleaning. In fact, there are only
two minor disagreements between recommendations among the programs. The first discrepancy
in recommendations concerns cleaning dust. Some educational programs recommend using a
cleaner that contains TSP, which historically has been thought to be effective for lead cleaning,
while others recommend dishwasher detergent or other common household cleaning agents. The
second discrepancy in recommendations concerns vacuuming method. Most programs that
address cleaning carpeted surfaces advocate the use of HEP A vacuum cleaners. Many programs
do not provide alternative advice for families who do not have access to a HEPA vacuum
cleaner, while others recommend ways to improve the efficiency of cleaning with conventional
vacuum cleaners, such as vacuuming longer, using a "HEPA-type" or "allergy" filter bag, or
suggesting methods to coat the inside of new vacuum bags to improve the small particle
collection efficiency.
8.2 EFFECTIVENESS OF EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTIONS
Since most children who have elevated blood-lead levels are currently below levels where
environmental interventions and medical interventions are recommended, education is an
important component of many lead poisoning prevention programs. The effectiveness of
educational interventions has received some scientific study, as briefly summarized below. A
more detailed review is found in "Review of Studies Addressing Lead Abatement Effectiveness:
Updated Edition" (USEPA, 1998b).
A study of the effectiveness of in-home educational interventions in Milwaukee
(USEPA, 1996; Schultz et al., 1999) retrospectively examined children who had and had not
received an in-home educational intervention. Paraprofessional representatives of the Milwaukee
Health Department went to the homes of 187 children whose blood-lead levels were between
20 and 24 |ig/dL and described lead hazards, sources of exposure, hygiene, children's nutrition,
dust reduction, and cleaning practices. Blood-lead declines of an average of 21 percent were
observed in these children after the in-home education. For a reference group of 226 children
whose families received only a mailed-out lead education package, a decline of only 6 percent
was observed, and the difference between the groups was statistically significant at a p-value of
less than 0.001.
A study by Rhoads, et al. (1999) in New Jersey examined 46 children with a geometric
mean blood-lead level of 12 |ig/dL who received a regular, professionally-performed dust
cleaning intervention in a random sample of homes and compared that to 53 children in a
randomly selected control group. Dust levels declined by an average of 50 percent or more in the
homes where the intervention was done versus little or no decline in the control group.
Blood-lead levels declined by 17 percent in the intervention homes versus no change in the
control homes. It is noted that the focus of this study was on assistance with household cleaning
to reduce lead dust, but maternal education was also part of the intervention. The methods
recommended to the residents of the intervention group were consistent with those commonly
used in other interventions that did focus on residential lead hazard education per se. The results
of the intervention evaluated by Rhoads et al. can be considered optimal, in that each home visit
42
-------
required 5 person-hours. The authors recognized that, if performed by salaried staff, such
interventions would be too expensive for most health departments.
A study by Lanphear, et al. (1999) in Rochester, New York, prospectively studied
children at six months of age with a geometric mean blood-lead level of 2.9 |ig/dL. The study
involved 248 urban children 6 months of age at the start of the study. Families in the randomly
assigned intervention group received cleaning supplies and equipment (including a detergent
containing TSP) and up to eight visits by dust control advisors prior to the children reaching 24
months of age. No statistically significant difference was observed between the study group and
the control group. Both blood- and floor dust-lead levels in this study were very low initially.
Similar increases in blood-lead levels and similar decreases in dust-lead levels on floors, window
sills, and window wells were observed in intervention and control groups. This study indicates
that dust control may not always work in routine practice, at least not in preventing slightly
elevated blood-lead levels in children (slightly above 10 |ig/dL).
A study of 388 households in Granite City, Illinois, representing 490 children under
6 years of age suggested that educational efforts can be effective in reducing lead exposure
(Kimbrough et al., 1994). Recommendations were provided to parents on ways to make lead-
based paint inaccessible by installing barriers, such as placing a couch in front of a window sill,
or by carefully removing small quantities of paint. In addition, parents were instructed on
cleaning methods, nutrition, and hygiene. Substantial reductions in blood-lead concentrations
(40%) were reported for children receiving this intervention. Of the 490 children, 78 (16%) were
found to have blood-lead levels > 10 |ig/dL. Among these 78 children, 51 were retested 4 months
later, and 30 were tested a third time 1 year later. It was noted that there was no control group for
comparison in this study (i.e., the researchers did not evaluate children in families who received
no counseling or lead hazard education).
A residential environmental assessment with survey follow-up was conducted in
King County, Washington, (Leung et al., 1997). Coaches made home visits to 36 households to
identify risks and set priorities for action. Households were selected that had at least one allergy
and/or asthma sufferer. They were also selected to avoid persons who had occupational exposure
to lead, households with persons who smoked, and households whose residents were planning
construction or remodeling, to reduce confounding factors. The educational intervention covered
dust and lead control, moisture, hazardous products, indoor air pollution, and special risks. For
example, residents were encouraged to encase mattresses, remove contaminated carpet, remove
shoes at the door, increase household ventilation, and clean carpet and upholstered furniture
frequently. An average of 3.1 behavioral changes were reported by household members in
surveys taken three months after the home visits. Participants from all households reported that
the intervention was beneficial to them. Residents reported the following barriers to
implementation of recommended behavioral changes: lack of time, cost, too much work, and
change not needed.
Anecdotal accounts from Pinellas County, Florida, and Manchester, New Hampshire,
indicate that educational interventions may have an effect in reducing the blood-lead levels of
43
-------
lead-poisoned children. The approach used in Florida was to provide hazard-reduction
information to families, homeowners, landlords, and at-risk communities. Information was given
at clinics and physicians' offices. During the evaluation (1993 to 1994), the number of children
screened increased from 6,930 to 8,295. The author claimed that the "environmental health
follow-up efforts and in-home lead hazard reduction education campaign resulted in a decline in
lead levels at the children's follow-up visits." Neither the size of the lead poisoned population
nor the extent of the decline relative to baseline levels were quantified in the report
(Thoenes, 1992). The New Hampshire program relied on private funding (from the local Rotary
Club and one local company) to obtain 90 lead hazard reduction kits, of which 55 were given to
families with a lead-poisoned child. The kit contained a bucket, high-phosphate detergent,
rubber gloves, rags, a sponge, and duct tape or contact paper. A home visit was made in each
case to deliver the kit, instruct families in its use, and provide educational materials. Blood-lead
levels were measured before and after the delivery of the kits, and 52 out of 55 children
experienced a decrease in blood-lead levels (average decrease 11 |ig/dL, range 1 to 28 |ig/dL)
(Soucy, 1993).
In an examination of the effects of community education, dust control, and case
management on children's blood levels in Trail, British Columbia, from 1991 through 1996,
Hilts et al. (1998) found no increase in the rate of decline in blood-lead levels following the
introduction of interventions in 1991. These interventions were available to all children with
elevated blood-lead levels (> 15 |ig/dL, or >10 |ig/dL for children under 20 months of age).
There was no control group in this study. Interventions included counseling on dust control and
yard care, provision of entrance mats, sandboxes with clean sand and lids, ground cover
materials, and house cleaning supplies and services, such as mops, buckets, detergent, and
vacuum cleaners. Services included regular vacuuming, wet wiping, and mopping.
