United States Office of Solid Waste and EPA 505-B-01 -001
Environmental Protection Emergency Response May 2005
Agency Washington, DC 20460
&EPA Handbook on the
Management of Munitions
Response Actions
Interim Final
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EPA Handbook on The Management
of Munitions Response Actions
INTERIM FINAL
May 2005
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Disclaimer
This handbook provides guidance to EPA staff. The document does not substitute for EPA's
statutes or regulations, nor is it a regulation itself. Thus, it cannot impose legally binding
requirements on EPA, States, or the regulated community, and may not apply to a particular
situation based upon the circumstances. This handbook is an Interim Final document and
allows for future revisions as applicable.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
GLOSSARY OF TERMS xiii
ACRONYMS xxv
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 Overview 1-1
1.2 The Common Nomenclature 1-2
1.3 Organization of This Handbook 1-5
2.0 REGULATORY OVERVIEW 2-1
2.1 Regulatory Overview 2-2
2.1.1 Defense Environmental Restoration Program 2-2
2.1.2 CERCLA 2-3
2.1.3 CERCLA Section 120 2-5
2.1.4 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 2-6
2.1.5 Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB) 2-8
2.2 Conclusion 2-9
SOURCES AND RESOURCES 2-10
DoD and EPA Management Principles for Implementing Response Actions at
Closed, Transferring, and Transferred (CTT) Ranges 2-15
3.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF MUNITIONS AND EXPLOSIVES OF CONCERN 3-1
3.1 Overview of Explosives 3-1
3.1.1 History of Explosives in the United States 3-1
3.1.1.1 Early Development 3-2
3.1.1.2 Developments in the Nineteenth Century 3-2
3.1.1.3 World War I 3-3
3.1.1.4 The Decades Between the Two World Wars 3-3
3.1.1.5 World War II 3-4
3.1.1.6 Modern Era 3-4
3.1.2 Classification of Military Energetic Materials 3-5
3.1.3 Classification of Explosives 3-7
3.1.3.1 Low Explosives, Pyrotechnics, Propellants, and Practice
Ordnance 3-7
3.1.3.2 High Explosives 3-10
3.1.3.3 Incendiaries 3-11
3.2 Characteristics and Location of MEC 3-11
3.2.1 Hazards Associated with Common Types of Munitions 3-11
3.2.2 Areas Where MEC is Found 3-13
3.2.3 Release Mechanisms for MEC 3-14
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
3.2.4 Chemical Reactivity of Explosives 3-15
3.3 Sources and Nature of the Potential Hazards Posed by Conventional
Munitions 3-15
3.3.1 Probability of Detonation as a Function of Fuze Characteristics .... 3-16
3.3.2 Types of Explosive Hazards 3-18
3.3.3 Factors Affecting Potential for Munitions Exposure to
Human Activity 3-19
3.3.4 Depth of MEC 3-20
3.3.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Decomposition of MEC 3-21
3.3.6 Explosives-Contaminated Soils 3-23
3.4 Toxicity and Human Health and Ecological Impacts of Explosives and
Other Munitions Constituents 3-24
3.4.1 Human Health Effects 3-24
3.4.2 Ecological Effects 3-28
3.4.3 Human and Ecological Effects from Exposure to Specific
Compounds 3-31
3.5 Other Sources of Conventional Munitions Constituents 3-33
3.5.1 Open Burning/Open Detonation (OB/OD) 3-33
3.5.2 Explosives Manufacturing and Demilitarization 3-34
3.6 Conclusions 3-34
SOURCES AND RESOURCES 3-35
4.0 DETECTION OF UXO AND BURIED MUNITIONS 4-1
4.1 Introduction 4-1
4.2 Selection of the Geophysical Detection System 4-3
4.2.1 Geophysical Sensors in Use Today 4-3
4.2.1.1 Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) 4-3
4.2.1.2 Magnetometry 4-4
4.2.1.3 Multisensor Systems 4-4
4.2.1.4 Ground Penetrating Radar 4-4
4.2.2 Selection of the Geophysical Detection System 4-5
4.2.3 MEC Detection System Components 4-7
4.2.3.1 Positioning Systems 4-8
4.2.3.2 Anomaly Identification 4-10
4.2.4 Costs of UXO Detection Systems 4-10
4.2.5 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 4-11
4.3 Emerging UXO Detection Systems 4-11
4.3.1 Advanced EMI Systems 4-11
4.3.2 Airborne Detection 4-12
4.4 Use of Processing and Modeling To Discriminate UXO 4-14
4.5 MEC Detection Demonstration Programs 4-15
4.5.1 Jefferson Proving Ground Technology Demonstration Program .... 4-16
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
4.5.2 Former Fort Ord Ordnance Detection and Discrimination Study
(ODDS) 4-18
4.5.3 UXO Technology Standardized Demonstration Sites 4-19
4.6 Fact Sheets and Case Studies on Detection Technologies and Systems 4-20
4.7 Conclusion 4-20
SOURCES AND RESOURCES 4-34
5.0 RESPONSE TECHNOLOGIES 5-1
5.1 Treatment and Disposal of MEC: An Overview 5-3
5.1.1 Safe Handling of MEC 5-6
5.1.2 Render-Safe Procedures 5-6
5.2 Treatment of MEC 5-6
5.2.1 Open Detonation 5-6
5.2.2 Open Burning 5-9
5.2.3 Alternative Treatment Technologies 5-9
5.2.3.1 Incineration 5-9
5.2.3.2 Contained Detonation Chambers 5-12
5.3 Treatment of Soils That Contain Reactive and/or Ignitable Compounds .... 5-13
5.3.1 Biological Treatment Technologies 5-13
5.3.1.1 Monitored Natural Attenuation 5-14
5.3.1.2 Composting 5-15
5.3.1.3 Soil Slurry Biotreatment 5-16
5.3.1.4 In-Situ Chemical and Biological Remediation 5-17
5.3.2 Soil Washing 5-18
5.3.3 Wet Air Oxidation 5-18
5.3.4 Low-Temperature Thermal Desorption 5-19
5.4 Decontamination of Equipment and Scrap 5-19
5.5 Safe Deactivati on of Energetic Materials and Beneficial Use of Byproducts . 5-20
5.6 Conclusion 5-21
SOURCES AND RESOURCES 5-22
6.0 EXPLOSIVES SAFETY 6-1
6.1 Introduction to DoD Explosives Safety Requirements and the DoD
Explosives Safety Board (DDESB) 6-1
6.2 Explosives Safety Requirements 6-3
6.2.1 General Safety Rules 6-4
6.2.2 Transportation and Storage Requirements 6-4
6.2.3 Quantity-Distance (Q-D) Requirements 6-5
6.2.4 Protective Measures for UXO/EOD Personnel 6-6
6.2.5 Emergency Response and Contingency Procedures 6-6
6.2.6 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 6-7
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
6.2.7 Personnel Standards 6-7
6.2.8 Assessment Depths 6-8
6.2.9 Land Use Controls 6-9
6.3 Managing Explosives Safety 6-10
6.3.1 Site Safety and Health Plans 6-11
6.3.2 Explosives Safety Submissions for Munitions Response Actions .... 6-12
6.3.3 Explosives Safety Submission Requirements 6-14
6.3.4 Explosives Safety Plans 6-15
6.4 Public Education About UXO Safety 6-16
6.5 Conclusion 6-18
SOURCES AND RESOURCES 6-20
7.0 PLANNING MUNITIONS RESPONSE INVESTIGATIONS 7-1
7.1 Overview of Elements of Site Characterization 7-2
7.2 Overview of Systematic Planning 7-3
7.3 Stage 1: Establishing the Goal(s) of the Investigation 7-4
7.3.1 Establishing the Team 7-4
7.3.2 Establishing the Goals of the Site Characterization Process 7-5
7.4 Stage 2: Preparing for the Investigation: Gathering Information To
Design a Conceptual Site Model and Establishing Sampling and Analysis
Objectives 7-6
7.4.1 The Conceptual Site Model (CSM) 7-6
7.4.2 Assessment of Currently Available Information To Determine Data
Needs 7-7
7.4.2.1 Historical Information on Range Use and Munition
Types 7-7
7.4.2.2 Geophysical and Environmental Information 7-9
7.4.3 Key Components of Munitions-Related CSMs 7-10
7.4.3.1 Developing the CSM 7-10
7.4.3.2 Groundtruthing the CSM 7-14
7.4.3.3 Documentation of the CSM 7-15
7.4.4 Preliminary Remediation Goals 7-18
7.4.5 Project Schedule, Milestones, Resources, and Regulatory
Requirements 7-20
7.4.5.1 Resources 7-20
7.4.5.2 Regulatory Requirements 7-22
7.4.6 Identification of Remedial Objectives 7-22
7.4.7 The Data Quality Objectives of the Investigation 7-23
7.4.7.1 Developing DQOs 7-23
7.4.7.2 Planning for Uncertainty 7-24
SOURCES AND RESOURCES 7-26
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
8.0 DEVISING INVESTIGATION AND RESPONSE STRATEGIES 8-1
8.1 Identification of Appropriate Detection Technologies 8-3
8.2 UXO Detection Methods 8-4
8.3 Methodologies for Identifying Munitions Response Areas 8-6
8.3.1 CSM-Based Sampling Design 8-7
8.3.1.1 Searching for Munitions Response Areas 8-7
8.3.1.2 Boundary Delineation and Characterization of Munitions
Response Areas 8-10
8.3.1.3 Site Conditions and Geophysical Sensor Capabilities 8-10
8.3.1.4 Anomaly Identification and Prioritization 8-11
8.3.1.5 Anomaly Reacquisition 8-11
8.3.2 Use of Statistically Based Methodologies To Identify UXO 8-12
8.3.2.1 Rationale for Statistical Sampling 8-12
8.3.2.2 Historical Use of Statistical Sampling Tools 8-12
8.3.2.3 Regulator Concerns Regarding the Historical Use of
Statistical Sampling Tools 8-16
8.3.2.4 Recommendations on the Use of Statistical Sampling 8-17
8.3.2.5 Research and Development of New Statistical Sampling
Tools 8-18
8.4 Incorporating QA/QC Measures Throughout the Investigation 8-19
8.5 Devising an Investigation Strategy for Munitions Constituents 8-21
8.5.1 Sampling Strategy 8-21
8.5.1.1 Knowing Where To Sample 8-21
8.5.1.2 Collecting Soil Samples 8-22
8.5.2 Selecting Analytical Methodologies 8-25
8.5.3 Field Methods 8-25
8.5.4 Fixed Laboratory Methods 8-28
8.5.4.1 EPA Method 8330 8-29
8.5.4.2 EPA Method 8095 8-29
8.5.4.3 Other Laboratory Methods for Explosive Compounds 8-30
8.5.4.4 EPA Method 7580 8-30
8.5.4.5 Perchlorate Analytical Methods 8-30
8.6 Developing the Site Response Strategy 8-31
8.6.1 Assumptions of the Site Response Strategy 8-32
8.6.2 Attributes of the Site Response Strategy 8-33
8.6.3 Questions Addressed in the Development of the Site Response
Strategy 8-35
8.6.3.1 Determining the Presence of Munitions with
Explosive Potential 8-35
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
8.6.3.2 Identifying Potential Pathways of Exposure 8-38
8.6.3.3 Determining Potential for Human Exposure to MEC 8-38
8.6.3.4 Considering Uncertainty 8-39
8.7 Framework for Making the Decision 8-39
8.8 Conclusion 8-39
SOURCES AND RESOURCES 8-41
9.0 UNDERWATER MUNITIONS AND EXPLOSIVES OF CONCERN 9-1
9.1 Conceptual Site Model for Underwater Environments 9-1
9.1.1 Areas Where Underwater MEC Is Found 9-2
9.1.2 Potential for Exposure to MEC 9-2
9.1.3 Environmental Factors Affecting Decomposition of Underwater MEC
Resulting in Releases of Munitions Constituents 9-4
9.1.4 Environmental Fate and Transport of Munitions Constituents 9-6
9.1.5 Ecological and Human Health Effects and Toxicity of Explosive
Compounds and Other Munitions Constituents in the Underwater
Environment 9-8
9.1.6 An Example Conceptual Site Model 9-9
9.2 Detection of Underwater MEC 9-9
9.2.1 Detection Technologies 9-11
9.2.2 Platform, Positioning, and Discrimination 9-12
9.2.3 Use of Divers for Detection 9-14
9.2.4 Other Technological Approaches for Detecting Underwater MEC
andUXO 9-14
9.2.4.1 Case Studies 9-14
Case Study 1: Use of Hand-Held Detectors 9-14
Case Study 2: Use of a Towed-Array Magnetometer 9-15
Case Study 3: Use of Modified EM-61 9-16
Case Study 4: Mare Island Naval Shipyard Validation of Detection
Systems Test Program 9-17
Case Study 5: Use of a Helicopter 9-18
9.2.4.2 Mobile Underwater Debris Survey System 9-21
9.2.4.3 Chemical Sensors 9-22
9.3 Safety 9-22
9.4 Underwater Response Technologies 9-23
9.4.1 Blowing in Place 9-23
9.4.2 Dredging 9-24
SOURCES AND RESOURCES 9-26
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
10.0 CHEMICAL MUNITIONS AND AGENTS 10-1
10.1 Introduction to Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-1
10.2 Where Chemical Munitions and Agents Are Found 10-2
10.2.1 Background 10-2
10.2.2 Stockpile and Non-stockpile CWM Sites 10-3
10.3 Regulatory Requirements 10-4
10.4 Classifications and Acute Effects of Chemical Agents 10-5
10.4.1 Chronic Human Health Effects of Chemical Agents 10-7
10.4.2 Persistence of Chemical Agents 10-11
10.4.3 Acute Toxicity of Chemical Agents 10-13
10.4.4 Degradation Products of Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-16
10.5 Detection of CWM 10-18
10.5.1 Laboratory Analysis of CWM 10-23
10.6 Response, Treatment and Decontamination of Chemical Agent(s) and
Residues 10-23
10.6.1 Response 10-23
10.6.2 Treatment 10-24
10.6.2.1 Non-stockpile Facilities 10-27
10.6.2.2 Research and Development Facilities 10-27
10.6.2.3 Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities 10-27
10.6.2.4 Mobile Treatment Facilities 10-27
10.6.2.5 Individual Treatment Facilities 10-27
10.6.3 Technical Aspects of CWM Remediation Decontamination 10-28
10.7 Safety Considerations at Sites Containing Chemical Agents 10-29
10.7.1 DoD Chemical Safety Requirements in the DoD Ammunition and
Explosives Safety Standards 10-29
10.7.2 Chemical Safety Requirements 10-30
10.7.2.1 Preoperational Safety Surveys 10-30
10.7.2.2 Personnel Protective Equipment 10-31
10.7.3 Managing Chemical Agent Safety 10-31
10.8 Conclusion 10-32
SOURCES AND RESOURCES 10-33
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1. Pyrotechnic Special Effects 3-8
Table 3-2. Examples of Depths of Ordnance Penetration into Soil 3-21
Table 3-3. Primary Uses of Explosive Materials 3-24
Table 3-4. Potential Toxic Effects of Explosive Chemicals and Components on Human
Receptors 3-26
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table 3-5. Potential Effects of Explosive Chemicals and Compounds on Ecological
Receptors 3-29
Table 4-1. Examples of Site-Specific Factors To Be Considered in Selecting a
Detection System 4-6
Table 4-2. System Element Influences on Detection System Performance 4-7
Table 4-3. Description of Positioning Systems 4-9
Table 5-1. Overview of Remediation Technologies for Explosives and Residues 5-4
Table 5-2. Characteristics of Incinerators 5-12
Table 7-1. Potential Information for Munitions Response Investigation 7-10
Table 7-2. Munitions-Related Activities and Associated Primary Sources and Release
Mechanisms 7-11
Table 7-3. Release Mechanisms and Expected MEC Contamination 7-11
Table 7-4. Example of CSM Elements for Firing Range 7-12
Table 7-5. Munitions-Related Activities and Associated Primary Sources and Release
Mechanisms for Explosives and Munitions Manufacturing 7-12
Table 7-6. Release Mechanisms and Expected MEC Contamination for Munitions
Manufacturing 7-13
Table 8-1. UXO Calculator and Site Stats/Grid Stats 8-14
Table 8-2. General Summary of Statistical Geophysical Survey Patterns 8-15
Table 8-3. Explosive Compounds Detectable by Common Field Analytical Methods 8-27
Table 9-1. Exposure Scenarios from Underwater MEC and UXO 9-3
Table 10-1. Chemical Agents and Their Potential Chronic Effects 10-7
Table 10-2. Persistence in the Environment of CW Agents 10-11
Table 10-3. Acute Human Toxicity Data for Chemical Warfare Agents 10-13
Table 10-4. Summary of Known Persistent or Toxic Chemical Agent Degradation
Products 10-17
Table 10-5. Common Methods for Monitoring for and Sensing Chemical Agents 10-19
Table 10-6. Potential Treatment Facilities forNSCWM 10-25
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3-1. Schematic of an Explosive Train 3-6
Figure 3-2. Explosive Trains in a Round of Artillery Ammunition 3-6
Figure 3-3. Mechanical All-Way-Acting Fuze 3-17
Figure 3-4. Mechanical Time Super-Quick Fuze 3-17
Figure 5-1. Windrow Composting 5-15
Figure 5-2. Typical Windrow Composting Process 5-15
Figure 5-3. Side and Top View of Windrow Composting System 5-16
Figure 5-4. Slurry Reactor 5-17
Figure 6-1. Routing and Approval of Explosives Safety Submission (ESS) for Munitions
Response Actions 6-14
Figure 7-1. Systematic Planning Process 7-3
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LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
Figure 7-2. Conceptual Site Model: Vertical View 7-15
Figure 7-3. Conceptual Site Model: Plan View of a Range Investigation Area 7-16
Figure 7-4. Conceptual Site Model: Plan View of a Closed TNT Manufacturing Plant 7-17
Figure 8-1. Example of Search Transects 8-8
Figure 8-2. Example of a Sample Grid 8-10
Figure 8-3. Sampling Scheme for Short-Range Heterogeneity Study: Monite Site, Sampling
Location 1; Major Analyte: TNT (mg/kg) 8-23
Figure 8-4. Results of Composite and Discrete Samples: Soil Analyses: On-Site and Laboratory
Methods, Monite Site and Hawthorne AAP 8-24
Figure 8-5. Comparison of Field and Fixed Laboratory Methods; Valcartier ATR: TNT
Concentrations On-Site vs. Laboratory Results 8-28
Figure 8-6. Developing a Site Response Strategy 8-36
Figure 9-1. Example of Offshore Clearance Zones 9-4
Figure 9-2. Example of a Conceptual Site Model 9-10
Figure 9-3. Airborne Geophysical Survey Helicopter Platform (from ORNL, 2002) 9-18
Figure 9-4. Orthophoto of North Beach Area, former Camp Wellfleet, Massachusetts with
Detected Targets Indicated with Orange Triangles (from ORNL, 2002) 9-19
Figure 9-5. Map of the Analytic Signal of North Beach Area, Former Camp Wellfleet,
Massachusetts (from ORNL, 2002) 9-20
LIST OF ATTACHMENTS
ATTACHMENT 4-1. FACT SHEET #1: MAGNETOMETRY 4-22
ATTACHMENT 4-2. FACT SHEET #2: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (EMI) . . 4-26
ATTACHMENT 4-3. FACT SHEET #3: GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR) . . . 4-29
ATTACHMENT 4-4. CASE STUDY #1: MULTISENSOR SYSTEM 4-31
ATTACHMENT 4-5. CASE STUDY #2: MAGNETOMETRY SYSTEM 4-32
ATTACHMENT 4-6. CASE STUDY #3: GROUND PENETRATING RADAR SYSTEM 4-33
ATTACHMENT 6-1. ASSESSMENT DEPTHS TO BE USED FOR PLANNING
PURPOSES 6-19
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Anomaly. Any identified subsurface mass that may be geologic in origin, unexploded ordnance
(UXO), or some other man-made material. Such identification is made through geophysical
investigation and reflects the response of the sensor used to conduct the investigation.
Anomaly reacquisition. The process of confirming the location of an anomaly after the initial
geophysical mapping conducted on a range. The most accurate reacquisition is accomplished using
the same instrument used in the geophysical survey to pinpoint the anomaly and reduce the area the
excavation team needs to search to find the item.1
Archives search report. An investigation to report past ordnance and explosives (OE) activities
conducted on an installation.2
Arming device. A device designed to perform the electrical and/or mechanical alignment necessary
to initiate an explosive train.
Blast overpressure. The pressure, exceeding the ambient pressure, manifested in the shock wave
of an explosion.6
Blow-in-place. Method used to destroy UXO, by use of explosives, in the location the item is
encountered.
Buried munitions. Munitions that have been intentionally discarded by being buried with the intent
of disposal. Such munitions may be either used or unused military munitions. Such munitions do not
include unexploded ordnance that become buried through use.
Caliber. The diameter of a projectile or the diameter of the bore of a gun or launching tube. Caliber
is usually expressed in millimeters or inches. In some instances (primarily with naval ordnance),
caliber is also used as a measure of the length of a weapon's barrel. For example, the term "5 inch
38 caliber" describes ordnance used in a 5-inch gun with a barrel length that is 38 times the diameter
of the bore.5
Casing. The fabricated outer part of ordnance designed to hold an explosive charge and the
mechanism required to detonate this charge.
Chemical warfare agent. A substance that is intended for military use with lethal or incapacitating
effects upon personnel through its chemical properties.3
Clearance. The removal of UXO from the surface or subsurface at active and inactive ranges.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA).
CERCLA, commonly known as Superfund, is a Federal law that provides for the cleanup of releases
from abandoned waste sites that contain hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants.5
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Defense Sites. Locations that are or were owned by, leased to, or otherwise possessed or used by
the Department of Defense. The term does not include any operational range, operating storage or
manufacturing facility, or facility that is used for or was permitted for the treatment or disposal of
military munitions.
Deflagration. A rapid chemical reaction occurring at a rate of less than 3,300 feet per second in
which the output of heat is enough to enable the reaction to proceed and be accelerated without input
of heat from another source. The effect of a true deflagration under confinement is an explosion.
Confinement of the reaction increases pressure, rate of reaction, and temperature, and may cause
transition into a detonation.6
Demilitarization. The act of disassembling chemical or conventional military munitions for the
purpose of recycling, reclamation, or reuse of components. Also, rendering chemical or conventional
military munitions innocuous or ineffectual for military use. The term encompasses various
approved demilitarization methods such as mutilation, alteration, or destruction to prevent further
use for its originally intended military purpose.8
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB). The DoD organization charged with
promulgation of ammunition and explosives safety policy and standards, and with reporting on the
effectiveness of the implementation of such policy and standards.6
Detonation. A violent chemical reaction within a chemical compound or mechanical mixture
evolving heat and pressure. The result of the chemical reaction is exertion of extremely high
pressure on the surrounding medium. The rate of a detonation is supersonic, above 3,300 feet per
second.3
Discarded Military Munitions (DMM). Military munitions that have been abandoned without
proper disposal or removed from storage in a military magazine or other storage area for the purpose
of disposal. The term does not include unexploded ordnance, military munitions that are being held
for future use or planned disposal, or military munitions that have been properly disposed of
consistent with applicable environmental laws and regulations 10 U.S.C. 2710 (e)(2).14
Disposal. The discharge, deposit, injection, dumping, spilling, leaking, or placing of any solid waste
or hazardous waste into or on any land or water so that such solid waste or hazardous waste or any
constituent thereof may enter the environment or be emitted into the air or discharged into any
waters, including groundwaters.7
Dud-fired. Munitions that failed to function as intended or as designed. They can be armed or not
armed as intended or at some stage in between.
Electromagnetic induction. Transfer of electrical power from one circuit to another by varying the
magnetic linkage.
Excavation of anomalies. The excavation, identification, and proper disposition of a subsurface
anomaly.1
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Explosion. A chemical reaction of any chemical compound or mechanical mixture that, when
initiated, undergoes a very rapid combustion or decomposition, releasing large volumes of highly
heated gases that exert pressure on the surrounding medium. Also, a mechanical reaction in which
failure of the container causes sudden release of pressure from within a pressure vessel. Depending
on the rate of energy release, an explosion can be categorized as a deflagration, a detonation, or
pressure rupture.3
Explosive. A substance or mixture of substances, which is capable, by chemical reaction, of
producing gas at such a temperature, pressure and rate as to be capable of causing damage to the
surroundings.
Explosive filler. The energetic compound or mixture inside a munitions item.
Explosive ordnance disposal (EOD). The detection, identification, field evaluation, rendering-safe
recovery, and final disposal of unexploded ordnance or munitions. It may also include the rendering-
safe and/or disposal of explosive ordnance that has become hazardous by damage or deterioration,
when the disposal of such explosive ordnance is beyond the capabilities of the personnel normally
assigned the responsibilities for routine disposal. EOD activities are performed by active duty
military personnel.9
EOD incident. The suspected or detected presence of a UXO or damaged military munition that
constitutes a hazard to operations, installations, personnel, or material. Each EOD response to a
reported UXO is an EOD incident. Not included are accidental arming or other conditions that
develop during the manufacture of high explosives material, technical service assembly operations,
or the laying of land mines or demolition charges.
Explosive soil. Explosive soil refers to any mixture of explosives in soil, sand, clay, or other solid
media at concentrations such that the mixture itself is reactive or ignitable. The concentration of a
particular explosive in soil necessary to present an explosion hazard depends on whether the
explosive is classified as "primary" or "secondary." Guidance on whether an explosive is classified
as "primary" or "secondary" can be obtained from Chapters 7 and 8 of TM 9-1300-214, Military
Explosives.2
Explosive train. The arrangement of different explosives in munitions arranged according to the
most sensitive and least powerful to the least sensitive and most powerful (initiator - booster -
burster). A small quantify of an initiating compound or mixture, such as lead azide, is used to
detonate a larger quantity of a booster compound, such as tetryl, that results in the main or booster
charge of a RDX composition, TNT, or other compound or mixture detonating.
Explosives safety. A condition in which operational capability, personnel, property, and the
environment are protected from the unacceptable effects of an ammunition or explosives mishap.7
Explosives Safety Submission. The document that serves as the specifications for conducting work
activities at the project. It details the scope of the project, the planned work activities and potential
hazards, and the methods for their control.2 It is prepared, submitted, and approved per DDESB
requirements. It is required for all response actions that deal with energetic material (e.g., UXO,
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buried munitions), including time-critical removal actions, non-time-critical removal actions, and
remedial actions involving explosive hazards.
False alarm. The incorrect classification of nonordnance (e.g., clutter) as ordnance, or a declared
geophysical target location that does not correspond to the actual target location.
False negative. The incorrect declaration of an ordnance item as nonordnance by the geophysical
instrument used, or such misidentification in post-processing; this results in potential risks remaining
following UXO investigations.
False positive. When the geophysical sensor indicates an anomaly and nothing is found that cause
the instrument to detect the anomaly.
Federal land manager. With respect to any lands owned by the United States Government, the
secretary of the department with authority over such lands.
Formerly Used Defense Site (FUDS). Real property that was formerly owned by, leased by,
possessed by, or otherwise under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of Defense or the components,
including organizations that predate DoD.2
Fragmentation. The breaking up of the confining material of a chemical compound or mechanical
mixture when an explosion occurs. Fragments may be complete items, subassemblies, or pieces
thereof, or pieces of equipment or buildings containing the items.3
Fuze. 1. A device with explosive components designed to initiate a train of fire or detonation in
ordnance. 2. A nonexplosive device designed to initiate an explosion in ordnance.4
Gradiometer. Magnetometer for measuring the rate of change of a magnetic field.
Ground-penetrating radar. A system that uses pulsed radio waves to penetrate the ground and
measure the distance and direction of subsurface targets through radio waves that are reflected back
to the system.
Hazard ranking system (HRS). The principal mechanism EPA uses to place waste sites on the
National Priorities List (NPL). It is a numerically based screening system that uses information from
initial, limited investigations the preliminary assessment and the site inspection to assess the
relative potential of sites to pose a threat to human health or the environment.5
Hazardous substance. Any substance designated pursuant to Section 311(b)(2)(A) of the Clean
Water Act (CWA); any element, compound, mixture, solution, or substance designated pursuant to
Section 102 of CERCLA; any hazardous waste having the characteristics identified under or listed
pursuant to Section 3001 of the Solid Waste Disposal Act (but not including any waste the
regulation of which under the Solid Waste Disposal Act has been suspended by an Act of Congress);
any toxic pollutant listed under Section 307(a) of the CWA; any hazardous air pollutant listed under
Section 112 of the Clean Air Act; and any imminently hazardous chemical sub stance or mixture with
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respect to which the EPA Administrator has taken action pursuant to Section 7 of the Toxic
Substances Control Act.10
Hazardous waste. A solid waste, or combination of solid waste, which because of its quantity,
concentration, or physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics may (a) cause, or significantly
contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating
reversible, illness; or (b) pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the
environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed.6
Chemical agents and munitions become hazardous wastes if (a) they become a solid waste under 40
CFR 266.202, and (b) they are listed as a hazardous waste or exhibit a hazardous waste
characteristic; chemical agents and munitions that are hazardous wastes must be managed in
accordance with all applicable requirements of RCRA.11
Ignitable soil. Any mixture of explosives in soil, sand, clay, or other solid media at concentrations
such that the mixture itself exhibits any of the properties of ignitability as defined in 40 CFR 261.21.
Inactive range. A military range that is not currently being used, but that is still under military
control and considered by the military to be a potential range area, and that has not been put to a new
use that is incompatible with range activities.11
Incendiary. Any flammable material that is used as a filler in ordnance intended to destroy a target
by fire.
Indian Tribe. Any Indian Tribe, band, nation, or other organized group or community, including
any Alaska Native village but not including any Alaska Native regional or village corporation,
which is recognized as eligible for the special programs and services provided by the United States
to Indians because of their status as Indians.10
Inert. The state of some types of ordnance that have functioned as designed, leaving a harmless
carrier, or ordnance manufactured without explosive, propellant, or pyrotechnic content to serve a
specific training purpose. Inert ordnance poses no explosive hazard to personnel or material.12
Installation Restoration Program (IRP). A program within DoD that funds the identification,
investigation, and cleanup of hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants associated with
past DoD activities at operating and closing installations and at FUDS.
Institutional controls. Nonengineering measures designed to prevent or limit exposure to hazardous
substances left in place at a site or to ensure effectiveness of the chosen remedy. Institutional
controls are usually, but not always, legal controls, such as easements, restrictive covenants, and
zoning ordinances.13
Land use controls. Any type of physical, legal, or administrative mechanism that restricts the use
of, or limits access to, real property to prevent or reduce risks to human health and the environment.
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Lead agency. The agency that provides the on-scene coordinator or remedial project manager to
plan and implement response actions under the National Contingency Plan (NCP). EPA, the U.S.
Coast Guard, another Federal agency, or a State - operating pursuant to a contract or cooperative
agreement executed pursuant to Section 104(d)(l) of CERCLA, or designated pursuant to a
Superfund Memorandum of Agreement (SMOA) entered into pursuant to subpart F of the NCP or
other agreements - may be the lead agency for a response action. In the case of a release or a
hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant, where the release is on, or the sole source of the
release is from, any facility or vessel under the jurisdiction, custody or control of a Federal agency,
that agency will be the lead agency.5
Magnetometer. An instrument for measuring the intensity of magnetic fields.
Maximum credible event. The worst single event that is likely to occur from a given quantity and
disposition of ammunition and explosives. Used in hazards evaluation as a basis for effects
calculations and casualty predictions.2
Military munitions. All ammunition products and components produced for or used by the armed
forces for national defense and security, including ammunition products or components under the
control of the Department of Defense, the Coast Guard, the Department of Energy, and the National
Guard. The term includes confined gaseous, liquid, and solid propellants, explosives, pyrotechnics,
chemical and riot control agents, chemical munitions, rockets, guided and ballistic missiles, bombs,
warheads, mortar rounds, artillery ammunition, small arms ammunition, grenades, mines, torpedoes,
depth charges, cluster munitions and dispensers, demolition charges, and devices and components
thereof.
The term does not include wholly inert items, improvised explosive devices, and nuclear weapons,
nuclear devices, and nuclear components, other than non-nuclear components of nuclear devices that
are managed under the nuclear weapons program of the Department of Energy after all required
sanitization operations under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (42 U.S.C. 2011 et seq.) have been
completed (10 U.S.C. 101 (e)(4).14
Mishap. An accident or an unexpected event involving DoD ammunition and explosives.7
Most Probable Munition (MPM). For a Munitions Response Site (MRS) the MEC item that has
the greatest hazard distance based on calculations of the explosion effects of the MEC items
anticipated to be found at a site. Typically, the MPM is the MEC item with the greatest
fragmentation or overpressure distance based on the type of munitions that were historically used
at the site.1
Munitions constituents (MC). Any materials originating from unexploded ordnance, discarded
military munitions, or other military munitions, including explosive and nonexplosive materials, and
emission, degradation, or breakdown elements of such ordnance or munitions. (10 U.S.C. 2710
(e)(4)).14 Munitions constituents may be subject to other statutory authorities, including but not
limited to CERCLA (42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq.) and RCRA (42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq.).
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Munitions and Explosives of Concern (MEC). This term, which distinguishes specific categories
of military munitions that may pose unique explosives safety risks, means: (1) Unexploded ordnance
(UXO); (2) Discarded military munitions (DMM); or (3) Munitions Constituents (e.g. TNT, RDX)
present in high enough concentrations to pose an explosive hazard. Formerly known as Ordnance
and Explosives (OE).14
Munitions response. Response actions, including investigation, removal and remedial actions to
address the explosives safety, human health, or environmental risks presented by unexploded
ordnance (UXO), discarded military munitions (DMM), or munitions constituents.14 The term is
consistent with the definitions of removal and remedial actions that are found in the National
Contingency Plan. The response could be as simple as an administrative or legal controls that
preserve a compatible land use (i.e., institutional controls) or as complicated as a long-term response
action involving sophisticated technology, specialized expertise, and significant resources.
Munitions Response Area (MRA). Any area on a defense site that is known or suspected to contain
UXO, DMM, or MC. Examples include former ranges and munitions burial areas. A munitions
response area is comprised of one or more munitions response sites. An MRA is equivalent to a
response area on a range that was formerly referred to as "closed, transferred or transferring" or
CTT.14
Munitions Response Site (MRS). A discrete location within a MRA that is known to require a
munitions response.14
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, or National Contingency
Plan (NCP). The regulations for responding to releases and threatened releases of hazardous
substances, pollutants, or contaminants under CERCLA.5
National Priorities List (NPL). A national list of hazardous waste sites that have been assessed
against the Hazard Ranking System and score above 28.5. The listing of a site on the NPL takes
place under the authority of CERCLA and is published in the Federal Register'.5
Obscurant. Man-made or naturally occurring particles suspended in the air that block or weaken
the transmission of a particular part or parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
On-scene coordinator (OSC). The Federal Official designated by EPA, DoD, or the U.S. Coast
Guard or the official designated by the lead agency to coordinate and direct response actions. Also,
the Federal official designated by EPA or the U.S. Coast Guard to coordinate and direct Federal
responses under subpart D, or the official designated by the lead agency to coordinate and direct
removal actions under subpart E of the NCP.5
Open burning. The combustion of any material without (1) control of combustion air, (2)
containment of the combustion reaction in an enclosed device, (3) mixing for complete combustion,
and (4) control of emission of the gaseous combustion products.8
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Open detonation. A chemical process used for the treatment of unserviceable, obsolete, and/or
waste munitions whereby an explosive donor charge initiates the munitions to be detonated.8
Operational range. A range that is under the jurisdiction, custody, or control of the Secretary of
Defense and (A) that is used for range activities; or (B) although not currently being used for range
activities, that is still considered by the Secretary to be a range and has not been put to a new use
that is incompatible with range activities.14
Overpressure. The blast wave or sudden pressure increase resulting from a violent release of energy
from a detonation in a gaseous medium.9
Practice ordnance. Ordnance manufactured to serve a training purpose. Practice ordnance generally
does not carry a full payload. Practice ordnance may still contain explosive components such as
spotting charges, bursters, and propulsion charges.12
Preliminary assessment (PA) and site inspection (SI). A PA/SI is a preliminary evaluation of the
existence of a release or the potential for a release. The PA is a limited-scope investigation based
on existing information. The SI is a limited-scope field investigation. The decision that no further
action is needed or that further investigation is needed is based on information gathered from one
or both types of investigation. The results of the PA/SI are used by DoD to determine if an area
should be designated as a "site" under the Installation Restoration Program. EPA uses the
information generated by a PA/SI to rank sites against Hazard Ranking System criteria and decide
if the site should be proposed for listing on the NPL.
Projectile. An object projected by an applied force and continuing in motion by its own inertia, as
mortar, small arms, and artillery projectiles. Also applied to rockets and to guided missiles.
Propellant. An agent such as an explosive powder or fuel that can be made to provide the necessary
energy for propelling ordnance.
Quantity-distance (Q-D). The relationship between the quantity of explosive material and the
distance separation between the explosive and people or structures. These relationships are based
on levels of risk considered acceptable for protection from defined types of exposures. These are not
absolute safe distances, but are relative protective or safe distances.2
Range. Means designated land and water areas set aside, managed, and used to research, develop,
test and evaluate military munitions and explosives, other ordnance, or weapon systems, or to train
military personnel in their use and handling. Ranges include firing lines and positions, maneuver
areas, firing lanes, test pads, detonation pads, impact areas, and buffer zones with restricted access
and exclusionary areas. (40 CFR 266.601) A recent statutory change added Airspace areas
designated for military use in accordance with regulations and procedures prescribed by the
Administrator of the Federal Aviation Administration. (10 U.S.C. 101 (e)(3))
Reactive soil. Any mixture of explosives in soil, sand, clay, or other solid media at concentrations
such that the mixture itself exhibits any of the properties of reactivity as defined in 40 CFR 261.23.
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Real property. Land, buildings, structures, utility systems, improvements, and appurtenances
thereto. Includes equipment attached to and made part of buildings and structures (such as heating
systems) but not movable equipment (such as plant equipment).
Record of Decision (ROD). A public decision document for a Superfund site that explains the basis
of the remedy decision and, if cleanup is required, which cleanup alternative will be used. It provides
the legal record of the manner in which the selected remedy complies with the statutory and
regulatory requirements of CERCLA and the NCP.5
Release. Any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting,
escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment (including the abandonment or
discarding of barrels, containers, and other closed receptacles containing any hazardous substance
or pollutant or contaminant).10
Remedial action. A type of response action under CERCLA. Remedial actions are those actions
consistent with a permanent remedy, instead of or in addition to removal actions, to prevent or
minimize the release of hazardous substances into the environment.10
Remedial investigation and feasibility study (RI/FS). The process used under the remedial
program to investigate a site, determine if action is needed, and select a remedy that (a) protects
human health and the environment; (b) complies with the applicable or relevant and appropriate
requirements; and (c) provides for a cost-effective, permanent remedy that treats the principal threat
at the site to the maximum extent practicable. The RI serves as the mechanism for collecting data
to determine if there is a potential risk to human health and the environment from releases or
potential releases at the site. The FS is the mechanism for developing, screening, and evaluating
alternative remedial actions against nine criteria outlined in the NCP that guide the remedy selection
process.
Remedial project manager (RPM). The official designated by the lead agency to coordinate,
monitor, and direct remedial or other response actions.5
Removal action. Short-term response actions under CERCLA that address immediate threats to
public health and the environment.10
Render-safe procedures. The portion of EOD procedures involving the application of special EOD
methods and tools to provide for the interruption of functions or separation of essential components
of UXO to prevent an unacceptable detonation.9
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). The Federal statute that governs the
management of all hazardous waste from cradle to grave. RCRA covers requirements regarding
identification, management, and cleanup of waste, including (1) identification of when a waste is
solid or hazardous; (2) management of wastetransportation, storage, treatment, and disposal; and
(3) corrective action, including investigation and cleanup, of old solid waste management units.6
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Response action. As defined in Section 101 of CERCLA, "remove, removal, remedy, or remedial
action, including enforcement activities related thereto." As used in this handbook, the term response
action incorporates cleanup activities undertaken under any statutory authority.10
Solid waste. Any garbage, refuse, sludge from a waste treatment plant, water supply treatment plant,
or air pollution control facility and other discarded material, including solid, liquid, semisolid, or
contained gaseous material resulting from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural
operations, and from community activities, but not including solid or dissolved material in domestic
sewage, or solid or dissolved materials in irrigation return flows or industrial discharges that are
point sources subject to permits under Section 402 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act as
amended, or source, special nuclear, or byproduct material as defined by the Atomic Energy Act of
1954, as amended.6 When a military munition is identified as a solid waste is defined in 40 CFR
266.202.11
State. The several States of the United States, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of
Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the Virgin Islands, the Commonwealth of Northern Marianas,
and any other territory or possession over which the United States has jurisdiction. Includes Indian
Tribes as defined in CERCLA Chapter 103 § 9671.5
Treatment. When used in conjunction with hazardous waste, means any method, technique, or
process, including neutralization, designed to change the physical, chemical, or biological character
or composition of any hazardous waste so as to neutralize such waste or so as to render such waste
nonhazardous, safer for transport, amenable for recovery, amenable for storage, or reduced in
volume. Such term includes any activity or processing designed to change the physical form or
chemical composition of hazardous waste so as to render it nonhazardous.6
Unexploded ordnance (UXO). These Guidelines will use the term "UXO" as defined in the
Military Munitions Rule. "UXO means military munitions that have been primed, fuzed, armed, or
otherwise prepared for action, and have been fired, dropped, launched, projected, or placed in such
a manner as to constitute a hazard to operations, installation, personnel, or material and that remain
unexploded either by malfunction, design, or any other cause." This definition also covers all
ordnance-related items (e.g., low-order fragments) existing on a non-operational range. (40 CFRPart
266.201, 62 FR 6654, February 12, 1997).11
Warhead. The payload section of a guided missile, rocket, or torpedo.
Sources:
1. Department of Defense. EM 1110-1-4009. June 23, 2000.
2. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Pamphlet No. 1110-1-18, "Engineering and Design Ordnance and Explosives
Response," April 24, 2000.
3. DoD 6055.9-STD, Department of Defense Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards.
4. Federal Advisory Committee for the Development of Innovative Technologies, "Unexploded Ordnance (UXO):
An Overview," Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division, UXO Countermeasures Department,
October 1996.
5. National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (more commonly called the National
Contingency Plan), 40 C.F.R. § 300 et seq.
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6. Department of Defense Directive 6055.9. "DoD Explosives Safety Board (DDESB) and DoD Component
Explosives Safety Responsibilities," July 29, 1996.
7. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 42 U.S.C. § 6901 et seq.
8. Department of Defense. Policy to Implement the EPA's Military Munitions Rule. July 1, 1998.
9. Joint Publication 1-02, "DoD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms," April 12, 2001.
10. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 42 U.S.C. § 9601 et seq.
11. Military Munitions Rule: Hazardous Waste Identification and Management; Explosives Emergencies; Manifest
Exception for Transport of Hazardous Waste on Right-of-Ways on Contiguous Properties, Final Rule, 40 C.F.R.
§ 260 et seq.
12. Former Fort Ord, California, Draft Ordnance Detection and Discrimination Study Work Plan, Sacramento District,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Prepared by Parsons. August 18, 1999.
13. EPA Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office. Institutional Controls and Transfer of Real Property Under
CERCLA Section 120(h)(3)(A), (B), or (C), Interim Final Guidance, January 2000.
14. Department of Defense Memorandum,"Definitions Related to Munitions Response Actions," from the Office of
the Under Secretary of Defense, December 18, 2003.
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ACRONYMS
ARAR applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements
ATR aided or automatic target recognition
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
ATV autonomous tow vehicle
BIP blow-in-place
BRAC Base Realignment and Closure Act
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
CSM conceptual site model
DDESB Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board
DERP Defense Environmental Restoration Program
DGPS differential global positioning system
DMM discarded military munitions
DoD Department of Defense
DOE Department of Energy
DQO data quality objective
EMI electromagnetic induction
EMR electromagnetic radiation
EOD explosive ordnance disposal
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
ESS Explosives Safety Submission
FFA Federal facility agreement
FFCA Federal Facility Compliance Act
FUDS Formerly Used Defense Sites
GIS geographic information system
GPR ground-penetrating radar
GPS global positioning system
FDVIX Her Maj esty' s Explosive, High Melting Explosive
IAG interagency agreement
IR infrared
IRIS Integrated Risk Information System
JPGTD Jefferson Proving Ground Technology Demonstration Program
JUXOCO Joint UXO Coordination Office
MCE maximum credible event
MEC munitions and explosives of concern
MRA munitions response area
MRS munitions response site
MTADS Multisensor Towed-Array Detection System
NCP National Contingency Plan
NPL National Priorities List
OB/OD open burning/open detonation
PA/SI preliminary assessment/site inspection
PEP propellants, explosives, and pyrotechnics
Acronyms
xxv
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PPE personal protective equipment
PRG preliminary remediation goal
QA/QC quality assurance/quality control
Q-D quantity-distance
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RDX Research Demolition Explosive
RF radio frequency
RI/FS remedial investigation/feasibility study
ROD Record of Decision
RSP render-safe procedure
SAR synthetic aperture radar
SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SERDP Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program
TNT 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene
USAGE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
USAEC U.S. Army Environmental Center
UWB ultra wide band
UXO unexploded ordnance
Acronyms
xxvi
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
This handbook has been written for regulators and the interested public to facilitate
understanding of the wide variety of technical issues that surround the munitions response actions
at current and former Department of Defense (DoD) facilities (see text box below). The handbook
is designed to provide a common nomenclature to aid in the management of munitions and
explosives of concern (MEC) which includes:
Unexploded ordnance (UXO),
Abandoned and/or buried munitions (discarded military munitions, or DMM), and
Soil with properties that are reactive and/or ignitable due to contamination with
munitions constituents.
The definition of MEC also includes facilities and equipment; however, the focus of this handbook
is on the three items above.
The handbook also discusses common chemical residues (called munitions constituents) of
explosives that may or may not retain reactive and/or ignitable properties but could have a potential
impact on human health and the environment through a variety of pathways (surface and subsurface,
soil, air and water).
Why Does This Handbook Focus on Munitions Response Areas/Sites?
EP A's major regulatory concern is MRAs that were former ranges and sites where the industrial activity may have
ceased and MEC and munitions constituents may be present. This focus occurs for several reasons:
MRAs are often either in or about to be in the public domain. EPA, States, Tribes, and local governments have
regulatory responsibility at the Base Realignment and Closure Act (BRAC) facilities and the Formerly Used
Defense Sites (FUDS) that represent a significant portion of those sites.
EPA, States, Tribes, and local governments have encountered numerous instances where issues have been
raised about whether former defense sites are safe for both their current use and the uses to which they may
be put in the future.
Ranges at active bases may have been taken out of service as a range and could be put to multiple uses in the
future that may not be compatible with the former range use.
The most likely sites where used and fired military munitions will be a regulated solid waste, and therefore
a potential hazardous waste, are at defense sites that were formerly used as ranges.
Other sites that are addressed by this handbook include nonrange defense sites where MEC may be
encountered, such as scrapyards, disposal pits, ammunition plants, DoD ammunition depots, and research and
testing facilities.
Finally, EPA anticipates that the military will oversee and manage environmental releases at their active and
inactive ranges and at permitted facilities as part of their compliance program.
For the purposes of simplifying the discussion, when the term munitions and explosives of
concern (MEC) is used, the handbook is referring to the three groups listed above. When the
handbook is referring to chemical residues that may or may not have reactive and/or ignitable
characteristics, they are called munitions constituents (MC).
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Buried or stored bulk explosives are not often found at former ranges, but may be found at
other MRSs (e.g., old manufacturing facilities). Although bulk explosives are not explicitly
identified as a separate MEC item, the information in this handbook often applies to bulk explosives,
as well as other MEC items.
The handbook is designed to facilitate a common understanding of the state of the art of
MEC detection and munitions response, and to present U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) guidance on the management of munitions response actions. The handbook is currently
organized into 10 chapters that are designed to be used as resources for regulators and the public.
Each of the chapters presents basic information and defines key terms. The handbook is a living
document and future revisions are likely. A number of areas covered by the handbook are the subj ect
of substantial ongoing research and development and may change in the future (see text box below).
Therefore, the handbook is presented in a notebook format so that replacement pages can be inserted
as new technical information becomes available and as policies and procedures evolve.
Replacement pages will be posted on the Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office web page,
a website of the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (www.epa.gov/swerffrr).
Policy Background on Range Cleanup
The regulatory basis for MEC investigation and cleanup is evolving. This handbook has been prepared within the
context of extensive discussion involving Congress, DoD, EPA, Federal land managers, States, Tribes, and the
public about the cleanup and regulation of MRSs ranges.
1.2 The Common Nomenclature
Listed below are selected key terms that are necessary for understanding the scope of this
handbook (see text box at right). For additional definitions, the user is directed to the glossary at the
beginning of this document.
Changing Terminology
The terminology related to munitions and explosives of concern and related activities, is evolving. On December 18,
2003, the Department of Defense publishedamemorandumtitledDefinitionsRelatedtoMunitions Response Actions.
The memorandum explained that these definitions are part of an evolving effort to implement a Military Munitions
Response Program (MMRP) and are designed to "promote understanding, provide clarity, and consistency in both
internal and external discussions." The most current terms and definitions from the Department of Defense are used
in this publication. However, previously existing publications and references may use older terminology such as
"ordnance and explosives (OE)" to refer to MEC and "closed, transferring, and transferred (CTT) ranges" to refer
to ranges that are no longer operational. Titles of, and quotes from, these prior documents have not been changed.
to reflect the new terms.
Unexploded ordnance The term UXO, or unexploded ordnance, means military
munitions that have been primed, fuzed, armed, or otherwise prepared for action, and
have been fired, dropped, launched, projected, or placed in such a manner as to
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cause.
constitute a hazard to operations,
installations, personnel, or material About These Definitions
and remain unexploded either by
,r- , i ,i The user of this handbook should be aware that the
malfunction, design, or any other , -. ... , , . ., .. . ,
0 J definitions below are not necessarily official or
regulatory definitions. Instead, they are an attempt to
"translate" the formal definition into "plain English."
However, the glossary associated with this handbook
uses official definitions when available. Those
definitions that come from official sources (e.g.,
statutes, regulations, formal policy, or standards) are
appropriately footnoted. The user should not rely on
the definitions in this chapter or the glossary for legal
understanding of a key term, but should instead refer to
the promulgated and/or other official documents.
2. Range The term "range," when
used in a geographic sense, means
a designated land or water area
that is set aside, managed, and
used for range activities of the
Department of Defense. Such
terms includes the following: (a)
firing lines and positions,
maneuver areas, firing lanes, test
pads, detonation pads, impact areas, electronic scoring lines, buffer zones with
restricted access, and exclusionary areas; (b) airspace areas designated for military use
in accordance with regulations and procedures prescribed by the administrator of the
Federal Aviation Commission.
3. Operational range A range that is under the jurisdiction, custody, or control of the
Secretary of Defense and (a) that is used for range activities, or (b), although not
currently used for range activities, that is still considered by the Secretary of Defense
to be a range and has not been put to a new use that is incompatible with range
activities.16
4. Munitions and Explosives of Concern (MEC) This term, which distinguishes
specific categories of military munitions that may pose unique explosives safety risks,
means: (1) unexploded ordnance (UXO), (2) discarded military munitions (DMM) (e.g.,
buried munitions), or (3) munitions constituents (e.g., TNT, RDX) present in high
enough concentrations to pose an explosive hazard. Formerly called ordnance and
explosives (OE).16
5. Munitions Response Area (MRA). Any area on a defense site that is known or
suspected to contain UXO, DMM, or MC. Examples include former ranges and
munitions burial areas. A munitions response area is a large area where MEC may be
known or suspected to be present. An MRA is typically comprised of one or more
munitions response sites.
6. Munitions Response Site (MRS). A discrete location within a MRA that is known to
require a munitions response.
7. Discarded Military Munitions (DMM). Military munitions that have been abandoned
without proper disposal or removed from storage in a military magazine or other storage
area for the purpose of disposal. The term does not include unexploded ordnance,
military munitions that are being held for future use or planned disposal, or military
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munitions that have been properly disposed of consistent with applicable environmental
laws and regulations. It does include buried munitions that have been disposed of with
or without authorization.
8. Buried munitions Buried munitions are used or unused military munitions that have
been intentionally discarded and buried under the land surface with the intent of
disposal. The overarching term for buried munitions is discarded military munitions.
9. Defense sites Locations that are or were owned by, leased to, or otherwise possessed
or used by the Department of Defense. The term does not include any operational range,
operating storage or manufacturing facility, or facility that is used for or was permitted
for the treatment or disposal of military munitions.
10. Explosive soil Soil is considered explosive when it contains concentrations of
explosives or propellants such that an explosion hazard is present and the soil is reactive
or ignitable.
11. Munitions constituents This term refers to the chemical constituents of military
munitions that remain in the environment, including (1) residuals of munitions that
retain reactive and/or ignitable properties, and (2) chemical residuals of explosives that
are not reactive and/or ignitable but may pose a potential threat to human health and the
environment through their toxic properties.
12. Anomaly The term is applied to any identified subsurface mass that may be geologic
in origin, UXO, or some other man-made material. Such identification is made through
geophysical investigations and reflects the response of the sensor used to conduct the
investigation.
13. Clearance The removal of UXO from the surface or subsurface at active and
inactive ranges. This term used to be in widespread use at ranges that are no longer
operational. Many published documents use this term when referring to removal of
MEC at MRSs. The official term now used is Munitions Response (see below).
14. Munitions response Response actions, including investigation and removal and
remedial actions to address the explosives safety, human health, or environmental risks
presented by UXO, discarded military munitions (DMM), or munitions constituents.
The term is consistent with the definitions of removal and remedial actions that are
found in the National Contingency Plan. The response could be as simple as
administrative or legal controls that preserve a compatible land use (i.e., institutional
controls) or as complicated as a long-term response action involving sophisticated
technology, specialized expertise, and significant resources.
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Chapter 1. Introduction 1-4 May 2005
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1.3 Organization of This Handbook
The remaining nine chapters of this handbook are organized as follows:
Chapter 2 Regulatory Overview
Chapter 3 Characteristics of Ordnance and Explosives
Chapter 4 Detection of UXO and Buried Munitions
Chapter 5 Response Technologies
Chapter 6 Explosives Safety
Chapter 7 Planning OE Investigations
Chapter 8 Devising Investigation and Response Strategies
Chapter 9 Underwater Ordnance and Explosives
Chapter 10 Chemical Munitions and Agents
At the end of each chapter is a section titled "Sources and Resources." The information on
those pages directs the reader to source material, websites, and contacts that may be helpful in
providing additional information on subjects within the chapter. In addition, it documents some of
the publications and materials used in the preparation of this handbook.
The handbook is organized in a notebook format because of the potential for change in a
number of important areas, including the regulatory framework and detection and remediation
technologies. Notes are used to indicate that a section is under development.
Warning
Unexploded ordnance poses a threat to life and safety. All areas suspected of having UXO should be considered
unsafe, and potential UXO items should be considered dangerous. All UXO should be considered fuzed and
capable of detonation. Only qualified UXO technicians or military explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) personnel
should consider handling suspected or actual UXO. All entry into suspected UXO areas should be with qualified
UXO technicians or EOD escorts.
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2.0 REGULATORY OVERVIEW
Munitions response actions are governed by numerous Federal, State, Tribal and local laws
and may involve interaction among multiple regulatory and nonregulatory authorities.
On March 7,2000, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Defense
entered into an interim final agreement to resolve some of the issues between the two agencies.1
Some of the central management principles developed by DoD and EPA are quoted in the next text
box. A number of other important issues are addressed by the principles, which are reprinted as an
attachment to this chapter. Some of these will be referred to in other parts of this regulatory
overview, as well as in other chapters of this handbook.
The discussion that follows describes the current regulatory framework for munitions
response actions identifies issues that remain uncertain, and identifies specific areas of regulatory
concern. The reader should be aware that interpretations may change and that final EPA and DoD
policy guidance and/or regulations may alter some assumptions.
Key DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles
The legal authorities that support site-specific munitions response actions include, but are not limited to:
CERCLA, as delegated by Executive Order (EO 12580) and the National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Pollution Contingency Plan (the National Contingency Plan, orNCP); the Defense Environmental Restoration
Program (DERP); and the standards of the DoD Explosives Safety Board (DDESB).
A process consistent with CERCLA and these management principles will be the preferred response
mechanisms used to address MEC. This process is expected to meet any RCRA corrective action
requirements.
DoD will conduct munitions response actions when necessary to address explosives safety, human health, and
the environment. DoD and the regulators must consider explosives safety in determining the appropriate
response actions.
DoD and EPA commit to the substantive involvement of States and Indian Tribes in all phases of the response
process, and acknowledge that States and Indian Tribes may be the lead regulators in some cases.
Public involvement in all phases of the response process is considered to be crucial to the effective
implementation of a response.
These principles do not affect Federal, State, and Tribal regulatory or enforcement powers or authority... nor
do they expand or constrict the waiver of sovereign immunity by the United States in any environmental law.
Finally, it is not the purpose of this chapter to provide detailed regulatory analysis of issues
that should be decided site-specifically. Instead, this chapter discusses the regulatory components of
decisions and offers direction on where to obtain more information (see "Sources and Resources" at
the end of this chapter).
'DoD, Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Environmental Security, and U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste
and Emergency Response. Interim Final Management Principles for Implementing Response Actions at Closed,
Transferring, and Transferred (CTT) Ranges, March 7,2000. These principles are provided in their entirety at the end
of this chapter.
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2.1 Regulatory Overview
As recognized in the DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles cited above and in
EPA's draft MEC policy,2 the principal regulatory programs that guide the cleanup of MRSs ranges
include CERCLA, the Defense Environmental Restoration Program (DERP), and the requirements
of the DoD Explosives Safety Board (DDESB). In addition, the principles assert a preference for
cleanups that are consistent with CERCLA and the CERCLA response process. A number of other
regulatory processes provide important requirements.
Federal, State, and Tribal laws applicable to off-site response actions (e.g., waste material
removed from the contaminated site or facility), must be complied with. In addition, State regulatory
agencies will frequently use their own hazardous waste authorities to assert their role in oversight of
range investigation and cleanup. The RCRA program provides a particularly important regulatory
framework for the management of munitions response actions. The substantive requirements of the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) must be achieved when response proceeds under
CERCLA and //those requirements are either
applicable, or relevant and appropriate (ARAR)
to the site situation (see Section 2.1.4).
Substantive requirements of other Federal, State
and Tribal environmental laws must also be met
when such laws are ARARs.
Military Instructions
Each service has its own set of instructions on how to
comply with environmental regulations. These are
usually expressed as standards or regulations (e.g.,
Army uses AR 200-1 and 200-2 for environmental
regulations). Some of the commonly referred to DoD
.1 T- j i , , ,, , , regulations are listed in the "Sources and Resources"
the Federal regulatory programs that may be 6.. ,,.,. , . , . . ,. ,,
& J F & J section of this chapter but are not discussed here.
important in the management of munitions
The following sections briefly describe
response actions.
2.1.1 Defense Environmental Restoration Program
Although the Department of Defense has been implementing its Installation Restoration
Program since the mid-1970s, it was not until the passage of the Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA), which amended CERCLA, that the program was formalized
by statute. Section 211 of SARA established the Defense Environmental Restoration Program
(DERP), to be carried out in consultation with the Administrator of EPA and the States (including
Tribal authorities). In addition, State, Tribal, and local governments are to be given the opportunity
to review and comment on response actions, except when emergency requirements make this
unrealistic. The program has three goals:
1. Cleanup of contamination from hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants,
consistent with CERCLA cleanup requirements as embodied in Section 120 of
CERCLA and the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan
(NCP).
2. Correction of environmental damage, such as the detecting and disposing of
unexploded ordnance, that creates an imminent and substantial endangerment to
2EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office. Policy
for Addressing Ordnance and Explosives at Closed, Transferring, and Transferred Ranges and Other Sites, July 16,
2001, Draft.
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public health and the environment.
3. Demolition and removal of unsafe buildings and structures, including those at
formerly used defense sites (FUDS).
2.1.2 CERCLA
CERCLA (otherwise known as Superfund) is an important Federal law that provides for the
cleanup of releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, or contaminants. The National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) (40 CFR 300) provides the blueprint to
implement CERCLA. Although the Federal Government (through EPA and/or the other Federal
agencies) is responsible for implementation of CERCLA, the States, Federally recognized Tribal
governments, and communities play a significant role in the law's implementation.
CERCLA (Section 104) authorizes a response when:
There is a release or threat of a release of a hazardous substance into the environment,
or
There is a release or threat of a release into the environment of any pollutant or
contaminant that may present an imminent and sub stantial danger to the public health
or welfare.
The CERCLA process (described briefly below) examines the nature of the releases (or
potential releases) to determine if there is an unacceptable threat to human health and the
environment.
The principal investigation and cleanup processes implemented under CERCLA may involve
removal or remedial actions. Generally, they involve the following:
1. Removal actions are time-sensitive actions often designed to address emergency
problems or immediate concerns, or to put in place a temporary or permanent remedy
to abate, prevent, minimize, stabilize, or mitigate a release or a threat of release.
2. Remedial actions are actions consistent with a permanent remedy, taken instead of
or in addition to removal actions to prevent or minimize the release of hazardous
substances. Remedial actions often provide for a more detailed and thorough
evaluation of risks and response options than removal actions. In addition, remedial
actions have as a specific goal attaining a remedy that "permanently reduces the
volume, toxicity, or mobility of hazardous substances, pollutants, or contaminants."
Whether a removal or remedial action is undertaken is a site-specific determination. In either
case, the process generally involves a number of steps, including timely assessment of whether a
more comprehensive investigation is required, a detailed investigation of the site or area to determine
if there is unacceptable risk, and identification of appropriate alternatives for cleanup, documentation
of the decisions, and design and implementation of a remedy. As noted in the DoD and EPA Interim
Final Management Principles, CERCLA response actions may include removal actions, remedial
actions, or a combination of the two.
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Chapter 2. Regulatory Overview 2-3 May 2005
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DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles Related to Response Actions
DoD components may conduct CERCLA response actions to address explosives safety hazards, to include UXO,
at MRSs ranges per the NCP. Response activities may include removal actions, remedial actions, or a combination
of the two.
For the most part, the CERCLA process is implemented at three kinds of sites:
Sites placed on the National Priorities List (NPL) (both privately owned sites and
those owned or operated by governmental entities). These are sites that have been
assessed using a series of criteria, the application of which results in a numeric score.
Those sites that score above 28.5 are proposed for inclusion on the NPL. The listing
of a site on the NPL is a regulatory action that is published in the Federal Register.
Both removal and remedial actions can be implemented at these sites.
Private-party sites that are not placed on the NPL but are addressed under the removal
program.3
Non-NPL sites owned or controlled by Federal agencies (e.g., Department of Defense,
Department of Energy). Both removal and remedial actions may be implemented at
these sites. These sites generally are investigated and cleaned up in accordance with
CERCLA.
Interim Final Management Principles and Response Actions
The Interim Final Management Principles signed by EPA and DoD make a number of statements that bring key
elements of the Superfund program into a range cleanup program regardless of the authority under which it is
conducted. Some of the more significant statements of principle are quoted here:
Characterization plans seek to gather sufficient site-specific information to identify the location, extent, and type
of any explosives safety hazards (particularly UXO), hazardous substances, pollutants or contaminants, and
"other constituents"; identify the reasonably anticipated future land uses; and develop and evaluate effective
response alternatives.
In some cases, explosives safety, cost, and/or technical limitations may limit the ability to conduct a response
and thereby limit the reasonably anticipated future land uses....
DoD will incorporate any Technical Impracticability (TI) determinations and waiver decisions in appropriate
decision documents and review those decisions periodically in coordination with regulators.
Final land use controls for a given MRS will be considered as part of the development and evaluation of the
response alternatives using the nine criteria established under CERCLA regulations (i.e., NCP)....This will
ensure that any land use controls are chosen based on a detailed analysis of response alternatives and are not
presumptively selected.
DoD will conduct periodic reviews consistent with the Decision Document to ensure long-term effectiveness
of the response, including any land use controls, and allow for evaluation of new technology for addressing
technical impracticability determinations.
The authority to implement the CERCLA program is granted to the President of the United
States. Executive Order 12580 (January 23,1987) delegates most of the management of the program
3Generally, actions taken at private party sites that are not NPL sites are removal actions. However, in some
cases, remedial response actions are taken at these sites as well.
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Chapter 2. Regulatory Overview 2-4 May 2005
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to the Environmental Protection Agency. However, DoD, and the Department of Energy (DOE), and
other Federal land managers (e.g., Department of Interior), are delegated response authority at their
non-NPL facilities, for remedial actions and removal actions other than emergencies. They must still
consult with Federal, State, and Tribal regulatory authorities, but make the "final" decision at their
sites. DoD and DOE are delegated responsibility for response authorities at NPL facilities as well.
When a DoD or DOE facility is on the NPL, however, under Section 120, EPA must concur with the
Record of Decision (decision document).
Whether EPA concurrence is required or not, EPA and the States have substantial oversight
responsibilities that are grounded in both the CERCLA and DERP statutes, such as the following:
Extensive State and Tribal involvement in the removal and remedial programs is
provided for (CERCLA Section 121(f)). A number of very specific provisions
addressing State and Tribal involvement are contained in the NCP (particularly, but
not exclusively, subpart F).
Notification requirements apply to all removal actions, no matter what the time
period. Whether or not the notification occurs before or after the removal is a
function of time available and whether it is an emergency action. State, Tribal, and
community involvement is related to the amount of time available before a removal
action must start. If the removal action will not be completed within 4 months (120
days), then a community relations plan is to be developed and implemented. If the
removal action is a non-time-critical removal action, and more than 6 months will
pass before it will be initiated, issuance of the community relations plan, and review
and comment on the proposed action, occurs before the action is initiated, (National
Contingency Plan, 40 CFR 300.415).
In addition, DERP also explicitly discusses State involvement with regard to releases of
hazardous substances:
DoD is to promptly notify Regional EPA and appropriate State and local authorities
of (1) the discovery of releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances and the
extent of the threat to public health and the environment associated with the release,
and (2) proposals made by DoD to carry out response actions at these sites, and of the
start of any response action and the commencement of each distinct phase of such
activities.
DoD must ensure that EPA and appropriate State and local authorities are consulted
(i.e., have an opportunity to review and comment) at these sites before taking
response actions (unless emergency circumstances make such consultation
impractical) (10 U.S.C. § 2705).
2.1.3 CERCLA Section 120
Section 120 of CERCLA is explicit as to the manner in which CERCLA requirements are to
be carried out at Federal facilities. Specifically, Section 120 mandates the following:
Federal agencies (including DoD) are subj ect to the requirements of CERCLA in the
same manner as nongovernmental entities.
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The guidelines, regulations, and other criteria that are applicable to assessments,
evaluations, and remedial actions by other entities apply also to Federal agencies.
Federal agencies must comply with State laws governing removal and remedial
actions to the same degree as private parties when such facilities are not included on
the NPL.
When the facility or site is on the NPL, an interagency agreement (IAG) is signed
between EPA and the Federal agency to ensure expeditious cleanup of the facility.
This IAG must be signed within 6 months of completion of EPA review of a remedial
investigation/feasibility study (RI/FS) at the facility.
When hazardous substances were stored for one or more years, and are known to have
been released or disposed of, each deed transferring real property from the United
States to another party must contain a covenant that warrants that all remedial actions
necessary to protect human health and the environment with respect to any such
[hazardous] substance remaining on the property have been taken (120(h)(3)).4
Amendments to CERCLA (Section 120(h)(4)) through the Community Environmental
Response Facilitation Act (CERFA, PL 102-426) require that EPA (for NPL
installations) or the States (for non-NPL installations) concur with uncontaminated
property determinations made by DoD.
2.1.4 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
The Federal RCRA statute governs the management of all hazardous waste from generation
to disposal, also referred to as "cradle to grave" management of hazardous waste. RCRA
requirements include:
Identification of when a material is a solid or hazardous waste
Management of hazardous waste transportation, storage, treatment, and disposal
Corrective action, including investigation and cleanup, of solid waste management
units at facilities that treat, store, or dispose of hazardous waste
The RCRA requirements are generally implemented by the States, which, once they adopt
equivalent or more stringent standards, act through their own State permitting and enforcement
processes in lieu of EPA's to implement the program. Thus, each State that is authorized to
implement the RCRA requirements may have its own set of hazardous waste laws that must be
considered.
When on-site responses are conducted under CERCLA, the substantive (as opposed to
administrative) RCRA requirements may be considered to be either applicable, or relevant and
appropriate, and must be complied with accordingly; however, DoD, the lead agency, need not obtain
permits for on-site cleanup activities. Similarly, all substantive requirements of other Federal and
State environmental laws that are ARARs must be met under CERCLA.
4Under CERCLA §120(h)(3)(C), contaminated properly may be transferred outside the Federal Government
provided the responsible Federal agency makes certain assurances, including that the property is suitable for transfer
and that the cleanup will be completed post-transfer.
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The Federal Facility Compliance Act of
1992, orFFCA (PL 102-386), amended RCRA.
FFCA required the EPA Administrator to
identify when military munitions become
hazardous wastes regulated under RCRA
Subtitle C, and to provide for the safe transport
and storage of such waste.
What Is a Military Munition?
According to the Military Munitions Rule, a military
munition is all ammunition products and components
produced or used by or for DoD or the U.S. Armed
Services for national defense and security.
As required by the FFCA, EPA promulgated the Military Munitions Rule (62 FR 6622,
February 12, 1997; the Munitions Rule), which identified when conventional and chemical military
munitions become solid wastes, and therefore potentially hazardous wastes subject to the RCRA
Subtitle C hazardous waste management requirements. Under the rule, routine range clearance
activities - those directed at munitions used for their intended purpose at active and inactive ranges
- are deemed to not render the used munition a regulated solid or potential hazardous waste. The
phrase "used for their intended purpose" does not apply to on-range disposal (e.g., recovery,
collection, and subsequent burial or placement in a landfill). Such waste will be considered a solid
waste (and potential hazardous waste) when burial is not a result of a product use.
Unused munitions are not a solid or
hazardous waste when being managed (e.g.,
stored or transported) in conjunction with their
intended use. They may become regulated as a
solid waste and potential hazardous waste under
certain circumstances. An unused munition is
not a solid waste or potential hazardous waste
when it is being repaired, reused, recycled,
reclaimed, disassembled, reconfigured, or
otherwise subjected to materials recovery
actions.
Finally, the Military Munitions Rule
provides an exemption from RCRA procedures
(e.g., permitting or manifesting) and substantive
requirements (e.g., risk assessment for open
burning/open detonation, Subpart X) in the
response to an explosive or munitions
emergency. The rule defines an explosive or
munitions emergency as:
Unused Munitions Are a Solid (and Potentially
Hazardous) Waste When They Are...
Discarded and buried in an on-site landfill
Destroyed through open burning and/or open
detonation or some other form of treatment
Deteriorated to the point where they cannot be
used, repaired, or recycled or used for other
purposes
Removed from storage for the purposes of
disposal
Designated as solid waste by a military official
Used or Fired Munitions
Military munitions that (1) have been primed, fuzed,
armed, or otherwise prepared for action and have been
fired, dropped, launched, projected, placed, or
otherwise used; (2) are munitions fragments (e.g.,
shrapnel, casings, fins, and other components that
result from the use of military munitions); or (3) are
malfunctions or misfires.
A situation involving the suspected or
detected presence of unexploded ordnance
(UXO), damaged or deteriorated explosives or munitions, an improvised explosive device (IED) or
other potentially harmful chemical munitions or device that creates an actual or potential imminent
threat to human health, including safety or the environment.
In general, the emergency situations described in this exemption parallel the CERCLA
description of emergency removals action must be taken in hours or days. However, the decision
Chapter 2. Regulatory Overview
2-7
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May 2005
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as to whether a permit exemption is required is made by an explosives or munitions emergency
response specialist.
2.1.5 Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB)
The DDESB was established by Congress in 1928 as a result of a major disaster at the Naval
Ammunition Depot in Lake Denmark, New Jersey, in 1926. The accident caused heavy damage to
the depot and surrounding areas and communities, killed 21 people, and seriously injured 51 others.
The mission of the DDESB is to provide objective expert advice to the Secretary of Defense and the
Service Secretaries on matters concerning explosives safety, as well as to prevent hazardous
conditions for life and property, both on and off DoD installations, that result from the presence of
explosives and the environmental effects of DoD munitions. The roles and responsibilities of the
DDESB were expanded in 1996 with the issuance of DoD Directive 6055.9, on July 29, 1996. The
directive gives DDESB responsibility for serving as the DoD advocate for resolving issues between
explosives safety standards and environmental standards.
DDESB is responsible for promulgating safety requirements and overseeing their
implementation throughout DoD. These requirements provide for extensive management of explosive
materials, such as the following:
Safe transportation and storage of munitions
Safety standards for the handling of different kinds of munitions
Safe clearance of real property that may be contaminated with munitions
Chapter 6 expands on and describes the roles and responsibilities of DDESB, as well as
outlines its safety and real property requirements.
In addition to promulgating safety requirements, DDESB has established requirements for the
submission, review, and approval of Explosives Safely Submissions for all DoD responses regarding
UXO at FUDS and at BRAC facilities.
DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles Related to DDESB Standards
In listing the legal authorities that support site-specific response actions, the management principles list
CERCLA, DERP, and the DDESB together.
With regard to response actions, in general the principles state that "DoD and the regulators must consider
explosives safety in determining the appropriate response actions."
Regarding response actions under CERCLA, the principles state that "Explosives Safety Submissions (ESS),
prepared, submitted, and approved per DDESB requirements, are required for Time-Critical Removal Actions,
Non-Time-Critical Removal Actions, and Remedial Actions involving explosives safety hazards, particularly
UXO."
2.2 Conclusion
The regulatory framework for the management of munitions response actions is both complex
and extensive. The DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles for Implementing Response
Actions at Closed, Transferring, and Transferred (CTT) Ranges were a first step to providing guiding
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Chapter 2. Regulatory Overview 2-8 May 2005
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principles to the implementation of these requirements. EPA's own draft policy for addressing
munitions and explosives of concern is another step. As DoD works with EPA, States, and Tribal
organizations and other stakeholders to consider the appropriate nature of range regulation atMRSs,
it is expected that the outlines of this framework will evolve further.
Dialogue will continue over the next few years on a number of important implementation
issues, including many that are addressed in this handbook. For this reason, the handbook is presented
in a notebook format. Sections of this handbook that become outdated can be updated with the new
information.
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SOURCES AND RESOURCES
The following publications, offices, laboratories, and websites are provided as a guide for
handbook users to obtain additional information about the subject matter addressed in each chapter.
Several of these publications, offices, laboratories, or websites were also used in the development of
this handbook.
Publications
Defense Science Board Task Force on Unexploded Ordnance. Report on Vnexploded Ordnance
(UXO) Clearance, Active Range UXO Clearance, and Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOT))
Programs. Washington, DC: Department of Defense, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for
(Acquisition and Technology), Apr. 1998.
U.S. Department of Defense, Operation and Environmental Executive Steering Committee for
Munitions (OEESCM). Munitions Action Plan: Maintaining Readiness through Environmental
Stewardship and Enhancement of Explosives Safety in the Life Cycle Management of Munitions.
Nov. 2001.
U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Management Principles
for Implementing Response Actions at Closed, Transferring, and Transferred (CTT) Ranges.
Interim final. Mar. 7, 2000.
U. S. EPA, Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office. EPA Issues at Closed, Transferring, and
Transferred Military Ranges. Letter to the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Environmental
Security), Apr. 22, 1999.
Information Sources
U.S. Department of Defense
Washington Headquarters Services
Directives and Records Branch (Directives Section)
http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives
Department of Defense Environmental Cleanup (contains reports, policies, general
publications, as well as extensive information about BRAC and community involvement)
http://www.dtic.mil/envirodod/index.html
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB)
2461 Eisenhower Avenue
Alexandria, VA 22331-0600
Fax:(703) 325-6227
http://www.ddesb.pentagon.mil
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Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense
(Installations and Environment, formerly Environmental Security)
http://www.acq.osd.mil/ens/
Environmental Protection Agency
Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office
http ://www. epa.gov/swerffrr/
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste
RCRA, Superfund, and EPCRA Hotline
Tel: (800) 424-9346 - Toll free
(703) 412-9810 - Metropolitan DC area and international calls, (800) 553-7672 - Toll free TDD
(703) 412-3323 - Metropolitan DC area and international TDD calls
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hotline
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
U.S. Army Engineering and Support Center
Ordnance and Explosives Mandatory Center of Expertise
P.O. Box 1600
4820 University Square
Huntsville, AL 35807-4301
http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil/
Guidance
U.S. Air Force. Environmental Restoration Programs. Air Force Instruction (API) 32-7020, Feb.
7,2001.
U.S. Air Force. Air Quality Compliance. API 32-7040, May 9, 1994.
U.S. Air Force. Cultural Resources Management API 32-7065, June 13, 1994.
U.S. Air Force. Solid and Hazardous Waste Compliance. API 32-7042, May 12, 1994.
U.S. Air Force. Water Quality Compliance. API 32-7041, May 13, 1994.
U.S. Army. Cultural Resources Management AR 200-4, Oct. 1, 1998.
U. S. Army. Environmental Analysis of Army Actions. Final Rule, 32 CFR Part 651; AR 200-2,
Mar. 29, 2002.
U.S. Army. Environmental Protection and Enhancement. AR 200-1, Feb. 21, 1997.
U.S. Army. Environmental Restoration Programs Guidance Manual. Apr. 1998.
U.S. Army. Natural Resources-Land, Forest, and Wildlife Management. AR200-3, Feb. 28,1995.
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USAGE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). Engineering and Design - Ordnance and Explosives
Response. EP 1110-1-18, Apr. 24, 2000.
USAGE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). Engineering and Design Ordnance and Explosives
Response. EM 1110-1-4009, June 23, 2000.
U.S. DoD (Department of Defense). Environmental Restoration Program. Instruction 4715.7, Apr.
22, 1996.
U.S. DoD, Deputy Secretary of Defense. DoD Guidance on the Environmental Review Process
to Reach a Finding of Suitability to Transfer (POST) for Property Where Release or Disposal
Has Occurred, and DoD Guidance on the Environmental Review Process to Reach a Finding
of Suitability to Transfer (POST) for Property Where No Release or Disposal Has Occurred.
Memorandum of June 1, 1994, and guidance documents are available at URL:
http ://www. acq. osd.mil/installation/reinvest/manual/fosts.html.
U.S. DoD, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations and Environment).
Management Guidance for the Defense Environmental Restoration Program. Sept. 2001; URL:
http://www.dtic.mil/envirodod/COffice/DERP_MGT_GUID ANCE_0901.pdf.