The educational interventions in these studies varied in both content and format. Many
of the studies reported declines in dust-lead levels and/or blood-lead levels, especially those for
children with higher blood-lead levels or who received more extensive interventions. However,
blood-lead concentrations were not consistently reduced to levels below 10 |ig/dL. For more
information, seeUSEPA, 1998b.
8.3 SOURCES AND PATHWAYS OF LEAD EXPOSURE
Lead is a heavy, stable element that occurs naturally in the earth's crust. Through natural
activity, such as crustal weathering, and human activity, such as mining, this metal has been
distributed throughout the human environment. The use of lead as a raw material in various
manufactured and refined products is the principal source of lead in the environment. As lead is
an element and does not naturally biodegrade, its exposure potential tends to accumulate over
time as more and more lead is deposited in the environment.
As data supporting the dangers of lead exposure have been identified, a combination of
state and Federal action has curtailed the impact of certain sources and reservoirs of lead in the
environment, resulting in a change in the predominance of historically significant sources. The
44
-------
information that follows provides the current status of the sources of lead that have historically
been recognized as most associated with elevated blood-lead concentrations in children.
Airborne Lead. Historically, emissions from lead smelters, battery manufacturing plants,
solid waste incinerators, and automobiles have made major contributions to airborne lead levels.
Fallout of atmospheric lead contributes to lead levels in soil, household dust, and street dust.
Lead is deposited on soil, plants, and animals, and thereby is incorporated into the food chain.
Until recently, leaded gasoline emissions was one of the primary sources of lead exposure in the
United States. Regulatory efforts, however, resulted in a 73 percent reduction in lead consumed
in gasoline from 1975 to 1984 (USEPA, 1986) and a 64 percent reduction in national lead
emissions from 1985 to 1989 (ATSDR, 1993). These reductions corresponded to similarly
dramatic declines in childhood blood-lead concentrations (CDC, 1991; Annest, 1983). The
phase-out of leaded gasoline and reductions in industrial emissions have contributed to airborne
lead's becoming only a minor lead-exposure pathway for children not exposed to specific
point-emitting lead sources such as smelters (CDC, 1991). Airborne lead can still be a source of
high-dose exposure in localized areas when activities such as sandblasting bridges take place, or
during home renovation or remodeling.
Drinking and Cooking Water. Detectable levels of lead are rare in surface and ground
water that serve as sources of drinking water in this country. Typically, lead contamination of
drinking water occurs after the water leaves the treatment plant (CDC, 1991). Drinking water
can be contaminated by lead pipes, connectors, and solder in service lines and household
plumbing. Water can also become contaminated by the lead or brass components of water
fountains, coolers, faucets, and other fixtures. Through the authority of the 1986 Safe Drinking
Water Act and its amendments, EPA banned the use of lead materials and solders in new
plumbing and plumbing repairs, required that public water suppliers notify the public about lead
presence in drinking water, and encouraged local government measures to test and remediate
lead-contaminated drinking water in schools and day-care centers. As a result, drinking and
cooking water from municipal and other large drinking water distribution systems is generally
not a predominant source of lead exposure among lead-poisoned children (CDC, 1991).
However, due to the high absorption rate of lead in water, lead in drinking water is still
considered an important exposure source when present (CDC, 1991).
Food. While production of lead-soldered food and soft drink cans have been virtually
eliminated in the U.S., such cans may still be used by other countries who export food to the U.S.
In addition, lead can be introduced to food grown in lead-contaminated soil. Improper handling
of food in the home (e.g., storing food in containers such as lead-soldered cans and lead-glazed
pottery) can cause food to be a source of lead exposure (Blumenthal, 1989-90; Foulke, 1993).
While lead exposures through food ingestion have declined considerably in recent years, these
exposures can still occur if proper precautions are not addressed. Education is especially
important in those communities with traditions of using lead-containing pottery in cooking and
preparing folk remedies containing lead. The California "Bright Futures" program
(CLPPB, 1999) provides examples of some such products.
45
-------
Lead-Based Paint. Lead-based paint (LBP) is currently considered the most significant
high-dose source of lead exposure in pre-school children (CDC, 1991). From the turn of the
century through the 1940s, paint manufacturers used lead as a primary ingredient in many
oil-based interior and exterior house paints. Usage gradually decreased through the 1950s and
1960s, as largely lead-free latex paints and exterior paint with lower lead concentrations were
manufactured. In 1978, the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) ruled that paint used
for residence, toys, furniture, and public areas must not contain more than 0.06 percent lead by
weight. Nevertheless, the presence of lead-based paint in the nation's housing remains high. An
estimated 64 million (or 83 percent of) privately-owned, occupied housing units built prior to
1980 contain some components covered with lead-based paint (USEPA, 1995c).
Human exposure to lead from lead-based paint is believed to be higher when the paint is
deteriorated or is found on accessible, chewable, impact, or friction surfaces (USEPA, 1986;
CDC, 1991). Young children are especially susceptible to lead poisoning from lead-based paint,
as they may ingest lead-based paint chips or come into contact with dust or soil that has been
contaminated by deteriorated lead-based paint (see below). Both adults and children can be
exposed to hazardous levels of lead by ingesting paint-dust during hand-to-mouth activities. The
potential for lead-based paint to contaminate a variety of environmental media within a
household makes lead-based paint the greatest source of public health concern regarding lead
exposure (CDC, 1991).
Contaminated Dust and Soil. While enforcement of national air quality standards
continues to reduce the threat of lead exposure via air from point sources, the fallout of
atmospheric lead over time has resulted in a continued exposure route through soil (USEPA,
1986). In addition, soil can become contaminated by deteriorated lead-based paint or by the
improper removal of lead-based paint from a housing unit. The same soil, once tracked indoors,
can become imbedded in carpets or contribute to household dust. Indoors, normal wear of
lead-based paint (especially around windows and doors) can contaminate interior dust. Children
are exposed to lead from soil or dust in their homes during typical hand-to-mouth activities.
Lead-contaminated soil and dust are thought to be the most significant pathway by which young
children are exposed to lead from lead-based paint hazards (USEPA, 1986, 1998d).
Lead in Household Products. Several common household products have been shown to
contribute, in varying degrees, to childhood blood-lead levels. Imported, non-glossy, vinyl
miniblinds were named as a safety concern by the Consumer Products Safety Commission
(CPSC) in 1996, when testing indicated that the miniblinds were a source of lead dust
(CPSC, 1996). Lead was intentionally added to these miniblinds to stabilize the plastic, enhance
color, and prevent deterioration. When exposed to sunlight and heat, the vinyl deteriorated to
produce lead dust on the surface of the blinds. Young children may be exposed to the lead dust
through mouthing of the blinds or by touching the blinds and then putting their fingers in their
mouths. The solution recommended by the CPSC for this problem was to throw out old blinds
and replace them with new lead-free blinds. Cleaning was not recommended due to the risk of
exposure for the adult cleaner and because a continual and labor-intensive cleaning regimen
46
-------
would be required to ensure a safe environment for the child. Testing blinds for lead was not
considered cost-effective since replacement is inexpensive compared to the cost of testing.