U.S. DoD, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition and Technology). DoD Policy
on Responsibility for Additional Environmental Cleanup after Transfer of Real Property (25
July 1997). Available as attachments to Base Reuse Implementation Manual, DoD 4165.66-Mat
(Appendix F, Part 2). URL: http://emissary.acq.osd.mil/oea/BRIM97.nsf/.
U.S. DoD and U.S. EPA. Environmental Site Closeout Process Guide. Sept. 1999; available at
EPA and DoD URLs: http://newweb.ead.anl.gov/ecorisk/closeout/docs/section 1 .pdf: also
http://www.epa.gov/swerffrr/pdf/site_closeout.pdf.
U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). CERCLA Compliance with Other Laws
Manual. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response; Interim
Final, Part 1, Aug. 1988, EPA/540/G-89/006; Interim Final, Part 2, Aug. 1989, EPA/540/G-
89/009.
U.S. EPA. EPA Guidance on the Transfer of Federal Property by Deed Before All Necessary
Remedial Action Has Been Taken Pursuant to CERCLA Section 120(h)(3) (known as the Early
Transfer Authority Guidance). June 16, 1998; available at URL:
http://www.epa.gov/swerffrr/documents/hkfm.htm.
U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. Guidance on Conducting Non-
Time-Critical Removal Actions Under CERCLA Aug. 1993; NTIS No. PB93-963422. An EPA
fact sheet (EPA/540/F-94/009) on the guidance is available at URL:
http://www.epa.gov/oerrpage/superfund/resources/remedy/pdf/540f-94009-s.pdf.
U.S. EPA. Guide to Preparing Superfund Proposed Plans, Records of Decision, and Other
Remedy Selection Decision Documents (known as the ROD Guidance). July 1999; NTIS No.
PB98-963241; EPA/540/R-98-031. Available at URL:
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/remedy/rods/.
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U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER), Federal Facilities
Restoration and Reuse Office (FFRRO). Guidelines for Addressing Ordnance and Explosives at
Munitions Response Areas and other Sites. Draft. July 10, 2002.
U.S. EPA. Institutional Controls and Transfer of Real Property Under CERCLA Section
120(h)(3)(A), (B) or (C). Feb. 2000. Available at URL:
http://www.epa.gov/swerffrr/documents/fi-icops_106.htm.
U.S. EPA, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response. Use of Non-Time-Critical Removal
Authority in Superfund Response Actions. Memo from Steven Luftig, Director, OERR, Feb. 14,
2000; available at URL: http://www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/remedy/pdf/memofeb2000.pdf.
U.S. Marine Corps. Environmental Compliance and Protection Manual. Directive P5090.2A,
July 10, 1998.
U.S. Navy. Department of the Navy Cultural Resources Program. SECNAV Instruction
4000.35, Apr. 9, 2001.
U.S. Navy. Environmental and Natural Resources Program Manual. OPNAV Instruction
5090. IB, Nov. 1, 1994.
U.S. Navy. Environmental Protection Program for the Naval Supply Systems Command.
NAVSUP Instruction 5090.1, Nov. 1, 1994.
U.S. Navy. Evaluation of Environmental Effects from Department of the Navy Actions.
SECNAV Instruction 5090.6, July 26, 1991.
U.S. Navy. Storage & Handling of Hazardous Materials. NAVSUP PUB 573, January 13, 1999.
Statutes and Regulations
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA),
42U.S.C. §9601 etseq.
Defense Environmental Restoration Program (DERP), 10 U.S.C. § 2701-2708, 2810.
Department of Defense Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards, DoD Directive 6055.9-
STD, July 1999.
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board, 10 U.S.C. § 172.
Military Munitions Rule: Hazardous Waste Identification and Management; Explosives
Emergencies; Manifest Exception for Transport of Hazardous Waste on Right-of-Ways on
Contiguous Properties; Final Rule, 40 C.F.R. § 260 et seq.
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (more commonly called the
National Contingency Plan), 40 C.F.R. § 300 et seq.
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Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 42 U.S.C. § 6901 et seq.
Superfund Implementation, Executive Order (EO) 12580, Jan. 13, 1987; and EO 13016,
amendment to EO 12580, Aug. 28, 1996.
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Interim Final March 7, 2000
DoD and EPA
Management Principles for Implementing Response Actions at
Closed, Transferring, and Transferred (CTT) Ranges
Preamble
Many closed, transferring, and transferred (CTT) military ranges are now or soon will be in the public
domain. DoD and EPA agree that human health, environmental and explosive safety concerns at
these ranges need to be evaluated and addressed. On occasion, DoD, EPA and other stakeholders,
however, have had differing views concerning what process should be followed in order to effectively
address human health, environmental, and explosive safety concerns at CTT ranges. Active and
inactive ranges are beyond the scope of these principles.
To address concerns regarding response actions at CTT ranges, DoD and EPA engaged in discussions
between July 1999 and March 2000 to address specific policy and technical issues related to
characterization and response actions at CTT ranges. The discussions resulted in the development
of this Management Principles document, which sets forth areas of agreement between DoD and EPA
on conducting response actions at CTT ranges.
These principles are intended to assist DoD personnel, regulators, Tribes, and other stakeholders to
achieve a common approach to investigate and respond appropriately at CTT ranges.
General Principles
DoD is committed to promulgating the Range Rule as a framework for response actions at CTT
military ranges. EPA is committed to assist in the development of this Rule. To address specific
concerns with respect to response actions at CTT ranges prior to implementation of the Range Rule,
DoD and EPA agree to the following management principles:
DoD will conduct response actions on CTT ranges when necessary to address explosives
safety, human health and the environment. DoD and the regulators must consider explosives
safety in determining the appropriate response actions.
DoD is committed to communicating information regarding explosives safety to the public
and regulators to the maximum extent practicable.
DoD and EPA agree to attempt to resolve issues at the lowest level. When necessary, issues
may be raised to the appropriate Headquarters level. This agreement should not impede an
emergency response.
The legal authorities that support site-specific response actions at CTT ranges include, but
are not limited to, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
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Interim Final March 7, 2000
Act (CERCLA), as delegated by Executive Order (E.G.) 12580 and the National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan (NCP); the Defense Environmental Restoration
Program (DERP); and the DoD Explosives Safety Board (DDESB).
A process consistent with CERCLA and these management principles will be the preferred
response mechanism used to address UXO at a CTT range. EPA and DoD further expect that
where this process is followed, it would also meet any applicable RCRA corrective action
requirements.
These principles do not affect federal, state, and Tribal regulatory or enforcement powers or
authority concerning hazardous waste, hazardous substances, pollutants or contaminants,
including imminent and substantial endangerment authorities; nor do they expand or constrict
the waiver of sovereign immunity by the United States contained in any environmental law.
1. State and Tribal Participation
DoD and EPA are fully committed to the substantive involvement of States and Indian Tribes
throughout the response process at CTT ranges. In many cases, a State or Indian Tribe will be the
lead regulator at a CTT range. In working with the State or Indian Tribe, DoD will provide them
opportunities to:
Participate in the response process, to the extent practicable, with the DoD Component.
Participate in the development of project documents associated with the response process.
Review and comment on draft project documents generated as part of investigations and
response actions.
Review records and reports.
2. Response Activities under CERCLA
DoD Components may conduct CERCLA response actions to address explosives safely hazards, to
include UXO, on CTT military ranges per the NCP. Response activities may include removal
actions, remedial actions, or a combination of the two.
DoD may conduct response actions to address human health, environmental, and explosives
safety concerns on CTT ranges. Under certain circumstances, other federal and state agencies
may also conduct response actions on CTT ranges.
Removal action alternatives will be evaluated under the criteria set forth in the National
Contingency Plan (NCP), particularly NCP §300.410 and §300.415.
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DoD Components will notify regulators and other stakeholders, as soon as possible and to the
extent practicable, prior to beginning a removal action.
Regulators and other stakeholders will be provided an opportunity for timely consultation,
review, and comment on all phases of a removal response, except in the case of an emergency
response taken because of an imminent and substantial endangerment to human health and
the environment and consultation would be impracticable (see 10 USC 2705).
Explosives Safety Submissions (ESS), prepared, submitted, and approved per DDESB
requirements, are required for Time Critical Removal Actions, Non-Time Critical Removal
Actions, and Remedial Actions involving explosives safety hazards, particularly UXO.
The DoD Component will make available to the regulators, National Response Team, or
Regional Response Team, upon request, a complete report, consistent with NCP §300.165,
on the removal operation and the actions taken.
Removal actions shall, to the extent practicable, contribute to the efficient performance of any
anticipated long-term remedial action. If the DoD Component determines, in consultation
with the regulators and based on these Management Principles and human health,
environmental, and explosives safety concerns, that the removal action will not fully address
the threat posed and remedial action may be required, the DoD Component will ensure an
orderly transition from removal to remedial response activities.
3. Characterization and Response Selection
Adequate site characterization at each CTT military range is necessary to understand the conditions,
make informed risk management decisions, and conduct effective response actions.
Discussions with local land use planning authorities, local officials and the public, as
appropriate, should be conducted as early as possible in the response process to determine the
reasonably anticipated future land use(s). These discussions should be used to scope efforts
to characterize the site, conduct risk assessments, and select the appropriate response(s).
Characterization plans seek to gather sufficient site-specific information to: identify the
location, extent, and type of any explosives safely hazards (particularly UXO), hazardous
substances, pollutants or contaminants, and "Other Constituents"; identify the reasonably
anticipated future land uses; and develop and evaluate effective response alternatives.
Site characterization may be accomplished through a variety of methods, used individually
or in concert with one another, including, but not limited to: records searches, site visits, or
actual data acquisition, such as sampling. Statistical or other mathematical analyses (e.g.,
models) should recognize the assumptions imbedded within those analyses. Those
assumptions, along with the intended use(s) of the analyses, should be communicated at the
front end to the regulator(s) and the communities so the results may be better understood.
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Interim Final March 7, 2000
Statistical or other mathematical analyses should be updated to include actual site data as it
becomes available.
Site-specific data quality objectives (DQOs) and QA/QC approaches, developed through a
process of close and meaningful cooperation among the various governmental departments
and agencies involved at a given CTT military range, are necessary to define the nature,
quality, and quantity of information required to characterize each CTT military range and to
select appropriate response actions.
A permanent record of the data gathered to characterize a site and a clear audit trail of
pertinent data analysis and resulting decisions and actions are required. To the maximum
extent practicable, the permanent record shall include sensor data that is digitally-recorded
and geo-referenced. Exceptions to the collection of sensor data that is digitally-recorded and
geo-referenced should be limited primarily to emergency response actions or cases where
impracticable. The permanent record shall be included in the Administrative Record.
Appropriate notification regarding the availability of this information shall be made.
The most appropriate and effective detection technologies should be selected for each site.
The performance of a technology should be assessed using the metrics and criteria for
evaluating UXO detection technology described in Section 4.
The criteria and process of selection of the most appropriate and effective technologies to
characterize each CTT military range should be discussed with appropriate EPA, other
Federal State, or Tribal agencies, local officials, and the public prior to the selection of a
technology.
In some cases, explosives safety, cost, and/or technical limitations, may limit the ability to
conduct a response and thereby limit the reasonably anticipated future land uses. Where these
factors come into play, they should be discussed with appropriate EPA, other federal, State
or Tribal agencies, local officials, and members of the public and an adequate opportunity for
timely review and comment should be provided. Where these factors affect a proposed
response action, they should be adequately addressed in any response decision document. In
these cases, the scope of characterization should be appropriate for the site conditions.
Characterization planning should ensure that the cost of characterization does not become
prohibitive or disproportionate to the potential benefits of more extensive characterization or
further reductions in the uncertainty of the characterization.
DoD will incorporate any Technical Impracticability (TI) determination and waiver decisions
in appropriate decision documents and review those decisions periodically in coordination
with regulators.
Selection of site-specific response actions should consider risk plus other factors and meet
appropriate internal and external requirements.
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Interim Final March 7, 2000
4. UXO Technology
Advances in technology can provide a significant improvement to characterization at CTT ranges.
This information will be shared with EPA and other stakeholders.
The critical metrics for the evaluation of the performance of a detection technology are the
probabilities of detection and false alarms. A UXO detection technology is most completely
defined by a plot of the probability of detection versus the probability or rate of false alarms.
The performance will depend on the technology's capabilities in relation to factors such as
type and size of munitions, the munitions depth distribution, the extent of clutter, and other
environmental factors (e.g., soil, terrain, temperature, geology, diurnal cycle, moisture,
vegetation). The performance of a technology cannot be properly defined by its probability
of detection without identifying the corresponding probability of false alarms. Identifying
solely one of these measures yields an ill-defined capability. Of the two, probability of
detection is a paramount consideration in selecting a UXO detection technology.
Explosives safety is a paramount consideration in the decision to deploy a technology at a
specific site.
General trends and reasonable estimates can often be made based on demonstrated
performance at other sites. As more tests and demonstrations are completed, transfer of
performance information to new sites will become more reliable.
Full project cost must be considered when evaluating a detection technology. Project cost
includes, but is not limited to, the cost of deploying the technology, the cost of excavation
resulting from the false alarm rate, and the costs associated with recurring reviews and
inadequate detection.
Rapid employment of the better performing, demonstrated technologies needs to occur.
Research, development, and demonstration investments are required to improve detection,
discrimination, recovery, identification, and destruction technologies.
5. Land Use Controls
Land use controls must be clearly defined, established in coordination with affected parties (e.g., in
the case of FUDS, the current owner; in the case of BRAC property, the prospective transferee), and
enforceable.
Because of technical impracticability, inordinately high costs, and other reasons, complete
clearance of CTT military ranges may not be possible to the degree that allows certain uses,
especially unrestricted use. In almost all cases, land use controls will be necessary to ensure
protection of human health and public safety.
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Interim Final March 7, 2000
DoD shall provide timely notice to the appropriate regulatory agencies and prospective
federal land managers of the intent to use Land Use Controls. Regulatory comments received
during the development of draft documents will be incorporated into the final land use
controls, as appropriate. For Base Realignment and Closure properties, any unresolved
regulatory comments will be included as attachments to the Finding of Suitability to Transfer
(FOST).
Roles and responsibilities for monitoring, reporting and enforcing the restrictions must be
clear to all affected parties.
The land use controls must be enforceable.
Land use controls (e.g., institutional controls, site access, and engineering controls) may be
identified and implemented early in the response process to provide protectiveness until a
final remedy has been selected for a CTT range.
Land use controls must be clearly defined and set forth in a decision document.
Final land use controls for a given CTT range will be considered as part of the development
and evaluation of response alternatives using the nine criteria established under CERCLA
regulations (i.e., NCP), supported by a site characterization adequate to evaluate the
feasibility of reasonably anticipated future land uses. This will ensure that land use controls
are chosen based on a detailed analysis of response alternatives and are not presumptively
selected.
DoD will conduct periodic reviews consistent with the Decision Document to ensure long-
term effectiveness of the response, including any land use controls, and allow for evaluation
of new technology for addressing technical impracticability determinations.
When complete UXO clearance is not possible at military CTT ranges, DoD will notify the
current land owners and appropriate local authority of the potential presence of an explosives
safety hazard. DoD will work with the appropriate authority to implement additional land use
controls where necessary.
6. Public Involvement
Public involvement in all phases of the CTT range response process is crucial to effective
implementation of a response.
In addition to being a requirement when taking response actions under CERCLA, public
involvement in all phases of the range response process is crucial to effective implementation
of a response.
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Interim Final March 7, 2000
Agencies responsible for conducting and overseeing range response activities should take
steps to proactively identify and address issues and concerns of all stakeholders in the
process. These efforts should have the overall goal of ensuring that decisions made regarding
response actions on CTT reflect a broad spectrum of stakeholder input.
Meaningful stakeholder involvement should be considered as a cost of doing business that
has the potential of efficiently determining and achieving acceptable goals.
Public involvement programs related to management of response actions on CTT should be
developed and implemented in accordance with DOD and EPA removal and remedial
response community involvement policy and guidance.
7. Enforcement
Regulator oversight and involvement in all phases of CTT range investigations are crucial to an
effective response, increase credibility of the response, and promote acceptance by the public. Such
oversight and involvement includes timely coordination between DoD components and EPA, state,
or Tribal regulators, and, where appropriate, the negotiation and execution of enforceable site-
specific agreements.
DoD and EPA agree that, in some instances, negotiated agreements under CERCLA and other
authorities play a critical role in both setting priorities for range investigations and response
and for providing a means to balance respective interdependent roles and responsibilities.
When negotiated and executed in good faith, enforceable agreements provide a good vehicle
for setting priorities and establishing a productive framework to achieve common goals.
Where range investigations and responses are occurring, DoD and the regulator(s) should
come together and attempt to reach a consensus on whether an enforceable agreement is
appropriate. Examples of situations where an enforceable agreement might be desirable
include locations where there is a high level of public concern and/or where there is
significant risk. DoD and EPA are optimistic that field level agreement can be reached at
most installations on the desirability of an enforceable agreement.
To avoid, and where necessary to resolve, disputes concerning the investigations,
assessments, or response at CTT ranges, the responsible DoD Component, EPA, state, and
Tribe each should give substantial deference to the expertise of the other party.
At NPL sites, disputes that cannot be mutually resolved at the field or project manager level
should be elevated for disposition through the tiered process negotiated between DoD and
EPA as part of the Agreement for the site, based upon the Model Federal Facility Agreement.
At non-NPL sites where there are negotiated agreements, disputes that cannot be mutually
resolved at the field or project manager level also should be elevated for disposition through
a tiered process set forth in the site-specific agreement.
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Interim Final March 7, 2000
To the extent feasible, conditions that might give rise to an explosives or munitions
emergency (e.g., ordnance explosives) are to be set out in any workplan prepared in
accordance with the requirements of any applicable agreement, and the appropriate responses
to such conditions described, for example as has been done In the Matter of Former
Nansemond Ordnance Depot Site, Suffolk, Virginia, Inter Agency Agreement to Perform a
Time Critical Removal Action for Ordnance and Explosives Safety Hazards.
Within any dispute resolution process, the parties will give great weight and deference to
DoD's technical expertise on explosive safety issues.
8. Federal-to-Federal Transfers
DoD will involve current and prospective Federal land managers in addressing explosives safety
hazards on CTT ranges, where appropriate.
DoD may transfer land with potential explosives safety hazards to another federal authority
for management purposes prior to completion of a response action, on condition that DoD
provides notice of the potential presence of an explosives safety hazard and appropriate
institutional controls will be in place upon transfer to ensure that human health and safety is
protected.
Generally, DoD should retain ownership or control of those areas at which DoD has not yet
assessed or responded to potential explosives safety hazards.
9. Funding for Characterization and Response
DoD should seek adequate funding to characterize and respond to explosives safely hazards
(particularly UXO) and other constituents at CTT ranges when necessary to address human health
and the environment.
Where currently identified CTT ranges are known to pose a threat to human health and the
environment, DoD will apply appropriate resources to reduce risk.
DoD is developing and will maintain an inventory of CTT ranges.
DoD will maintain information on funding for UXO detection technology development, and
current and planned response actions at CTT ranges.
8
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Interim Final March 7, 2000
10. Standards for Depths of Clearance
Per DoD 6055.9-STD, removal depths are determined by an evaluation of site-specific data and risk
analysis based on the reasonably anticipated future land use.
In the absence of site-specific data, a table of assessment depths is used for interim planning
purposes until the required site-specific information is developed.
Site specific data is necessary to determine the actual depth of clearance.
11. Other Constituent (OC) Hazards
CTT ranges will be investigated as appropriate to determine the nature and extent of Other
Constituents contamination.
Cleanup of other constituents at CTT ranges should meet applicable standards under
appropriate environmental laws and explosives safety requirements.
Responses to other constituents will be integrated with responses to military munitions, rather
than requiring different responses under various other regulatory authorities.
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References
A. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 42
U.S.C. §9601etseq.
B. National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (more commonly called the
National Contingency Plan), 40 C.F.R. § 300 et seq.
C. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 42 U.S.C. § 6901 et seq.
D. Military Munitions Rule: Hazardous Waste Identification and Management; Explosives
Emergencies; Manifest Exception for Transport of Hazardous Waste on Right-of-Ways on
Contiguous Properties; Final Rule, 40 C.F.R. § 260, et al.
E. Defense Environmental Restoration Program, 10 U.S.C. § 2701-2708, 2810.
F. Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board, 10 U.S.C. § 172
G. Executive Order (E.G.) 12580, Superfund Implementation, January 13, 1987, and E.G. 13016,
Amendment to Executive Order 12580, August 28, 1996.
H. DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards, DoD Directive 6055.9-STD, dated July
1999.
10
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3.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF MUNITIONS AND EXPLOSIVES OF CONCERN
By their nature, munitions and explosives of concern (MEC), (including UXO, buried
munitions, and reactive or ignitable soil) may present explosive, human health, and/or environmental
risks. When disturbed, MEC may present an imminent hazard and can cause immediate death or
disablement to those nearby. Different types of MEC vary in their likelihood of detonation. The
explosive hazards depend upon the nature and condition of the explosive fillers and fuzes.
Nonexplosive risks from MEC result from the munitions' constituents and include both
human health and environmental risks. As the munitions constituents of MEC come into contact with
soils, groundwater, and air, they may affect humans and ecological receptors through a wide variety
of pathways including, but not limited to, ingestion of groundwater, dermal exposure to soil, and
various surface water pathways.
This chapter provides an overview of some of the information on MEC that you will want to
consider when planning for an investigation of MEC. As will be discussed in Chapter 7, planning
an investigation requires a careful and thorough examination of the actual use of munitions at the site
that is under investigation. Many MRAs/MRSs were used for decades and had different missions that
required the use of different types of munitions. Even careful archives searches will likely reveal
knowledge gaps in how the ranges were used. This chapter provides basic information on munitions
and factors that affect when they were used, where they may be found, and the human health and
environmental concerns that may be associated with them. Information in this chapter provides an
overview of:
The history of explosives, chemicals used, and explosive functions.
The nature of the hazards from conventional munitions and munitions constituents.
The human health and environmental effects of munitions constituents that come from
conventional munitions.
Other activities that may result in releases of munitions constituents.
3.1 Overview of Explosives
In this section, the history of explosives in the United States, the nature of the explosive train,
the different classifications of explosives and the kinds of chemicals associated with them is
discussed.
3.1.1 History of Explosives in the United States
The following section presents only a brief summary of the history of explosives in the United
States. Its purpose is to provide an overview of the types of explosive materials and chemicals in use
during different time periods. This overview may be used in determining the potential types of
explosives that could be present at a particular site.
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3.1.1.1 Early Development
The earliest known explosive mixture discovered was what is now commonly referred to as
black powder. A mixture of potassium nitrate, sulfur, and powdered charcoal or coal. 5 For over 1,200 years,
black powder was the universal explosive and was used as a propellant for guns. For example, when
ignited by fire or a spark from a flint, a loose charge of black powder above a gun's borehole or in
a priming pan served as a priming composition. The train of black powder in the borehole served as
a fuze composition. This combination resulted in the ignition of the propellant charge of black
powder in the gun's barrel. When the projectile in the gun was a shrapnel type, the black powder in
the delay fuze was ignited by the hot gases produced by the propellant charge, and the fuze then
ignited the bursting charge of black powder.6
3.1.1.2 Developments in the Nineteenth Century
Black powder had its limitations; for example, it lacked the power to blast through rock for
the purpose of making tunnels. The modern era of explosives began in 183 8 with the first preparation
of nitrocellulose. Like black powder, it was used both as a propellant and as an explosive. In the
1840s, nitroglycerine was first prepared and its explosive properties described. It was first used as
an explosive by Alfred Nobel in 1864. The attempts by the Nobel family to market nitroglycerine
were hampered by the danger of handling the liquid material and by the difficulty of safely detonating
it by flame, the common method for detonating black powder. Alfred Nobel would solve these
problems by mixing the liquid nitroglycerine with an absorbent, making it much safer to handle, and
by developing the mercury fulminate detonator. The resulting material was called dynamite. Nobel
continued with his research and in 1869 discovered that mixing nitroglycerine with nitrates and
combustible material created a new class of explosives he named "straight dynamite." In 1875 Nobel
discovered that a mixture of nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose formed a gel. This led to the
development of blasting gelatin, gelatin dynamites, and the first double-base gun propellant,
ballistite.7
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, events evolved rapidly with the first commercial
production of nitroglycerine and a form of nitrocellulose as a gun propellant called smokeless
powder. The usefulness of ammonium nitrate and additional uses of guncotton (another form of
nitrocellulose) were discovered. Shortly thereafter, picric acid8 began to be used as a bursting charge
for proj ectiles. Additional diverse mixtures of various compounds with inert or stabilizing fillers were
developed for use as propellants and as bursting charges.9
During the Spanish-American War, the United States continued its use of black powder as
an artillery propellant. During this period, the U.S. Navy Powder Factory at Indian Head started
5 A mixture of potassium nitrate, sulfur, and powdered charcoal or coal.
"Military Explosives, TM 9-1300-214, Department of the Army, September 1984.
7A. Bailey and S.G. Murray. Explosives, Propellants and Pyrotechnics. Brassey's (UK) Ltd., 1989.
8Picric acid, 2,4,6-Trinitrophenol.
9Military Explosives, 1984.
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manufacturing single-base powder. However, the U.S. Army was slow to adopt this material, not
manufacturing single-base powder until about 1900. This pyrocellulose powder was manufactured
by gelatinizing nitrocellulose by means of an ether-ethanol mixture, extruding the resulting colloid
material, and removing the solvent by evaporation.10 By 1909, diphenylamine had been introduced
as a stabilizer.
Because of its corrosive action on metal casings to form shock-sensitive metal salts, picric
acid was replaced by TNT11 as a bursting charge for artillery projectiles. Ammonium picrate, also
known as "Explosive D," was also standardized in the United States as the bursting charge for armor-
piercing projectiles.
3.1.1.3 World War I
The advent of the First World War saw the introduction of lead azide as an initiator and the
use of TNT substitutes, containing mixtures of TNT, ammonium nitrate, and in some cases
aluminum, by all the warring nations. One TNT substitute developed was amatol, which consisted
of a mixture of 80 percent ammonium nitrate and 20 percent TNT. (Modern amatols contain no more
than 50 percent ammonium nitrate.) Tetryl was introduced as a booster explosive for projectile
charges.12
3.1.1.4 The Decades Between the Two World Wars
The decades following World War I saw the development of RDX,13 PETN,14 lead styphnate,
DEGDN,15 and lead azide as military explosives. In the United States, the production of toluene from
petroleum resulted in the increased production of TNT. This led to the production of more powerful
and castable explosives such as pentolite.16 Flashless propellants were developed in the United
States, as well as diazodinitrophenol as an initiator.17
10Ibid.
"TNT, 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene.
^Military Explosives, 1984.
13RDX, Hexahydro-l,3,5-trinitro-l,3,5-triazine.
14Use of PETN, or pentaerythrite tetranitrate, was not used on a practical basis until after World War I. It is
used extensively in mixtures with TNT for the loading of small-caliber projectiles and grenades. It has been used in
detonating fuzes, boosters, and detonators.
15DEGDN, Diethylene glycol dinitrate.
16An equal mixture of TNT and PETN.
11 Military Explosives, 1984.
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3.1.1.5 World War II
The industrial development and manufacturing of synthetic toluene from petroleum just prior
to World War II in the United States resulted in a nearly limitless supply of this chemical precursor
of TNT. Because of its suitability for melt-loading, a process that heats the mixture to a near liquid
state for introducing into the bomb casing, and for forming mixtures with other explosive compounds
that could be melt-loaded, TNT was produced and used on an enormous scale during World War II.
World War II also saw the development of rocket propellants based on a mixture of nitrocellulose
and nitroglycerine or nitrocellulose and DEGDN. Tetrytol18 and picratol,19 special-purpose binary
explosives used in demolition work and in semi-armor-piercing bombs, were also developed by the
United States.20
RDX and HMX21 came into use during World War II, but HMX was not produced in large
quantities, so its use was limited.22 Cyclotols, which are mixtures of TNT and RDX, were
standardized early in World War II. Three formulations are currently used: 75 percent RDX and 25
percent TNT, 70 percent RDX and 30 percent TNT, and 65 percent RDX and 35 percent TNT.
A number of plastic explosives for demolition work were developed including the RDX-based
C-3. The addition of powdered aluminum to explosives was found to increase their power. This led
to the development of tritonal,23 torpex,24 and minol,25 which have powerful blast effects. Also
developed was the shaped charge, which permits the explosive force to be focused in a specific
direction and led to its use for armor-piercing explosive rounds.26
3.1.1.6 Modern Era
Since 1945, military researchers have recognized that, based on both performance and cost,
RDX, TNT, and HMX are not likely to be replaced as explosives of choice for military applications.
Research has been directed into the optimization of explosive mixtures for special applications and
for identifying and solving safety problems. Mixing RDX, HMX, or PETN into oily or polymer
matrices has produced plastic or flexible explosives for demolition. Other polymers will produce
tough, rigid, heat-resistant compositions for conventional missile warheads and for the conventional
18A binary bursting charge explosive containing 70% tetryl and 30% TNT.
19A binary bursting charge explosive containing 52% ammonium picrate (Explosive D) and 48% TNT.
^Military Explosives, 1984.
21HMX, Octahydro-l,3,5,74etranitro-l,3,5,7-tetrazocine.
22Bailey and Murray.
23A mixture of 80% TNT and 20% flaked aluminum.
24A mixture of 41% RDX, 41% TNT, and 18% aluminum.
25A mixture of TNT, ammonium nitrate, and aluminum.
^Military Explosives, 1984.
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implosion devices used in nuclear weapons.27
3.1.2 Classification of Military Energetic Materials
Energetic materials used by the military consist of energetic chemical compounds or mixtures
of chemical compounds. These are divided into three uses: explosives, propellants, and pyrotechnics.
Explosives and propellants, if properly initiated, will evolve large volumes of gas over a short period
of time. The key difference between explosives and propellants is the reaction rate. Explosives react
rapidly, creating a high-pressure shock wave. Propellants react at a slower rate, creating a sustained
lower pressure. Pyrotechnics produce heat but less gas than explosives or propellants.28
The characteristic effects of explosives result from a vast change in temperature and pressure
developed when a solid, liquid, or gas is converted into a much greater volume of gas and heat. The
rate of decomposition of particular explosives varies greatly and determines the classification of
explosives into broadly defined groups.29
Military explosives are grouped into three classes:30
1. Inorganic compounds, including lead azide and ammonium nitrate
2. Organic compounds, including:
a. Nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose
b. Nitro compounds, such as TNT and Explosive D
c. Nitramines, such as RDX and HMX
d. Nitroso compounds, such as tetrazene
e. Metallic derivatives, such as mercury fulminate and lead styphnate
3. Mixtures of oxidizable materials, such as fuels, and oxidizing agents that are not
explosive when separate. These are also known as binary explosives.
The unique properties of each class of explosives are utilized to make the "explosive train."
One example of an explosive train is the initiation by a firing pin of a priming composition that
detonates a charge of lead azide. The lead azide initiates the detonation of a booster charge of tetryl.
The tetryl in turn detonates the surrounding bursting or main charge of TNT. The explosive train is
illustrated in Figures 3-1 and 3-2.
27Bailey and Murray.
^Military Explosives, 1984.
^Military Explosives, Department of the Army, TM 9-1910, April 1955.
30Ibid.
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Figure 3-1. Schematic of an Explosive Train
I*roj ectile
tiatotr
tutor)
Booatex-
Propellent
CPriEiM-r TVtbe
Initiator
(₯f»ni ti-i- Cap)
Figure 3-2. Explosive Trains in a Round of Artillery Ammunition
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3.1.3 Classification of Explosives
An explosive is defined as a chemical material that, under the influence of thermal or
mechanical shock, decomposes rapidly with the evolution of large amounts of heat and gas.31 The
categories low explosive and high explosive are based on the velocity of the explosion. High
explosives are characterized by their extremely rapid rate of decomposition. When a high explosive
is initiated by a blow or shock, it decomposes almost instantaneously, a process called detonation.
A detonation is a reaction that proceeds through the reacted material toward the unreacted material
at a supersonic velocity (greater than 3,300 feet per second). High explosives are further divisible by
their susceptibility to initiation into primary and secondary high explosives. Primary or initiating
high explosives are extremely sensitive and are used to set off secondary high explosives, which are
much less sensitive but will explode violently when ignited. Low explosives, such as smokeless
powder and black powder, on the other hand, combust at a slower
rate when set off and produce large volumes of gas in a
controllable manner. Examples of primary high explosives are lead
azide and mercury fulminate. TNT, tetryl, RDX, and HMX are
secondary high explosives. There are hundreds of different kinds
of explosives and this handbook does not attempt to address all of
them. Rather, it discusses the major classifications of explosives
used in military munitions.
3.1.3.1 Low Explosives, Pyrotechnics, Propellants, and Practice
Ordnance
Low explosives include such materials as smokeless
powder and black powder. Low explosives undergo chemical
reactions, such as decomposition or autocombustion, at rates from
a few centimeters per minute to approximately 400 meters per
second. Examples and uses of low explosives are provided below.
Pyrotechnics are used to send signals, to illuminate areas
of interest, to simulate other weapons during training, and as
ignition elements for certain weapons. Pyrotechnics, when ignited,
undergo an energetic chemical reaction at a controlled rate
intended to produce, on demand in various combinations, specific
time delays or quantities of heat, noise, smoke, light, or infrared
radiation. Pyrotechnics consist of a wide range of materials that in
combination produce the desired effects. Some examples of these
materials are found in the text box to the right.32 Some pyrotechnic devices are used as military
simulators and are designed to explode. For example, the M80 simulator, a paper cylinder
containing the charge composition, is used to simulate rifle or artillery fire, hand grenades, booby
Chemicals Found in
Pyrotechnics
Aluminum
Barium
Chromium
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachloroethane
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Titanium
Tungsten
Zirconium
Boron
Carbon
Silicon
Sulfur
White Phosphorus
Zinc
Chlorates
Chromates
Bichromates
Halocarbons
lodates
Nitrates
Oxides
Perchlorates
31R.N. Shreve. Chemical Process Industries. 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, NY, NY, 1967.
32Ibid.
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traps, or land mines.33 Table 3-1 shows examples of pyrotechnic special effects.34
Table 3-1. Pyrotechnic Special Effects
Effect
Heat
Light*
Smoke
Sound
Examples
Igniters, incendiaries, delays, metal producers, heaters
Illumination (both long
and short periods), tracking, signaling,
decoys
Signaling, screening
Signaling, distraction
* Includes not only visible light but also nonvisible light, such as infrared.
Propellants are explosives that can be used to provide controlled propulsion for a projectile.
Projectiles include bullets, mortar rounds, artillery rounds, rockets, and missiles. Because the
projectile must be directed with respect to range and direction, the explosive process must be
restrained. In order to allow a controlled reaction that falls short of an actual detonation, the physical
properties of the propellant, such as the grain size and form, must be carefully controlled.
Historically, the first propellant used was black powder. However, the use of black powder
(in the form of a dust or fine powder) as a propellant for guns did not allow accurate control of a
gun's ballistic effects. The development of denser and larger grains of fixed geometric shapes
permitted greater control of a gun's ballistic effects.35
Modern gun propellants consist of one or more explosives and additives (see text box). These
gun propellants are often referred to as "smokeless powders" to distinguish these materials from
black powder. They are largely smokeless on firing compared to black powder, which gives off more
than 50 percent of its weight as solid products.36
All solid gun propellants contain nitrocellulose. As a nitrated
natural polymer, nitrocellulose has the required mechanical strength
and resilience to maintain its integrity during handling and firing.
Nitrocellulose is partially soluble in some organic solvents. These
solvents include acetone, ethanol, ether/ethanol, and nitroglycerine.
When a mixture of nitrocellulose and solvent is worked, a gel forms.
This gel retains the strength of the polymer structure of
Chemicals Found in Gun
Propellants
Dinitrotoluenes (2,4 and 2,6)
Diphenylamine
Ethyl centralite
N-nitroso-diphenylamine
Nitrocellulose
Nitroglycerine
Nitroguanidine
Phthalates
^Pyrotechnic Simulators, TM 9-1370-207-10, Headquarters, Department of the Army, March 31, 1991.
34Bailey and Murray.
^Military Explosives, 1984.
36Bailey and Murray.
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nitrocellulose. Other propellant ingredients include nitroglycerine and nitroguanidine.37
Modern gun propellants, classified according to composition, include the following:38
Single-base. Nitrocellulose is the chief ingredient. In addition to a stabilizer, single-base
propellants may contain inorganic nitrates, nitrocompounds, and nonexplosive materials
as metallic salts, metals, carbohydrates, and dyes.
Double-base. In addition to nitrocellulose, a double-base propellant contains a liquid
organic nitrate such as nitroglycerine. Double-base propellants frequently contain
additives, in addition to a stabilizer.
Composite. Composite propellants do not contain nitrocellulose or organic nitrates.
Generally, they are a physical mixture of an organic fuel and an inorganic oxidizing
agent. An organic binding agent holds the mixture together in a heterogeneous physical
structure.
Rocket propellants are explosives designed to burn smoothly without risk of detonation, thus
providing smooth propulsion. Some classes of rocket propellants are similar in composition to the
previously described gun propellants. However, due to the different requirements and operating
conditions, there are differences in formulation. Gun propellants have a very short burn time with a
high internal pressure. Rocket propellants can burn for a longer time and operate at a lower pressure
than gun propellants.39
Rocket propellants can be liquid or solid. There are two types of liquid propellants:
monopropellants, which have a single material, and bipropellants, which have both a fuel and an
oxidizer. Currently, the most commonly used monopropellant is hydrazine. Bipropellants are used
on very powerful launch systems such as space vehicle launchers. One or both of the components
could be cryogenic material, such as liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Noncryogenic systems
include those used on the U.S. Army's tactical Lance missile. The Lance missile's fuel is an
unsymmetrical demethylhydrazine. The oxidizer is an inhibited fuming nitric acid that contains nitric
acid, dinitrogen tetroxide, and 0.5 percent hydrofluoric acid as a corrosion inhibitor.40
Unlike the liquid-fueled rocket motors, in which the propellant is introduced into a
combustion chamber, the solid fuel motor contains all of its propellant in the combustion chamber.
Solid fuel propellants for rocket motors consist of double-base, modified double-base, and
composites. Double-base rocket propellants are similar to the double-base gun propellants discussed
earlier. Thus, they consist of a colloidal mixture of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine with a stabilizer.
A typical composition for a double-base propellant consists of nitrocellulose (51.5%), nitroglycerine
(43%), diethylphthalate (3%), potassium sulfate (1.25%), ethyl centralite (1%), carbon black (0.2%),
and wax (0.05%).
37Ibid.
^Ammunition, General. Department of the Army, TM 9-1300-200, October 3, 1969..
39Ibid.
40Ibid.
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Modified double-base propellants provide a higher performance than double-base propellants.
Two typical compositions for modified double-base propellants are (a) nitrocellulose (20%),
nitroglycerine (30%), triacetin (6%), ammonium perchlorate (11%), aluminum (20%), HMX (11%),
and a stabilizer (2%); or (b) nitrocellulose (22%), nitroglycerine (30%), triacetin (5%), ammonium
perchlorate (20%), aluminum (21%), and a stabilizer (2%). Composite propellants consist of a
polymer structure and an oxidizer. The oxidizer of choice is ammonium perchlorate.
Practice ordnance is ordnance used to simulate the weight and flight characteristics of an
actual weapon. Practice ordnance usually carries a small spotting device to permit the accuracy of
impact to be assessed.
3.1.3.2 High Explosives
High explosives includes compounds such as TNT, tetryl, RDX, HMX, and nitroglycerine.
These compounds undergo reaction or detonation at rates of 1,000 to 8,500 meters per second. High
explosives undergo much greater and more rapid reaction than low explosives (see 3.1.3.1). Some
high explosives, such as nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine, are used in propellant mixtures. This
conditioning often consists of mixing the explosive with other materials that permit the resulting
mixture to be cut or shaped. This process allows for a greater amount of control over the reaction to
achieve the desired effect as a propellant.
High explosives are further divisible into primary and
secondary high explosives according to their susceptibility to
initiation. Primary or initiating high explosives are extremely
sensitive and are used to set off secondary high explosives, both
booster and burster explosives, which are less sensitive but will
detonate violently when ignited.
Primary Explosives
Lead azide
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
Tetrazene
Diazodinitrophenol
Primary or initiating explosives are high explosives that
are generally used in small quantities to detonate larger quantities
of high explosives. Initiating explosives will not burn, but if ignited, they will detonate. Initiating
agents are detonated by a spark, friction, or impact, and can initiate the detonation of less sensitive
explosives. These agents include lead azide, lead styphnate, mercury fulminate, tetrazene, and
diazodinitrophenol.
Booster or auxiliary explosives are used to increase the
flame or shock of the initiating explosive to ensure a stable
detonation in the main charge explosive. High explosives used as
auxiliary explosives are less sensitive than those used in initiators,
primers, and detonators, but are more sensitive than those used as
filler charges or bursting explosives. Booster explosives, such as
RDX, tetryl, and PETN, are initiated by the primary explosive and
detonate at high rates.
Booster Explosives
RDX
Tetryl
PETN
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Bursting explosives, main charge, or fillers are high
1-1 ^ ^ j _i r^.1 1-1 Bursting Explosives
explosive charges that are used as part or the explosive charge in
mines, bombs, missiles, and projectiles. Bursting charge explos-
ives, such as TNT, RDX compositions, HMX, and Explosive D,
must be initiated by means of a booster explosive. Some common
explosive compositions are discussed in the following text box.
TNT
RDX compositions
HMX
Explosive D
Explosive Compositions
Explosive compounds are the active ingredients in many types of explosive compositions, such as Compositions
A, B, and C. Composition A is a wax-coated, granular explosive consisting of RDX and plasticizing wax that is
used as the bursting charge in Navy 2.75- and 5-inch rockets and land mines. Composition B consists of castable
mixtures (substances that are able to be molded or shaped) of RDX and TNT and, in some instances, desensitizing
agents that are added to the mixture to make it less likely to explode. Composition B is used as a burster in Army
projectiles and in rockets and land mines. Composition C is a plastic demolition explosive consisting of RDX, other
explosives, and plasticizers. It can be molded by hand for use in demolition work and packed by hand into shaped
charge devices.
3.1.3.3 Incendiaries
Incendiaries are neither high nor low explosives but are any flammable materials used as
fillers for the purpose of destroying a target by fire,41 such as napalm, thermite, magnesium, and
zirconium. In order to be effective, incendiary devices should be used against targets that are
susceptible to destruction or damage by fire or heat. In other words, the target must contain a large
percentage of combustible material.
3.2 Characteristics and Location of MEC
This section describes the sources of safety hazards posed by explosives and munitions.
3.2.1 Hazards Associated with Common Types of Munitions
The condition in which a munition is found is an important factor in assessing its likelihood
of detonation. Munitions are designed for safe transport and handling prior to use. However,
munitions that were abandoned or buried cannot be assumed to meet the criteria for safe shipment
and handling without investigation. In addition, munitions that have been used but failed to function
as designed (called unexploded ordnance, duds, or dud-fired) may be armed or partially armed. As
a category of munitions, UXO is the most hazardous and is normally not safe to handle or transport.
Although it may be easy to identify the status (fuzed or not fuzed) of some munitions (e.g.,
abandoned), this is generally not the case with buried munitions or UXO. Many munitions use
multiple fuzing options; one fuze may be armed and others may not be armed. Therefore, common
sense dictates that all munitions initially be considered armed until the fuze can be properly
investigated and the fuze condition determined.
41Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division, Countermeasures Department. Unexploded
Ordnance: An Overview, 1996.
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Ammunition Classification
Ammunition is typically classified in accordance with the following five factors:
Type: see following text box
Use: service, practice, inert
Filler: explosive, chemical, leaflet, or inert
Storage: amount of explosives (quantity-distance classes)
Compatibility: for storage purposes
Munitions that detonate only partially are said to have undergone a "low order" detonation,
which may result in exposed explosives scattered in the immediate vicinity. In addition to the
detonation hazard of UXO varying with the condition in which it is found, the explosive hazard also
varies with the type of munition, as briefly described in the following text box.
Ammunition Types
Ammunition is classified according to the following types:
(1) Small arms ammunition. Small arms ammunition (less that 20mm) consists of cartridges used in rifles,
carbines, revolvers, pistols, submachine guns, and machine guns and shells used in shotguns. They do not contain
explosives; therefore, they present minimal explosive risks (propellant or tracer only) but do contain lead projectiles
and may cause lead contamination.
(2) Grenades. Grenades are explosive- or chemical-filled projectiles of a size and shape convenient for throwing
by hand or projecting from a rifle. These munitions are designed to land on the ground surface and therefore are
more accessible. Fragmentation grenades, most commonly used, break into small, lethal, high-velocity fragments
and pose the most hazards.
(3) Artillery ammunition. Artillery ammunition consists of cartridges or shells that are filled with high-explosive,
chemical, or other active agents; and projectiles that are used in guns, howitzers, mortars, and recoilless rifles. They
are typically deployed from the ground, but may also be placed on aircraft and generally used in the indirect fire
mode. Fuze types include proximity, impact, or time-delay, depending on the mission and the intended target. They
may also contain submunitions that are sensitive to any movement.
(4) Bombs. Bombs are containers filled with explosive, chemical, or other active agents, designed for release from
aircraft. Bombs penetrate the ground to depths than other munitions due to the size and weight of the munition.
They may also contain submunitions that are very sensitive to movement.
(5) Pyrotechnics. Pyrotechnics consist of containers filled with low-explosive composition, designed for release
from aircraft or for projection from the ground for illumination or signals (colored smokes).
(6) Rockets. Rockets are propellant-type motors fitted with rocket heads containing high-explosive or chemical
agents. The residual propellant may burn violently if subjected to sharp impact, heat, flame, or sparks.
(7) Jet Assisted Take-Off System (JATOS). JATOS consists of propellant-type motors used to furnish auxiliary
thrust in the launching of aircraft, rockets, guided missiles, target drones, and mine-clearing detonating cables.
(8) Land mines. Land mines are metal or plastic containers that contain high-explosive or chemical agents designed
for laying in (normally within the first 12 inches or the topsoil) or on the ground for initiation by, and effect against,
enemy vehicles or personnel.
(9) Guided missiles. Guided missiles consist of propellant-type motors fitted with warheads containing
high-explosive or other active agent and equipped with electronic guidance devices.
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Ammunition Types (continued)
(10) Demolition materials. Demolition materials consist of explosives and explosive devices designed for use
in demolition and in connection with blasting for military construction.
(11) Cartridge-actuated devices (CAD). Cartridge-actuated devices are devices designed to facilitate an
emergency escape from high-speed aircraft.
Adapted from:
JCS PUB 1-02. DoD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms. March 23, 1994.
AR 310-25. Dictionary of United States Army Terms. May 21, 1996.
TM 9-1300-200. Ammunition, General.
FM 21-16. Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) Procedures. August 30, 1994.
3.2.2 Areas Where MEC is Found
Areas that are most likely to contain MEC include munitions manufacturing plants; load,
assemble, and pack operations; military supply depots; ammunition depots; proving grounds; open
detonation (OD) and open burning (OB) grounds; range impact areas; range buffer zones; explosive
ordnance disposal sites; live-fire areas; training ranges; and ordnance test and evaluation (T&E)
facilities and ranges. The primary ordnance-related activity will also assist planners in determining
the potential MEC hazards at the site; for example, an impact area will have predominantly
unexploded ordnance (fuzed and armed), whereas munitions manufacturing plants should have only
ordnance items (fuzed or unfuzed but unarmed). At all of these sites, a variety of munition types
could have been used, potentially resulting in a
wide array of MEC items at the site. The types
and quantities of munitions employed may have
changed over time as a result of changes in the
military mission and advances in munitions
technologies, thus increasing the variety of
MEC items that may be present at any
individual site. Changes in training needs also
contribute to the presence of different MEC
types found at former military facilities.
The types of munitions constituents
potentially present on ranges varies, de-pending
on the range type and its use. For example, a
rifle range would be expected to be
contaminated with lead rounds and metal
casings. For ranges used for bombing, the most
commonly found munitions constituents would
consist of explosive compounds such as TNT
and RDX. This has been confirmed by
environmental samples collected at numerous
facilities. For example, TNT or RDX is usually
present in explosives-contaminated soils.
Military Ranges
The typical setup of bombing and gunnery ranges
(including live-fire and training ranges) consists of
one or more "targets" or "impact areas," where fired
munitions are supposed to land. Surrounding the
impact area is a buffer zone that separates the impact
area from the firing/release zone (the area from which
the military munitions are fired, dropped, or placed).
Within the live fire area, the impact area usually
contains the greatest concentration of UXO. Buried
munitions may be found in other areas, including the
firing area itself.
A training range, troop maneuver area, or troop
training area is used for conducting military exercises
in a simulated conflict area or war zone. A training
range can also be used for other nonwar simulations
such as UXO training. Training aids and military
munitions simulators such as training ammunition,
artillery simulators, smoke grenades, pyrotechnics,
mine simulators, and riot control agents are used on the
training range. While these training aids are safer than
live munitions, they may still present explosive
hazards.
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Studies of sampling and analysis at a number of explosives-contaminated sites reported "hits" of TNT
or RDX in 72 percent of the contaminated soil samples collected42 and up to 94 percent of
contaminated water samples collected.43
Early (World War I era) munitions tended to be TNT- or Explosive D (ammonium picrate)-
based. To a lesser extent, tetryl and ammonium nitrate were used as well. TNT is still used, but
mixtures of RDX, HMX, ammonium picrate, PETN, tetryl, and aluminum came into use during
World War II. Incendiary charges also were used in World War II.
3.2.3 Release Mechanisms for MEC
The primary mechanisms for the occurrence and/or release of MEC at MRS are based on the
type of MEC activity or are the result of improper functioning (e.g., detonation) of the MEC. For
example, when a bomb or artillery projectile is dropped or fired, it will do one of three things:
It will detonate completely. This is also called a "high order" detonation. Complete
detonation causes a "release" of both munitions debris (e.g., fragments) and small
quantities of munitions constituents (e.g., energetic compounds such as TNT and RDX,
lead and other heavy metals) into the environment. Release also may occur during open
detonation of munitions during range-clearing operations.
It will undergo an incomplete det-
onation, also called a "low order"
detonation. This causes a release of
not only munitions debris and larger
., . . . of high-order and low-order detonation reveals that
amounts of munitions constituents significantly Mgher quantities of residue ^ present at
into the environment, but also larger
pieces of the actual munition itself.
It will fail to function, or "dud fire "
Sampling of Detonation Residues
Analysis of soil samples for explosive residues in areas
low-order detonation sites. The levels of munitions
constituents released from high-order detonations are
so low as to be measured in micrograms.
which results in UXO. The UXO
Source: sampling for Explosives Residues at Fort
Greely, Alaska, Reconnaissance Site Visit July 2000,
ERDC/CRREL TR-01-015, November 2001.
may be completely intact, in which
case releases of munitions
constituents are less likely; or the
UXO may be damaged or in an
environment that subj ects it to corrosion, thus releasing munitions constituents over time.
In addition, MEC could be lost, abandoned, or buried, resulting in bulk munitions that could
be fuzed or unfuzed. If such an MEC item is in an environment that is corrosive or otherwise
damaging to the MEC item, or if the MEC item has been damaged, munitions constituents could
leach out of the ordnance item.
The fate and transport of some munitions constituents in the environment have not yet
42A.B. Crockett, H.D. Craig, T.F. Jenkins, and W.E. Sisk. Field Sampling and Selecting On-Site Analytical
Methods for Explosives in Soils, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/540/R-97/501, November 1996.
43A.B. Crockett, H.D. Craig, and T.F. Jenkins. Field Sampling and Selecting On-Site Analytical Methods for
Explosives in Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/S-99/002, May 19, 1999.
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received the level of focus of some more commonly found chemicals associated with other military
operations (such as petroleum hydrocarbons in groundwater from jet fuels). For example, TNT
adsorbs to soil particles and is therefore not expected to migrate rapidly through soil to groundwater.
However, the behavior in the environment of TNT's degradation products is not well understood at
this time, nor is the degree to which TNT in soil might be a continuing low-level source of
groundwater contamination.
DoD is currently investing additional resources to better understand the potential for corrosion
of intact UXO in different environments and to better quantify the fate and transport of other
munitions constituents.
3.2.4 Chemical Reactivity of Explosives
Standard military explosives are reactive to varying degrees, depending on the material,
conditions of storage, or environmental exposure. Precautions must be taken to prevent their reacting
with other materials. For example, lead azide will react with copper in the presence of water and
carbon dioxide to form copper azide, which is an even more sensitive explosive.44 Ammonium nitrate
will react with iron or aluminum in the presence of water to form ammonia and metal oxide. TNT
will react with alkalis to form dangerously sensitive compounds.45 Picric acid easily forms metallic
compounds, many of which are very shock sensitive.
Because of these reactions, and others not listed, military munitions are designed to be free
of moisture and any other impurities. Therefore, munitions that have not been properly stored may
be more unstable and unpredictable in their behavior, and more dangerous to deal with than normal
munitions. This is also true for munitions that are no longer intact, have been exposed to weathering
processes, or have been improperly disposed of. These conditions may exist on ranges.
3.3 Sources and Nature of the Potential Hazards Posed by Conventional Munitions
This section of the handbook addresses two factors that affect the potential hazards posed by
conventional munitions: (1) the sensitivity of the munition and its components (primarily the fuze and
fuze type) to detonation, and (2) the environmental and human factors that affect the deterioration
of the MEC or the depth at which MEC is found.
The potential for the hazards posed by conventional munitions is a result of the following:
Type of munition
Type and amount of explosive(s) contained in the munition
Type of fuze
The potential for deterioration of the intact UXO and the release of munitions constituents
The likelihood that the munition will be in a location where disturbance is possible or
probable
^Military Explosives, 1955.
45Ibid.
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However, a full understanding of the potential hazards posed by conventional munitions is
not possible prior to initiating an investigation unless the munition items have been identified in
advance, the state of the munitions is known, and the human and environmental factors (e.g., frost
heave) are well understood.
3.3.1 Probability of Detonation as a Function of Fuze Characteristics
Most military munitions contain a fuze that is designed to either ignite or cause the detonation
of the payload containing the munition. Although there are many types of fuzes, all are in one of three
broad categories mechanical, electronic, or a combination of both. These fuze types describe the
method by which a fuze is armed and fired. Modern fuzes are generally not armed until the munition
has been launched. For safety purposes, DoD policy is that all munitions and MEC found on ranges
should be assumed to be armed and prepared to detonate and should be approached with extreme
caution (see Chapter 6, "Explosives Safety").
The type of fuze and its condition (armed or unarmed) directly determine its sensitivity. It
should always be assumed that a fuzed piece of ordnance is armed Many fuzes have backup
features in addition to their normal method of firing. For example, a proximity fuze may also have
an impact or self-destruct feature. Also, certain types of fuzes are more sensitive than others and may
be more likely to explode upon disturbance. Some of the most common fuzes are described below.
Impact fuzes are designed to function upon direct impact with the target. Some impact
fuzes may have a delay element. This delay lasts fractions of a second and is designed to
allow the proj ectile to penetrate the target before functioning. Examples of specific impact
fuzes include impact inertia, concrete piercing, base detonating, all-way acting, and multi-
option. (An example of an all-way-acting fuze is shown in Figure 3-3.) In order for a
proximity or impact fuze to arm, the projectile must be accelerating at a predetermined
minimum rate. If the acceleration is too slow or extends over too short a period of time,
the arming mechanism returns to its safety position; however, munitions with armed
proximity fuzes that have not exploded may be ready to detonate on the slightest
disturbance, especially if the movement generates a static electric charge.
Mechanical time fuzes use internal movement to function at a predetermined time after
firing. Some of these fuzes may have a backup impact fuze. Moving UXO with this type
of fuze may also cause a detonation. An example of a mechanical time super-quick fuze
is shown in Figure 3-4.
Powder train time fuzes use a black powder train to function at a predetermined time
after firing.
Proximity fuzes are designed to function only when they are at a predetermined distance
from a target.46 They are used in air-to-ground and ground-to-ground operations to create
airbursts above the target, and they do not penetrate and detonate within the target, as do
impact fuzes. A proximity fuze by design uses a sophisticated sensor to signal the
proximity to the target as the initiation source for the detonation. In a dud-fired condition,
the main concern is the outside influence exerted by an electromagnetic (EM) source. EM
sources include two-way radios and cell phones; therefore, the use of such items must not
46Major N. Lantzer et al. Risk Assessment: Unexploded Ordnance, Prepared for NAVEODTECHDIV, 1995.
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Chapters. Characteristics of MEC 3-16 May 2005
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be permitted in these types of environments. EM sources also include certain geophysical
instruments, suchastheEM-61 (see discussion of EM-61 and related geophysical sensors
in Chapter 4). Proximity fuzes sometimes are backed up with an impact fuze designed to
function on target impact if the proximity mode fails to function.
LEAD CUP
ASSEMBLY
FIRING PIN
ASSEMBLY
HOUSING
ASSEMBLY
WEIGHT
CENTERING
SPRING
BALL
CEINITERPLATE
Figure 3-3. Mechanical All-Way-Acting Fuze
BODY
RELAY M? PR*-MEft M.2^A! % i«-^JV LOWEPi CAP HEAD
X _ '"w "* " "-"" /"«- * * * * »» i.' ~**»
^V-M -k -^ :' = IT' x-
/,frtr7^v^^ -H 4HJ ,_ - .^
/ /" ^ * > ^ i^Jf1 " ' H j h ^"' ~ ^*4-*-# *^N,
' -' L,i ^- b---tt^ -H ^.^pMF^I
if«-« T^-, ,,_-^,r=^_J-l 'J.._gK.Jg -» I
!::f ph
-J '-^^-;:-^°FIIUNO
DETONATOR
M2Z
_- \D CHARGE
Figure 3-4. Mechanical Time Super-Quick Fuze
Chapter 3. Characteristics of MEC
3-17
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Arming of Fuzes
The material that follows is designed to provide an example of how fuzes are armed. This example relates to one
specific type of weapons system.
Rocket fuzes are classified according to location in the warhead as point detonating (PD), base detonating (BD), or
point initiating, base detonating (PIBD). They are further classified according to method of functioning as time,
proximity, or impact.
a. Time fuzes function a preselected number of seconds after the round is fired. Impact fuzes function upon impact
with super-quick, delay, or nondelay action.
(1) In the case of super-quick action, the warhead functions almost instantaneously on impact, initiated by a firing
pin driven into a detonator.
(2) In delay action fuzes, the warhead functions a fixed time after impact to permit penetration of the target before
the warhead explodes. The amount of delay, usually between 0.025 and 0.15 second, depends on the delay element
incorporated in the fuze. Arming may be accomplished by mechanical means utilizing gear trains, air stream (air
arming), spring action, centrifugal force or inertia, gas pressure (pressure arming), or a combination thereof.
(3) Nondelay action, somewhat slower than super-quick, occurs in delay-action fuzes when the black powder
normally contained in the delay element has been removed.
b. The proximity fuze detonates the warhead at a distance from the target to produce optimum blast effect. It is
essentially a radio transmitting and receiving unit and requires no prior setting or adjustment. Upon firing, after the
minimum arming time, the fuze arms and continually emits radio waves. As the rocket approaches the target, the
waves are reflected back to the fuze. The reflected waves are then received by the fuze with a predetermined
intensity, as on approaching close to the target, this operates an electronic switch in the fuze. This permits electric
current to flow through an electric squib, initiating the explosive train and detonating the rocket.
c. The PIBD fuze detonates the rocket on impact with the target. The fuze consists of a nose assembly and a base
assembly connected by a wire passing through a conduit in the rocket head. Pressure of impact on a piezoelectric
crystal in the nose assembly generates a surge of electricity. This is transmitted to alow-energy detonator in the base
assembly, detonating it. Some PIBD fuzes have a graze-sensitive element which will actuate the fuze if impact does
not initiate the piezoelectric crystal.
TM 9-1300-200, Section VI. FUZES
3.3.2 Types of Explosive Hazards
Both planned and accidental detonations can cause serious injury or even death and can
seriously damage structures in the vicinity of the explosion. Explosive hazards from munitions vary
with the munition components, explosive quantities, and distance from potential receptors. The
DDESB has established minimum safety standards for the quantity of explosives and their minimum
separation distance from surrounding populations, structures, and public areas for the protection of
personnel and facilities during intentional and accidental explosions.47 (DDESB is currently in the
process of revising the safety standards.) These DDESB standards, called Quantity-Distance
41 DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards, DoD 6055.9-STD, Chapters 2, 5, and 8, July 1999.
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Chapters. Characteristics of MEC 3-18 May 2005
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Standards, are based on research and accident data on the size of areas affected by different types of
explosions and their potential human health and environmental impacts (see Chapter 6 for a
discussion of quantity-distance standards). State and local authorities may have additional or more
stringent quantity-distance requirements.
Understanding the explosive hazards specific to the munitions at your site will help you plan
the appropriate safety precautions and notification of authorities. The primary effects of explosive
outputs include blast pressure, fragmentation, and thermal hazards. Shock hazards are also a concern
but are more of an issue with respect to storage of munitions in underground bunkers at active ranges.
Each of these hazards is described below. Many MEC hazards in the field may result in more than
one type of explosive output.
Blast pressure (overpressure) is the almost instantaneous pressure increase resulting from
a violent release of energy from a detonation in a gaseous medium (e.g., air). The health hazards of
blast pressure depend on the amount of explosive material, the duration of the explosion, and the
distance from the explosion, and can include serious damage to the thorax or the abdominal region,
eardrum rupture, and death.
Fragmentation hazards result from the shattering of an explosive container or from the
secondary fragmentation of items in close proximity to an explosion. Fragmentation can cause a
variety of physical problems ranging from skin abrasions to fatal injuries.
Thermal hazards are those resulting from heat and flame caused by a deflagration or
detonation. Direct contact with flame, as well as intense heat, can cause serious injury or death.
Shock hazards result from underground detonations and are less likely to occur at MRSs than
at active ranges or industrial facilities where munitions are found. When a munitions item is buried
in the earth (e.g., stored underground), if detonation occurs, it will cause a violent expansion of gases,
heat, and shock. A blast wave will be transmitted through the earth or water in the form of a shock
wave. This shock wave is comparable to a short, powerful earthquake. The wave will pass through
earth or water just as it does through air, and when it strikes an object such as a foundation, the shock
wave will impart its energy to the structure.
Practice rounds of ordnance may have their own explosive hazards. They often contain
spotting charges, which are low explosives or pyrotechnic fillers designed to produce a flash and
smoke when detonated, providing observers or spotters a visual reference of ordnance impact.
Practice UXO found on the ranges must be checked for the presence of unexpended spotting charges
that could cause severe burns.
3.3.3 Factors Affecting Potential for Exposure to MEC
Because exposure to MEC is a key element of explosive risk, any action that makes MEC
more accessible adds to its potential explosive risks. The combined factors of naturally occurring
and human activities, such as the following, increase the risk of explosion from MEC:
Flooding and erosion
Frost heaving
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Chapters. Characteristics of MEC 3-19 May 2005
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Agricultural activities
Construction
Recreational use (may provide open access)
Heavy flooding can loosen and displace soils, causing MEC located on or beneath the ground
surface to be moved or exposed. In flooded soils, MEC could potentially be moved to the surface
or to another location beneath the ground surface. Similarly, soil erosion due to high winds, flooding,
or inadequate soil conservation could displace soils and expose MEC, or it could cause MEC to
migrate to another location beneath the surface or up to the ground surface. Frost heaving is the
movement of soils during the freeze-thaw cycle. Water expands as it freezes, creating uplift pressure.
In nongranular soils, MEC buried above the frost line may migrate with frost heaving. The effects
of these and other geophysical processes on the movement of MEC in the environment, while known
to occur, are being studied more extensively by DoD.
Human activities can also increase the potential for exposure to MEC. Depending on the depth
of munitions and explosives, agricultural activities such as plowing and tilling may loosen and disturb
the soil enough to cause MEC to migrate to the surface, or such activities may increase the chances
of soil erosion and MEC displacement during flooding. Further, development of land containing
MEC may cause the MEC to be exposed and possibly to detonate during construction activities.
Excavating soils during construction can expose MEC, and the vibration of some construction
activities may create conditions in which MEC may detonate. All of these human and naturally
occurring factors can increase the likelihood of MEC exposure, and therefore the explosive risks, of
MEC.
3.3.4 Depth of MEC
The depth at which MEC is located is a primary determinant of both potential human
exposure and the cost of investigation and response. In addition, the DoD Ammunition and Safety
Standards require that an estimate of expected depth of MEC be included in the site-specific analysis
for determining response depth.48 A wide variety of factors may affect the depth at which MEC is
found, including penetration depth a function of munition size, shape, propellant charge used, soil
characteristics, and other factors as well as movement of MEC due to frost heave or other factors,
as discussed in Section 3.3.3.
There are several methods for estimating the ground penetration depths of ordnance. These
methods vary in the level of detail required for data input (e.g., ordnance weight, geometry, angle of
entry), the time and level of effort needed to conduct analysis, and the assumptions used to obtain
results. Some of the specific soil characteristics that affect ordnance penetration depth include soil
type (e.g., sand, loam, clay), whether vegetation is present, and soil moisture. Other factors affecting
penetration depth include munition geometry, striking velocity and angle, relative location of firing
point and striking point, topography between firing point and striking point, and angle of entry.
Table 3-2 provides examples of the potential effects that different soil characteristics can have on
penetration depth. These depths do not reflect the variety of other factors (e.g., different striking
velocities and angles) that affect the actual depth at which the munition may be found. The depths
48'DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards, DoD 6055.9-STD, Chapter 12, July 1999.
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Chapters. Characteristics of MEC 3-20 May 2005
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provided in Table 3-2 are taken from a controlled study to determine munition penetration into earth.
They are presented here to give the reader an understanding of the wide variability in the depths at
which individual munitions may be found, based on soil characteristics alone.
While Table 3-2 provides a few examples of penetration depths, it does not illustrate the
dramatic differences possible within ordnance categories. For example, rockets can penetrate sand
to depths of between 0.4 and 8.1 feet, and clay to depths of between 0.8 and 16.3 feet, depending on
the type of rocket and a host of site-specific conditions.49
Table 3-2. Examples of Depths of Ordnance Penetration into Soil
Type of
Munition
Projectile
Projectile
Projectile
Grenade
Projectile
Rocket
Ordnance
Item
155mmM107
75 mm M48
37 mmM63
40mmM822
lOSmmMl
2.36" Rocket
Depth of Penetration (ft)
Limestone
2
0.7
0.6
0.5
1.1
0.1
Sand
14
4.9
3.9
3.2
7.7
0.4
Soil Containing Vegetation
18.4
6.5
5.2
4.2
10.1
0.5
Clav
28
9.9
7.9
6.4
15.4
0.8
Sources: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Ordnance and Explosives Response: Engineering and Design, EM 1110-1-4009,
June 23,2000; Ordata II, NAVEODTECHDIV, Version 1.0; and Crull Michelle et al., Estimating Ordnance Penetration
Into Earth, paper presented at UXO Forum 1999, May 1999.
A unique challenge in any investigation of MEC is the presence of underground munition
burial pits, which often contain a mixture of used, unused, or fired munitions as well as other wastes.
Munition burial pits, particularly those containing a mixture of deteriorated munitions, can pose
explosive and environmental risks. The possibility of detonation is due to the potentially decreased
stability and increased likelihood of explosion of commingled and/or degraded munitions
constituents.
Buried munitions may detonate from friction, impact, pressure, heat, or flames of a nearby
munitions item that has been disturbed. Adding to the challenge, some burial pits are quite old and
may not be secured with technologically advanced liners or other types of controls. Further, because
some burial pits are very old, records of their contents or location may be incomplete or absent
altogether.
3.3.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Decomposition of MEC
Deteriorated MEC can present serious explosive hazards. As MEC ages, the explosive
compound/mixtures in MEC items can remain viable and could increase in sensitivity.50
49U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Interim Guidance for Conventional Ordnance and Explosives Removal
Actions, October 1998.
50U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Ordnance and Explosives (MEC) Response Workshop. Control #3 99, US ACE
Professional Development Support Center, FY01.
Chapter 3. Characteristics of MEC
3-21
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The probability of corrosion of an intact MEC item is highly site specific. MEC can resist
corrosion under certain conditions. There are sites dating back to World War I in Europe that contain
subsurface MEC that remains intact and does not appear to be releasing any munitions constituents.
However, there are certain environments, such as MEC exposed to seawater, that can cause the
MEC51 to degrade. In addition, as MEC casings degrade under certain environmental conditions, or
if the casings were damaged upon impact, their fillers, propellants, and other constituents may leach
into the surrounding soils and groundwater.
In general, the likelihood of deterioration depends on the integrity and thickness of the MEC
casing, as well as the environmental conditions in which the MEC item is located and the degree of
damage to the item after being initially fired. Most munitions are designed for safe transport and
handling prior to use. However, if they fail to explode upon impact, undergo a low-order detonation,
or are otherwise damaged, it is possible that the fillers, propellants, and other munitions constituents
may leach into surrounding soils and groundwater, potentially polluting the soil and groundwater
and/or creating a mixture of explosives and their breakdown products. Anecdotal evidence at a
number of facilities suggests adverse impacts to soil and groundwater from ordnance-related
activities.
The soil characteristics that may affect the likelihood and rate of MEC casing corrosion
include but are not limited to the following:
Study of Corrosion Rates in Soils
Soil moisture
Soil type
Soil pH
Buffering capacity
Electrochemical potential oxidation-
reduction ("redox")
Oxygen
Microbial corrosion
The potential extent of corrosion of the metal casing of
intact UXO remains an area of scientific uncertainty.
Conditions that facilitate or retard corrosion are clearly
n f + site-specific. The Army Environmental Center is
^ undertaking a study of metallic corrosion rates as a
function of soil and climatic conditions to create a
predictive database of such information.
Moisture, including precipitation, high soil moisture, and the presence of groundwater,
contribute to the corrosion of UXO and to the deterioration of explosive compounds. Soils with a low
water content (i.e., below 20 percent) are slightly corrosive on UXO casings, and soils with
periodic groundwater inundation are moderately corrosive.
The texture and structure of soil affect its corrosivity. Cohesive soils, those with a high
percentage of clay and silt material, are much less corrosive than sandy soils. Soils with high organic
carbon content, such as swamps, peat, fens, or marshes, as well as soils that are severely polluted with
fuel ash, slag coal, or wastewater, tend to be highly corrosive.
The pH level also affects soil corrosivity. Normal soils with pH levels between 5 and 8 do not
contribute to corrosivity. In fact, soils with pH above 5 may form a calcium carbonate coating on
51MEC specifically designed for use in a marine environment, such as sea mines and torpedoes, would not be
included in this scenario.
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Chapters. Characteristics of MEC 3-22 May 2005
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buried metals, protecting them from extensive corrosion. However, highly acidic soils, such as those
with a pH below 4, tend to be highly corrosive.
Buffering capacity, the measure of the soil's ability to withstand extreme changes in pH
levels, also affects its corrosion potential. Soils with a high buffering capacity can maintain pH levels
even under changing conditions, thereby potentially inhibiting corrosive conditions. However, soils
with a low buffering capacity that are subject to acid rain or industrial pollutants may drop in pH
levels and promote corrosivity.
Another factor affecting the corrosive potential of soils is resistivity, or electrical
conductivity, which is dependent on moisture content and is produced by the action of soil moisture
on minerals. At high resistivity levels (greater than 20,000 ohm/cm) there is no significant impact on
corrosion; however, corrosion can be extreme at very low resistivity levels (below 1,000 ohm/cm).
High electrochemical potential can also contribute significantly to UXO casing corrosion. The
electrochemical or "redox" potential is the ability of the soil to reduce or oxidize UXO casings (the
oxidation-reduction potential). Aerated soils have the necessary oxygen to oxidize metals.
3.3.6 Explosives-Contaminated Soils
A variety of situations can create conditions of contaminated and potentially reactive and/or
ignitable soils, including the potential for low-order detonations, deterioration of the UXO container
and leaching of munitions constituents into the environment, residual propellants ending up in soils,
and OB/OD, which may disperse chunks of bulk explosives and munitions constituents. Soils with
a 12 percent or greater concentration of secondary explosives, such as TNT and RDX, are capable
of propagating (transmitting) a detonation if initiated by flame. Soils containing more than 15
percent secondary explosives by weight are susceptible to initiation by shock. In addition, chunks
of bulk explosives in soils will detonate or burn if initiated, but a detonation will not move through
the soil without a minimum explosive concentration of 12 percent. To be safe, the U.S. Army
Environmental Center considers all soils containing 10 percent or more of secondary explosives or
mixtures of secondary explosives to be reactive or ignitable soil.52 Therefore, soils suspected of being
contaminated with primary explosives may be very dangerous, and no work should be attempted until
soil analysis has determined the extent of contamination and a detailed work procedure has been
approved.53 The soil analysis can be qualitative, that is, based on visual observations, as soils
contaminated in the percent range are easy to spot; or analysis can be quantitative, using a field
analysis kit such as those described in Chapter 8. Under no circumstances should soil visibly
contaminated with munitions constituents be sampled or shipped offsite to a laboratory as it may
create a hazard for the sampling crew members and the laboratory.
52Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable andUSACE. ETL Ordnance and Explosives Response, 1110-
1-8153, May 14, 1999.
53U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Ordnance and Explosives Response: Engineering Design, EP 1110-1-18,
April 2000.
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3.4 Toxicity and Human Health and Ecological Impacts of Explosives and Other Munitions
Constituents
The human health and environmental risks of other munitions constituents from MEC are
caused by explosives or other chemical components, including lead and mercury, in munitions and
from the compounds used in or produced during munitions operations. When exposed to some of
these munitions constituents, humans may potentially face long-term health problems, including
cancer. Similarly, exposure of ecosystems may cause disturbance of habitat and development of
health and behavioral problems in the exposed receptors. The adverse effects of munitions
constituents are dependent on the concentration of the chemicals and the pathways by which
receptors become exposed. Understanding the human health and environmental risks of munitions
constituents and byproducts requires information about the inherent toxicity of these chemicals and
the manner in which they may migrate through soil and water toward potential human and
environmental receptors. This section provides an overview of some commonly found explosive
compounds and their potential health and ecological impacts.
Explosive compounds that have been used in or are byproducts of munitions use, production,
operations (load, assemble, and pack), and demilitarization or destruction operations include, but are
not limited to, the list of substances in Table 3-3. Other toxic materials, such as lead, are found in the
projectiles of small arms. These explosive and otherwise potentially toxic compounds can be found
in soils, groundwater, surface waters, and air and have potentially serious human health and
ecological impacts. The nature of these impacts, and whether they pose an unacceptable risk to
human health and the environment, depend upon the dose, duration, and pathway of exposure, as well
as the sensitivity of the exposed populations.
3.4.1 Human Health Effects
Table 3-3 lists common munitions
constituents and their uses. Many compounds
have multiple uses, such as white phosphorus,
which is both a bursting smoke and incendiary
and can function as a pyrotechnic. The list of
classifications in Table 3-3 is not intended to be
all-inclusive but to provide a summary of some
of the more common uses for various explosive
materials.
Perchlorate
Perchlorate is a component of solid rocket fuel that has
recently been detected in drinking water in States
across the United States. Perchlorate interacts with the
thyroid gland in mammals, with potential impacts on
growth and development. Research continues to
determine the maximum safe level for human drinking
water. While perchlorate is not currently listed on
EPA's IRIS database, several States, including
California, have developed interim risk levels.
Table 3-3. Primary Uses of Explosive Materials
Compound
TNT
RDX
HMX
Propellant
Primary or
Initiator
Booster
Burster
Charge
Pyrotechnics
Incendiary
Chapter 3. Characteristics of MEC
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Table 3-3. Primary Uses of Explosive Materials (continued)
Compound
PETN
Tetryl
Picric acid
Explosive D
Tetrazene
DEGDN
Nitrocellulose
2,4-
Dinitrotoluene
2,6-
Dinitrotoluene
Ammonium
nitrate
Nitroglycerine
Lead azide
Lead styphnate
Mercury
fulminate
White
phosphorus*
Perchlorates
Hydrazine
Nitroguanidine
Propellant
Primary or
Initiator
Booster
Burster
Charge
Pyrotechnics
Incendiary
* Classified as a bursting smoke and incendiary.
Table 3-4 illustrates the chemical compounds used in munitions and their potential human
health effects as provided by EPA's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), the National Library
of Medicine's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET) Hazardous Substances Data Bank, the Agency
for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), and material safety data sheets (MSDS).
Chapter 3. Characteristics of MEC
3-25
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Table 3-4. Potential Toxic Effects of Explosive Chemicals and Components on
Human Receptors
Contaminant
TNT
RDX
HMX
PETN
Tetryl
Picric acid
Explosive D
Tetrazene
DEGDN
2,4-Dinitrotoluene
2,6-Dinitrotoluene
Diphenylamine
Chemical Composition
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene
C7H5N306
Hexahydro-l,3,5-trinitro-
1,3,5-triazine
C3H6N606
Octahydro-l,3,5,7-tetrani-
tro-l,3,5,7-tetrazocine
C4H8N808
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate
C5H8N4012
2,4,6-Trinitrophenyl-N-
methylnitramine
C7H5N508
2,4,6-Trinitrophenol
C6H4N307
Ammonium picrate
C6H6N407
C2H6N10
Diethylene glycol
dinitrate
(C2H4N03)20
C7H7N2O4
C7H7N2O4
N,N-Diphenylamine
C12HUN
Potential Toxicity/Effects
Possible human carcinogen, targets liver, skin irritations,
cataracts.
Possible human carcinogen, prostate problems, nervous
system problems, nausea, vomiting. Laboratory
exposure to animals indicates potential organ damage.
Animal studies suggest potential liver and central
nervous system damage.
Irritation to eyes and skin; inhalation causes headaches,
weakness, and drop in blood pressure.
Coughing, fatigue, headaches, eye irritation, lack of
appetite, nosebleeds, nausea, and vomiting. The
carcinogenicity of tetryl in humans and animals has not
been studied.
Headache, vertigo, blood cell damage, gastroenteritis,
acute hepatitis, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal
pain, skin eruptions, and serious dysfunction of the
central nervous system.
Moderately irritating to the skin, eyes, and mucous
membranes; can produce nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
skin staining, dermatitis, coma, and seizures.
Associated with occupational asthma; irritant and
convulsants, hepatotoxin, eye irritation and damage,
cardiac depression and low blood pressure, bronchial
mucous membrane destruction and pulmonary edema;
death.
Targets the kidneys; nausea, dizziness, and pain in the
kidney area. Causes acute renal failure.
Exposure can cause methemoglobinemia, anemia,
leukopenia, liver necrosis, vertigo, fatigue, dizziness,
weakness, nausea, vomiting, dyspnea, arthralgia,
insomnia, tremor, paralysis, unconsciousness, chest pain,
shortness of breath, palpitation, anorexia, and loss of
weight.
Exposure can cause methemoglobinemia, anemia,
leukopenia, and liver necrosis.
Irritation to mucous membranes and eyes; pure
substance toxicity low, but impure material may contain
4-biphenylamine, a potent carcinogen.
Chapter 3. Characteristics of MEC
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Table 3-4. Potential Toxic Effects of Explosive Chemicals and Compounds on
Human Receptors (continued)
Contaminant
N-Nitrosodiphenylamine
Phthalates
Ammonium nitrate
Nitroglycerine (Glycerol
trinitrate)
Lead azide
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
White phosphorus
Perchlorates
Hydrazine
Nitroguanidine
Chemical Composition
C12H10N20
Various
NH4NO3
C3H5N3O9
N6Pb
PbC6HN3O8 'H2O
Hg(OCN)2
P4
cio4-
N2H4
CH4N402
Potential Toxicity/Effects
Probable human carcinogen based on an increased
incidence of bladder tumors in male and female rats and
reticulum cell sarcomas in mice, and structural
relationship to carcinogenic nitrosamines.
An increase in toxic polyneuritis has been reported in
workers exposed primarily to dibutyl phthalates;
otherwise very low acute oral toxicity with possible eye,
skin, or mucous membrane irritation from exposure to
phthalic anhydride during phthalate synthesis.
Prompt fall in blood pressure; roaring sound in the ears
with headache and associated vertigo; nausea and
vomiting; collapse and coma.
Eye irritation, potential cardiovascular system effects
including blood pressure drop and circulatory collapse.
Headache, irritability, reduced memory, sleep
disturbance, potential kidney and brain damage, anemia.
Widespread organ and systemic effects including central
nervous system, immune system, and kidneys. Muscle
and joint pains, weakness, risk of high blood pressure,
poor appetite, colic, upset stomach, and nausea.
Inadequate evidence in humans for carcinogenicity;
causes conjunctiva! irritation and itching; mercury
poisoning including chills, swelling of hands, feet,
cheeks, and nose followed by loss of hair and ulceration;
severe abdominal cramps, bloody diarrhea, corrosive
ulceration, bleeding, and necrosis of the gastrointestinal
tract; shock and circulatory collapse, and renal failure.
Reproductive effects. Liver, heart, or kidney damage;
death; skin burns, irritation of throat and lungs,
vomiting, stomach cramps, drowsiness.
Exposure causes itching, tearing, and pain; ingestion
may cause gastroenteritis with abdominal pain, nausea
vomiting, and diarrhea; systemic effects may follow and
may include ringing of ears, dizziness, elevated blood
pressure, blurred vision, and tremors. Chronic effects
may include metabolic disorders of the thyroid.
Possible human carcinogen; liver, pulmonary, CNS, and
respiratory damage; death.
No human or animal carcinogenicity data available.
Specific toxic effects are not documented.
Chapter 3. Characteristics of MEC
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3.4.2 Ecological Effects
As with human health effects, ecological effects from chemical compounds associated with
munitions usage depend on a combination of factors: the toxicity of the compound itself, the pathway
by which the compound gets to a receptor, the concentration to which a receptor is exposed, and the
reaction of the particular receptor to the compound. Site-specific assessment of the potential for an
ecological impact is necessary to understand the manner in which a particular ecosystem (e.g., a
wetlands environment) makes munitions constituents available to potential receptors. Ultimate
receptors may include not only animal species, but also their habitat, including terrestrial and aquatic
plant life. In some cases the habitat may act to biologically remediate concentrations that may
otherwise seem harmful.
Guidance documents are available to assist in the conduct of ecological risk assessment. In
addition, the Wildlife Exposure Factors Handbook developed by the EPA provides data, references,
and guidance for conducting exposure assessments for 35 common wildlife species potentially
exposed to toxic chemicals in their environment.54 A variety of exposure factors (e.g., feeding habits,
body weight) are examined and organized to allow the calculation of the potential for exposure.
Research on ecological effects of c . , ,
0 Screening Benchmarks
munitions constituents has been varied and
fragmented. Conservative screening levels of the
most common munitions constituents have been
developed based on literature searches of toxic
rv- , A r TO. i ing, these levels are extrapolated and applied to related
effects on a variety of species. The general . . ., F .. , , ,fF. .,, , ,
J F ° species to provide conservative levels that, if exceeded,
should trigger a site-specific ecological risk assess-
ment. Exceedence of a screening level benchmark need
not mean that the potential ecological threat is real, as
a variety of site-specific and species-specific factors
approach is to compile a number of studies on
similar categories of species and extrapolate
conservative screening estimates based on the
results of this compiled research. Little of this
data is generated from real-world environmental must be considered-
As used in this discussion, screening benchmarks are
very conservative levels of a chemical that can produce
adverse effects in selected species. Practically speak-
observations, and instead is often derived from
laboratory studies evaluated as part of human
health toxicity assessments. Toxicity data on amphibians and reptiles are in general less developed
than those for birds and mammals.
Two recent efforts to derive screening-level benchmarks for ecotoxicity data are worth
particular attention. Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), under a proj ect sponsored by the U. S.
Army and EPA, has developed ecotoxicity screening criteria and benchmarks using available data
on eight nitroaromatic compounds, including TNT, RDX, HMX, picric acid, and tetryl.55 In addition
USCHPPM (U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Munitions) has developed
Wildlife Toxicity Assessments (WTAs) for military compounds such as TNT, RDX, and HMX.
54U.S. EPA. Office of Research and Development. Wildlife Exposure Factors Handbook,EPA/600/R-93/187,
December 1993.
55S. Talmage, D. Opresko, C. Maxwell, C. Welsh, M. Cretella, P. Reno, andF. Daniel. Nitroaromatic Munition
Compounds: Environmental Effects and Screening Values. Review of Environmental Contamination Toxicology 161:1-
156, 1999.
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Chapters. Characteristics of MEC 3-28 May 2005
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Table 3-5 presents a compilation of potential adverse effects that these compounds may have
on wildlife according to the sources described in the preceding paragraphs.
Table 3-5. Potential Effects of Explosive Chemicals and Compounds on
Ecological Receptors
Contaminant
TNT
RDX
HMX
PETN
Tetryl
Picric acid
Explosive D
Tetrazene
DEGDN
2,4-Dinitrotoluene
2,6-Dinitrotoluene
Diphenylamine
Potential Toxicity and Ecological Effects
TNT can be taken up by plants from contaminated soil, including edible varieties of
garden plants, aquatic and wetland plants and tree species. Male animals treated with
high doses of TNT have developed serious reproductive system effects; signs of acute
toxicity to TNT include ataxia, tremors, and mild convulsions.3 Screening benchmarks
of toxicity for mammalian and bird wildlife species have been developed by ORNLb and
CHPPM.C
ATSDR studies conclude that RDX does not build up in fish or in people.3 Public health
assessments conducted at the Iowa AAP concluded that crops are not bioaccumulating
RDX and that they are safe for human consumption. In addition, studies at other Army
facilities and laboratory studies suggest that deer and cattle do not bioaccumulate RDX
in their tissue.d However, research does conclude that RDX is taken up by plants from
contaminated soils and could be a potential exposure route for herbivorous wildlife.
Screening benchmarks of toxicity for mammalian and bird wildlife species have been
developed by ORNL and CHPPM. b'c
Research conducted by the ATSDR conclude that it is not known if plants, fish, or
animals living in contaminated areas build up levels of HMX in their tissues. It is
unknown whether or not HMX can cause cancer or reproductive problems in animals.3
Screening benchmarks of toxicity for mammalian wildlife species have been developed
by ORNL and CHPPM.b'c
Screening benchmarks of toxicity for mammalian wildlife species have been developed
by CHPPM. Toxicological effects to laboratory animals studies used to develop TRVs
included weight loss, blood pressure and respiratory problems.0
Adverse effects on plant and animal species have been identified for this contaminant.
The ATSDR cites that it is not known if tetryl builds up in fish, plants, or land animals,
nor if it causes birth defects or carcinogenicity in wildlife.3 Screening benchmarks of
toxicity for mammalian wildlife species have been developed by ORNL and are in
preparation by CHPPM.b
Adverse effects on plant and animal species have been identified for this contaminant.
The ATSDR states that these compounds are not likely to build up in fish or people.
Results of studies in laboratory rats and wildlife species, such as white footed mice show
anemia effects on the blood, behavioral changes, and male reproductive system damage.3
Screening benchmarks of toxicity for mammalian and bird wildlife species have been
developed by ORNL and CHPPM. Data for toxicity to birds, amphibians or reptiles is
unavailable.0
Unavailable
Unavailable
Unavailable
According to the ATSDR profile, DNT can be transferred to plants by root uptake from
contaminated water or soil. Animals exposed to high levels of DNT had lowered number
of sperm and reduced fertility. Animals also showed a reduction in red blood cells,
nervous system disorders, liver cancer and liver and kidney damage.3 Screening
benchmarks of toxicity for wildlife species are being prepared by CHPPM.
The ATSDR profile states that 2,6-DNT has the same effect as 2,4-DNT on biota.3
Screening benchmarks of toxicity for wildlife species are in preparation by CHPPM.
Unavailable
Chapter 3. Characteristics of MEC
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Table 3-5. Potential Effects of Explosive Chemicals and Compounds on Ecological
Receptors (continued)
Contaminant
N-
Nitrosodiphenylamine
Phthalates
Ammonium nitrate
Nitroglycerine
(Glycerol trinitrate)
Lead azide
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
White phosphorus
Perchlorates
Hydrazine
Nitroguanidine
Potential Toxicity and Ecological Effects
According to the ATSDR aquatic organisms take some n-nitrosodiphenylamine into their
bodies, but they don't appear to build up high levels. It is not known if land animals or
plants take it up and store it in their bodies. Animal studies have identified levels and
exposures that can cause death. Animals given high levels of n-nitrosodiphenylamine in
their diets for long periods of time developed swelling, cancer of the bladder, and
changes in body weight."
Unavailable
Unavailable
Screening benchmarks of toxicity for mammalian and bird wildlife species have been
developed by CHPPM. Mammalian effects included cardiovascular malfunction,
decreased weight, and liver, blood, and reproductive problems.0
Unavailable
Unavailable
Unavailable
CRREL studies have shown that particles of white phosphorus that entered the bottom
sediments of shallow ponds as a result of military training with white-phosphorus are
highly toxic and contributed to the death of thousands of waterfowl at Eagle River Flats,
Fort Richardson, AK.a'e'f
Unavailable
The ATSDR profile states hydrazines may build up in some fish living in contaminated
water, but are not expected to remain at high levels over long periods of time. Tumors
have been seen in many organs (lungs, blood vessels, and colon) of animals that were
exposed to hydrazines by ingestion or breathing."
Unavailable
Notes:
"Data were taken from the lexicological profiles of these compounds prepared by the Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry (ATSDR), Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,
between 1993 and 1998.
bS. Talmage, D. Opresko, C. Maxwell, C. Welsh, M. Cretella, P. Reno, and F. Daniel. Nitroaromatic Munition
Compounds: Environmental Effects and Screening Values. Prepared for Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Life Sciences
Division, and the EPA National Exposure Research Laboratory, and published in Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 161:1-
156, 1999.
°Data were taken from wildlife toxicity assessments performed for the U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and
Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM), Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, 2001-2002.
dW.M. Weber and G. Campbell. Public Health Assessment, Iowa Army Ammunitions Plant, Middletown, Iowa. Federal
Facilities Assessment Branch Division of Health Assessment and Consultation, CERCLIS No. IA7213820445, 1999.
eData on white phosphorus were taken from C.H. Racine, M.E. Walsh, C.M. Collins, S. Taylor, B.D. Roebuck, and L.
Reitsma. Waterfowl Mortality in Eagle River Flats, Alaska: The Role of Munitions Residue, and White Phosphorus
Contamination of Salt Marsh Pond Sediments at Eagle River Flats, Alaska. USAGE, Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory (CRREL), Hanover, NH, May 1992.
fC.H. Racine, M.E. Walsh, C.M. Collins, S. Taylor, and B.D. Roebuck. White Phosphorus Contamination of Salt Marsh
Pond Sediments at Eagle River Flats, Alaska. USACE, CRREL, Hanover, NH, May 1992.
Chapter 3. Characteristics of MEC
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3.4.3 Human and Ecological Effects from Exposure to Specific Compounds
This section further discusses known effects of specific compounds on human and ecological
receptors.
White Phosphorus
One of the most frequently used bursting smoke fillers (also classified as an incendiary) is
white phosphorus.56 White phosphorus burns rapidly when exposed to oxygen. In soils with low
oxygen, unreacted white phosphorus can lie dormant for years, but as soon as it is exposed to oxygen,
it may react. If ingested, white phosphorus can cause reproductive, liver, heart, or kidney damage,
or death. Skin contact can burn the skin or cause organ damage. White phosphorus has been found
in fish caught in contaminated water and in game birds from contaminated areas.57 Research
conducted by CRREL has shown that an unusually high mortality of migratory waterfowl,
particularly dabbling species such as ducks and swans, is attributable to the ingestion of elemental
white phosphorus particles in the salt marsh sediments at Eagle River Flats, Alaska. Between 1982
and 1988, field and air surveys of the area were conducted. Nearly 1,000 dead waterfowl were
counted. The highest species-specific numbers included over 200 Northern pintail and over 150
Mallard ducks. Because of its use as an artillery training impact area (with nearly 7,000 rounds of
white phosphorus fired in 1989), munitions contamination was suspected as the cause. Tissue studies
of gizzard contents, fat tissue, liver, and kidneys found white phosphorus content in all field-collected
ducks and swans analyzed. Behavior of exposed birds prior to death included increased thirst, head
rolling, and violent convulsions.58'59
Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
TNT is soluble and mobile in surface water and groundwater. It is rapidly broken down into
other chemical compounds by sunlight, and is broken down more slowly by microorganisms in water
and sediments. TNT is not expected to bioaccumulate under normal environmental conditions.
Human exposure to TNT may result from breathing air contaminated with TNT and TNT-
contaminated soil particles stirred up by wind or construction activities. Workers in explosive
manufacturing who are exposed to high concentrations of TNT in workplace air experience a variety
of organ and immune system problems, as well as skin irritations and cataracts. Both EPA and
ATSDR have identified TNT as a possible human carcinogen.
56Joint Technical Bulletin, Department of Defense Ammunition and Explosive Classification Procedures,
5 January 1998, (TB 700-2/NAVSEAINST 8020.8B/TO 11A-1-47/DLAR 8220.1
57ATSDR. lexicological Profile for White Phosphorous. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, 1997.
58C.H. Racine, M.E. Walsh, C.M. Collins, S. Taylor, B.D. Roebuck, andL. Reitsma. Waterfowl Mortality in
Eagle River Flats, Alaska: The Role of Munitions Residue. Hanover, NH: USAGE, Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Lab, May 1992.
59C.H. Racine, M.E. Walsh, C.M. Collins, S. Taylor, and B.D. Roebuck. White Phosphorus Contamination of
Salt Marsh Pond Sediments at Eagle River Flats, Alaska. Hanover, NH: USACE, CRREL, May 1992.
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Chapters. Characteristics of MFC 3-31 May 2005
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Toxicological Profiles of RDX and TNT
EPA's IRIS uses a weight-of-evidence classification for carcinogenicity that characterizes the extent to which the
available data support the hypothesis that an agent causes cancer in humans. IRIS classifies carcinogenicity
alphabetically from A through E, with Group A being known human carcinogens and Group E being agents with
evidence of noncarcinogenicity. IRIS classifies both TNT and RDX as Group C, possible human carcinogens, and
provides a narrative explanation of the basis for these classifications.60
The ATSDR is tasked with preventing exposure and adverse human health effects and diminished quality of life
associated with exposure to hazardous substances from waste sites, unplanned releases, and other sources of pollution
present in the environment.
The ATSDR has developed toxicological profiles for RDX and TNT to document the health effects of exposure to
these substances. The ATSDR has identified both TNT and RDX as possible human carcinogens.61
The ecological impacts of TNT include blood, liver, and immune system effects in wildlife.
In addition, in laboratory tests, male test animals treated with high doses of TNT developed serious
reproductive system effects.
Research has concluded that RDX, TNT, and other nitroaromatic compounds can be
accumulated by plants from contaminated soils and could be a potential exposure route for
herbivorous wildlife. Plant studies conducted using TNT-contaminated soil taken from ammunition
sites found a direct correlation between concentrations in soil and plants. Large-scale uptake of TNT
was found to take place in plants, including edible varieties such as lettuce, beans, and carrots.
Studies suggest that because of the prevalence of TNT-contaminated sites, risk assessors should
consider the hazard posed to organisms higher in the food chain, including humans and wildlife,
which could also be affected by exposure. In addition, seed germination and growth studies
conducted on terrestrial higher plants found varied thresholds for phytotoxicity. Some plants (e.g.,
oat plants) have shown such high tolerances for TNT that they have been considered potential
bioremediation species.62
Research Demolition Explosive (RDX)
RDX, also known as Research Demolition Explosive, is another frequently found synthetic
explosive chemical. RDX dissolves in and evaporates from water very slowly. RDX does not bind
60 Carcinogenicity Assessment for Lifetime Exposure ofHexahydro-l,3,5-trinitro-l,3,5-triazine (RDX), and
Carcinogenicity Assessment for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) for Lifetime Exposure, EPA Integrated Risk Information
System, 1993.
61 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological Profile for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (update),
and Toxicological Profile for RDX, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta,
GA, 1995.
62K. Schneider, J. Oltmanns, T. Radenberg, T. Schneider, andD. Pauly-mundegar. Uptake of Nitroaromatic
Compounds in Plants: Implications for Risk Assessment of Ammunition Sites. Environmental Science and Pollution
Research International 3(3)135-138, 1996.
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Chapters. Characteristics of MEC 3-32 May 2005
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well to soil particles and can migrate to groundwater, but the rate of migration depends on the soil
composition. If released to water, RDX is degraded mainly by direct photochemical degradation that
takes place over several weeks. RDX does not biologically degrade in the presence of oxygen, but
anaerobic degradation is a possible fate process under certain conditions. RDX's potential for
bioaccumulation is low. Human exposure to RDX results from breathing dust with RDX particles
in it, drinking contaminated water, or coming into contact with contaminated soils. RDX inhalation
or ingestion can create nervous system problems and possibly organ damage. As discussed
previously, RDX has been identified as a possible human carcinogen.
The ecological effects of RDX suggested by laboratory studies include neurological damage
including seizures and behavioral changes in wildlife that ingest or inhale RDX. Wildlife exposure
to RDX may also cause damage to the liver and the reproductive system.
3.5 Other Sources of Conventional Munitions Constituents
Contamination of soils and groundwater with explosive compounds results from a variety of
activities. These activities include the release of other munitions constituents during planned
munitions training and testing, munitions disposal/burial pits associated with military ranges, and
munition storage sites and build-up locations. Contamination may also result from the deterioration
of intact munitions, the open burning and open detonation of munitions, and the land disposal of
explosives-contaminated process water from explosives manufacturing or demilitarization plants.
Munitions constituents include heavy metals, particularly lead and mercury, because they are
components of primary or initiating explosives such as lead azide and mercury fulminate. These
metals are released to the environment after a detonation or possibly by leaching out of damaged or
corroded munitions. The sections below describe specific sources of munitions constituents.
3.5.1 Open Burning/Open Detonation (OB/OD)
Concentrations of munitions constituents, such as explosives and metals, and bulk explosives
have been found at former OB/OD areas at levels requiring a response. OB/OD operations are used
to destroy excess, obsolete, or unserviceable munitions and energetic materials. OB operations
employ self-sustained combustion, which is ignited by an external source. In OD operations,
explosives and munitions are destroyed by a detonation, which is normally initiated by the detonation
of an energetic charge. In the past, OB/OD operations have been conducted on the land surface or
in shallow burn pits. More recently, burn trays and blast boxes have been used to help control and
contain emissions and other contamination resulting from OB/OD operations. See Chapter 5 for a
fuller discussion of OB/OD.
Incomplete combustion of munitions and energetic materials can leave uncombusted TNT,
RDX, HMX, PETN, and other explosives. These materials can possibly be spread beyond the
immediate vicinity of the OB/OD operation by the kick-out these operations generate and can
contribute to potentially adverse human health and ecological effects.
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Chapters. Characteristics of MEC 3-33 May 2005
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3.5.2 Explosives Manufacturing and Demilitarization
Explosives manufacturing and demilit-
arization plants are also sources of munitions
constituents. These facilities are usually comm-
ercial sites that are not usually co-located with
defense sites. Many of these facilities have
contaminated soils and ground-water. The
manufacture; load, assemble, and pack
operations; and demilitarization of munitions
create processing waters that in the past were
often disposed of in unlined lagoons, leaving
munitions constituents behind after infiltration
and evaporation.
Demilitarization of Munitions
Demilitarization is the processing of munitions so they
are no longer suitable for military use.
Demilitarization of munitions involves several
techniques, including both destructive and nonde-
structive methods. Destructive methods include
OB/OD and incineration. Nondestructive methods
include the physical removal of explosive components
from munitions. Munitions are generally demilitarized
because they are obsolete or their chemical com-
ponents are deteriorated.
Red water, the effluent from TNT
manufacturing, was a major source of munitions constituents in soils and groundwater at army
ammunition plants. TNT production ended in the mid-1980s in the United States; however,
contamination of soils and groundwater from red water remains in some areas.
In the demilitarization operations conducted up to the 1970s, explosives were removed from
munitions with j ets of hot water or steam. The effluent, called pink water, flowed into settling basins,
and the remaining water was disposed of in unlined lagoons or pits, often leaving highly concentrated
munitions constituents behind. In more advanced demilitarization operations developed in the 1980s,
once the solid explosive particles settled out of the effluent, filters such as diatomaceous earth filters
and activated carbon filters were employed to further reduce the explosive compounds, and the waters
were evaporated from lagoons or discharged into water systems.
3.6 Conclusions
The potential for explosive damage by different types of MEC, including buried munitions,
UXO, and munitions constituents, depends on many different factors. These factors include the
magnitude of the potential explosion, the sensitivity of the explosive compounds and their breakdown
products, fuze sensitivity, the potential for deflagration or detonation, the potential for MEC
deterioration, and the likelihood that the item will be disturbed, which depends on environmental and
human activities.
MEC items may also present other human health, ecological and environmental risks,
depending on the state of the item. Specifically, a MEC item that is degraded may release
propellants, explosives, pyrotechnics, and other munitions constituents into the surrounding area,
thereby potentially contaminating the environment and affecting human health. Other human health
and environmental risks may result from the explosives and from other chemicals used or produced
in munitions operations such as OB/OD; manufacturing; demilitarization; and load, assemble, and
pack operations.
Chapter 3. Characteristics of MEC
3-34
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SOURCES AND RESOURCES
The following publications, offices, laboratories, and websites are provided as a guide for
handbook users to obtain additional information about the subject matter addressed in each chapter.
Several of these publications, offices, laboratories, or websites were also used in the development of
this handbook.
Publications
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for 1,3-
dinitrobenzene/1,3,5-trinitrobenzene (update). Atlanta, GA: U. S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, 1995.
ATSDR. Toxicological Profile for 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (update). Atlanta, GA: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1995.
ATSDR. Toxicological Profile for 2,4- and 2,6-dinitrotoluene. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1998.
ATSDR. Toxicological Profile for HMX. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, 1997.
ATSDR. Toxicological Profile for Hydrazines. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service, 1997.
ATSDR. Toxicological Profile for n-nitrosodiphenylamine. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1993.
ATSDR. Toxicological Profile for RDX. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, 1995.
ATSDR. Toxicological Profile for Tetryl (update). Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service, 1995.
ATSDR. Toxicological Profile for White Phosphorous. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1997.
Bailey, A., and S.G. Murray. Explosives, Propellants and Pyrotechnics. Brassey's (UK) Ltd.,
1989.
Bucci, I.E., and P.P. Buckley. Modeling the Degradation ofVnexploded Ordnance (VXO) and
Its Use as a Tool in the Development of Risk Assessments. Paper presented at the UXO Forum
1998. Available at http://uxocoe.brtrc.com/UXOForumDocs/Forum98/Bucci.pdf
Cooper, P.W. Explosives Engineering. New York, NY: Wiley-VCH, 1996.
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Chapters. Characteristics of MEC 3-35 May 2005
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Crockett, A.B., H.D. Craig, and T.F. Jenkins. Field Sampling and Selecting On-site Analytical
Methods for Explosives in Water. U.S. EPA Federal Facilities Forum Issue, May 1999,
EPA/540/R-97/501.
Crull, M.L., L. Taylor, and J. Tipton. Estimating Ordnance Penetration Into Earth. Paper
presented at UXO Forum 1999, Atlanta, GA., May 25-27, 1999.
Federal Advisory Committee for the Development of Innovative Technologies. Vnexploded
Ordnance (UXO): An Overview. U.S. Navy, Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology
Division, UXO Countermeasures Department, Oct. 1996.
Johnson, M.S., and J.J. McAtee. Wildlife Toxicity Assessment for 2,4,6 5-trinitrotoluene. U.S.
Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM) Project Number 39-
EJ-1138-00. Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, Oct. 2000.
Kleine, H., and A. Makris. Protection Against Blast Effects in UXO Clearance Operations.
UXO Forum 1999 Proceedings, 1999.
Racine, C.H., M.E. Walsh, C.M. Collins, S. Taylor, B.D. Roebuck, and L. Reitsma. Waterfowl
Mortality in Eagle River Flats, Alaska: The Role of Munitions Residue. Hanover, NH:
USAGE, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab, May 1992.
Racine, C.H., M.E. Walsh, C.M. Collins, S. Taylor, and B.D. Roebuck, White Phosphorus
Contamination of Salt Marsh Pond Sediments at Eagle River Flats, Alaska. Hanover, NH:
US ACE, CRREL, May 1992.
Roberts, W.C., and W.R. Hartley. Drinking Water Health Advisory: Munitions. Boca Raton,
FL: Lewis Publishers, 1992.
Schneider K., J. Oltmanns, T. Radenberg, T. Schneider, and D. Pauly-mundegar. Uptake of
Nitroaromatic Compounds in Plants: Implications for Risk Assessment of Ammunition Sites.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 3(3)135-138, 1996.
Talmage S., D. Opresko, C. Maxwell, C. Welsh, M. Cretella, P. Reno, and F. Daniel.
Nitroaromatic Munition Compounds: Environmental Effects and Screening Values. Review of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 161:1-156, 1999.
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM), Standard
Practice for Wildlife Toxicity Reference Values, Technical Guide 254 (USACHPPM TG 254),
Environmental Health Risk Assessment Program and Health Effects Research Program, Aberdeen
Proving Ground, MD, Oct. 2000.
Wildlife Toxicity Assessment for 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene. U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion
and Preventive Medicine (CHPPMUSA) Project Number 39-EJ-l 138-01B, Aberdeen Proving
Ground, MD, Nov. 2001.
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Wildlife Toxicity Assessment for l,3,5-trinitrohexahydro-l,3,5- triazine (RDX). U.S. Army
Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (CHPPMUSA) Project Number 39-EJ-
1138-0IB, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, May 2002.
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM). Wildlife
Toxicity Assessment for HMX, Project Number 39-EJ-l 138-01E, Aberdeen Proving Ground,
MD, Oct. 2001.
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM). Wildlife
Toxicity Assessment for Nitroglycerin, Project Number 39-EJ-l 138-01F, Aberdeen Proving
ground, MD, Oct. 2001.
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM). Wildlife
Toxicity Assessment for Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN), Project Number 37-EJ-l 138-01G,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, Nov. 2001.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Ordnance and Explosives Response: Engineering and Design.
No. 1110-1-4009, June 23, 2000.
U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition and
Technology). Report to Congress, Unexploded Ordnance Clearance: A Coordinated Approach
to Requirements and Technology Development. Joint Unexploded Ordnance Clearance Steering
Group, Mar. 25, 1997.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). Handbook: Approaches for the
Remediation of Federal Facility Sites Contaminated With Explosive or Radioactive Wastes.
EPA/625/R-93/013, Sept. 1993.
U.S. EPA, Criteria and Standards Division, Office of Drinking Water. Health Advisory for
Hexahydro-l,3,5-Trinitro-l,3,5-Triazine (RDX) Nov. 1988.
U.S. EPA, Office of Drinking Water. Health Advisory for Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-l,3,5,7-
tetrazocine(HMX). NTIS No. SPB90-273525. Nov. 1988.
U.S. EPA, Office of Drinking Water. Health Advisory for 2,4,6 Trinitrotoluene, Jan. 1989.
U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development, Wildlife Exposure Factors Handbook.
EPA/600/R-93/187, Dec. 1993.
Weber, W.M., and G. Campbell. Public Health Assessment, Iowa Army Ammunitions Plant.
Middletown, Iowa, Federal Facilities Assessment Branch, Division of Health Assessment and
Consultation, CERCLIS No. IA7213820445, 1999.
Wilcher, B.L., D. Eisen, and R. Booth. Evaluation of Potential Soil Contamination from Open
Detonation During Ordnance and Explosives Removal Actions, Former Fort Ord, California.
Paper presented at UXO Forum 1999, Atlanta, GA, May 25-27, 1999.
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Information Sources
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB)
2461 Eisenhower Avenue
Alexandria, VA 22331-0600
Fax: (703)325-6227
http://www.ddesb.pentagon.mil
ORDATA II (database of ordnance items)
Available from: NAVEOTECHDIV
Attn: Code 602
20008 Stump Neck Road
Indian Head, MD 20640-5070
E-mail: ordata@eodpoc2.navsea.navy.mil
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
Division of Toxicology
1600 Clifton Road, E-29
Atlanta, GA 20222
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Technology Innovation Office
Hazardous Waste
Cleanup Information (CLU-IN)
http ://www. clu-in.org/
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)
U.S. EPA Risk Information Hotline
Tel: (513) 569-7254
Fax:(513)569-7159
E-mail: RIH.IRIS@epamail.epa.gov
http://www.epa.gov/ngispgm3/iris/index.html
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
U.S. Army Engineering and Support Center
Ordnance and Explosives Mandatory Center of Expertise
P.O. Box 1600
4820 University Square
Huntsville, AL 35807-4301
http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil/
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4.0 DETECTION OF UXO AND BURIED MUNITIONS
4.1 Introduction
Geophysical detection technologies are deployed in a nonintrusive manner to locate surface
and subsurface anomalies that may be UXO or buried munitions. (For purposes of brevity,
discussions of UXO and buried munitions will be referred to as MEC throughout this chapter.)
Proper selection and use of these technologies is an important part of the site investigation, which
often takes place on ranges or parts of ranges that cover many acres. Since excavating all the land to
depth is usually not practical, MEC detection technologies are used to locate anomalies that are
subsequently verified as UXO or non-UXO. Given the high cost of MEC excavation (due to both
range size and safety considerations), the challenge of most MEC investigations is the accurate and
appropriate deployment of nonintrusive geophysical detection technologies to maximize probability
of detection and minimize false alarms.
Since the early 1990s, existing geophysical survey technologies have improved in their
capabilities to efficiently and cost-effectively detect MEC. Much of the improvement is the result of
greater understanding of operational requirements for the use of detection technologies. However,
the primary challenge in MEC detection today is the achievement of high levels of subsurface
detection of actual MEC in a consistent, reproducible manner with a high level of quality assurance.
Distinguishing ordnance from fragments and other nonordnance materials based solely on the
geophysical signature, called target discrimination, is also a major challenge in MEC detection and
the focus of research and development activities. This problem is known as a false alarm, as
described in the text box below. Poor discrimination results in lower probability of detection, higher
costs, longer time frames for cleanups, and potentially greater risks following cleanup actions.
False Alarms
The term false alarm is used when a declared UXO detection location does not correspond to an actual UXO
location based upon the groundtruth data. False positives are anomalous indications where nothing is found that
caused the instrument to detect an anomaly at that location. False positives can result in incorrect estimations of
UXO density and often lead to expensive or unnecessary excavation of an anomaly if it is not UXO. Depending
on the site-specific conditions, as few as 1 percent of anomalies may actually be UXO items. Because of the
difficulty, danger, and time required to excavate UXO, high costs per acre are exacerbated by a high false positive
rate. False negatives occur when ordnance items are not detected by the geophysical instrument used or are
misidentified in post-processing, resulting in potential risks remaining following UXO investigations.
It should be noted that a particular technology or combination of technologies will never have
the highest effectiveness, best implementability, and lowest cost at every site. In other words, there
is no "silver bullet" detection technology. It is also important to note that no existing technology or
combination of existing technologies can guarantee that a site is completely MEC-free. As discussed
in Section 4.2 below and in Chapter 7, a combination of information from a variety of sources
(including historical data, results of previous environmental data collection, and knowledge of field
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and terrain conditions) will be used to make decisions about the detection system to be used,
including the particular sensor(s), the platform on which it is deployed, and data acquisition and
processing techniques. Detailed fact sheets on each of the detection sensors currently in use are found
at the end of this chapter.
Experts in the MEC research and development community have indicated that currently
available detection technologies will improve with time and that no revolutionary new systems are
likely to be developed that uniformly improve all MEC detection. Much of the performance
improvement of current detection technologies has come from a better understanding of how to use
the technologies and from the use of combinations of technologies at a site to improve anomaly
detection rates. Current improvements in detection systems generally focus on discriminating
ordnance from nonordnance. Emerging processing and numerical modeling programs will enhance
the target discrimination capabilities of detection systems. In general, these programs rely on
identifying UXO and clutter based on their "signatures" (e.g., spatial pattern of magnetic signal).
Geophysical sensors have specific capabilities and limitations that must be evaluated when
selecting a detection system for a site. The primary types of sensors in use today are:
Magnetometry a passive sensor that measures a magnetic field. Subsurface ferrous
items create irregularities in the Earth's magnetic field and may contain remnant magnetic
fields of their own that are detected by magnetometers.
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) an active sensor that induces electrical currents
beneath the earth's surface. Conductivity readings of the secondary magnetic field created
by the electrical currents are used to detect both ferrous and nonferrous ordnance items.
In addition, under specific and limited conditions, ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been
successfully used to detect MEC. This sensor is mainly helpful when the location of larger munitions
burial sites is known and boundaries must be identified. Magnetometers, EMI sensors, and GPR
sensors are discussed in detail in Section 4.2 and in the fact sheets at the end of the chapter. The
results of investigations using any sensor can vary dramatically depending not only on the site
conditions, but also on the components of the detection system, the skill of the operator, and the
processing method used to interpret the data.
Detection systems that will be available in the near future include advanced electromagnetic
systems and airborne magnetometers. Long-term research endeavors include a GPR that can identify
UXO at discrete locations, and an airborne EMI sensor. An overview of emerging detection
technologies, as well as data processing and modeling for target discrimination, is presented in
Sections 4.3 and 4.4.
In response to the stagnancy of detection technology development at the beginning of the
Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Program, the U.S. Congress established the Jefferson
Proving Ground Technology Demonstration (JPGTD) program in Madison, Indiana. The JPGTD
program was established to demonstrate and promote advanced and innovative UXO systems that
are more cost-efficient, effective, and safer. In the program, vendors of geophysical systems were
invited to test and compare the efficiency and reliability of the systems. It is important to note that
the test did not look at the process by which the system was deployed and was not structured to
determine why certain approaches worked better than others. In subsequent phases of the JPGTD
program, vendors improved the processes by which sensors were deployed, and significantly
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improved their detection rates. The JPGTD and other demonstration programs, such as the
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program UXO Technology Standardized
Demonstration Sites and the Fort Ord Ordnance Detection and Discrimination Study (ODDS), are
discussed in Section 4.5.
4.2 Selection of the Geophysical Detection System
Many factors should be considered when identifying the detection system appropriate to your
site. First, information about the detection sensors currently available, and the factors that contribute
to their successful application, should be evaluated. Next, basic site conditions should be evaluated,
such as expected targets (size, location, density, depths), terrain, vegetation, and electromagnetic
fields. Finally, the role of each system component and how it affects overall performance should be
examined to ensure maximum effectiveness.
4.2.1 Geophysical Sensors in Use Today
Magnetometry and electromagnetic induction are the most frequently used sensors for
detecting MEC. Both sensors are commercially available and are employed on a variety of systems
using various operational platforms, data processing techniques, and geolocation devices.
4.2.1.1 Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
EMI sensors are perhaps the most widely used systems for detecting MEC. The
electromagnetic induction system is based on physical principles of inducing and detecting electrical
current flow within nearby conducting obj ects. EMI surveys work by inducing time-varying magnetic
fields in the ground from a transmitter coil. The resulting secondary electromagnetic field set up by
ground conductors is then measured at a receiver coil. EMI systems can detect all conductive
materials but are at times limited by interference from surface or near-surface metallic objects. In
general, the EMI response will be stronger the closer the detector head is to the buried target, but
close proximity to the ground surface may subj ect the sensor to interference from shallow fragments.
In areas of heavy vegetation, the distance between the detector head and the earth's surface is
increased, potentially decreasing signal strength and decreasing the probability of detection. Soil type
also plays a role in EMI system detection. EMI systems may have difficulty detecting small items
in conductive soils, such as those containing magnetite, or in soils with cultural interferences, such
as buildings, metal fences, vehicles, cables, and electrical wires. Because the difficulties with
detecting small items in conductive soils are also present for magnetometry, this issue is usually not
a limiting factor in selection of an EMI system.
EMI systems operate in time or
frequency domains. Time-domain
electromagnetic (TDEM) systems operate by
transmitting a magnetic pulse that induces
currents in and near conducting objects. These
currents produce secondary magnetic fields that
are measured by the sensor after the transmitter
pulse has ended. The sensor integrates the
induced voltage over a fixed time gate and
averages over the number of pulses. When
EMI and Electronic Fuzes
EMI is an active system for which there has been
concern about increasing the risk of initiating MEC
with electronic fuzing. However, there is no evidence
that the current generation of EMI-based systems,
when used in accordance with the manufacturer
specifications (e.g., EM-61), generate enoughpowerto
cause this effect. This may be an issue to watch in the
future, however, if more powerful systems are
developed.
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IDEM detectors are hand-held or smaller they may have less penetration depth than the more
commonly used large-coil EMI.
Frequency-domain electromagnetic (FDEM) instruments operate by transmitting continuous
electronic signals and measuring the resulting eddy currents. FDEM instruments are able to detect
deeply buried munitions that are grouped together. In addition, some types of FDEM instruments are
capable of detecting very small individual MEC items that are buried just beneath the ground surface,
such as metal firing pins in plastic land mines. FDEM instruments are currently not typically used
when detecting individual, deeply buried munitions, because of the sensor's decreased resolution and
the difficulty of measuring the amplitude of return of individual targets.
4.2.1.2 Magnetometry
Magnetometers are passive systems that use the Earth's magnetic field as the source of the
signal. Magnetometers detect distortions in the magnetic field caused by ferrous objects. The
magnetometer has the ability to detect ferrous items to a greater depth than can be achieved by other
systems. Magnetometers can identify small anomalies because of the instrument's high levels of
sensitivity. However, magnetometers are also sensitive to many iron-bearing minerals and "hot
rocks" (rocks with high iron content), which affects the detection probability by creating false
positives and masking signals from real ordnance.
The two most common magnetometry systems used to detect buried munitions are cesium
vapor or fluxgate. Cesium vapor magnetometers measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. These
systems produce digital system output. The fluxgate systems measure the relative intensity of the
gradient in the Earth's magnetic field. These systems are inexpensive, reliable, and rugged and have
low energy consumption.
4.2.1.3 Multisensor Systems
Multisensor systems combine two or more sensor technologies in order to improve UXO
detection performance. The technologies that have proved to be most effective in multisensor systems
are arrays of full-field cesium vapor magnetometers and time-domain EMI pulsed sensors.
Multisensor systems can enhance detector performance by providing complementary data sets that
can be used to confirm the presence of MEC.
Multisensor systems are available both as man-portable configurations and as linear arrays
on platforms that do not themselves produce a significant geophysical signature while they tow the
array over survey sites by all-terrain vehicles.
4.2.1.4 Ground Penetrating Radar
GPR is another sensor technology that is currently commercially available, although it is not
used as frequently as EMI and magnetometry and is generally not as reliable. GPR systems use high-
frequency (approximately 10 tol,000 MHz) electromagnetic waves to excite the conducting object,
thus producing currents. The currents flow around the object, producing electromagnetic fields that
radiate from the target. The signals are received by the GPR antenna and stored for further
processing. Most commercial systems measure total energy return and select potential targets based
on contrast from background. More advanced processing uses the radar information to produce two-
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or three-dimensional images of the subsurface or to estimate features of the target, such as length or
a spectra. Such processing systems are not generally in use at this time.
The GPR system is more accurate when used in areas of dry soil. Water in the soil absorbs
the energy from the GPR, thus interfering with UXO detection. GPR may be used to find the
boundaries of large caches of buried munitions. Because the GPR system uses active electromagnetic
waves to locate buried objects, there is concern that electronic fuzes on MEC items could be initiated
by these systems. As with EMI, there is no evidence that deployment of GPR has initiated electronic
fuzes during MEC investigations.
4.2.2 Selection of the Geophysical Detection System
The selection of a detection system is a site-specific decision. Some of the factors that should
be considered in selecting a detection system include, but are not limited to, the following:
Site size
Soil type, vegetation, and terrain
Subsurface lithology
Depth, size, shape, composition, and type of MEC
Geological and cultural noise (e.g., ferrous rocks and soils, electromagnetic fields from
power lines)
Non-MEC clutter on-site
Historical land use
Reasonably anticipated future land use
MEC density
Each of the above factors should be considered against the decision goals of the investigation in order
to select the most appropriate detection system. Table 4-1 highlights the effects of each factor on the
investigation process. This list of considerations is not all-inclusive.
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Table 4-1. Examples of Site-Specific Factors To Be Considered in
Selecting a Detection System
Site Factors
Site size
Soil properties
Vegetation
Terrain
Subsurface lithology
Target size and orientation
Target penetration depth
Composition of UXO
Noise
Non-UXO clutter
Historical land use
Future land use
UXO density
Considerations
Different operational platforms cover areas at different speeds. If a large area needs
to be surveyed, operational platforms such as towed-array or airborne may be
considered, if appropriate.
Potential for high conductivity levels to interfere with target signals; potentially
reduced detection capabilities using magnetometers in ferrous soils.
Heavy vegetation obstructs view of MEC items on surface and may interfere with
sensor's ability to detect subsurface anomalies, as well as access to the site and
operation of the sensor.
Easily accessible areas can accommodate any operational platform; difficult terrain
may require man-portable platform.
Soil and rock layers and configurations beneath the ground surface will influence
the depth of the UXO and the ability of the sensor to "see" anomalies.
Capability of detector to find objects of various sizes and at various orientations.
Capability of detector to find targets at depths. Potential for decreased signal when
detecting deeply buried targets.
Projectile and fuze composition may dictate sensor selection. Magnetometers
detect only ferrous materials, while EMI systems detect all metals.
Both geological noise (e.g., hot rocks or high ferrous content in soil) and cultural
noise (e.g., buried cables, overhead utilities) potentially increase false alarms and
mask ordnance signals.
Potential difficulty discriminating between small objects and metallic scrap,
resulting in high numbers of false alarms.
Information about expected target location, types, and density.
Enables setting of realistic decision goals for investigation.
Enables sensor strengths (e.g., ability to see individual items as opposed to large
caches of targets) to be maximized.
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DoD/EPA Management Principles on Detection Technologies
EPA and DoD identified the critical metrics for evaluating the performance of a detection technology as the
probabilities of detection and false alarms. Specifically, they call for the performance evaluation of detection
technologies to consider the following factors:
Types of munitions
Size of munitions
Depth distribution of munitions
Extent of clutter
Environmental factors (e.g., soil, terrain, temperature, and vegetation)
"The performance of a technology cannot be properly defined by its probability of detection without identifying
the corresponding probability of false alarms. Identifying solely one of these measures yields an ill-defined
capability. Of the two, probability of detection is a paramount consideration in selecting a UXO detection
technology."
4.2.3 MEC Detection System Components
Table 4-2 identifies the various elements of a detection system and highlights how each
element may affect the overall system performance. For example, the three operational platforms
man-held, towed-array, and airborne directly affect the sensor's distance from the target, which,
in turn, affects the sensor's ability to detect targets. The ability of all sensors to "see" targets
decreases as distance from the target increases. However, the rate at which the performance drops
off with distance varies by individual sensor. An additional consideration when selecting the
operational platform includes what is expected to be found beneath the surface. Large caches of
munitions buried deep beneath the surface may remain detectable from large distances, whereas
smaller items may be more easily missed by the sensor at a distance.
Table 4-2. System Element Influences on Detection System Performance
System Element
Geophysical sensor
Positioning system
Geophysical prove-out
Factors To Be Considered
Site-specific conditions and the results of the geophysical prove-out are used
to determine the sensor and system configuration best suited to achieve the
goals of the investigation.
Accuracy and precision in positioning and navigation are needed to locate
targets in relation to coordinate systems. Tree cover, terrain, and need for
line of sight may restrict choices.
The accuracy with which geophysical prove-out represents field conditions
and sampling methods helps to ensure the development of data with a known
level of certainty in field operations.
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Table 4-2. System Element Influences on Detection System Performance (continued)
System Element
Operator capability
Operational platform
Data acquisition
Data analysis
Factors To Be Considered
The selection and use of detection systems is complex and requires
individuals with appropriate qualifications and experience. Qualification of
the geophysical team to meet prove-out performance is a recommended
QA/QC measure.
Size and depth of ordnance, sensor sensitivity to height above target, and
potential for interference with sensor operation by platform components, and
terrain and vegetation restriction need to be taken into account when
selecting a platform.
Digital versus analog data, reliability of data points, and ability to merge
geophysical signals with a positioning system (e.g., GPS) data affect
potential for human error.
Experienced and qualified analysts and appropriate procedures help to
ensure reliability of results.
Operational Platforms for UXO Detection Systems
Man-Portable - Man-portable systems can be used in areas that cannot be accessed by other platforms, such
as those with heavy vegetation or rough terrain. The use of man-portable systems generally requires extensive
man-hours, as the maximum speed with which the system can be operated is that at which an operator can walk
the sampling area.
Towed Array - These systems are generally used in flat treeless areas and can cover a larger area using fewer
man-hours. Limitations include the inability to use towed-array systems in heavily wooded areas, other areas
inaccessible to vehicles, or urban areas with tall buildings.
Airborne - These systems are used to survey large, flat, treeless areas in a short period of time, using current
magnetometry sensors requiring minimal standoff. Airborne systems can be very useful in detecting larger
objects such as those that may be found in a bombing range. They can be highly cost-effective on large ranges
because of the amount of acreage that can be covered and the resulting low cost per acre. In limited use today,
airborne platforms are not as widely used as the other platforms. The disadvantage of airborne detection is the
high cost of the hardware and potential difficulty of penetrating deep enough below the ground surface, which
is a function of both the altitude at which aircraft must fly, as well as of the sensor used.
4.2.3.1 Positioning Systems
Positioning systems are used to determine and record where a geophysical sensor is in relation
to known points, such as how it is oriented and the pathway of its travel as it is collecting data.
Knowing the location of the sensor will allow the geophysical analyst to estimate the location of
subsurface anomalies that may be MEC. The accuracy of the positioning system will directly affect
the ability of field teams to successfully relocate and excavate subsurface anomalies. The
performance of the positioning system used on your project should be assessed at the same time that
the performance of the geophysical sensor is assessed.
All positioning systems rely on determining the location of the geophysical sensor in relation
to a known point or points. They also all provide a method for correlating the positional data with
the geophysical sensor data. Commonly used positioning systems are shown in the table below.
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Table 4-3. Description of Positioning Systems
Positioning System
Description
Differential Global
Positioning System (DGPS)
Triangulates the position of the Differential global positioning system
receiver with respect to several satellites and terrestrial base stations
Can yield accuracy on the order of 20 cm.
Differential global positioning system signal can be blocked by heavy
overhead tree canopy; satellite availability will also strongly influence
accuracy.
Differential global positioning system receiver must be in close proximity to
the geophysical sensor; with man-portable sensor configurations, the extra
weight of the Differential global positioning system receiver and recorder
(usually over 50 pounds) can increase personnel requirements during the
performance of the geophysical survey.
Acoustic Ranging and Total
Station Electronic Distance
Meter (EDM)
Calculates the distance between the receiver and a known point based on
return time for either an acoustic or optical (infrared, laser) signal.
Accuracy depends on atmospheric and other conditions that may distort
acoustic or optical signal.
Methods require a line of sight between receiver and known points.
Digital Thread
Hybrid technology uses odometer wheel turned by survey thread; optical
switch embeds position mark every 4-6 cm.
Works well in rugged, forested terrain.
"Dead Reckoning"
Techniques
Extrapolates current position from a previously know point by applying
information on direction, speed, and time traveled. Locations determined by
measurements from known points using survey tapes and trigonometry.
Highly dependent on the competence of the operator.
Assumes geophysical sensor has traveled in a straight line from a known
point to the point of measurement.
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4.2.3.2 Anomaly Identification
The geophysical sensor and positional data collected during the survey are analyzed to
identify geophysical "anomalies," that is, readings that are different from the surrounding
background. There are two steps to the anomaly identification process; data processing and data
analysis. The quality of the anomaly identification process is critical to the performance of the
geophysical detection system.
In general, data processing consists of the merging of the geophysical sensor and the
positional data, and the creation of a map of the geophysical data. The output from this step should
include the aforementioned map showing the locations of the sensor readings, a text narrative or a
table describing the data acquisition parameters (e.g., sensor and positioning devices used, adjacent
lane overlap for grids), and a narrative describing the data processing details (e.g., method used to
synchronize geophysical and positional data, any signal filtering or background leveling applied).
Digital outputs should include all raw data, field acquisition and data processing notes, and the
merged database.
The primary obj ective of the data analysis step is to determine if a given geophysical anomaly
meets the minimum threshold selection criteria of subsurface munitions. The determination of these
selection criteria will be based on the geophysical sensor, the survey pattern, and the type of
munitions under investigation, as well as the geological conditions and the analyst's experience. The
output from this step should include a clear description of the selection criteria and the rationale for
that criteria, a prioritized dig list with a unique identifier for each anomaly, the spatial location (the
x andy coordinates) of each anomaly, and the metric attributes of each anomaly (e.g., the magnitude
of the reading above background).
4.2.4 Costs of UXO Detection Systems
The factors influencing the costs of deploying MEC detection systems are complex, and much
broader the simple rental or purchase of a detector or sensor. The entire life cycle of the response
process and the nature of the detection system must be considered. Life-cycle issues include:
Costs of capital equipment
Acreage that can be covered by your detection system over a specific period of time
Rate of false positives, and costs of unnecessary excavation
Costs of rework if it is later proven that the system deployed resulted in a number of false
negatives
Required clearance of vegetation
Costs of response
Costs of operator salaries, based on the complexity and sophistication of the detection
system (including training and certification of operators)
Evaluation of the factors may lead to site-specific decisions related to certain cost tradeoffs,
for example:
That high capital expenditures (e.g., airborne platforms) will result in reduced costs when
large acreage is involved.
Extensive use of expensive target discrimination equipment may be more worthwhile at
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a transferring base where land uses are uncertain, and transfer will not occur until the
property is "cleaned" for the particular use.
For small acreage, equipment producing a high rate of false positives may be acceptable
if excavation is less costly than extensive data processing.
Investments in systems with sensitive detectors and extensive data processing may be
considered worthwhile when the potential for rework, or for lack of acceptance of cleanup
decisions, is considered.
4.2.5 Quality Assurance/Quality Control
As discussed in Chapter 8, a comprehensive quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC)
process that addresses every aspect of the selection and use of geophysical detection equipment, as
well as evaluation of findings, is absolutely essential. Specifically, data acquisition quality is a
function of appropriate data management, including acquisition of data in the field, data processing,
data entry, and more. In addition, field observation of data acquisition, reacquisition, and excavation
procedures will help to ensure that proper procedures that directly affect data quality are followed.
General practices that help to ensure quality include monitoring the functionality of all instruments
on a daily basis, ensuring that the full site was surveyed and ensuring that there are no data gaps.
Finally, qualification of geophysical operators is critical to ensuring that those operating the
equipment can repeat the anticipated performance of the detection system. Chapter 8 describes
qualification of geophysical operators in more detail.
4.3 Emerging UXO Detection Systems
The detection systems discussed in the following sections are in various stages of
development and implementation. Some are still being researched and tested, while others will be
available for operational use in the near future. All of the systems discussed are advanced versions
of EMI and magnetometry technologies. The EMI systems discussed below collect vast quantities
of data at each position that is used for identification and discrimination purposes, while the
magnetometry systems are modifications to accommodate additional operational platforms.
4.3.1 Advanced EMI Systems
There is a whole class of advanced EMI systems in research and development at DoD.
GEM-3 (Geophex Ltd.) The Geophex Ltd. GEM-3 is a multichannel frequency-domain
EMI system that collects the EMI data over many audio frequencies. In other words, the GEM-3
collects multiple channels of information at each survey point. Frequency response data are used for
the discrimination of UXO targets from clutter (both manmade and natural). This system has
performed well in field tests for discrimination and identification of UXO.
EM-63 (Geonics Ltd.) The EM-63 is a time-domain EM sensor that records multiple
channels of time-domain data at each survey point. It is already commercially available.63 Processing
approaches to fully exploit the additional data measured by the EM-63 are currently being researched.
63ERDC/EL TR-01-20, Advanced UXO Detection/Discrimination Technology Demonstration, U.S. Army
Jefferson Proving Ground, Madison, Indiana, Ernesto Cespedes, September 2001.
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NAEVA Geophysics has demonstrated good performance with the EM-63 in field tests. Zonge
Engineering has also developed a multitime gate, multiaxis system currently being characterized.
4.3.2 Airborne Detection
Airborne detection platforms have been tested at the Badlands Bombing Range, near Interior,
South Dakota. Tests suggest that this platform can be very cost-effective in large expanses of flat,
open, and treeless ranges found in the arid and semi-arid climate of the western United States, where
aircraft are able to fly close to the ground. Other types of sites where speculation suggests airborne
platforms may be appropriate include areas where access is made difficult, such as marshes, swamps,
wetlands, and shallow water.
Airborne Magnetometry Low-altitude airborne magnetometry has proved promising in
tests on the Cuny Table at the Badlands Bombing Range, near Interior, South Dakota. Because of
the conditions at Badlands Bombing Range, aircraft are able to fly close to the ground, providing for
increased detection capabilities. Originally, the mission envisioned for airborne magnetics was the
identification of the concentrations of munitions for further investigation by ground-based sensors.
However, performance in initial tests of commercial, off-the-shelf equipment indicated that for large
ordnance (210 kg), individual items were detectable at about 50 percent of the rate of ground-based
sensors. Research to improve the probability of detection is ongoing. Aircraft-mounted
magnetometers may present a viable option for detecting and characterizing UXO at certain ranges,
because the relatively low operation time required to characterize a very large range makes the
detection time and cost per acre potentially reasonable despite the high setup and equipment costs.64
Airborne MTADS A second major type of airborne detection is the Airborne MTADS,
an adapted version of the vehicular MTADS magnetometry technology for deployment on an
airborne platform. The array consists of seven full-field cesium vapor magnetometers (a variant of
the Geometries 822 sensor designated as Model 822A) mounted on a model 206L Bell range
helicopter. All sensors are interfaced to a data acquisition computer.
The intent of the adaptation was to provide a MEC site characterization capability for
extended, large areas that are inappropriate for vehicular surveys. Because the sensors are deployed
further from the ground surface than the vehicular systems, it was understood that some detection
sensitivity would be lost. The primary goal of the development was to retain as much detection
sensitivity as possible for individual MEC targets. The second primary objective was that the final
system must have a production rate and costs appropriate for deployment to explore very large sites
that would be prohibitively expensive to survey by other techniques.
^Evaluation of Footprint Reduction Methodology at the Cuny Table in the Former Badlands Bombing Range,
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program, July 2000.
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Defense Science Board Recommendations, December 2003
In December 2003 the DoD Defense Science Board released the report of its Task Force on Unexploded Ordnance
(UXO). One recommendation was for a national assessment of 10 million acres of former ranges contaminated with
UXO. The purpose of the assessment to reduce the footprint of the 10 million acres for which the presence of UXO
is uncertain to as few as 2 million acres where cleanup should be focused. The assessment would use of low-flying
airborne platforms for sensors in appropriate circumstances.
"The Task force sees this approach as most useful for initial, large scale, wide area assessments of UXO sites to
determine in a quick survey fashion where there are metallic objects in the ground and where there are not. We do
not see it as the final instrument in the UXO detection discrimination process."
Although the recommendation is an interesting idea, the reader should keep in mind the following :
The effective use of any detection system to reduce the footprint of the range is limited by our
knowledge of what was done at the site, and what we are looking for. In other words, a good
conceptual site model is essential.
Effective use of airborne systems platforms currently occurs under specific conditions:
- The airborne system is able to be deployed fairly close to the ground (e.g., relatively flat terrains).
- Such platforms are most useful for detecting larger munitions items.
- With current technologies false alarms are likely to continue to be a problem.
Demonstrations of airborne MTADS at Badlands Bombing Range, near Interior, South
Dakota, indicate that the system generates high production rates while maintaining reasonable costs
when characterizing very large, open areas. Production rates of 300-400 acres/day were demon-
strated with airborne MTADS as compared with 18-24 acres/day with vehicular MTADS. This
indicates that the airborne MTADS, rates can be 15 times greater than the vehicular system's. It is
expected that the cost per acre is three to five times less with airborne MTADS than with a vehicular
array. These rates have yet to be tested. As expected, the demonstrations indicated that a major
disadvantage associated with the use of airborne MTADS is the system's inability to detect small
classes of UXO buried at significant depth. In addition, using airborne MTADS doesn't prove to be
as cost-effective on smaller areas compared with vehicular MTADS because of the deployment costs
associated with the airborne platform.65
Airborne EM Airborne electromagnetic induction is under research and development for
use at ranges with characteristics similar to those discussed above (e.g., vast, open, treeless, and flat
areas). However, unlike airborne magnetometry, airborne EMI could be used at sites with ferrous
soils. Because EM signals fall off more quickly with increased distances, the challenge of using this
technique from an airborne platform will be greater. Initial tests have shown detectability of large
items on seeded sites.
Ground Penetrating Radar Identification Studies of various GPR systems have been
conducted. One study, by Ohio State University with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research
and Development Center and the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, examined the
65J.R. McDonald, D. Wright, N. Khadr, AETC Inc., and H.H. Nelson, Chemical Dynamics and Diagnostics
Branch, Naval Research Laboratory. Airborne MTADS Demonstration on the Impact Area of the Badlands Bombing
Range, September 2001.
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capabilities of an ultra-wideband, fully polarimetric GPR system to provide information about the
size and shape of buried objects. This study was based on UXO with known target locations, and
focused on both detecting the UXO items and classifying specific ordnance types.66
4.4 Use of Processing and Modeling To Discriminate UXO
The development of advanced processing and modeling to reduce the false alarm rates, even
as ordnance detection performance improves, is evolving. Rather than using a simple amplitude of
response in raw physical data
exclusively, advanced processing
methods organize large quantities of
data. In efforts to encourage the
development of algorithms for target
discrimination without the expense and
burden of field data collection, they have
controlled and live sites publicly
available. One example of a sensor data
set is EM data in the time-frequency or
About Signatures
The various methodologies deployed to detect UXO produce
digital data that is recorded at each survey location. These
data are displayed as graphs, charts, and maps that indicate the
presence of an anomalous measurement. The graphical
made standard sensor data sets for both reports produce patterns that may be used to estimate the sizes,
types, and orientations of UXO. These patterns are called
"signatures." Signatures are being used in emerging
technologies and rely on databases of electronic signatures to
, , i , ,. ... . i help discriminate between types of UXO, fragments of UXO,
spatial domain to discriminate particular . ,, . ,, ^ ,.,' to
\. . . , , , naturally occurring metals, and non-MEC scrap.
objects or interest. Statistical methods
can be used to associate field
geophysical data with signatures of
ordnance items that have either been measured or calculated using EM modeling tools. Alternatively,
good data can be used to calculate the essential parameters of the targets, such as size, shape, and
depth, which can be used to infer the nature of the item giving rise to the return.
Aided or automatic target recognition, or ATR, is a term used to describe a hardware/
software system that receives sensor data as input and provides target classes, probabilities, and
locations in the sensor data as output. ATR is used to design algorithms to improve detection and
classification of targets and assist in discriminating system responses from clutter and other noise
signals, thereby reducing the false alarm rate.67 These techniques are under development and are not
yet available for use in the field.
66M. Higgins, C.C. Chen, and K. O'Neill, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development Center
(ERDC), Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. ESTCP Project 199902 - TyndallAFB Site Demo: Data
Processing Results for UXO Classification Using UWB Full-Polarization GPR System, 1999.
67Notes from the Aided Target Recognition Workshop, Unexploded Ordnance Center for Excellence, January
28-29, 1998.
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AETC, Inc., and Geophex Ltd., under contract
to SERDP, have developed a database of GEM-
3 electromagnetic induction data to support
identification of UXO and nonordnance items
based on their frequency-domain electro-
magnetic signature. The signature library for a
wide variety of UXO and clutter objects was
developed at frequencies between 30 Hz and 30
kHz. The database has been set up to organize
and make available results from over 60,000
measurements of different sizes and
shapes of UXO and non-UXO objects.68 In
addition, software has been developed to
analyze the data and identify a wide variety of
anomalies.69
SERDP and ESTCP
The Department of Defense (DoD) operates two
programs designed to develop and move innovative
technologies into the field to address DoD's
environmental concerns. SERDP is DoD's Strategic
Environmental Research and Development
Program. Executed in partnership with both the
Department of Energy and EPA, SERDP is designed to
identify, develop, and transition technologies that
support the defense mission. The second program is
the Environmental Security Technology
Certification Program (ESTCP). The goal of the
ESTCP is to demonstrate and validate promising
innovative technologies. Both organizations have
made heavy investments in detection, discrimination,
and cleanup technologies for UXO.
The Naval Research Laboratory has developed a technique that uses data fusion to
discriminate objects detected in magnetometry and electromagnetic surveys. The laboratory has
developed model-based quantitative routines to identify the target's position, depth, shape, and
orientation (see Fact Sheet 2 for a full description of MTADS). In addition, location information,
including position, size, and depth, is expected to be improved to a small degree.70 This data fusion
method is primarily effective in the discrimination of large MEC items. However, the major
contribution of this system and the AETC/Geophex system described above is anticipated to be their
ability to differentiate MEC from fragments of ordnance and other clutter.
DoD is funding multiple universities for advanced processing research. Duke University, for
example, has engaged in both physics-based modeling and statistical signal processing and has shown
performance improvements in many diverse data sets, including EMI, magnetometer, and GPR/SAR.
4.5 MEC Detection Demonstration Programs
Several demonstration programs have been developed to test the effectiveness of various
UXO detection sensors and systems in controlled environments. Because of the lack of technologies
available to effectively locate UXO on thousands of acres of DoD ranges being closed or realigned
under the BRAC program, Congress established the Jefferson Proving Ground Technology
Demonstration Program. Since then, other programs such as the former Fort Ord Detection and
Discrimination Study and the Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP)
UXO Technology Standardized Demonstration Sites have been established to further the
development of UXO detection technologies.
68EMI signature database in Microsoft Access available at FTP host: server.hgl.com, log in ID: anonymous,
File:/pub/SERDP/GEM3.data.zip.
69T. Bell, J. Miller, D. Keiswetter, B. Barrow, I.J. Won. Processing Techniques for Discrimination Between
Buried UXO and Clutter UsingMultisensor Array Data, Partners in Environmental Technology Conference, December
2, 1999.
70J.R. McDonald. Model-Based Data Fusion and Discrimination of UXO in Magnetometry and EM Surveys,
Naval Research Laboratory, May 18, 1999.
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4.5.1 Jefferson Proving Ground Technology Demonstration Program
Congress established the JPGTD program in response to the realization that the BRAC
process could not take place until thousands of acres of military property littered with UXO were
cleaned up. Available technologies were also inefficient and inadequate to address the widespread
need to detect and remove UXO on such a large scale. (See Chapter 7; "Mag and Flag" had been in
use for several decades with few advances or improvements.)
The JPGTD program was established under the management of the U. S. Army Environmental
Center (USAEC) to identify innovative technologies that would provide more effective, economical,
and safe methods for detecting and removing munitions from former DoD testing and training areas.
The program also was created to examine the capability of commercial and military equipment to
detect, classify, and remove UXO and to develop baseline performance standards for UXO systems.
The JPGTD program aimed to (1) establish criteria and metrics to provide a framework for
understanding and assessing UXO technology, (2) provide funding for technology demonstrations,
(3) document the performance of advanced technologies to give decision makers a better
understanding of the capabilities and limitations of the technologies; and (4) improve demonstration
methodologies so that the results would be applicable to actual UXO clearance operations and
decision making. The objectives and results of each of the demonstration projects are outlined in the
next text box.
UXO detection technologies such as
, . . , . , Demonstrator Evaluation Criteria
magnetometry, electromagnetic induction, ground
penetrating radar, and Multisensor systems were
tested and analyzed using a variety of platforms and
data processing systems at the JPGTD. The
platforms analyzed for the detection technologies
111-1 - ui i i ^ j "Target classification capability
included airborne, man-portable, vehicle-towed, c . , ,. , T i \
' r ' ' "Survey rate (used in Phase I only)
Detection capability
False negative rate
False positive rate
Target position and accuracy
Survey costs (used in Phase I only)
and combination man-portable and vehicle-towed.
Systems were analyzed using evaluation criteria
such as probability of detection, false alarm rate,
and other parameters, as described in the adj acent text box. Certain local and regional conditions and
soil characteristics (e.g., soil type, moisture, resistivity) may impact the effectiveness of detection
systems. Specifically, detector performance may differ significantly at sites with conditions different
from those at Jefferson Proving Ground (e.g., ranges in the western U.S. with different soil
resistivity/conductivity).
Each of the four phases of JPGTD provided useful data about UXO detection and remediation
technologies. In Phase I, conducted in 1994, 26 demonstrators, representing magnetometry,
electromagnetic induction (EMI), ground penetrating radar (GPR), synthetic aperture radar (SAR),
and infrared (IR) sensors, performed using 20 vehicle-mounted and man-towed platforms and six
airborne platforms. Only one demonstrator achieved over a 50 percent detection rate and the false
alarm rate was high, an especially disappointing rate considering most of the clutter had been
removed prior to the demonstration. Electromagnetic induction, magnetometry, and Gradiometer
proved to be the most effective sensors, while GPR, IR, and other imaging technologies were not
effective. Airborne systems performed the worst of all the platforms, detecting less than 8 percent
of buried ordnance, while hand-held systems had the best performance. At the conclusion of Phase
I it was suggested that the geological conditions at the Jefferson Proving Ground may reduce the
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capabilities of certain sensors.
Therefore, live test sites at five other installations were used to compare the detection data
obtained in different geological conditions. Results from the live test sites showed that magnetometry
and EMI continued to be the best performers. The average probability of detection at the live test
sites was 0.44, and there was a continued inability to distinguish between ordnance and nonordnance.
In Phase II, conducted in 1995, demonstrators had better detection performance, with some
sensors detecting over 80 percent of buried ordnance. However, the false alarm rates increased as
overall anomaly detection increased. The best performing sensors in Phase II were Multisensor
systems combining EMI and magnetometry.
In Phase III, conducted in 1996, four different range scenarios were used to facilitate the
development of performance data for technologies used in specific site conditions. Over 40 percent
of demonstrators had greater than 85 percent detection, and combination magnetometry and EMI
systems repeatedly detected close to 100 percent of buried ordnance. In addition, the Multisensor
system, which consisted of electromagnetic induction and either magnetometry or Gradiometer, had
a slightly lower than average false alarm rate. However, no sensor or combination of sensors
demonstrated an ability to distinguish baseline ordnance from nonordnance, and no system performed
better than chance in this area.
Phase IV, conducted in 1998, was aimed at improving the ability to distinguish ordnance and
nonordnance. Fifty percent of the demonstrators showed a better than chance probability of
discriminating UXO from clutter, with one demonstrator correctly identifying 75 percent of ordnance
and nonordnance items. While advanced data processing has greatly improved target discrimination
capabilities in pilot testing, these methods need to be further developed and tested. In order to make
advanced processing techniques widely used and to develop a market for constantly improving
systems, they need to be made commercially available. With reliable and readily available target
discrimination technologies, false alarm rates could be greatly reduced, thereby significantly
improving the efficiency and reducing the costs of UXO detection and remediation.
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Synopsis of Objectives and Results of Jefferson Proving Ground Technology Demonstration Program, Phases
I through IV
Phase 1,1994
Objective: Evaluate existing and promising technologies for detecting and remediating UXO.
Results: Limited detection and localization capabilities and inability to discriminate between ordnance and
nonordnance. Average false alarm rate was 149 per hectare. Airborne platforms and ground penetrating radar
sensors performed poorly; combination electromagnetic induction and magnetometry sensors were the best
performers, but also had modest probabilities of detection and very high false alarm rates.
Phase II, 1995
Objective: Evaluate technologies effective for detecting, identifying, and remediating UXO, and measuring these
results against the Phase I baseline.
Results: Significant improvement in detection capabilities with commensurate increases infalse alarms amongbetter
performing technologies. Continued inability to distinguish ordnance from nonordnance. Again, airborne platforms
and ground penetrating radar sensors performed poorly; combination electromagnetic induction and magnetometry
sensors were the better performers, but continued to have very high false alarm rates.
Phase III, 1996
Objective: Develop relevant performance data of technologies used in site-specific situations to search, detect,
characterize, and excavate UXO. Four different range scenarios were used, which had typical groups of UXO.
Results: Improvement in detection, but continued inability to distinguish ordnance from nonordnance. Localization
performance for ground-based systems improved. Probability of detection is partially dependent on target size.
False alarm rates ranged from 2 to 241 per hectare.
Phase IV, 1998
Objectives: Demonstrate the capabilities of technology to discriminate between UXO and non-UXO; establish
discrimination performance baselines for sensors and systems; make raw sensor data available to the public;
establish state of the art for predicting ordnance "type"; direct future R&D efforts.
Results: Capability to distinguish between ordnance and nonordnance is developing. Five demonstrators showed
a better than chance probability of successful discrimination.
4.5.2 Former Fort Ord Ordnance Detection and Discrimination Study (ODDS)
A phased geophysical study of ordnance detection and discrimination specific to the former
Fort Ord, California, environment has been in existence since 1994. In November 1998, the U.S.
Army evaluated MEC at Fort Ord in an "Ordnance and Explosives Remedial Investigation/Feasibility
Study (OE RI/FS)" concurrently with removal actions. The RI/FS evaluated long-term response
alternatives for cleanup and risk management at Fort Ord. The technologies considered for use during
the Fort Ord study were demonstrated during the Jefferson Proving Ground study. The following text
box describes the four phases of the Fort Ord study.
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Synopsis of Objectives and Results of the Former Fort Ord Ordnance Detection and Discrimination Study
(ODDS), Phases I through IV
Phase I
Objective: Evaluate detection technologies "Static" measurements in free air (i.e., in the air above and away from
ground influences/effects) given variable ordnance items, depths, and orientations.
Results: Signal drop-off in the electromagnetic (EM) response is proportional to the depth of the object to the 6th
power. For horizontally oriented ordnance items, the EM signal response was predicted fairly well.
Phase II
Objective: Evaluate the effectiveness of geophysical instruments' ability to detect and locate "seeded" or planted
ordnance items.
Result: Noise levels increased 3 to 35 times from the static to seeded tests. There was a significant degradation of
profile signatures between static and field trial tests.
Phase III
Objective: Evaluate geophysical instruments and survey processes at actual uninvestigated munitions response sites.
Results: The effects of rough terrain and vegetation on detection and discrimination capabilities can be significant.
Removal of range residue before the munitions response investigation began would have reduced time and effort
spent on unnecessary excavations.
Phase IV
Objective: Evaluate discrimination capabilities of ordnance detection systems.
Results: The instruments with the highest detection rate required the most intrusive investigation. Conversely,
instruments with lower detection rates required less intrusive investigations. The ODDS determined that no one
instrument provides the single solution to meet the ordnance detection needs at Fort Ord.
The first phase of the ODDS found the electromagnetic and magnetometer systems to be
effective in the detection and location of buried MEC items. Phase II was conducted in a controlled
testing environment. The controlled area consisted of five "seeded" plots. Two of the plots consisted
of items with known depths and orientations, while the other three areas consisted of "unknown"
plots where target information was withheld. The plots were designed to be representative of the
terrain of Fort Ord. The seeded tests concluded that the noise levels of the EMI systems increased
3 to 35 times from the static to seeded tests. In Phase III it was concluded that the effects of terrain,
vegetation, and range residues can significantly alter detection and discrimination capabilities of the
detectors. Phase IV of the study determined that discrimination capability of the instruments tested
was minimal. The Phase IV study also determined that both EMI and magnetometer systems
performed well in finding the larger and deeper items, whereas only the EMI systems consistently
found smaller and shallower items. The results indicated that different systems are required for
different types of sites, depending on the MEC expected and the site-specific environmental and
geological conditions.
4.5.3 UXO Technology Standardized Demonstration Sites
The U.S. Army Environmental Center (USAEC) is conducting an ESTCP-funded program
to provide UXO technology developers with test sites for the evaluation of UXO detection and
discrimination technologies using standardized protocols. The USAEC is developing standardized
test methodologies, procedures, and facilities to help ensure accuracy and replicability in
measurements of detection capability, false alarms, discrimination, target reacquisition, and system
efficiency. Data generated from these standardized sites will be compiled into a technology-screening
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matrix to assist UXO project managers in selecting the appropriate detection systems for their
application.
Standardized test sites will be made up of three areas - the calibration lane, the blind grid, and
the open field. The calibration area will contain targets from a standardized target list at six
primary orientations and at three depths. The target depth, orientation, type, and location will be
provided to demonstrators. The calibration area will allow demonstrators to test their equipment,
build a site library, document signal strength, and deal with site-specific variables. In the blind grid
area, demonstrators will know possible locations of targets and will be required to report whether or
not a UXO target clutter or nothing actually exists there. If a UXO target is found, they must report
the type of target, classification of target, and target depth and a confidence level. The blind grid
allows testing of sensors without ambiguities introduced by the system, site coverage, or other
operational concerns. The open field will be a 10 or more acre area with clutter and geolocation
targets about which demonstrators will be given no information and will be required to perform as
if they were performing at an actual DoD range. Testers will report the location of all anomalies,
classify them as clutter or UXO, and provide type, classification, and depth information. The open
field conditions will document the performance of the system in an actual range operation mode.
In addition to the construction of test sites available to the UXO community, the primary
products of this program will be the creation of a series of protocols to establish procedures necessary
for constructing and operating a standardized UXO test site. A standardized target repository will be
amassed that can be used by installations, technology developers, and demonstrators.
4.6 Fact Sheets and Case Studies on Detection Technologies and Systems
Three fact sheets on MEC sensors and three case studies describing detection systems are
found at the end of this chapter as Attachments 1 through 6. Information on the nature of the
technology and its benefits and limitations is provided. Since the performance of the instruments is
not solely based upon the sensors deployed, the case studies provide more insights on the operation
of the systems. The performance of detection systems is dependent upon platform characteristics,
survey methodology and quality, data processing, personnel operation/performance, site character-
ization, and appropriate quality control measures that should be taken throughout the investigation.
4.7 Conclusion
The performance of many existing and emerging technologies for MEC detection and
discrimination is limited by specific site characteristics such as soil type and composition,
topography, terrain, and type and extent of contamination. What works at one site may not work at
another. Our ability to find MEC in subsurface locations has improved dramatically. The JPGTD
studies have shown that we have gotten much smarter about how to deploy these technologies and
how to locate a high percentage of UXO. However, the results of a controlled study such as the
JPGTD should not give us unrealistic expectations about the capabilities of these technologies when
used in range investigation. Studies at true MEC areas, such as at Fort Ord, provide additional
information about the challenges and issues that have to be considered in selecting MEC detection
systems. For example, the nature of the targets (e.g., composition, size, and mass), the depth of MEC
penetration (a function of the soil and the ordnance item), and expected spatial and depth distribution
should be considered along with the geology, terrain, and vegetation. Other factors affecting the
results include operator performance and postprocessing techniques. Given the sizes of the ranges
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and the cost of investigating anomalies, the greatest challenge to improving MEC detection is being
able to discriminate MEC from other subsurface anomalies. Although there have been improvements
in this area, much developmental work remains.
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ATTACHMENT 4-1. FACT SHEET #1: MAGNETOMETRY
FACT SHEET#1:
MEC DETECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Magnetometry
What is
magnetometry?
Magnetometry is the science of measurement and interpretation of magnetic fields.
Magnetometry, which involves the use of magnetometers and gradiometers, locates
buried ordnance by detecting irregularities in the Earth's magnetic field caused by the
ferromagnetic materials in the ordnance assembly. The magnetometer can sense only
ferrous materials, such as iron and steel; other metals, such as copper, tin, aluminum, and
brass, are not ferromagnetic and cannot be located with a magnetometer. Although they
have been in use for many years and many newer technologies are available,
magnetometers are still considered one of the most effective technologies for detecting
subsurface MEC and other ferromagnetic obj ects. Magnetometry remains the most widely
used subsurface detection system today.
The two basic categories of magnetometer are total-field and vector.
The total-field magnetometer is a device that measures the magnitude of the
magnetic field without regard to the orientation of the field.
The vector magnetometer is a device that measures the projection of the magnetic
field in a particular direction.
A magnetic gradiometer is a device that measures the spatial rate of change of the
magnetic field. Gradiometers generally consist of two magnetometers configured to
measure the spatial rate of change in the Earth's magnetic field. The gradiometer
configuration was designed to overcome large-scale diurnal intensity changes in the
Earth's magnetic field; this design may also be used to minimize the lateral effects of
nearby fences, buildings, and geologic features.
How are
magnetometers
used to detect
MEC?
Magnetometers can theoretically detect every MEC target that contains ferrous material,
from small, shallow-buried MEC to large, deep-buried MEC, provided that the magnetic
signature is larger than the background noise. A magnetometer detects a perturbation in
the geomagnetic field caused by an object that contains ferrous material. The size, depth,
orientation, magnetic moment, and shape of the target, along with local noise fields
(including ferrous clutter), must all be considered when assessing the response of the
magnetometer.
Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-22
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FACT SHEETM.-
ME C DETECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Magnetometry
What are the
different types of
magnetometers?
There are numerous types of magnetometers, which were developed to improve detection
sensitivity. Three of the most common are the cesium vapor, proton precession, and
fluxgate magnetometers.