Pottery is a lead risk because lead is often used in the ceramic glaze, especially in
imported or old pottery. Pottery fired at low temperature can leave lead in the glaze that is
available to leach into acidic foods and beverages. As a result, only pottery fired at high
temperature should be used for the preparation and storing of food. Leaded crystal can also leach
lead and should not be used for the long-term storage of food or liquid, but may still be used to
serve food and beverages (Blumenthal, 1989-90; Foulke, 1993).
Lead from Occupational and Hobby Sources. Many occupations put the employee in
contact with lead. Among these industries are smelters, battery reclamation plants, stained glass
factories, and home and highway construction work, especially in the renovation and remodeling
of older homes, performance of lead abatement work, or conduct of large structure (e.g., bridges)
repainting projects. Hobbies that can contribute to lead exposure include making pottery, fishing
lures, and stained glass work. While most children are not at risk of lead exposure from these
sources, exposure can be significant when occupational and hobby sources are present and proper
precautions are not taken to limit lead exposure.
47
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
48
-------
9.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Most current educational recommendations are based on some scientific evidence.
Others correspond to conventional wisdom or common sense. Very few changes to the most
common educational recommendations are suggested by the scientific evidence reviewed in this
report. This chapter points out recommended changes to the content of educational programs
(Section 9.1), then summarizes the educational recommendations supported by scientific research
(Section 9.2). Care is taken to point out common recommendations that appear to be based on
conventional wisdom. Finally, an outline of topics that ideally should be covered in an
educational session is provided in Section 9.3.
9.1 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CHANGE IN CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
Many educational programs recommend a trisodium phosphate (TSP) solution for
cleaning hard surfaces. Based on the scientific studies reviewed, many cleaning products
perform as well as TSP in cleaning lead dust from hard surfaces. These products include
common household cleaners or lead-specific cleaning products other than TSP. This
recommendation is based on controlled tests in the laboratory (USEPA, 1997a) and in the field
(Rhoads et al., 1999), which indicate that other cleaning products are effective in reducing dust-
lead levels on hard surfaces. These findings, along with the environmental concerns associated
with using high phosphate detergents result in not recommending TSP for cleaning hard surfaces.
Most educational programs recommend using a HEPA vacuum for cleaning carpeted
areas, although it is recognized that, at present, HEPA vacuum cleaners are too costly for many
families to use on a regular basis. Since lower cost HEPA vacuums are now on the market for
home use, this may be less of a problem in the future. If a HEPA vacuum is not available,
however, it is recommended that conventional vacuum cleaners be used with "HEPA-type" or
"allergy" filter bags, to remove a higher proportion of fine dust particles from carpets and indoor
air. Although these bags have not been scientifically tested for lead dust cleaning efficiency, they
are designed to capture smaller particle sizes than standard vacuum cleaner bags.
Most educational programs do not address steam cleaning of carpets, as this method has
not been considered effective for removing lead dust. It has been shown, however, that the
addition of sodium hexametaphosphate (found in products such as Calgon®) to the cleaning
solution increases the amount of lead removed from the carpets by steam cleaning. This practice
should be considered as an addition to the cleaning recommendations of educational programs.
Cleaning is more easily performed on smooth surfaces. Current educational programs
frequently do not suggest simple steps that can be taken to provide smooth, easily cleaned
surfaces. These steps include painting window sills with semi-gloss paint, installing aluminum
liners in window wells, and sealing wood floors with polyurethane or durable paint. These
methods were implemented in a Baltimore study and were effective in reducing dust-lead
loadings (USEPA, 1998c). Although contractors performed the work in the Baltimore study,
these steps are modest in cost and simple enough to be undertaken by individuals.
49
-------
9.2 SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT FOR EDUCATIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
9.2.1 Cleaning Methods
Most educational programs recommend cleaning hard surfaces, such as floors, window
sills, and window wells, weekly using soapy water. The scientific evidence supports this
recommendation, although studied cleaning interventions were usually repeated biweekly for cost
savings. Studies in Baltimore, Maryland, and Trail, British Columbia, indicated that
recontamination can occur within two to three weeks of cleaning (Charney, 1982; Charney et al.,
1983; Hilts, 1995), although dust-lead levels eventually remained low between biweekly
cleanings in the study by Charney et al., (1983).
Scientific evidence was not found on the effectiveness of other specific cleanup methods,
such as changing rags often, using (disposable) paper towels, and using separate buckets for wash
and rinse water, but the recommendations appear to be reasonable nonetheless.
For carpets, most educational programs recommend HEPA vacuuming, as noted above.
Currently, this remains among the best methods for cleaning carpeted areas and may become
more affordable in time. For families that do not have access to a HEPA vacuum cleaner, there
is some evidence that use of conventional vacuum cleaners can be at least somewhat effective if
the vacuum is properly equipped and used properly. Vacuums with a mechanical agitator brush
are recommended. "HEPA-type" or "allergy" bags for conventional vacuum cleaners are
designed to remove a greater proportion of fine dust particles than regular bags, although these
bags remain to be tested for lead cleaning. If these bags are not available, at least one
organization recommends coating new vacuum bags by spreading and vacuuming flour or
cornstarch, as it has been shown that partially full bags are more efficient than new bags at
filtering small particles (Figley and Makohon, 1994). It was assumed that partially full bags are
more efficient because dirt clogs some of the pores, resulting in better retention of fine particles.
On the other hand, this does not mean to overload the bag, as this may reduce suction and the
vacuum would not pick up dirt as well.
Finally, there is evidence to suggest that extended vacuuming with either a HEPA or
conventional vacuum cleaner can substantially reduce surface lead loadings. It is not known
whether extended vacuuming offers any long-term benefit for the levels of lead dust in the carpet.
For example, if a resident spends one hour vacuuming a single room to reduce lead dust, the time
required for subsequent vacuum cleanings may be shorter. The initial, deep cleaning may allow
residents to follow up with briefer, maintenance vacuuming cleanings.
Older carpets may be so heavily contaminated that they cannot be cleaned. Many
educational programs recommend removing or replacing older carpets. Studies have shown that
even repeated HEPA vacuuming and shampooing are ineffective in removing lead dust from
some carpets. (Ewers et al., 1994; CH2M HILL, 1991).
50
-------
9.2.2 Limiting Exposure to Lead in Paint and Soil
Most educational programs note that areas with chipping or peeling lead-based paint are
clearly hazardous and should be addressed by wiping off loose paint and cleaning up paint chips
immediately. Practical recommendations to limit access, such as careful placement of furniture
to form a barrier or covering the area with cardboard or contact paper, are also common. Limited
scientific evidence was found to support these recommendations, which, nonetheless, appear to
make sense. No evidence for changing any of these recommendations was found in the literature.
Most programs take care to point out that traditional methods of paint removal can be
hazardous when dealing with lead-based paint. These methods include mechanical sanding
(without a HEPA attachment) or burning lead-based paint. In addition, chemical stripping with
methylene chloride can be hazardous due to the chemicals involved. These recommendations are
supported by the scientific evidence and, in some cases, by laws banning hazardous methods.
Given that traditional methods should not be used, educational programs should provide
recommendations on safe alternatives. Wet scraping or sanding has been recommended as an
effective method for removing small amounts of deteriorated lead-based paint (USHUD, 1995a).
HUD also recommends limited use of dry scraping or sanding in areas, such as near electrical
outlets, where wet methods would be dangerous.