Cesium vapor magnetometers - These magnetometers are lightweight and
portable. The sensor can also be mounted on a nonmagnetic platform. The
principal advantage of this type of magnetometer is its rapid data collection
capability. The common hand-held sensors are capable of measuring at a rate of 10
times per second, and specially designed sensors are capable of measuring at a rate
of 50 times per second. The one disadvantage of this magnetometer is that it is
insensitive to the magnetic field in certain directions, and dropouts can occur where
the magnetic field is not measured. However, this can be avoided with proper field
procedures.
Proton precession magnetometers - These magnetometers have been used in
clearing Munitions Response Sites (MRS), but achieving the data density required
for a MRS is time consuming. The primary disadvantage of these types of
magnetometers is that accurate measurements require stationary positioning of the
sensor for a period of several seconds. Also, these magnetometers require tuning
of the local magnetic field. The primary use of these magnetometers today is as a
base station for monitoring diurnal variations in the Earth's magnetic field and
possible geomagnetic storms.
Fluxgate magnetometers - These magnetometers are used primarily to sweep
areas to be surveyed. They are also used in locating MEC items during
reacquisition. These magnetometers are relatively inexpensive, locate magnetic
objects rapidly, and are relatively easy to operate. The disadvantage of these types
of magnetometers is that most of them do not digitally record the data, and accurate
measurements require leveling of the instrument.
What are the
components of a
magnetometer?
A passive magnetometer system includes the following components:
The detection sensor
A power supply
A computer data system
A means to record locations of detected anomalies
More technologically advanced systems typically incorporate a navigation system, such
as a differential global positioning system (DGPS), to determine locations. Advanced
navigation systems may also include a graphical output device (printer), a mass data
storage recorder, and telecom systems.
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FACT SHEET#1:
MEC DETECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Magnetometry
What are the
operational
platforms for a
magnetometer?
Magnetometers can be transported in a variety of ways:
Man-portable
Towed by a vehicle
Airborne platforms
Magnetometers are most frequently used on man-portable platform, but they also can
perform well when towed on a vehicular platforms, as long as the vehicular platform and
sensor array have been carefully designed to minimize magnetic noise and ensure high
quality data collection. These platforms are restricted to areas accessible to vehicles.
Airborne systems are currently being evaluated for commercial use as discussed in Section
4.3.
One of the most commonly used and oldest
UXO detection methods is the "Mag and
Flag" process. Mag and Flag involves the
use of hand-held magnetometers by MEC
technicians, who slowly walk across a
survey area and flag those areas where MEC
may be located for later excavation. The
success of the method is dependent on the
competence and alertness of the technician
and his ability to identify changes in the
audible or visible signals from the
magnetometer indicating the presence of an
anomaly.
Figure 4-1. Hand-Held
Magnetometer
What are the
benefits of using
magnetometry for
detecting MEC?
The benefits of using magnetometry for MEC detection include the following:
Magnetometry is considered one of the most effective technologies for detecting
subsurface MEC and other ferromagnetic objects.
Magnetometry is one of the more developed technologies for detection of MEC.
Magnetometers are fairly simple devices.
Magnetometers are nonintrusive.
Relative to other detection technologies, magnetometers have low data acquisition
costs.
Magnetometers have the ability to detect ferrous items to a greater depth than can be
achieved using other methods.
Depending on the data acquisition and post processing systems used magnetometers
can provide fair to good information on the size of the detected object.
Because magnetometers have been in use since World War II, the limitations are well
understood.
Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-24
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FACT SHEETM.-
ME C DETECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Magnetometry
What are the
limitations of using
magnetometry for
detecting MEC?
The limitations of using magnetometry for MEC detection include the following:
The effectiveness of a magnetometer can be reduced or inhibited by interference
(noise) from magnetic minerals or other ferrous objects in the soil, such as rocks,
pipes, drums, tools, fences, buildings, and vehicles, as well as MEC debris.
Depending on the data analysis systems used, magnetometers may suffer from high
false alarm rates, which lead to expensive excavation efforts.
Depending on the site conditions, vegetation and terrain may limit the ability to
place magnetometers (especially vehicle-mounted systems) near the ground
surface, which is needed for maximum effectiveness.
Magnetometers have limited capability to distinguish targets that are located near
each other. Clusters of ordnance of smaller size may be identified as clutter, and
distributed shallow sources (MEC or not) may appear as localized deep targets.
Accurately distinguishing between targets depends heavily on coordination
between sensors, navigation, and processing.
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ATTACHMENT 4-2. FACT SHEET #2: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (EMI)
FACT SHEET #2: MFC
DETECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
What is
electromagnetic
induction (EMI)
and how is it used
to detect MEC?
Electromagnetic induction is a geophysical technology used to induce a magnetic field
beneath the Earth's surface, which in turn causes a secondary magnetic field to form around
nearby objects that have conductive properties. The secondary magnetic field is then
measured and used to detect buried objects. Electromagnetic induction systems are used to
detect both ferrous and nonferrous MEC.
In electromagnetic induction, a primary transmitter coil creates a time-dependent
electromagnetic field that induces eddy currents in the subsurface. The intensity of the
currents is a function of ground conductivity and the possible presence of metallic objects
in the subsurface. The secondary, or induced, electromagnetic field caused by the eddy
currents is measured by a receiver coil. The voltage measured in the receiver coil is related
to the physical properties of the subsurface conductor. The strength and duration of the
induced field depend on the size, shape, conductivity, and orientation of the object.
There are two basic types of EMI methods: frequency domain and time domain.
Frequency-domain EMI measures the response of the subsurface as a fraction of
frequency. Generally, a receiver coil shielded from the transmitted field is used to
measure the response of targets. Frequency-domain sensors, such as the mono-static,
multi-frequency Geophex GEM-3, are used for MEC detection. In addition, the
Geonics EMS 1 has been used for detecting boundaries of trenches that may be MEC
disposal sites.
Time-domain EMI measures the response of the subsurface to a pulsed
electromagnetic field. After the transmitted pulse is turned off, the receiving coil
measures the signal generated by the decay of the eddy currents in any nearby
conductor. These measurements can be made at single time gates, which may be
selected to maximize the signal of targets sought. In more advanced instruments,
measurements can be made in several time gates, which will increase the information
obtained about the physical properties of the targets. The time-domain EMI sensor
that is commonly used for MEC detection is the Geonics EM-61. Under ideal
conditions, the EM-61 instrument is capable of detecting large UXO items at depths
of as much as 10 feet below ground surface when ground clutter from debris does not
exceed the signal level. The instrument can detect small objects, such as a 20 mm
projectile, to depths of approximately 1 foot below ground surface, if noise (terrain
and instrument) conditions are less than the response of the object.
How effective is
EMI for detecting
MEC?
The effectiveness of EMI systems in detecting MEC depends on many factors, including
distance between sensor and UXO, metallic content of MEC, concentrations of surface
ordnance fragments, and background noise levels. EMI methods are well suited for
reconnaissance of large open areas because data collection is rapid. Vertical resolution is
transmitter and target dependent. The range of frequencies for electromagnetic instruments
used in MEC site characterization is from approximately 75 Hz (cycles per second) to
approximately 1,000kHz.
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FACT SHEET #2: MEC
DETECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
What are the
components of an
EMI system?
The components of an EMI system include the following:
Transmitting and receiving units
A power supply
A computer data acquisition system
A means of recording locations of detected metallic anomalies
Advanced systems incorporate a navigation system as well, such as a differential global
positioning system (DGPS).
What are the
operational
platforms for an
EMI system?
In general, EMI systems are configured on man-portable units. Such units often consist
of the following items:
A small, wheeled cart used to transport the transmitter and receiver assembly
A power supply
An electronics backpack
A hand-held data recorder
In general, EMI systems are configured to
be man portable or towed by a vehicle.
However, vehicle-to wed systems are limited
in that the platform can be a source of
background noise and interference with
target detection and they have high potential
for mechanical failures. In addition,
vehicle-towed systems can only be used on
relatively flat and unvegetated areas. Man-
portable systems provide easier access to
areas of a site that are accessible to
personnel. In general, man-portable
systems are the most durable and require
the least maintenance.
Figure 4-2. EM-61 System
What are the
benefits of using
EMI for detecting
MEC?
The benefits of using EMI include the following:
EMI can be used for detecting all metallic objects near the surface of the soil, not
only ferrous objects.
EMI has potential to discriminate clusters of MEC from a single item.
EMI sensors permit some measure of control over their response to ordnance and
other metal objects.
EMI systems are generally easy to use.
EMI is nonintrusive.
Man-portable EMI systems provide access to all areas of a site, including uneven
and forested terrain.
Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-27
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FACT SHEET #2: MEC
DETECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
What are the
limitations of
using EMI for
detecting MEC?
The limitations of using EMI to detect MEC include the following:
Depending on the data acquisition and processing systems used EMI may suffer from
fairly large false alarm rates, particularly in areas with high concentrations of
surface ordnance fragments. (Some buried metallic debris can produce EMI
signatures that look similar to signatures obtained from MEC, which results in a
large false alarm rate.) Specifically, EMI sensors that utilize traditional detection
algorithms based solely on the signal magnitude suffer from high false alarm rates as
well.
Implementing EMI systems in areas on the range that may contain electronically
fuzed ordnance could be unsafe because the induced magnetic field could detonate
the ordnance. (However, this is very unlikely because the EMI power density and
induced current is very low in most systems.)
Large metal objects can cause interference, typically when EMI is applied within 5
to 20 feet of power lines, radio transmitters, fences, vehicles, or buildings.
What are the costs
of using EMI to
detect MEC?
Per acre costs for EMI vary depending on the operational platform, the terrain, and other
factors.
Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-28
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ATTACHMENT 4-3. FACT SHEET #3: GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR)
FACT SHEET #3: MEC
DETECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
What is GPR?
Ground penetrating radar (GPR), sometimes called ground probing radar, georadar, or
earth sounding radar, is a well-established remote sensing technology that can detect
metallic and nonmetallic objects. Only recently (within the last 10 years) has GPR been
applied to locating and identifying MEC at military sites on a limited basis. Under
optimum conditions, GPR can be used to detect individual buried munitions up to 5 feet
below the ground surface. However, such optimum conditions seldom occur and the
method has not been extremely successful in detecting UXO. GPR is not routinely used
to perform detection of individual UXO, but may be useful for detecting large masses of
buried ordnance.
How is GPR used
to detect MEC?
GPR uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves (i.e., radar) to acquire subsurface
information. Both time-domain (impulse) and stepped frequency GPR systems are in use
today.
Time-domain (pulsed) sensors transmit a pulsed frequency. The transmitter uses
a half-duty cycle, with the transmitter on and off for equal periods.
Stepped frequency domain sensors transmit a continuous sinusoidal
electromagnetic wave.
The waves are radiated into the subsurface by an emitting antenna. As the transmitted
signal travels through the subsurface, "targets," such as buried munitions or stratigraphic
changes, reflect some the energy back to a receiving antenna. The reflected signal is then
recorded and processed. The travel time can be used to determine the depth of the target.
GPR can potentially be used to verify the emplacement, location, and continuity of a
subsurface barrier. The GPR method uses antennas that emit a single frequency between
10 MHz and 3,000 MHz. Higher frequencies provide better subsurface resolution at the
expense of depth of penetration. Lower frequencies allow for greater penetration depths
but sacrifice subsurface target resolution.
In addition to the radar frequency, the depth of wave penetration is controlled by the
electrical properties of the media being investigated. In general, the higher the
conductivity of the media, the more the radar wave is attenuated (absorbed), lessening the
return wave. Electrically conductive materials (e.g., many mineral clays and moist soil
rich in salts and other free ions) rapidly attenuate the radar signal and can significantly
limit the usefulness of GPR. In contrast, in dry materials that have electrical conductivity
values of only a few millimhos per meter, such as clay-free soil and sand and gravel,
penetration depths can be significantly greater. Penetration depths typically range between
1 and 5 feet. In addition, subsurface inhomogeneity can cause dispersion, which also
degrades the performance of radars. As a result, it is important to research the subsurface
geology in an area before deciding to use this method.
GPR measurements are usually made along parallel lines that traverse the area of interest.
The spacing of the lines depends on the level of detail sought and the size of the target(s)
of interest. The data can be recorded for processing off-site, or they can be produced in
real time for analysis in the field.
Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-29
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FACT SHEET #3: MEC
DETECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
What are the
components of a
GPR system?
The components of a GPR systems consist of the following:
A transmitter/receiver unit
A power supply
An antenna
A control unit
A display and recorder unit
Geolocation ability
GPR systems are available for commercial use. The pulsed systems are the most commonly
used and are available from a variety of vendors. Physically commercial systems provide
a selection of antennas that operate at frequency bandwidths. Antennas are available from
the gigahertz range for extremely shallow targets to the megahertz range for greater depths
of ground penetration.
What are the
benefits of using
GPR for detecting
MEC?
The benefits of using GPR to detect MEC are as follows:
GPR is nonintrusive.
GPR is potentially able to identify breach and discontinuity and determine the size
of both.
GPR may provide a three-dimensional image of the structure. (Requires very
sophisticated processing and data collection.)
GPR can help define boundaries, if you know the location of buried munitions.
Under optimum conditions, GPR may be used to detect individual buried munitions
several meters deep. In areas with dry soils and sparse vegetation, GPR systems
may produce accurate images as long as the antenna is positioned perpendicularly
to the ground.
What are the
limitations of using
GPR for detecting
MEC?
The limitations of using GPR to detect UXO include the following:
The primary limitation of the GPR system is that its success is site specific and not
reliable. Low-conductivity soils are necessary if the method is to penetrate the
ground. Soils with high electrical conductivity (e.g., many mineral clays and moist
soil rich in salts) rapidly attenuate the radar signal, inhibiting the transmission of
signals and significantly limiting usefulness. Even a small amount of clay minerals
in the subsurface greatly degrade GPR's effectiveness.
Lower frequencies can penetrate to a greater depth, but result in a loss of
subsurface resolution. Higher frequencies provide better subsurface resolution, but
at the expense of depth of penetration.
Interpretation of GPR data is complex; an experienced data analyst is required.
High signal attenuation decreases the ability of GPR systems to discriminate UXO
and increases the relative amount of subsurface inhomogeneity (i.e., soil layers,
pockets of moisture, and rocks).
Airborne GPR signals may not even contact the soil surface because the signals are
reflected by the vegetation or are absorbed by water in the vegetation.
Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-30
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ATTACHMENT 4-4. CASE STUDY #1: MULTISENSOR SYSTEM
Case Study on the Use of a Multisensor System
The Multisensor system combines two or more sensor technologies with the objective of improving UXO detection
performance. With multiple-sensor systems operating in a given area, complementary data sets can be collected to
confirm the presence of UXO, or one system may detect a characteristic that another system does not.
The technologies that have proven to be most effective both individually and deployed in Multisensor systems are the
Geonics EM61 electromagnetic detection system and the cesium vapor magnetometer. Other types of sensors have
been tested and evaluated, but they are still under development and research continues.
The Naval Research Laboratory' s MTADS represents a state-of-the-art, automated, MEC detection system. The system
incorporates arrays of full-field cesium vapor magnetometers and time-domain EMI pulsed sensors. The sensors
are mounted as linear arrays on low-signature platforms that are towed over survey sites by an all-terrain vehicle. The
position over ground is plotted using state-of-the-art real-time kinematic Differential global positioning system
technology that also provides vehicle guidance during the survey. An integrated data analysis system processes
MTADS data to locate, identify, and categorize all military ordnance at maximum probable self-burial depths.
During the summer of 1997 the system was used to survey about 150 acres at a bombing target and an aerial gunnery
target on the Badlands Bombing Range on the Oglala Sioux Reservation in Pine Ridge, South Dakota. Following the
survey and target analysis, UXO contractors and personnel from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntsville,
selectively remediated targets to evaluate both the detection and discrimination capabilities of MTADS. Two
remediation teams worked in parallel with the surveying operations. The full distribution of target sizes was dug on each
target range because one goal of the effort was to create a database of both ordnance and ordnance clutter signals for each
sensor system that could be used to develop an algorithm for future data analysis.
An initial area of 18.5 acres was chosen as a test/training range. All 89 analyzed targets were uncovered, documented,
and remediated. Recovered targets in the training areas included 40 M-3 8 100-pound practice bombs, four rocket bodies
and warheads, and 33 pieces of ordnance scrap (mostly tail fins and casing parts). The smallest intact ordnance items
recovered were 2.25-inch SCAR rocket bodies and 2.75-inch aerial rocket warheads. Information from the training area
was used to guide remediation on the remainder of both ranges.
Magnetometry and EM data analysis identified a total of 1,462 targets on both ranges. Of these, 398 targets were
selected for remediation. For each target, an extensive digsheet was filled out by the remediation team to augment the
photographic and digital electronic GPS records. Recovered ordnance-related targets included 67 sand-filled M-38
practice bombs, four M-57 250-pound practice bombs, and 50 2.25-inch and 2.75-inch rocket bodies and rocket
warheads. In addition, 220 items of ordnance-related scrap were recovered. The target depths were generally predicted
to within 20 percent of the actual depths of the target centers.
MTADS has the sensitivity to detect all ordnance at its likely maximum self-burial depths and to locate targets generally
within the dimensions of the ordnance. On the basis of all evaluation criteria, the MTADS demonstration, survey, and
remediation were found to be one of the most promising system configurations given appropriate site-specific conditions
and appropriately skilled operators.
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Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-31 May 2005
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ATTACHMENT 4-5. CASE STUDY #2: MAGNETOMETRY SYSTEM
Case Study of a Detection System with
Magnetometry
In August 1998, Geophysical Technology Limited (GTL) used an eight-sensor magnetometer system towed by an
autonomous tow vehicle (ATV) to detect UXO over approximately 200 acres of the flat and treeless Helena Valley in
Helena, Montana. The system was navigated by a real-time differential global positioning system (DGPS).
The system had the following main features:
The trailer used was low cost, and any standard four-wheel bike could be used to tow the array. This means that
the system can be easily duplicated, and multiple systems can be run on large or concurrent projects.
The system had a high-speed traverse, a 4-meter swath, and complete Differential global positioning system
coverage, making it very efficient.
The TM-4 magnetometer at the center of the system was the same instrument used in the hand-held application
for surveying fill-in areas inaccessible to the trailer system.
The one-operator trailer system did not require a grid setup prior to the commencement of the surveys. The survey
computer guided the operator along the survey lanes with an absolute cross-track accuracy of 0.75 meters (vegetation
and terrain permitting). An expandable array of magnetic sensors with adjustable height and separation allowed the
operators to optimize the system for this application. Eight sensors, 0.5 meters apart, were used in the survey.
GTL's proprietary MAGSYS program was used for detailed anomaly interpretation and the printing of color images.
Magnetic targets that were identified were then modeled using a semiautomatic computer-aided procedure within
MAGSYS. A selection of key parameters (position, depth, approximate mass, and magnetic inclination) was used to
adjust the model for best fit. The confidence that the interpreted items were UXO was scaled as high, medium, and low
according to their least squares fit value. GTL's system successfully detected over 95 percent of the emplaced 76 mm
and 81 mm mortar projectiles.
In Montana accurate real-time Differential global positioning system positioning and navigation resulted in good
coverage of the survey areas using the trailer system. The GTL trailer system enables practical, fast collection of high-
resolution, accurately positioned magnetic data, as required for UXO detection.
The GTL trailer system opens new possibilities of covering large areas efficiently, and it is an important milestone in
achieving large-scale remediation with performance that is quantifiable.
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Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-32 May 2005
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ATTACHMENT 4-6. CASE STUDY #3: GROUND PENETRATING RADAR SYSTEM
Case Study on the Use of Ground Penetrating
Radar in a Multisensor Data Acquisition System
GPR is not often used as a stand-alone MEC detection technology because its detection capabilities are limited. GPR
is most commonly used as part of a Multisensor system, such as the one described below.
The Air Force Research Laboratory at Tyndall AFB has developed a semiautonomous MEC detection, characterization,
and mapping system. The system consists of two major functional components: an unmanned autonomous tow vehicle
(ATV) and a Multisensor data acquisition system. By combining an ATV, the GPR's highly accurate positioning and
mapping systems, and a multiple-sensor platform, operators plan, execute, and analyze collected data while monitoring
the vehicle and data acquisition system at a safe distance from the survey site.
The multiple-sensor platform (MSP) provides a mounting structure for an array of four cesium vapor 3- to 5-nanosecond
magnetometers, three Geonics EM61 inductance coils, and an impulse GPR system. The GPR is suspended below the
platform frame using a pinned hanger. An encoder at the GPR hanger point measures the relative GPR angular
displacement from the platform frame. In general, the ATV/MSP GPR transmits a series of 3-to 5 - nanosecond, 100-
to 250-volt impulses into the ground at a specific pulse repetition interval. Signals received from objects with electrical
properties that vary from the surrounding soil are fed through an adjustable attenuator, to a band pass filter, and finally
to track-and-hold circuitry, which digitizes and stores collected data. The system uses a single broad-bandwidth antenna,
which covers a frequency range of 20 to 250 MHz.
To date, data collection has been conducted at several sites, one of them being Tyndall AFB. The test site in the 9700
area of Tyndall AFB is composed of a loose sandy top layer approximately 20 cm deep and a packed sandy layer that
reaches the water table, which starts at a depth of less than 1 meter. The test site provides a homogeneous background
in which inert ordnance items, 60 mm mortar projectiles, 105 mm artillery projectiles, miscellaneous clutter, angle iron,
barbed wire, concrete blocks, and steel plates were placed to simulate an active range. Data collected at the Tyndall test
site included those from the magnetometer, electromagnetic induction (EMI), and GPR.
Analysis of magnetometer, EMI, and GPR cursory calibration raw data was performed in situ at the mobile command
station. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) processing was used to focus the complex and large bandwidth information
inherent in GPR data. In order to perform this focusing of the SAR images, the waveforms generated by the GPR must
be accurately registered in the time domain, with an associated registration of position in the spatial domain.
The original purpose of the ATV/MSP was to evaluate various sensor systems. It quickly became clear that its higher
purpose was to provide a powerful aid to the process of analysis. The accuracy, repeatability, and completeness of
coverage obtained during autonomous surveys cannot be matched using manual operations.
The GPR system tested at Tyndall AFB achieved an approximate false alarm rate of 51 percent. Overall, the measured
data from the targets and GPR measurements were somewhat close. Currently, the GPR is unable to distinguish between
UXO and non-UXO targets if the length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio is greater than 3. The GPR system also had problems
identifying UXO-like items buried at an angle greater than 45 degrees, as well as UXO partially buried in the water table.
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Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-33 May 2005
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SOURCES AND RESOURCES
The following publications, offices, laboratories, and websites are provided as a guide for
handbook users to obtain additional information about the subj ect matter addressed in each chapter.
Several of these publications, offices, laboratories, or websites were also used in the development
of this handbook.
Publications
ESTCP (Environmental Security Technology Certification Program). Evaluation of Footprint
Reduction Methodology at the Cuny Table in the former Badlands Bombing Range(2000 ESTCP
Project), January 2004.
USAGE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers), Research and Development Center (ERDC). Data
Processing Results for VXO Classification Using UWB Full-Polarization GRP System ESTCP
Project 199902, Tyndall AFB Site Demo, 1999.
US ACE. Geophysical Investigations for Vnexploded Ordnance (VXO) EM 1110-1-4009, Chapter
7, June 23, 2000.
USAGE. Former Fort Ord Ordnance Detection and Discrimination Study (ODDS). Executive
Summary, 2000. [Final Report, January 2002.]
U.S. Army Environmental Center (US AEG). Evaluation of Individual Demonstrator Performance
at the Vnexploded Ordnance Advanced Technology Demonstration Program at Jefferson Proving
Ground (Phase I) Mar. 1995.
USAEC. Vnexploded Ordnance Advanced Technology Demonstration Program at Jefferson
Proving Ground (Phase II). June 1996.
USAEC. VXO Technology Demonstration Program at Jefferson Proving Ground, Madison,
Indiana, (Phase III) Apr. 1997.
U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). Vnexploded Ordnance (VXO). BRAC Environmental Fact
Sheet, Spring 1999.
U.S. DoD. Evaluation of Vnexploded Ordnance Detection and Interrogation Technologies, For
Use in Panama: Empire, Balboa West, andPina Ranges. Final Report. Feb. 1997.
U.S. DoD. Final Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Vnexploded Ordnance,
December 2003.
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Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-34 May 2005
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Information Sources
Air Force Research Laboratory AFRL/MLQC
104 Research Road, Bldg. 9738
Tyndall AFB, FL 32403-5353
Tel: (850) 283-3725
http://www.afrl.af.mil
Colorado School of Mines
1500 Illinois Street
Golden, CO 80401-1887
Tel: (303) 273-3000
http://www.mines.edu
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB)
2461 Eisenhower Avenue
Alexandria, VA 22331-0600
Fax:(703) 325-6227
http://www.ddesb.pentagon.mil
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP)
901 North Stuart Street, Suite 303
Arlington, VA 22203
Tel: (703) 696-2127
Fax:(703)696-2114
http://www.estcp.org
Joint UXO Coordination Office (JUXOCO)
10221 BurbeckRoad, Suite 430
Fort Belvoir, VA 22060-5806
Tel: (703) 704-1090
http://www.denix.osd.mil/UXOCOE
Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division
(NAVEODTECHDIV)
UXO Countermeasures Department, Code 30U
2008 Stump Neck Road
Indian Head, MD 20640-5070
http://www.ih.navy.mil/
Naval Ordnance Environmental Support Office
Naval Ordnance Safety and Security Activity
23 Strauss Avenue, Bldg. D-323
Indian Head, MD 26040
Tel: (301) 744-4450/6752
http://enviro.nfesc.navy.mil/nepss/oeso.htm
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Chapter 4. Detection of UXO/Buried Munitions 4-35 May 2005
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Naval Research Laboratory
Chemistry Division, Code 6110
Washington, DC 20375-5342
Tel: (202) 767-3340
http://chemdiv-www.nrl.navy.mil/6110/index.html
Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP)
901 North Stuart Street, Suite 303
Arlington, VA 22203
Tel: (703) 696-2117
http://www.serdp.org
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Engineering and Support Center, Huntsville
4820 University Square
Huntsville, AL 35816-1822
Tel: (256) 895-1545
http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Engineer Research and Development Center
3909 Halls Ferry Road
Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199
Tel: (601) 634-3723
http://www.erdc.usace.army.mil
U.S. Army Environmental Center (USAEC)
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5401
Tel: (800) USA-3845
http://www.aec.army.mil
U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL)
Attn: AMSRL-CS-EA-PA
2800 Powder Mill Road
Adelphi, MD 20783-1197
Tel: (301) 394-2952
http://www.arl.army.mil
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5.0 RESPONSE TECHNOLOGIES
Munitions and Explosives of Concern, which may include buried or abandoned munitions,
UXO, or reactive or ignitable soil, not only pose explosive hazards but also present disposal
challenges to personnel conducting munition response and cleanup. This chapter briefly discusses
recovery in addition to treatment technologies. Recovery technologies are often dependent on the
subsequent remediation technique. For example, blow-in-place requires no relocation of MEC;
however, contained detonation chambers require movement of the MEC to a secondary location for
safe disposal. See the following text box for a discussion of MEC relocation techniques.
Treatment technologies have been developed to destroy the reactive and/or ignitable material,
reduce the amount of contaminated material at a site, remove the component of the waste that makes
it hazardous, or immobilize the contaminant within the waste. However, different forms of energetic
material require different technological approaches to their treatment and disposal. The types of
hazards are divided into the following three categories:
UXO
Reactive and/or ignitable soils and debris
Buried and abandoned munitions, including bulk explosives
The most commonly used technique for treating MEC at MRSs is in-place open detonation,
also known as blow-in-place. In BIP, the explosive materials in MEC are detonated so that they no
longer pose explosive hazards. It is often the preferred choice for managing MEC because of
overarching safety concerns if the items were to be moved. However, BIP is controversial because
of the concerns of the regulatory community and environmentalists that harmful emissions and
residues will contaminate air, soils, and groundwater. This chapter also addresses several alternative
treatments for MEC.
Reactive and/or ignitable residues found in soils at concentrations above 12 percent can pose
hazards similar to those of the munitions themselves. The treatment of these wastes can be extremely
difficult because they may be prone to detonate when disturbed or exposed to friction or heat,
depending on the nature and extent of contamination. However, treatments have been developed that
allow reactive and/or ignitable soil and debris to be decontaminated to levels that make it safe to
dispose of them or leave them in place for in-situ remediation.
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Excavating MEC
There are three general techniques used to excavate subsurface MEC once it is detected: manual, mechanized,
and remote control. The selection of a retrieval method or, frequently, a combination of retrieval methods, is based
on the types and characteristics of MEC detected, their depth, and site-specific soil and geological conditions.
Retrieval actions should only be conducted by qualified workers after determination by a qualified EOD technician
or UXO technician that the risk associated with movement is acceptable.
The only equipment used in manual excavation is shovels and/or other digging tools to move the top layers of soil.
Manual excavation is extremely labor-intensive and can be hazardous to workers, as there is no barrier protecting
them from an accidental explosion. When using manual retrieval methods in heavily vegetated areas, the vegetation
should be removed in order to increase surface visibility and reduce the possibility of an accidental explosion.
Also, additional MEC detection activities are usually performed when using these methods in order to confirm
target removals and increase the probability of clearing all MEC in the area. Manual excavation methods are best
suited for surface and near-surface MEC and are most effective when retrieving smaller items, such as small arms
munitions, grenades, and small-caliber artillery projectiles. MEC located in remote areas, areas with saturated soils,
and areas with steep slopes and/or forest may be best suited for manual methods. The retrieval of larger, more
hazardous MEC items at greater subsurface depths should be reserved for mechanized retrieval methods, as the
excavation involved is much more labor-intensive and hazardous.
Mechanized MEC retrieval methods involve the use of heavy construction equipment, such as excavators,
bulldozers, and front-end loaders to remove overburden from the site. Excavation below the groundwater table
might require pumping equipment. Mechanized methods are best suited for excavation efforts where large MEC
items are buried at significant subsurface depths, such as 1-3 meters below ground surface. Mechanized methods
work most efficiently in easy-to-access areas with dry soils. Site preparation, such as vegetation removal and the
construction or improvement of access roads, may be required as well. In the future, mechanized methods may have
a role in excavating heavily contaminated surface areas. It should also be noted that large excavation efforts,
usually performed by mechanized methods, can have a significant negative impact on the environment, as they can
destroy soil structure and disrupt nutrient cycling. It is important to note that although mechanized methods can
be used, the final excavation is always done using the EOD technician manual methods so that the condition of the
ordnance item can be assessed (fuzed or not fuzed), so the item can be identified, and so it can be determined if it
is safe to move the item.
The effective use of remote-controlled mechanized methods generally requires site conditions similar to those
required for mechanized excavation. The primary difference between the two methods is that remote-controlled
systems are much safer because the operator of the system remains outside the hazardous area. Remotely controlled
retrieval methods may involve the use of telerobotic and/or autonomous systems with navigation and position
controls, typically a real-time differential global positioning system (DGPS). Differential global positioning system
signals, however, can be obstructed by trees and dense vegetation, limiting the accuracy and implementability of
remote-controlled systems.
Remote-controlled systems are still being developed and improved. Two remote-controlled systems were
demonstrated at the Jefferson Proving Ground Technology Demonstration Program, Phase III. The systems were
generally adept at excavating large items; however, they did not reduce the time or cost of MEC retrieval. Current
systems have variable weather and terrain capabilities, but demonstrate better performance in relatively flat, dry,
easy-to-access grassy or unvegetated areas.
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5.1 Treatment and Disposal of MEC: An Overview
In-place open detonation, or blow-in-place (BIP), is the most commonly used method to
destroy MEC. However, other techniques, such as incineration (small arms only), consolidated
detonation, and contained detonation may be viable alternatives to blow-in-place, depending on the
specific situation. In addition, bioremediation (in-situ, windrow composting, and bioslurry methods),
low-temperature thermal desorption, wet air oxidation, and plasma arc destruction are alternatives
that can be applied to reactive and/or ignitable soils. Each technology or combination of technologies
has different advantages and disadvantages. A combination of safety, logistical, throughput, and cost
issues often determines the practicality of treatment technologies.
Significant statutory and regulatory requirements may apply to the destruction and treatment
of all MEC (see Chapter 2, "Regulatory Overview"). The particular requirements that will be either
most applicable or most relevant and appropriate to MEC remediation are the Federal and State
RCRA substantive requirements for open burning and open detonation (OB/OD) and incineration.
While the regulations may vary among States and individual sites, they generally include stringent
closure requirements for sites at which OB/OD is used, trial burn tests prior to operating incinerators,
and a variety of other requirements. Familiarity with the State and Federal requirements will be
critical in determining your approach to munitions response.
Table 5-1 summarizes the effective uses of treatment technologies for remediating MEC and
munitions constituents found in soils and debris. These technologies are addressed in more detail in
subsequent sections of this chapter. Readers should note that many of these treatment technologies
are not standard practice for munitions responses. Some technologies are currently used primarily
at industrial facilities, while others are still in the early stages of development. However, when
appropriate, alternatives to blow-in-place should be considered in the evaluation of alternatives for
the munitions response. The evaluation of treatment technologies will vary from site to site and will
depend on several factors, including, but not limited to:
Safety considerations
S cal e of proj ect (or throughput)
Cost and cost-effectiveness
Size of material to be treated and capacity of technology
Logistics considerations such as accessibility of range and transportability of technology
CERCLA nine criteria remedy evaluation and selection process
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Table 5-1. Overview of Remediation Technologies for Explosives and Residues
Explosive
Problem
Treatment
Options
Situations/Characteristics That Affect Treatment Suitability
Munitions or
fragments
contaminated
with munitions
residue
Open burning (OB)
Limits the explosive hazard to the public and response personnel.
Inexpensive and efficient, but highly controversial due to public and
regulator concern over health and safety hazards. Noise issues.
Significant regulatory controls. Used infrequently at MRSs.
Historically, used primarily for bulk explosives.
Munitions or
fragments
contaminated
with munitions
residue
Open detonation
(OD)
Limits the explosive hazard to the public and response personnel.
Inexpensive and efficient, similar to OB, but OD is generally cleaner.
This technique can be used to dispose of higher order explosives. A
characteristic of OD is complete, unconstrained detonation, which does
not allow for the creation of intermediaries and, if successfully
implemented, results in more complete combustion. Residuals from
donor charges may present a concern.
Variable caliber
munitions
Contained
detonation
chamber
Significantly reduces noise and harmful emissions, as well as the
overpressure, shock wave, and fragmentation hazards of OB/OD.
Available as transportable units. Actual case throughput of a
nontransportable unit destroyed 12,500 projectiles (155 mm in size) in 1
year.
Small-caliber
munitions or
fragments,
debris, soil, and
liquid waste
Rotary kiln
incinerator
Generally effective for removing explosives and meeting regulatory
response requirements. Requires large capital investment, especially
incinerators that can handle detonation. For incinerators that treat soil,
quench tanks clog frequently; clayey, wet soils jam feed systems; and
cold conditions exacerbate clogging problems. Controversial due to
regulator and public concerns over air emissions and ash byproducts.
Nonportable units require transport of all material to be treated, which
can be dangerous and costly. Project scale should be considered.
Average throughput is 8,700 pounds of 20 mm ammunition per 15-hour
operating day.
Small-caliber
munitions or
fragments, soil
Deactivation
furnace
Thick-walled primary combustion chamber withstands small
detonations. Renders munitions unreactive. The average throughput is
8,700 pounds of 20 mm ammunition per 15-hour operating day.
Munitions or
fragments, soil,
and debris
Safe deactivation
of energetic
materials and
beneficial use of
byproducts
Still under development. At low temperatures, reacts explosives with
organic amines that neutralize the explosives without causing
detonation. Some of the liquid byproducts have been found to be
effective curing agents for conventional epoxy resins. Low or no
discharge of toxic chemicals.
Soil and debris
Wet air oxidation
Treats slurries containing reactive and/or ignitable material. Very
effective in treating RDX; however, may produce hazardous byproducts
and gaseous effluents that require further treatment. High capital costs
and frequent downtime.
Soil
(munitions
constituents
residue)
Windrow
composting
Microorganisms break down reactive and/or ignitable residues into less
reactive substances. Requires relatively long time periods and large land
areas. Highly effective and low process cost, but ineffective with
extremely high concentrations of explosives.
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Table 5-1. Overview of Remediation Technologies for Explosives and Residues (continued)
Explosive
Problem
Treatment
Options
Situations/Characteristics That Affect Treatment Suitability
Soil
(munitions
constituents
residue)
Bioslurry (soil
slurry
biotreatment)
Optimizes conditions for maximum microorganism growth and
degradation of reactive and/or ignitable material. Slurry processes are
faster than many other biological processes and can be either aerobic or
anaerobic or both, depending on contaminants and remediation goals.
Effective on soil with high clay content. In general, treated slurry is
suitable for direct land application.
Soil/
Groundwater
(Munitions
constituents
residue)
Bioremediation
Conditions are maintained that promote growth of microorganisms that
degrade reactive and/or ignitable compounds. May not be effective in
clayey or highly layered soils and can take years to achieve cleanup
goals. Chlorinated compounds may be difficult to degrade.
Soil/
Groundwater
(Munitions
constituents
residue)
Chemical
remediation
Chemicals are pushed into a medium through injection wells or
delivered by pipes or sprinklers to shallow contaminated soils. These
chemicals oxidize/reduce reactive and/or ignitable compounds,
transforming them to non-toxic compounds. Some reagents may be
dangerous.
Soil
(Munitions
constituents
residue)
Soil washing
Reduces the total volume of contaminated soil and removes reactive
and/or ignitable compounds from soil particles. Requires additional
treatment for wastewater and, potentially, for treated soils.
Soil
(Munitions
constituents
residue)
Low-temperature
thermal desorption
Used to treat soils with low concentrations of some reactive and/or
ignitable material. Contaminated soil is heated to separate contaminants
by volatilizing them. They are then destroyed. Not very effective for
treating explosives.
Equipment,
debris, and
scrap
Hot gas
decontamination
Process uses heated gas to clean reactive and/or ignitable residue from
equipment and scrap. The system is designed to clean up to 1 pound of
total explosives from 3,000 pounds of material. The advantage of this
system is that it does not destroy the equipment it cleans.
Debris and
scrap
Base hydrolysis
Process uses heated acid to clean reactive and/or ignitable residue from
material. This system can be designed to accommodate a range of
throughput needs.
Note: This table is not exhaustive. Each of the treatment technologies is discussed in more detail in the succeeding pages.
Chapter 5. Response Technologies
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5.1.1 Safe Handling of MEC
The safety of handling MEC depends on the types of munitions found and the site-specific
situation. There is no single approach for every munition, or every site. The complete identification
and disarming of munitions is often dangerous and difficult, if not impossible. In most cases, the
safest method to address munition items is open detonation (OD) using blow-in-place (BIP) methods.
This is particularly true when the munition is located in an area where its detonation would not place
the public at risk. It is most appropriate when the munition or its fuzing mechanism cannot be
identified, or identification would place a response worker at unacceptable risk. Great weight and
deference will be given, with regard to the appropriate treatment, to the explosives safety expertise
of on-site technical experts. When required, DDESB-approved safety controls (e.g., sandbagging)
can be used to provide additional protection to potential harmful effects of BIP. In cases in which
experts determine that BIP poses an unacceptable risk to the public or critical assets (e.g., natural or
cultural resources) and the risk to workers is acceptable, munitions items may be transported to
another, single location for consolidated detonation. This location is one where the threats to the
critical assets and the public can be minimized. Such transport must be done carefully under the
supervision of experts, taking into account safety concerns. Movement with remote-control systems
sometimes will be appropriate to minimize danger to personnel. Instead of detonating all MEC items
in place, consolidated treatment allows for improved efficiency and control over the destruction (e.g.,
safe zones surround the OD area; blast boxes and burn trays are used).
5.1.2 Render-Safe Procedures
In rare cases when munitions pose an immediate, certain, and unacceptable risk to personnel,
critical operations, facilities, or equipment, as determined by on-scene EOD personnel, render-safe
procedures (RSPs) may be performed to reduce or eliminate the explosive hazards. For ordnance of
questionable condition, RSPs may be unsafe, are not 100 percent effective, and can result in an
accidental high-order detonation. RSPs are conducted by active duty military EOD experts and
typically involve disarming MEC (removing or disabling the fuze and/or detonator), or using
specialized procedures. Such procedures can dramatically increase explosives safety risks to EOD
personnel, and DoD considers their use only in the most extraordinary circumstances. During these
procedures, blast mitigation factors are taken into account (i.e., distance and engineering controls),
and EOD personnel disarm the MEC items and move them from the location at which they were
found to a central area on-site for destruction.
5.2 Treatment of MEC
5.2.1 Open Detonation
In most situations, open detonation (OD) remains the safest and most frequently used method
for treating UXO. When open detonation takes place where UXO is found, it is called blow-in-place.
In munitions response, demolition is almost always conducted on-site, most frequently in the place
it is found, because of the inherent safety concerns and the regulatory restrictions on transporting
even disarmed explosive materials. Blow-in-place detonation is accomplished by placing and
detonating a donor explosive charge next to the munition which causes a sympathetic detonation of
the munition to be disposed of. Blow-in-place can also be accomplished using laser-initiated
techniques and is considered by explosives safety experts to be the safest, quickest, and most cost-
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effective remedy for destroying UXO.
When open detonation takes place in an area other than that where the UXO was found, it is
called consolidated detonation. In these cases, experts have determined that the location of the UXO
poses an unacceptable risk to the public or critical assets (e.g., a hospital, natural or cultural
resources, historic buildings) if it is blown in place. If the risk to the workers is deemed acceptable
and the items can be moved, the munitions will be relocated to a place on-site that has minimal or no
risk to the public or critical assets. Typically, when consolidated detonations are used on a site,
multiple munition items are consolidated into one "shot" to minimize the threat to the public of
multiple detonations. The decision to move the UXO from the location in which it is found is made
by the explosives safety officer and is based on an assessment that the risks to workers and others in
moving this material is acceptable. Movement of the UXO is rarely considered safe, and the safety
officer generally tries to minimize the distance moved.
Open Detonation and DMM
Discarded Military Munitions are frequently tracked in the same manner as UXO and blown in place. However, it
may be less risky to move DMM elsewhere. If there is any doubt about whether a munitions item is DMM or UXO,
it must be tracked as if it is UXO.
Increasing regulatory restrictions and public concern over its human health and environmental
impacts may create significant barriers to conducting open detonation in both BIP and consolidation
detonation in the future. The development of alternatives to OD in recent years is a direct result of
these growing concerns and increased restrictions on the use of OD (see text box on following page).
There are significant environmental and technical challenges to treating ordnance and
explosives with OD.71 These limitations include the following:
Restrictions on emissions Harmful emissions may pose human health and
environmental risks and are difficult to capture sufficiently for treatment. Areas with
emissions limitations may not permit OD operations.
Soil and groundwater contamination Soil and groundwater can become
contaminated with byproducts of incomplete combustion and detonation as well as with
residuals from donor charges.
Area of operation Large spaces are required for OD operations in order to maintain
minimum distance requirements for safety purposes (see Chapter 6, "Explosives Safety").
Location Environmental conditions may constrain the use of OD. For example, in OD
operations, emissions must be carried away from populated areas, so prevailing winds
must be steady. Ideal wind speeds are 4-15 mph, because winds at these speeds are not
likely to change direction and they tend to dissipate smoke rapidly. In addition, any type
of storm (including sand, snow, and electrical) that is capable of producing static
electricity can potentially cause premature detonation.
71U. S. EPA Office of Research and Development. Approaches for the Remediation of Federal Facility Sites
Contaminated with Explosive or Radioactive Wastes, Handbook, September 1993.
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Legal restrictions Legal actions and regulatory requirements, such as restrictions on
RCRA Subpart X permits, emissions restrictions, and other restrictions placed on OD,
may reduce the use of OD in the future. However, for munitions responses addressed
under CERCLA, no permits are currently required.
Noise Extreme noise created by a detonation limits where and when OD can be
performed.
The Debate Over OD
Because of the danger associated with moving MEC, the conventional wisdom, based on DoD's explosive safety
expertise, is to treat UXO on-site using OD, usually blow-in-place. However, coalitions of environmentalists, Native
Americans, and community activists across the country have voiced concerns and filed lawsuits against military
installations that perform OB/OD for polluting the environment, endangering their health, and diminishing their
quality of life. While much of this debate has focused on high-throughput industrial facilities and active ranges, and
not on the practices at ranges, similar concerns have also been voiced at ranges. Preliminary studies of OD
operations at Massachusetts Military Reservation revealed that during the course of open detonation, explosive
residues are emitted in the air and deposited on the soil in concentrations that exceed conservative action levels more
than 50 percent of the time. When this occurs, some response action or cleanup is required. It is not uncommon for
these exceedances to be significantly above action levels.
Several debates are currently underway regarding the use of blow-in-place OD ranges. One debate is about whether
OD is in fact a contributor to contamination and the significance of that contribution. A second debate is whether
a contained detonation chamber (CDC) is a reasonable alternative that is cleaner than OD (albeit limited by the size
of munitions it can handle, and the ability to move munitions safety). Another study at Massachusetts Military
Reservation revealed that particulates trapped in the CDC exhaust filter contain levels of chlorinated and
nitroaromatic compounds that must be disposed of as hazardous waste, thus suggesting the potential for hazardous
air emissions in OD. The pea gravel at the bottom of the chamber, after repeated detonations, contains no detectable
quantities of explosives, thus suggesting that the CDC is highly effective. The RPM at Massachusetts Military
Reservation has suggested that when full life-cycle costs of OD are considered, including the cost of response
actions at a number of the OD areas, the cost of using OD when compared to a CDC may be even more.
Additional information will help shed light on the costs and environmental OD versus CDC. The decision on which
alternative to use, however, will involve explosive safety experts who must decide that the munitions are safe to
move if they will be detonated in a CDC. In addition, current limitations on the size of munitions that canbe handled
in a CDC must also be considered.
UXO Model Clearance Project
In 1996 the U.S. Navy conducted a UXO Model Clearance Project atKaho^olawe Island, Hawaii, that demonstrated
the effectiveness of using protective works to minimize the adverse effects of detonation in areas of known cultural
and/or historical resources. The results of the demonstrations and practical applications revealed that if appropriate
protective works are used, the adverse effects of the blast and fragments resulting from a high-order UXO detonation
are not as detrimental as originally anticipated. Protective works are physical barriers designed to limit, control, or
reduce adverse effects of blast and fragmentation generated during the high-order detonation of UXO. Protective
works used at Kaho^olawe included: tire barricades, deflector shields, trenches/pits, directional detonations,
fragmentation blankets, and plywood sheets.
Source: UXO Model Clearance Report, Kaho olawe Island, Hawaii, Protective Works Demonstration Report. Prepared for U.S. Navy Pacific
Division Naval Facilities, Engineering Command, Kapolei, Ha. Contract No. N62742-93-D-0610 1996.
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In open detonation, an explosive charge is used to create a sympathetic detonation in the
energetic materials and munitions to be destroyed. Engineering controls and protective measures can
be used, when appropriate, to significantly reduce the effects and hazards associated with blast and
high-speed fragments during OD operations. Common techniques for reducing these effects include
constructing berms and barricades that physically block and/or deflect the blast and fragments,
tamping the explosives with sandbags and/or earth to absorb energy and fragmentation, using blast
mitigation foams, and trenching to prevent transmission of blast-shock through the ground. These
methods have been effective in reducing the size of exclusion zones required for safe OD and limiting
local disruptions due to shock and noise. In some instances (e.g., low-explosive-weight MEC), well-
engineered protective measures can reduce the effects and hazards associated with OD to levels
comparable to contained detonation chambers (see Section 5.2.3.2).
5.2.2 Open Burning
Although open burning (OB) and open detonation (OD) are often discussed together, they are
not often used at the same time. In fact, the use of open burning is limited today due to significant
air emissions released during burning and strict environmental regulations that many times prohibit
this. The environmental and technical challenges to using OB are the same as those listed in Section
5.2.1 for OD. When OB is used, it is usually applied to munitions areas for treatment of bulk
explosives or excess propellant. OB operations have been implicated in the release of perchlorate into
the environment, specifically groundwater.
5.2.3 Alternative Treatment Technologies
Because of growing concern and regulatory constraints on the use of OD, alternative
treatments have been developed that aim to be safer, commercially available or readily constructed,
cost-effective, versatile in their ability to handle a variety of energetics, and able to meet the needs
of the Army.72 Although some of these alternative treatments have applicability for field use, the
majority are designed for industrial-level demilitarization of excess or obsolete munitions that have
not been used.
5.2.3.1 Incineration
Incineration is primarily used to treat soils containing reactive and/or ignitable compounds.
In addition, small quantities of MEC, bulk explosives, and debris containing reactive and/or ignitable
material may be treated using incineration. Most MEC is not suitable for incineration. This technique
may be used for small-caliber ammunition (less than 0.50 caliber), but even the largest incinerators
with strong reinforcement cannot handle the detonations of very large munitions. Like OB/OD,
incineration is not widely accepted by regulators and the public because of concerns over the
72J. Stratta et al. Alternatives to Open Burning/Open Detonation of Energetic Materials, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab, August 1998.
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environmental and health impacts of incinerator emissions and residues.
The strengths and weaknesses of incineration are summarized as follows:
Effectiveness In most cases, incineration reduces levels of organics to nondetection
levels, thus simplifying response efforts.
Proven success Incineration technology has been used for years, and many companies
offer incineration services. In addition, a diverse selection of incineration equipment is
available, making it an appropriate operation for sites of different sizes and containing
different types of contaminants.
Safety issues The treatment of hazardous and reactive and/or ignitable materials with
extremely high temperatures is inherently hazardous.
Emissions Incinerator stacks emit compounds that may include nitrogen oxides (NOX),
volatile metals (including lead) and products of incomplete combustion.
Noise Incinerators may have 400 to 500-horsepower fans, which generate substantial
noise, a common complaint of residents living near incinerators.
Costs The capital costs of mobilizing and demobilizing incinerators can range from
$1 million to $2 million. However, on a large scale (above 30,000 tons of soil treated),
incineration can be a cost-effective treatment option. Specifically, at the Cornhusker
Army Ammunition Plant, 40,000 tons of soil were incinerated at an average total cost of
$260 per ton. At the Louisiana Army Ammunition Plant, 102,000 tons of soil were
incinerated at $330 per ton.73
Public perception The public generally views incineration with suspicion and as a
potentially serious health threat caused by possible emission of hazardous chemicals from
incinerator smokestacks.
Trial burn tests An incinerator must demonstrate that it can remove 99.99 percent of
organic material before it can be permitted to treat a large volume of hazardous waste.
Ash byproducts Like OB/OD, most types of incineration produce ash that contains
high concentrations of inorganic contaminants.
Materials handling Soils with a high clay content can be difficult to feed into
incinerators because they clog the feed mechanisms. Often, clayey soils require
pretreatment in order to reduce moisture and viscosity.
Resource demands Operation of incinerators requires large quantities of electricity
and water.
The most commonly used type of incineration system is the rotary kiln incinerator. Rotary
kilns come in different capacities and are used primarily for soils and debris contaminated with
reactive and/or ignitable material. Rotary kilns are available as transportable units for use on-site, or
as permanent fixed units for off-site treatment. When considering the type of incinerator to use at
your site, one element that you should consider is the potential risk of transporting reactive and/or
ignitable materials.
The rotary kiln incinerator is equipped with an afterburner, a quench, and an air pollution
73U. S. EPA, Office of Research and Development. Approaches for the Remediation of Federal Facility Sites
Contaminated with Explosive or Radioactive Wastes, Handbook, September 1993.
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control system to remove particulates and neutralize and remove acid gases. The rotary kiln serves
as a combustion chamber and is a slightly inclined, rotating cylinder that is lined with a heat-resistant
ceramic coating. This system has had proven success in reducing contamination levels to destruction
and removal efficiencies (ORE) that meet RCRA requirements (40 CFR 264, Subpart O).74
Specifically, reactive and/or ignitable soil was treated on-site at the former Nebraska Ordnance Plant
site in Mead, Nebraska, using a rotary kiln followed by a secondary combustion chamber,
successfully reducing constituents of concern that included TNT, RDX, TNB, DNT, DNB, HMX,
tetryl, and NT to ORE of 99.99 percent.75
For deactivating large quantities of small arms munitions at industrial operations (e.g., small
arms cartridges, 50-caliber machine gun ammunition), the Army generally uses deactivation furnaces.
Deactivation furnaces have a thick-walled primary detonation chamber capable of withstanding small
detonations. In addition, they do not completely destroy the vaporized reactive and/or ignitable
material, but rather render the munitions unreactive.76
For large quantities of material, on-site incineration is generally more cost-effective than off-
site treatment, which includes transportation costs. The cost of soil treatment at off-site incinerators
ranges from $220 to $1,100 per metric ton (or $200 to $1,000 per ton).77 At the former Nebraska
Ordnance Plant site, the cost of on-site incineration was $394 per ton of contaminated material.78
Two major types of incinerators used by the Army are discussed in Table 5-2. While incineration is
used most often in industrial operations, it may be considered in the evaluation of alternatives for
munitions responses as well.
The operation and maintenance requirements of incineration include sorting and blending
wastes to achieve levels safe for handling (below 12 percent explosive concentration for soils),
burning wastes, and treating gas emissions to control air pollution. Additional operation and
maintenance factors to consider include feed systems that are likely to clog when soils with high clay
content are treated, quench tanks that are prone to clog from slag in the secondary combustion
chamber, and the effects of cold temperatures, which have been known to exacerbate these problems.
74U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Technology Innovation Office. On-Site
Incineration at the Celanese Corporation Shelby Fiber Operations Superfund Site, Shelby, North Carolina, October
1999.
"Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable. Incineration at the Former Nebraska Ordnance Plant Site,
Mead, Nebraska, Roundtable Report, October 1998.
76U. S. EPA, Office of Research and Development. Approaches for the Remediation of Federal Facility Sites
Contaminated with Explosive or Radioactive Wastes, Handbook, September 1993.
77 DoD, Environmental Technology Transfer Committee. Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and
Reference Guide, Second Edition, October 1994.
78Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable, Incineration at the Former Nebraska Ordnance Plant Site,
Mead, Nebraska, Roundtable Report, October 1998.
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Table 5-2. Characteristics of Incinerators
Incinerator
Type
Rotary Kiln
Deactivation
Furnace
Description
A rotary kiln is a combustion
chamber that may be
designed to withstand
detonations. The secondary
combustion chamber
destroys residual organics
from off-gases. Off-gases
then pass into the quench
tank for cooling. The air
pollution control system
consists of a venturi
scrubber, baghouse filters,
and/or wet electrostatic
precipitators, which remove
particulates prior to release
from the stack.
Designed to withstand small
detonations from small arms.
Operates in a manner similar
to the rotary kiln except it
does not have a secondary
combustion chamber.
Operating Temps
Primary chamber -
Gases: 800-1,500 «F
Soils: 600-800 «F
Secondary chamber -
Gases: 1,400-1,800
F
1,200-1,500 «F
Strengths and
Weaknesses
Renders munitions
unreactive. Debris
or reactive and/or
ignitable materials
must be removed
from soils prior to
incineration; quench
tank clogs; clayey,
wet soils can jam
the feed system;
cold conditions
exacerbate clogging
problems. Requires
air pollution control
devices.
Renders munitions
unreactive.
Effective Uses
Commercially
available for
destruction
of bulk
explosives and
small MEC,
as well as
contaminated
soil and debris.
Large quantities
of small arms
cartridges, 50-
caliber machine
gun ammunition,
mines, and
grenades.
Source: U. S. EPA, Office of Research and Development. Approaches for the Remediation of Federal Facility Sites Contaminated with Explosive or
Radioactive Wastes, Handbook, September 1993.
New incineration systems under development include a circulating fluidized bed that uses
high-velocity air to circulate and suspend waste particles in a combustion loop. In addition, an
infrared unit uses electrical resistance heating elements or indirect-fired radiant U-tubes to heat
material passing through the chamber on a conveyor belt.
5.2.3.2 Contained Detonation Chambers
Contained detonation chambers (CDCs) are capable of repeated detonations of a variety of
ordnance items, with significant reductions in the air and noise pollution problems of OD; however,
the use of CDCs assumes that the munition item is safe to move. CDCs, or blast chambers, are used
by the Army at a few ammunition plants to treat waste pyrotechnics, explosives, and propellants. In
addition, several types of transportable detonation chambers are available for emergency responses
for small quantities of MEC. In general, blast chambers do not contain all of the detonation gases,
but vent them through an expansion vessel and an air pollution control unit. Such a vented system
minimizes the overpressure and shock wave hazards. In addition, CDCs contain debris from
detonations as well, eliminating the fragmentation hazards.
Several manufacturers have developed CDCs for both commercial and military use. However,
DoD has not implemented CDCs at many military installations because of safety issues relating to
the moving of munitions, rate of throughput, transportability, and cost.
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Both industrial-level (fixed) and mobile (designed for use in the field) CDCs display a range
of capabilities. CDCs designed for field use are limited in the amount of explosives they can contain,
the types of munitions they can handle, and their throughput capability. Portable units have size
constraints and are not designed to destroy munitions larger than 81 mm HE or 10 pounds of HMX,
but the nonportable units can handle munitions up to 155 mm or 100 pounds of HMX (130 Ib TNT
equivalent).79
5.3 Treatment of Soils That Contain Reactive and/or Ignitable Compounds
Some of the technologies described in Section 5.2 can also be used to treat reactive and/or
ignitable soil (e.g., thermal treatment). However, there are a number of alternative treatment
technologies that are specifically applicable to soils containing reactive and/or ignitable materials.
These are described in the sections that follow.
5.3.1 Biological Treatment Technologies
Biological treatment, or bioremediation, is a broad category of systems that use
microorganisms to decompose reactive and ignitable residues in soils into byproducts such as water
and carbon dioxide. Bioremediation includes ex-situ treatments such as composting and slurry reactor
biotreatment that require the excavation of soils and debris, as well as in-situ methods such as
bioventing, monitored natural attenuation, and nutrient amendment. Bioremediation is used to treat
large volumes of contaminated soils, and it is generally more publicly accepted than incineration.
However, highly contaminated soils may not be treatable using bioremediation or may require
pretreatment, because high concentrations of reactive and/or ignitable materials, heavy metals, or
inorganic salts are frequently toxic to the microorganisms that are the foundation of biological
systems. Blending highly reactive material with clean soil is frequently used to ensure that the
explosive content of the soil is below 10 percent. This is not considered treatment but rather is a
preparation technique to allow the waste to be safely treated.
While biological treatment systems generally require significantly lower capital investments
than incinerators or other technology-intensive systems, they also often take longer to achieve
cleanup goals. Therefore, the operation and monitoring costs of bioremediation must be taken into
account. Because bioremediation includes a wide range of technological options, its costs can vary
dramatically from site to site. The benefits and limitations of bioremediation include the following:
Easily implemented Bioremediation systems are simple to operate and can be
implemented using commercially available equipment.
Relatively low costs In general, the total cost of bioremediation is significantly less
than more technology-intensive treatment options.
Suitability for direct land application In general, soil treated using most
bioremediation systems is suitable for land application.
Limited concentrations of reactive and/or ignitable materials and other
contaminants Soil with very high levels of reactive and/or ignitable material may not
79DeMil International, Inc. The "Donovan Blast Chamber "Technologyfor Production Demilitarization at Blue
Grass Army Depot and for UXO Remediation, Paper presented at the Global Demilitarization Symposium and
Exhibition, 1999.
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be treatable using bioremediation, so pretreatment to reduce contaminant levels may be
required. In addition, the presence of other contaminants, such as metals, may render
bioremediation ineffective.
Temperature limitations Cold temperatures limit the effectiveness of bioreme-
diation.
Resource demands With the exception of bioslurry treatments, bioremediation
systems require large land areas. In addition, many biological treatment systems require
substantial quantities of water to maintain adequate moisture levels.
Long time frame With the exception of bioslurry treatments, bioremediation systems
may require long time periods to degrade reactive and/or ignitable materials.
Post-treatment In some systems, process waters and off-gases may require treatment
prior to disposal.80
There are many different options to choose from in selecting your biological treatment
systems, but your selection will depend on the following factors:
Types of contaminants
Soil type
Climate and weather conditions
Cost and time constraints
Response goals at your site
Biological treatment systems that are available can be in-situ and can be open or closed,
depending on air emission standards. Other available features include irrigation to maintain optimal
moisture and nutrition conditions, and aeration systems to control odors and oxygen levels in aerobic
systems. In general, bioremediation takes longer to achieve cleanup goals than incineration.
Biological treatment can be conducted in-situ or ex-situ; however, because reactive and/or
ignitable materials in the soil are usually not well mixed, removing them for ex-situ treatment is
usually recommended, as the removal process results in thorough mixing of the soil, increasing the
uniformity of degradation. Also, the likelihood of migration of reactive and/or ignitable materials and
their breakdown products is reduced with controlled ex-situ remediation of removed soils. Both ex-
situ and in-situ treatment systems are discussed below.
5.3.1.1 Monitored Natural Attenuation
Monitored natural attenuation (MNA) is a response action that relies on natural attenuation
processes (within the context of a carefully controlled and monitored site cleanup approach) to
achieve site-specific remediation objectives within a timeframe that is reasonable compared to that
offered by more active methods.81
80DoD, Environmental Technology Transfer Committee, Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and
Reference Guide, Second Edition, October 1994.
81U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. Use of Monitored Natural Attenuation at
Super fund RCRA Corrective Action and Underground Storage Tank Sites, OSWER Directive 9200.4-17, November
1997.
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Monitored natural attenuation uses microbes already present in the soil or groundwater to
degrade contaminants. It is never a default or presumptive remedy, but is carefully evaluated prior
to selection. The burden of proof as to whether MNA is appropriate rests with the party proposing
MNA. EPA's directive on the use of MNA at sites requires substantial analysis and continuous
monitoring to prove that MNA can achieve cleanup goals on the particular chemicals of concern
within a reasonable timeframe when compared to other response methods. In addition to a
comparable timeframe, MNA may be appropriate when plumes are no longer increasing (or are
shrinking), and/or when used in conjunction with active remediation measures (e.g., source control,
sampling, and treating of hot spots). Monitored natural attenuation is currently employed at several
groundwater sites containing reactive and/or ignitable compounds. Louisiana Army Ammunition
Plant has used MNA to reduce TNT and RDX in groundwater. Initial results show a marked decrease
in both of those compounds. The suitability to use MNA for explosive compounds must be carefully
evaluated based on site-specific factors, since explosive compounds do not act in the same manner
as the solvents for which MNA has been most frequently used.
5.3.1.2 Composting
Composting is an ex-situ process that involves tilling the
contaminated soils with large quantities of organic matter and
inorganic nutrients to create a microorganism-rich environment. An
organic agent such as straw, sawdust, or wood chips is usually added
to increase the number of microorganism growth sites and to
improve aeration. Additional nutrient-rich amendments may be
added to maximize the growth conditions for microorganisms and
therefore the efficiency with which reactive and/or ignitable
compounds biodegrade.
Figure 5-1. Windrow
Composting
In windrow composting, the soil mixture is layered into long piles known as windrows. Each
windrow is mixed by turning with a composting machine as shown in Figure 5-1. Figures 5-2 and
5-3 provide schematic diagrams of a typical windrow composting process and system.
Amendment Mix
(WolunwofSol)
Screen
Excavated
Gontamhaled
Soil 4
Soil- Amendmen t Mix
Concentration
(lom-acoppmTtn)
wfndrow'composter)
Windrows
Treated Sol
Rocks
Water
Wash Basri
Washed Rocks
Figure 5-2. Typical Windrow Composting Process
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Stra store
Asphalt Compost
Sump to
55 gal Ml
or Recycle
into Com poa
Figure 5-3. Side and Top View of Windrow Composting System
Windrow composting has proved to be highly successful in achieving cleanup goals at a field
demonstration at the Umatilla Army Depot Activity in Hermiston, Oregon.82 At Umatilla, soil was
mixed with soil amendments and composted in both aerated and nonaerated windrows for a total of
40 days. The resulting compost generally reduced the levels of the target explosives (TNT, RDX, and
HMX) to below cleanup goals. Specifically, TNT reductions were as high as 99.7 percent at 30
percent soil in 40 days of operation, with the majority of removal occurring in the first 20 days.
Destruction and removal efficiencies for RDX and HMX were 99.8 and 96.8 percent, respectively.
The field demonstration showed the relative simplicity and cost-effectiveness of windrow composting
when compared with nonbiological treatment technologies.
5.3.1.3 Soil Slurry Biotreatment
Soil slurry biotreatment (also known as bioslurry or slurry
reactor treatment) is an ex-situ process that involves the submersion of
contaminated soils or sludge in water in a tank, lagoon, or bioreactor to
create a slurry (Figure 5-4). The nutrient content, pH, and temperature are
carefully controlled, and the slurry is agitated to maximize the nutrient,
microorganism, and contaminant contact. Because the conditions are
optimized for the microorganisms, slurry processes are faster than those
in many other biological processes and, therefore, the operation and
maintenance (O&M) costs are lower than in other biological processes.
However, the highly controlled environment requires capital investments
beyond those of other biological treatment systems. The treated slurry can
be used directly on land without any additional treatment.
Figure 5-4. Slurry
Reactor
82Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable. Technology Application Analysis: Windrow Composting of
Explosives Contaminated Soil at Umatilla Army Depot Activity, Hermiston, Oregon, October 1998.
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Bioslurry treatment can be conducted under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In aerobic
bioslurry, the oxygen content is carefully controlled. In anaerobic bioslurry, anaerobic bacteria
consume the carbon supply, resulting in the depletion of oxygen in the soil slurry. Findings of a field
demonstration at the Joliet Army Ammunition Plant demonstrated that maximum removal of reactive
and/or ignitable materials occurred with operation of a slurry reactor in an aerobic-anaerobic
sequence, with an organic cosubstrate, operated in warm temperatures. The same demonstration
project showed that bioslurry treatment can remove TNT, RDX, TNB, and DNT to levels that meet
a variety of treatment goals.83 Soil slurry biotreatment is expected to cost about one-third less than
incineration.84 The primary limitations of soil slurry biotreatment include the following:
Soil excavation Soils must be excavated prior to treatment.
Pretreatment requirements Nonhomogeneous soils can potentially lead to materials-
handling problems; therefore, pretreatment of soils is often necessary to obtain uniformly
sized materials.
Post-treatment Dewatering following treatment can be costly, and nonrecycled
wastewaters must be treated before being disposed of.
Emissions Off-gases may require treatment if volatile compounds are present.
5.3.1.4 In-Situ Chemical and Biological Remediation
Treating contaminated soils in-situ involves the introduction of microbes (enhanced or
augmented bioremediation), or the addition of nutrients with the intention of inducing a suitable
environment for the biological degradation of pollutants. Alternatively, selected reactive compounds
may be introduced into the soil to chemically transform reactive and/or ignitable compounds through
oxidative or reductive processes. For aqueous media, hydrogen peroxide, oxygen release compounds
(e.g., magnesium peroxide), ozone, or microorganisms are added to the water to degrade reactive
and/or ignitable materials more rapidly. Depending on the depth of the contaminants, spray irrigation
may be used, or for deeper contamination, injection wells may be used. The primary advantage of in-
situ remediation is that soils do not need to be excavated or screened prior to treatment, thus resulting
in cost savings. In addition, soils and groundwater can be treated simultaneously. The primary
limitation of in-situ remediation is that it may allow reactive and/or ignitable materials to migrate
deeper into the soil or into the groundwater under existing site-specific hydrodynamic conditions.
Other limitations of this type of remediation include the following:
There is a high degree of uncertainty about the uniformity of treatment and a long
treatment period may be required.
Nutrient and water injection wells may clog frequently.
The heterogeneity of soils and preferential flow paths may limit contact between injected
fluids and contaminants.
The method should not be used for clay, highly layered, or highly heterogeneous
subsurface environments (such as complex karst or fractured rock subsurface form-
ations).
83J.F. Manning, R. Boopathy, and E.R. Breyfogle. Field Demonstration of Slurry Reactor Biotreatment of
Explosives-Contaminated Soils, 1996.
84DoD Environmental Technology Transfer Committee. Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and
Reference Guide, Second Edition, October 1994.
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High concentrations of heavy metals, highly chlorinated organics, long-chain hydro-
carbons, or inorganic salts are likely to be toxic to microorganisms.
The method is sensitive to temperature (i.e., it works faster at high temperatures and
slower at colder temperatures).
The use of certain reagents (e.g., Fenton's reagent) can create potentially hazardous
conditions.
5.3.2 Soil Washing
Soil washing is a widely used treatment technology that reduces contaminated soil volume
and removes contamination from soil particles. Reactive and/or ignitable materials are removed from
soils by separating contaminated particles from clean particles using particle size separation, gravity
separation, and attrition scrubbing. The smaller particles (which generally are the ones to which
reactive and/or ignitable materials adhere) are then treated using mechanical scrubbing, or are
dissolved or suspended and treated in a solution of chemical additives (e.g., surfactants, acids, alkalis,
chelating agents, and oxidizing or reducing agents) or treated using conventional wash-water
treatment methods. In some cases, the reduced volume of contaminated soil is treated using other
treatment technologies, such as incineration or bioremediation. Following soil washing, the
contaminated wash water is treated using wastewater treatment processes.
Soil washing is least effective in soils with large amounts of clay and organic matter to which
reactive and/or ignitable materials bind readily. Soil washing systems are transportable and can be
brought to the site. In addition, soil washing is relatively inexpensive ($120 to $200 per ton), but in
many cases it is only a step toward reducing the volume of soil that requires additional treatment,
such as when another technology is used to treat the reduced volume of contaminated soil following
soil washing.
The operation and maintenance components of soil washing include preparing soils for
treatment (moving soils, screening debris from soils), treating washing agents and soil fines following
treatment, and returning clean soils to the site. The time required for treating a 20,000-ton site using
soil washing would likely be less than 3 months.85
5.3.3 Wet Air Oxidation
Wet air oxidation (WAO) is a high-temperature, high-pressure oxidation process that can be
used to treat contaminated soil. Contaminated slurries are pumped into a heat exchanger and heated
to temperatures of 650-1,150 F. The slurries are then pumped into a reactor where they are oxidized
in an aqueous solution at pressures of 1,000 to 1,800 psi.
WAO has been proven to be highly effective in treating RDX. However, the method also
produces hazardous byproducts of TNT and gaseous effluents that require additional treatment. The
technology has high capital costs and a high level of downtime resulting from frequent blockages of
the pump system and heat exchange lines. Laboratory tests have indicated that some WAO effluents
can be further treated using biological methods such as composting.86
85Ibid.
86J. Stratta, R. Schneider, N. Adrian, R. Weber, B. Donahue. Alternatives to Open Burning/Open Detonation
of Energetic Materials: A Summary of Current Technologies. USACERL Technical Report 98/104, 1998.
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5.3.4 Low-Temperature Thermal Desorption
Low-temperature thermal desorption (LTTD) is a commercially available physical separation
process that heats contaminated soils to volatilize contaminants. The volatilized contaminants are
then transported for treatment. While this system has been tested extensively for use on reactive
and/or ignitable materials, it is not one of the more effective technologies. In general, a carrier gas
or vacuum system transports volatilized water and reactive and/or ignitable materials to a gas
treatment system such as an afterburner or activated carbon. The relatively low temperatures (200-
600 »F) and residence times in LTTD typically volatilize low levels of reactive and/or ignitable
materials and allow decontaminated soil to retain its physical properties.87 In general, LTTD is used
to treat volatile organic compounds and fuels, but it can potentially be used on soil containing low
concentrations of reactive and/or ignitable materials that have boiling points within the LTTD
temperature range (e.g., TNT).
The two commonly used LTTD systems are the rotary dryer and the thermal screw. Rotary
dryers are horizontal cylinders that are inclined and rotated. In thermal screw units, screw conveyors
or hollow augers are used to transport the soil or debris through an enclosed trough. Hot oil or steam
circulates through the augur to indirectly heat the soil. The off-gas is treated using devices such as
wet scrubbers or fabric filters to remove particulates, and combustion or oxidation is employed to
destroy the contaminants.88 The primary limitations of LTTD include the following:
It is only marginally effective for treating reactive and/or ignitable materials.
Extensive safety precautions must be taken to prevent explosions when exposing
contaminated soil and debris to heat.
Explosives concentration and particle size can affect the applicability and cost of LTTD.
Plastic materials should not be treated using LTTD, as their decomposition products could
damage the system.
Soil with a high clay and silt content or with a high humic content will increase the
residence time required for effective treatment.
Soil or sediments with a high moisture content may require dewatering prior to treatment.
Air pollution control devices are often necessary.
Additional leaching of metals is a concern with this process.
5.4 Decontamination of Equipment and Scrap
Decontamination of equipment and scrap is essential in order to ensure that explosive residues
no longer remain on the material. Attention to this process can significantly decrease safety hazards
to workers and the public. Several instances of improperly treated range scrap sent to scrap yards for
recycling have resulted in deaths in association with unplanned explosions. Various chemical and
mechanical methods are available for the cleaning and decontamination of equipment and scrap
metal. One such method is hot gas decontamination. Demonstrations have shown that a 99.9999
percent decontamination of structural components is possible using this method. Residue from
87DoD Environmental Technology Transfer Committee. Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and
Reference Guide, Second Edition, October 1994.
88EPA Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program, Thermal Desorption System (TDS),
Clean Berkshires, Inc., October 1999.
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reactive and/or ignitable compounds is volatilized or decomposed during the process when gas is
heated to 600 »F for 1 hour. Any off-gases are destroyed in a thermal oxidizer, and emissions are
monitored to ensure compliance with requirements. Specifications state that the furnace can accept
a maximum of 3,000 pounds of contaminated materials containing less than 1 pound of total
explosives. Up to four batch runs can be processed by a two-person crew every 24 hours.89
Base hydrolysis is a chemical method of decontaminating material of reactive and/or ignitable
compounds. A tank of heated sodium hydroxide is prepared at a concentration of 3 moles per liter.
The high pH and high temperature have the effect of breaking apart any reactive and/or ignitable
compounds on the scrap metal. Following decontamination, hydrochloric acid is added to lower the
pH to a range of 6 to 9. The cleaned material has no detectable level of reactive and/or ignitable
contaminants following the procedure. This process is scalable to accommodate a variable
throughput.90'91'92 Other decontamination methods include pressure washing, steam cleaning, and
incineration.
5.5 Safe Deactivation of Energetic Materials and Beneficial Use of Byproducts
A technique for safely eliminating energetic materials and developing safe and useful
byproducts is currently under development with funding from the Strategic Environmental Research
and Development Program (SERDP). One such process reacts energetic materials, specifically TNT,
RDX, and Composition B, with organic amines, which neutralize the energetic materials. The
reaction is conducted at low temperatures, safely breaking down the energetic materials without
causing detonation.
The gaseous byproducts of this process consist of nitrous oxide, nitrogen, water, and carbon
dioxide. The liquid byproducts contain amide groups and carbon-nitrogen bonds. The liquid
byproducts of TNT and RDX were discovered to be effective curing agents for conventional epoxy
resins. The epoxy polymers produced using the curing agents derived from the liquid byproducts
were subjected to safety and structural tests. It was determined that they have comparable mechanical
properties to epoxy formed using conventional resins and curing agents. Testing is currently
underway to verify their safety and resistance to leaching of toxic compounds.
In preliminary testing, this process has been shown to be a viable alternative to OB/OD and
appears to have the potential to achieve high throughput, be cost-effective and safe, and discharge
no toxic chemicals into the environment.93
89U.S. Army Environmental Center. Hot-Gas Decontamination: Proven Technology Transferred for Army Site
Cleanups, December 2000.
90UXB International, Inc. UXBase: Non-Thermal Destruction of Propellant and Explosive Residues on
Ordnance and Explosive Scrap, 2001.
91D.R. Felt, S.L. Larson, andL.D. Hansen. Kinetics of Base-Catalyzed 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene Transformation,
August 2001.
92R.L. Bishop et al. "Base Hydrolysis of HMX and HMX-Based Plastic Bonded Explosives with Sodium
Hydroxide between 100 and 155'C." Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1999, 38:2254-2259.
"SERDP and ESTCP. " Safe Deactivation of Energetic Materials and Beneficial Use of By-Products," Partners
in Environmental Technology Newsletter, Issue 2, 1999.
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5.6 Conclusion
The treatment of MEC and reactive and/or ignitable soil and debris is a complex issue in
terms of technical capabilities, regulatory requirements, and environmental, public health, and safety
considerations. Public concern over OB/OD and incineration has encouraged the development of
new technologies to treat reactive and/or ignitable wastes, but there is still a long way to go before
some of the newer technologies, such as plasma arc destruction, become commercially available and
widely used. Further, many of the newer technologies have been developed for industrial facilities
with high throughput levels usually not found at MRS. However, with the appropriate site-specific
conditions, alternative technologies may be considered for munitions responses.
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SOURCES AND RESOURCES
The following publications, offices, laboratories, and websites are provided as a guide for
handbook users to obtain additional information about the subject matter addressed in each chapter.
Several of these publications, offices, laboratories, or websites were also used in the development of
this handbook.
Publications
Stratta, J., R. Schneider, N. Adrian, R. Weber, andB. Donahue. Alternatives to Open Burning/Open
Detonation of Energetic Materials: A Summary of Current Technologies. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Aug. 1998.
U.S. Department of Defense, Environmental Technology Transfer Committee. Remediation
Technologies Screening Matrix. 2d ed., Oct. 1994.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Handbook: Approaches for the Remediation of Federal
Facility Sites Contaminated with Explosive or Radioactive Wastes. EPA/625/R-93/013, Sept. 1993.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. Completed
North American Innovative Remediation Technology Demonstration Projects. NTIS No. PB96-
153127; Aug. 1996.
Information Sources
Center for Public Environmental Oversight
c/o PSC 222B View Street
Mountain View, CA 94041
Tel: (650) 961-8918
Fax:(650)968-1126
http ://www. cpeo.org
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP)
901 North Stuart Street, Suite 303
Arlington, VA 22203
Tel: (703) 696-2127
Fax:(703)696-2114
http://www.estcp.org
Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable
U.S. EPA, Chair
(5102G)401MStreet, S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
http://www.frtr.gov
Joint UXO Coordination Office (JUXOCO)
10221 BurbeckRoad, Suite 430
Fort Belvoir, VA 22060
Tel: (703) 704-1090
Fax: (703) 704-2074
http://www.denix.osd.mil/UXOCOE
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Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division
(NAVEODTECHDIV)
UXO Countermeasures Department, Code SOU
2008 Stump Neck Road
Indian Head, MD 20640-5070
http://www.ih.navy.mil/
Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP)
901 North Stuart Street, Suite 303
Arlington, VA 22203
Tel: (703) 696-2117
http://www.serdp.org
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
U.S. Army Engineering and Support Center,
Ordnance and Explosives Mandatory Center of Expertise
P.O. Box 1600
4820 University Square
Huntsville, AL 35807-4301
http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil/
U.S. Army Environmental Center (USAEC)
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5401
Tel: (800) USA-3845
http://aec.army.mil
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development
Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center (ATTIC)
(a database of innovative treatment technologies)
http://www.epa.gov/bbsnrmrl/attic/index.html
U.S. EPA, Technology Information Office
Remediation and Characterization Innovative Technologies (REACH-IT)
http://www.epareachit.org/index.html
U.S. EPA, Technology Information Office
Hazardous Waste Clean-Up Information (CLU-IN)
http ://www. clu-in.org/
Guidance
U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. Use of Monitored Natural Attenuation
atSuperfund, RCRA Corrective Action, Underground Storage Tank Sites. Directive 9200.4-17P;
Apr. 21, 1999.