Most educational programs that address lead-based paint abatement recommend that a
licensed abatement contractor be hired if paint removal is deemed necessary. Additional
education on what to expect during an abatement and how to protect the family and possessions
in parts of the home not undergoing abatement would be useful for families whose homes will be
abated. Similarly, if home renovations are anticipated, residents should be made aware of unsafe
renovation and remodeling practices.
Current educational programs teach that children can be exposed to lead in soil when they
play outdoors. Recommendations on ways to reduce the risk of exposure to lead in soil include
covering bare soil with grass, plants, gravel, or wood chips; not letting children play near walls of
house or garage or on bare soil; having children play in grassy area or sandbox that can be
covered; removing shoes indoors and using a door mat to reduce track-in of outdoor dust and
soil. These recommendations are based on limited scientific evidence. No evidence for
changing any of these recommendations was found in the literature.
9.2.3 Other Means of Reducing Lead Exposure
Some recommendations on reducing lead exposure do not appear to have received
scientific study. These recommendations include limiting access to windows, porches, or other
areas where lead-based paint is present; opening double-hung windows from the top; placing a
clean blanket or rug under a child playing on the floor; and hosing off the porch floor before
allowing children to play there. Nonetheless, these recommendations do have merit. Actions
that limit access to areas with lead based paint or make them less attractive to children inherently
51
-------
make sense. A blanket or rug placed on the floor provides a clean surface for play and is easily
kept clean by machine washing periodically. Similarly, hosing off the porch provides a cleaner
play area.
9.2.4 Nutrition
Most educational programs recommend FDA guidelines for daily recommended intake
should be followed to maintain overall health, with special attention to ensure that children
receive adequate calcium and iron in their diets. Some programs also recommend getting
sufficient vitamin C and eating foods low in fat. There is a strong basis of scientific support for
the recommendations regarding calcium and iron. There is sufficient evidence that zinc is also
beneficial. More limited evidence suggests that vitamin C, vitamin E, and phosphorus are
beneficial. Studies have shown that a high fat diet can lead to increased uptake of lead by the
body. The evidence relating vitamin D and total food consumption to blood-lead concentration
was mixed.
Recommendations on food preparation and storage may include advice to use containers
and dishes that are free from lead, avoid food stored in lead-soldered cans, use only cold water
for drinking, formula, cooking, run water to flush pipes for 1 minute or more, and test all home
remedies for lead. That lead in water is only a minor source of lead is noted in many programs,
although programs that note that fact also make the preceding recommendations regarding use of
water. At present, these are considered minor sources of lead exposure for most children.
9.2.5 Hygiene
There is evidence to suggest that frequent washing of hands can reduce lead exposure.
Although no study examined specific times for handwashing, it is commonly recommended that
children wash hands before meals, before going to bed, after playing outdoors, and after playing
with pets. No reason to change these recommendations was found. No study was found in
support of washing other objects, especially toys, that young children are apt to put in their
mouths; but such measures can only help in reducing chances of further lead exposure. Eating
food dropped on the floor has been related to increased blood-lead concentrations in young
children (Freeman et al., 1997).
Parents who work in a lead-related industry or practice a lead-related hobby should pay
special attention to good hygiene practices, including not only changing clothes and shoes after
work, but also showering and shampooing to further reduce the chance of lead exposure.
9.3 RECOMMENDED CONTENT OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS
In summary, the recommended content of educational programs is outlined below. In
presenting this list, it is recognized that it will not be practical to cover every item in every
educational session. The specific recommendations made in an educational session should be
tailored to the location and audience. Rather, the list is intended as a comprehensive summary of
52
-------
reasonable educational recommendations. The list does contain some recommendations that are
based on conventional wisdom or only limited scientific study. These recommendations were
included, as no evidence was found at this time to suggest they should not be recommended.
Hard Surfaces
• mop floors once a week with soapy water;
• clean window sills and wells once a week with soapy water;
• use paper towels or setting aside a sponge for lead cleaning only;
• use separate buckets for wash and rinse water;
• lightly spray floors with water before sweeping;
seal wood floors to provide a smooth cleanable surface;
• place a blanket or rug on floor when a child plays there;
• keep children and their belongings away from windows; and
• open double-hung windows from the top.
Carpeted Surfaces
• use a HEPA vacuum for cleaning, if possible;
• if a HEPA vacuum is not available, use "HEPA-type" or "allergy" filter bags;
• if these bags are not available, lightly coating new vacuum bags by spreading and
vacuuming flour or cornstarch is advised;
• use a vacuum with a mechanical agitator head;
• vacuum for an extended time;
• when steam cleaning carpets, consider adding sodium hexametaphosphate (found
in Calgon®, for example) to the cleaning solution; and
• use care in removing older carpets that are heavily contaminated with lead dust.
Limiting Paint Exposure
• clean up loose paint chips immediately;
• wipe off loose paint using damp disposable cloths or rags;
• block access to chipping paint with furniture;
• put contact paper over chipping paint;
• hose off porch or place a blanket or rug down when children play there;
seal or enclose areas with small amounts of chipping paint;
• do not use hazardous methods of removing paint, such as mechanical sanding
(without a HEPA attachment), open-flame burning, or chemical removal using
methylene chloride;
• recommend safer alternatives for removing paint, such as wet scraping and wet
sanding;
• if abatement is required, recommend using a certified abatement contractor;
• if abatement is required, describe what to expect during abatement, ways to protect
family and belongings.
53
-------
Limiting Soil Exposure
Nutrition
Hygiene
cover bare soil with grass, plants, gravel, or wood chips;
do not let children play near walls of house or garage or on bare soil;
have children play in grassy area or sandbox that can be covered;
wash children's hands after playing outside, or playing with pets;
remove shoes before entering the house; and
use a doormat to reduce track-in of outdoor dust and soil.
provide a balanced diet as recommended by the FDA;
ensure children receive sufficient amounts of calcium, iron, zinc, and vitamin C;
reduce consumption of foods high in fat if a lot of fat is eaten, especially foods with
little nutritional value;
prepare or store food in lead-free containers;
if lead in water is a concern
flush pipes for 1 minute before drinking water or using it for cooking; and
use only cold water for cooking or preparing infant formula.
wash children's hands, toys, bottles, and pacifiers often;
do not allow children to eat food off the floor;
if parents work or hobby is a source of lead exposure
shower at work or change out of work clothes before returning home;
wash work clothes separately from other clothes;
- protect the inside of cars with blankets or sheets;
shower or change clothes and shoes after working on hobbies that may be a source
of lead; and
keep children away from hobby areas.
54
-------
10.0 REFERENCES
(ACGIH) American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (1992), Threshold Limit
Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents., Cincinnati, Ohio, 1992-93.
Adgate, J.L., Willis, R.D., Buckley, T.J., Chow, J.C., Watson, J.G., Rhoads, G.G., and Lioy, P.J.
(1998), "Chemical Mass Balance Source Apportionment of Lead in House Dust," Env. Sci. Tech
32(1):108-114.
Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning and The National Center for Lead-Safe Housing
(1999), Another Link in the Chain: State Policies and Practices for Case Management and
Environmental Investigation for Lead-Poisoned Children. Washington, D.C: Alliance to End
Childhood Lead Poisoning; and Columbia, MD: The National Center for Lead-Safe Housing.