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6.0 EXPLOSIVES SAFETY
Substantial safety issues are associated with investigation and munition response activities
at sites that may contain MEC. This section describes the statutory and regulatory requirements on
explosives safety, as well as common practices for managing explosives safety. General safety
practices are addressed, as are the specific requirements for the health and safety of munitions
response personnel, explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) personnel, and protection of the public.
6.1 Introduction to DoD Explosives Safety Requirements and the DoD Explosives Safety
Board (DDESB)
Revision of Safety Standards
The 6055.9-STD is currently under revision by the
DDESB. The revised standards are posted on the
DDESB website as soon as they are voted in by the
board (www.ddesb.pentagon.mil). Revisions of the
standard dated October 2004 have been published on
the DDESB website, and its use is mandated by
DDESB. Several important revisions, however,
including changes to Chapter 12 and a chapter on
UXO, have not yet been completed or posted. This
chapter of the handbook will be revised when the
revision of the standards are complete.
Explosives safety is overseen within the
DoD by the DoD Explosives Safety Board
(DDESB). This centralized DoD organization is
charged with setting and overseeing explosives
safety requirements throughout DoD (see text
box on next page). DoD Directive 6055.9 (DoD
Explosives Safety Board and DoD Component
Explosives Safety Responsibilities) authorized
the DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety
Standards (July 1999, 6055.9-STD). This
directive requires the implementation and
maintenance of an "aggressive" explosives safety
program that addresses environmental
considerations and requires the military
components to act jointly.
The policies of DoD 6055.9-STD (the DoD explosives safety standard) include the
following:
Provide the maximum possible protection to personnel and property, both inside and
outside the installation, from the damaging effects of potential accidents involving
DoD ammunition and explosives.
Limit the exposure to a minimum number of persons, for a minimum time, to the
minimum amount of ammunition and explosives consistent with safe and efficient
operations.
These policies apply to MEC contaminated property currently owned by DoD, property
undergoing realignment or closure, and Formerly Used Defense Sites (FUDS), and require that every
means possible be used to protect the public from exposure to explosive hazards. Property known to
be or suspected of being contaminated with MEC must be decontaminated with the most appropriate
technology to ensure protection of the public, taking into consideration the proposed end use of the
property and the capabilities and limitations of the most current MEC detection and discrimination
technologies.
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The Role of the DoD Explosives Safety Board
The DDESB was established by Congress in 1928 as a result of a major disaster at the Naval Ammunition Depot
in Lake Denmark, New Jersey, in 1926. The accident caused heavy damage to the depot and surrounding areas
and communities, killed 21 people, and seriously injured 51 others.
The mission of the DDESB is to provide objective advice to the Secretary of Defense and Service Secretaries on
matters concerning explosives safety and to prevent conditions that may be hazardous to life and property, both
on and off DoD installations, that may result from explosives or the environmental effects of military munitions.
The roles and responsibilities of the DDESB were expanded in 1996 with the reissuance of DoD Directive 6055.9,
on July 29, 1996. The directive gives the DDESB responsibility for resolving any potential conflicts between
explosives safety standards and environmental standards.
To protect human health and property from hazards from explosives, the DDESB (or the
organizations to which it delegates authority) has established requirements for overseeing all
activities relating to munitions at property currently owned by DoD, property undergoing realignment
or closure, and FUDS. As part of those responsibilities, the DDESB or its delegates must review and
approve the explosives safety aspects of all plans for leasing, transferring, excessing, disposing of,
or remediating DoD real property when MEC contamination exists or is suspected to exist. Plans to
conduct munitions response actions at FUDS are also submitted to the DDESB for approval of the
explosives safety aspects.94 All explosives safety plans are to be documented in Explosives Safety
Submissions (ESSs), which are submitted to DDESB for approval prior to any munitions response
action being undertaken, or prior to any transfer of real property where MEC may be present (see
Section 6.3.2 for a discussion on ESSs). Several investigation and documentation requirements must
be fulfilled in order to complete an ESS (see Section 6.3.3).
The DoD explosives safety standard (6055.9-STD) also applies to any investigation (either
intrusive or nonintrusive) of any ranges or other areas that are known or suspected to have MEC.
Adherence to DoD safety standards and to the standards and requirements of the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) is documented in approved, project-specific Site Safety and
Health Plans (SSHPs) for investigations and cleanup actions.95'96 The DDESB may review SSHPs if
requested to do so, but approval of these plans is generally overseen by the individual component's
explosives safely center. Elements of the SSHP and the ESS are likely to overlap, particularly when
the SSHP addresses response actions.
The DoD explosives safety standard is a lengthy document with a great deal of technical
detail. It is organized around 13 technical chapters97, plus an introduction. These chapters address the
following:
94DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards, DoD Directive 6055.9-STD, Chapter 12, July 1999.
^Occupational Safety and Health Administration Standard, 29 C.F.R. § 1910.120 (b)(4), § 1926.65
%National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, 40 C.F.R. § 300.430 (b)(6).
97Chapter titles reflect changes in DoD's 6055.9-STD, rev. 5 dated June 2004.
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Reaction effects as they relate to buildings, transportation, and personnel.
Hazard classification, storage principles, and compatibility groups to guide
the kinds of explosives that may and may not be stored together.98
Personnel protection from blast, fragmentation, and thermal hazards.
Construction criteria permitting reduced separation distances as they apply
to potential explosion sites.
Electrical standards establishing minimum requirements for DoD buildings
and areas containing explosives.
Lightning protection for ammunition and explosives facilities, including
safety criteria for the design, maintenance, testing, and inspection of lightning
protection systems.
Hazard identification for fire fighting and emergency planning providing
criteria to minimize risk in fighting fires involving ammunition and explosives.
Quantity-distance (Q-D) and siting minimum standards for separating a
potential explosion site from an exposed site.
Contingencies, combat operations, military operations other than war
(MOOTW) and associated training setting standards outside the continental
United States and inside the United States in certain CONUS training situations
where the premise "to train as we fight" would be compromised.
Toxic chemical munitions and agents for protecting workers and the general
public from the harmful effects of chemical agents.
Real property contaminated with ammunition, explosives, or chemical agents
establishing the policies and procedures necessary to protect personnel exposed
"as a result of DoD ammunition, explosives, or chemical agent contamination of
real property currently and formerly owned, leased, or used by the Department of
Defense."
Accident notification and reporting requirements establishing procedures
and data to be reported for all munition and explosive mishaps.
Special storage procedures for waste military munitions under a conditional
exemption from certain RCRA requirements or a new RCRA storage unit standard,
as set forth in the Military Munitions Rule (40 C.F.R 260) Federal Register
62(29): 6621-6657 (February 12, 1997)
6.2 Explosives Safety Requirements
Safety standards published by DDESB are to be considered minimum protection criteria.
In addition to 6055.9-STD, explosives safety organizations are in place in each of the military
components. Each has established its own procedures. A number of these centers have developed
additional technical guidance. The following sections highlight key safety considerations as
described in 6055.9-STD or in various other guidance documents published by military
components. While they often contain similar requirements, guidance documents produced by
different components may use different terminology.
98Hazard classification procedures have been updated in Changes to Department of Defense Ammunition and
Explosives Hazard Classification Procedures, DDESB-KT, July 25, 2001.
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6.2.1 General Safety Rules
The following commonsense safety rules apply to all munitions response actions and
explosives ordnance disposal (EOD) activities:
Radio Frequencies
Some types of ordnance are susceptible
to electro-magnetic radiation (EMR)
devices in the radio frequency (RF)
range (i.e., radio, radar, cellular phone,
and television transmitters). Preventive
steps should be taken if such ordnance
is encountered in a suspected EMR/RF
environment. The presence of antennas
and communication and radar devices
should be noted before initiating any
ordnance-related activities. When
potential EMR hazards exist, the site
should be electronically surveyed for
EMR/RF emissions and the appropriate
Only qualified UXO/EOD personnel can
be involved in munitions response actions.
However, non-UXO-qualified personnel
may be used to perform UXO-related
procedures when supervised by UXO-
qualified personnel. All personnel must be
trained in explosives safety and be capable
of recognizing hazardous situations.
An exclusion zone (a safety zone established
around an MEC work area) must be
established. Only essential project personnel
and authorized, escorted visitors are allowed
within the exclusion zone. Essential
personnel are those who are needed for the
operations being performed. Unauthorized
personnel must not be permitted to enter the
area of activity.
Warning signs must be posted to warn the public to stay off the site.
Proper supervision of the operation must be provided.
Personnel are not allowed to work alone during operations.
Exposure should be limited to the minimum number of personnel needed for a
minimum period of time.
Appropriate use of protective barriers or distance separation must be enforced.
Personnel must not be allowed to become careless by reason of familiarity with
munitions.
6.2.2 Transportation and Storage Requirements
The DoD explosives safety standard requires that explosives be stored and transported with
the highest possible level of safety. The standard calls for implementation of the international system
of classification developed by the United Nations Committee of Experts for the Transport of
Dangerous Goods and the hazardous material transportation requirements of the U.S. Department of
Transportation. The classification system comprises nine hazard classes, two of which are applicable
to munitions and explosives. Guidelines are also provided for segregating munitions and explosives
into compatibility groups that have similar characteristics, properties, and potential accident effects
so that they can be transported together without increasing significantly either the probability of an
accident or, for a given quantity, the magnitude of the effects of such an accident.
The DoD Ammunition and Explosives Hazard Classification Procedures calls for the
following safety precautions for transporting conventional UXO in a nonemergency response:99
"Changes to Department of Defense Ammunition and Explosives Hazard Classification Procedures,'DDE'SB-
KT, July 25, 2001.
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EOD-qualified personnel must evaluate the UXO and affirm in writing that the item
is safe for transport prior to transport from the installation or FUDS.
UXO should be transported in a military vehicle using military personnel where
possible. For FUDS, such transport, when it occurs, will be by UXO personnel in
accordance with the work plan.100
All UXO shall be transported and stored as hazard class 1.1 (defined as UXO capable
of mass explosion) and with the appropriate compatibility group. UXO shall be stored
separately from serviceable munitions.101
Military components, working with EOD units, will determine the appropriate
packaging, blocking and bracing, marking, and labeling, and any special handling
requirements for transporting UXO over public transportation routes.
Similarly, storage principles require that munitions and explosives be assigned to
compatibility groups, munitions that can be stored together without increasing the likelihood of an
accident or increasing the magnitude of the effects of an accident. The considerations used to develop
these compatibility groups include chemical and physical properties, design characteristics, inner and
outer packing configurations, Q-D classification, net explosive weight, rate of deterioration,
sensitivity to initiation, and effects of deflagration, explosion, or detonation.
6.2.3 Quantity-Distance (O-D) Requirements
TheDoD explosives safety standard establishes guidelines for maintaining separation between
the explosive material expected to be encountered in the response action and potential receptors such
as personnel, buildings, explosive storage magazines, and public traffic routes. These encounters
may be planned encounters (e.g., open burning/open detonation) or accidental (e.g., contact with an
ordnance item during investigation). The standard provides formulas for estimating the damage or
injury potential based on the nature and quantity of the explosives, and the minimum separation
distance from receptors at which explosives would not cause damage or injury.
These Q-D siting requirements must be met in the ESS for all munitions response actions, for
storage magazines used to store demolition explosives and recovered MEC, and for planned or
established demolition areas. In addition, "footprint" areas, those in which render-safe or blow-in-
place procedures will occur during the response action, are also subject to Q-D siting requirements,
but they are not included in the ESS because they are determined during the actual removal process.
'""Written comment from U.S. Army.
101For the sake of convenience, the term munition has been used throughout this chapter, in some cases where
the source used the term ammunition.
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Examples of Quantity-Distance Siting Requirements
The following are examples of key concepts used in establishing Q-D requirements (USAGE Engineering Manual
1110-1-4009, June 2000):
Extensive and well-documented historical information is essential to understanding the blast and damage
potential at a given MRS.
For all MRSs, a most probable munition (MPM) is determined on the basis of munitions items anticipated to
be found at the site. The MPM is the item that has the greatest hazard distance (the maximum range fragments
and debris will be thrown), based on calculations of explosive effects. The two key elements considered in
establishing the hazard distance for the MPM are fragmentation (the breaking up of the confining material of
a chemical compound or mechanical mixture when an explosion takes place) and overpressure (the blast wave
or sudden pressure increase).
For explosive soils, a different concept, called maximum credible event (MCE), applies. The MCE is calculated
by relating the concentration of explosives in soil to the weight of the mix. Overpressure and soil ejection radius
are considered in determining Q-D requirements for explosive soils.
6.2.4 Protective Measures for UXO/EOD Personnel
TheDoD safety standard and CERCLA, OSHA, and component guidance documents require
that protective measures be taken to protect personnel during investigation and response actions. The
DDESB and military components have established guidelines for implementing such measures.
UXO/EOD personnel conducting MEC investigations and response actions face potential risk of
injury and death during these activities. Therefore, in addition to general precautions, DoD health and
safety requirements include (but are not limited to) medical surveillance and proper training of
personnel, as well as the preparation and implementation of emergency response and personal
protective equipment (PPE) programs.
6.2.5 Emergency Response and Contingency Procedures
In the event that an MEC incident occurs during response actions or disposal, injuries can be
limited by maintaining a high degree of organization and preparedness. CERCLA, OSHA, and
military component regulations call for the development and implementation of emergency response
procedures before any ordnance-related activities take place. The minimum elements of an
emergency response plan include the following:
Ensure availability of a nearby qualified emergency medical technician (EMT) with
a first-aid kit.
Ensure that communication lines and transportation (i.e., a designated vehicle) are
readily available to effectively care for injured personnel.
Maintain drenching and/or flushing facilities in the area for immediate use in the
event of contact with toxic or corrosive materials.
Develop procedures for reporting incidents to appropriate authorities.
Determine personnel roles, lines of authority, and communications procedures.
Post emergency instructions and a list of emergency contacts.
Train personnel in emergency recognition and prevention.
Establish the criteria and procedures for site evacuation (emergency alerting
procedures, place of refuge, evacuation routes, site security, and control).
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Plan specific procedures for decontamination and medical treatment of injured
personnel.
Have route maps to nearest prenotified medical facility readily available.
Establish the criteria for initiating a community alert program, contacts, and
responsibilities.
Critique the emergency responses and follow-up activities after each incident.
Develop procedures for the safe transport and/or disposal of any live MEC items. In
addition, handle practice rounds with extreme caution and use chain-of-custody
procedures similar to those for live UXO items (practice rounds may contain
explosive charges).
Plan the procedures for acquisition, transport, and storage following demolition of
recovered UXO items.
Equipment such as first-aid supplies, fire extinguishers, a designated emergency vehicle, and
emergency eyewashes/showers should be immediately available in the event of an emergency.
6.2.6 Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE)
As required by CERCLA, OSHA, and military component regulations, a PPE program should
be in place for all munitions response actions. Prior to initiating any ordnance-related activity, a
hazard assessment should be performed to select the appropriate equipment, shielding, engineering
controls, and protective clothing to best protect personnel. Examples of PPE include flame-resistant
clothing and eye and face protection equipment. A PPE plan is also highly recommended to ensure
proper selection, use, and maintenance of PPE. The plan should address the following activities:
PPE selection based on site-specific hazards
Use and limitations of PPE
Maintenance and storage of PPE
Decontamination and disposal of PPE
PPE training and fitting
Equipment donning and removal procedures
Procedures for inspecting equipment before, during, and after use
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the PPE plan
Medical considerations (e.g., work limitations due to temperature extremes)
6.2.7 Personnel Standards
Personnel standards are designed to ensure that the personnel working on or overseeing the
site are appropriately trained. Typical requirements for personnel training vary by level and type of
responsibility, but will specify graduation from one of DoD's training programs. USAGE, for
example, requires that all military and contractor personnel be graduates of one of the following
schools or courses:
The U.S. Army Bomb Disposal School, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
U.S. Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal School, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida (or
Indian Head, Maryland, prior to spring 1999)
The EOD Assistant's Course, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama
The EOD Assistant's Course, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida
Other DoD-certified course
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USAGE specifically requires that UXO safety officers be graduates of the Army Bomb
Disposal School and/or the Naval EOD School and have at least 10 years of experience in all phases
of UXO remediation and applicable safety standards. Senior UXO supervisors must be graduates of
the same programs and have had at least 15 years of experience in all aspects of UXO remediation
and at least 5 years of experience in a supervisory capacity.102
6.2.8 Assessment Depths
In addition to safeguarding UXO personnel from the hazards from explosives, the DoD
explosives safety standard also mandates protecting the public from MEC hazards. Even at a site that
is thought to be fully remediated, there is no way to know with certainty that every MEC item has
been removed. Therefore, the public must be protected from MEC even after a munitions response
action has been completed. The types and levels of public safeguards will vary with the level of
uncertainty and risk at a site. Public safeguards include property clearance (e.g., depth of response)
to the appropriate depth for planned land uses and enforcement of designated land uses.
ESS approvals rely on the development
of site-specific information to determine , ,
. . . _,. Depths 01 Clearance
response depth requirements. The response
depth selected for response actions is
determined using site-specific information such
as the following:
EPA/DoD Management Principles on Standards for
In the absence of site-specific data, a table of
assessment depths is used for interim planning
purposes until the site-specific information is
developed.
Site-specific data are necessary to determine the
actual depth of clearance.
Geophysical characteristics
such as bedrock depth and frost
line (see Chapters 3 and 7 and
text box on the next page).
Estimated MEC depth based on surface detection and intrusive sampling.
In the absence of sampling data, information about the maximum depth of ordnance
used on-site based on maximum penetration source documents.
Actual planned land use that may require deeper excavation than the default clearance
depths (e.g., a commercial or industrial building with foundations deeper than 10
feet).
Remediation response depth a minimum of 4 feet below the excavation depth planned
for construction (DDESB requirement).
Presence of cultural or natural resources (e.g., potential risk to soil biota or
archeologically sensitive areas)
Other factors that affect the munitions response depth include the size of the range, the cost
of the munition response (depends on many variables, including range size and terrain), and the
practicality of finding and excavating all of the MEC. 103
lmOrdnance and Explosives Response: Engineering and Design, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, EP 1110-1-18,
April 24, 2000.
103 Attachment 1 at the conclusion of this chapter contains a table that has historically been part of the DDESB
standard in Chapter 12. This table provided assessment depths to be used for planning purposes when site-specific
information is not available. It is provided to the reader for historical reference.
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Frost Line and Erosion
The ultimate removal depth must considerthe frost line
of the site and the potential for erosion. A phenomenon
known as frost heave can move ordnance to the
surface during the freeze and thaw cycles. If ordnance
is not cleared to the frost line depth, or if the site
conditions indicate erosion potential (such as in
agricultural areas), a procedure must be put in place to
monitor the site for migration of ordnance. (See
Chapter 3, Section 3.3.3, for more information on this
topic.)
If MEC detection capabilities are not
sensitive enough or funds are not available to
remove MEC to the depth needed to meet site
specific response requirements, then the
proposed land use must be changed so that risks
to human health and the environment are
managed appropriately. Site records should
include information concerning the depth to
which MEC was removed, the process by
which that depth was determined, and notice of
the risks to safety if the end land use is
violated.
6.2.9 Land Use Controls
Land use controls include institutional
controls (e.g., legal or governmental), site access
(e.g., fences), and engineering controls (e.g.,
caps over contaminated areas) that separate
people from potential hazards. They are designed
to reduce ordnance and explosive risk over the
long term without physically removing all of the
MEC. Land use controls are necessary at many
sites because of the technical limitations and
prohibitive costs of adequately conducting
munitions responses to allow for certain end uses, particularly unrestricted use (see text box).
The DoD explosives safety standard specifically addresses a requirement for institutional
controls when MEC contamination has been or may still be on the site: "Property transfer records
shall detail past munition and explosive contamination and decontamination efforts; provide requisite
residual contamination information; and advise the user not to excavate or drill in a residual
contamination area without a metal detection survey."104
The appropriate land use control depends on site-specific factors such as proximity to
populations, land use, risk of encountering MEC, community involvement, and site ownership (both
current and future). It is important to coordinate activities with the appropriate Federal, State, local,
and Tribal governments in the development and implementation of land use controls to ensure their
effectiveness even after the response action has been completed (see text box on next page).
The EPA policy "Institutional Controls and Transfer of Real Property under CERCLA Section
120 (h)(3)(A), (B), or (C)" recognizes that although a variety of land use controls may be used to
manage risk at sites, the maintenance of site access and engineering controls depends on institutional
controls. Institutional controls include the governmental and legal management controls that help
ensure that engineering and site access controls are maintained. The Federal agency in charge of a
site has responsibilities beyond implementing the institutional controls. EPA policy requires the
Examples of Land Use Controls
Security fencing or other measures to limit access
Warning signs
Postremoval site control (maintenance and
surveillance)
Land repurchase
Deed restrictions
'""Department of Defense. DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standard, DoD 6055.9-STD, July 1999.
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responsible agency to perform the following activities:
.105
Monitor the institutional controls' effectiveness and integrity.
Report the results of such
monitoring, including notice of
violation or failure of controls, to the
appropriate EPA and/or State
regulator, local or Tribal
government, and designated party or
entity responsible for enforcement.
Enforce the institutional controls
should a violation or failure of the
controls occur.
EPA/DoD Interim Final Management
Principles on Land Use Controls
Land use controls must be clearly defined,
established in coordination with affected
parties, and enforceable.
Land use controls will be considered as part
of the development and evaluation of
response alternatives for a given munitions
response.
DoD will conduct periodic reviews to ensure
the long-term effectiveness of response
actions, including land use controls.
In order to ensure long-term protection of
human health and safety in the presence of potential
explosive hazards, institutional controls must be
enforceable against whomever may gain ownership
or control of the property in the future.
6.3 Managing Explosives Safety
DoD Directive 6055.9 establishes the roles and responsibilities for DDESB and each of the
military components. DDESB oversees implementation of safety standards throughout DoD and may
conduct surveys to identify whether such standards are appropriately implemented. The military
components conduct similar reviews within their respective services. At ranges where investigation,
response action, and real property transfer are the major focus, the implementation of explosives
safety requirements is normally documented in two ways:
Site Safety and Health Plans (SSHPs) describe activities to be taken to comply with
occupational health and safety regulations. SSHPs are often part of a work plan for
investigation and response. Approval of specific SSHPs is typically conducted by the
individual military component responsible for the response action (e.g., Army, Navy,
or Air Force) through their explosives safety organizations. SSHPs and other
components of the work plan are used to incorporate the requirements of 6055.9-STD
into investigation plans. They are not reviewed individually by DDESB.
Explosives Safety Submissions (ESSs) describe the safety considerations of the
planned response actions, including the impact of planned clearance depths on current
and future land use. All DoD ESSs are submitted to and approved by DDESB, as
described in Sections 6.3.2 and 6.3.3.
Many requirements documented in detail in the SSHP are summarized in the ESS.
105U.S. EPA. Institutional Controls and Transfer of Real Property Under CERCLA Section 120 (h)(3)(A), (B),
or (C), Interim Final Guidance, January 2000.
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Explosive Safety Plans (ESPs) describe safety considerations associated with
anomaly disposal, treatment, and storage during investigations. DDESB approval of
such plans is required when locations used for such activities are permanent (more
than 12 months) or recurring.106
6.3.1 Site Safety and Health Plans
SSHPs fulfill detailed requirements for compliance with the occupational safety and health
program requirements of CERCLA, OSHA, and the military components.107'108'109 SSHPs are based
on the premise of limiting the exposure to the minimum amount of MEC and to the fewest personnel
for the shortest possible period of time. Prior to the initiation of on-site investigations, or any design,
construction, or operation and maintenance activities, an SSHP must be prepared and submitted for
review and acceptance for each site task and operation described in the work plan.110 SSHPs are
typically prepared by industrial hygiene personnel at the installation level.111 The SSHP review and
approval processes vary with the type of property (e.g., FUDS, BRAC, active installations), the stage
of the investigation, and the military component responsible. Typically, however, the component's
safety organization will be responsible for the review and approval of SSHPs (see text box on next
page).
The SSHP describes the safety and health procedures, practices, and equipment to be used to
protect personnel from the MEC hazards of each phase of the site activity. The level of detail to be
included in the SSHP should reflect the requirements of the site-specific project, including the level
of complexity and anticipated hazards. Nonintrusive investigation activities such as site visits or pre-
work-plan visits may require abbreviated SSHPs.112 Specific elements to be addressed in the SSHP
include several of those discussed in previous sections, including:
Personnel protective equipment,
Emergency response and contingency planning, and
Employee training.
Other commonly required elements of SSHPs include, but are not limited to:
Employee medical surveillance programs;
Frequency and type of air monitoring, personnel monitoring, and environmental
'^Department of Defense. DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standard, Chapter 10, DoD 6055.9-STD,
October 2004.
'"National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, 40 C.F.R. § 300.430 (b)(6).
108Occupational Safety and Health Administration Standard, 29 C.F.R. § 1910.120 (b)(4), § 1926.65 (b)(4).
lm Ordnance and Explosives Response: Engineering and Design, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, EP 1110-1-18,
April 24, 2000.
lwSafety and Health Requirements, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, EM 385-1-1, September 3, 1996.
111 Safety and Occupational Health Requirements for Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste (HTRW)
Activities, ER 385-1-92, September 1, 2000.
mOrdnance and Explosives Response: Engineering and Design, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, EP 1110-1-18,
April 24, 2000.
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sampling techniques and instrumentation to be used;
Site control measures to limit access; and
Documented standard operating procedures for investigating or remediating MEC.
Implementation of Explosives Safety at the Site Level
Each military component has its own set of specific requirements for work plans and Site Safety and Health Plans
(SSHPs). The nomenclature and organization may vary by component. USAGE requires the following plans in
the implementation of explosives safety requirements. These will not necessarily be separate plans, but may be
subplans of response action work plans.
Explosives Management Plan, regarding the procedures and materials that will be used to manage explosives
at the site, including acquisition, receipt, storage, transportation, and inventory.
Explosives Siting Plan, providing the safety criteria for siting explosives operations at the site. This plan
should provide a description of explosives, storage magazines, including the net explosive weight (NEW) and
quantity-distance (Q-D) criteria, and MRSs, including separation distances and demolition areas, all of which
should be identified on a site map. The footprint of all areas handling explosives also should be identified.
Explosives siting plans should be incorporated into the Q-D section of the ESS.
Site Safety and Health Plan (SSHP), addressing the safety and health hazards of each phase of site activity
and the procedures for their control. The SSHP includes, but is not limited to, the following elements:
Safety and health risk or hazard analysis for each site task identified in the work plan
Employee training assignments
Personal protective equipment program
Medical surveillance requirements
Frequency and type of air monitoring, personnel monitoring, and environmental sampling techniques and
instrumentation to be used
Emergency response plan
Site control program
Sources: Engineering and Design of Ordnance andExplosivesResponse,U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, EM 1110-
1-4009, June 23,2000; and Safety and Health Requirements Manual, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, EM-385-1-1,
Septembers, 1996.
6.3.2 Explosives Safety Submissions for Munitions Response Actions
EPA/DoD Interim Final Management Principles
on Explosives Safety Submissions
Explosives Safety Submissions (ESS), prepared,
submitted, and approved per DDESB
requirements, are required for time-critical
removal actions, non-time-critical removal actions,
and remedial actions involving explosives safety
hazards, particularly UXO.
An Explosives Safety Submission (ESS)
must be completed by those wishing to conduct an
MEC investigation and response action and
approved by appropriate authorities prior to
commencing work (see text box at right).
Although the DDESB oversees the approval
process, the internal approval processes are
slightly different for each military component.
However, all ESSs should be written in
coordination with the DDESB, as well as with
stakeholder, public, and Tribal participation. In
addition, the DDESB's role in approving ESSs is
slightly different, depending on whether it is related to a FUDS project, a BRAC-related project
involving property disposal, or a project at an active facility:
For all DoD-owned facilities, the ESS is prepared at the installation level (either the
INTERIM FINAL
Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-12 May 2005
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active installation or the BRAC facility) and sent through the designated explosives
safety office for initial approval. The role of the explosives safety organization in the
approval chain differs slightly by component.
For FUDS, the initial ESS is prepared by the USAGE district with responsibility for
the site.
The DDESB reviews and gives approval to all ESSs at BRAC facilities and other
closed facilities (i.e., a facility that has been closed by a component but is not part of
the BRAC program).
Final approval of ESSs for closed ranges at active facilities is provided by the
command (e.g., MAJCOM, MACOM, or Maj or Claimant) often in coordination with
the DDESB.
Coordination Prior to Submission of the ESS
ESSs, reviewed by the DDESB, must include a description of public and regulator involvement in the selection of
the response before they are approved. The extent to which involved parties agree with the proposed response action
is important to avoiding unnecessary conflict and delay of the proposed cleanup. This issue has received specific
attention during development of the UXO Interim Final Management Principles.
Source: Interview with DDESB secretariat member.
An ESS is not required for military EOD emergency response actions (on DoD or non-DoD
property); for interim removal actions taken to abate an immediate, extremely high hazard; and for
normal maintenance operations conducted on active ranges. Figure 6-1 outlines the approval
processes for MEC projects under different types of DoD ownership. "Sources and Resources," at
the end of this chapter, lists the location of the various explosives safety offices for each of the
military components.
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Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-13 May 2005
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FUDS projects
AllServices
Army
BRAG or other
closed facilities
AirForce Navy
Closed Ranges at
Active Facilities
AllServices
TheUSATCES
approves ESS and
forwards toDDESB
forfinal approval
TheHostWing,
Installation
Commander,or
specific AF Agency |
prepare ES
Installation,Host I
Wing, agency, or I
Activity prepares |
ESS
(1) If requested by the
Geographic District, or if the
Geographic District isnot an
authorized design centerf or MEC,
the ESS m ay be prepared by the
Huntsvillecenter. Inthiscase,
USAGE Huntsvillewillnot review
the ESS, but will send it on to
USATCES
(2)TheU.S. Army
Engineering and Support
CenterinHuntsvillemay
prepare the ESS as an agent
of the BRAC office, attheir
request.
lnstallation(or
other
organization)
provides ESSto
component
explosivessafety
off
ce.
ftCOM,MAJCOM,or\
(Major Claim antprov ides)
finalapproval
TheDDESB
reviews and
Vgivesapproval\j
Sources: Personal communication with Clifford H. Doyle, Safety and Occupational Health Manager, USATACES, June 1, 2004
NAVSEA OPS, Ammunition and Explosives Ashore: Safety Regulations for Handling, Storing, Production, Renovation and Shipping, Vol. 1, Rev. 6, Chg. 4.
Air Force Manual 91-201, Explosives Safety Standards, 7 March 2000
Figure 6-1. Routing and Approval of Explosives Safety Submission (ESS) for
Munitions Response Actions
6.3.3 Explosives Safety Submission Requirements
Safety planning involves a thorough assessment of the explosive hazards likely to be
encountered on-site during the investigation and response actions. The potential explosive hazards
must be assessed and documented prior to submitting an explosives safety plan, as outlined in the
next text box.113
113U.S. Army. Explosives Safety Policyfor Real Property Containing Conventional Ordnance andExplosives,
DACS-SF HQDA LTR 385-00-2, June 30, 2000.
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Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-14 May 2005
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Explosives Safety Submission Requirements
Safety plans are submitted at least 60 days prior to the planned response action and typically cover the following
elements:
1. Reason for MEC presence
2. Maps (regional, site, quantity-distance, and soil sampling)
3. Amounts and types of MEC
4. Start date of removal action
5. Frost line depth and provisions for surveillance (if necessary)
6. Clearance techniques (to detect, recover, and destroy MEC)
7. Alternate techniques (to destroy MEC on-site if detonation is not used)
8. Q-D criteria (MRAs, magazines, demolition areas, "footprint" areas)
9. Off-site disposal (method and transportation precautions, if necessary)
10. Technical support
11. Land use restrictions and other institutional controls
12. Public involvement
13. After-action report (list MEC found by type, location, and depth)
14. Amendments and corrections to submission
The ESS often includes information obtained in preliminary studies, historical research,
previous MEC sampling reports, and SSHPs. Specific information required in the submission
includes the following:
Quantity-distance (Q-D) maps describing the location of MEC, storage magazines,
and demolition areas
Soil sampling maps for explosives-contaminated soils
The amounts and types of MEC expected based on historical research and site
sampling
Planned techniques to detect, recover, and destroy MEC114
The amount and type of MEC expected in each MRS is identified in the ESS. The submission
must specify the most probable munition likely to be present. The most probable munition is the
round with the greatest fragmentation distance that is anticipated to be found in any particular MRS.
The ESS also identifies explosives-contaminated soils, which are expressed as the maximum credible
event (established by multiplying the concentration of explosives times the weight of the explosives-
contaminated soil). These data are input into formulas for establishing the damage or injury potential
of the MEC on-site. See the text box in Section 6.2.3 on Q-D requirements for additional information
about the use of these data in the ESS.
6.3.4 Explosives Safety Plans
An Explosive Safety Plan (ESP) is another document through which the components and
DDESB implement the 6055.9-STD at ammunition and explosive locations. Such plans are required
to be prepared with regard to the siting of locations used for the treatment or disposal of MEC (e.g.,
open burn or open detonation), prior to disposal. These plans must be approved by DDESB when
luExplosives Safety Submissions for Removal of Ordnance and Explosives (OE) from Real Property, Guidance
for Clearance Plans, DDESB-KO, February 27, 1998.
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Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-15 May 2005
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they are either permanent locations (in use more than 12 months) or in recurrent use (periodic use,
regardless of the duration of the operation). Plans for temporary operations or those for which
advanced planning and approval is impracticable are approved by the applicable commander.115
General requirements for Explosive Safety Plans include, but are not limited to:
Description of the use of the location;
Maps;
Quantity distance areas and all activities;
Facilities and infrastructure potentially impacted by the location;
Design procedures for engineering protections that DDESB has not already approved;
Information on the type and arrangement of explosives operations or chemical
processing equipment; and
A topography map with contours.
When chemical agents are involved, a variety of specific information such as personnel
protective clothing and equipment, wind direction and speed, warming and detection systems; and
other requirements related to chemical safety.
6.4 Public Education About UXO Safety
Public education is an important component of managing explosive hazards and their potential
impacts on human health and safety. At some sites, such as at Naval Air Station Adak in Alaska, it
is technically and economically impossible to remove all of the MEC littered throughout the island.
In such a situation, educating the public about hazards posed by MEC is a necessity in protecting the
public. Also, at other, less contaminated sites where cleared areas are being opened to the public but
where a small number of UXO items may remain, public education is also necessary in the event that
someone encounters a previously undetected UXO item. A discussion of the highly successful public
education program at NAS Adak is presented in the following text box.
"'Department of Defense. DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standard, DoD 6055.9-STD, rev. 5, June
2004.
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Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-16 May 2005
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Adak Island, Alaska
The northern half of Adak Island was used by the Army Air Corps and then the Navy for over 50 years, resulting
in UXO and MEC materials in and around the former range areas. Some portions of the property have been made
suitable for transfer while others have been/are being retained by the Navy because of the presence of known
ordnance. The parcels of land that are being transferred to local commercial interests may still contain isolated MEC
in developed and undeveloped portions of the property. The Reuse Safety Plan stipulates permitted land use
activities and regulatory, legal, and educational requirements to ensure the safety of residents (both current and
future) and visitors to the island.
Historically, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), which now owns the land, implemented a comprehen-
sive program to provide education about ordnance to visitors to Adak. This program, along with other institutional
controls, has resulted in a very low number of ordnance-related injuries on Adak Island over the past 50 years.
The islandwide ordnance education program now includes several approaches:
Ordnance safety videos are shown to new visitors or future residents before they are allowed to work or reside
on the island. The videos cover the following topics:
Dig permit requirements
MEC identification
Safety requirements for construction personnel
Geophysical screening
Locations of UXO sites and clearance activities
Ordnance descriptions
Safety protocols
Access restrictions and warning signs
Emergency procedures
An ordnance education program is incorporated into the educational system at the lower grades to educate
and protect local children.
The Adak On-line Safety Program was developed by the Navy to assist in the annual ordnance safety certifi-
cation process for residents and visitors. The program includes a description of the types of ordnance hazards
that may potentially exist, an automated dig permit application, an on-line graphic glossary of historical ord-
nance locations and schematics of the most commonly found ordnance types, emergency procedures, and a
database to record the training records of everyone who has taken the on-line training.
Deed restrictions ensure that future purchasers of property are aware of potential contamination on the
property.
Signage for restricted and nonrestricted property is posted at entrances and exits and at specified intervals along
the perimeter.
Education about the hazards associated with MEC should be available to everyone in the
community, with special attention paid to those who reside, work, and play at or near affected areas.
Public education should be directed at both the adults and children of the community and should be
reinforced on a regular basis. However, a balance must be found between addressing explosives
safety and alarming the public. The types of information conveyed to the public should include the
fact that any MEC item poses the risk of injury or death to anyone in the vicinity. MEC can be found
anywhere - on the ground surface, or partially or fully buried. MEC can be found in any state - fully
intact or in parts or fragments. An encounter with MEC should be reported immediately - either to
site EOD personnel or, if they are not available, the military provost marshal or the local law
enforcement agency.
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Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-17 May 2005
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Those living, working, or recreating in or near areas thought to contain MEC should be taught
what to do and what not to do in the event of an encounter with MEC, including whom they should
notify. The Navy EOD Technology Division has developed instructions for the public and site
personnel to follow in the event of an encounter with MEC, as described in the following text box.
Instructions for Responding to and Reporting MEC Hazards
1. After identifying the potential presence of MEC, do not move any closer to it. Some types of ordnance have
magnetic or motion-sensitive proximity fuzes that may detonate when they sense a target. Others may have self-
destruct timers built in.
2. Do not transmit any radio frequencies in the vicinity of a suspected MEC hazard. Signals transmitted from
items such as walkie-talkies, short-wave radios, citizens band (CB) radios, cellular phone, or other
communication or navigation devices may detonate the MEC.
3. Do not attempt to remove any object on, attached to, or near a MEC. Some fuzes are motion-sensitive, and the
MEC may explode.
4. Do not move or disturb a MEC because the motion could activate the fuze, causing the MEC to explode.
5. If possible, mark the MEC hazard site with a standard MEC marker or with other suitable materials, such as
engineer's tape, colored cloth, or colored ribbon. Attach the marker to an object so that it is about 3 feet off
the ground and visible from all approaches. Place the marker no closer than the point where you first
recognized the MEC hazard.
6. Leave the MEC hazard area.
7. Report the MEC to the proper authorities.
8. Stay away from areas of known or suspected MEC. This is the best way to prevent accidental injury or death.
REMEMBER: "IF YOU DID NOT DROP IT, DO NOT PICK IT UP!"
6.5 Conclusion
DoD has developed extensive requirements aimed at protecting MEC workers and the public
from explosive hazards. These safeguards include general precautions as well as highly technical
explosives safety and personnel health and safety requirements. Management requirements include
preparing and submitting SSHPs for all MEC investigations and response actions, and ESSs for
munitions removal actions. SSHPs require that protective measures be taken for MEC personnel,
including the development and implementation of emergency response and contingency plans,
personnel training, medical surveillance, and personnel protective equipment programs. The
development of ESSs requires knowledge about the munitions likely to be found on-site and the
devising of plans for separating explosive hazards from potential receptors.
DoD safety guidance also addresses the protection of public health and safety. The DoD
explosives safety standard (6055.9-STD) provides assessment depths to be used for planning
purposes, storage and transport principles, and land use controls, all of which are designed to ensure
long-term protection of human health and safety.
Public health and safety can also be protected by educating the public about explosives safety.
In addition, educating the public about procedures to follow upon encountering MEC will help to
prevent accidents and to give the public control over protecting themselves from explosive hazards.
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Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-18 May 2005
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ATTACHMENT 6.1
ASSESSMENT DEPTHS TO BE USED FOR PLANNING PURPOSES
Planned Land Use
Unrestricted - Commercial, Residential, Utility, Subsurface, Recreational (e.g., camping),
Construction Activity
Public Access - Agricultural, Surface Recreational, Vehicle Parking, Surface Supply Storage
Limited Public Access - Livestock Grazing, Wildlife Preserve
Not Yet Determined
Depth
10ft*
4 ft (1.22m)
1 ft (0.30 m)
Surface
* Assessment planning at construction sites for any projected end use requires looking at the possibility of UXO presence 4 feet below planned
excavation depths.
Source: DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards, DoD Directive 6055.9-STD, Chapter 12, June 2004, rev. 5.
The DDESB is in the process of revising Chapter 12 of DoD 6055.9-STD.
Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization
6-19
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May 2005
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SOURCES AND RESOURCES
The following publications, offices, laboratories, and websites are provided as a guide for
handbook users to obtain additional information about the subject matter addressed in each chapter.
Several of these publications, offices, laboratories, or websites were also used in the development of
this handbook.
Publications
U.S. Department of Defense, Operation and Environmental Executive Steering Committee for
Munitions (OEESCM). Draft Munitions Action Plan: Maintaining Readiness through
Environmental Stewardship and Enhancement of Explosives Safety in the Life Cycle
Management of Munitions. Draft Revision 4.3, Feb. 25, 2000.
U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Management Principles
for Implementing Response Actions at Closed, Transferring, and Transferred (MRSs) Ranges.
Mar. 7, 2000.
Information Sources
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB)
2461 Eisenhower Avenue
Alexandria, VA 22331-0600
Fax:(703) 325-6227
http://www.ddesb.pentagon.mil
Joint UXO Coordination Office (JUXOCO)
10221 BurbeckRoad, Suite 430
Fort Belvoir, VA 22060-5806
Tel: (703) 704-1090
Fax: (703) 704-2074
http://www.denix.osd.mil/UXOCOE
Naval Safety Center, Code 40
375 A Street
Norfolk, VA 23511-4399
Tel: (757) 444-3520
http ://www. safetycenter.navy .mil/
Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division
(NAVEODTECHDIV)
UXO Countermeasures Department, Code 30U
2008 Stump Neck Road
Indian Head, MD 20640-5070
http://www.ih.navy.mil/
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Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-20 May 2005
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Naval Ordnance Environmental Support Office
Naval Ordnance Safety and Security Activity
23 Strauss Avenue, Bldg. D-323
Indian Head, MD 26040
Tel: (301) 744-4450/6752
Ordata II (database of ordnance items)
Available from: NAVEODTECHDIV, Code 602
2008 Stump Neck Road
Indian Head, MD 20640-5070
e-mail: ordata@eodpoe2.navsea.navy.mil
U.S. Air Force Safety Center
HQ AFSC
9700 G Avenue SE
Kirtland AFB, NM 87117-5670
http://www-afsc.saia.af.mil/
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
U.S. Army Engineering and Support Center
Ordnance and Explosives Mandatory Center of Expertise
P.O. Box 1600
4820 University Square
Huntsville, AL 35807-4301
http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil/
U.S. Army Technical Center for Explosives Safety
Attn: SIOAC-ESL, Building 35
1C Tree Road
McAlester, OK 74501-9053
e-mail: sioac-esl@dac-emh2.army.mil
http://www.dac.army.mil/es
Guidance Documents
U.S. Air Force. Civil Engineering - Disposal of Real Property. API 32-9004; July 21, 1994.
U.S. Air Force. Explosive Ordnance Disposal. API 32-3001; Oct. 1, 1999.
U.S. Air Force, Explosive Ordnance Disposal. Directive AFPD 32-30, July 10, 1994.
U.S. Air Force. Inspection, Storage, and Maintenance of Non-Nuclear Munitions. API 21-201;
Dec. 1, 2000.
U.S. Air Force. Non-nuclear Munitions Safety Board API 91-205; July 1, 1998.
U.S. Air Force. Safety: Explosives Safety Standards. Air Force Manual 91-201; Mar. 7, 2000.
U.S. Army, Headquarters, Explosives Safety Policy for Real Property Containing Conventional
Ordnance and Explosives. DACS-SF HQDA LTR 385-00-2, June 30, 2000.
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Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-21 May 2005
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U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Engineering and Design - Ordnance and Explosives Response.
Manual No. 1110-1-4009, June 23, 2000.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Engineering and Design -Safety and Health Aspects ofHTRW
Remediation Technologies. Engineer Manual (EM) 1110-1-4007; Sept. 30, 1999.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineering and Design Ordnance and Explosives Response.
Pamphlet No. 1110-1-18; Apr. 24, 2000.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Safety and Occupational Health Requirements for Hazardous,
Toxic, and Radioactive Waste (HTRW) Activities ER 3 85-1-92; Sept. 1, 2000.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntsville Center. Basic Safety Concepts and Considerations for
Ordnance and Explosives Operations. EP 385-l-95a; June 29, 2001.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntsville Center, Ordnance and Explosives Center of Expertise.
Public Involvement Plan for Ordnance and Explosives Response. Interim Guidance (Draft ETL
1110-1-170); Sept. 15, 1995.
U.S. Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Interservice Responsibilities for Explosive
Ordnance Disposal. Joint Army Regulation 75-14, OPNAVINST 8027.1G, MCO 8027. ID, API
32-3002; Feb. 14, 1992.
U.S. DoD. Defense Transportation Regulation Part II, Cargo Movement. DoD 4500.9-R; May
2003. Website: http://www.transcom.mil/j5/pt/dtr.html.
U.S. DoD (Department of Defense). DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards. DoD
6055.9-STD; July 1999.
U.S. DoD. DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards. DoD 6055.9-STD, Rewrite 4.5;
January 2004.
U.S. DoD. DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards. DoD 6055.9-STD, October 2004.
U.S. DoD. DoD Contractors' Safety Requirements for Ammunition and Explosives. Instruction
4125.26; Apr. 4, 1996 (updated Dec. 6, 1996).
U.S. DoD. DoD Explosives Safety Board (DDESB) and DoD Component Explosives Safety
Responsibilities. Directive 6055.9; July 29, 1996.
U.S. DoD. Environmental and Explosives Safety Management on Department of Defense Active
and Inactive Ranges Within the United States. Directive 4715.11; Aug. 17, 1999.
U.S. DoD Explosives Safety Board. Changes to Department of Defense Ammunition and
Explosives Hazard Classification Procedures. DDESB-KT, July 25, 2001.
U.S. DoD Explosives Safety Board, DDESB-KO. Guidance for Clearance Plans. Feb. 27, 1998.
U.S. EPA, Institutional Controls and Transfer of Real Property Under CERCLA Section
120(h)(3)(A), (B) or (C). Feb. 2000.
U.S. Marine Corps. Ammunition and Explosives Safety Policies, Programs, Requirements, and
Procedures for Class V Material Directive 8020.1; Oct. 18, 1995.
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Chapter 6. Site/Range Characterization 6-22 May 2005
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U.S. Marine Corps. Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Program. Directive 3571.2F; Aug. 18,
1990.
U.S. Navy. Department of the Navy Explosives Safety Policy. Instruction 8020.14; Oct. 1, 1999.
U.S. Navy. Procedures for Conducting Ammunition and Hazardous Materials (Amhaz)
Handling Review Boards Instruction 8023.13F; Mar. 6, 1985.
U.S. Navy. Naval Responsibilities for Explosive Ordnance Disposal. Instruction 8027.6E; June
1994.
U.S. Navy. Navy Munitions Disposition Policy. Instruction 8026.2A; June 15, 2000.
U.S. Navy. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Hazardous Waste Management
Requirements to Conventional Explosive Ordnance Operations. Navy Memorandum 93-20,
Nov. 10, 1993.
U.S. Navy, U.S. Navy Explosives Safety Policies, Requirements, and Procedures, Explosives
Safety Policy Manual OPNAV Instruction 8023.2C.; Jan. 29, 1986.
U.S. Navy, Ammunition and Explosives Ashore: Safety Regulations for Handling, Storing,
Production, Renovation and Shipping. NAVSEA, OP 5, Vol. 1, Rev. 6, Chg. 4; Mar., 1999.
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7.0 PLANNING MUNITIONS RESPONSE INVESTIGATIONS
Characterizing MEC contamination is a challenging process that requires specialized
investigative techniques. Unlike traditional hazardous waste contamination, MEC may not be
distributed in a predictable manner; MEC contamination is not contiguous, and every ordnance item
and fragment is discrete. The use of existing technologies by investigators to detect anomalies, and
find the ordnance, and then discriminate between UXO, fragments of exploded ordnance, and
background levels of ferrous materials in soils may be technically challenging or infeasible. Locating
buried munitions whose burial may not have been well documented can also be difficult. The
technical and cost issues become even more daunting when the large land areas associated with many
ranges (potentially tens of thousands of acres), as well as other range characteristics, such as heavy
vegetation or rock strata and soils, are considered. Some level of uncertainty is expected for any
subsurface environmental investigation; however, the consequences of potential uncertainties related
to munitions response investigations (e.g., accidental explosion resulting in possible death or
dismemberment) elevate the level of public and regulatory concern.
The purpose of this chapter is to outline
an approach to planning a munitions response
investigation using a systematic planning
process and to identify the choices you will
make to tailor the investigation to your site.
Specifically, this chapter is designed to:
Present an overview of the elements
and issues associated with sampling
and the systematic planning process
(SPP).
Discuss development of the goals of
the investigation.
Help you prepare for the investi-
gation: gathering information, pre-
paring the conceptual site model,
and establishing data quality
objectives.
Chapter 8 continues the discussion of the
planning process, focusing on considerations in
the development of investigation and response
strategies that will meet the goals and obj ectives
for the site.
What Is the Systematic Planning Process?
"Systematic planning" is a generic term used to
describe a logic-based scientific process for planning
environmental investigations and other activities. EPA
developed a systematic planning process called the
Data Quality Objectives Process and published a
document called Guidance for the Data Quality
Objectives (DQO) Process (EPA/600/R-96/055,1996).
While not mandatory, this seven-step process is
recommended for many EPA data collection activities.
The planning processes used by other Federal agencies
do not necessarily follow the seven steps of the DQO
process. For example, using different terminology, but
a similar systematic planning process, the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers adopted a four-step Technical
Project Planning Process to implement systematic
planning for cleanup activities. Confusion is caused by
the different names applied to similar processes used
by different Federal agencies and departments.
Therefore, EPA is moving toward a more general
descriptor of this important process that can be used to
describe a number of different systematic planning
processes. (EPA Order, "Policy and Program Require-
ments for the Mandatory Quality System" (5360.1 A2,
May 2000).
Neither Chapter 7 nor Chapter 8 focuses on the investigation of munitions constituents except
where there are issues unique to such constituents that should be addressed. Except for unique issues
associated with munitions constituents such an investigation would be similar to the investigation of
other hazardous wastes, and the numerous guidance documents that have been written on the
investigation of hazardous wastes would apply. (See "Sources and Resources" at the end of this
chapter for guidance on conducting hazardous waste investigations.) Instead, this chapter addresses
site investigations of MEC, which generally consists of one of three types of waste products:
Chapter 7. Planning Munitions
Response Investigations
7-1
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May 2005
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Munitions that have not exploded, including UXO (e.g., duds) or buried or otherwise
discarded munitions, including bulk explosives
Ordnance fragments from exploded munitions that may retain residues of sufficient
quantity and type to be explosive
Concentrations of reactive and/or ignitable materials in soil (e.g., munitions constituents
in soil from partly exploded, i.e., low-order detonation, or corroded munitions items that
are present in sufficient quantity and weight to pose explosive hazards)
7.1 Overview of Elements of Site Characterization
An effective strategy for site characterization uses a variety of tools and techniques to locate
and excavate MEC and to ensure understanding of uncertainties that may remain. The selection and
effective deployment of these tools and techniques for the particular investigation will be determined
through the systematic planning process. The following steps are included in a typical investigation:
Use of historical information to:
Identify what types of ordnance were used at the facility and where they were used
Identify areas of the facility where there is no evidence of ordnance use, thereby
reducing the size of the area to be investigated
Prioritize the investigation in terms of likelihood of ordnance presence, type of
ordnance used, potential hazard of ordnance, public access to the area, and planned
end uses
Consider the need to address explosives safety issues prior to initiating the
investigation
Visual inspection of range areas to be investigated, and surface response actions to
facilitate investigation
Selection of appropriate geophysical system(s) and determination of site-specific
performance of the selected geophysical detection system
Establishment and verification of measurement quality objectives in the sampling and
analysis methodologies (QA/QC measurements)
Geophysical survey of areas of concern (i.e., areas likely to be contaminated)
Analysis of geophysical survey data to identify metallic anomalies, and possibly to help
discriminate between MEC, ordnance fragments, and non-MEC-related metal waste, and
QA/QC of that analysis
Anomaly reacquisition and excavation to identify the sources of the geophysical
anomalies, to verify geophysical mapping results, and to gather data on the nature and
extent of MEC contamination
Analysis of investigation results to test assumptions and set priorities for future work
Some of the particular challenges and issues to consider in using these tools include the
following:
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Finding adequate and reliable historical information on the former uses of ranges and the
types of munitions likely to be found
Matching the particular detection technology to the type of UXO expected and to the
geology, vegetation, and the topography of the range
Confirming the field detection data
Establishing a clear understanding of the nature and extent of UXO contamination and
resulting uncertainty
Performing the investigation in stages that refine its focus in order to ensure that the data
collected are appropriate to the decision required
Optimizing available resources
There is no single solution for resolving the challenges of a MRS characterization, but the
starting place for every investigation is to establish the decisions to be made and the resulting goal(s)
of the investigation.
7.2 Overview of Systematic Planning
As with any environmental investi-
gation, designing the range investigation and
judiciously applying investigative tools must
take place in the context of a systematic
planning process (Figure 7-1). The process
starts with identifying the decision goals of the
project. Available information is then used to
identify data requirements that support the
decision goals and to define the objectives of
the investigation. Finally, the sampling strategy
of the investigation is tailored to ensure that the
data gathered are of appropriate quantity and
quality to support the decision goals. Each stage
of the systematic planning process is carefully
refined by the succeeding stages. Figure 7-1
outlines how the systematic planning process is
used to design the investigation to meet the
requirements of the project.
Although the figure outlines an
apparently sequential process, in practice, the
process involves a number of concurrent steps
and iterative decisions.
The steps you will take to plan and carry
out your investigation will be similar regardless
of which regulatory program governs the
investigation (e.g., removal or remedial action
under CERCLA or investigations performed
under RCRA). The significance and complexity
of any particular step will depend on your
Establish team to direct
project.
Identify decisions that
will be made as a result
of investigation.
Develop conceptual
site model (CSM) and
preliminary remediation
goals (PRGs).
Gather existing
information.
Identify uncertainties.
Determine required
additional information.
Identify project
schedule, resources,
milestones, and
regulatory
requirements.
Identify remedial
objectives.
Identify data quality
objectives.
Determine how, when,
and where data will be
collected.
Determine quantity of
data needed and
specific performance
criteria.
Specify QA/QC
activities.
Figure 7-1. Systematic Planning Process
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decision goals, the data quality objectives (DQOs), and a variety of site-specific conditions.
The purpose of any investigation is to obtain enough information to make the decisions that
were identified as decision goals of the investigation. It is important, however, that you understand
the uncertainty associated with the available data on the presence, absence, or types of MEC so that
decisions you make are not based on erroneous assumptions. For example, using limited sampling
data to estimate the density of UXO may be sufficient to estimate the cost of a response to a 2-foot
depth. On the other hand, a higher level of certainty will be required when the decision goal is a no-
action decision and the planned land use is unrestricted.
As with any environmental investigation, you will want to collect data in appropriate stages
and be prepared to make changes in the field. Some kinds of information may not be needed if the
initial information you collect answers basic questions. In addition, as you collect data, you may find
that your initial hypotheses about the site were not correct. New information may cause your
investigation to go in different directions. Anticipating field conditions that may potentially modify
your investigation, and planning and articulating the decision rules that can lead to such changes, will
foster cooperation among your project team, the DoD investigators, the regulators, and the public.
7.3 Stage 1: Establishing the Goal(s) of the Investigation
The goal of the investigation is to obtain the information required to make site-specific
decisions. Therefore, the stated goal will reflect the final decision goal (e.g., action or no-action
decision). As used in the discussion that follows, the goals of the investigation differ from the
objectives of the investigation. The objectives are the specific data needs for achieving the goals.
Establishing the goals of the investigation requires two key steps. The first step involves
selecting an appropriate project team to guide the investigation. The second step is to identify the
decisions that will be made at the conclusion of the site characterization process. Both elements will
guide the remaining steps of the investigation process.
7.3.1 Establishing the Team
To be scientifically based, the investigation must be planned and managed by those people
who will use the data to make decisions. This approach ensures that all of the data needed for
decision making are acquired at an appropriate level of quality for the decision. The project team
generally includes an experienced project manager, MEC personnel, data processing experts,
chemists, geophysicists, a logistics coordinator, health and safety personnel, natural/cultural resource
experts, and regulatory personnel from the appropriate Federal, State, Tribal, and local regulatory
agencies. Involving all of the potential end users in the planning process also has other important
outcomes:
Common understanding among all of the parties of how the data will be used
Subsequent review of work plans, with a clear understanding of the decision goals in
mind, will result in comments targeted to the agreed-upon goals of the investigation, not
unspoken assumptions about those goals.
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Minimization of rework If all of the decision makers and data users are involved
from the beginning of the study, the study design will be more likely to include obj ectives
that clearly relate to the goals, and the various investigative tools will be targeted
appropriately.
A team-based approach can expedite the process of making decisions and, ultimately, of
reaching project goals. By definition, this consensus-oriented approach allows all team members to
have input into the project goals, as well as to identify the information needed and methods to be
employed to achieve the goals. Further, with this approach, the outcome of the project is more likely
to be accepted by all parties later, resulting in a more efficient and less contentious decision-making
process.
It may also be important to include non-DoD landowners of munitions response areas
(MRAs), and other stakeholders with contributions to make to the planning process. This inclusion
can either be as a member of the team or through various public involvement mechanisms.
7.3.2 Establishing the Goals of the Site Characterization Process
Establishing the decision goals of the project will ultimately determine the amount of
uncertainty to be tolerated, the area to be investigated, and the level of investigation required. The
following are examples of decision goals:
Confirm that a land area has or has not been used for munitions related activity in the
past.
Prioritize one or more MRS for response.
Conduct a limited surface clearance effort to provide for immediate protection of nearby
human activity.
Identify if response action will be required on the MRS under investigation (to decide if
there is a potential hazard, and to make an action/no-action decision).
Identify the appropriate clearance depths and select appropriate removal technologies for
the MRS under investigation.
Transfer clean property for community use.
A particular investigation may address one or several decision goals, depending on the scope
of the project.
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Conducting Investigations in Phases
Most range investigations take place in phases. The first phase of the process involves determining what areas are
to be investigated. The range is divided into MRAs using a variety of factors, including, but not limited to, evidence
of past ordnance use and safety factors, cost/prioritization issues, and characteristics of the areas to be investigated.
The individual munitions response activities also often proceed in stages. Prior to detailed subsurface investigation,
a surface removal action is usually conducted to ensure that the property is "safe" for the subsurface investigations.
The subsurface investigations themselves often take place in stages. The first is a nonintrusive stage that uses
geophysical detection equipment designed to detect subsurface anomalies. Generally, positional data are collected
as the geophysical survey is being conducted. The second stage involves processing of data to co-locate geophysical
data with geographic positional data and analyzing the resulting data set to identify and locate geophysical
anomalies that may be MEC. The third stage, called anomaly reacquisition, is designed to verify the location of
anomalies. Finally, anomaly excavation is conducted, and the results are fed back into the anomaly identification
process. Anomaly excavation includes a verification of clearance using geophysical detectors.
7.4 Stage 2: Preparing for the Investigation: Gathering Information To Design a
Conceptual Site Model and Establishing Sampling and Analysis Objectives
Once the decision goals of the investigation are identified, five steps provide the foundation
for designing the sampling and analysis plan that will provide the information required to achieve the
desired decision. These five steps result in the project objectives:
Developing a working hypothesis of the sources, pathways, and receptors at the site
(conceptual site model, or CSM) and their locations on the site
Developing preliminary remediation goals (PRGs)
Comparing known information to the CSM, and identifying information needs
Identifying project constraints (schedules, resources, milestones, and regulatory
requirements)
Identifying remedial objectives
These steps are iterative, so both the PRGs and the CSM will likely change as more
information is gathered. Documentation of the CSM is explained at the conclusion of this section.
7.4.1 The Conceptual Site Model (CSM)
The CSM establishes a working hypothesis of the nature and extent of MEC contamination
and the likely pathways of exposure to current and future human and ecological receptors. A good
CSM is used to guide the investigation at the site. The initial CSM is created once project decision
goals are defined and historical information on range use and the results of previous environmental
investigations are gathered. It then continues to evolve as new data about the site are collected. In
other words, as information is gathered at each stage of the site characterization process, the new data
are used to review initial hypotheses and revise the CSM. The CSM describes the site and its
environmental setting, and presents hypotheses about the types of contaminants, their routes of
migration, and potential receptors and exposures routes. Key pieces of initial data to be recorded in
the CSM include, but are not limited to:
The topography and vegetative cover of various land areas
Past munitions-related activities (e.g., munitions handling, weapons training, munitions
disposal) and the potential releases that may be associated with these activities (e.g.,
buried munitions, dud-fired UXO, kick-outs from OB/OD areas)
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Expected locations and the depth and extent of contamination (based on the MEC
activities)
Likely key contaminants of concern
Potential exposure pathways to human and ecological receptors (including threatened and
endangered species)
Environmental factors such as frost line, erosion activity, and the groundwater and surface
water flows that influence or have the potential to change pathways to receptors
Human factors that influence pathways to receptors, such as unauthorized transport of
MEC
Location of cultural or archeological resources
The current, future, and surrounding land uses
7.4.2 Assessment of Currently Available Information To Determine Data Needs
The site-specific objectives of the investigation are ultimately based on acquiring missing
information that is needed to make the required decision. In order to establish the objectives of the
investigation, it is necessary to first identify what is known (and unknown) about the MRS. Your
investigation will focus on what is not known, and key questions will improve your understanding
of the elements of the risk management decision that is to be made (such as explosive potential of the
ordnance, pathways of exposure, and likelihood of exposure), and the costs, effectiveness, and risks
associated with remediation. The following are typical questions with which you will be concerned:
What types of ordnance were used on the range?
What are the likely range boundaries?
Is there evidence of any underground burial pits possibly containing MEC on the site?
At what depth is the MEC likely to be located?
What are the environmental factors that affect both the location and potential corrosion
of MEC?
Is there explosive residue in the soil?
Is there explosive residue in ordnance fragments?
7.4.2.1 Historical Information on Range Use and Munition Types
Historical data are an important element
in effectively planning site characterization.
Because many ranges and other ordnance-
related sites have not been used in years, and
because many ranges encompass thousands of
acres of potentially contaminated land, historical
information is critically important in focusing
the investigation.
Historical information can be obtained
from many sources, including old maps, aerial
photographs, satellite imagery, interviews with
former or current personnel, records of military
operations, archives of range histories and types
of munitions used, and records from old ammunition supply points, storage facilities, and disposal
Sources of Historical Data
National Archives
U.S. Center of Military History
History offices of DoD components such as the
Naval Facilities Command Historian's Office and
the Air Force Historical Research Agency
Repositories of individual service mishap reports
Smithsonian Historical Information and Research
Center
Real estate documents
Historical photos, maps, and drawings
Interviews with base personnel
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areas. Historical information is important to determining the presence of MEC, the likely type of
ordnance present at the MRA/MRS, the density of the ordnance, and the likely location (both
horizontal and vertical) of the ordnance. (See "Sources and Resources" at the end of this chapter.)
Munition Burial Pits
Underground munitions burial pits present unique
challenges to a site characterization. Frequently, the
existence of burial pits is not known; if they are known
to exist, their exact locations may not be known. Many
munitions burial pits are so old that records do not exist
and individuals who were aware of their existence at
one time are no longer alive. An example of an old
munitions burial pit is the Washington, DC, Army
Munitions Site at Spring Valley. This site was last used
for military purposes during World War I and was
developed as residential housing beginning in the
1920s. In 1993, MEC was found, and removal and
remedial actions were performed. However, in 1999,
an additional cache of ordnance was found adjacent to
a university on the former installation, necessitating
emergency removal actions.
Historical information is important for
assessing the types of munitions likely to be
found on the range, their age, and the nature of
the explosive risk. Potential sources of this
information include ammunition storage
records, firing orders, and EOD and local law
enforcement reports. This information can be
used to select the appropriate detection tools and
data processing programs to be used during the
characterization, as well as to establish safety
procedures and boundaries based on anticipated
explosive sensitivity and blast potential.
Historical information based on past UXO and
scrap finds may provide data about the type,
size, and shape of the munitions items on the
range, which could simplify MEC identification
and clarify safety requirements during the
detection phase. Such historical data could help
investigators plan for the potential explosive hazards (e.g., thermal, blast overpressure, or
fragmentation grenades, or shock hazards), which will dictate separation distance requirements for
excavation sites, open detonation areas, and surrounding buildings; public traffic routes; and other
areas to be protected.
Historical information is also necessary for estimating the probable locations of MEC in the
MRA under investigation. This information will affect the phasing of the investigation, the technical
approach to detection and discrimination of anomalies, the extent of sampling required, the cost of
remediation, and the safety plan and procedures used. There may be some areas where, given the site
conditions, extent, or type of UXO present, physical entry onto the site or intrusive investigations will
be too dangerous. In some cases the suspected amount of UXO at the MRS will lead to a decision to
not clear the area because of the high number of short-term risks.
Historical information is needed in order to estimate the location of potential MEC
contamination, both to focus the investigation (and identify likely MRS) and to reduce the footprint
of potential MEC contamination by eliminating clean areas from the investigation. Identifying areas
of potential MEC contamination may be more difficult than is at first apparent. For decades, many
facilities have served a number of different training purposes. Although an impact area for a bombing
range may be obvious, the boundaries of that area (including where bombs may have accidentally
dropped) are often not clear. In addition, land uses on military bases change, just as they do in
civilian communities around the country. Training activities using munitions may have taken place
in any number of locations. In some cases, land uses will change and a building or a recreational area,
such as a golf course, will be built over an MRS. In many cases ranges were closed shortly after
World War II, thus giving ample time for forests and other vegetative regrowth to obscure pastures.
Finally, munitions may have been buried at various locations on the base, sometimes in small
quantities, without the knowledge or approval of the base commanders.
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While historical information is more likely to be used to determine the presence (as opposed
to the absence) of MEC, comprehensive and reliable historical information may make it possible to
reduce the area to be investigated or to eliminate areas from munitions response investigation. Early
elimination of clean areas on bases where a lot of range-related training activity took place may
require a higher degree of certainty than on bases where there was no known ordnance-related
training activity. For example, an isolated forested wetland might be eliminated from further
investigation under certain circumstances. This might be possible if an archives search report
indicates the area was never used for training or testing, it was never accessible by vehicle, and these
assumptions can be documented through a series of aerial photographs, beginning at the time the
base was acquired by the military through the time of base closure. Alternatively, potential MRAs
on bases with a history of a variety of ordnance-related training activities, and large amounts of
undocumented open space (or forested lands), may be more difficult to eliminate.
Historical data are often incorporated into an archives search report, a historical records
search report, or an inventory project report, management tools that are often compiled by MEC
experts. These reports incorporate all types of documents, such as memoranda, letters, manuals, aerial
photos, real estate documents, and so forth, from many sources. After an analysis of the collected
information and an on-site visit by technical personnel, a map is produced that shows all known or
suspected MRSs on the site at the location.
7.4.2.2 Geophysical and Environmental Information
Depending on the level of detail required for the investigation, additional information
might be gathered, such as:
Results of previous investigations that may have identified both UXO and explosives-
contaminated soil.
Geological data that affect the movement (and therefore location) of UXO, the
potential corrosion of MEC containers/casings, and the ability of detection equipment
to locate UXO.
Information about geological conditions that will affect the movement, location, detection,
and potential deterioration of ordnance and nonordnance explosives may be available on-site from
previous environmental investigations (e.g., investigations conducted on behalf of the Installation
Restoration Program). The significance of this information is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3.
A limited list of specific types of information that may be important (depending on the
purpose of the investigation) is provided in Table 7-1. Some of the information may be so critical to
the planning of the investigation that it should be obtained during the planning phase and prior to the
more detailed investigation. Other information will be more challenging to gather, such as depth and
flow direction of groundwater. If the necessary information is not available from previous
investigations, it will likely be an important aspect of the MRA investigation.
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Table 7-1. Potential Information for Munitions Response Investigation
Information
Background levels of ferrous
metals
Location of bedrock
Location of frost line
Soil type and moisture content
Depth and movement of
groundwater
Location of surface water,
floodplains, and wetlands
Depth of sediments
Topography and vegetative cover
Location of current land
population
Current use of range and
surrounding land areas
Information on future land use
plans
Purpose for Which Information Will Be Used
Selection of detection technology. Potential interference with detection
technologies, such as magnetometers.
Potential depth of MEC and difficulties associated with investigation.
Location of MEC. Frost heave potential to move MEC from anticipated
depth.
Penetration depth of MEC. Reliability of geophysical detection. Potential
for deterioration/corrosion of casings. Potential for release of munitions
constituents.
Potential for movement of MEC and for deterioration/corrosion of
containment. Potential for leaching of munition residues.
Potential location of explosive material. Potential pathway to human
receptors; potential for movement of MEC and for deterioration/corrosion
of munition casings; potential leaching of munition residues; selection of
detection methods.
MEC located in wetlands or under water. Location, leaching, and corrosion
of MEC; selection of detection methods.
Potential difficulties in investigation, areas where clearance may be
required. Selection of potential detection technologies.
Potential for exposure.
Potential for exposure.
Potential for exposure.
7.4.3 Key Components of Munitions-Related CSMs
7.4.3.1 Developing the CSM
The ability to develop a good working hypothesis of the sources and potential releases
associated with MEC will depend on your understanding the munitions-related activities that took
place on the land area to be investigated, the primary sources of MEC contamination, the associated
release mechanisms, and the expected MEC contamination. Tables 7-2 and 7-3 summarize these
characteristics for typically expected ordnance-related activities. Table 7-4 describes the elements
of the firing range that should be located on your CSM.
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Table 7-2. Munitions-Related Activities and Associated
Primary Sources and Release Mechanisms
Munitions-Related Activity
Munitions storage and
transfer
Weapons training
Troop training
Munitions disposal
Primary Source
Ammunition pier
Storage magazine
Ammunition transfer point
Firing points
Target/impact areas
Aerial bombing targets
Range safety fans
Training/maneuver areas
Bivouac areas
Open burn/open detonation
areas
Large-scale burials
Release Mechanisms
Mishandling/loss (usually into water)
Mishandling/loss, abandonment, burial
Mishandling/loss, abandonment, burial
Mishandling/loss, abandonment, burial
Firing
Dropping
Firing, dropping
Firing, intentional placement (minefields),
mishandling/loss, abandonment, burial
Mishandling/loss, abandonment, burial
Kick-outs, low-order detonations
Burial
Table 7-3. Release Mechanisms and Expected MEC Contamination
Release Mechanism
Mishandling or loss
Abandonment
Burial
Firing or dropping - complete detonation
Firing or dropping - incomplete detonation
Firing or dropping - dud fired
Intentional placement
Kick-outs
Low-order detonations
Expected MEC Contamination
Fuzed or unfuzed ordnance, possibly retrograde, bulk MEC, MC
MEC debris (fragmentation), munitions
MEC debris (fragmentation), pieces of MEC, MC
UXO
Mines (usually training), booby traps
MEC debris, munitions components, UXO
MEC debris (fragmentation), pieces of MEC, MC
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Table 7-4. Example of CSM Elements for Firing Range
Range Configuration
Range fan
Target or impact area
Firing points
Buffer zone
Description
The entire range, including
firing points, target areas, and
buffer areas
The point(s) on the range to
which the munitions fired
were directed
The area from which the
munitions were fired
Area outside of the target or
impact area that was designed
to be free of human activity
and act as a safety zone for
munitions that do not hit
targets
MEC Concerns
All of those listed below, depending upon area
Dud-fired UXO, low-order detonations with
munition fragments and containing munitions
constituents that may be reactive or ignitable;
munitions constituents
Munitions constituents from propellants; buried
or abandoned munitions.
Same as target or impact area, but likely much
lower density of UXO and, therefore,
munitions constituents
The same process is used to develop the CSM for explosives and ordnance manufacturing
areas. Tables 7-5 and Table 7-6 illustrate the types of munitions-related activities, sources and
releases associated with explosives and ordnance manufacturing.
Table 7-5. Munitions-Related Activities and Associated Primary Sources and Release
Mechanisms for Explosives and Munitions Manufacturing
Munitions-Related Activity
Explosives manufacturing
(e.g., TNT)
Munitions manufacturing
(load, assemble, and pack)
Primary Source
Manufacturing areas
Storage areas
Transfer areas
Burning and associated
disposal areas
Burial areas
Loading areas
Storage areas
Test ranges
Disposal areas
Release Mechanisms
Spillage, mishandling, routing of effluent
Mishandling, abandonment, or loss
Mishandling, abandonment, or loss
Incomplete burning and associated leaching
Burial
Spillage or mishandling
Spillage, and mishandling, abandonment, or loss
See Table 7-2
See Table 7-2
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Table 7-6. Release Mechanisms and Expected MEC Contamination
for Munitions Manufacturing
Primary Source
Explosives
manufacturing areas
Explosives storage
areas
Explosives transfer
areas
Explosives burning
and associated
disposal areas
Explosives burial
areas
Munitions loading
areas
Munitions storage
areas
Munitions washout
plants
Release Mechanism
Spillage, mishandling, or routing of
effluent
Mishandling, abandonment, or loss
Mishandling, abandonment, or loss
Incomplete burning and associated
leaching
Burial
Spillage, mishandling, abandonment,
or loss
Spillage, mishandling, abandonment,
or loss
Storing of treating water from
demilitarization processes
Expected MEC Contamination
Toluene, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, waste acids,
nitroaromatic compounds
TNT, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, toluene, waste
acids, yellow/red water, nitroaromatic compounds
TNT, yellow/red water, nitroaromatic compounds
Waste acids, TNT, nitroaromatic compounds
Waste acids, nitroaromatic compounds
Explosives, propellants, pyrotechnics
Explosives, propellants, pyrotechnics
TNT, pink water, any constituent or explosive
train
The process of constructing the CSM involves mapping data obtained from historical records,
conducting an operational analysis of the munition activity, and analyzing the ordnance-related
activities that occurred on the site. Historical information on the type of activity that took place and
the munitions used will be particularly important to help you identify patterns in the distribution of
ordnance and the depth at which it may be found. As shown in Table 7-1, if the site was used as a
projectile range, you would expect to find fired ordnance (including dud-fired rounds) primarily in
the target area, buried munitions at the firing point, dud-fired rounds along the projectile path, and
a few projectiles in the buffer zone. Ranges used for different purposes have different firing patterns
and different distributions of MEC. At a troop training range, you might find buried munitions
scattered throughout the training area if troops decided to bury their remaining munitions rather than
carry them out with them.
The boundaries of suspected contamination, the geology and topography, and the areas of
potential concern should be delineated during this process. Using the historical data as inputs, three-
dimensional operational analyses of the anticipated locations of MEC are developed that address the
expected dispersion of munitions and range fan areas as well as the maximum penetration or burial
depths of the munitions used at the site. Using these data sources, you can develop an assessment of
the ordnance-related activities that were conducted to develop a full picture of what is likely to be
found at the site.
The purpose of developing this early CSM is to ensure that the collection of initial
information will be useful for your investigation. If the conceptual understanding of the site is poor,
you may need to conduct limited preliminary investigations before you develop the sampling and
analysis plan. Such investigations could include a physical walk-through of the area, collection of
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limited geophysical data, or collection of additional historical information. In any case, you should
anticipate revising the CSM at least once in this early planning phase as more data are gathered.
Specific data regarding MEC that should be addressed in a CSM include, but are not limited
to:
Munitions types
Munitions category (e.g., unfired, inert, dud-fired)
Filler type
Fuze type
Net explosive weight of filler
Condition (e.g., intact, corroded)
Location (coordinates)
Depth (below ground surface)
Compass bearing
Propellant type
7.4.3.2 Groundtruthing the CSM
No matter how extensive your historical research on past ordnance-related activities is, no
CSM should be completed without groundtruthing your hypothesis. Groundtruthing should consist
of on-site reconnaissance of the area to be investigated in order to provide the following:
Forensic evidence of ordnance use, including depressions in the ground caused by the
impact of an ordnance item and subsequent detonation, as well as fragmented remnants
of ordnance
Verification of geological features such as topography, water bodies, and outcroppings
Identification of environmental factors that may be at work to move ordnance, including
erosion, tidal action, and frost heave
Identification of surface ordnance that may require clearance prior to beginning the
investigation, as well as provide additional evidence about past ordnance use
Identification of vegetative features that may interfere with the investigation
Evidence of past ordnance use not identified in historical records
Evidence of on-site receptor activity
One of the most important considerations in the design of a good sampling and analysis plan
for locating UXO maybe an operational analysis of the type of weapon system (e.g., mortar, artillery)
used on the range. For example, Army field manuals provide information and data that allow the
calculation of areas of probable high, medium, and low impact in a normal distribution. Using
available operational information, it is possible to assess the most likely distribution of UXO for a
particular weapons activity and to plan a sampling strategy that optimizes the probability that UXO
may be present.116
116The process of using operational analysis to design a CSM-based sampling plan is described more fully in
the paper Conceptual Site Model-Based Sampling Design, presented to the UXO Countermine Forum 2001 by Norell
Lantzer, Laura Wrench, and others.
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As with any site visit of a suspected MRA, a site reconnaissance should be conducted in
accordance with DDESB safety requirements and in the company of a qualified UXO technician or
EOD expert.
7.4.3.3 Documentation of the CSM
The data points of a CSM are usually documented schematically and supplemented by a table
and a diagram of relationships. The simplistic example of a CSM in Figure 7-2 illustrates the types
of information often conveyed in a CSM. Depending on the complexity and number of MRAs to be
investigated, the CSM may be required to show several impact areas as well as overlapping range
fans. A CSM may also be presented from a top view (also called a plan view), as illustrated in Figure
7-3, and overlaid with a map created using a GIS.
Figures 7-2 and 7-3 illustrate the configuration of a typical firing range.