Amitai, Y., Brown, M.J., Graef, J.W., and Cosgrove, E. (1991) "Residential Deleading: Effects
on the Blood Lead Levels of Lead-Poisoned Children." Pediatrics. 88(5).-893-897.
Annest, J.L. (1983) "Trends in the Blood-Lead Levels of the U.S. Population: The Second
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II) 1976-1980." In: Lead Versus
Health: Sources and Effects of Low Level Lead Exposure, Rutter, M., Russell Jones, R., eds.
New York: John Wiley and Sons, 33-58.
Aschengrau, A., Hardy, S., Mackey, P., and Pultinas, D. (1998), "The impact of low technology
lead hazard reduction activities among children with mildly elevated blood-lead levels,"
Environmental Research 79(1):41-50.
(ASTM) American Society for Testing and Materials (1998), Standard Test Methods for
Evaluating Primary Disposable Bag Integrity for Vacuum Cleaners, ASTM Standard F494-98,
West Conshohocken, PA, http://www.astm.org.
(ASTM) American Society for Testing and Materials (1996), Standard Test Method for
Evaluation of Carpet-Embedded Dirt Removal Effectiveness of Household Vacuum Cleaners,
ASTM Standard F608-96, West Conshohocken, PA, http://www.astm.org.
(ASTM) American Society for Testing and Materials (1992), Standard Test Method for
Evaluating Carpet Embedded Dirt Removal Effectiveness of Residential Central Vacuum
Cleaning Systems, ASTM Standard F1284-92, West Conshohocken, PA, http://www.astm.org.
(ATSDR) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1993) "Toxicological Profile for
Lead," Final Report, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
April 1993.
Bates, M.N., Wyatt, R., and Garrett, N. (1997), "Old paint removal and blood-lead levels in
children," New Zealand Medical Journal 110:373-377.
55
-------
Blumenthal, Dale (1989-1990), "An unwanted souvenir: lead in ceramic ware," FDA Consumer
23(10), December-January, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, available at
http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00081 .html.
Bogden J.D., Oleske J.M., Louria, D.B. (1997). "Lead poisoning - one approach to a problem
that won't go away." Environmental Health Perspectives 105 (12): 1284-1287.
Bourgoin B.P., Evans D.R., Conett, J.R., Lingard, S.M., Quattrone, AJ. (1993). "Lead content
in 70 brands of dietary calcium supplements." American Journal of Public Health
83(8):1155-1160.
(CCAPP) Center for Community Action for Primary Prevention (1999a), "Where is the Lead?"
booklet from Center for Community Action for Primary Prevention of Childhood Lead
Poisoning, Columbia, MD.
(CCAPP) Center for Community Action for Primary Prevention (1999b), "Lead Safe Painting"
booklet from Center for Community Action for Primary Prevention of Childhood Lead
Poisoning, Columbia, MD.
(CDC) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1997a), "Screening Young Children for Lead
Poisoning: Guidance for State and Local Public Health Officials." National Center for
Environmental Health and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
November 1997.
(CDC) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1997b) "Update: Blood lead levels - United
States, 1991-1994." Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 46(1): 141-146.
(CDC) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1995), "Report to Congress on Workers'
Home Contamination Study Conducted under the Workers' Family Protection Act (29 U.S.C.
67 la)," National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, September 1995.
(CDC) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1992). "Lead poisoning among battery
reclamation workers - Alabama, 1991." Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 41(17):301-305.
(CDC) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1991) "Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young
Children: A Statement by the Centers for Disease Control." U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, October 1991.
CH2M HILL (1991), "Final House Dust Remediation Report for the Bunker Hill CERCLA Site
Populated Areas RI/FS" Report to Idaho Department of Health and Welfare, Document No.
BHP A-HDR-F-RO-052091.
56
-------
Charney, E., Kessler, B., Farfel, M., and Jackson, D. (1983), "Childhood Lead Poisoning: A
Controlled Trial of the Effect of Dust-Control Measures on Blood Lead Levels," New England
Journal of Medicine 309:1089-1093.
Charney, E. (1982), "Childhood Lead Poisoning: Reduced Blood Lead Values By Home
Cleaning Program," Final Report by the Sinai Hospital of Baltimore (MD) for the Office of
Policy Development and Research, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development,
HUD-0002717, NTIS PB83-185645.
City of Milwaukee [Wisconsin] Health Department Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention
Program (1999), web site, http://www.ci.mil.wi.us/citygov/health/lead/index.htm.
Clark, S., Bornschein, R., Ryan, J., Kochanowski, A., Succop, P., Peace, B., Ryan, J., and
Kochanowski, A. (1988), "The Cincinnati soil-lead abatement demonstration project" In Lead in
Soil: Issues and Guidelines. Davis, B.E., and Wixson, E.G., eds. Norwood, UK: Science
Reviews Ltd., pp 287-300.
Clark, C.S., Bornschein, R.L., Succop, P., Que Hee, S.S., Hammond, P.B., and Peace, B. (1985),
"Condition and Type of Housing as an Indicator of Potentional Environmental Lead Exposure
and Pediatric Blood Lead Levels," Environmental Research 38:46-53.
(CLPPB) Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Branch (1999), "Bright Futures," California
Department of Health Services, http://www.childlead.com/bright.html.
(CPSC) Consumer Products Safety Commission (1996), "CPSC Finds Lead Poisoning Hazard
for Young Children in Imported Vinyl Mini-Blinds", Office of Information and Public Affairs,
U.S. Consumer Products Safety Commission, Press Release No. 96-150, June 25, 1996.
Consumer Reports (1999), "Calcium Supplements: Hold the Lead, Please," Consumer Reports
64(Feb.):9.
De Michele, S.J. (1984). "Nutrition of lead." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology
78(3):401-408.
Dixon, S., Tohn, E., Rupp, R., and Clark, S. (1999), "Achieving Dust Lead Clearance Standards
After Lead Hazard Control Projects: An Evaluation of the HUD-Recommended Cleaning
Procedure and an Abbreviated Alternative" Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene
14:339-344.
Ewers, L., Clark, S., Menrath, W., Succop, P., and Bornschein, R. (1994), "Clean-up of Lead in
Household Carpet and Floor Dust" Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 55(7):650-657.
57
-------
Farfel, M.R. and Chisolm, JJ. Jr. (1991), "An Evaluation of Experimental Practices for
Abatement of Residential Lead-Based Paint: Report on a Pilot Project." Environmental
Research, 55:199-212.
Figley, D., and Makohon, J. (1994), "Effectiveness of Clean-Up Techniques for Leaded Paint
Dust," Saskatoon, Saskatchewan: Saskatchewan Research Council revised report SRC 1-4800-
38-C-92 to Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (originally published in 1992).
Foulke, Judith E. (1993), "Lead threat lessens, but mugs pose problem," FDA Consumer 27(3),
April, U.S. Food and Drug Administration publication no. 93-1209, reprint available at
http://consumerlawpage.com/brochure/leadmugs.shtml.
Freeman, N.C., Ettinger, A., Berry, M., Rhoads, G. (1997), "Hygiene and food-related behaviors
associated with blood-lead levels in young children from lead-contaminated homes." Journal of
Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol, 7(1):103-118.