Groundwater Direction
Lower Aquifer
Figure 7-2. Conceptual Site Model: Vertical View
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Figure 7-3. Conceptual Site Model: Plan View of a Range Investigation Area
A CSM for a closed munitions manufacturing area can be based on an operational analysis
of historical operations and knowledge of site-specific information. The same concept should be
applied when designing a sampling and analysis plan for the same area. The first step is to look at
historical records and determine what operations were conducted there, what was manufactured, and
where on the property the operations were located. Typically, explosives manufacturing areas
manufactured TNT, RDX, and other explosives components. The chemicals of concern related to the
manufacture of these products are TNT, toluene, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and waste acids. For
example, in a TNT manufacturing area, the CSM would focus the sampling and analysis for the
COCs listed above on the operational areas in which these products are stored, transferred, handled,
or disposed of, such as the following:
Mono-, bi-, and tri-nitrating house
Toluene and acid (sulfuric, nitric) storage areas
Waste acid storage areas
Finished product storage areas (e.g., bunkers or igloos for TNT)
Burning grounds
Yellow water and red water reservoirs
Sewer lines and settling basins
Figure 7-4 shows what the plan view of a CSM would look like for a closed, World War II-era
TNT manufacturing plant.
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X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Drowning
Tank
Drowning
Tank
Drowning
Tank
Storage Bunkers
(TNT)
Sulfuric
Acid
Storage
Mono-
Nitrating
House
Nitric^
Acid
Storage
£
t
Lw
Ac
Bi-
Fortifier
House
sste Mixec
id Arif
Tri-
Nitrating
House
Toluene
Storage
\ /
K
\ Sulfuric Acid
Storage
Primary Ingredients
Toluene
Nitric Acid
Sulfuric Acid
Red Water
Reservoir
Yellow Water
Reservoir
Burning
Grounds
X X X X X X Railroad
River
Figure 7-4. Conceptual Site Model: Plan View of a Closed TNT Manufacturing Plant
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7.4.4 Preliminary Remediation Goals
Preliminary Remediation Goals (PRGs)
PRGs provide the project team with long-term targets
to use during analysis and selection of remedial
alternatives. Chemical-specific PRGs are goals for the
concentration of individual chemicals in the media in
which they are found. For UXO, the PRO will
generally address the clearance depth for UXO.
Source: U.S. EPA. Risk Assessment Guidance for
Superfund (RAGS), Volume 1, Human Health
Evaluation Manual, Part B, Interim, December 1991.
Preliminary remediation goals (PRGs) for
a munitions response are the preliminary goals
pertaining to the depth of that response action
and are used for planning purposes. PRGs are
directly related to the specific media that are
identified in your CSM as potential pathways for
MEC exposure (e.g., vadose zone, river bottom,
wetland area). The PRGs for response depths for
munitions are a function of the goal of the
investigation and the reasonably anticipated land
use on the range. For example, if the goal of the
investigation is to render the land surface safe for
nonintrusive investigations, then the PRGs will
be designed to promote surface removal of MEC from the land area. Therefore, the PRGs will require
that no MEC remains on the surface of the land. On the other hand, if the goal of the investigation
is to establish final response depths to protect human health from MEC hazards, then the PRGs will
be based on the reasonably anticipated future land use. The PRGs in this instance may be to ensure
that no MEC is present in the top 10 feet of the subsurface or above the frost line.
The PRGs may change at several points during the investigation or at the conclusion of the
investigation, as more information becomes available about the likely future land use, about the
actual likely depth of the MEC, about environmental conditions that may cause movement of MEC,
or about the complexity and cost of the response process. The PRGs may also change during the
remedy selection process as the team makes its risk management decisions and weighs factors such
as protection of human health and the environment, costs, short-term risks of cleanup, long-term
effectiveness, permanence, and community and State/Tribal preferences.
The first step in establishing the PRGs is to determine the current and reasonably anticipated
future land use. While munitions response depth PRGs are conceptually easier to understand than
chemical-specific PRGs, widely accepted algorithms and extensive guidance have been developed
to establish chemical- and media-specific PRGs depending on the land use. Identifying the
appropriate PRGs for MRSs can be a complex and controversial process. One approach you may
consider is to use the DDESB default safety standards for range clearance as the initial PRGs until
adequate site-specific data become available.
DDESB safety standards establish
interim planning assessment depths that are
based on different land uses, to be used for
planning until site-specific data become
available. In the absence of site-specific data,
these standards call for a clearance depth of 10
feet for planned uses such as residential and
commercial development and construction
activities. For areas accessible to the public,
such as those used for agriculture, surface
recreation, and vehicle parking, the DDESB
recommends planning for response depth of 4
Chapter 7. Planning Munitions
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DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles on
Standards for Depths of Clearance
PerDoD 6055.9-STD, removal depths are determined
by an evaluation of site-specific data and risk analysis
based on the reasonably anticipated future land use.
In the absence of site-specific data, a table of
assessment depths is used for interim planning
purposes until the required site-specific informa-
tion is developed.
Site-specific data are necessary to determine the
actual depth of clearance.
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feet. For areas with limited public access and areas used for livestock grazing or wildlife preserves,
the DDESB recommends planning for a response depth of 1 foot.117 In all cases, the standards call
for a response depth of 4 feet below any construction. (See Chapter 6 for a more detailed description
of DDESB standards.) None of these removal depths should be used automatically. For example, if
site-specific information suggests that a commercial or industrial building will be constructed that
requires a much deeper excavation than 10 feet, greater response depth must considered. In addition,
if the response depth is above the frost line, then DDESB standards require continued surveillance
of the area for frost heave movement.118
Site-specific information may also lead to the decision that a more shallow response action
is protective. For example, if historical
information and results of geophysical studies
suggest that the only MEC to be found is within DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles on
the top 1 foot of soil, then the actual munitions Land Use
response will obviously address the depth where
. f A f -\ c 4\ Discussions with local planning authorities, local
munitions are round (e.g., 1 root). . , , ., ... 6 . . , ' ,
v ° ' officials, and the public, as appropnate, should be
conducted as early as possible in the response process
to determine the reasonably anticipated land use(s).
These discussions should be used to scope efforts to
characterize the site, conduct risk assessments, and
select the appropriate response.
You should consider a variety of factors
when identifying the reasonably anticipated
future land use of the property. Current and long-
term ownership of the property, current use, and
pressure for changes in future use are some of the
important considerations.119 The text box below
lists a number of other possible factors. In the face of uncertainty, a more conservative approach,
such as assuming unrestricted land use, is prudent. In determining the reasonably anticipated future
land use at a Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) facility, you should consider not only the formal
reuse plans, but also the nature of economic activity in the area and the historical ability of the local
government to control future land use through deed restrictions and other institutional controls.
Several sources of information about planned and potential land use at BRAC sites are available,
including base reuse plans.
117DoD Directive 6055.9, DoD Explosives Safety Board (DDESB) and DoD Component Explosives Safely
Responsibilities, July 29, 1996.
118Department of Defense. Explosive Safety Submissions for Removal of Ordnance and Explosives (MEC) from
Real Property, Memorandum from DDESB Chairman, Col. W. Richard Wright, February 1998.
119USEPA, OSWER Directive No. 9355.7-04, Land Use in the CERCLARemedy Selection Process, May 25,
1995.
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Factors To Consider in Developing Assumptions About Reasonably Anticipated Future Land Uses
Current land use
Zoning laws
Zoning maps
Comprehensive community master plans
Population growth patterns and projections
Accessibility of site to existing infrastructure (including transportation and public utilities)
Institutional controls currently in place
Site location in relation to existing development
Federal/State land use designations
Development patterns over time
Cultural and archeological resources
Natural resources, and geographic and geologic information
Potential vulnerability of groundwater to contaminants that may migrate from soil
Environmental justice issues
Location of on-site or nearby wetlands
Proximity to a floodplain and to critical habitats of endangered or threatened species
Location of wellhead protection areas, recharge areas, and other such areas
7.4.5 Project Schedule, Milestones, Resources, and Regulatory Requirements
Other information used to plan the investigation includes the proposed project schedule,
milestones, resources, and regulatory requirements. These elements will not only dictate much of the
investigation, they will also determine its scope and help determine the adequacy of the data to meet
the goals of the investigation. If resources are limited and the tolerance for uncertainty is determined
to be low, it may be necessary to review the goals of the investigation and consider modifying them
in the following ways:
Reduce the geographic scope of the investigation (e.g., focus on fewer MRA/MRSs)
Focus on surface response rather than subsurface response
Reduce the decision scope of the investigation (e.g., focus on prioritization for future
investigations, rather than property transfer)
In considering the schedule and milestones associated with the project, it is important to
consider the regulatory requirements, including the key technical processes and public involvement
requirements associated with the CERCLA and RCRA processes under which much of the
investigation may occur, as well as any Federal facility agreements (FF As) or compliance orders that
are in place for the facility. (See Chapter 2, "Regulatory Overview.")
7.4.5.1 Resources
Many factors affect the scope and therefore the costs of an investigation. Although large range
size is often associated with high costs, other factors can affect the scope and costs of an
investigation:
Difficult terrain (e.g., rocky, mountainous, dense vegetation)
High density of MEC
Depth of MEC
Anticipated sensitivity of MEC to disturbance or other factors that may require
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extraordinary safety measures
Key factors to consider when estimating the cost of the investigation include the following:
Site preparation may include vegetation clearance, surface UXO removal, and the
establishment of survey control points. If there is little vegetation at the site and/or if the
UXO detection can be conducted without removing the vegetation, the costs can be
significantly reduced. In addition, limiting the vegetation clearance can also reduce the
impacts on natural and cultural resources, as discussed in the next text box.
Geophysical mapping requires personnel, mapping, and navigation equipment. The
operational platform for the selected detection tool can have a major impact on the costs
of a site characterization.
The data analysis process requires hardware and software to analyze the data gathered
during the geophysical mapping to identify and classify anomalies. Data analysis can be
conducted in real time during the investigation phase or off-site following the detection,
with the latter generally being more expensive than the former.
Anomaly investigation includes anomaly reacquisition and excavation to determine
anomaly sources and to test the working hypotheses. Excavation can be very expensive;
the greater the number of anomalies identified as potential UXO, the higher the cost.
Because the costs of investigation activities are based in large part on the acreage of the area
to be characterized, most methods used to reduce the cost of the investigation involve reducing the
size of the sampling area. Some of the techniques used to reduce costs overlap with other tools
already described that improve the accuracy of an investigation. For example, a comprehensive
historical search enables the project team to minimize the size of the area requiring investigation.
Statistical sampling methods are frequently used to reduce the costs of site investigation. These
methods and the controversy over the methods are discussed in Section 8.3.2.
Vegetation Clearance
In addition to the high monetary costs of preparing an area to be cleared of UXO, the environmental costs can also
be very high. If the project team decides that vegetation clearance is necessary in order to safely and effectively
clear UXO from a site, they should aim to minimize the potentially serious environmental impacts, such as
increased erosion and habitat destruction, that can result from removing vegetation. The following are three land
clearing methodologies:
Manual removal is the easiest technique to control and allows a minimum amount of vegetation to be removed
to facilitate the UXO investigation. Tree removal should be minimized, with selective pruning used to enable
instrument detection near the trunks. If trees must be removed, tree trunks should be left in place to help
maintain the soil profile. Manual removal results in the highest level of potential exposure to UXO of the
personnel involved and should not be used where vegetation obscures the view of likely UXO locations.
Controlled burning allows grass and other types of ground cover to be burned away from the surface without
affecting subsurface root networks. The primary considerations when using controlled burning are ensuring that
natural or manmade firebreaks exist and that potential air pollution is controlled. Favorable weather conditions
will be required.
Defoliation relies on herbicides to defoliate grasses, shrubs, and tree leaves. Manual removal of the remaining
vegetation may be necessary. Sensitivity of groundwater and surface waterbodies to leaching and surface runoff
of herbicides will be important considerations.
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7.4.5.2 Regulatory Requirements
Regulatory requirements come from a variety of laws and regulations, both State and Federal.
The particular requirements that will be most applicable (or relevant and appropriate) to range
cleanup activities are the Federal and State RCRA requirements for hazardous waste transportation,
treatment, storage, and disposal. Other regulatory requirements may be related to the specific
pathways of concern, for example, groundwater cleanup levels. Chapter 2 of this handbook provides
an overview of regulatory requirements that may apply, since knowledge of the applicable
requirements will be important to planning the investigation.
Since many munitions response investigations will take place under the authority of the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), it is
important to keep in mind that even if not directly and legally applicable to the MEC activity or
investigation, Federal and State laws may be considered to be "relevant and appropriate" by
regulators. If the laws are considered relevant and appropriate, they are fully and legally applicable
to a CERCLA cleanup activity.120
Important regulatory requirements that may affect both the investigation and the cleanup
of the MRA include, but are not limited to, the following:
CERCLA requirements for removal and remedial actions (including public and
State/Tribal involvement in the process)
RCRA requirements that determine whether the waste material is to be considered a solid
waste and/or a hazardous waste
Requirements concerning the transportation and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes
Regulatory requirements concerning open burning/open detonation of waste
Regulatory requirements concerning incineration/thermal treatment of hazardous waste
Other hazardous waste treatment requirements (e.g., land disposal restrictions)
Air pollution requirements
DDESB safety requirements
Other applicable Federal statutes such as the Endangered Species Act, the Native
Americans Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, and the National Historic
Preservation Act
This handbook does not present a comprehensive listing of these requirements. Chapter 2 of
this handbook provides an overview of regulatory structures. Chapter 6 presents an overview of the
DDESB safety requirements.
7.4.6 Identification of Remedial Objectives
Decisions regarding cleanup have two components: the remediation goal (or cleanup standard)
and the response strategy. Remediation goals were described in the discussion of PRGs (Section
7.4.6). The response strategy is the manner in which the waste will be managed (e.g., use of
institutional controls, removal of waste, treatment of waste once it's removed), including the
engineering or treatment technologies involved. PRGs represent the first step in determining the
cleanup standard. PRGs are revised as new information is gathered and will be a central part of final
12040 CFR Section 300.400(g), National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan.
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cleanup decisions. It is equally important to identify potential cleanup technologies early in the
process so that information required to assess the appropriate technology can be obtained during the
investigation process (i.e., site findings affecting treatment selection).
The final step in planning the investigation is therefore identifying remedial objectives. What
kind of cleanup activities do you anticipate? Like the PRGs and the CSM, this is a working
hypothesis of what you will find (which may change later), the volume of material that you must deal
with, the media with which it will be associated (if it is explosive residue), and the nature of the
technology that will be used to conduct the cleanup. Early screening of alternatives to establish
remedial action objectives is important. Identifying appropriate alternatives may direct the
geophysical investigations to help determine if a particular technology, such as bioremediation, will
work at the site. Chapter 4 has a substantial discussion of MEC detection technologies.
Finally, in addressing remedial objectives at the site, you will want to consider the disposal
options for what may be an enormous amount of nonexplosive material. Typical range clearance
activities excavate tons of trash and fragments of ordnance. In addition, open burning or detonation
will leave additional potentially contaminated materials and media to be disposed of. Some of the
trash, such as target practice material, may be contaminated with hazardous waste. Some of the metal
fragments may be appropriate for recycling. Information collected during the investigation will be
used to assess not only the treatment and the potential for recycling of explosive and nonexplosive
residue, but also the disposal of other contaminated materials and media from the site.
7.4.7 The Data Quality Objectives of the Investigation
7.4.7.1 Developing DQOs
You now have the information necessary to develop the data quality objectives of the
investigation. The DQOs will reflect the information that you require to achieve the decision goals
identified at the beginning of the planning phase. DQOs are based on gaps in the data needed to make
your decision. They should be as narrow and specific as possible and should reflect the certainty
required for each step of the investigation. Objective statements that are carefully crafted, with
regulator involvement and community review, will help ensure that discussions at the end of the
investigation are about the risk management decisions, not about the relevance or quality of the data.
DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles on DQOs
Site-specific data quality objectives (DQOs) and QA/QC approaches, developed through a process of close and
meaningful cooperation among the various governmental departments and agencies involved at a given military
range, are necessary to define the nature, quality, and quantity of information required to characterize each military
range and to select appropriate response actions.
Examples of typical DQOs may include the following:
Determine the outer boundaries of potential UXO contamination on a range within plus
or minus feet.
Determine, with percent probability of detection at percent confidence level, the
amount of UXO found in the top 2 feet of soil.
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Verify that there are no buried munitions pits under the range ( percent probability of
detection, percent confidence level).
Determine with percent certainty if there is UXO in the sediments that form the river
bottom.
Determine the direction of groundwater flow with percent certainty.
The DQOs for your site will determine the amount and quality of data required, as well as the
level of certainty required. Which statements are appropriate for your site will depend on the
previously identified goals of the investigation, the information that is already known about the site,
and the acceptable levels of uncertainty.
7.4.7.2 Planning for Uncertainty
To a significant degree, data quality objectives will depend on the project team's and the
public's tolerance for uncertainty. Ultimately, the amount of uncertainty that is acceptable, although
expressed in quantitative terms, is a qualitative judgment that must be made by all of the involved
parties acting together. For example, it may be possible to quantify the probability that a detector can
find subsurface anomalies. However, that probability will be less than 100 percent. The acceptability
of a given probability of detection (e.g., 85 percent or 60 percent) will depend on a qualitative
judgment based on the decision to be made.
As in any subsurface investigation, it is impossible to resolve all uncertainties. For example,
regardless of the resources expended on an investigation, it is not possible to identify 100 percent of
MEC on an MRS. Likewise, unless the entire range is dug up, it is often impossible to prove with 100
percent certainty that the land area is clean and that no MEC is present. The project team will need
to decide whether uncertainties in the investigation are to be reduced, mitigated, or deemed
acceptable. Planned land use is an important factor in determining the acceptable level of uncertainty.
Some uncertainties may be more acceptable if the military will continue to control the land and
monitor the site than if the site is to be transferred to outside ownership.
Uncertainties can be reduced through process design, such as a thorough sampling strategy,
and through the use of stringent data quality acceptance procedures. Uncertainties can also be
reduced by planning for contingencies during the course of investigation. For example, it may be
possible to develop decision rules for the investigation that recognize uncertainties and identify
actions that will be taken if the investigation finds something. A decision rule might say that if X is
found, then Y happens. (In the simplest example, if any anomalies excavated prove to be ordnance
related, either ordnance fragments or UXO, then a more intensive sampling process will be initiated.)
The results of uncertainties can be mitigated in a variety of way s, including by monitoring and
contingency planning. A situation in which some uncertainties were mitigated occurred at Fort
Ritchie Army Garrison, a BRAC facility. MEC contamination was suspected beneath buildings that
were constructed decades ago and were located on property designated for residential development.
Because the buildings were to be reused following the land transfer, regulators chose not to require
an investigation beneath the buildings because it would have necessitated razing them. As a risk
management procedure, legal restrictions were established to ensure Army supervision of any future
demolition of these buildings. The presence of MEC under buildings on land slated for transfer is an
uncertainty the project team at Fort Ritchie chose to accept. Risks are mitigated through the use of
institutional controls.
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Finally, uncertainties in the investigation may be deemed acceptable if they will be
insignificant to the final decision. Information collected to "characterize the site" should be
considered complete when there is sufficient information to determine the extent of contamination,
and the proposed response depth and the appropriate remedial technology. If information has been
collected that makes it clear that action will be required, it may not be necessary to fully understand
the boundaries of the range or the density or distribution of MEC prior to making the remediation
decision and starting response activities. Some amount of uncertainty will be acceptable, since the
information required will be obtained during the response operation. (Note: This scenario assumes
that there is sufficient information both for safety planning and for estimating the costs of the
remediation.)
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SOURCES AND RESOURCES
The following publications, offices, laboratories, and websites are provided as a guide for
handbook users to obtain additional information about the subject matter addressed in each chapter.
Several of these publications, offices, laboratories, or websites were also used in the development of
this handbook.
Publications
American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard Guide for Developing Conceptual Site
Models for Contaminated Sites. Guide E1689-95; 2001.
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council, Technical/Regulatory Guidelines, Munitions
Response Historical Records Review, November 2003.
Information Sources
Joint UXO Coordination Office (JUXOCO)
10221 BurbeckRoad, Suite 430
Fort Belvoir, VA 22060-5806
Tel: (703) 704-1090
Fax: (703) 704-2074
http://www.denix.osd.mi1/UXOCMECU.S. Army Corps of Engineers
U.S. Army Engineering and Support Center Ordnance and
Explosives Mandatory Center of Expertise
P.O. Box 1600
4820 University Square
Huntsville, AL 35807-4301
http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil/
Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB)
2461 Eisenhower Avenue
Alexandria, VA 22331-0600
Fax:(703) 325-6227
http://www.ddesb.pentagon.mil
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Superfund Risk Assessment
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/index.htm
Guidance Documents
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Conceptual Site Models for Ordnance and Explosives (MEC)
and Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste (HTRW) Projects. Engineer Manual. EM 1110-
1-1200, Feb. 3, 2003.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Technical Project Planning (TPP) Process. Engineer Manual
200-1-2; Aug. 31, 1998.
U.S. Department of Defense. DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards. DoD 6055.9-
STD; July 1999.
Chapter 7. Planning Munitions INTERIM FINAL
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U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Compliance with Other Laws (Vols 1 & 2). Aug.
8, 1988.
U.S. EPA. EPA Guidance/or Quality Assurance Project Plans. EPA QA/G-5, Feb. 1998.
U.S. EPA. Guidance for Conducting Remedial Investigations and Feasibility Studies Under
CERCLA Interim Final. NTIS No. PB89-184626; Oct. 1989.
Sources of Data for Historical Investigations
Air Photographies, Inc.
(aerial photographs)
Route 4, Box 500
Martinsburg, WV 25401
Tel: (800) 624-8993
Fax:(304)267-0918
e-mail: info@airphotographics.com
http ://www. airphotographics. com
Environmental Data Resources, Inc.
(aerial photographs; city directories; insurance, wetlands, flood plain, and topographical maps)
3530 Post Road
Southport, CT 06490
Tel: (800) 352-0050
http ://www. edrnet. com
National Archives and Records Administration National Cartographic and Architectural
Branch
College Park, MD
http://www.nara.gov
National Exposure Research Laboratory
Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Landscape Ecology Branch
12201 Sunrise Drive
555 National Center
Reston, VA 20192Tel: (703) 648-4288
Fax: (703) 648-4290
http://www.epa.gov/nerlesdl/land-sci/epic/aboutepic.htm
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service
(national, regional, and some state and local data and maps of plants, soils, water and climate,
watershed boundaries, wetlands, land cover, water quality, and other parameters)
14th and Independence Avenue
Washington, DC 20250
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
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U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Data Center
(satellite images, aerial photographs, and topographic maps)
Customer Services
47914 252nd Street
Sioux Falls, SD 57198-0001
Tel: (800) 252-4547
Tel: (605) 594-6151
Fax:(605)594-6589
e-mail: custserv@edcmail.cr.usgs.gov
http://edc.usgs.gov/
Repositories of Explosive Mishap Reports
U.S. Air Force
Air Force Safety Center
HQ AFSC/JA
9700 G Avenue SE
Kirtland AFB, NM 87117-5670
Tel: (505) 846-1193
Fax:(505)853-5798
U.S. Army
U.S. Army Safety Center
5th Avenue, Bldg. 4905
Fort Rucker, AL 36362-5363
U.S. Army Technical Center for Explosives Safety
(maintains a database of explosives accidents)
Attn: SIOAC-ESL, Building 35
1C Tree Road
McAlester, OK 74501-9053
e-mail: sioac-esl@dac-emh2.army.7-28mil
http://www.dac.army.mil/esmam/default.htm
U.S. Navy
Commander, Naval Safety Center
Naval Air Station Norfolk
375 A Street, Code 03
Norfolk, VA 23511
Tel: (757) 444-3520
http ://www. safetycenter.navy .mil/
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8.0 DEVISING INVESTIGATION AND RESPONSE STRATEGIES
The previous chapter provided a framework for organizing what is currently known about a
site so that a project team can systematically identify the goals and objectives of an investigation.
The focus of this chapter is to identify geophysical and munitions constituents sampling, analysis,
and response strategies that will meet those goals and objectives.
The discussion that follows outlines major considerations in the development of your
investigation and response plan. Keep in mind, however, that the foundation of your sampling and
analysis plan rests on your conceptual site model (see Chapter 7).
Developing the geophysical investigation is often the most difficult part of the MEC
investigation. Given the size of the ranges and the costs involved in investigating and removing
MEC, judgments of acceptable levels of uncertainty often come into conflict with practical cost
considerations when determining the extent of the field investigation.
Sampling and measurement errors in locating MEC on your MRS will come from several
sources:
Inadequacy of geophysical detection methods to locate and correctly identify
anomalies that may be potential MEC
Inappropriate extrapolation of the results of statistical geophysical sampling to larger
areas
Difficulty in collecting representative soil samples for munitions constituents
Measurement errors introduced in laboratory analysis of soil samples (either on-site
or off-site), including subsampling and analysis
Given that no subsurface investigation technique can eliminate all uncertainty, the sampling
design (and supporting laboratory analysis) should be structured to account for the measurement error
and to ensure that the data collected are of a known quality.
Field sampling activities include the following basic considerations:
Explosives safety concerns, safety planning, and Explosives Safety Submissions (see
Chapter 6)
Detection technologies that are matched to the characteristics of the site and the UXO
and to the objectives of the investigation (see Chapter 4)
Specification of QA/QC measurements
Determination of the quantity and quality of data needed and data acceptance criteria
Determination of how, when, and where data will be collected
Appropriate use of field analysis and fixed laboratory analysis to screen for explosive
residues
There are typically four types of data collection methods employed during UXO
investigations:
Nonintrusive identification of anomalies using surface-based detection equipment
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Intrusive excavation of anomalies (usually to verify the results of geophysical
investigations)
Soil sampling for potential munition constituents
Environmental sampling to establish the basic geophysical characteristics of the site
(e.g., stratigraphy, groundwater depth and flow), including background levels
The following decisions are to be made when designing the data collection plan:
Establishment of your desired level of confidence in the capabilities of subsurface
detection techniques
How to phase the investigation so that data collected in one phase can be used to plan
subsequent phases
Establishment of decision rules for addressing shifts in investigation techniques
determined by field information
The degree to which statistical sampling methods are used to estimate potential future
risks
How to verify data obtained through the application of statistical sampling approaches
The types of field analytical methods that should be used to test for explosive residues
The appropriate means of separating and storing waste from the investigation
Information required for the Explosives Safety Submission
The design of the sampling and analysis effort usually includes one or more iterations of
geophysical studies, which incorporate geophysical survey data processing and anomaly investigation
to obtain a level of precision that will help you achieve your project objectives. Depending on your
project objectives, more extensive geophysical studies may be necessary to evaluate the potential for
MEC impacts at the site. For example, if your project objective is to confirm that an area is "clean"
(free from MEC), and you detect a MEC item during your first geophysical sweep of the ground
surface, you can conclude that the area should not be considered clean and you must modify your
objective. However, no additional geophysical data collection is necessary at that point.
Conversely, your obj ective may be to cleanup a target area that is expected to contain artillery
items (e.g., 105 mm projectiles) using the combination of detection tools and data processing
techniques deemed appropriate to the site and the obj ective specified by your proj ect team. However,
initial excavations reveal the presence of much smaller munitions (e.g., 40 mm anti-aircraft
projectiles), in addition to the artillery items. You may have to modify your geophysical detection
processes in order to address this unanticipated type of munition, which will be more difficult to
detect.
The design of the sampling and analysis effort should recognize that fieldwork takes place
in stages. The first stage will often be a surface response effort to render the MRA/MRSs under
investigation safe for geophysical investigation. The second stage will field test the detection
technologies that you plan to use to verify QA/QC measurement criteria and establish a known level
of precision in the investigation. The subsequent stage will involve the iterative geophysical studies
discussed above. Observations in the field could cause a redirection of the sampling activities.
The bullets and discussion below address five important elements of the design of the
sampling and analysis effort:
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Selection of munitions detection technologies
Operational analysis of the munitions activities that took place at the site
Selection of the methodology for determining the location and amount of both intrusive
and nonintrusive sampling
Development of QA/QC measures for your sampling strategy
Use of both fixed lab and field screening analytical techniques for sampling for munition
constituents
8.1 Identification of Appropriate Detection Technologies
Selection of the appropriate detection technology is not an easy task, as there is not one best
tool that has the greatest effectiveness, ease of implementation, and cost-effectiveness in every
situation. Rather, a combination of systems that includes sensors, data processing systems, and
operational platforms should be configured to meet the site-specific conditions. The project team
should develop a process to identify the best system for the particular site.
The site-specific factors affecting the selection of appropriate technologies include the
following:
The ultimate goals of the investigation and the level of certainty required for MEC
detection
The amount and quality of historical information available about the site
The nature of the MEC anticipated to be found on-site, including its material makeup and
the depth at which it is expected to be found
Background materials or geological, topographical, or vegetative factors that may
interfere with MEC detection
Site-specific information should be used with information about the different detection
systems (see Chapter 4) to select the system most appropriate for the project. Three key factors in
selecting a detection technology are effectiveness, ease of implementation, and cost.
The effectiveness of a system may be measured by its proven ability to achieve detection
objectives. Measures of effectiveness include probability of detection, maximum depth of detection,
false positive ("false alarm") rate, and sensor data characteristics such as signal and noise. The
science of ordnance and explosives detection has improved significantly over the past decade;
however, the limited ability to discriminate between ordnance and non-ordnance remains a serious
deficiency. (See Chapter 4 for a discussion of detection systems.)
The ease of implementation, although a characteristic of the technology, is influenced by the
proj ect requirements. For example, a towed operational platform (typically a multi sensor array towed
behind a vehicle) may not be implementable in mountainous and rocky terrain. For another site,
implementability might mean that a single detection system has to work on all types of terrain
because of budgetary or other constraints.
Detection system costs generally depend on the operational platform and the data processing
requirements. For example, hardware costs are higher for an airborne platform than for a land-based
system, but an airborne platform can survey a site much faster than a land-based system, thus
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reducing the cost per acre. Similarly, digital georeferencing systems cost more than a GIS that can
be used to manually calculate the position of anomalies, but the time saved by digitally
georeferencing anomaly position data, and the associated potential reduction in errors, may speed the
process and save money in the end.
8.2 UXO Detection Methods
Until the Jefferson Proving Ground
Technology Demonstration (JPGTD) Project
was established in 1994 to advance the state of
munition detection, classification, and removal,
"Mag and Flag" had been the default MEC
detection method, with only marginal
improvement in its detection and identification
capabilities since World War II. Using Mag
and Flag, an operator responds to audible or
visible signals representing anomalies as
detected by a hand-held magnetometer (or
other detection device such as an EM
instrument), and places flags into the ground
corresponding to the locations where signals
were produced. While Mag and Flag has
improved with advances in magnetometry, it
produces higher false alarm rates than other
available technologies. This is particularly true
in areas with high background levels of ferrous
metals. In addition, the Mag and Flag system is
highly dependent on the capabilities of the
operator. Efficiency and effectiveness have
been shown to trail off at the end of the day
with operator fatigue or when the operator is
trying to cover a large area quickly. Because
the data from a Mag and Flag operation are not
digitally recorded, it is more difficult to
replicate and verify the data. This lack of
digital recording also makes it difficult to
assess whether an area has been completely
surveyed using this technique. The certainty of the actual location of the anomaly is highly dependent
on the operator's proficiency as well as on the systemic errors associated with the technique. Because
of these limitations and the availability of more reliable systems, the use of Mag and Flag is
decreasing. However, under certain conditions, such as very difficult terrain (e.g., mountainous,
densely forested), Mag and Flag may be the most cost-effective method for detecting UXO.
Under the JPGTD program, developers test and analyze UXO detection technologies such as
magnetometry, electromagnetic induction, ground penetrating radar, and multisensor systems.
Emerging technologies such as infrared, seismic, synthetic aperture radar, and others are tested and
developed at JPGTD. A discussion of different technologies is provided in Chapter 4.
What Is the Effectiveness Rate of MEC Detection
Using Existing Technologies?
The answer to this question is centered around the
definition of "detection." Debates overthe answerto this
apparently simple question reflect underlying values
about how to conduct a UXO investigation and what
costs are "worthwhile" to incur.
UXO objects are "seen" as underground anomalies that
must be interpreted. It is often difficult to distinguish
betweenUXO, fragments of MEC, othermetallic objects,
and magnetic rocks, boulders, and other underground
formations. This inability to discriminate, and the
resulting high number of false positives, is a contributing
factor to the high cost of UXO clearance. The overall
effectiveness of a detection technology is intrinsically
tied to the ability of the sensor to discriminate between
munitions items and other subsurface anomalies. The
more sensitive the detector, the more anomalies are
found. Finding the balance between reducing false alarms
and ensuring that hazardous items are found is the key to
a cost effective investigation.
DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles on
UXO Detection
The critical metrics for the evaluation of the performance
of a detection technology are the probabilities of
detection and false alarms. Identifying only one of these
measures yields ill-defined capability. Of the two,
probability of detection is a paramount consideration in
selecting a UXO detection technology.
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Although many detection technologies do an adequate job of responding to the presence of
metallic items below the ground surface, they may also (depending on site conditions and the type
of detection technology) respond to geologic anomaly sources, such as ferrous rocks. One class of
false positives is the response of sensors to nonmetallic sources. In addition, currently available
technologies do not discriminate between metallic items of concern (i.e., UXO and buried munitions),
fragmentation from exploded munitions, and non-ordnance-related metal waste. These false positive
anomalies from geologic sources and non-ordnance related metallic items can greatly increase the
number of anomaly excavations that must be undertaken during investigations and remedial
responses, as well as during QA/QC of these activities. Development of reliable means of
distinguishing between ordnance items and other subsurface anomaly sources will minimize false
positives and, therefore, reduce the cost and time needed for a project.
In an attempt to address this issue, Phase IV of the JPGTD was initiated with the primary goal
of improving the ability to distinguish between ordnance and nonordnance. Although progress has
been made in distinguishing UXO from clutter such as UXO fragments, additional work is still
needed to further advance target discrimination technologies, to make them commercially available,
and to increase their use. With reliable and readily available target discrimination technologies, the
number of false positives should be greatly reduced, thereby significantly reducing the costs of UXO
investigations.
A number of data processing and modeling tools have been developed to screen munitions
targets from raw detection data. These discrimination methods are typically based on one of two
approaches. One approach is to rely on a comparison of the signatures of potential targets against
a database of known UXO (with a variety of sizes, shapes, depths, and orientations) and clutter
signatures. A more effective approach is to model the expected geophsysical signals based on the
physics of the sensor and its expected response to the item being searched for. Additional information
about data processing for UXO discrimination is provided in Chapter 4.
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Identifying UXO Locations
In the past, the primary method used by UXO personnel to identify the location of anomalies was to manually mark
or flag the locations at which UXO detection tools produced a signal indicating the presence of an anomaly. If
operators wished to record the UXO location data, they would use GIS or other geographic programs to calculate
the UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) grid coordinates for each flag. Since the development of automatic data-
recording devices and digital georeference systems, data quality has improved significantly. Using digital
geophysical mapping, a UXO detection device identifies the anomaly, and a differential global positioning system
locates the position of the anomaly on the earth's surface. The accuracy of the positional data depends upon site
conditions such as vegetative cover that could interfere with the GPS satellite. Under ideal conditions, however, the
differential GPS can be accurate to within several centimeters. The data are then merged and the location of each
anomaly is recorded. Therefore, flags are not needed to record and find the location of the UXO. Because digital
geophysical mapping records location data automatically, the risk of an operator missing or misrecording a location,
as occurs when operators manually record anomaly locations based on analog signals, is minimized, and the data can
be made available for future investigations and for further data processing. However, the potential exists for analyst
errors in the merging of the anomaly and positional data. Therefore, anomaly reacquisition is used to verify the field
data. Section 8.3.1.5 discusses anomaly reacquisition, and Section 4.2.3.1 describes the application of positioning
technologies to geophysical data collection.
DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles on Data Recording
A permanent record of the data gathered to characterize a site and a clear audit trail of pertinent data analysis and
resulting decisions and actions are required. To the maximum extent practicable, the permanent record shall include
sensor data that is digitally recorded and georeferenced. Exceptions to the collection of sensor data that is digitally
recorded and georeferenced should be limited primarily to emergency response actions or cases where their use is
impracticable. The permanent record shall be included in the Administrative Record. Appropriate notification
regarding the availability of this information shall be made.
8.3 Methodologies for
Identifying Munitions
Response Areas
The next key element of
your investigation will be to select
the quantity and location of
samples. In reality, there are three
questions to be answered:
Where to deploy your
detection equipment
Where and how many
anomalies are to be
excavated to see what
you have actually found
How to use the
information from
detection, anomaly
reacquisition, and
Terms Used in MEC Sampling
Because many familiar terms are used in slightly different ways in the
discussion of statistical sampling, the following definitions are
provided for clarification:
Detection - Determining the presence of geophysical anomalies
targets from system responses (UXO Center of Excellence Glossary,
2000).
Discrimination - Distinguishing the presence of UXO from non-UXO
from system responses or post-processing.
Sampling - The act of investigating a given area to determine the
presence of UXO. It may encompass both the nonintrusive detection
of surface and subsurface anomalies and excavation of anomalies.
Location - Determination of the precise geographic position of
detected UXO. Includes actions to map locations of detected UXO.
(UXO Center of Excellence Glossary, 2000).
Recovery -Removal of UXO from the location where detected (UXO
Center of Excellence Glossary, 2000).
Identification/evaluation - Determination of the specific type,
characteristics, hazards, and present condition of UXO (UXO Center
of Excellence Glossary, 2000).
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excavation to make a decision at your site
Two methodologies have been developed to answer these questions - CSM-based and
statistically based sampling. The two methods are discussed in the following sections. It is important
to remember that the methods are not mutually exclusive, but can be used together to characterize
the ordnance at your site.
8.3.1 CSM-Based Sampling Design
Your sampling design will be driven by your CSM (and the historical information gathered
to support your CSM), the purpose of the investigation, and the terrain being investigated. In the
simplest terms, two functional purposes affect the nature of your sampling design:
Purpose 1 search for munitions response sites (e.g., a target area) to determine the
possible location of munitions and the need for and location of further investigation.
Purpose 2 establish boundaries for and further characterize (e.g., ordnance type, depth)
the sites where munitions have been located to guide the risk management decision that
will lead to removal or remediation of the munitions.
Two types of geophysical survey patterns can be used to meet these two sampling purposes:
Transects take a one-dimensional "slice" of a sampling area, the width of which is the
width of the geophysical sensor.
Grids, or 100% surveys, consist of overlapping, parallel transects that are used to create
a two-dimensional map of a small, defined sampling area.
The following sections describe how and when these two patterns can be applied to
accomplish the two different sampling purposes.
8.3.1.1 Searching for Munitions Response Areas
Regularly spaced parallel transects can be used to efficiently search a large area for evidence
of concentrated areas of UXO. This approach can be especially useful to determine the location of
target areas within a known or suspected firing range, and knowledge of the weapons systems used
on the range can be used to determine appropriate search transect spacing. Field manuals for each
weapon system are maintained and provide the expected high medium and low distribution of impact
around targets under normal operating conditions. This information can be used to calculate spacing
between parallel transects that will allow for less than 100 percent sampling and provide confidence
that evidence of an impact area such as munitions fragments or UXO can be located. Figure 8-1
illustrates an example of a search using transect sampling.
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Suspected
Impact Area
Figure 8-1. Example of Search Transects
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Transect-Based Searches for Target Areas: Adak Island, Alaska
While planning the remedial investigation of Adak, the project team was faced with the issue of adequately
investigating several large combat ranges (between approximately 3,400 and 6,800 acres). These areas were
designated as combat ranges in June of 1943, during the time that much of Adak was in use as a training area for
World War II troops preparing to retake the island of Kiska from the Japanese. Preliminary site investigation results
provided evidence that at least some of the ranges had been used for live-fire 60 mm and 81 mm mortar training.
The objective of the project team was to develop an investigation approach that would be cost-effective while still
providing confidence that any target areas likely to contain UXO had been located.
The project team decided that a systematic search of the combat ranges using parallel transects would meet the
investigation objectives. An operational analysis of the weapon systems of concern was undertaken to determine
the spacing of these parallel transects. This analysis consisted of creating a "model" of the impacts that would result
from small-scale target practice, based on information contained in Army field manuals for the weapon systems.
Information from the field manuals was also used to determine the radius around an impact that would contain
fragmentation of sufficient quantity to be detected by the geophysical sensor. This information was combined to
estimate the minimum dimensions of potential target areas. The recommended spacing between the parallel transects
was set at 75 percent of these minimum dimensions in order to obtain certainty that a transect would traverse any
target areas.1
One of the key features of this approach was the agreement by the project team that fragmentation provided evidence
of potential target areas and that areas in which fragmentation was located warranted further investigation, even if
no UXO was found during the initial parallel transect search. This allowed the team to feel confident that the
majority of the combat ranges could be designated for no further action upon the completion of the remedial
investigation. The approach also located several previously unknown target areas, as well as an undocumented
ordnance disposal area.
'Conceptual Site Model-Based Sampling Design, the UXO Countermine Forum 2001.
Use of a grid pattern when performing a search is appropriate when the primary release
mechanism indicated by the CSM is loss/abandonment or unsanctioned burial (e.g., at firing points,
bivouac/encampment areas, and transfer points), and the area of the search is relatively small (see
Figure 8-2). In this case, the location and size of the grid should be determined from site
reconnaissance information and knowledge of past ordnance activities (e.g., unsanctioned burials may
have occurred near firing points). The lane spacing of the grid survey should be based on the sensor
being used, the expected depth, and the size of the expected ordnance type, and should be influenced
by the results of the geophysical prove-out.
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Suspected
Burial Location
Suspected
Firing Point
Figure 8-2. Example of a Sample Grid
8.3.1.2 Boundary Delineation and Characterization of Munitions Response Areas
Either parallel transects or the grid pattern may be used when the purpose of the sampling is
to bound and characterize an area. For example, the boundaries of a target area may be estimated
either from closely spaced transects (on the order of 5-15 meters), or from the geophysical map
produced from a grid-based survey of the area. The selection of the pattern will depend, in part, on
the terrain and vegetation of the area, the known or suspected types of ordnance in the sampling area,
and the DQOs for the sampling effort.
8.3.1.3 Site Conditions and Geophysical Sensor Capabilities
In addition to the two sampling purposes discussed above, site conditions will also play a role
in the selection of the sampling pattern. If the site terrain is open and relatively flat, a grid-based
sampling pattern can be very effective. (If your purpose is to search for UXO, it may be more
effective to start out with a transect-based design.) A transect-based design may also be more
effective if the terrain is heavily wooded or sloping, (e.g., by reducing the need for brush clearing),
regardless of the purpose of the sampling effort.
The site-specific capability of the geophysical sensor will also affect sample design. Site
conditions that lead to greater uncertainty in the performance of the sensor (e.g., very rough terrain
leading to noisy geophysical sensor data) may be a reason to increase the amount of surveying that
is done, whether by decreasing the distance between parallel transects or by increasing the overlap
between adjacent transects in a grid pattern.
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8.3.1.4 Anomaly Identification and Prioritization
After the survey has been completed, the geophysical and positional data are processed and
analyzed to identify and locate geophysical anomalies that may be MEC (see Chapter 4 for a
discussion of the anomaly identification process). The outputs from this process, often called a "dig
list," are the locations, signal amplitudes, and estimated depths of the sources of the anomalies. On
many sites, the anomalies included on the dig list are prioritized based on the geophysical analyst's
judgments about which anomalies are most likely to be caused by subsurface ordnance items. This
prioritization process is often an ad hoc form of anomaly discrimination, based on the analyst's
general and site-specific experience (see the discussion in Section 8.2). The effectiveness of this
prioritization depends on whether or not information from a geophysical prove-out has been used
successfully to inform the prioritization process, and whether the analyst is receiving and using
feedback from the anomaly excavation results.
Use of a prioritized dig list can increase the efficiency of the anomaly excavation process by
focusing the excavation efforts on the anomalies most likely to be of interest. However, a sample of
all anomalies that meet threshold criteria for identification (even those judged not likely to be
ordnance) should be excavated in order to provide information about the effectiveness of the
prioritization process.
8.3.1.5 Anomaly Reacquisition
In general, before an anomaly is excavated, its location will be "reacquired" by the anomaly
excavation team. The accuracy of anomaly locations entered on dig lists depends on both the survey
pattern and the accuracy of the positioning system used during the geophysical survey. Therefore,
the search radius used during anomaly reacquisition is another parameter that must be considered
during the development of the sampling methodology.
In general, the locations of anomalies identified from a grid survey will be more accurate than
those identified from a transect survey. This is because multiple passes of the geophysical detector
over or near an anomaly source will give the analyst more data to use to estimate its location. And
although differential global positioning system (DGPS) will provide the most accurate positional
data, site conditions (especially dense tree canopy) may preclude the use of this system, and less
accurate positioning methods may need to be used. All of these issues should be considered when
specifying the search radius to be used during anomaly reacquisition.
The other factor to consider is the geophysical sensor used to reacquire the anomaly positions.
Ideally, this will be the same device that was used to perform the original geophysical survey.
However, logistical circumstances may not make it possible to use the same device (for example, the
qualified geophysical survey personnel may have already left the site by the time anomaly excavation
is undertaken). In this case, the excavation team may use a hand-held sensor to reacquire anomaly
locations. It is important that this hand-held sensor be of the same type (magnetometer or
electromagnetic) as the sensor originally used to perform the survey.
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8.3.2 Use of Statistically Based Methodologies To Identify UXO
Given the variation in the size of the ranges investigated, a variety of statistical sampling
approaches have also been used to investigate MRS/MRAs.
This section addresses four topics pertinent to statistically based sampling: the rationale for
statistical sampling, how DoD currently uses the data from such sampling programs, regulator
concerns with the use of statistically based data, and recommendations on appropriate use of these
data to make appropriate closure decisions for a range.
8.3.2.1 Rationale for Statistical Sampling
Statistically based sampling was developed to address the limitations of noninvasive UXO
detection technologies and the use of those technologies on the large land areas that may make up
a range. Current methodologies for identifying anomalies in a suspected UXO area have various
limiting deficiencies, as described previously. The most common deficiencies include low probability
of detection and low ability to differentiate between UXO and/or fragments and background
interference (objects or natural material not related to ordnance). Thus, most detection technologies
have a moderate to high false alarm rate. This means that there is a high degree of uncertainty
associated with the data generated by the various detection methods. No analogous situation exists
for identifying compounds usually found at conventional hazardous waste sites. The problem of
highly uncertain anomaly data is magnified for three reasons:
The areas suspected of containing UXO could be hundreds or even thousands of acres;
therefore, it is often not practicable to deploy detection equipment over the entire area.
Even within sectors suspected of containing UXO, it is often not practicable to excavate
all detected anomalies during sampling to confirm whether they are in fact UXO.
Excavation to the level appropriate for the future land use is normally done during the
remediation phase.
When detection tools detect anomalies in areas where it is not known if ordnance has been
used, it is difficult to know (in the absence of excavation) if the detected anomaly is in fact
ordnance.
Statistically based sampling methods were developed to address the issue of how to
effectively characterize a range area without conducting either nonintrusive detection or intrusive
sampling on 100 percent of the land area. Statistically based sampling methods extrapolate the results
of small sample areas to larger areas.
8.3.2.2 Historical Use of Statistical Sampling Tools
A variety of statistical sampling methodologies exist, each serving a different purpose, and
each with its own strengths and weaknesses. The two common statistical sampling tools historically
used by DoD are SiteStats/GridStats and the UXO Calculator. The general principles of the two
approaches are similar. First, the sector is evaluated to determine if it is homogeneous. If it is not
homogeneous, a subsector is then evaluated for homogeneity, and so forth, until the area to be
investigated is determined to be homogeneous. The sampling area is divided into a series of grids and
detection devices used to identify subsurface anomalies. The software, using an underlying
probability distribution, randomly generates the location and number of subsequent samples within
a grid, or the user can select the location of subsequent samples. Based on the results of each dig, the
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model determines which and how many additional anomalies to excavate, when to move on to the
next grid, and when enough information is known to characterize the grid. (See the following text box
for a discussion of homogeneity.)
The Importance of Homogeneity
The applicability of statistical sampling depends on whether the sector being sampled is representative of the larger
site. Statistical sampling as incorporated in SiteStats/GridStats and UXO Calculator assumes that a sector is
homogeneous in terms of the likelihood of UXO being present, the past and future land uses, the types of munitions
used and likely to be found, the depths at which UXO is suspected, and the soils and geology. Because statistical
sampling assumes an equal probability of detecting UXO in one location as in another, if the distribution of UXO
is not truly homogeneous, the sampling methodologies could overlook UXO items. Environmental conditions such
as soils and geology affect the depth and orientation at which munitions land on or beneath the ground surface. If,
on one part of a range, munitions hit bedrock within a few inches of the ground surface, they will be much closer
to the surface (and probably easier to detect) than others that hit sandy soil on top of deeper bedrock. In addition,
different types and sizes of munitions reach greater depths beneath the surface.
Attempts to assess homogeneity can include, but should not be limited to, the following activities: conducting
extensive historical research about the types of munitions employed and the boundaries of the range, surveying the
site, or using previously collected geophysical data.
There are two main differences between SiteStats/GridStats and the UXO Calculator. First,
the technologies typically used for input differ. SiteStats/GridStats is most commonly used with a
detection tool or combination of tools, whereas UXO Calculator is used with both a detection tool
and a digital geophysical mapping device. Second, SiteStats/GridStats produces a UXO density
estimate based only on the statistical model. The data from SiteStats/GridStats are then input into
OECert, a model that contains a risk management tool as well as a screening-level estimator for the
cost of remediation.121
The SiteStats/GridStats results are generally presented as having a confidence level that is
based on a set of assumptions and may not be justified. The UXO density estimates are often used
as input to OECert to evaluate the public risk and to estimate the cost of removal alternatives. The
OECert model compares the costs of remediation alternatives to the number of public exposures
likely under each remediation scenario. The model then develops recommendations that minimize
remediation costs. The risk levels used for the recommendations are acceptable to the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers (USACE).122
UXO Calculator also estimates UXO density, but the program contains an additional risk
management tool that allows the operator to input an assumed acceptable UXO density based on land
use, assuming UXO distribution is homogeneous within a sector. UXO Calculator then calculates the
number of samples required to determine if this density has been exceeded. However, acceptable
UXO target densities are neither known nor approved by regulators. As with SiteStats/GridStats, the
121"Site/Grid Statistical Sampling Based Methodology Documentation," available at USACE website:
www/hnd/usace.army.mil/oew/policy/sitestats/siteindx.htm.
122U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Ordnance and Explosives Cost Effectiveness Risk Tool (OECert), Final
Report (Version E), Huntsville, AL: Ordnance and Explosives Mandatory Center for Excellence, 1995.
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sample size obtained is also based on an assumption of homogeneity within a sector. The UXO
Calculator software contains a density estimation model, risk management tool, and cost estimator
tool. The risk management tool requires assumptions about land use and from that information
assumes a value for the number of people who will frequent a site. The justification of the land use
assumptions and the resulting population exposure are not well documented.
Table 8-1 summarizes these two tools and their strengths and weaknesses. Table 8-2 identifies
four survey patterns and summarizes their strengths, weaknesses, and applications.
Table 8-1. UXO Calculator and SiteStats/GridStats
Statistical
Sampling
Method
UXO Calculator
Site Stats/
GridStats
Description
Determines the size of
the area to be
investigated in order to
meet investigation goals,
confidence levels in
ordnance contamination
predications, and UXO
density in a given area.
Random sampling is
based on a computer
program. Usually less
than 5 percent of a total
site is investigated and
25 to 33 percent of
anomalies detected are
excavated.
Strengths and
Weaknesses
Investigates a very small
area to prove to varying
levels of confidence that
a site is "safe" for
transfer. All
computations are based
on an assumption of
sector homogeneity with
respect to UXO
distribution.
Potentially huge gaps
between sampling plots,
very small investigation
areas, no consideration
of fragments or areas
suspected of
contamination. Relies on
a rarely valid
assumption that UXO
contamination is
uniformly distributed.
Hot spots may not be
identified.
Intensity
of
Coverage
Low
Low
Typical DoD Use
Used with digital
geophysical mapping data.
Used to make a yes or no
decision as to the presence
or absence of ordnance.
Used to determine
confidence levels in
ordnance contamination
predictions.
Designed for use with Mag
and Flag data. Reduces the
required amount of
excavation to less than 50
percent of levels required
by other techniques. Used
by DoD to extrapolate
results to larger area.
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Table 8-2. General Summary of Statistical Geophysical Survey Patterns
Survey
Patterns
Fixed pattern
sampling
Hybrid grid
sampling
Transect
sampling
Meandering
path sampling
Description
Survey conducted along
evenly spaced grids. A
percentage of the site (e.g.,
10 percent) is investigated.
Biased grids investigated in
areas suspected of
contamination or in areas
with especially large gaps
between SiteStats/GridStats
sampling plots.
Survey conducted along
evenly spaced transects.
Survey conducted along a
serpentine grid path through
entire site using GPS and
digital geophysical
mapping.
Strengths and
Weaknesses
Even coverage of entire
site. Gaps between
plots can be minimized.
Compensates for some
of the limitations of
SiteStats/GridStats.
Relies on invalid
assumption that UXO
contamination is
uniformly distributed.
Used in areas with high
UXO concentrations.
Reduced distances
between sampling
points; environmentally
benign because
vegetation clearance is
not required. Digital
geophysical mapping
records anomaly
locations with
improved accuracy.
Intensity
of
Coverage
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Typical DoD Use
Useful for locating hot spots
and for testing clean sites.
Used to direct sampling
activity to make site
determinations.
Useful for locating
boundaries of high-density
UXO areas.
Used to direct sampling
activity to make site
determinations in
ecologically sensitive areas.
*Any of these survey patterns may include limited excavation of anomalies to verify findings.
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DoD/EPA Interim Final Management Principles
on Statistical Sampling
Site characterization may be accomplished
through a variety of methods, used individually or in
concert with one another, and including, but not
limited to, records searches, site visits, or actual data
acquisition, such as sampling. Statistical or other
mathematical analyses (e.g., models) should
recognize the assumptions embedded within those
analyses. Those assumptions, along with the intended
uses of the analyses, should be communicated at the
front end to the regulators and the communities so the
results may be better understood. Statistical or other
mathematical analyses should be updated to include
actual site data as it becomes available.
8.3.2.3 Regulator Concerns Regarding the Historical Use of Statistical Sampling Tools
The use of statistical sampling is a
source of debate between the regulatory
community (EPA and the States) and DoD.123
Faced with large land areas requiring investi-
gation, and the high costs of such investigation,
DoD has used several statistical approaches to
provide an estimate of the UXO density at a
site as a basis for selecting remedies or making
no-action decisions. Regulatory concerns have
generally focused on four areas: (1) the
inability of site personnel to demonstrate that
the assumptions of statistical sampling have
been met, (2) the extrapolation of statistical
sampling results to a larger range area without
confirmation or verification, (3) the use of the
density estimates in risk algorithms to make
management decisions regarding the acceptable
future use of the area, and (4) the use of statistical sampling alone to make site-based decisions.
Criticisms of statistical sampling have centered around the use of the statistical tools embodied in the
SiteStats/GridStats, and UXO Calculator. However, some of the criticisms may be applicable to
other statistical methods as well. Criticisms include the following:
Historically, the use of statistical sampling tools has been based on assumptions that the
area being sampled is homogeneous in terms of the number of anomalies, geology,
topography, soils, types of munitions used and depths at which they are likely to be found,
and other factors. Often, too little is known to ensure that the statistical sampling
assumptions are met and the procedures used to test sector homogeneity are not effective
enough to detect sector nonhomogeneity.
Statistical procedures used in SiteStats/GridStats to determine when the sector has been
sufficiently characterized and to test sector homogeneity are not statistically valid.
In practice, statistical procedures are often overridden by ad hoc procedures; however, the
subsequent analysis does not take this into account.
The use of statistical techniques often results in the sampling of a relatively small area in
comparison with the size of the total area suspected of contamination. The small sampling
area may not necessarily be representative of the larger area.
The ability of statistical sampling to identify UXO in areas where munitions activities
occurred is questionable.
The capabilities of current statistical methods to identify hot spots are limited.
A nonconforming distribution may not be identified by the program and thus not be
adequately investigated.
123"Interim Guidance on the Use of SiteStats/GridStats and Other Army Corps of Engineers Statistical
Techniques Used to Characterize Military Ranges." Memo from James E. Woolford, Director, EPA Federal Facilities
Restoration and Reuse Office, to EPA Regional Superfund National Policy Managers, January 19, 2001.
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The distances between sampling grids are often large.
Relying exclusively on actual UXO effectively ignores UXO fragments as potential
indicators of nearby UXO.
Confidence statements based on the assumed probability distribution do not account for
uncertainties in the detection data.
Confidence statements also relate to an expected land use that is not carefully justified.
Results of confirmatory sampling are not presented or summarized in a manner that
allows a regulator to evaluate the quality and limitations of the data that are used in the
risk management algorithms.
There is no sensitivity analysis of the applicability of the risk management tools to the
input parameters. For example, there is nothing analogous to EPA's "most probable,"
"most exposed individual," and "worst case" assumptions for baseline risk assessments
at Superfund sites.
The levels of exposure risks developed by the OECert program have not been accepted
by regulators or the public.
8.3.2.4 Recommendations on the Use of Statistical Sampling
In general, regulatory agencies believe that statistical sampling is best used as a screening tool
or to provide preliminary information that will be confirmed during the clearance process.
Statistically based sampling tools, when used in conjunction with other tools, may be used for the
following purposes:
Prioritizing range areas for thorough investigation and/or clearance
Analyzing the practicality and cost of different clearance approaches, as well as the
usefulness of different remedial alternatives
Establishing the potential costs of clearance for different land uses
Facilitating a determination of which land uses may be appropriate following
remediation, and the levels and types of institutional controls to be imposed
Regulatory agencies also believe that statistical sampling alone should not be used to make
no-action decisions. Other significant data also will be required, including the following:
Extensive historical information
Groundtruthing (comparing the results of statistical sampling to actual site conditions) of
randomly selected areas to which results will be extrapolated
Even the use of historical and groundtruth information, combined with statistical sampling
results, will be suspect when the presence of ordnance fragments suggests that active range-related
activities occurred in the past. Range investigation practices are evolving, but many regulatory and
technical personnel agree that statistical sampling tools must be used in conjunction with the other
elements of the systematic planning process (including historical research). In examining the use
of statistical sampling tools, you should consider the following:
The assumptions on which statistical sampling techniques are based should be both
clearly documented and appropriate to the particular site under investigation.
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The density estimates from the statistical sampling procedure should be carefully
scrutinized and computed using statistically correct algorithms.
Any risk estimates based on computer algorithms (e.g., OECert) should be
adequately documented for regulatory review.
Given the size of many MRAs, it is likely that some form of statistical sampling will be used
at your site. Decisions regarding the acceptability of statistical sampling involve the following
issues:
The nature of the decision to be made
Agreement on the criteria on which the decision will be made
Agreement on the assumptions and decision rules that are used in the statistical
model
The level of confidence in the detection technology
The use and amount of anomaly reacquisition and excavation to verify findings of
detection technology
The presentation of these data, summarized in an appropriate format
The quality and quantity of information from historical investigations
8.3.2.5 Research and Development of New Statistical Sampling Tools
The perceived ongoing need for statistical sampling has led the DoD's Strategic
Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP) to identify as high priority any projects
that have the potential to develop "defensible statistical sampling schemes for bounding UXO
contaminated areas." Three research projects in the MEC and UXO arena are currently under way.
Statistical Methods and Tools for UXO Site Characterization This proj ect will evaluate
and develop statistical methods and tools that can be used for characterization and verification plans
and data evaluation schemes. The development of the statistical sampling methods and tools will be
consistent with the EPA's data quality objective (DQO) process. This process is used to plan any
characterization activity to ensure that the right type, quantity, and quality of data are gathered to
support confident decision-making. It is intended that the methods will strike an appropriate balance
between the probability of missing UXO and the costs of characterization or unnecessary remediation
(false positives). Statistical methods will be evaluated, adapted, or developed, and prototype tools
will be developed and demonstrated. The methods will allow quick evaluation of trade-offs involving
costs, risk of missing UXO, acceptable probabilities for decision errors, percentage of the site
characterized or the number of swaths, false-positive error rates, grid sizes, etc. One statistical tool
developed under this program is the Visual Sample Plan (VSP) software tool (developed by Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory through a SERDP-sponsored proj ect) for developing and visualizing
transect survey design. The methods incorporate elements of the DQO approach for developing an
optimal transect sampling design based on specified decision rules and tolerable decision error
probabilities. Site-specific DQOs are specified and transect patterns (parallel, square, rectangular, or
meandering) are identified and visually displayed using VSP. The VSP software is used to illustrate
decision rules and associated transect sampling schemes that will provide the user's required high
probability of traversing and detecting a target area of concern of specified size, shape, and anomaly
(or UXO) density.
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Bayesian Approach to UXO Site Characterization with Incorporation of Geophysical
Information The objective of this project is to develop a sampling protocol for estimating the
intensity of UXO contamination across a site. This protocol uses an inherently Bayesian approach
that allows for incorporation of historical information and geophysical data into the site
characterization process. This protocol will use a sample optimization procedure to be incorporated
to allow for straightforward field deployment of this characterization approach. A data worth
framework will be used to optimize sampling locations and to determine when characterization is
complete.
Statistical Spatial Models and Optimal Survey Design for Rapid Geophysical
Characterization of UXO Sites This project seeks to identify the mathematical foundations and
statistical protocols in the domain of point process theory of spatial statistics by focusing on three
objectives: (1) develop the statistical spatial models needed to produce the mathematical foundation
for UXO distribution characterization, (2) develop optimal sampling strategies using experimental
survey design, and (3) improve confidence levels for contamination estimates from measured data
by improving discrimination techniques.
8.4 Incorporating QA/QC Measures Throughout the Investigation
Quality assurance and quality control should be incorporated into every aspect of your
investigation. Begin planning for quality at the start of a project by developing DQOs and standard
operating procedures (SOPs). Throughout the process, all data should be managed so as to provide
an auditable trail of all data points and every geophysical anomaly detected.
The quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) requirements for MEC investigations
differ from other types of environmental investigations because of the unique characteristics of MEC
and the tools available for characterizing MRSs. For example, the probability of detection when using
any detection system depends on site-specific conditions; therefore, the technology and its capability
(performance criteria) must be established for each site at which it will be used. You can determine
the effectiveness by conducting tests of the technology on seeded areas representative of the range
itself, using the sampling methods to be used in the actual investigation. Similarly, because of the
complexities of operating detection systems and analyzing detection data, and the potential
ramifications of mischaracterizing an area as clear, operator and analyst skills and capabilities are of
paramount importance. Therefore, all personnel working on a site must be appropriately trained and
qualified to work on the site using the detection system that will be used. What does not differ from
other types of environmental investigations is the applicability of using a graded approach to the
QA/QC of the investigation.
The resources dedicated to QA/QC should be appropriate to the kind of decision being made
(e.g., preliminary screening vs. definitive determination of site response), as well as the size and
complexity of the investigation. Specific QA/QC measures that could be taken include the following:
Development of data quality objectives DQOs should clearly relate to the data
being collected and to the decisions being made. The DQOs should state the acceptable
levels of uncertainty and provide acceptance criteria for assessing data quality.
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Sampling and analysis plan The geophysical survey and the intrusive investigation
should be based on a comprehensive CSM. The sampling methods should consider
release mechanisms and weapons systems. All primary sources should be addressed and
follow-up searches should be performed.
Geophysical prove-out The geophysical prove-out is used to select the geophysical
equipment to be used. In this process, the performance of the geophysical equipment is
assessed in conditions representative of the actual field conditions, sampling methods to
be used, and targets likely to be encountered at specific depths. In general, the capability
of the detection instruments to meet project-specific performance requirements is
demonstrated in the field using geophysical prove-out sites in areas that have geology
and topography similar to the area being investigated. The accuracy of this
demonstration depends on the number, types, orientations, and depths of the test items
buried in the prove-out site. Various metrics can be used to assess this capability,
including probability of detection at a specified confidence level, maximum required
detection depth, and geophsycial sensor signal and noise characteristics. Project goals
may be based on any or all of these measures, and the geophysical prove-out design
should support the assessment of the detection process performance against these
metrics.
Geophysical qualification All members of the geophysical survey team are qualified
by demonstrating their ability to meet prove-out performance results to ensure precision
of geophysical data. An example of qualification for surface sweeps would be "search
effectiveness probability validation," which is used to test the team and the detection
equipment. In search effectiveness probability validation, the area being investigated is
"salted" with controlled inert ordnance items that are flagged or collected as the sweep
team proceeds through the salted area. The number of items planted collected is
compared with the total number of items planted, and a percentage for search
effectiveness probability is calculated.
Site preparation Prior to the geophysical survey, the site is prepared by setting
survey stakes and by removing all metallic debris that could mask subsurface anomalies.
In this process, all ordnance-related items found on the surface are documented and
removed.
Geophysical survey The output of the geophysical survey is geophysical and
positional data about subsurface anomalies encountered. The results of the survey are
affected by the method used to collect positional data and by the performance of the field
team. Quality control is conducted on the geophysical survey using several mechanisms:
(1) confirmation of proper functioning of detectors, (2) field surveillance to confirm
adherence to SOPs, and (3) independent resurvey of a portion of the area under
investigation. UXO survey teams may independently perform distance or angular
measurements two times to identify deviations resulting from human error. For
geophysical mapping performed without digital geophysical reference systems,
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid coordinate values created in GIS or other
geographic programs are verified by QC teams using a differential GPS to ensure correct
target locations.
Anomaly identification The merged geophysical and positional data are analyzed
to identify and locate anomalies. The QC aspects of anomaly identification include
accurately merging data points, incorporating feedback from intrusive investigations, and
applying objective criteria to the identification process.
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Anomaly reacquisition Areas in which anomalies were initially detected are
reexamined, and the estimated anomaly location is flagged. This process helps to ensure
the accuracy of the anomaly location and depth data.
Anomaly excavation Sources of anomalies are identified and excavated, and the
cleared hole is then verified by a detector. Results are fed back into the anomaly
identification process. Quality control is then conducted over the entire area to ensure
that anomalies have been excavated.
Quality Control Program The contractor responsible for implementation of the
investigation should have a comprehensive quality control program, including planned
periodic surveillance of both field and data processing and analysis activities, as well as
quality control acceptance sampling after the completion of fieldwork to confirm the
adequacy of the work done.
8.5 Devising an Investigation Strategy for Munitions Constituents
This section introduces unique considerations in the design of an investigation strategy for
determining the nature and extent of contamination from munitions constituents. Two aspects of
the investigation strategy are discussed: the location and type of sample to be taken and methods for
chemical analysis.
8.5.1 Sampling Strategy
As with a more routine hazardous waste site, the manner in which sampling is conducted
represents the greatest potential for uncertainty and error to be introduced into the environmental
decision process. However, increasing evidence from extensive studies by the Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL)124 suggests that, given the extreme spatial
heterogeneity of munition constituents, sampling of contaminated soils should be approached
differently than the traditional hazardous waste investigation.
8.5.1.1 Knowing Where To Sample
A good sampling strategy should be based on a clear CSM that indicates all primary source
and release mechanisms associated with each ordnance-related activity. The more you know about
the ordnance activities on the site, the more representative the locations will be of ordnance-related
contamination in that area of concern. Tables 7-1 through 7-6 in Chapter 7 show examples of
ordnance-related activities and associated sources, release mechanisms, and expected MEC
contamination. Thorough examination of historical records, aerial photographs, and base operational
records will facilitate sufficient reconstruction of past ordnance-related operations. In many cases,
however, design of an effective strategy for munitions constituents will depend on having the results
of the MEC investigation. Confirming the location of target areas (and associated low-order
detonations), firing points, and detonation areas will be a prerequisite for knowing where to sample.
124T.F. Jenkins, P.O. Thorne, S. Thiboutot, G. Ampleman, and T. Ranney. Copingwith Spatial Heterogeneity
Effects on Sampling and Analysis at an HMX-Contaminated Antitank Firing Range, Field Analytical Chemistry and
Technology 3(1): 19-28, 1999.
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8.5.1.2 Collecting Soil Samples
Recent research by CRREL suggests that composite sampling provides a more accurate
depiction of soil concentrations of MC. This same research also suggests that use of field analytical
techniques is beneficial in a number of respects and has a high level of agreement with the use of
off-site analytical methods for measuring MC. The use of field analytical methods also has the
advantage of increasing sample density and, therefore, improving sample representativeness.
The traditional approach to collecting samples for chemical analysis uses large sampling
grids and a small number of discrete samples. Usually, suspect areas of sites are divided into grids
with dimensions ranging from tens to hundreds of meters. This approach involves the collection of
a single core sample within a grid. The sample is divided into depth intervals, which are analyzed
at an off-site commercial laboratory. Contaminant concentrations obtained from discrete sample
analysis are then compared with background levels and action levels established for the site to
determine the need for cleanup. This approach assumes that contaminant concentrations in the
samples adequately represent the average concentrations within grid boundaries.
The problem with this approach in sampling for MC contamination is the spatial
heterogeneity of munitions constituents. Concentrations of MC in adjacent soil samples may vary
exponentially; therefore, you may miss the presence of MC altogether if too few samples are taken
or the sampling locations are not correctly placed.
Sampling for any chemical residue is affected by the spatial heterogeneity of the residue.
In traditional chemical residue sampling, the cause of the heterogeneity may be spills or leaks that
occur in several locations, or hot spots. In addition, concentrations vary depending on the distance
from the source and on the different fate and transport mechanisms that work on the particular
chemicals of concern (e.g., the degree to which particular chemicals adsorb to soil, are taken up in
plants, or are taken up in solution during rain events). However, in general, the traditional chemical
release is expected to follow a pattern of concentration flow from the release point based on known
characteristics of the chemical and its common fate and transport mechanisms.
In the case of explosive material, substantial research conducted by CRREL has
demonstrated that the manner in which explosive residues are distributed when released by an
explosive force results in such a heterogeneous distribution of material that soil samples taken right
next to each other can show vastly different concentrations. One sample may be a nondetect, while
another a few feet away may show concentrations above action levels. Conducting a traditional risk
assessment using discrete samples may cause the risk assessment to erroneously report no risk,
simply because the munitions constituents were missed.
Recent studies illustrated that compositing samples provides more representative data for
characterization of an area suspected of being contaminated with explosive compounds than
analyzing discrete samples does.125'126 The following paragraphs present the results of the studies.
125T.F. Jenkins, M.E. Walsh. Field-Based Analytical Methods for Explosive Compounds. USA Engineer
Research and Development Center, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.
126T.F. Jenkins, C.L. Grant, G.S. Brar, P.O. Thorne, P.W. Schumacher, and T.A. Raney. Sampling Error
Associated with Collection and Analysis of Soil Samples at TNT Contaminated Sites, Field Analytical Chemistry and
Technology 1: 151-163 (1997).
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In both studies, seven discrete samples were collected with a hand corer in a wheel pattern
(radius 61 cm) and field analyzed for TNT, HMX, and RDX. The results of the discrete sampling
over a very short distance indicate a wide range of concentrations. Figure 8-3 shows the sampling
scheme and the results of the discrete samples. The resulting comparison of the composite sample
analysis as compared with the mean of the discrete sample results is shown on Figure 8-4. Each of
the sampling points are two feet apart.
Figure 8-4 shows that the resulting standard deviation is much lower with composite
sampling. All duplicate samples were sent to an independent commercial laboratory for analysis
with acetonitrile extraction and RP-HPLC-UX as described in EPA Method 8330. The results of the
laboratory analysis are also presented in Figure 8-4.
331 On-site
286 Lab
500 On-site
416 Lab
1,280 On-site
1,220 Lab
24,400 On-site.
27,700 Lab
39,800 On-site
41,400 Lab
164 On-site
136 Lab
27,800 On-site
42,800 Lab
Figure 8-3. Sampling Scheme for Short-Range Heterogeneity Study: Monite Site, Sampling
Location 1; Major Analyte: TNT (mg/kg)
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Sampling Location
Monite, location 1
Monite, location 2
Monite, location 3
Hawthorne, location 4
Hawthorne, location 5
Hawthorne, location 6
Major Analyte
TNT
DNT
TNT
TNT
TNT
Ammonium Picrate
Field or
Lab
F
L
F
L
F
L
F
L
F
L
F
L
Discrete Samples
Mean
13,500
16,300
16,100
34,800
19.8
12.9
1,970
2,160
156
168
869
901
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
SD*
16,800
20,200
11,700
42,200
42.0
29.0
1,980
2,160
121
131
1,600
1,600
Composite Samples
Mean
13,100
14,100
23,800
33,600
12.6
4.16
1,750
2,000
139
193
970
1,010
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
SD
532
1,420
3,140
2,390
1.2
0.7
178
298
16.6
7.7
32
92
*The discrete sample standard deviations for locations 1,2,3, and 6 are larger than their
corresponding means because the results from these locations are not distributed normally.
(Source: T.F. Jenkins, M.E. Walsh. Field-Based Analytical Methods for Explosive Compounds.)
Figure 8-4. Results of Composite and Discrete Samples: Soil Analyses: On-Site and
Laboratory Methods, Monite Site and Hawthorne AAP (Source: Ibid.)
These findings reinforce the hypothesis that preparing a homogeneous and representative
composite from a set of discrete samples is feasible and does not require sophisticated equipment
nor exceptional time or effort. The use of composite samples also seems to effectively deal with the
spatial heterogeneity associated with explosive residues.
In addition, the studies also indicate that distribution of explosive material within one field
sample can vary so significantly that it can misrepresent the true concentration of explosive
constituents in the area. To compound the matter even further, the traditional laboratory approach
to soil sample preparation of a field sample usually involves taking a small amount of soil material
from the top of the field sample container. This approach may miss explosive constituents
altogether. For this reason, subsamples should be taken within a composite sample, with sample
preparation consisting of mixing and grinding. CRREL studies have shown that mixing and grinding
samples and subsamples can solve the problem.
There are many acceptable ways to collect and combine area-integrated samples into
composite samples. The specific procedure chosen should be tailored to the conditions at the site to
be characterized. By combining the ability to produce representative samples using on-site
homogenization and compositing with the ability to obtain accurate analytical estimates with on-site
methods, site investigators can minimize the problem of spatial heterogeneity for explosives-
contaminated areas and the high costs normally associated with this sampling effort.
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8.5.2 Selecting Analytical Methodologies
Two approaches may be used to determine the presence and concentration of munitions and
munitions constituents in the environment. One approach is to conduct analysis in the field. This
approach generates quantitative and qualitative data, depending on the exact method chosen, the
compounds present, and their concentration range. The other approach is to collect samples in the
field and analyze the samples in a laboratory. The laboratory can be either an on-site mobile
laboratory or an off-site fixed laboratory. However, all shipments of materials with elevated
concentrations of explosives must be conducted under Department of Transportation hazardous
material transportation requirements.
The integrated use of both on-site field methods and laboratory methods provides a
comprehensive tool for determining the horizontal and vertical extent of contamination, identifying
potential detonation hazards, indicating the volume of contaminated media requiring remediation,
and determining whether remediation activities have met the cleanup goals.
Field analysis provides nearly immediate results, usually in less than 2 hours, at lower costs
than laboratory methods. It has been thought in general that field analysis is less accurate than
laboratory methods (especially near the quantitation limit), that the methods have lower selectivity
when the samples contain mixtures of munitions constituents, and that they are subject to more
interferences. For these reasons, it was common practice that a set percentage of samples, between
10 and 20 percent of the total samples, was sent to a laboratory for additional analysis. In addition,
fixed laboratory methods offer greater specificity, as most field methods respond to classes of
munitions constituents.
However, recent studies described in the previous section may cause the reevaluation of this
common practice. These studies demonstrate that the use of composite sampling, combined with
on-site sample analysis and appropriate representative confirmation of results at an off-site
environmental laboratory, (less than the typical 10 to 20 percent described above) can significantly
reduce costs while maintaining accuracy.
8.5.3 Field Methods
Because of the heterogeneous distribution of explosive compounds in the environment, field
analytical methods can be a cost-effective way to assess the nature and extent of contamination. The
large number of samples that can be collected, combined with the relative speed with which data can
be generated using field analysis, allows investigators to redirect the sampling during a sampling
event.
Two basic types of on-site analytical methods are widely used for explosives in soil:
colorimetric and immunoassay. Colorimetric methods generally detect broad classes of compounds,
such as nitroaromatics, including TNT, or nitramines, such as RDX, while immunoassay methods are
more compound-specific. Most on-site analytical methods have a detection range at or near 1 mg/kg
for soil and 0.07 to 15 g/L for water.
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Because TNT orRDX or both are usually present in explosives-contaminated soils, focusing
on these two compounds during sampling can quickly identify areas of contamination. Studies of
sampling and analysis at a number of explosives-contaminated sites reported "hits" of TNT or RDX
in 72 percent of the contaminated soil samples collected and up to 94 percent of water samples
collected that contained munition residues.127'128 Another source reported that at least 95 percent of
the soils contaminated with secondary explosive residues contained TNT and/or RDX.129 Thus, the
use of field methods for both of these compounds can be effective in characterizing explosives
contamination at a site.
Field methods can be subject to positive matrix interferences from humic substances found
in soils. For colorimetric methods, these interferences can be significant for samples containing less
than 10 mg/kg of the target compound. In the presence of these interferences, many immunoassay
methods can give sample results that are biased high compared to laboratory results. Commonly
applied fertilizers, such as nitrates and nitrites, also interfere with many of these methods. Therefore,
it is considered good practice to send a percentage of the samples collected to a fixed laboratory for
confirmatory analysis.
Colorimetric methods treat a sample with an organic solvent, such as acetone, to extract the
explosives. For example, for soil, a 2 to 20 gram sample is extracted with 6.5 to 100 mL of acetone.
After 1 to 3 minutes, the acetone is removed and filtered. A strong base, such as potassium
hydroxide, is added to the acetone, and the resulting solution's absorbency at a specific light
wavelength is measured using a spectrophotometer. The resulting intensity is compared with a
control sample to obtain the concentration of the compound of interest.
Colorimetric methods, though designated for a specific compound, such as TNT or RDX,
will respond to chemically similar compounds. For example, the TNT methods will respond to TNB,
DNB, 2,4-DNT, and 2,6-DNT. The RDX methods will respond to HMX. Therefore, if the target
compound, TNT or RDX, is the only compound present, the method will measure it. If multiple
compounds are present, the concentration that you determine will be influenced by the presence of
the interfering compound.
127A.B. Crockett et al. Field Sampling and Selecting On-Site Analytical Methods for Explosives in Soils, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/540/R-97/501, November 1996.
128 A.B. Crockett et al. Field Sampling and Selecting On-Site Analytical Methods for Explosives in Water, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/S-99/002, May 19, 1999.
129Thomas F. Jenkins et al. Laboratory and Analytical Methods for Explosives Residues in Soil, U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, N.H.
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The various immunoassay and biosensor
methods differ considerably. However, the
underlying basis can be illustrated by one of the
simpler methods. Antibodies specific for TNT
are linked to solid particles. The contaminated
media are extracted and the TNT molecules in
the extract are captured by the solid particles. A
color-developing solution is added. The pre-
sence or absence of TNT is determined by
comparing it to a color card or a field test meter.
Whereas colorimetric methods will
respond to other chemically similar compounds,
immunoassay methods are more specific to a
particular compound. For example, the TNT
immunoassay methods will also respond to a
percentage of TNB, 2,4-DNT, and 2,6-DNT
when multiple nitroaromatic compounds are
present. The RDX immunoassay method has
very little response (less than 3 percent) to other
nitramines such as HMX.
The explosive compounds that can be
detected by colorimetric and immunoassay
methods are indicated in Table 8-3. In addition,
TNT and RDX can be detected and measured in
water samples using biosensor methods.
Examples of Field Analytical Methods
The EXPRAY Kit (Plexus Scientific) is the simplest
colorimetric screening kit. It is useful for screening
surfaces and unknown solids. It can also be used to
provide qualitative tests for soil. It has a detection limit
of about 20 nanograms. Each kit contains three spray
cans:
EXPRAY 1 - Nitroaromatics (TNT)
EXPRAY 2 - Nitramines (RDX) and nitrate
esters (NG)
EXPRAY 3 - Black powder, ANFO
EnSys Colorimetric Test Kits (EPA S W-846 Methods
8515 and 8510) consist of separate colorimetric
methods for TNT and RDX/HMX. The TNT test will
also respond to 2,4-DNT, tetryl, and TNB. The
RDX/HMX test will also respond to NG, PETN, NC,
and tetryl. It is also subject to interference from the
nitrate ion unless an optional ion exchange step is used.
The results of these kits in the field correlate well with
SW-846 Method 8330.
DTECH Immunoassay Test Kits (EPA SW-846
Methods 4050 and 4051) are immunoassay methods
for TNT and RDX. Immunoassay assay tests are more
selective than colorimetric test kits. The results are
presented as concentration ranges. These ranges
correlate well with SW-846 Method 8330.
The EPA Environmental Technology Verification
Program (http://www.epa.gov/etv) continues to test
new methods.
Table 8-3. Explosive Compounds Detectable by Common Field Analytical Methods
Compound
Colorimetric Test
Immunoassay Test
Nitroaromatics
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
1,3-Dinitrobenzene (DNB)
1,3,5-Trinitrobenzene (TNB)
2,4-Dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT)
2,6-Dinitrotoluene (2,6-DNT)
Methyl-2,4,6-trinitrophenylnitramine (Tetryl)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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Table 8-3. Explosive Compounds Detectable by Common Field Analytical Methods
(continued)
Compound
Colorimetric Test
Immunoassay Test
Nitramines
Hexahydro-l,3,5-trinitro-l,3,5-triazine(RDX)
Octahydro-l,3,5,7-tetranitro-l,3,5,7-
tetrazocine (HMX)
Nitrocellulose
Nitroglycerine
Nitroguanidine
PETN
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Figure 8-5 illustrates the results of regression analysis of the TNT results from the on-site
colorimetric method compared with those of the laboratory HPLC method. The slope is very close
to 1.0, which indicates that the on-site method provides essentially the same level of accuracy as the
laboratory method. In addition, the correlation coefficient is high and the intercept value is low.
£
T3
30
25
20
15
10
5
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percent or less, depending on the specific compound), the possibility of detonation increases with
the preparation of samples for analysis. Caution must be employed when using gas chromatography
methods for the analysis of these compounds. Other problems exist when using gas chromatography
due to the thermal lability and likelihood of degradation of certain compounds (e.g., HMX). These
compounds are also very polar; thus, the use of the nonpolar solvents used in typical semivolatile
analytical methods is not recommended.
8.5.4.1 EPA Method 8330
Samples containing or suspected of containing explosive compounds are usually analyzed
using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet detection. If explosive
compounds are detected, then the samples must be rerun using a second, different HPLC column for
confirmation. The currently approved EPA method is SW-846 Method 8330, which provides for the
detection of parts per billion (ppb) of explosive compounds in soil, water, and sediments.130
The compounds that can be detected and quantified by Method 8330 are listed in the text box
to the right.
Samples can be extracted with methanol
or acetonitrile for TNT, but acetonitrile is
preferred for RDX. The sample extracts are
injected into the HPLC and eluted with a
m eth an ol-water mixture. The
estimatedquantitation limits in soil can range
from 0.25 mg/kg to 2.2 mg/kg for each
compound. The estimated quantitation limits in
water can range from 0.02 to 0.84 g/L for low-
level samples and 4.0 to 14.0 g/L for high-
level samples. However, Method 8330 can give
false positive results, especially at low
concentrations. In such cases, the use of a liquid
chromatography-mass spectrometry method,
such as 8321, should be used for definitive
confirmation. (See 8.5.4.3.)
8.5.4.2 EPA Method 8095
Compounds That Can Be Detected and Quantified
by SW-846 Method 8330 (EPA)
1,3-Dinitrobenzene (DNB)
1,3,5-Trinitrobenzene (TNB)
2-Amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2AmDNT)
2-Nitrotoluene
2,4-Dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT)
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
2,6-Dinitrotoluene (2,6-DNT)
3-Nitrotoluene
4-Amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4AmDNT)
4-Nitrotoluene
Hexahydro-l,3,5-trinitro-l,3,5-triazine (RDX)
Methyl-2,4,6-trinitrophenylnitramine (Tetryl)
Nitrobenzene
Octahydro-l,3,5,7-tetranitro-l,3,5,7-tetrazocine
(HMX)
Method 8330, described above, is the standard EPA test method for explosive compounds.
However, Method 8330 has a number of problems associated with it. These problems include high
solvent usage, multiple compound coelutions (one or more compounds coming out at the same time)
in sample matrices with complex mixtures, and long run times. In order to address these problems,
EPA Method 8095 has been proposed as an alternative analytical method.131 Method 8095 uses gas
chromatography with electron capture detection (see text box). It can detect and quantify the same
130SW-846 Method 8330, Nitroaromatics and Nitramines by High Performance Liquid Chromatography
(HPLC), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Revision 0, September 1994.
131Method 8095, Explosives by Gas Chromatography, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Revision 0,
November 2000.
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compounds as Method 8330. In addition, Method 8095 can also detect and quantify 3,5-
dinitroaniline, nitroglycerine, and pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN).
Samples are extracted using either the solid-phase extraction techniques provided in Method
3535 (for aqueous samples) or the ultrasonic extraction techniques described in Method 8330 (for
solid samples). Acetonitrile is the extraction solvent. Further concentration of the extract is only
required for low detection limits. The extracts are injected into the inlet port of a gas
chromatography equipped with an electron capture detector. Each analyte is resolved on a short,
wide-bore, fused-silica capillary column coated with polydimethylsiloxane. Positive peaks must be
confirmed on a different chromatography column. The maj or disadvantage of this method is the lack
of commercial availability.
8.5.4.3 Other Laboratory Methods for Explosive Compounds
Two other methods can be mentioned briefly. The first is a CHPPM method for explosives
in water. It is a gas chromatography electron capture detection method developed by Hable and
others in 1991. Although it is considered to be an excellent method, it is not commercially available.
The second, SW-846 Method 8321, is an LC-MS method that is available at a few commercial
laboratories. Explosives are not the target analytes for which the method was developed; however,
the method claims to be applicable to the analysis of other nonvolatile or semivolatile compounds.
8.5.4.4 EPA Method 7580
In addition to explosive compounds, other materials used in military ordnance present
hazards to human health and the environment. White phosphorus (P4) is a toxic, synthetic substance
that has been used in smoke-producing munitions since World War I. Due to the instability of P4
in the presence of oxygen, it was originally not considered an environmental contaminant. However,
after a catastrophic die-off of waterfowl at a U.S. military facility was traced to the presence of P4
in salt marsh sediments, it was discovered that P4 can persist in anoxic sedimentary environments.
Method 7580, gas chromatography with nitrogen/phosphorus detector, may be used for the
analysis of P4 in soil, sediment, and water samples.m Two different extraction methods may be used
for water samples. The first procedure provides a detection limit on the order of 0.01 g/L. It may
be used to assess compliance with Federal water quality criteria. The second procedure provides fora
detection limit of 0.1 g/L. The extraction method for solids provides a sensitivity of 1.0 g/kg.
Because this method uses the nitrogen/phosphorus detector, no interferences have been reported.
Because P4 reacts with oxygen, sample preparation must be done in an oxygen-free
environment, such as a glove box. Samples are extracted with either diethyl ether (low water
method), isooctane (high water method), or degassed reagent water/isooctane (solids). The extracts
are then injected into the gas chromatograph that has been calibrated with five standards.
8.5.4.5 Perchlorate Analytical Methods
One munitions constituent that has appeared on the scene in recent years is the perchlorate
anion. Ammonium perchlorate is a major component of solid rocket fuel. Perchlorate compounds
are also used in a variety of other items, including mines, torpedo warheads, smoke-generating
132Method 7580, White Phosphorus (P4) by Solvent Extraction and Gas Chromatography, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Revision 0, December 1996.
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compounds, signal flares, parachute flares, star rounds for Very pistols, spotting charges for training
rounds, thermite-type incendiaries, small arms tracers, fireworks, and airbags. As a result of various
activities with these assorted items, including manufacturing, storage, weapons training, washout,
burning, burial, and detonations, perchlorate contamination has become very widespread. It is
believed to have migrated into the groundwater of at least 30 States. Most of the reported
contamination in the United States ranges from 4 to 100 g/L.
The most controversial aspect of perchlorate contamination is the level at which perchlorate
poses a human health risk. Some States have advocated a drinking water standard for perchlorate
in the low parts per billion range. Though EPA currently does not officially regulate perchlorate, it
is requiring monitoring for it under the Safe Drinking Water Act's Unregulated Contaminant
Monitoring Rule (UCMR). Perchlorate in waste water may also be monitored under a National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. Several States, including California, are
issuing interim action levels that are close to the low end of the range.
The only analysis method for perchlorate approved by EPA is Method 314.0. This method
was developed for use with drinking water and is required by the UCMR. Its use may also be
required in individual NPDES permits. Method 314.0 uses ion chromatography with conductivity
detection. The detector is nonspecific, that is, it does not measure perchlorate specifically. It only
measures the change in the conductivity of the water eluting from the chromatography column. The
identification of perchlorate is made based on the retention time for the ion in the chromatography
column. Though the method requires calibration, the presence of unknown interferences and shifts
in retention time caused by high total dissolved solids can result in erroneous data (false positives
or false negatives), particularly at the low end of detection (about 4 g/L). These sources of
interference are more common in non-drinking-water samples (e.g., groundwater or wastewater).
DoD policy currently requires confirmation of positive detections made by Method 314.0 such as
those using mass spectrometry.
Several methods for perchlorate analysis are under development. An improved method 314
that uses additional cleanup and a second confirmatory column is expected to be promulgated by the
EPA Office of Water soon, as are methods that make use of mass spectrometry (MS) or MS/MS
detectors and ion-pair ratio monitoring, with or without O18 spiking. Work has also been done on
a method that uses an ion-specific electrode. The use of these newer methods as they come online
will result in a higher level of confidence in the analytical data. In addition to the definitive methods
described above, a number of field methods are in the process of development and testing.133
8.6 Developing the Site Response Strategy
Most of this chapter has focused on the essential components of the systematic planning
process that will be used to devise the sampling and analysis strategy appropriate for your site. The
question remains - what do you do with this information?
The information from your site investigation will be documented in an investigation report
(called a remedial investigation report in the CERCLA program and a RCRA facility investigation
report in the RCRA program). In the standard CERCLA process addressing chemical contamination,
this information will be evaluated with a site-specific risk assessment to determine whether the
133P.G. Thorn. Field Screening Method for Perchlorate in Water and Soil. Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory. ERDC/CRREL TR-04-8. April 2004
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concentrations of chemicals present at the site provide a potential risk to human health and the
environment and whether pathways between chemicals present at the site and potential receptors will
expose receptors to unacceptable levels of risk. When evaluating the munition constituents of MEC,
the standard risk assessment process will be used.134
When evaluating the information associated with an MRS (UXO, explosive soil, and buried
munitions), two questions are asked:
Is any MEC present or potentially present that could pose a risk to human health or
the environment?
What is the appropriate site response strategy if MEC is present or potentially
present? Three fundamental choices are evaluated:
- Further investigation is required.
- Response action is required (either an active response such as clearance or
containment, or a limited response such as institutional controls and
monitoring).
- No action or no further action is required.
8.6.1 Assumptions of the Site Response Strategy
The site response strategy is based on several basic assumptions built on discussions with
DoD MEC experts:
What Does "Unacceptable Risk" Mean
There is no quantifiable risk
level for MEC exposure below
which you can definitively state
that Qiirh nntential e^nnsiire is If there is no acceptable nsk level, does that mean 100
that such potential exposure is percent cleanup at all sites?
acceptable. This is because
exposure to only one MEC item
can result in instantaneous
physical trauma. In other words,
if the MEC item has a potential **** use- ICs ^ be used as the sole resP°nse
The short answer is no. Institutional controls (ICs) will
be used along with the active response when that
response allows a land use that does not provide for
in those circumstances where the CERCLA decision
process finds that active response actions are
impracticable or unsafe.
for exposure, and a receptor
comes into contact with it and
the MEC item explodes, the
result will be death or injury.
Unlike noncarcinogenic chemicals, MEC does not have an acceptable risk level that
can be quantified, above which level there is a risk that injury will occur. Unlike
carcinogenic chemicals, there is no risk range that is considered to be acceptable.
Explosive risk either is or is not present. It is not possible to establish a threshold
below which there would be no risk, other than the absence of MEC. Therefore, no
attempt is made to quantify the level of explosive risks.
Once MEC is determined to be present or potentially present, a response action will
134U.S. EPA. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS), Volume 1, Human Health Evaluation Manual,
PartB, Interim, September 1991.
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be necessary. This response action may involve removal, treatment, or containment
of MEC, or it may be a limited action such as the use of institutional controls and
monitoring. In any case, whenever the response action will leave MEC present or
potentially present on-site after the action is complete, some kind of institutional
controls will be required.135
EPA/DoD Interim Final Management Principles on Land Use and Clearance
Because of technical impracticability, inordinately high costs, and other reasons, complete clearance of MRSs
may not be possible to the degree that allows certain uses, especially unrestricted use. In almost all cases, land
use controls will be necessary to ensure protection of human health and public safety.
Land use controls must be clearly defined and set forth in a decision document.
Final land use controls for a given MRS-will be considered as part of the development and evaluation of
response alternatives using the nine criteria established under CERCLA regulations (i.e., the National
Contingency Plan, or NCP) or equivalent RCPvA process. The decision will be supported by a site
characterization adequate to evaluate the feasibility of reasonably anticipated future land uses. This will ensure
that land use controls are chosenbased on a detailed analysis of response alternatives and are not presumptively
selected.
A no-action alternative (i.e., not even institutional controls are required) will usually
be selected only where there is a high level of certainty that no MEC is present on-
site. The selection of "further investigation" will usually occur when the site
information is qualitatively assessed and deemed sufficiently uncertain that
proceeding to some sort of response action (or no action) is inappropriate.
The final decision at the site (no action, or selection of a type of action) is formally
evaluated through whatever regulatory process is appropriate for the site. For
example, if your decision is to be made under the CERCLA remedial process, you
would use the nine CERCLA criteria to evaluate the acceptability of a no-action
decision and to select appropriate response actions (including depth of response or
containment, or limited response actions such as institutional controls and
monitoring).
8.6.2 Attributes of the Site Response Strategy
It will not be necessary to create a new report to document your site response strategy. The
site response strategy is not a new document or a new process. Rather, it is the pulling together of
the information from your investigation to set the stage for the next steps in the MEC management
process at your site. The site response strategy can be developed whenever there is enough
information available to make the decision you were initially trying to make (or to determine that
additional information is necessary). The site response strategy can be documented through a
number of existing documents, including:
'^Institutional controls are nonengineered measures designed to limit exposure to hazardous substances,
pollutants, or contaminants that have been left in place and that are above levels that support unrestricted use. They are
sometimes referred to by the broader term "land use controls." The latter term encompasses engineered access controls
such as fences, as well as the institutional or administrative mechanisms required to maintain the fence.
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The work plan for the next stage of work (if more investigation is necessary).
The conclusion section of the RI or RFI (if no action is recommended).
The feasibility study (if a response action is planned).
Key attributes of the site response strategy include the following:
1. It uses a weight-of-evidence approach to decision making. Converging lines of
evidence are weighed qualitatively to determine the level and significance of
uncertainty. In the process of developing a site response strategy, information is
gathered from a variety of sources - historical data, facility and community
interviews, surface inspections, geophysical inspections, and land use and planning
information. Decisions are based on a qualitative analysis of the data collected. The
gathering of this information takes place during the site characterization phase.
2. The site response strategy may be determined using varying levels of data at
different points in the data collection process and is thoroughly integrated with
the site characterization process. It is not a separate step. The project team is
asked to examine the weight of evidence present, and the amount of uncertainty
present, at any stage in your data collection process to determine the next course of
action (e.g., more investigation, response, institutional controls only, or no action).
Three examples are used to illustrate this point:
If historical information from multiple sources over continuous timeframes
provides sufficient certainty that no MEC is present, then it may not be
necessary to conduct geophysical studies to detect MEC and determine the
depth and boundaries of the MEC.
If there is uncertainty as to whether ordnance with explosive potential is
present, or is present at depths that could lead to exposure, then extensive
geophysical investigations may be required to determine the presence or
absence of MEC and the depth at which it may be found.
If ordnance with explosive potential is known to be present at a depth where
human exposure is likely, then it may not be necessary to conduct extensive
geophysical studies to determine if factors are present that would cause MEC
items to migrate.
3 The purpose of the site response strategy is to enable the project team to make
a risk management decision (the remedy selection process). The site response
strategy considers information gathered in the site characterization phase that
validates and/or changes the conceptual site model. The type and location of MEC,
the availability of pathways to potential receptors, the accessibility of the site(s) to
receptors, and the current, future, and surrounding land uses are assessed to
determine the type and magnitude of risks that are associated with the site(s). The
site response strategy informs the risk management process, which compares the
risks associated with clearance with those of exposure management (through
physical or institutional controls). The strategy then uses the appropriate regulatory
processes (e.g., CERCLA, RCRA, SDWA, etc.) to determine the final remedy at the
site.
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Figure 8-6 provides an overview of the process of developing a site response strategy. It
shows the various types of investigations, uncertainties, and decisions that go into the development
of a site response strategy. The figure illustrates typical investigation and decision scenarios. The
reader should note that there are no endpoints on this flow chart, since the stage that follows the site
response strategy is either further investigation or evaluation of potential remedies. The discussion
that follows outlines in more detail the series of questions and issues to be weighed at each decision
point.
8.6.3 Questions Addressed in the Development of the Site Response Strategy
In developing your site response strategy, you will address four issues. These four issues
parallel the factors addressed in a typical risk assessment, but the process differs significantly from
a risk assessment in that after the initial question (presence or absence of ordnance) is addressed,
the focus of the remaining questions is to develop a response strategy to support the risk
management approach.
8.6.3.1 Determining the Presence of Munitions with Explosive Potential
Establishing the Presence or Absence of MEC Using
Historical Data
Mission of the facility and/or range
Actual use of facility and/or range over time
Types of ordnance associated with the mission and
actual use
Accessibility of the facility and ranges to human activity
that could have resulted in unplanned burial of excessed
ordnance or souvenir collecting
Portability of UXO (facilitating unplanned migration to
different parts of the facility)
Sources of Information
The central question addressed here
is whether munitions with explosive
potential is present or may be present at your
site. As discussed earlier, the response to this
question is a simple yes or no answer. A
former firing range in which the only type of
munition used was bullets will probably be
found to have no explosive risk. (There may
of course be risks to human health and the
environment from munitions constituents
such as lead, but such risks are addressed in
a chemical risk assessment.) Larger
munitions items (e.g., bombs, projectiles, or
fuzes) will have an explosive risk if present
or potentially present as MEC.
As discussed in Chapters 3 and 4 and
in preceding sections of this chapter, in your
investigation to determine the presence or
potential presence of MEC you would
consider multiple sources of information,
including historical information (see text box above) and a variety of geophysical studies. An initial
gathering of historical information will be necessary to create the conceptual site model that will
guide both intrusive and nonintrusive studies of the site. Visual reconnaissance may also be
appropriate to identify evidence of range activity and to highlight areas for further investigation.
Finally, various types of geophysical studies may be used to locate potential MEC.
Archive reports
EO incident reports
Interviews with base
community
Aerial photographs
Newspaper reports
personnel and surrounding
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Historical Research
1)ArchivalResearch
2)EOD Incident Reports
3) Aerial Photos
4)Base/Community Interviews
5)SurfaceObservation
dual itati veAssessmentof
Uncertainties-WeightofEvidence
ConsiderHowmany sourcesof data
areavailable,arethere
inconsistencies in thedata, is
inform at ion available overtime?
Geop hy si calmunitionsd election
studies
Studies to detect potential presence,
type, depth and boundaries of MEC.
May include detection, anomaly
excav at ion, QA/QC, statistical
sampling(seeChapter8.0)
Qualitati veAssessmentof
Uncertainties-Weightof Evidence
Consider:Aremeasurementquality
objectivesbeingmetby historical
inform ationandgeophysical
studies? Are measurement quality
object ives set at a lev elt hat supports
ahigh lev el of certainty?
Noaction orlimitedaction
(e.g.Jnstitutionalcontrols
andmonitoring).
Use regulatory decision
process(e.g.,CERCLAnine
criteria,RCRA,DDESB,
DERP)tomake hazard
managementdecision
Figure 8-6. Developing a Site Response Strategy
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No action or limited action
(e.g., institutional controls
and monitoring).
Use regulatory decision
process (e.g., CERCLA
nine criteria, RCRA,
DDESB, DERP) to make
hazard management
decision
Qualitative Assessment of
UncertaintiesWeight of
Evidence
Consider: Are measurement quality
objectives being met by historical
information and geophysical
studies? Are measurement quality
objectives set at a level that
supports a high level of certainty?
EC is found likely
to bring it into
contact with any
Geophysical studies of potential
movement and migration (may be
conducted simultaneously with
detection studies)
Studies to examine factors that may
cause MEG to move (e.g., frost line,
stratigraphy, depth to groundwater,
etc.) (See Chapter 3.0)
Conduct
geophysical
studies (migration)
i
Yes
-Yes
Do you
have a high
level of confidence
in the results of
geophysical
tudies?
Conduct response activities or
change land use. Use regulatory
decision process (e.g., CERCLA
nine criteria, RCRA, DDESB,
DERP) to make hazard
management decision. Implemen
appropriate deed restrictions and
other controls.
Yes
Qualitative Assessment of
Uncertainties-Weight of
Evidence
Consider: Are measurement quality
objectives being met by historical
information and geophysical
studies? Are measurement quality
objectives set at a level that
supports a high level of certainty?
No action or limited action
(e.g., institutional controls
and monitoring).
Use regulatory decision
process (e.g., CERCLA nine
criteria, RCRA, DDESB,
DERP) to make hazard
management decision
Potentially change PRG/
land use. Implement
appropriate institutional
controls. Use regulatory
decision process to make
hazard managment
decision.
Potential for ordnance exposure to human activity
Figure 8-6. Developing a Site Response Strategy (continued)
Chapter 8. Devising Investigation
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8.6.3.2 Identifying Potential Pathways of Exposure
Once the actual or potential presence of MEC has been established, you will then need to
identify the potential exposure routes. The essential question in this phase is whether the ordnance
that is found in the area is, or could be, at a depth that will bring it into contact with human activity.
In the site characterization, you established the preliminary remediation goal (PRG), which specifies
the depth to which clearance will be required to support the anticipated land use. Using historical
information and geophysical data, you should consider two questions:
Has ordnance, fragments of
ordnance, or explosives-
contaminated soil been detected,
suggesting the presence of
MEC? (Is there munitions with
explosive potential?)
Is this material found at a depth
that is shallower than the PRG
(and likely to bring it into
contact with human activity)?
If the ordnance is not found at a depth
that is shallower than the PRG, additional
geophysical studies may be necessary to
determine if there are factors that may cause
ordnance to move (e.g., frost line or
stratigraphy). (See Chapter 3 and earlier in this
chapter.)
Factors To Be Evaluated in Identifying Potential
Pathways of Exposure
In addition to the information highlighted in the
previous box (regarding the historical uses of, and
likely ordnance at, the site), factors that affect
pathways of exposure include:
Current and future land use, and depth to which
land must be clear of MEC to support that land
use; level of intrusive activity expected now and
in the future
Maximum depths at which ordnance is or may be
found, considering the nature of the ordnance
Location of frost line
Erosion potential
Portability of type of ordnance for souvenir
handling and illegal burial
Potential that excessed ordnance may have been
buried
If ordnance is found to be present or potentially present, you may need additional
geophysical information in order to ensure that the boundaries of the range and the density of
ordnance are well understood for the purposes of
assessing the complexity (and cost) of
remediation.
8.6.3.3 Determining Potential for Human
Exposure to MEC
The potential for human exposure is
assessed by looking at the types of human
activities that might bring people into contact
with MEC. Key issues for determining the
potential of human receptors to come into
contact with MEC include:
About Portability
The potential of exposure to MEC through human
activity goes beyond the actual uses of ranges.
Potential exposures to MEC can also occur as a result
of human activity that causes MEC to migrate to
different locations. Examples of such common human
activities include:
Burial of chemical protective kits (containing
chemical waste material) by soldiers in training
exercises.
Transport of UXO as souvenirs to residential
areas of the base and off base by soldiers or
civilians.
Depth of ordnance MEC and
exposure pathways of concern
Potential for naturally caused migration to depths of concern
Chapter 8. Devising Investigation
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Accessibility of areas where MEC is known or suspected to be present to workers,
trespassers, etc.
Potential for intrusive activity (e.g., construction in the MRS)
Current and potential future ownership of the site(s)
Current and potential future land use of the site(s) and the surrounding areas
(including potential groundwater use)
Potential portability of the MEC (for potential human-caused migration off range)
During the final phase of the analysis, you should consider information and uncertainties
from all phases of the investigation to determine whether there is a risk at the depth of concern. If
the planned land use is not compatible with the depth at which ordnance is or may be found, then
two options are possible:
Remediate to a depth appropriate for the planned land use.
Change the planned future land use to be consistent with the depth of cleanup.
Both of these decisions will be made during the risk management decision process under the
applicable regulatory framework (e.g., CERCLA or RCRA). Unless you have a high level of
certainty that remediation will clear the land for an unrestricted land use, appropriate institutional
controls will be required.
8.6.3.4 Considering Uncertainty
In every stage of site characterization, including the development of a site response strategy,
a qualitative evaluation of uncertainly will help you decide the level of confidence you have in the
information collected to determine your next steps. No single source is likely to provide the
information required to assess the level of certainty or uncertainty associated with your analysis.
Therefore, your qualitative uncertainty analysis will rely on the weight of the evidence that has
converged from a number of different sources of data, including historical information (archives,
EOD incident reports, interviews, etc.), results of detection studies and sampling, results of other
geophysical studies, assessment of current and future land use, and accessibility of MRAs/MRSs.
8.7 Framework for Making the Decision
The Interim Final Management Principles agreed to by senior DoD and EPA managers
(described in and provided as an attachment to Chapter 2, "Regulatory Overview") establish a
framework for making risk management decisions. These principles state that "a process consistent
with CERCLA and these management principles will be the preferred response mechanism used to
address UXO at a range." The principles go on to state that response actions may include CERCLA
removal or remedial activities, or some combination of these, in conducting the investigation and
cleanup.
8.8 Conclusion
The focus of this chapter has been on planning your investigation. In the course of the
investigation, the initial plan will undoubtedly change. The conclusion of the investigation should
result in answers to the questions posed in the data quality objectives at a level of certainty that is
acceptable to the DoD decision makers, the regulators, and the public.
Chapters. Devising Investigation INTERIM FINAL
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The purpose of this chapter has been to take you through the design of the MEC investigation
to the development of a site response strategy. As pointed out in the introduction, this chapter has
focused primarily on MEC and energetic materials, not the environmental contamination of media
by munition constituents. Chapter 3 describes common chemicals of concern that are found in
association with MRAs. Typically, the approaches used to investigate explosive compounds will not
differ substantially from other environmental investigations of hazardous wastes, pollutants, and
contaminants, except that safety considerations will require more extensive health and safety plans
and generally be more costly since the potential for MEC in the subsurface must be considered.
The development of a site response strategy is based on the Interim Final Management
Principles, which call for investigation and cleanup actions to be consistent with both the CERCLA
process (either removal or remedial activities, or a combination of these) and the principles
themselves. The actual selection of a response will be conducted through the risk management
processes defined by the CERCLA removal and remedial programs (or the RCRA Corrective Action
Program).
Chapters. Devising Investigation INTERIM FINAL
and Response Strategies 8-40 May 2005
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SOURCES AND RESOURCES
The following publications, offices, laboratories, and websites are provided as a guide for
handbook users to obtain additional information about the subj ect matter addressed in each chapter.
Several of these publications, offices, laboratories, or websites were also used in the development
of this handbook.
Publications
Crockett, A.B., H.D. Craig, T.F. Jenkins, and W.E. Sisk. Field Sampling and Selecting On-site
Analytical Methods for Explosives in Soil. U.S. EPA, Federal Facilities Forum, Dec. 1996;
EPA/540/S-97/501. Available at URL: http://www.epa.gov/nerlesdl/tsc/images/fld-smpl.pdf.
Crockett, A.B., H.D. Craig, and T.F. Jenkins. Field Sampling and Selecting On-site Analytical
Methods for Explosives in Water. U.S. EPA, Federal Facilities Forum, May 19, 1999; EPA/600/S-
99/002. Available at URL: http://www.epa.gov/nerlesdl/tsc/images/water.pdf.
U.S. Army. Military Explosives. Department of the Army Technical Manual. TM 9-1300-214.
September 1984.
Wilcox, R. G. Institutional Controls for Ordnance Response. Paper presented at UXO Forum 1997,
May 1997.
Information Sources
Joint UXO Coordination Office (JUXOCO)
10221 BurbeckRoad, Suite 430
Fort Belvoir, VA 22060-5806
Tel: (703) 704-1090
Fax: (703) 704-2074
http://www.denix.osd.mil/UXOCOE
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Engineering Research and Development Center
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory
72 Lyme Road
Hanover, NH 03755-1280
http://www.crrel.usace.army.mil
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
U.S. Army Engineering and Support Center
Ordnance and Explosives Mandatory Center of Expertise
P.O. Box 1600
4820 University Square
Huntsville, AL 35807-4301
http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil/
Chapters. Devising Investigation INTERIM FINAL
and Response Strategies 8-41 May 2005
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Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB)
2461 Eisenhower Avenue
Alexandria, VA 22331-0600
Fax:(703) 325-6227
http://www.ddesb.pentagon.mil
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Superfund Risk Assessment
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/index.htm
Guidance Documents
U.S. Air Force, Headquarters, Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence. Technical Services
Quality Assurance Program. Version 1.0, Aug. 1996.
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Requirements for the Preparation of Sampling and Analysis Plans.
Manual EM 200-1-3. February 1, 2001.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Chemical Data Quality Management for Hazardous, Toxic,
Radioactive Waste Remedial Activities. ER 1110-1-263. April 30, 1998.
U.S. EPA. Guidance on Conducting Non-time-critical Removal Actions Under CERCLA. NTIS
No. PB93-963402; Aug. 1993.
U.S. EPA. Guidance for Data Usability in Risk Assessment (Part A) NTIS No. PB92-963356;
Apr. 1992.
U.S. EPA. Guide to Preparing Superfund Proposed Plans, Records of Decision, and Other
Remedy Selection Decision Documents NTIS No. PB98-963241; July 1999.
U.S. EPA. Institutional Controls and Transfer of Real Property Under CERCLA Section
120(h)(3)(A), (B) or (C). Feb. 2000.
U.S. EPA. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS), Volume I Human Health
Evaluation Manual, Part A. Interim Final. Dec. 1989.
U.S. EPA. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS), Volume I - Human Health
Evaluation Manual, Part C (Risk Evaluation of Remedial Alternatives). Interim Final .Oct. 1991.
U.S. EPA. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS), Volume I - Human Health
Evaluation Manual, Part B. Interim Final. Dec. 1991.
U.S. EPA. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS), Volume I Human Health
Evaluation Manual, Part D (Standardized Planning, Reporting, and Review of Superfund Risk
Assessments). Interim Final. Jan. 1998.
U.S. Navy. Environmental Compliance Sampling and Field Testing Procedures Manual.
NAVSEAT0300-AZ-PRO-0010; July 1997.
Chapters. Devising Investigation INTERIM FINAL
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9.0 UNDERWATER MUNITIONS AND EXPLOSIVES OF CONCERN
Throughout this handbook, we have
discussed a wide range of technical issues
associated with MEC when it is found on land.
All of the problems, issues, and concerns can be
multiplied several times when MEC is found
underwater. As with land-based MEC, the
concerns involve risks to human health, the
environment, and explosive hazards. However,
the routes of exposure and the fate and transport
for land-based and underwater ordnance can be
different. There are a number of uncertainties
that affect our decision-making regarding the
management of MEC in the underwater environ-
ment. These include, but are not limited to, the
following:
Snagging WWII Underwater Munitions
In July 1965, a fishing trawler off the coast of North
Carolina snagged a World War II German torpedo in
its nets. As the crew attempted to lift the torpedo clear
of the water in heavy seas, the warhead hit the side of
the trawler and detonated. Eight of the twelve crewmen
died and the vessel sank.
Source: A. Pedersen, The Challenges ofUXO in the
Marine Environment, Naval EOD Technology
Division. Modified by written communication.
Information on the fate and transport of munitions constituents in the underwater
environment is lacking or not widely distributed.
Finding underwater MEC offers additional complexities in detection, discrimination, and
positioning.
Safety issues can be magnified in the underwater environment.
For reasons of personal safety, blowing in place (BIP) is (as it is on land) the common
method for disposing of UXO unless the UXO item has been determined to be safe to
move. (However, if conducting underwater BIP, the effects of underwater detonation to
humans and the underwater ecosystem must be addressed.)
This chapter addresses what is known about the areas listed above, as well as the uncertainty
in each area. The chapter is divided into four parts.
Design of a conceptual site model for underwater ranges
Detection of underwater MEC
Safety
Underwater response technologies
9.1 Conceptual Site Model for Underwater Environments
This section addresses the unique factors in designing a conceptual site model (CSM) for
underwater MEC, including the following:
The areas where underwater MEC is found,
The potential for exposure to MEC,
The environmental factors affecting decomposition of underwater MEC, resulting in
potential for releases of munition constituents,
The environmental fate and transport of munitions constituents, and
The ecological and human health effects and toxicity of explosive compounds and other
munitions constituents in the underwater environment.
Chapter 9. Underwater
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9.1.1 Areas Where Underwater MEC Is Found
Much of the U.S. underwater MEC presence has occurred near military practice and test
ranges. Activities at locations such as ammunition piers, coastal bombing ranges, and dredge spoil
ponds, among others, have also resulted in a wide variety of MEC items. In addition, war,
intentional dumping, and accidental dumping have contributed to the problem.
Some of the military activities that have historically resulted in underwater MEC
contamination are described below:
Ammunition storage and transfer activities - MEC may be deliberately or
accidentally dumped near piers where ships load and unload munitions or materiel
(mishandling/loss).
Weapons training and testing - For some kinds of training, the underwater
environment, particularly the deep ocean, may be target impact areas and areas
where underwater munitions such as sea mines or torpedoes were used. These areas
include ships that are used as practice targets. Other weapons training activities may
have a range safety fan that includes a body of water where munitions that miss the
target might land. MEC can include dud-fired munitions, low-order detonations,
intact munitions, and dumped munitions (mishandling/loss).
Troop training areas - Training areas may be on shorelines (near wetlands, ocean
beaches, tidal wetland areas, etc.) or over rivers, lakes, or ponds. As in land-based
training, unauthorized disposal, or loss of material, can result in MEC in underwater
areas. Overshoots and undershoots on islands used as targets for aerial bombing,
missiles, and naval artillery can also result in MEC in underwater areas. Examples
of where such events have occurred include Nomans Land Island, Massachusetts,
Kaho'olawe Island, Hawaii, and Adak, Alaska.
Disposal of MEC - In the past, large- or small-scale dumping of military munitions
occurred offshore.135 In addition, disposal of underwater UXO may result in chunks
of MEC released from low-order detonations. These disposal operations could have
resulted in the introduction of munitions constituents to the aquatic environment.
9.1.2 Potential for Exposure to MEC
Potential human exposures to underwater MEC or UXO result from different factors than land-
based exposures. Both land-based and underwater exposure can be from recreational and industrial
uses, but other potential exposures are unique to the underwater environment (see Figure 9-1). Table
9-1 shows examples of activities and potential exposure. In addition, underwater MEC can migrate
as a result of tides, surf, currents, floods, or other factors.
135
As used in this handbook, the term offshore refers to the area that is in the intertidal area and further out.
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Table 9-1. Exposure Scenarios from Underwater MEC and UXO
Potential Receptor Activity
Near-shore recreational use, (e.g.,
swimming, fishing)
Port and channel maintenance
such as dredging and dredge spoil
disposal
Commercial fishing, trawling for
fish
Deep sea recreational use such as
diving
Consumption of seafood
Fish feeding areas, nurseries
Exposure Pathway
Beaches, shorelines,
river bottoms, sediments
River bottoms, sediments
Fishing activity that brings up
unknown items
Coral reefs, other underwater
formations, sunken ships
Food chain
Sediments, benthic organisms
MEC Hazard and Risk Type
Explosive hazard,
munitions residue
Explosive hazard,
munitions residue
Explosive hazard
Explosive hazard
Munitions residue
Munitions residue
In addition to the potential receptor activities and related exposure pathways listed in the table,
the disposal of ordnance in the underwater environment is another exposure pathway that may be
difficult to control. As discussed in Chapter 5, blow-in-place is usually the preferred method for
disposing of UXO because of safety considerations. This is true in underwater environments as well
as on land. However, the underwater detonation of UXO may pose a significant risk to underwater
ecological receptors and sensitive habitats, including wetlands, estuaries, coastal areas, and marine
habitats such as coral reefs.
In the example presented below, one naval facility began the design of its conceptual site
model by dividing the offshore area into four offshore clearance zones. These zones were based on
Chapter 9. Underwater
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likely human access due to water depth, with the flexibility to change a zone as appropriate. These
offshore clearance zones were defined as follows:136
Zone 1: The portion of the sea floor that is not covered by water most of the time and can
be walked on during low tides Intertidal zone
Zone 2: The portion of the sea floor that is easily accessible by wading from the shore
but is covered by water most of the time Shallow subtidal zone
Zone 3: The portion of the sea floor that is not accessible by wading but is accessible by
skin diving from a boat or a pier Intermediate subtidal zone
Zone 4: The portion of the sea floor that is accessible only by self-contained
underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) or surface-supplied-air diving Deep
subtidal zone
The offshore clearance zones and zone depths are shown in cross-section in Figure 9-1.
Zone 4
Figure 9-1. Example of Offshore Clearance Zones
9.1.3 Environmental Factors Affecting Decomposition of Underwater MEC Resulting in
Releases of Munitions Constituents
A number of complex factors affect the fate and transport of munitions constituents released
in the underwater environment. These factors include the nature of the delivery of the munition item
to the underwater environment, its potential for corrosion, and associated releases.
Underwater releases of munition constituents can occur when casings deteriorate, (most
notably from corrosion), rupture upon impact, or undergo a low-order detonation. Munitions
136TechnicalMemorandumfor Offshore OE Clearance Model, OE Investigation and Response Actions, Former
Mare Island Naval Shipyard (MINS). Prepared for Commander, Pacific Division, Naval Facilities Engineering
Command, Pearl Haibor, HI. February 11, 1999.
Chapter 9. Underwater
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constituents may be released immediately after impact or may be only partially contained within the
remains of the delivery system. When UXO undergoes a low-order detonation or breaks apart upon
impact, the munitions constituents, such as bulk explosives, can be scattered over the impact area.137
(See Section 3.2.3). When the MEC remains relatively intact, munitions constituents can be released
through pinhole cracks that develop over time as a result of corrosion or through the screw threads
linking the fuze assembly to the main charge.
Corrosion of the iron and steel in MEC casings is a complex process that occurs in the
presence of water and oxygen. The potential corrosivity of the local environment, such as a bay,
harbor, lake, pond, or wetland, could vary greatly. Such variations can be caused by acid rain,
industrial pollution, salinity, degree of oxygen saturation, or natural buffering caused by the
presence of carbonate rocks or other minerals. Normally, the lower the pH of the environment, the
higher its corrosive potential.
The effects of immersion and corrosion on the release of munition constituents in various
underwater environments depend on site conditions. Even though saltwater is potentially more
corrosive the higher the salt saturation, exposure to oxygen is a key requirement for corrosive
effects. In environments where wave action and tides cause mixing with the atmosphere, the oxygen
content of the water, especially shallow water, can be at or near the saturation point, creating a high
potential for oxidation. Likewise, repeated exposure of MEC items directly to the oxygen in the
atmosphere through tidal movement can increase corrosion.
Recent studies have suggested that even corroded MEC does not necessarily result in the
harmful release of munition constituents. A variety of factors in the underwater environment may
either reduce the potential for corrosion, or affect the nature of the release from an MEC item
releasing munition constituents. At higher pH levels, if the right conditions are present (e.g., CO2
saturation, or temperature) submerged or buried metal may develop a coating of calcium carbonate,
with a corresponding increase in corrosion resistance. In the absence of oxygen, such as the
anaerobic conditions that can exist where there are large concentrations of unoxidized metals, or
high content of organic matter, or in deeper, cold waters, corrosion in the underwater environment
can be virtually stopped. It is also possible that submerged UXO and MEC can develop a coating
consisting of biological materials that can seal the item off from the environment (as well as make
it more difficult to locate.)138
Corrosion of steel casings can produce a complex local environment composed of intact steel
and iron oxidation and reduction products through which the munition constituents must pass to
enter the environment. Recent studies have shown that the presence of metallic iron can strongly
affect the fate and transport of munition constituents in underwater environments. This process can
lead to certain munition constituents, such as RDX, being removed from solution through chemical
reduction unless a source, such as a ruptured casing, continues to release the constituents to the
underwater environment. The effects of the presence of iron and steel on the fate and transport of
137J.M. Brannon, et al. Conceptual Model and Process Descriptor Formulations for Fate and Transport of
UXO. USAGE WES, February 1999.
138Note that in deeper waters where residence time and turnover are measured in decades or centuries, anaerobic
conditions exist that tend to preserve items.
Chapter 9. Underwater INTERIM FINAL
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munition constituents should be investigated further to determine the rate and extent of these effects
on releases in an underwater environment.139
9.1.4 Environmental Fate and Transport of Munitions Constituents
The major pathways of concern for releases of munitions constituents in the underwater
environment are the sediments that are found on the bottom of most rivers, lakes, ponds, wetlands,
and other near-shore coastal environments. These sediments support biological communities that
are the food for aquatic life. The main concerns include the following:
The continued health of the biological community and its ability to support the
ecosystem.
Potential uptake of chemicals into the plants and sea life that ultimately form part of the
food chain for people and marine life.
Munitions constituents that may be suspended in water and potentially available to
humans (through dermal contact as a result of recreational use, and ingestion of drinking
water) and consumption of marine life.
As shown in Chapter 3, many munitions constituents (including the most common compounds,
TNT, RDX, and HMX) have been shown to be potentially toxic to aquatic organisms. However,
the potential for aquatic toxicity depends both on the fate and transport mechanism at work, and the
dose exposure of aquatic organisms to these constituents. There is a mounting body of evidence that
suggests that the potential for aquatic toxicity is not often realized in the open water environment
where often the concentration of munitions constituents will not be detectable due to a variety of
factors, including advection, dispersion, diffusion, photolysis, plant update, and biotic
transformation.140 In addition, there is increasing evidence that these compounds do not
bioaccumulate in aquatic tissue.
When evaluating the fate and transport of the munitions constituents and the actual potential
impact of releases of these constituents on both humans and aquatic life, a variety of complex
interactions between the physical and chemical properties of these chemicals must be understood.
Any of these compounds can release to the aquatic environment through the same release
mechanisms as they release to land. As on land, complete detonations release compounds in such
small quantities that the detection of constituents in sediments or in water is not likely. However,
water in the immediate vicinity of a continuing source, such as constituents leaking from a cracked
or leaking MEC casing or low-order detonation, can contain the munitions constituent in measurable
quantities.141 TNT is more water soluble than RDX and HMX and is therefore more likely to be
found in small concentrations in water. Since RDX and HMX have a very low water solubility, they
139J.M. Brannon, et al. Conceptual Model and Process Descriptor Formulations for Fate and Transport of
UXO.
140Brannon, et al. Conceptual Model and Process Descriptor Formulations for Fate and Transport of UXO.
141M. Dock, M. Fisher, and C. Gumming. Sensor for Real-Time Detection of Underwater Unexploded
Ordnance. Paper presented at the 2002 UXO/Countermine Forum, Orlando, FL, September 2002.
Chapter 9. Underwater INTERIM FINAL
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are much more likely to be dispersed as small particles by currents and unavailable either through
sediments (and plant uptake), or ingestion, or dermal contact in the water column.142
Munitions constituents differ in how easily they bind to sediments, which may then act as a
source of continuing release to water, or as a source for aquatic life uptake. Since TNT is more
water soluble than RDX or HMX, it is less likely to bind to sediments, and more likely to be
immediately absorbed into water. However, TNT also tends to be more susceptible to
photodegredation and biotransformation, particularly in shallow water. TNT's amino
biotransformation products will bind to the humic acids in sediments more strongly than RDX or
HMX. This tendency to bind to sediment can reduce the overall concentration of TNT's
biotransformation products in water, in spite of their relatively higher water solubility compared to
RDX and HMX.143
Bio-uptake and bioaccumulation of munitions constituents into the food chain via aquatic
plants and other organisms that grown in sediments is not well understood. Recent research on
phytoremediation has shown that plants can take up munitions constituents such as TNT, RDX, and
HMX. These munitions constituents will also undergo some biotransformation in the plants' tissues.
The Waterways Experiments Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi, has conducted research into the
uptake of TNT and RDX by aquatic plants. In these laboratory studies, TNT and its degradation
products were not detected, but RDX was found to accumulate in a number of plant tissues.144
Biotransformation products and their properties are important factors in the fate and transport
of munitions constituents. Additional research is needed on the toxicity and fate of these
constituents' biotransformation products and the role sediments play in binding them. In one case,
toxicological and chemical studies were performed with silty and sandy marine sediment spiked with
2,6-dinitrotoluene, tetryl, or picric acid. Whole sediment toxicity was analyzed for several
invertebrate species. Tetryl was found to be the most toxic of the three spiked compounds. However,
the study concluded that degradation products from the spiked compounds may have played a role
in the observed toxicity.145
Many knowledge gaps exist, including the bioavailability of munitions constituents and their
biotransformation and degradation products, how these compounds might move up the food chain,
and the level at which these compounds produce harmful effects in exposed organisms, including
humans. Additional research should be done to evaluate the potential for human exposure resulting
from bioaccumulation in the food chain.
142Personal communication with Thomas Jenkins, Ph.D, of USACOE ERDC/CRREL, on February 20, 2003.
143Personal communication with Thomas Jenkins, Ph.D., of USACOE ERDC/CRREL, on February 20,2003.
144J.G. Burken. Phytoremediation/Wetlands Treatment at the Iowa Army Ammunition Plant.
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/environmentalscience/casestudies/casel2.html.
145M. Nipper, R.S. Carr, J.M. Biedenbach, R.L. Hooten, andK. Miller. Toxicological and Chemical Assessment
of Ordnance Compounds in Marine Sediments and Pore Water. Marine Pollution Bulletin. February 12, 2002.
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9.1.5 Ecological and Human Health Effects and Toxicity of Explosive Compounds and
Other Munitions Constituents in the Underwater Environment
With the increased ability to detect MEC in water bodies near naval facilities, in harbors, and
in water bodies adjacent to active and former ranges and training areas, concerns about the
environmental contamination caused by munitions constituents and related compounds have grown.
Previous surveys that looked at munitions constituents, particularly in the sediments and pore
water of Puget Sound in Washington, concluded that the studied munitions constituents were not
the main cause for concern. Rather, other organic compounds, such as PAHs, PCBs, pesticides, and
to a lesser extent metals, were the main causative agents of the observed toxicity.146
One laboratory study was undertaken to assess the potential for adverse biological effects of
munitions constituents in marine sediments and pore waters. Toxicological and chemical
characterizations were performed with two kinds of sediments with different grain-size distribution
and organic carbon content. These sediments were spiked with munitions constituents whose
selection was based on one of the following two criteria: elevated toxicity to marine organisms or
presence in marine sediments near naval facilities. The study measured concentrations of munitions
constituents in the spiked sediments and corresponding pore waters and, when possible, identified
degradation products.147
A significant conclusion of this study was that the observed toxicity did not appear to be
entirely the result of the spiked compounds. The data seemed to suggest that degradation products
could have played a maj or role in the toxicity tests. The study concluded that the actual degradation
products and their persistence in the underwater environment need to be studied further and
identified.148
A review of a number of online toxicological databases (IRIS, ATSDR, CHPPM WTAs,
TOXNET) provided some information regarding ecological toxicity of a number of munitions
constituents. The information in these databases seems to be incomplete in a number of areas. For
example, one study stated that it appeared RDX did not bioaccumulate in food crops or in deer or
cattle. (However, see 9.1.4) Another study stated that it was not known if HMX accumulated in
plants, fish, or animals in contaminated areas. It is clear that additional research is needed in this
area. Additional toxicological information on a number of munitions constituents, including TNT,
RDX, and HMX is found in Section 3.4.
146R.S. Carr, R. Scott, and M. Nipper. Development of Marine Sediment Toxicity Data for Ordnance
Compounds and Toxicity Identification Evaluation Studies at Select Naval Facilities. Naval Facilities Engineering
Service Center, PortHueneme, CA. February 26, 1999.
147Nipper et al. Toxicological and Chemical Assessment of Ordnance Compounds in Marine Sediments and
Pore Water.
148Ibid.
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Everything is more difficult
underwater!
9.1.6 An Example Conceptual Site Model
As discussed in Section 7.4, a CSM is needed in order to have a working hypothesis of the
sources, pathways, and receptors at a site undergoing investigation. The CSM guides the
investigation. An example of a CSM, created for the Southern Offshore Ordnance Sites, Former
Mare Island Naval Shipyard, is provided in Figure 9-2.149
The Department of the Navy developed the CSM to examine historical site operations and
previous investigations and to identify current data gaps. This CSM, which will form the basis for
future MEC site investigations, covers the offshore areas of the South Shore and Ordnance
Production areas located on the south and southeast end of Mare Island, respectively.
9.2 Detection of Underwater MEC
The challenges of conducting an underwater munition
detection survey include the properties of the water, the need
to maintain safe working conditions, and the ability to
accurately locate and retrieve the detected items. Saltwater is
very corrosive, particularly in shallow water which has a
higher oxygen content. Instruments exposed to the saltwater must be properly sealed. When the
munition detection instrument is a hand-held detector, precautions must be taken to seal instruments
by taping a plastic bag over the electronics and keeping the electronics above the water. Using
instruments that are factory sealed and designed for the underwater environment, such as White's
Surfmaster II and the Geonics EM-61 coils encased in epoxy with underwater connectors, is strongly
recommended.150
Underwater munition survey work has typically required the use of divers, which presents
safety problems not encountered on land. For example, blast impacts carry further underwater than
they do on land for an equivalent amount of net explosive weight. The average safe distance from
an underwater detonation can be over five times that of a land detonation.151 Searching underwater
for MEC is very time consuming as divers swim search patterns and mark any anomalies located.
The use of more modern deployment systems on surface or submerged vehicles has its own
difficulties. The issues include the potential increase in distance between the sensor and the anomaly
as the water depth increases, as well as the constant movement occurring in the water environment.
The variability in the depth at which MEC items may be located beneath the surface may cause an
effective sensor system to become ineffective a few feet away, as the water depth increases, because
of the sensor's decreased ability to detect an anomaly as the distance from sensor increases. The
instability of the underwater environment, due to currents, tides, and wave action, can increase the
difficulty in detecting anomalies. As on land, MEC items need to be located individually. However,
U9Draft Conceptual Site Model for the Southern Offshore Ordnance Sites, Former Mare Island Naval Shipyard.
Prepared for: Department of the Navy, Commander, Pacific Division, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Pearl
Harbor, HI. July 17, 2002.
150Edwards,D. andR. Selfridge. Munition Item Detection Systems UsedByThe U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
in Shallow Water Environments. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntsville Engineering and Support Center. February
12, 2003.
151The actual evacuation distance is based on the net explosive weight of the ordnance item.
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the underwater environment is more unstable because of the action of waves, tides, and currents.
Low visibility, sedimentation, and biological and mineral coatings on the items of interest also make
identifying MEC much harder. Boats and divers also have greater difficulty maintaining and
marking their position. In spite of otherwise good weather conditions, work often must be stopped
because of safety considerations related to wave action. In addition, underwater currents, wave
action, and tides can cause underwater MEC to change location or become buried by sediment.
9.2.1 Detection Technologies
The two most common geophysical detection technologies are magnetometry and
electromagnetic induction (EMI), as discussed in Chapter 4. Much of the technology used for land
surveys can be adapted for underwater use. Various combinations of towed magnetometers, sidescan
sonar, and underwater Geonics EM-61 can be used. (See below and the case studies in Section
9.2.4.1.) As on land, these technologies can be deployed on a variety of platforms. The selection of
a particular technology, platform, data processing technique, and geolocation device for a given site
often depends on the bottom conditions, the types of MEC or UXO expected, and the size of the area
that is to be investigated. This is true with respect to the use of detection technologies in underwater
environments.
For example, the Navy sponsored a test program at the former Mare Island Naval Shipyard
(MINS) in Vallejo, California. The Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Pacific Division,
contracted with a private company to perform a Validation of Detection Systems test program at
MINS. The objective of the program was to identify, select, and validate detection equipment and
technologies that could be used to locate and detect MEC at the four offshore sites at MINS that
were suspected of containing MEC. The technical approaches included EMI and magnetometry
(discussed in 4.2.1.1 and 4.2.1.2).152
Magnetometry is a reliable, proven technology for detecting ferrous MEC over land. With the
need to detect underwater MEC increasing, a number of attempts have been made to adapt
magnetometry for use underwater. An American company has developed and deployed several
underwater platforms employing magnetometry in shallow water with magnetometers using a small
boat as a platform. To date, they report that they have received few requests for underwater MEC
exploration in the United States. Recent examples of work have included:
Offshore sand burrows for beach replenishment on the East Coast
Beach contamination from offshore UXO after storms on the East Coast
Expansion and deepening of harbors in San Diego
BRAC sites, such as at Mare Island, California
Kaho'olawe Island, Hawaii
Offshore pipeline routes in Hawaii153
'^Environmental Chemical Corporation (ECC). Validation of Detection Systems (YDS) Test Program Final
Report. Burlingame, CA. July 7, 2000.
153R. J. Wold. A Review of Underwater UXO Systems in Europe. Paper presented at the 2002 UXO/Countermine
Forum, Orlando, FL, September 2002.
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With respect to EMI, operating a system underwater presents at least two basic challenges.
The first is the presence of water itself, particularly saltwater, which is very corrosive, and second
is the inherent difficulty of controlling and tracking a sensor array. The high electrical conductivity
of saltwater limits the penetration of electrical and electromagnetic energy. There are also challenges
in producing the primary field and measuring its decay. To detect obj ects underwater, it is necessary
to reduce the distance to the target by submerging the sensor. The sensor is either dragged along the
bottom or "flown" above the bottom. This creates the problem of knowing the location of a sensor
that cannot be seen.154
Both magnotometry and electromagnetic induction have problems when deployed in the
marine environment. For example, magnetometers are very sensitive to distortions in the earth's
magnetic field caused by the iron and steel in MEC items. Magnetometers can sense these
distortions to greater depths than other systems. They also can detect small anomalies. However,
magnetometers are susceptible to the magnetic signature of non-MEC items, such as the hulls of
passing ships and iron and steel debris such as discarded anchors, as well as geologic noise from
certain mineral deposits. In addition, the corrosivity of the underwater environment, particularly
in shallow saltwater where more oxygen is available, causes the iron and steel components of MEC
to corrode, reducing the magnetic signature.
Electromagnetic induction systems also have a number of problems. The electrical
conductivity of water limits the penetration of electrical and electromagnetic energy. In time-domain
systems, such as the Geonics EM-61, the signal decay occurs at a slower rate than on land, and the
time gates of the system must be adjusted accordingly. Operation in sea water, with its high salinity,
can cause a high power draw, which makes a large supply of batteries necessary.155
9.2.2 Platform, Positioning, and Discrimination
The three common operational platforms for deploying MEC sensors are man-portable hand-
held, towed-array, and airborne (see Section 4.2.3). The methods of underwater deployment are
similar. Hand-held sensors are used by divers swimming along a search pattern. Towed arrays
containing several magnetometers can be pulled along the bottom. Arrays can also be suspended
from an underwater mast or other device and "flown" along, either at a fixed distance below the
surface of the water or at a fixed distance above the bottom. In the near-shore areas, detectors can
be affixed to floating platforms as well.156
Positioning techniques vary depending on the platform employed. The simplest means of
identifying the position of an anomaly is similar to the land-based "Mag and Flag." The anomaly
position is marked by or in relation to a buoy. Arrays employ differential global positioning system
(DGPS) to mark the position of any anomaly. More sophisticated platforms will also use a high-
frequency echo sounder to accurately record the distance between the sensors and the bottom.
154P. Pehme, Q. Yarie, K. Penney, J. Greenhouse, andD. Parker. Adapting the Geonics EM-61 for UXO Surveys
in 0-20 Metres of Water. Paper presented at the 2002 UXO/Countermine Forum, Orlando, FL, September 2002.
155
Ibid.
156
Wold. A Review of Underwater UXO Systems in Europe.
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A number of factors affect the ability to discriminate between MEC and non-MEC. These
include the instruments used, the platform, and the depth of the water over a target. For
magnetometers, the apparent size of the anomaly depends on the elevation of the sensor above the
anomaly. Thus, when interpreting the data, the depth of the anomaly must be taken into account.
Two issues must be considered: (1) distance from the sensor to the sediment-water interface, and
(2) distance of the anomaly below the sediment-water interface. The water depth above the
sediment-water interface changes because of bottom topography, tides, and water level changes in
rivers caused by floods and drought. For EMI, both the distance between the receiver coils and the
anomaly and the separation between the transmitter and the receiver coils must be accounted for in
the interpretation. In many cases, the instrument will not be able to determine the size or number
of targets.
When the depth of the smallest object under investigation is within the detection limit of the
sensor, the preferred platform is the surface of the water. In that situation, the attitude of the sensor
is observable, the elevation of the sensor above the water bottom is known or can be determined,
and the sensor position is easily measured using a GPS. However, wave action will significantly
affect the attitude and the stability of the surface sensor and therefore the detectability of MEC. For
anomalies approximately the size of a 12-pound MEC item, the depth limit (water depth and
distance below the bottom sediments) is approximately 1.5 to 2 meters for a typical magnetometer
or EMI instrument.157
At depths of approximately 2 to 4 meters, the geophysical sensors can be placed on a partly
or fully submerged platform. This platform is rigidly linked to the watercraft, whose position is
monitored by GPS. An alternative arrangement is to attach the GPS antenna to a bottom-holding
1 S8
system.
At depths greater than 4 meters, controlling and measuring the depth and position of a
submerged platform becomes more difficult. The depth to the bottom of a bottom-holding platform
can be estimated by triangulation based on the measured water depth and the length of a towing
cable. If the platform is flown above the bottom, controlling and monitoring the distance between
the bottom and the platform's sensors are more difficult. The interpretation of an anomaly' s size and
depth can be strongly influenced by the indeterminate elevation of the platform sensors.159
Unlike land surveys that use various towed arrays, underwater surveys and equipment can be
severely affected by the weather. Wave conditions, even on an otherwise good weather day, can
cause serious safety concerns as well as place significant stress on a towed array. An array that is
designed to handle the drag while being pulled in calm water can crumple under the additional stress
created by waves.
157Pehme, et al. Adapting the Geonics EM-61 for UXO Surveys in 0-20 Metres of Water.
158Ibid.
159Ibid.
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9.2.3 Use of Divers for Detection
The oldest technology used to search for MEC underwater is manual searching using divers.
Land-based searches involve technicians walking a search pattern and (usually) using a sensor. The
only difference in the underwater environment is that the technician is a diver who conducts a visual
and instrument-guided search. The instrument is normally hand-held. The search pattern is usually
a grid marked out by a set of buoys or an expanding circle with a single buoy anchoring the center
of the circle.
9.2.4 Other Technological Approaches for Detecting Underwater MEC and UXO
Magnetometers and EMI instruments can both be adapted for use in the underwater
environment. For example, a variety of approaches have been developed to deploy cesium
magnetometers for surveying harbors, lakes, rivers, swamps, and tidal regions. One German
company is developing a system to tow a cesium sensor array in a 500-meter-deep lake to locate
toxic gas containers and UXO.160
In the paper A Review of Underwater UXO Systems in Europe, presented at the 2002
UXO/Countermine Forum, it was noted that all groups that provide commercial underwater
MEC/UXO surveys in Europe used arrays of magnetometers. The study did not report on any use
of EMI sensors. Side-scan sonar often is used to map the bottom. Three approaches used for
deployment of the magnetometer sensor arrays include suspending the array at a fixed depth, towing
along the bottom, and maintaining a fixed distance above the water bottom or at a fixed depth. For
data processing and analysis, visual interpretation of the data was shown to be the best way to detect
UXO.161
The following section presents three case studies, one of an underwater towed-array
magnetometer, the second of a modified Geonics EM-61, and the third of the test program. The case
studies were conducted to survey underwater MEC/UXO under live conditions.
9.2.4.1 Case Studies
Case Study 1: Use of Hand-Held Detectors
A shallow-water procedure for USAGE munition clearance proj ects is analogous to the "Mag-
and-Flag" procedures used on land. Grids are set up and surveyed with a hand-held detector. Two
proj ects where this process has been performed in shallow water of 3 feet or less are Buckroe Beach
and the Former Erie Army Depot.162
In 1992, a UXO clearance was conducted at Buckroe Beach in Hampton, Virginia, along the
beach and to a depth of 3 feet below the surface of the water. A systematic search of the surf zone
used a procedure for laying out grids using weighted ropes and then sweeping the lanes. Five-man
160Wold. A Review of Underwater UXO Systems in Europe.
161Ibid.
16:
l2Edwards and Selfridge. Munition Item Detection Systems.
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teams used underwater all-metal detectors to locate ordnance in the subsurface bottom to a depth
of 6 to 12 inches. Using this search method, live projectiles and expended ordnance items were
successfully detected and recovered.
In 2002, a beach and shallow-water area survey at the former Erie Army Depot along the shore
of Lake Erie southeast of the mouth of the Toussaint River was conducted. A total of 29 grids along
the beach were cleared. The grids were 200 feet wide and extended 200 feet toward the lake until
3 feet of water was reached. Hand-held magnetometers were used to identify potential munition
items. After an item was identified, its position and identification data were loaded into a data
logger. Fuzed items were remotely moved to the beach with ropes and pulleys.
Case Study 2: Use of a Towed-Array Magnetometer
In a presentation at the 2002 UXO/Countermine Forum, an American company reported on
the efforts of several European companies conducting commercial UXO services in Europe.163 One
such effort was a survey of a harbor on the Gulf of Bothnia, where the ship channels and turnaround
areas of the harbor were being deepened. At the beginning of the dredging proj ect, it was discovered
that a significant UXO problem existed. UXO ranging from 37 mm items to 500 kg bombs were
found in the harbor bottom. In some cases, whole crates of munitions were found.
A company from Finland conducted a magnetometry survey of the harbor. The base
configuration consisted of four cesium magnetometers spaced 1.8 meters horizontally. The
conditions of the harbor bottom did not permit the magnetometer sensor array to be towed along the
harbor bottom. Two approaches to suspend the magnetometer sensor array above the harbor bottom
were tried. The first approach used a 3- by 4-meter raft to tow the magnetometer sensor array, which
was fixed to an aluminum wing. This approach worked well and is still used when the depth of water
does not exceed 20 meters.
A second approach involved the use of a 6- by 12-meter aluminum raft supporting the
magnetometer sensor array on a cross piece connected to two plastic vertical supports. The
magnetometer sensor array can be fixed to a maximum of 17 meters below the raft. An altimeter and
x andy accelerometers are located in the center of the cross piece. Differential global positioning
system track coverage is displayed for the operator and on the bridge of the raft. A magnetic base
station and GPS reference station are operated onshore. The raft travels at 2 knots, and the
magnetometers take 10 readings per second. The line spacing is 5 meters.
The magnetic data, coordinates from Differential global positioning system, and the high-
frequency echo sounder data are recorded to a computer. Preliminary data processing is done in the
field. The onshore magnetic base station is used to compensate for the natural variations of the
Earth's magnetic field. The differential correction applied to the GPS data is done using the GPS
base station data and Ashtech's PNAV program. GTK's own programs and Geosoft Oasis Montaj
are used for data control and processing. The magnetic total field data are filtered by bandpass filter
(1-30 or 3-30 m) to remove the effects of geological formations and measurement noise.
1
-------
The GTK survey reported that for detecting all MEC and UXO, visual interpretation proved
best for evaluating the data. The magnetic profiles of the four sensors are studied simultaneously.
To locate the targets, GTK technicians compared the measured anomalies with the results obtained
from test bomb measurements. Since the size of the magnetic anomaly depends on the elevation of
the magnetic sensor, the depth to target must be taken into account during interpretation. The
report's conclusions did not discuss the actual success of the harbor survey.
Case Study 3: Use of Modified EM-61
In an EMI survey conducted offshore at Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, proj ect technicians modified
the Geonics EM61-MK2.164 Peak transmitter power in the EM61-MK2 was increased to 288 watts
from 81 watts in the standard system. In addition, the frequency of the transmitter pulse was
doubled and made bipolar. The standard EM61-MK2 has a unipolar transmitter pulse. This
combination results in a transmitter dipole moment of 1,248 Am2 versus the standard 156 Am2. This
modification enabled the sensor to detect deeper objects. Another modification increased the dipole
moment on the transmitter loop. Further modifications were considered in order to overcome the
problem of detecting very deep anomalies.
To detect the very deep anomalies, it was necessary to get the receiver closer to them.
Numerous designs were modeled and tested. These tests resulted in dropping the requirement that
the receiver coil have a fixed offset from the transmitter coil. This change allowed the transmitter
to be maintained on a stable surface platform while varying the receiver position to allow it to get
as close as possible to the target anomalies. The advantage of this modification is that the transmitter
at the surface is on a stable platform that could be accurately positioned. The disadvantages include
the difficulty in knowing the position of the receiver and the variability of the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver, making the comparison and analysis of anomalies more difficult. This
modification could detect accumulated metal on the bottom but did poorly at resolving and
interpreting individual anomalies.
A reconnaissance survey was conducted to outline the general distribution of UXO resulting
from a 1945 fire and explosion at Rent Point, CFAD Bedford, Canada. This reconnaissance survey
required the instrument to operate from the shoreline to a depth of greater than 15 meters. In water
less than 2 meters deep, the survey used a simple configuration consisting of a standard high-power
EM61-MK2 with modified time gates on a raft. Where the water depth was greater than 2 meters,
the modification was as follows: The primary field was created by a 5- by 8-meter transmitter coil
floating on the surface. A 1- by 1-meter receiver coil was suspended below the transmitter and at
a depth approximately 2 meters above the bottom. The system was combined with a digital echo
sounder on the towing boat and real-time GPS mounted on the transmitter coil for positioning.
The results of the reconnaissance survey were fairly good. The system for shallow water
produced good detection capabilities. The deep-water system was able to detect small objects at
intermediate depths and accumulations of objects at greater depths. Because the elevations of the
transmitter and the receiver above the seabed could not be accurately controlled, no attempt was
made to identify and compare the size of the targets based on the amplitude of their anomalies.
164Pehme, et al. Adapting the Geonics EM-61 for UXO Surveys in 0-20 Metres of Water.
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However, additional research to improve anomaly discrimination and to better assess the size of the
target is planned.
Case Study 4: Mare Island Naval Shipyard Validation of Detection Systems Test Program
The Department of the Navy identified seven sites (four offshore and three onshore) at the
former Mare Island Naval Shipyard (MINS) in Vallej o, California, that potentially contained MEC.
The Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Pacific Division, contracted with Environmental
Chemical Corporation (ECC), Burlingame, California, to perform a Validation of Detection Systems
(VDS) test program at MINS.165
The VDS test program was performed over a 5-week period beginning on August 30, 1999.
The objective of the program was to identify, select, and validate detection equipment and
technologies that could be used to locate and detect MEC at the four offshore sites at MINS.
Secondary objectives of the VDS test program included the following:
Determine which types and models of subsurface investigative instruments are
successful underwater.
Quantify the detection capacity of the equipment, attempting to obtain a 0.85 detection
rate with a 90 percent confidence level.
Quantify the false alarm ratio (FAR), attempting to minimize it.
Determine the detection capabilities for each equipment type and system used, providing
detection capabilities for each type and system in specific detection scenarios. Scenarios
will exercise detection capabilities based on target composition, density mass, and depth
below bottom surface.
Determine the capabilities of the equipment to accurately match underwater geophysical
anomaly data to physical reference points, either through DGPS or through other
tracking and mapping techniques.
Demonstrate that underwater anomaly data can be recorded for subsequent post-
processing and analysis.
Demonstrate that the anomaly data collected can be used to reacquire targets.
The program tested vendors' systems to determine which systems had a total probability of
detection rate of at least 0.85 or higher with a 90 percent confidence level. Since more than 250
underwater targets would be required to establish a total confidence level of 90 percent, ECC
decided to use only as many targets as necessary to establish the probability-of-detection goal of
0.85. The test program succeeded in evaluating and differentiating between technologies in order
to determine the strengths and weaknesses of each. The VDS test results show that two vendors had
the most success in detecting underwater targets. One vendor's detection system consisted of an
underwater version of the Geonics EM-61 with a single coil. The second vendor's detection system
was made up of two systems: a magnetic system using a four-sensor array consisting of Geometric
G- 858 cesium vapor magnetometers that provide initial location data, and an electromagnetic
system employing a single GEM-3 sensor that further characterizes the data set. The VDS results
showed that the vendor using the Geonics EM-61 with a single coil was able to meet and exceed this
165ECC. Validation of Detection Systems.
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goal with a detection rate of 0.99. The second vendor, using the combination system described
above, barely missed this goal with a detection rate of 0.84.
Another obj ective of the test program was to minimize the FAR. The combination system with
a FAR of 7 percent had the lowest of the five test participants. The Geonics EM-61 with a single coil
was second, with a FAR of 18 percent. Both results show very strong detection capability.
Case Study 5: Use of a Helicopter
Airborne platforms can be successfully employed to detect underwater UXO under certain
circumstances. One such effort was conducted in March 2002 using a helicopter geophysical
survey to detect and map UXO at the site of the former Camp Wellfleet in Massachusetts.166 The
survey was done in an area that is now encompassed by the Cape Cod National Seashore. It was
carried out with the Oak Ridge Airborne Geophysical System (ORAGS) Arrowhead magnetometer
array. ORAGS consists of an eight-magnetometer array with sensors mounted in three booms (port,
forward, and starboard). This arrangement is shown in Figure 9-3, has two sensors in each lateral
boom and four sensors in the arrowhead-shaped forward boom. A fluxgate magnetometer is mounted
in the forward boom to compensate for the magnetic signature of the aircraft. A GPS electronic
Navigation system, using a satellite link, provided navigation for the survey. Differential post-
processing produced more accurate positioning of the geophysical data. Altitude was measured with
a laser altimeter. Over the beach and surf zone, where vegetation was low or absent, sensor heights
of 1 to3 meters above ground level were regularly attained. Aircraft ground speed was maintained
at approximately 12 meters per second, or 27 miles per hour. The GPS and diurnal monitor base
stations were established at the airport in Hyannis, Massachusetts, at a known geodetic marker.
Figure 9-4 is an orthophoto of the north beach area with targets indicated. Figure 9-5 is the
corresponding magnetic map of the analytic signal.
V
Figure 9-3. Airborne Geophysical Survey Helicopter Platform (from Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, 2002)
166Edwards and Selfridge. Munition Item Detection Systems.
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9.2.4.2 Mobile Underwater Debris Survey System
Among the potential detection technologies under development is the Mobile Underwater
Debris Survey System (MUDSS), a Multisensor, towed, underwater MEC detection and
identification system. MUDSS works by combining magnetic, sonar, trace chemical, and electro-
optical identification sensor (EIS) technologies in a submersible, torpedolike vehicle that feeds high-
speed data to a "mothership" through a fiber-optic cable.167
MUDSS was demonstrated during a UXO survey of a region of Choctawhatchee Bay in
Florida that is adjacent to a World War II practice bombing range. The test, which was funded by
the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP), was conducted during
a 5-day period in November 1998. MUDSS was deployed from a surface vessel over a 2-square-
mile shallow area (15- to 30-foot depth). Researchers traced a set of 92 parallel search tracks across
the survey region. The search tracks were surveyed using a high-frequency/low-frequency (HF/LF)
synthetic aperture sonar (SAS) sensor and a magnetic gradiometer array sensor to detect and locate
the position of potential UXO targets. Potential targets were tagged with GPS coordinates. The
MUDSS survey plan was to then reacquire nonburied targets and collect an EIS image of each target
to determine whether the target was UXO. Buried targets were later investigated by divers using
hand-held magnetic sensors. The divers also collected sediment samples near the confirmed buried
targets to determine the presence of trace munition constituents.168
The MUDSS calibration tests on planted targets (ranging from a 60 mm mortar projectile to
a 1,000-pound bomb) demonstrated that the HF/LF SAS, magnetic array, and EIS successfully
detected and imaged calibration targets at ranges consistent with environmental conditions that
included poor water clarity. MUDSS analysis of sonar and magnetic sensor survey data showed most
bomblike targets were buried. Of the 492 buried magnetic targets detected, 135 targets had magnetic
size and orientation consistent with UXO. This meant that MUDSS was able to eliminate 357 items
as not being UXO. Eighteen of the 135 remaining targets were selected as the best targets for diver
verification.169 Using hand-held sensors, the divers were able to excavate and confirm that one target
was a 500-pound bomb that was UXO and two targets were not UXO. The remaining anomalies
investigated were not confirmed because of either the burial depth or the divers' inability to
reacquire the anomalies using hand-held sensors.170
Only three suspected UXO targets had potential UXO-like acoustic signatures. Divers were
unable to verify these as being UXO. The explanation offered was that the UXO bombs were buried
too deeply in Choctawhatchee Bay for the sonar to detect them. Poor underwater visibility resulted
in no UXO detection by the EIS.171
167D.C. Summey. MUDSS UXO Survey at Choctawhatchee Bay, FL. Partners in Environmental Techno logy.
Poster No. 80. Presented at the 2002 UXO/Countermine Forum, Orlando, FL, September 2002.
168Ibid.
169Ibid.
170D.C. Summey, J.F. McCormick, andPJ. Carroll. Mobile Underwater Debris Survey System (MUDSS). ND.
171Ibid.
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The researchers presented the following conclusions:
The Choctawhatchee Bay tests confirmed the need for the MUDSS multiple sensor
approach. For very difficult underwater environments, the use of multiple sensors to
evaluate potential UXO targets increases the potential for identifying UXO.
MUDSS potentially reduces the time and resources required to survey unknown
underwater sites that contain MEC.
Additional analysis of the Choctawhatchee Bay data is needed to evaluate the
effectiveness of MUDSS' full system capabilities, including the EIS.172
Additional testing and development of this system is expected to improve its ability to
successfully locate submerged and buried MEC items.
9.2.4.3 Chemical Sensors
One of the problems associated with the use of magnetometry and EMI is the difficulty
associated with distinguishing between iron-containing debris and actual MEC or UXO items. This
situation can slow the remediation of an underwater UXO site because the identity and status of each
anomaly must be confirmed. This procedure can be very time-consuming and cost-intensive. An
experimental approach is being investigated that seeks to identify the chemical signature of
individual munition constituents, such as TNT, underwater in real time.173
The source of munition constituents in underwater environments is either UXO or munitions
items that have undergone low-order detonation, "bleed out" of intact or damaged munitions, or
disposal of bulk material. The chemical signatures of individual munition constituents can be used
to determine the presence and location of munition or UXO items. The chief problems associated
with detecting the chemical signatures include dilution, the variety of naturally occurring
substances, and particulate matter underwater. To overcome these problems, any sensor used must
have very finely defined sensitivity to measure very low (< 1 ppb) concentrations and the ability to
discriminate between the target munition constituent and other potentially interfering substances.174
9.3 Safety
Underwater environments magnify some of the problems identified in Section 6 ("Explosives
Safety") with respect to both human and ecological receptors. The primary threat to safety is the
increased danger posed by an underwater detonation. The average safe distance from an underwater
detonation can be over five times that of a land detonation for an equivalent amount of an explosive
mixture.175 Whereas the dangers posed by a land detonation include fragmentation, debris, and the
shock wave, the danger posed by an underwater detonation is primarily from the shock wave.
172Ibid.
173Dock, et al. Sensor for Real-Time Detection of Underwater Unexploded Ordnance.
174Ibid.
175The actual evacuation distance is based on the net explosive weight of the ordnance item.
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Munitions and Explosives 9-22 May 2005
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The underwater environment is generally more unstable to work in than on land because of
the action of waves, tides, and currents. Low visibility, sedimentation, and biological and mineral
coatings on MEC items also make identification much harder. For example, determining if a
potential UXO item is fuzed and armed, or what type of fuze or fuzes are present, can be nearly
impossible.
Because of the danger posed by an underwater detonation, divers must be out of the water
before moving any MEC or UXO item or attempting to blow it in place. Current practices are costly
and time-consuming. Technologies that rely much less on divers need to be developed so that
underwater remediation is safer and more cost-effective.
9.4 Underwater Response Technologies
9.4.1 Blowing in Place
The most common technique for dealing with UXO is in-place open detonation, also known
as blowing-in-place (BIP). However, BIP is hazardous to humans in the water and to aquatic life,
as well as harmful to sensitive environments, such as wetlands and coastal marshes. It is necessary
to coordinate with Federal, State, and local regulatory officials to obtain approval for BIP, as marine
biota, such as sea turtles and marine mammals, may be affected at substantial distances from an
underwater detonation.