Gallacher, J.E.J., Elwood, P.C., Phillips, K.M., Davies, B.E., Jones, D.T. (1984), "Relation
between pica and blood lead in areas of differing lead exposure." Archives of Disease in
Childhood, 59:40-44.
Goyer, R.A. (1995), "Nutrition and metal toxicity." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
61(3 Suppl.):646S-650S.
Hammad, T.A., Sexton, M., Langenberg, P. (1996), "Relationship between blood lead and
dietary iron intake in preschool children. A cross-sectional study." Ann Epidemiol, 6(l):30-33.
Hernandez-Avila, M., Sanin, L.H., Romieu, I, Palazuelos, E., Tapia-Conyer, R., Olaiz, G.,
Rojas, R., and Navarrete, J. (1997), "Higher milk intake during pregnancy is associated with
lower maternal and umbilical cord lead levels in postpartum women." Environmental Research,
74:116-121.
Hilts, S.R., Bock, S.E., Oke, T.L., Yates, C.L., Copes, R.A. (1998), "Effect of interventions on
children's blood-lead levels," Environmental Health Perspectives, 106(2):79-83.
Hilts, S.R., Hertzman, C., Marion, S.A. (1995), "A Controlled Trial of the Effect of HEP A
Vacuuming on Childhood Lead Exposure," Canadian Journal of Public Health, 86:345-350.
(IARC) International Agency for Research on Cancer (1990), Methylene Chloride
(Dichloromethane) on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. IARC Monograph,
Lyons, France, 1990.
Jones, R. (1999), personal communication with N. Niemuth. October 1999.
58
-------
Kimbrough, R.D., LeVois, M., and Webb, D.R., (1994), "Management of Children with Slightly
Elevated Blood-Lead Levels." Pediatrics, 93(2):188-191.
(Labor) U.S. Department of Labor (1993), "Lead Exposure in Construction (No. 3 in a series
of 6): Housekeeping and Personal Hygiene Practices," Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, Fact Sheet No. OSHA 93-49.
Lanphear, B.P., Howard, C., Eberly, S., Auinger, P., Kolassa, J., Weitzman, M., Schaffer, S. J.,
and Alexander, K. (1999), "Primary Prevention of Childhood Lead Exposure: A Randomized
Trial of Dust Control," Pediatrics, 103(4):772-777.
Lanphear, B.P., Winter, N.L., Apetz, L., Eberly, S, and Weitzman, M. (1996), "A Randomized
Trial of the Effect of Dust Control on Children's Blood-lead levels," Pediatrics, 98:35-40.
Leung, R., Koenig, J.Q., Simcox, N., van Belle, G., Fenske, R., and Gilbert, S.G. (1997)
"Behavioral Changes Following Participation in a Home Health Promotional Program in King
County, Washington" Environmental Health Perspectives, 105 (10): 1132-1135.
Levander, O.A. (1979). "Lead Toxicity and Nutritional Deficiencies." Environmental Health
Perspectives, 29:115-125.
Levander, O.A. (1977), "Nutritional Factors in Relation to Heavy Metal Toxicants." FedProc,
36(5):1683-1687.
Lioy, P.J., Wainman, T., and Zhang, J. (1999), "Typical Household Vacuum Cleaners: The
Collection Efficiency and Emissions Characteristics for Fine Particles," Journal of the Air and
Waste Management Association, 49 (2): 200-206.
Lioy, P.J., Yiin, L.M., Adgate, J., Weisel, C., and Rhoads, G.G. (1998), "The effectiveness of a
home cleaning intervention strategy in reducing potential dust and lead exposures," Journal of
Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 8(l):17-35.
Livingston, D. (1997), Maintaining A Lead Safe Home: A Do-It Yourself Manual for Home
Owners and Property Managers. Baltimore, MD: Community Resources. Reprinted by U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development, HUD-1726-LHC.
LSZ, Inc. (1999), web site, 9 East 40th Street, New York, NY 10016,
http://www.ledizolv.com/ledad.htm.
Lucas, S.R., Sexton, M., Langenberg, P. (1996), "Relationship between blood lead and
nutritional factors in preschool children: a cross-sectional study." Pediatrics, 97(1): 74-78.
Mahaffey, K.R. (1995), "Nutrition and lead: strategies for public health." Environmental Health
Perspectives, 103(suppl. 6): 191-196.
59
-------
Mahaffey, K.R. (1990), "Environmental lead toxicity: Nutrition as a component of intervention."
Environmental Health Perspectives, 89:75-78.
Mahaffey, K.R., Gartside, P.S., Glueck, CJ. (1986), "Blood-lead levels and dietary calcium
intake in 1- to 11-year-old children: the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey." Pediatrics, 78(2):257-262.
Mahaffey, K.R. (1985), "Factors modifying susceptibility to lead toxicity." In: Dietary and
Environmental Lead: Human Health Effects. Mahaffey K.R., ed., New York: Elsevier,
985:373-420.
Mahaffey, K.R. (1983), "Biotoxicity of lead: influence of various factors." FedProc,
42(6): 1730-1734.
Mahaffey, K.R. (1981), "Nutritional factors in lead poisoning." Nutrition Reviews,
39(10):353-362.
Mahaffey, K.R. (1977), "Qualities of Lead producing health effects in humans: Sources and
bioavailability." Environmental Health Perspectives, 19: 285-295.
Markowitz, M.E., Bijur, P.E., Ruff, H.A., Balbi, K., and Rosen, J.F., (1996), "Moderate Lead
Poisoning: Trends in Blood-Lead Levels in Unchelated Children", Environmental Health
Perspectives, 104(9):968-972.
Merck (1997), The Merck Manual of Medical Information. Home Edition. Keryn A.G. Lane,
editor, Merck and Company, Inc., 1997.
Mielke, H.W., Adams, I.E., Huff, B., Pepersack, J., Reagan, P.L., Stoppel, D., and
Mielke, P.W., Jr. (1994), "Dust Control as a Means of Reducing Inner-City Childhood Pb
Exposure." In Trace Substances in Environmental Health. Hemphill, D.L., and Beck, B., eds.
25:121-128.
Milar, C.R. and Mushak, P. (1982), "Lead Contaminated Housedust: Hazard, Measurement and
Decontamination," In Lead Absorption in Children. J. Chilsom, and D. O'Hara, editors.
Baltimore: Urban and Schwartzenberg, 143-152.
Morton, D.E., Saah, A.J., Silberg. S.L., Owens, W.L., Roberts, M.A., Saah, M.D. (1982), "Lead
Absorption in Children of Employees in a Lead-Related Industry." American Journal of
Epidemiology, 115(4):549-555.
Neggers, Y.H., Stitt, K.R. (1986), "Effects of high lead intake in children." Journal of the
American Dietetic Association, 86(7): 93 8-940.
60
-------
Osman, K., Schutz, A., Adesson, B., Maciag, A., Vahter, M. (1998), "Interactions between
essential and toxic elements in lead exposed children in Katowice, Poland." Clin Biochem,
31(8):657-665.
Piccinini, R., Candela, S., Messori, M., Viappiani, F. (1986), "Blood and hair lead levels in 6-
year old children according to their parents' occupation." GItalMedLav, 8(2):65-68.
Pinchin Environmental Consultants Ltd. (1995), "Evaluation of the Clean-Up of Lead Paint Dust
in Houses," report to Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Research Division, Ottawa,
Ontario.
Rhoads, G.G., Ettinger, A.S., Weisel, C.P., Buckley, T.J., Goldman, K.D., Adgate, I, Lioy, P. J.
(1999), "The Effect of Lead Dust Control on Blood-Lead in Toddlers: A Randomized Trial,"
Pediatrics, 103(3):551-555.
Ristenbatt Vacuum Cleaner Service (1999), web site sponsored by dealer/distributor (Manheim,
PA), www.ristenbatt.com/bag_effhtm.
Roberts, J.W., and Ruby, M.G. (1998), "Comment on Proposed Rule for Lead: Identification of
Dangerous Levels of Lead," unpublished letter to U.S. EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and
Toxics, September 30, 1998, EPA OPPT Document Control Number 62156, in reference to
Federal Register, Vol 63, No. 106, June 3, 1998, pp 30302 - 30355 (Carpet standards).
Roberts, J.W., Clifford, W.S., Cole, E.C., Glass, G, and Spittler, T.M. (1997), "Reducing the
Exposure of Children to Dust, Dust Mites, Lead, and Gram Negative Bacteria in Carpets by
Extended Vacuuming" in Proceedings of the 7th Annual Meeting of the International Society of
Exposure Analysis, Research Triangle Park, NC.
Roberts, J.W., Glass, G.L., and Spittler, T.M. (1995, in press), "Measurement of Deep Dust and
Lead in Old Carpets," in Measurement of Toxic and Related Pollutants, Pittsburgh: Air & Waste
Management Association. Also in Proceedings, Annual Meeting - Air and Waste Management
Association, San Antonio, TX, May 1995.
Roberts, J.W., Camann, D.E., and Spittler, T.M. (1991), "Reducing Lead Exposure from
Remodeling and Soil Track-in in Older Homes," In Proceedings, Air and Waste Management
Association 84th Annual'Meeting, Paper 91-134.2, Vancouver, British Columbia.
Schultz, B., Pawel, D., and Murphy, A (1999), "A Retrospective Examination of In-home
Educational Visits to Reduce Lead Levels in Children," Environmental Research 80: 364-368.
Schwartz, J., Angle, C., and Pitcher, H. (1986), "Relationship between childhood blood-lead
levels and stature." Pediatrics, 77(3):281-288.
61
-------
Simon, J.A., and Hudes, E.S. (1999). "Relationship of Ascorbic Acid to Blood-lead levels."
JAMA, 281(24): 2289-2293.
Six, K.M., and Goyer, R.A., (1972). "The influence of iron deficiency on tissue content and
toxicity of ingested lead in the rat." JLab ClinMed, 79:128-136.
Sorrell, M., and Rosen, J.F. (1977). "Interactions of lead, calcium, Vitamin D and nutrition in
lead-burdened children." Arch Environ Health, 32(4): 160-164.
Soucy, T.M. (1993) "Lead Hazard Reduction Kit Program," Manchester City Health Department,
Manchester, NH, CHID Accession No. HE97P0548.
Swindell, S.L., Charney, E., Brown, M.J., Delaney, J., (1994) "Home Abatement and Blood Lead
Changes in Children With Class III Lead Poisoning." Clinical Pediatrics, September: 536-541.
Thoenes, M.M. (1992) "Lead Intervention Team Project," Pinellas County Public Health Unit,
St. Petersburg, FL, CHID Accession No. HE97P0507.
(USHUD) U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (1999), "Lead Paint Safety: A
Field Guide for Painting, Home Maintenance, and Renovation Work," HUD Report 1779-LHC.
(USHUD) U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (1995a), "Guidelines for the
Evaluation and Control of Lead-Based Paint Hazards in Housing." Office of Lead-Based Paint
Abatement and Poisoning Prevention, http://www.hud.gov:80/lea/learules.html#download.
(USHUD) U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (1995b), "The Relation of
Lead-Contaminated House Dust and Blood Lead Levels Among Urban Children." Volumes I
and II. Final Report to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development from The
University of Rochester, School of Medicine, Rochester, New York, and The National Center for
Lead-Safe Housing, Columbia, Maryland.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000), "Lead Exposure Associated with
Renovation and Remodeling Activities: Final Summary Report." EPA Report 747-S-00-001.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999), "Protect Your Family From Lead in
Your Home." EPA Report 747-K-99-001, http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadpbed.htm.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998a), "Lead in Your Home: A Parent's
Reference Guide." EPA Report 747-B-98-002, http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadpbed.htm.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998b), "Review of Studies Addressing Lead
Abatement Effectiveness: Updated Edition." EPA Report 747-B-98-001,
http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadtpbf.htm.
62
-------
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998c), "Lead-Based Paint Abatement and
Repair and Maintenance Study in Baltimore: Findings Based on Two Years of Follow-up",
EPA Report 747-R-97-005, http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadtpbf.htm.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998d), "Risk Analysis to Support Standards
for Lead in Paint, Dust, and Soil," EPA Report 747-R-97-006,
http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadtpbf.htm.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997a), "Laboratory Study of Lead-Cleaning
Efficacy." EPA Report 747-R-97-002, http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadtpbf.htm.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997b), "Summary and Assessment of
Published Information on Determining Lead Exposures and Mitigating Lead Hazards Associated
with Dust and Soil in Residential Carpets, Furniture, and Forced Air Ducts," EPA Report 747-S-
97-001, http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadtpbf.htm.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997c), "Lead-based Paint Abatement and
Repair and Maintenance Study in Baltimore: Findings based on the First Year of Follow-up,"
EPA Report 747-R-97-001, http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadtpbf.htm.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997d), "Reducing Lead Hazards When
Remodeling Your Home," EPA Report 747-R-97-001, http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadpbed.htm.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1997e), "Lead Exposure Associated with
Renovation and Remodeling Activities: Environmental Field Sampling Study, Volume I:
Technical Report; Volume II: Appendices," EPA Report 747-R-96-007.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996), "Effect of In-Home Educational
Intervention on Children's Blood-lead levels in Milwaukee." EPA Report 747-R-95-009,
http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadtpbf.htm.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1995a), "Laboratory Evaluation of Dust and
Dust Lead Recoveries for Samplers and Vacuum Cleaners, Volume I: Objectives, Methods, and
Results," EPA Report 747-R-94-004A.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1995b), "Lead-Based Paint Abatement and
Repair and Maintenance Study in Baltimore: Pre-Intervention Findings", EPA Report 747-R-95-
012.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1995c), "Report on the National Survey of
Lead-Based Paint in Housing: Base Report." EPA Report 747-R95-003.
(USEPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1986), "Air Quality Criteria for Lead." EPA
Report 600/8-83-028F.
63
-------
Vij, A.G., Satija, N.K., Flora, S.J.S., (1998), "Lead Induced Disorders in Hematopoietic and
Drug Metabolizing Enzyme System and Their Protection by Ascorbic Acid Supplementation."
Biomedical and Environmental Sciences, 11(1):7-14.
Wilson, N. (1993), "Comparison of Detergency Characteristics Between Tri-Sodium Phosphate
(TSP) and LFA-11 [Ledizolv™], a Detergent Developed for Lead-Contaminated Dust Removal,"
prepared by Hin-Cor Industries for National Center for Lead-Safe Housing, Columbia, Maryland.
64
-------
APPENDIX A:
SELECTED WEB SITES FOR INFORMATION ON
LEAD DUST AND LEAD POISONING
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
-------
Table A-1. Selected web sites for information on lead dust and lead poisoning
Sponsor
Alliance to End Childhood Lead
Poisoning (AECLP)
Alliance to End Childhood Lead
Poisoning: Global Lead Network
Center for Community Action for
Primary Prevention (CCAPP)
City of Milwaukee Health
Department Childhood Lead
Poisoning Prevention Program
Coalition to End Childhood Lead
Poisoning (CECLP)
Massachusetts Department of
Public Health, Childhood Lead
Poisoning Prevention Program
(CLPPP)
National Center for Lead-Safe
Housing (NCLSH)
Mission/Purpose
A national, non-profit public interest
organization dedicated exclusively
to preventing childhood lead
poisoning.
To provide resources and support
for those working on lead poisoning
prevention around the world
To provide strategies, training, and
educational materials to help
communities create sustainable
programs for the primary prevention
of lead poisoning and other health
problems
To provide comprehensive services
to lead poisoned children as well as
innovative primary prevention
efforts aimed at preventing lead
poisoning from occurring.
A non-profit organization whose
mission is to prevent childhood lead
poisoning.
The prevention, screening,
diagnosis, and treatment of lead
poisoning.
To bring the housing, environmental
and public health communities
together to combat childhood lead
poisoning.
URL (Web address)
http://www.aeclp.org
http://www.globalleadnet.org
http://www.leadsafehousing.org/
html/capp.htm
http://www.ci.mil.wi.us/citygov/
health/lead/index, htm
http://www.leadsafe.org/
homeindex.htm
http://www.state.ma.us/dph/clppp
http://www.leadsafehousing.org
Physical Address
227 Massachusetts Avenue, N.E.
Suite 200
Washington, DC 20002
227 Massachusetts Avenue, N.E.
Suite 200
Washington, DC 20002
6272 Dusty Glass Court
Columbia, MD 21044
1230 West Grant Street
Milwaukee, Wl 5321 5
B2714 Hudson Street
Baltimore, MD 21224
470 Atlantic Avenue,
2nd Floor
Boston, MA 02210
10227 Wincopin Circle,
Suite 205
Columbia, MD 21044
Telephone
202-543-1147
410-730-8048
414-225-LEAD
41 0-534-6447 or
800-370-LEAD
617-753-8400
410-992-0712
A-1
-------
Sponsor
Mission/Purpose
URL (Web address)
Physical Address
Telephone
National Conference of State
Legislatures (NCSL)
Database identifies the main
contacts for lead poisoning
prevention in the health,
environmental and occupational
safety agencies in each state.
http://www.ncsl.org/programs/
esnr/toxics.htm#lead
1560 Broadway, Suite 700
Denver, CO 80202
303-830-2200
National Lead Information
Center
Provide the general public and
professionals with information about
lead hazards and their prevention.
http://www.epa.gov/lead/nlic.htm
Washington, DC 20460-0003
1-800-424-LEAD
U.S. Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease
Registry (ATSDR)
To prevent exposure and
adverse human health effects and
diminished quality of life associated
with exposure to hazardous
substances.
http://atsdr1 .atsdr.cdc.gov/
atsdrhome.html
1600 Clifton Rd.
Atlanta, GA 30333
1-888-42-ATSDR
U.S. Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), National
Center for Environmental Health,
Childhood Lead Poisoning
Prevention Program
Develop programs and policies to
prevent childhood lead poisoning,
and educate the public and
health-care providers about
childhood lead poisoning.
http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/
programs/lead/lead, htm
Mailstop F42
4770 Buford Highway
Atlanta, GA 30341
770-488-7330
U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development Office of
Lead Hazard Control
Lead poisoning prevention.
Committed to the goal of providing
lead-safe housing to the nation's
children while preserving affordable
housing.
http://www.hud.gov/lea
451 7th Street, S.W.,
Room B-133
Washington, DC 20410
202-755-1785
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Indoor Environments
Division
Coordinates research and develops
and implements policies regarding
the impact of indoor air pollutants
on the general public.
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/index.html
Mail Drop 6101
Washington, DC 20460-0003
202-564-9370
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Office of Pollution
Prevention and Toxics
Promoting
• Pollution prevention
• Safer chemicals
• Risk reduction
• Public understanding of risks.
http://www.epa.gov/lead/
leadtpbf.htm
Mail Drop 7404
Washington, DC 20460-0003
202-260-2090
A-2
-------
Sponsor
U.S. Occupational Safety and
Health Administration
United Parents Against Lead
Mission/Purpose
To save lives, prevent injuries and
protect the health of America's
workers.
A national organization of and for
parents of lead poisoned children
working to end the continuing threat
of lead poisoning through
education, advocacy, resource
referral and legislative action.
URL (Web address)
http://www.osha-slc.gov/SLTC/
lead/index.html
http://home.earthlink.net/
-shabazzaupal
Physical Address
200 Constitution Avenue
Washington, D.C. 20210
PO Box 24773
Richmond, VA 23224
Telephone
202-693-1999
804-714-1618
A-3
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
A-4
-------
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE S N^otoiss
Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to averge 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data
sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other
aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and
Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302, and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188),
Washington, DC 20503.
1 . AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank)
2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED
lune 2000 Final Report
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
"Basis for Educational Recommendations on Reducing Childhood
Lead Exposure"
6. AUTHOR(s)
Nancy A. Niemuth, Vincent J. Brown, Jessica D. Sanford,
Steven J. Naber, and Kerri L. Copas
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(s) AND ADDRESS(ES)
Battelle Memorial Institute
505 King Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43201
9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)
Program Assessment and Outreach Branch
National Program Chemicals Division (7404)
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
5. FUNDING NUMBERS
C: 68-W-99-033
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
REPORT NUMBER
Not Applicable
10. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY
REPORT NUMBER
EPA747-R-00-001
11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
12.a DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Available by calling 1-800-424-LEAD or at
www.epa.gov/lead under "Scientific Studies and Technical Reports"
12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE
13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)
Education is the primary type of intervention recommended for children with elevated blood-lead
concentrations falling between 10 and 20 (ig/dL. Approximately 90 percent of children with elevated
blood-lead concentrations fall into this range. Thus, the effectiveness of educational efforts is an important
component in the overall success of lead risk reduction efforts. Educational programs operated by state and
local health departments and other organizations vary in format, but usually are consistent in providing
information on cleaning methods; practical ways to reduce exposure to lead in paint, dust, and soil; hazardous
methods of paint removal; nutrition; and behavioral modifications to reduce lead exposure. EPA is currently
undertaking a number of efforts to encourage and enhance educational programs nationwide. As part of that
effort, this report examines the scientific basis for current educational recommendations.
14. SUBJECT TERMS
Lead Poisoning, Education, Children
15. NUMBER OF PAGES
79
16. PRICE CODE
17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY 20. LIMITATION OF
OF REPORT OF THIS PAGE CLASSIFICATION ABSTRACT
Unlimited Unlimited OF ABSTRACT
Unlimited
NSN 7540-01-280-5500
Standard Form 298 (Rev 2-89)
Prescribed by ANSI Std. Z39-18
298-102
------- |