The rapid Shockwave pressures associated with underwater detonations can cause adverse
biological effects. The primary blast injury in marine mammals and sea turtles, other than death as
a result of the underwater detonation, has been shown to be to the auditory, respiratory, and
gastrointestinal organs. Depending on water conditions, sound travels further underwater than the
pressure wave generated by the detonation.176
Detonation Tools
BIP may be necessary because of the
hazardous nature of the UXO. One technique to
mitigate the effects of BIP involves the use of
low-order instead of high-order detonation. A L°T°rder detonation ^r^J£signed t0 tansmit
0 sufficient energy to an MEC/UXO case to rapture it
without causing a full detonation reaction in the
explosive charge.
low-order detonation is any explosive yield less
than high order. Planning to conduct low-order
detonations must include the possibility of a
high-order detonation. The reduction in
explosive yield depends on a number of factors,
including but not limited to, the type of ordnance, explosive fill, detonation tool, and technique.
The availability of low-order detonation technologies has increased, providing potential
alternatives to traditional BIP procedures for surface MEC. Low-order detonation tools are designed
to transmit sufficient energy to an MEC case to rupture it without causing a full detonation reaction
in the explosive charge. It is possible in some cases to reduce the explosive yield of a large MEC
item by up to 90 percent. However, a consequence of low-order detonations may be the release of
significant amounts of munition constituents into the underwater environment. These releases must
"6Mitigation Options for Underwater Explosions. Prepared for the Naval Undersea Warfare Center, Waianae,
HI. September 19, 2000.
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Munitions and Explosives 9-23 May 2005
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be accounted for and managed in underwater response activities. Research is being conducted in the
application of low-order BIP as a response action that reduces the effect on underwater
environments.177
One low-order detonation tool, called HL21, was developed in Germany. The HL21 uses a
shaped charge to rupture the UXO casing and has been used successfully on surface UXO. Tests of
the system were conducted in water-filled 55-gallon drums that contained 155 mm TNT-filled,
nonfuzed projectiles. In five trials, the low-order detonation of 155 mm projectiles generated large
fragments and small amounts of TNT.178 Further testing is planned.
Another technique to mitigate BIP involves using physical barriers. Sandbags, concrete
blocks, or other barriers can be used to surround the MEC item. The barrier can be formed to focus
the sound and shock waves upward, reducing lateral effects. This technique is likely to work only
in shallower water, as there are practical limits on the height of a barrier constructed underwater.
9.4.2 Dredging
Dredging can be a cost-effective and productive method for removing underwater MEC.
Dredging excavates large areas and does not require detection or positioning of each MEC item.
However, removing MEC by dredging is not necessarily a precise process and presents risks from
both detonation of MEC and exposure to munition residues. Sediment turbidity inhibits visual
verification of MEC removal, so monitoring the dredge discharge may be necessary. Dredging can
also leave some MEC behind. Most of the MEC left behind will be on the newly dredged surface,
and some of these MEC items can become mobile.179 Additionally, dredging only transports
potential MEC from one place to another. The dredge spoils potentially containing MEC may also
require a munitions response action. Consideration should be given to offshore location and depth
in determining whether MEC contained in offshore sediments pose a significant threat to human
health and the environment.
Hydraulic and mechanical dredging methods vary in cost, effectiveness, and safety.
Hydraulic dredging may be more productive and cost-effective for removing material that does not
contain concentrated, highly sensitive, or large MEC items. Mechanical dredging is suitable for
sensitive and large MEC items, and it may provide increased removal reliability. Engineering
protective measures or the use of remotely operated equipment must be implemented to ensure
worker safety. However, mechanical dredges are not appropriate for removing large areas of
material because of their low productivity. A hybrid approach for removal of sensitive MEC items
combines the benefits of the mechanical dredge's removal reliability and the hydraulic dredge's
productivity. Therefore, the hydraulic dredge may be used to remove large volumes of material
while rejecting or avoiding MEC. The mechanical dredge would then be used to collect the MEC
from the bottom.180
177A. Pedersen. Law-Order Underwater Detonation. Environmental Security Performance Report. November
2002.
178Ibid.
179Edwards and Selfridge. Munition Item Detection Systems.
180Ibid.
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Munitions and Explosives 9-24 May 2005
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Dredging methods may have useful applications in UXO removal but to date have not been
integrated with detection methods and means of separating metallic materials from nonmetallic
materials.181
181Ibid.
Chapter 9. Underwater INTERIM FINAL
Munitions and Explosives 9-25 May 2005
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SOURCES AND RESOURCES
The following publications are provided as a guide for handbook users to obtain additional
information about the subject matter addressed in each chapter. Several of these publications were
also used in the development of this handbook.
Publications
Brannon, J.M., and T.E. Myers. Review of Fate and Transport Processes of Explosives. U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers WES. Technical Report IRRP-97-2. March 1997.
Brannon, J.M., et al. Conceptual Model and Process Descriptor Formulations for Fate and
Transport ofUXO. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers WES, February 1999.
Carr, R.S., and M. Nipper. Development of Marine Sediment Toxicity Data for Ordnance
Compounds and Toxicity Identification Evaluation Studies at Select Naval Facilities. Naval
Facilities Engineering Service Center, Port Hueneme, CA. February 26, 1999.
Darrich, M.R. et al. Trace Explosives Signatures from World War II Unexploded Undersea
Ordnance. Environmental Science and Technology, 32(9): 1,354-58, 1998.
Dock, M., M. Fisher, and C. Cumming. Sensor for Real-Time Detection of Underwater Unexploded
Ordnance. Paper presented at the 2002 UXO/Countermine Forum, Orlando, FL, September 2002.
Dow, J. Conceptual Site Model and Risk Assessment for Underwater Ordnance Remediation.
Prepared for the third EPA/DoD CSM and DQO meeting. February 28-March 1, 2001.
Edwards, D., and R. Selfridge. Munition Item Detection Systems Used by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers in Shallow Water Environments. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntsville Engineering
and Support Center. February 12, 2003.
Jenkins, T.F. et al. Characterization of Explosives Contamination at Military Firing Ranges. U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Hanover, NH, Technical
Report ERDC TR-01-5. July 2001.
Nipper, M., R.S. Carr, J.M. Biedenbach, R.L. Hooten, and K. Miller. Toxicological and Chemical
Assessment of Ordnance Compounds in Marine Sediments and Pore Water. Marine Pollution
Bulletin. February 12, 2002.
Pedersen, A. The Challenges ofUXO in the Marine Environment. Naval EOD Technology Division.
Pedersen, A., and J. Delaney. Low-Order Underwater Detonation Study. Naval EOD Technology
Division (NAVEODTECFIDIV). ND.
Pehme, P., Q. Yarie, K. Penney, J. Greenhouse, and D. Parker. Adapting the Geonics EM-61 for
UXO Surveys in 0-20 Metres of Water. Paper presented at the 2002 UXO/Countermine Forum,
Orlando, FL, September 2002.
Summey, D.C. MUDSS UXO Survey at Choctawhatchee Bay, FL. Partners in Environmental
Technology. Poster No. 80. Presented at the 2002 UXO/Countermine Forum, Orlando, FL,
September 2002.
Chapter 9. Underwater INTERIM FINAL
Munitions and Explosives 9-26 May 2005
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Summey, D.C., J.F. McCormick, and PJ. Carroll. Mobile Underwater Debris Survey System
(MUDSS).ND.
Thiboutot, S., G. Ampleman, and A.D. Hewitt. Guide for Characterization of Sites Contaminated
with Energetic Materials. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ERDC/CRREL TR-02-1. February 2002.
USAGE. Toxicity of Military Unique Compounds in Aquatic Organisms: An Annotated
Bibliography (StudiesPublished Through 1996). Waterways Experiment Station (WES), Vicksburg,
MS, Technical Report IRRP-98-4. April 1998.
U.S. EPA. Health Advisory for Hexahydro-l,3,5-Trinitro-l,3,5-Triazine (RDX). Criteria and
Standards Division, Office of Drinking Water, Washington, DC. November 1988.
U.S. EPA. Health Advisory for Octahydro-1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-l,3,5,7-Tetrazocine (HMX). Criteria
and Standards Division, Office of Drinking Water, Washington, DC. November 1988.
U.S. EPA. Potential Species for Phytoremediation of Per chlorate. Office of Research and
Development, Washington, D.C. EPA/600/R-99/069, August 1999.
U.S. EPA. Trinitrotoluene Health Advisory. Office of Drinking Water, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Washington, DC. January 1989.
Wold, RJ. A Review of Underwater UXO Systems in Europe. Paper presented at the 2002
UXO/Countermine Forum, Orlando, FL, September 2002.
U.S. Navy. Mitigation Options for Underwater Explosions. Prepared for the Naval Undersea
Warfare Center, Waianae, HI. September 19, 2000.
U.S. Navy. Draft Conceptual Site Model for the Southern Offshore Ordnance Sites, Former Mare
Island Naval Shipyard. Prepared for Department of the Navy, Commander, Pacific Division, Naval
Facilities Engineering Command, Pearl Harbor, HI. July 17, 2002.
U.S. Navy. Technical Memorandum for Offshore OE Clearance Model, OE Investigation and
Response Actions, Former Mare Island Naval Shipyard (MINS). Prepared for Commander, Pacific
Division, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Pearl Harbor, HI. February 11, 1999.
U.S. Navy. Validation of Detection Systems (YDS) Test Program Final Report. Mare Island Naval
Shipyard (MINS), Vallejo, CA. Prepared for Commander, Pacific Division, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command, Pearl Harbor, HI. July 7, 2000.
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10.0 CHEMICAL MUNITIONS AND AGENTS
10.1 Introduction to Chemical Munitions and Agents
Chemical munitions and agents are defined by the Department of Defense Explosives Safety
Board (DDESB) as:
An agent or munition that, through its chemical properties, produces lethal or other
damaging effects to human beings, except that such term does not include riot control agents,
chemical herbicides, smoke or other obscuration materials1*2
The presence of chemical agents can add significantly to the complexity of an MRS site
investigation. Risks include potentially lethal contamination by releases of liquid or vapor forms of
the chemicals, in addition to the explosive hazards of fuses, boosters, bursters, or propellants that may
exist within munitions. The presence of chemical agents and/or their degradation products may pose
a threat to soil and groundwater.
The majority of the chemical weapons in
this country are considered stockpile chemical
The Chemicals in This Chapter
The lists of chemical warfare agents described in this
chapter are taken from the Convention in the
Prohibition of the Development, Production,
Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons, Annex on
Chemicals. This list does not include all of the
chemicals contained in that Annex, but rather focuses
on those most commonly tested in the United States.
weapons. Stockpile weapons are weapons and
bulk agents that could be used in a retaliatory
strike against an opponent or could serve as a
deterrent to such a strike. Stockpile items are
made up of chemical agents and munitions that
have been maintained under proper storage
and accounting procedures since their
manufacture. Under the Chemical Weapons
Convention, all stockpile weapons in the United
States must be destroyed by April 29, 2007, unless an extension of up to 5 years is given.
In addition to agreeing to destroy the chemical weapons stockpile, the United States also
agreed to dispose of all other chemical weapons-related materiel, which are considered non-stockpile
materiel. Non-stockpile chemical warfare materiel (NSCWM) consists of five categories: (1) binary
chemical weapons,184 (2) former chemical weapons production facilities, (3) unfilled munitions and
devices, and chemical samples, as defined by the Chemical Weapons Convention, (4) chemical
weapons already recovered from pre-1969 land disposal sites, and (5) buried CWM yet to be
recovered. Such materiel exists at hundreds of locations as a result of routine disposal by burial that
was conducted prior to the 1969 changes in public laws. Since it is reasonably expected that only
non-stockpile chemical materiel would be found at MRSs and other defense sites, this chapter
addresses only non-stockpile chemical materiel.
182DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards, July 1999, Chapter 12, DoD Directive 6055.9-STD.
183This chapter does not address chemical weapons of foreign origin.
mBinary chemical weapons refers to the concept of developing nontoxic precursors that can be loaded in
munitions. Once deployed, the precursors mix and develop the nerve agent.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-1
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May 2005
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Chemical agents achieve their effects through chemical actions rather than through blast,
fragments, projectiles, or heat, which are normally associated with explosives. Chemical agents are
characterized by the potential human health effects, which range from incapacitation to lethality. The
actual effects of exposure vary with the type and concentration of the agent, form (gaseous, liquid),
dose and pathway, and susceptibility of the exposed individual. Chemical agents are classified as
nerve, blister, blood, choking, tear gas, and vomiting agents. Definitions for each of the
classifications and their relative toxicities are discussed in Section 10.4.
Because of the overlap of detection methods, remediation techniques, and safety
considerations for chemical and conventional explosive munitions, this chapter focuses on those
issues that differentiate chemical munitions from conventional explosive munitions.
10.2 Where Chemical Munitions and Agents Are Found
10.2.1 Background
Chemical agents can be found in most
types of munitions, including grenades,
artillery projectiles, bombs, mines, and rockets.
Chemical agents also are found in various
storage containers, such as one-ton containers,
PIGS and Chemical Agent Identification Sets
(CAIS), that might be found at burial sites.
CAIS have been routinely used in personnel
training since World War I and are considered
chemical warfare materiel (CWM). These may
be found on any military facility where troop
training was conducted. CAIS come in three
principal types that contain real chemical agent
in bottles or vials to be used in different types
of training exercises. CAIS were used from
1928 to 1969 and were widely distributed
during World War II. During the World War II
era they were frequently disposed of by burial.
Containers of Chemical Agent
One-ton containers:
Bulk cylindrical steel containers
Hold 170 gallons of materiel
101.5 inches long, 30.5 inches in diameter
Three types (A, D, and E)
PIGS:
CAIS:
Cylindrical forged steel shipping container
Used to transport and store Chemical Agent
Identification Sets (CAIS) and laboratory
standards
38 inches long
Used for field training
Kits contain glass tubes/vials of different
chemical agents such as:
mustard (H)
lewisite (L)
phosgene (CG)
chlorpicrin (PS)
Seven different configurations of CAIS
kits were made by the Army and Navy over a period of close to 50 years. Three principal varieties
of these are still found today: (1) toxic gas sets (100 ml bottles of mustard), (2) gas identification sets
(40 ml heat-sealed vials with dilute agents except for pure phosgene), and (3) Navy or sniff sets
(filled with charcoal on which 25 ml of agent was placed). They were intended for use by troops
during training so that different chemical agents could be properly identified and decontaminated in
combat. Complete sets contained from 2 to 48 bottles or vials, depending on the type of set. Some
complete sets contain small quantities of agent, while others contain as much chemical agent as is
normally found in large projectiles.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-2
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Many munitions of the World War II era, such as 4.2 inch mortars, M47 and M70 bombs,
Livens proj ectiles, 75 mm proj ectiles, 4 inch Stokes mortars, and others, had both lethal chemical fills
and smoke and/or incendiary fills, all of which are liquid. In addition, some industrial compounds
were used to produce lethal effects. These include phosgene, hydrogen cyanide, and cyanogen
chloride.
10.2.2 Stockpile and Non-stockpile CWM Sites
There are two basic categories of sites
containing CWM and agents which are designated
on the basis of how the materiel was stored:
stockpile and non-stockpile CWM sites.
Stockpile CWM sites are those locations in
the United States where all chemical agents and
munitions that were available for use on the
battlefield (including those assembled in weapons
and in bulk one-ton containers) are stored. There are
currently eight locations that the United States has
control of where stockpile CWM is found: Umatilla
Depot, Oregon; Tooele Army Depot, Utah; Pueblo
Depot, Colorado; Newport Army Munition Plant,
Indiana; Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland;
Lexington Blue Grass Army Depot, Kentucky;
Anniston Army Depot, Alabama; and Pine Bluff
Arsenal, Arkansas. (Destruction of CWM at
Johnston Atoll has been completed.)
In 1985, the U.S. Congress passed Public
Law 99-145, which requires the destruction of the
stockpile of lethal chemical warfare agents and
munitions in the United States. A 1997 decision to
ratify the Chemical Weapons Convention required
the destruction, by 2007, of all stockpiled CWM, and
all non-stockpile CWM known at the time of the
signing. The United States and other signatories are
in the process of moving aggressively to meet this
Non-stockpile Chemical Materiel
Non-stockpile chemical materiel includes the
following categories, all of which could be
located at MRSs:
Buried chemical materiel - materiel that
was buried between World War I and at
least the late 1950s, during which time
burial was considered to be a final disposal
solution for obsolete chemical weapons.
Binary chemical weapons - munitions
designed to use two relatively nontoxic
chemicals that combine during functioning
of the weapons system to produce a
chemical agent for release on target. (These
weapons were neither widely produced nor
tested in the United States.)
Recovered chemical weapons - those
weapons retrieved from range-clearing
operations, research and test sites, and
burial sites.
Former chemical weapons production
facilities - facilities that produced chemical
agents and other components for chemical
weapons.
Other miscellaneous chemical warfare
material - includes unfilled munitions and
devices; samples; and research,
development, testing, and evaluation
materials that were used for the
development of chemical weapons.
requirement. However, the United States has
acknowledged difficulty in achieving this goal and has requested the allowed 5-year extension.
According to the Army's Program Manager for Chemical Destruction, as of June 8, 2003, 26
percent of the original stockpile of chemical agent in the United States had been destroyed, and 39
percent of chemical munitions had been destroyed. More information can be found on their website:
http://www.pmcd.army.mil.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-3
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The second category of CWM and agents is referred to as non-stockpile chemical materiel
(NSCM). This is a diverse category that includes all other chemical weapon-related items, such as
lethal wastes from past disposal efforts, unserviceable munitions, and chemically contaminated
containers; chemical production facilities; newly located chemical munitions; known sites containing
significant quantities of buried chemical weapons and waste; and binary weapons and components.
According to the National Research Council,185 as of 1996, the Army identified 168 potential
burial sites in 31 States and several territories (including the District of Columbia). Most are current
or former military facilities. The maj ority of sites are thought to include small quantities of material.
The information reported as of 1996 is updated regularly and maintained by the Product Manager for
the Non- Stockpile Chemical Warfare Materiel (NSCWM) program.
NSCWM in Residential Delaware
NSCWM can be found in a range of
different areas. It may be found at any site
that manufactured or conducted testing of
& On July 19, 2004, Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD)
personnel from Dover AFB recovered an explosive
munition embedded in a driveway made of clamshell
paving material. This material was dredged off the Mid-
Atlantic coast. The EOD team detonated the munition
with a shaped charge whereupon a black tar-like
substance began to ooze from the munition. Mustard
agent (HD) was detected in the tar-like substance. The
next day, 3 members of the EOD team were stricken with
HD-related blisters. Army records indicate that 1,700
mustard filled rounds were dumped off the coast of Cape
May, NJ in 1964.
chemical agent and/or weapons, stored such
materials as they were prepared for shipment
overseas, or provided training to troops who
used CAIS kits to identify chemical agent.
Since development and testing of chemical
weapons took place as early as the World
War 1 era, and many military test sites have
either changed uses over time or have been
transferred out of military ownership, such
locations are not always obvious. The
National Research Council has asserted that
"a major uncertainty for the non-stockpile
program is the extent to which suspected burial sites will be excavated and what items will be found
and recovered."186 Sites that have been transferred out of military ownership (formerly used defense
sites - FUDS) may represent a particular challenge. For example, in the World War 1 era, a test site
owned by American University was the location of significant testing of chemical agent material by
the military. That location is now in residential use. Non-stockpile material has been recovered and
destroyed in ongoing investigations and cleanup activities likely to go on for a number of years.
10.3 Regulatory Requirements
The regulatory authorities for managing recovered CWM (RCWM) include all of the
regulations that apply to explosive munitions, as described in Chapter 2. In addition, 50 USC
1512-1521 provide specific guidance to DoD on transporting, testing, and/or disposing of lethal
chemical agent. The principal regulatory programs under which cleanup of RCWM at MRSs is
conducted include CERCLA, RCRA, the Defense Environmental Restoration Program (DERP), and
the safety standards of the DDESB. In addition, the Army, as the single manager for conventional
185Systems and Technologies for the Treatment of Non-stockpile Chemical Warfare Materiel, National Research
Council, Board on Army Science and Technology, National Research Council, National Academy Press, 2003.
INTERIM FINAL
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-4 May 2005
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munitions (which includes chemical agents), has developed a number of regulations and guidance
documents designed to specifically address the management of chemical agents.187
AR 50-6 outlines the policies, procedures, and responsibilities for the Army Chemical Surety
Program, which is designed to provide tools to facilitate safe and secure operations involving
chemical agents. AR 50-6 describes the policies for the safe storage, handling, maintenance,
transportation, inventory, treatment, and disposal of CWM. The policy also provides safety and
security control measures to ensure the safe conduct of chemical agent operations and personnel
safeguards for the recovery of CWM discovered during environmental remediation activities or by
chance. AR 385-61 establishes policies and responsibilities for the Army's chemical agent safety
program, and DA PAM 385-61 describes the safety criteria and standards for processing, handling,
storing, transporting, disposal, and decontamination of chemical agents. These chemical munitions-
specific safety regulations are discussed again in Section 10.7.) Additional regulations are listed in
"Sources and Resources" at the end of this chapter. In addition to U.S. regulations, disposal of CWM
must also comply with the notification requirements of the CWC.
10.4 Classifications and Acute Effects of Chemical Agents
Chemical agents, such as blister, blood, choking, incapacitating, lacrimator (tear gas),
vomiting, and nerve agents, are typically classified by the type of physiological action caused by
exposure. A wide variety of chemical agents can be found on MRSs, either in their original form or
in some deteriorated form.
The effects of these chemical agents include long-term chronic effects such as cancer or nerve
damage and acute effects ranging from incapacitation to lethality. Effects vary with the type of agent,
concentration, form, duration and route of exposure, and condition of the person exposed (e.g.,
elderly, children). All of these agents can cause death, some more quickly than others. When certain
chemical agents are used in combination with each other, the speed and likelihood of lethality
increases. The following sections provide an overview of the acute health effects of the different
categories of chemical agents. Subsequent sections provide more detail related to chronic health
effects and toxicity.
Blister agents (vesicants) - work by destroying individual cells that come in contact
with the agent. Blister agents, as the name implies, cause tissue damage, including
blisters, on the skin and produce severe effects in the eyes and lungs (if inhaled).
Compared with some of the other chemical agents, blister agents take longer to
produce effects (4-24 hours) and are intended to cause incapacitation casualties for a
longer duration (36 hours to several days). The following are considered blister agents:
- Lewisite / L
- Mustard-Lewisite Mixture / HL
Nitrogen Mustard / HN-1
187DoD Directive 5160.65, Single Manager for Conventional Ammunition, March 8, 1995. Many Army
policies also are addressed in Army Regulation (AR) 50-6, Chemical Surety, February 1, 1995; AR 385-61, Army
Chemical Agent Safety Program, February 28,1997; and Department of the Army Pamphlet (DA PAM) 385-61, Toxic
Chemical Agent Safety Standards, March 31, 1997.
INTERIM FINAL
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-5 May 2005
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Nitrogen Mustard / HN-2
Nitrogen Mustard / HN-3
- Sulfur Mustard Agent / H, HD or HS
- Mustard- T Mixture / Sulfur Mustard Agent / HT
- Phenyldichloroarsine / PD
- Ethyldichloroarsine / ED
- Methyldichloroarsine / MD
- Phosgene Oxime / CX
Blood agents - affect bodily functions through action on an enzyme, resulting in the
inability of cells to use oxygen normally. This interaction leads to rapid damage to
body tissues. Blood agents are absorbed into the body through inhalation. The
following are considered blood agents:
Hydrogen Cyanide /Prussic Acid / AC
Cyanogen Chloride / CK
Arsine / SA
Choking agents - damage the respiratory tract, especially the lungs. Affected cells in
the respiratory tract become filled with liquid, and an oxygen deficiency results in
choking and asphyxia. The following are considered choking agents:
- Phosgene / CG
- Diphosgene / DP
Nerve agents - encompass a variety of compounds that have the capacity to inactivate
the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). They generally are divided into two families,
the G agents and the V agents. The Germans developed the G agents (tabun [GA], GB,
and GD) during World War II. They are volatile compounds that pose mainly an
inhalation hazard. The nerve agent GB is quick acting (5-10 minutes to onset of
symptoms after inhalation), and very low doses may incapacitate a person for 1-5
days. The effects of higher doses include muscle contractions, suffocation, and death.
V agents, which were developed later, are approximately 10 times more toxic than GB
and are considered persistent agents, which means that they can remain on surfaces for
long periods. The consistency of V agents is oily, thus they mainly pose a contact
hazard. A highly toxic nerve agent, VX, acts by absorption through the skin and
causes muscle contractions, suffocation, and death. The following are considered
nerve agents:
- Tabun / GA
- Sarin / GB
Soman / GD
- V-Agent / VX
- Cyclo-sarin / GF
INTERIM FINAL
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-6 May 2005
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Tear gas188 - irritates skin and eyes, causing short-term incapacitation. Prolonged
exposure, such as in an indoor situation, can cause illness and death. The duration of
incapacitation is approximately 10 minutes. Symptoms of exposure include burning eyes,
tearing, and irritation of the respiratory tract. The following are considered tear gas
agents:
Chloroacetophenone / CN
- Chloropicrin / PS
- Chloroacetophenone and chloropicrin in chloroform /CNS
- Chloroacetophenone in benzene and carbon tetrachloride / CNB
- Bromobenzylcyanide / CA
- O-Chlorobenzylidene / CS also CS1 and CS2
Incapacitation agents-blockthe action of acetylcholine both peripherally and centrally.
The agent BZ, the only known incapacitation agent that is a central nervous system
depressant, disturbs integrative functions of memory, problem-solving, and
comprehension.
Vomiting agents - induce nausea and vomiting. Physiological actions of vomiting agents
include eye irritation, mucous discharge from the nose, severe headache, acute pain and
tightness in the chest, nausea and vomiting. The following are considered vomiting
agents:
- Diphenylchloroarsine / DA
Adamsite / DM
- Diphenylcyanoarsine / DC
10.4.1 Chronic Human Health Effects of Chemical Agents
Although CWM is most commonly thought of in relation to acute effects, chronic health
effects are also significant. For example, if an exposure occurs outside the range of acute toxicity
during an exposure event, or if a low level of exposure occurs due to the presence of small amounts
of a particular chemical, then chronic effects such as cancer can occur.
Table 10-1 lists some of the common chemical agents and known chronic health effects. The
table is organized by major category of chemical agent. Where no information on the chronic effects
of a particular agent was found in readily available literature, it is noted as "not available."
Table 10-1. Chemical Agents and Their Potential Chronic Effects
Common Name I Chemical Name /Fnrmiila/CAS# I Potential Chronic Effects
Blister Agents/Vesicants
.ewisite/L |Dichloro-(2-chlorovinyl)arsine |Chronic respiratory and eye conditions may
188Tear Gas is listed as a CWM when used in warfare. The U.S. implementing legislation exempts Tear gas
from reporting requirements when found in concentrations of less than 80 percent.
INTERIM FINAL
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-7 May 2005
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Table 10-1. Chemical Agents and Their Potential Chronic Effects (continued)
Common Name 1 Chemical Name /Formula/CAS# 1 Potential Chronic Effects
Mustard-Lewisite Mixture/HL
Nitrogen Mustard/HN-1
Nitrogen Mustard/HN-2
Nitrogen Mustard/HN-3
sulfur Mustard Agent/H, HD or
IS
Vlustard-T Mixture/Sulfur
Vlustard Agent/HT
Dhenyldichloroarsine/PD
ithyldichloroarsine/ED
Vlethyldichloroarsine/MD
Dhosgene Oxime/CX
C2H2AsCl3
CAS# 541-25-3
Not applicable (mix of components)
2,2'-dichlorotriethylamine
C6H13C12N
CAS# 538-07-8
2,2'-dichloro-N-
methyldiethylamine
C5HUC12N
CAS# 5 1-75-2
2,2',2"-trichlorotriethylamine
C6H12C13N
CAS# 555-77-1
Bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide
C4H8C12S
CAS# 505-60-2
60% HD and 40% sulfur and
chlorine compound
CAS# 6392-89-8
Phenyldichloroarsine
C6H5AsCl2
CAS# 696-28-6
Ethyldichloroarsine
C2H5AsCl2
CAS# 598-14-1
Methyldichloroarsine
CH3AsCl2
CAS# 593-89-5
Dichloroformoxime
CHC12NO
CAS# 1794-86-1
persist. Arsenical poisoning possible.
Chronic respiratory and eye conditions and
arsenical poisoning. May produce respiratory
and skin cancer.
Possible human carcinogen. Chronic
respiratory and eye conditions may persist.
May decrease fertility.
Possible human carcinogen. Chronic
respiratory and eye conditions may persist.
May decrease fertility.
Possible human carcinogen. Chronic
respiratory and eye conditions may persist.
May decrease fertility.
Carcinogenic to humans. May cause cancer of
the upper respiratory tract, skin, mouth,
throat, and leukemia. Chronic respiratory and
eye conditions may persist. May cause skin
sensitization. Potential teratogen.
Not Available
Similar properties and toxicities as lewisite.
Similar properties and toxicities as lewisite.
Similar properties and toxicities as lewisite.
Not Available
Blood Agents
Hydrogen Cyanide/Prussic
Acid/AC
Cyanogen Chloride/CK
\rsine/SA
Hydrogen cyanide
HCN
CAS# 74-90-8
Chlorine cyanide
C1CN
CAS# 506-77-4
Arsenic trihydride
AsH3
CAS# 7784-42-1
Similar to acute effects. Skin conditions have
been reported. Long-term exposures have
produced thyroid changes. Occasionally:
chronic eye conditions.
Long-term exposures will cause dermatitis,
loss of appetite, headache, and upper
respiratory irritation in humans.
Human carcinogen. May cause skin or lung
cancer. Chronic arsenic exposure can affect
skin, respiratory tract, heart, liver, kidneys,
blood and blood-producing organs, and the
nervous system.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-8
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May 2005
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Table 10-1. Chemical Agents and Their Potential Chronic Effects (continued)
Common Name 1 Chemical Name /Formula/CAS# 1 Potential Chronic Effects
Choking Agents
Dhosgene/CG
Diphosgene/DP
Dichloroformaldehyde
Carbonyl chloride
CC12O
CAS# 75-44-5
Trichloromethyl chloroformate
C2C14O2
CAS# 503-38-8
Chronic exposure may cause emphysema,
fibrosis, skin, and eye conditions.
Not Available
^ferve Agents
Tabun/GA
Sarin/GB
5oman/GD
V-Agent/VX
Cyclo-sarin/GF
Ethyl N,N-
dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate
C5HUN2O2P
CAS# 77-8 1-6
Isopropylmethyl-
phosphonofluoridate
C4H10F02P
CAS# 107-44-8
Pinacolyl methyl-
phosphonofluoridate
C7H16F02P
CAS# 96-64-0
O-ethyl S-[2-
(disopropylamine)ethyl]
methylphosphonothiolate
CUH26N02PS
CAS# 50782-69-9
CH,PO(F)OCfiH,,
Weakness of skeletal musculature. In severe
cases: disabling condition (muscle weakness
and paralysis).
Weakness of skeletal musculature. In severe
cases: disabling condition (muscle weakness
and paralysis).
Weakness of skeletal musculature. In seven
cases: disabling condition (muscle weakness
and paralysis).
Weakness of skeletal musculature. In seven
cases: disabling condition (muscle weakness
and paralysis).
Not Available
ncapacitating Agents
\gent BZ
3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate
C21H23N03
CAS# 6581-06-2
Not Available
^acrimators/Tear Gases*
Chloroacetophenone/CN
Chloropicrin/PS
Chloroacetophenone and
;hloropicrin in
;hloroform/CNS
Chloroacetophenone in
)enzene and carbon
etrachloride/CNB
3romobenzylcyanide/CA
2-Chloroacetophenone
C6H5COCH2C1
CAS# 532-27-4
Chloropicrin
CC13NO2
CAS# 76-06-2
Mixture of CN, PS, and
chloroform
na
Mixture of CN, carbon
tetrachloride, and benzene
Bromobenzylcyanide
C8H6BrN
CAS# 5798-79-8
Repeated or prolonged contact may cause
chronic skin conditions.
Not Available
No known long-term effects
Not Available
Not Available
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-9
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May 2005
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Table 10-1. Chemical Agents and Their Potential Chronic Effects
(continued)
Common Name 1 Chemical Name /Formula/CAS# 1 Potential Chronic Effects
3-Chlorobenzylidene/CS also
CSlandCS2
O-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile
C10H5C1N2
CAS# 2698-41-1
Not Available
Vomiting Agents
Diphenylchloroarsine/DA
\damsite/DM
Diphenylcyanoarsine/DC
Diphenylchloroarsine
C12H10AsCl
CAS# 712-48-1
Diphenylaminechloroarsine
C12H9AsClN
CAS# 578-94-9
Diphenylcyanoarsine
C13H10AsN
CAS# 23525-22-6
Not Available
Not Available
Not Available
*The U.S. CWC implementing legislation exempts these chemicals (which appear in schedule 3 of the CWC Chemical Annex) from reporting
requirements if found in concentrations of less than 80 percent.
Sources:
U.S. Army Field Manual FM 3-9 and the 1956 version of TM 3-215.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Medical Management Guidelines (MMGs) for Blister Agents.
Mitretek Systems. Toxicological Properties of Vesicants; Toxicological Properties of Nerve Agents. Last Revised on May 15, 2003.
http://www.mitretek.org/home.nsf/HomelandSecurity/ChemBioDefense.
U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command (SBCCOM). Material Safety Data Sheet: Distilled Mustard (HD).
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM). Detailed Facts About Blood Agent Cyanogen Cyanide (CK);
Detailed Facts About Choking Agent Phosgene (CG). Last Revised on July 23, 1998.
U.S. National Library of Medicine, Specialized Information Services. Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB).
University of Oklahoma College of Pharmacy. Arsine Fact Sheet. 2001-2002.
Deployment Health Clinical Center (DHCC). Blister Agent Fact Sheet. Last Updated on May 21, 2003.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-10
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May 2005
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10.4.2 Persistence of Chemical Agents
The persistence of chemical agents is determined by their rate of vaporization. Nonpersistent
compounds vaporize quickly and produce high-density clouds of chemical agent that evaporate
rapidly. The hazards of these non-persistent agents result from brief contact with the clouds or from
inhalation of vapors. The information on the persistence in the environment of the CW agent
compounds is scattered and fragmentary. With the exception of the sulfur mustards, CW agents are
generally not considered highly persistent due to the action of various degradation processes such as
hydrolysis, microbial degradation, oxidation, and photolysis. However, certain degradation products
may themselves be highly persistent and/or toxic. Those persistent degradation products that are not
highly toxic may be important as an indicator of the former use of the site.189
Table 10-2 features data regarding the persistence of CWM on the battlefield. The data were
derived by United States Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventative Medicine
(USACHPPM) from material safety data sheets. Although the language used to describe persistence
of CWM relates to the battlefield, Table 10-2 may be helpful in obtaining an initial understanding
of persistence of certain chemicals in the environment. There is no data from the USACHPPM
document for chemicals listed in Table 10-1 that do not appear in Table 10-2.
Persistent chemical agents are liquids that vaporize slowly or viscous materials that adhere
and do not spread or flow easily. The hazards posed by persistent compounds result either from
contact with the liquids or from contact with or inhalation of vapors, which persist longer than the
non-persistent compounds. Persistent chemicals include mustard, lewisite, blister agents, and V-class
nerve agents (VX).
Table 10-2 Persistence in the Environment of CW Agents
Common Name 1 Persistence
Blister Agents/Vesicants
^ewisite/L
Mustard-Lewisite Mixture/HL
Nitrogen Mustard/HN-1
Nitrogen Mustard/HN-2
Nitrogen Mustard/HN-3
sulfur Mustard Agent/H, HD or
IS
Somewhat shorter than for HD (sulfur mustard agent); very short duration under
humid conditions.
Depends on munitions used and the weather. Somewhat shorter than that of HD,
heavily splashed liquid of which persists 1 to 2 days under average weather
conditions, and a week or more under very cold conditions.
Depends on munitions used and weather; somewhat shorter duration of
effectiveness for HD, heavily splashed liquid of which persists 1 to 2 days under
average weather conditions, and a week or more under very cold conditions.
Depends on munitions used and weather; somewhat shorter duration of
effectiveness for HD, heavily splashed liquid of which persists 1 to 2 days under
average weather conditions, and a week or more under very cold conditions.
Considerably longer than HD. HN-3 use is emphasized for terrain denial. It can be
approximately 2x or 3x the persistence of HD and adheres well to equipment and
personnel, especially in cold weather.
Depends on munition used and weather; heavily splashed liquid persists 1 to 2
days in concentration to provide casualties of military significance under average
weather conditions, and a week to months under very cold conditions.
189Munro, Nancy B. et al., "The Sources, Fate andToxicity of Chemical Warfare Agent DegradationProducts,"
Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol 107, Number 12, 1999.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-11
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Table 10-2 Persistence in the Environment of CW Agents (continued)
Common Name 1 Persistence
Vlustard-T Mixture/Sulfur
Vlustard Agent/HT
Depends on munitions used and the weather; heavily splashed liquid persists 1 to
2 days in concentration to provide casualties of military significance under
average weather conditions, and a week to months under very cold conditions.
Blood Agents
Hydrogen Cyanide/Prussic
Acid/AC
Cyanogen Chloride/CK
\rsine/SA
Short; the agent is highly volatile, and in the gaseous state it dissipates quickly in
the air.
Short; vapor may persist in the jungle for some time under suitable weather
conditions.
No information from source document
Choking Agents
Dhosgene/CG
Diphosgene/DP
Short; however, vapor may persist for some time in low places under calm of ligh
winds and stable atmospheric conditions (inversion).
No information from source document
^ferve Agents
Tabun/GA
Sarin/GB
5oman/GD
V-Agent/VX
The persistency will depend upon munitions used and the weather. Heavily
splashed liquid persists 1 to 2 days under average weather conditions.
Evaporates at approximately the same rate as water; depends upon munitions used
and the weather.
Depends upon the munitions used and the weather. Heavily splashed liquid persists
1 to 2 days under average weather conditions.
Depends upon munitions used and the weather. Heavily splashed liquid persists fo:
long periods of time under average weather conditions.
ncapacitating Agents
\gent BZ
No information from source document
^acrimators/Tear Gases
Chloroacetophenone/CN
Chloropicrin/PS
Chloroacetophenone and
;hloropicrin in
;hloroform/CNS
Chloroacetophenone in
)enzene and carbon
etrachloride/CNB
3romobenzylcyanide/CA
Short because the compounds are disseminated as an aerosol.
Short.
Short.
Short.
Depends on munitions used and the weather; heavily splashed liquid persists one o:
two days under average weather conditions.
Vomitine Aeents
\damsite/DM
Short, because compounds are disseminated as an aerosol. Soil - persistent. Surface
(wood, metal, masonry, rubber, paint) - persistent. Water - persistent; when materia
is covered with water, an insoluble film forms which prevents further hvdrolvsis.
Source:
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventative Medicine (UCACHPPM). Detailed and General Facts About Chemical Agents, TG 218.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-12
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May 2005
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10.4.3 Acute Toxicity of Persistent Chemical Agents
Acute toxicity values are useful in understanding the risk associated with exposure to
chemical agents. Acute toxicity is defined as toxicity that results from short-term exposure to a
toxicant. The acute toxicity of a chemical is commonly quantified as the LD50 (lethal dose that kills
50 percent of the exposed population) or LQ50 (lethal concentration that kills 50 percent of the
exposed population in a specified period of time). These values provide statistically sound and
reproducible measures of the relative acute toxicity of chemicals.
Table 10-3 shows acute human toxicity data (LD50 and LQ50) for oral, dermal, and
inhalational routes of exposure for the chemical warfare agents listed in Table 10-1. In cases when
human toxicity data were not available, data on exposure of laboratory animals (e.g., rats) to the
agent(s) were substituted. Caution should be used in extrapolating this data to humans.
Table 10-3. Acute Human Toxicity Data for Chemical Warfare Agents
Chemical Agent
LD50
LCtSO
Blister Agents/Vesicants
Lewisite/L
Mustard-Lewisite
Mixture/HL
Nitrogen Mustard/HN-1
Nitrogen Mustard/HN-2
Nitrogen Mustard/HN-3
Sulfur Mustard Agent/H,
HDorHS
Mustard-T Mixture/Sulfur
Mustard Agent / HT
Phenyldichloroarsine / PD
50 mg/kg (oral, rat)
24 mg/kg (dermal, rat)
Not Available
2.5 mg/kg (oral, rat)
17 mg/kg (dermal, rat)
10 mg/kg (oral, rat)
12 mg/kg (dermal, rat)
5 mg/kg (oral, rat)
2 mg/kg (dermal, rat)
0.7 mg/kg (oral, human)
20 to 100* mg/kg (dermal,
human)
100,000 mg-min/m3 (dermal, human)
1,200 to 2,500* mg-min/m3 (inhalation, human)
about 10,000 mg-min/m3 (dermal, human)
about 1,500 mg-min/m3 (inhalation, human)
20,000 mg-min/m3 (dermal, human)
1,500 mg-min/m3 (inhalation, human)
3,000 mg-min/m3 (inhalation, human)
10,000 mg-min/m3 (dermal, human)
1,500 mg-min/m3 (inhalation, human)
5,000 to 10,000* mg-min/m3 (dermal, human)
900 to 1,500* mg-min/m3 (inhalation, human)
Not Available
16 mg/kg (dermal, rat)
2,600 mg-min/m3 (inhalation, human)
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-13
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May 2005
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Table 10-3. Acute Human Toxicity Data for Chemical Warfare Agents
Chemical Agent
Ethyldichloroarsine/ED
Methyldichloroarsine/ MD
Phosgene Oxime/CX
LD50
Not Available
LCtSO
1,555 mg/m3 for 10 min (inhalation, mouse)
Not Available
Not Available
3,200 mg-min/m3 (estimated)(human)
Blood Agents
Hydrogen Cyanide/ Prussic
Acid/AC
Cyanogen Chloride/CK
Arsine/SA
100 nig/kg (dermal human)
6 mg/kg (oral, cat)
Not Available
2,000 mg/m3 for 0.5 min (inhalation, human)
20,600 mg/m3 for 30 min (inhalation, human)
11,000 mg-min/m3 (human)
390 mg/m3 for 10 min (inhalation, rat)
Choking Agents
Phosgene/CG
Diphosgene/DP
Not Available
3,200 mg/m3 (inhalation, human)
Not Available
Nerve Agents
Tabun/GA
Sarin/GB
Soman/GD
V-Agent/VX
3.7 mg/kg (oral, rat)
14 to 15 mg/kg (dermal,
human)
0.55 mg/kg (oral, rat)
24 mg/kg (dermal, human)
5 mg/kg (dermal, human)
0.142 mg/kg (dermal, human)
135 mg/m3 for 0.5-2.0 min at RMV of 15 L/min
(inhalation, human)
200 mg/m3 for 0.5-2.0 min at RMV of 10 L/min
(inhalation, human)
70 mg-min/m3 at 15 L/min (inhalation, human)
70 mg-min/m3 at 15 L/min (inhalation, human)
30 mg-min/m3 at 15 L/min (inhalation, human)
Incapacitating Agents
Agent BZ
Not Available
200,000 mg-min/m3 (estimated)(human)
Lacrimators/Tear Gases
Chloroacetophenone/CN
Chloropicrin/PS
50 to 1,820* mg/kg (oral, rat)
250 mg/kg (oral, rat)
7,000 mg-min/m3 from solvent (human)
14,000 mg-min/m3 from grenade (human)
2,000 mg-min/m3 (human)
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-14
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Table 10-3. Acute Human Toxicity Data for Chemical Warfare Agents
Chemical Agent
Chloroacetophenone &
Chloropicrin in
Chloroform/CNS
Chloroacetophenone in
Benzene & Carbon
tetrachloride/CNB
Bromobenzylcyanide
O-Chlorobenzylidene/CS
also CS land CS2
LD50
Not Available
Not Available
Not Available
178 mg/kg (oral, rat)
LCtSO
11,400 mg-min/m3 (human)
11,000 mg-min/m3 (human)
8,000 mg-min/m3 (estimated)(human)
61,000 mg-min/m3 (human)
Vomiting Agents
Diphenylchloroarsine
Adamsite/DM
Diphenylcyanoarsine
Not Available
Not Available
variable, average 11,000 mg-min/m3 (human)
Not Available
*value varies depending on source.
Notes:
In cases where data on human exposure were not available, data on exposure of laboratory rats to the agent(s) were substituted. Caution should
be used in extrapolating this data to humans.
RMV - respiratory minute volume
LD50 - dose which kills 50% of the exposed population; typically expressed in units of mg/kg body weight
LC150 - concentration which kills 50% of the exposed population in a specified period of time; typically expressed as product of the chemical's
concentration in air (mg/m3) and the duration of exposure (min)
Dermal - absorption through the skin
Oral - intake via mouth
Inhalation - intake via the lungs
Sources:
Mitretek Systems. Toxicological Properties of Vesicants; Toxicological Properties of Nerve Agents. Last Revised on May 15, 2003.
http://www.mitretek.org/home.nsf/HomelandSecurity/ChemBioDefense
U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command (SBCCOM). Material Safety Data Sheet: Distilled Mustard (HD); Lethal Nerve Agent
(GD); Lethal Nerve Agent (GB).
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM). Detailed Facts About Blood Agent Cyanogen Cyanide (CK),
Hydrogen Cyanide (AC); Blister Agent Phosgene Oxime (CX), Mustard-Lewi site Mixture (HL), Nitrogen Mustard (HN-1), (HN-2), (HN-3),
Lewisite (L), Sulfur Mustard Agents H and HD; Nerve Agent VX, Nerve Agent GA; Psychedelic Agent 3-Quinuclidinyl Benzilate (BZ); Tear
Agent 2-Chloroacetophenone (CN), Chloropicrin (PS), Chloroacetophenone and Chloropicrin in Chloroform (CNS), Chloroacetophenone in
Benzene and Carbon Tetrachloride (CNB), a-Bromobenzylcyanide (CA), o-ChlorobenzylideneMalonitrile (CS); Vomiting Agent Adamsite
(DM). Last Revised on July 23, 1998.
U.S. Army Chemical Biological Defense Command Edgewood. Material Safety Data Sheet: Lewisite.
National Toxicology Program (NTP). NTP Chemical Repository. Last revised on June 3, 2003.
U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Occupational Safety and Health Guidelines. The Regisry of Toxic
Effects
of Chemical Substances (RTECS).
U.S. National Library of Medicine, Specialized Information Services. Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB).
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-15
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10.4.4 Degradation Products of Chemical Munitions and Agents
Many chemical agents are broken down by weathering processes into both hazardous and
nonhazardous materials. The weathering effects of sun, rain, and wind will dissipate, evaporate, or
decompose chemical agents. Specifically, sunlight causes catalytic decomposition and evaporation,
rain or dew causes hydrolysis, and wind accelerates the natural process of evaporation.
When addressing the hazards of CWM at a site, special attention should be paid to the
decomposition products that often pose risks to human health and the environment as a result of their
toxicity and persistence. While a number of degradation products exist, only a few of them are
persistent and highly toxic.190
The following text describes examples of some common chemical agent decomposition
products of CWM and an overview of their persistence in the environment and toxicity. The
environmental conditions and the length of time that an agent has been exposed to the environment
will determine the extent of the degradation and whether some or all of the degradation products and
subsequent daughter products (described in the following sections) will be present. Table 10-4
provides more detail on toxicity of these degradation products.
Sarin (GB) - reacts with water (hydrolyzes) under acidic conditions to form hydrofluoric
acid, isopropyl methylphosphonic acid (IMPA), which slowly hydrolyzes to methylphonic
acid (MPA). IMP A, although environmentally persistent has been shown to present low
acute oral toxicity to rats and mice. MPA is essentially nontoxic to mammalian and
aquatic organisms.8 Hydrofluoric acid is an extremely corrosive material that must be
handled with extreme caution unless copiously diluted. Sarin will hydrolyze under
alkaline (basic) conditions to form sodium (or other metallic) isomethyl phosphonate salt.
Tabun (GA) - produces a variety of hydrolysis products under acidic, basic, and neutral
conditions, including hydrogen cyanide, ethylphosphoryl cyanidate, organic acids and
esters, ethyl alcohol, dimethylamine, ethyl N,N-dimethylamido phosphoric acid and
phosphoric acid.
VX - forms a variety of degradation products. The most persistent products in weathered
soil samples are bis(2-diisopropylaminoethyl)disulfide (EA 4196) and MPA. The most
toxic is S-(2-diisopropylaminoethyl) methylphosphonothioic acid (EA 2192). The
intermediate VX hydrolysis product EA 2192 may be stable in water but is degraded
rapidly in soil. It is nearly as toxic as VX. EMPA and MPA are final degradation
products that exhibit relatively low toxicity to mammalian species.Other less toxic
degradation products include phosphorus-containing organic acids, sulfur-containing
compounds, organic phosphorus-containing esters, and ethyl alcohol.8
Soman (GD) - hydrolyzes to form primarily pinacolyl methylphosphonic acid, which has
190Munro, N.B. et al., The Sources, Fate, and Toxicity of Chemical Warfare Agent Degradation Products,
Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 107, No. 12, December 1999.
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Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-16 May 2005
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a similar structure to IMPA. IMPA has even been shown to exhibit low mammalian
toxicity. GD also slowly hydrolyzes to MPA.8
Mustard (HD) - hydrolyzes to form hydrochloric acid (a strong mineral acid),
thiodiglycol (TDG) and 1,4-oxathiane. The most persistent degradation product is TDG
but it is suseptible to microbial degradation and has been demonstrated to be low toxicity
to mammalic and aquatic species. At burial sites, a commonly found breakdown product
is 1,4-dithiane.
Lewisite - hydrolyzes under acidic conditions to form hydrochloric acid and the
nonvolatile (solid) compound chlorovinylarsenious oxide (lewisite oxide). Although this
compound is a much weaker blistering agent than Lewisite it is still highly toxic and has
vesicant properties. Hydrolysis in basic conditions, such as decontamination with
alcoholic caustic or carbonate solution, produces acetylene, a very flammable gas, and
trisodium arsenate. Therefore, the decontamination solution would contain a toxic form
of arsenic.191
Table 10-4 summarizes chemical agent degradation products that are known to have
significant environmental persistence and toxicity. Environmental persistence refers to chemicals that
resist degradative processes and remain in the environment for very long periods of time. Significant
persistence refers to compounds that are stable in the environment for months to years.
Table 10-4. Summary of Known Persistent or Toxic Chemical Agent Degradation Products
Chemical Agent
Sulfur mustard (HD)
Lewisite (L)
V-Agent (VX)
O-ethyl-S-[2-diisopro-
pylaminoethyljmethyl-
phosphonothionate
Degradation
Process
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis,
dehydration
Hydrolysis
Degradation Products
Ihiodiglycol
C4H1002S
CAS# 11 1-48-8
Dithiane
C4H8S2
CAS# 505-23-7
2-Chloro vinyl arsenous
oxide
'Lewisite oxide)
C2H2AsC10
CAS# 3088-37-7
Arsenic
AS
CAS# 7440-38-2
3-(Diisopropylaminoethyl)
methyl phosphonothionate
CEA2192)
Persistence
Moderate
High
Moderate
Relevant Routes of
Exposure
Oral
Dermal
Oral
Toxicity, LD50 (mg/kg)
Rat oral: 6,610
guinea pig oral: 3,960
Unknown
Rat oral LD50: 0.63
''Materiel Safety Data Sheets, Edgewood Chemical Biological Center (ECBC), Department of the Army.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-17
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Table 10-4. Summary of Known Persistent or Toxic Chemical Agent Degradation Products
(continued)
Chemical Agent
Sarin (GB)
Isopropyl methyl-
phosphonofluoridate
Soman (GD)
Ethyl N,N-dimethyl-
phosphoroamido-
cyanidate
Degradation
Process
'ormed from
EMPA
Hydrolysis
impurity
Hydrolysis
Degradation Products
Ethyl methylphosphonic
icid
(EMPA)
C3H903P
CAS# 1832-53-7
Methylphosphonic acid
^MPA)
CH503P
CAS# 993-13-5
[sopropyl
methylphosphonic acid
1MPA)
C4HU03P
CAS# 1832-54-8
Methylphosphonic acid
^MPA)
CH503P
CAS# 993-13-5
Diisopropyl
methylphosphonate
J3IMP)
C7H17P03
CAS# 1445-75-6
Methylphosphonic acid
^MPA)
CH503P
CAS# 993-13-5
Persistence
Moderate
High
High
High
High
High
Relevant Routes of
Exposure
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Toxicity, LD50 (mg/kg)
STo data
Rat oral LD50: 5,000
Rat oral LD50: 6,070
Rat oral LD50: 5,000
Rat oral LD50: 826
Rat oral LD50: 5,000
Source:
Munro, N.B.et. Al.,The Sources, Fate, and Toxicity of Chemical Warfare Agent Degradation Products, Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol, 107.
No. 12, December 1999.
10.5 Detection of CWM
Techniques for locating buried chemical munitions and containers are the same as those for
the detection of conventional munitions. The appropriate geophysical detection technology should
be selected based on the container's material (e.g., steel vs. glass). Chapter 4 described the variables
associated with the selection of geophysical detection technologies. Once the presence of CWM or
chemical agent(s) are suspected, they must be identified. Several methods for detecting and
identifying chemical agents exist. Some of the more common methods are discussed in Table 10-5.
Each detection method has strengths and weaknesses that will need to be weighed against the
conditions and the chemicals suspected at individual sites.192
192The term detection is used in two ways in this section. The first discussion refers to locating discrete metallic
items through geophysical investigation. The second use refers to finding and identifying the chemical agent itself. The
detection tools for locating discrete metallic items are discussed in Chapter 4.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-18
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Table 10-5. Common Methods for Monitoring for and Sensing Chemical Agents
Detection Types
Description
Advantages and Disadvantages
Chemical Agent Monitor
(CAM)
Used as a monitor for chemical
agents. Area reconnaissance is
accomplished by moving the CAM
through the area of concern. The
CAM is usually used in conjunction
with other detection methods. The
CAM can detect nerve and blister
agents at moderately low levels that
could affect personnel over a short
time.
Sensitivity - False alarms have been
a problem with CAM, such as false
alarms caused by the presence of
aromatic vapors from materials such
as perfumes, food flavorings,
cleaning compounds, disinfectants,
and smoke and fumes in exhaust
from rocket motors and munitions.
Detector uses a radiation source that
could be a problem when moving
the detector to different States.
Operates in nerve agent or mustard
mode.
Quick response time.
Individual Chemical Agent
Detector (ICAD)
Uses two electrochemical sensors:
one sensor is sensitive to nerve
agents, blood agents, and choking
agents; the second sensor detects
blister agents. When preset threshold
levels are reached, an alarm is
activated.
Detector can be worn on outside of
clothing.
Quick response time - less than 2
minutes for GA, GB, BD, and HD.
Shorter alarm times for higher
concentrations and other agents.
Chemical Agent Detector
Paper (ABC-M8)
Used to detect liquid chemical
agents. The paper turns different
colors according to the type of agent
to which it is exposed. V-type nerve
agents turn it green, G-type nerve
agents turn it yellow, blister agents
turn it red.
Paper must be examined in white
light (which could be a problem in
night operations).
Detection thresholds are high.
Subject to false alarms from other
chemicals and from rubbing the
paper on surface instead of blotting.
Easy to use, minimal training
required.
Chemical Agent Detector
Paper (M9)
M9 is the most widely used detector
for liquid chemical agents and is
more sensitive and reacts more
rapidly than ABC-M8 paper. M9
paper reacts to chemical agents by
turning a red or reddish brown color.
Detection of a chemical agent by the
M9 paper should be confirmed with
the M256 kit.
High detection thresholds.
Subject to false alarms from
exposure to petroleum products.
Easy to use, minimal training
required.
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Table 10-5. Common Methods for Monitoring for and Sensing Chemical Agents
(continued)
Detection Types
M256 Chemical Agent
Detector Kit
M272 Water Testing Kit
MINICAD
APD 2000 (Sabre)
Portable GC/MS
Description
Can detect chemical agent in liquid
or vapor forms. The M256 kit is
usually used to confirm chemical
agent presence after an alarm and to
identify the type of agent present. It
is not used to monitor for the
presence of a chemical agent. Kit
contains vials of liquid reagents that
are combined and exposed in a
specific sequence to indicate
presence of chemical agent vapors.
Use of the kit entails manual
manipulation of the kit contents.
Used to detect chemical agents in
raw or treated water. Detects
mustard agent (HD), cyanide (AC),
Lewisite (L), and nerve agents (G
and V series).
Hand-held chemical agent detector
kit that simultaneously detects trace
levels of nerve and blister agents.
Hand-held detector of GA, GB, GD,
VX, HD, HN, Lewisite, pepper
spray, and mace.
Gas chromatograph/mass
spectrometer
Advantages and Disadvantages
Proceeding through the full series of
tests requires 20-25 minutes.
Step-by-step instructions are
provided with each kit to avoid
misuse and consequent
misinterpretation.
Capable of detecting agents at levels
safe for human use.
Portable.
No false alarms resulting from other
chemical vapors.
Provides a data record.
Small, easy to carry - weighs only 1
pound.
Superior interference resistance.
Has a data logger option.
Small, easy to carry - weighs 6
pounds.
Detects and quantifies most
chemicals.
Sampling and analysis time is
longer than for instruments
designed as detectors.
Requires a technician operator.
Analyzes industrial chemicals as
well as chemical agents.
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Table 10-5. Common Methods for Monitoring for and Sensing Chemical Agents
(continued)
Detection Types
MINICAMS (Miniature
Chemical Agent Monitoring
System)
JCAD
SAW MINICAD mk II
Portable Isotopic Neutron
Spectrometer (PINS)
Description
Portable monitoring unit available
with flame ionization detector (FID)
or flame-photometric detector
(FPD). Provides near real time
information. Various versions of
MINICAMS can detect some
chemical agents and other air
pollutants depending on the detector
and the sampling module that is
installed. Sampling module may be
a plug-in flow-through module,
loop-sampling plug-in module, or
sorbent sampling plug-in module.
MINICAMS? includes a gas
chromatograph, which the
manufacturer claims can detect
chemical agent vapors in air to meet
the Surgeon General's 8-hour TWA
standard.
Hand-held detector that uses an
advanced surface acoustic wave
(SAW) technology. Capable of
detecting the presence of nerve
agents (G and V series), blister
agents (HD, HNS, L), blood agents
(AC, CK), and toxic industrial
chemicals.
Lightweight, solid-state detector,
using surface acoustical wave sensor
technology. Capable of
simultaneous detection of trace
levels of nerve and blister agents.
Nondestructive chemical assay tool
that can identify previously
cataloged contents of munitions and
chemical- storage containers use of
special fingerprinting algorithms.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Portability of unit that can be used
to monitor areas or specific point.
Programmable to sequentially
sample from a number of sample
points.
Compact size provides real
advantage for portability and use in
the field.
Has multiagent detection
capability.
Can be mounted in a fixed location
and linked to RS 232
communications port for feedback
from remote locations.
Sensor is selective to the chemical
agents and does not give false
alarms due to other chemical
vapors.
Unit is battery operated, can store
data from detection sensor, is fully
automatic, and is lightweight.
Portable
Easy to use
Rugged enough for military or civil
defense use
Assay times: 100 to 1,000 seconds
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-21
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Table 10-5. Common Methods for Monitoring for and Sensing Chemical Agents
(continued)
Detection Types
Description
Advantages and Disadvantages
Digital Radiography/
Computed Tomography
(DRCT)
Creates high-clarity X-rays of a
munition's interior. The DRCT
system is used when information on
the contents, configuration, or
condition of the munition is
conflicting or unknown.
X-rays are so clear that analysts can
often determine the condition of the
bomb's firing mechanisms and
whether it has been damaged from
years of storage or burial.
Mobile Munitions
Assessment Systems
(MMAS)
Includes equipment for
nonintrusively identifying munitions
and for assessing the condition and
stability of fuzes, firing trains, and
other potential safety hazards. The
Phase II MMAS is currently being
tested and qualified for use by the
INEEL and the Army. The Phase II
system contains several new
assessment systems that
significantly enhance the ability to
assess CWM.
The system provides a
self-contained, integrated command
post, including an on-board
computer system, communications
equipment, video and photographic
equipment, weather monitoring
equipment, and miscellaneous
safety-related equipment.
Market Survey and Literature Search of Monitoring Technologies; July 22, 1996; U.S. Army Program Manager for
Chemical Demilitarization
Site Monitoring Concept Study; September 15, 1993; U.S. Army Chemical Destruction Agency
U.S. Army Field Manual (FM) 3-4 NBC Protection
Department of the Army (DA) Pamphlet 385-61 Toxic Chemical Agent Safety Standards
U.S. Army Technical Manual (TM) 43-0001-26-1 Army Equipment Data Sheets: Chemical Defense Equipment
U.S. Army Technical Manual (TM) 3-6665-225-12 Operator's and Organizational Maintenance Manual: Alarm,
Chemical Agent, Automatic: Portable, Manpack M8
U.S. Army Technical Manual (TM) 3-6665-254-12 Operator's and Organizational Maintenance Manual: Detector Kit,
Chemical Agent, ABC-M18A2
U.S. Army Technical Manual (TM) 3-6665-307-10 Operator's Manual for Detector Kit, Chemical Agent, M256 and
M256A1
U.S. Army Technical Manual (TM) 3-6665-311-10 Operator's Manual for Paper, Chemical Agent Detector: M9
U. S. Army Technical Manual (TM) 3-6665-312-12andP Operator's and Organization Maintenance Manual for the M8A1
Automatic Chemical Agent Alarm
The most effective tool for determining the presence of CWM inside a suspected chemical
munition or container is the Portable Isotopic Neutron Spectrometer (PINS). The PINS beams
neutrons into an enclosed container, yielding a spectrum that is collected and stored. The PINS
Analysis software analyzes the spectrum and determines the contents of the container. Another useful
instrument is the Digital Radiography/Computed Tomography (DRCT) unit. A DRCT can effectively
produce a CAT scan of a munition or container. Both of these tools have been placed on mobile
platforms called Mobile Munitions Assessment Systems (MMAS) for identifying suspected chemical
weapons materials. The MMAS units are available from the U.S. Army Technical Escort Unit,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-22
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In addition, the Army uses more sophisticated air-monitoring equipment on its mobile
treatment systems that achieves near real time monitoring results. An example of this equipment is
the Miniature Chemical Agent Monitoring System (MFNICAMS), which is a device capable of
monitoring for blister, nerve, and some other agents to well below their required acceptable exposure
limits (AELs). Devices such as MINICAMS are typically used in areas where excavations are
ongoing or where mobile destruction equipment is being operated.
10.5.1 Laboratory Analysis of CWM
When environmental samples from sites contaminated with CWM are sent to laboratories for
analysis, those samples may pose a threat to the laboratories that analyze them. For this reason, only
a few commercial laboratories are authorized for the analysis of CWM. All environmental samples
must be sent to approved laboratories.
10.6 Response, Treatment, and Decontamination of Chemical Agents and Residues of
CWM
Because of the dual hazards of explosive
capability and potential lethality, CWM poses
significant response, treatment, remediation and
decontamination challenges. This section
addresses these components.
10.6.1 Response
Decontamination
Decontamination is the process by which any person,
object, or area is made safe through the absorption,
destruction, neutralization, rendering harmless, or
removal of chemical or biological material, or the
removal of radioactive material clinging to or around
the materials.
Because of both the explosive and the
chemical hazards, Army guidance specifies a hierarchy for conducting response actions at sites
containing CWM alone or both CWM and conventional munitions. This hierarchy calls for explosive
hazards to be addressed and mitigated first, followed by non-stockpile CWM hazards.193
At any site where chemical contamination is known or suspected, the Army Technical Escort
Unit (TEU), a division of the U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command (SBCCOM),
must be called in to assess the CWM and determine how it can be handled. One of the ways in which
CWM is handled is destruction.
Procedures for the destruction of chemical weapons under controlled conditions are spelled
out in detailed, case-by-case plans developed by the Army and submitted to State regulatory officials.
The destruction of chemical weapons frequently involves the use of mobile equipment tested by the
Army and permitted by each State for exactly that purpose.
193Interim Guidance for Biological Warfare Materiel (BWM) and Non-Stockpile Chemical Warfare Materiel
(CWM) Response Activities, Department of the Army, 13 April 1998.
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10.6.2 Treatment
In 2003, the National Research Council, Board of Army Science and Technology, published
the results of their review of Systems and Technologies for the Treatment of Non-Stockpile
Chemical Warfare Material. They concluded that the Army has or will shortly have a number of
options for the destruction and/or treatment of chemical agent, including the use of fixed facilities
and mobile systems that can use one or a number of combinations of individual treatment
technologies. Like mobile systems, individual treatment technologies may be incorporated into a
larger entity such as a fixed facility or mobile systems that are transported to the site of a find.
Table 10-6 represents an overview of facilities, mobile treatment systems, and individual
treatment technologies that were reviewed by the National Research Council committee. Because of
the safety concerns associated with movement of CWM, Army guidance (based on 50 U.S.C. 1512-
1521) expresses a preference for on-site treatment of CWM. However, if on-site treatment is not an
option, such as at a heavily populated FUDS, the Army preference is for on-site storage or storage
at the nearest military facility within the State until the CWM or agent-contaminated material can be
treated. Out-of-State storage is the Army' s least preferred option. The committee presented what their
recommendations were from the review regarding the uses of these treatment options.194
The treatment options identified in Table 10-6 are not all currently in use for NSCWM. For
example, the table lists treatment options for non-stockpile items that the Army has historically used
to effectively destroy stockpiled items. However, all were reviewed for their potential use as recent
legislation specifically allowed the use of stockpile facilities to destroy non-stockpile CWM. A few
of the key recommendations of the NRC are summarized below:
Treatment facilities developed for the stockpile program may be very appropriate for
treatment of NSCWM, if regulatory agencies and other stakeholders can support this.
The Rapid Response Sy stem for the destruction of CAIS PIGS and large numbers of loose
CAIS vials and bottles is an expensive but adequate treatment for these items.
The Explosive Destruction System (EDS) developed as a transportable system for the
destruction of chemical munitions in the field has performed well for its intended uses and
should be further developed for additional uses. However, given the amount of potential
NSCWM that may be buried in various sites around the country, it may not have
sufficient throughput to be efficient in the future.
The development and testing of the tent and foam system for controlling on-site
detonation of unstable munitions should continue to be explored as an alternative to open
detonation.
The Donovan Blast Chamber (developed for conventional munitions) is currently being
tested for CWM in Belgian. "If results are encouraging and it appears that the DEC can
194Ibid. Systems and Technologies for the Treatment of Non-stockpile Chemical Warfare Materiel, Board on
Army Science and Technology, National Research Council, National Academy Press, 2002.
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Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-24 May 2005
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be permitted in the United States, it should be considered for use at sites where prompt
disposal of large numbers of munitions is required."195
The table is organized into three categories: facilities, mobile treatment systems, and
individual treatment technologies. The following sections provide a review of these categories.
Table 10-6. Potential Treatment Facilities for NSCWM
Treatment Option
Description
Facilities
Non-stockpile facilities
Pine Bluff Non-Stockpile Facility (PBNSF)
(in final design)
Munitions Assessment and Processing System
(MAPS) (under construction)
Use of stockpile destruction facilities for disposal
of non-stockpile materiel
Research and development facilities
Chemical Transfer Facility (CTF)
Chemical Agent Munitions Disposal System
(CAMDS)
Treatment, storage, and disposal facilities
Designed to use chemical neutralization and associated
technologies to address the recovered non-stockpile
items stored at Pine Bluff Arsenal, Arkansas.
Designed to use chemical neutralization and associated
technologies to address the recovered non-stockpile
items found at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland.
Equipped to open stockpile chemical munitions, drain
and incinerate agent, and destroy energetics.
Research facility at Aberdeen Proving Ground,
Maryland, capable of destroying stockpile and non-
stockpile agents.
Research facility at Tooele, Utah, capable of destroying
non-stockpile munitions that contain agent fills not
easily accommodated at other facilities (eg., lewisite).
Capable of high-temperature incineration of secondary
waste streams produced by the RRS, EDS, and other
systems.
5Ibid.
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Table 10-6. Potential Treatment Facilities for NSCWM (continued)
Treatment Option
Description
Mobile Treatment Systems
Rapid Response System (RRS)
Single CAIS Accessing and Neutralization System
(SCANS) (in design)
Explosive Destruction System (EDS)
Donovan Blast Chamber (DEC) (in testing for use
with CWM)
Facilities
Non-stockpile facilities
Pine Bluff Non-Stockpile Facility (PBNSF)
(in final design)
Munitions Assessment and Processing System
(MAPS) (under construction)
Use of stockpile destruction facilities for disposal
of non-stockpile materiel
Research and development facilities
Chemical Transfer Facility (CTF)
Chemical Agent Munitions Disposal System
(CAMDS)
Treatment, storage, and disposal facilities
Individual Treatment Technologies
Plasma arc
Chemical oxidation
Wet air oxidation
Batch supercritical water oxidation (SCWO)
Neutralization (chemcial hydrolysis)
Open burning/open detonation (OB/OD)
Tent and foam
High-temperature technology for direct destruction of
agent or for destruction of secondary waste streams
produced by the RRS, EDS, and other systems.
Low-temperature technology potentially applicable to
destruction of liquid secondary waste streams produced
by the RRS, EDS, and other systems.
Moderate-temperature technology potentially applicable
to the destruction of liquid secondary waste streams
produced by the RRS, EDS, and other systems.
High-temperature technology potentially applicable to
the destruction of liquid secondary waste streams
produced by the RRS, EDS, and other systems.
Low-temperature technology for hydrolysis of neat
chemical agents and binary precursors.
Historic blow-in-place method for destroying dangerous
munitions.
Partially contained blow-in-place method for destroying
dangerous munitions.
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10.6.2.1 Non-stockpile Facilities
Non-stockpile facilities are designed to destroy large quantity of dissimilar CWM and
stockpile facilities are constructed to destroy large quantities of similar CWM.
The Munitions Assessment and Processing System (MAPs) mentioned in the table as a fixed
facility was under construction during the National Research Council's (NRC) review. It was
designed to handle explosively configured chemical munitions and smoke rounds to be recovered
during the Installation Restoration Program at APG.
The Pine Bluff non-stockpile facility is designed to process RCWM binary chemical weapons
components CAIS and chemical samples at PBA.
10.6.2.2 Research and Development Facilities
The Army has two R&D facilities in the United States; the Chemical Transfer Facility (CTF)
at Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG) and the Chemical Agent Munitions Disposal System (CAMDS)
at Desert Chemical Depot to destroy items containing Lewisite. The CT facility handles CWM
recovered from APG.
10.6.2.3 Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities
A fourth type of fixed facility (treatment, storage, and disposal facilities, or TSDFs) differs
from the rest in that commercial TSDFs cannot be used to treat CWM. They can accept secondary
waste generated by either mobile systems or individual treatment technologies if the waste no longer
contains agent (except at de minimis levels).
10.6.2.4 Mobile Treatment Facilities
Table 10-5 lists four mobile treatment systems. The Explosive Destruction System (EDS) and
the Rapid Response System (RRS) are the primary systems used. The EDS is designed to treat
munitions that contain chemical agents with energetics equivalent to 3 pounds of TNT. These are
considered too unstable to be transported and stored. The RRS is designed to treat recovered CAIS,
which contain small amounts of various industrial SCANS (Single CAIS Accessing and
Neutralization System) is under development to treat individual CAIS vials or bottles. The Donovan
Blast Chamber (DEC), originally designed to treat conventional explosive munitions, was modified
to treat explosively configured CWM and offers a higher rate of throughput than the EDS. It is not
yet approved for use with CWM, by DDESB, but its' use is under evaluation.
10.6.2.5 Individual Treatment Facilities
The treatment facilities and systems discussed involve a combination of technologies,
including the preparation of the agent for processing, agent accessing, agent destruction, and
treatment of secondary waste materials. There are individual treatment technologies that can be used
on their own or integrated into the systems and facilities to accomplish specific tasks. These
technologies such as plasma arc and chemical oxidation are listed and described in table 10-6. It is
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Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-27 May 2005
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important to note that at the time of the NRC's study, some of these technologies were still
considered experimental and had not been demonstrated to have met EPA and state requirements.
It is important to note that the use of OD in a field environment necessities ideal conditions in which
the area can withstand a significant high-order detonation so that all chemical munitions are
consumed and there are no personnel or property located in the downwind hazard area. The
disadvantages of this method are many, including noise impacts, limit on the quantity that can be
destroyed at one time, and the need for regulatory and public approval. This is also the case with
other technologies that may create air emissions such as incineration.
10.6.3 Technical Aspects of CWM Remediation Decontamination
At sites where deterioration of CWM
has occurred as a result of weathering (see
10.4.3), the breakdown products are often
remediated using techniques for hazardous
chemical soil remediation. Occasionally, until
the TEU can make arrangements for
decontaminating the chemical agents, they will
construct either a cap made of soil or foam to
restrict the absorption and volatilization of
chemical agents. However, after some time,
such temporary caps will allow vapors to seep
through. These temporary sealing techniques
protect potential receptors until a more
permanent remedy can be conducted.
Chemical Decontamination
In February 2001, at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal,
Army experts completed the destruction of eight
Sarin bomblets using an explosive destruction
system. This transportable explosives destruction
system was designed to dispose of CWM in a safe
and environmentally sound manner. The device
functions by first detonating the chemical munitions
to expose the chemical agent filler in the
containment vessel. Next, reagents are pumped into
the vessel to react with the chemical agent filling.
The resulting compound is then drained into drums
for shipment to a hazardous waste treatment facility,
and the air from the device is vented through a
carbon filter to remove all chemical agents from the
As a result of CWM response, there is a
need to remediate any residual chemical agent
that may be on equipment or PPE. All procedures for the emergency field decontamination of
chemical agents must follow standard operating procedures (SOPs) based on Army Field Manual 3-
7.196 These are techniques (especially physical removal) that are typically employed in a field
environment. Two commonly used decontamination methods are described below:
Physical removal - washing or flushing of the surface with water, steam, or solvents.
Soap and boiling water or steam are often practical and effective methods for
decontaminating smaller objects such as personal protective equipment (PPE) and
equipment. Water will hydrolyze most chemical agents, but large quantities of water
and sufficient pressure are required to make this method practical. During any
decontamination operation, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) must be
used to ensure safety of the workers, and all downwind hazards must be analyzed and
minimized in order to reduce exposure to the surrounding community and
environment. All water and waste water that are generated from the decontamination
operation must be properly handled and disposed of in accordance with appropriate
I6NBC Field Handbook, Department of the Army Field Manual, FM 3-7, September 1994.
Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-28
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regulations. This is explained in more detail in the following section.
Chemical neutralization - triggers a chemical reaction between the chemical agent
and the decontaminant, usually resulting in the formation of a new compound that
may be remediated using a RCRA-permitted incinerator. Generally, a chlorinated
bleach, such as supertropical bleach, chlorinated lime, bleaching powder, or chloride
of lime, is used for this purpose. Except under emergency situations, chemical
neutralization is conducted only in contained areas.
10.7 Safety Considerations at Sites Containing Chemical Agents
10.7.1 DoD Chemical Safety Requirements in the DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety
Standards
The DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards (DoD 6055.9-STD, July 1999)
contain strict safety requirements for properties currently or formerly owned by DoD that are
contaminated with CWM and require that all means possible be used to protect the public. Chapter
11 of the DoD Explosives Safety Standard specifically addresses safety standards for chemical agents
while acknowledging the explosive hazards accompanying CWM. Chapter 11 does not apply in
emergency situations when disposal or decontamination needs are immediate and when delay will
increase the risk to human life or health.
In the event that an item is discovered that is suspected of containing CWM, the Army, as
well as each branch of military service, has specific reporting and emergency response procedures
that need to be followed in order to ensure the safety of everyone in the vicinity of the possible
contaminant. The first response is always to leave the area immediately, without touching or
disturbing the item, and to notify the agency indicated by the branch of service that has jurisdiction
over the range. The Technical Escort Unit out of Aberdeen, Maryland, responds to all reports of
possible CWM.
The safety requirements for CWM at MRSs are essentially the same as those for explosives
safety, with some modifications to address the unique safety considerations of chemical agents:
Hazard Zone Determination - As required by the DoD Explosives Safety Standard, hazard
zone calculations, or quantity-distance data, enable site planners to estimate damage or
injury potential based on a maximum credible event (MCE). Planners consider the
propagation characteristics of the ammunition, the amount of agent that could potentially
be released, and the nature of the potential release (evaporation or aerosolization). For
agent-filled ammunition without explosives, the MCE factors should address the number
of items likely to be involved, the quantity of agent likely to be released in such an event,
and the percentage of that agent that would be disseminated in an event. For combined
chemical and explosive components, the MCE should be based on the detonation of the
explosive components that will produce the maximum release of chemical agent.
The DDESB must review and approve the chemical safety aspects of all plans for leasing,
transferring, excessing, disposing of, or remediating DoD real property when chemical
agent contamination exists or is suspected to exist.
The DDESB must review plans to remediate FUDS at which chemical agent
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contamination exists or is suspected to exist.
Significant worker safety requirements should be followed to prevent exposure to
chemical agent, including measuring AELs, controlling exposures, and using protective
equipment and clothing in areas known to contain or suspected of containing CWM.
Medical surveillance, including annual health assessments, must be provided for
employees at sites where CWM is or is thought to be located.
Personnel safety training must be provided to those who work with chemical agents and
ammunition, including agent workers, firefighters, and medical and security personnel,
to maintain a safe working environment.
Labeling and posting of hazards is required to warn personnel of potential hazards at sites
containing or thought to contain CWM.
Procedures for decontaminating protective equipment and clothing in the event of spills
must be outlined.
Transportation requirements for bulk chemical agent and materials contaminated with
chemical agents must be followed.
10.7.2 Chemical Safety Requirements
In addition to the DoD Explosives Safety Standards, several other guidance documents and
manuals contain requirements for managing CWM at MRSs. These documents include Army
Regulation 385-61, the Army Chemical Agent Safety Program., and Department of the Army
Pamphlet 385-61, Toxic Chemical Agent Safety Standards. All procedures for the decontamination
of chemical agents must follow SOPs based on Army Field Manual 3-7.197>198
When CWM is found or suspected at any MRS, the Army Technical Escort Unit (TEU), a
division of the U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command (SBCCOM), will assess any
recovered non-stockpile CWM to determine if the materiel is explosive, whether it is fuzed, what its
chemical composition is, and whether it is safe for movement, storage, treatment, or disposal. For
each recovered munition, data are developed from systems such as the PINS and the DRCT (see
Table 10-5). Data also are captured from any markings on the munition, the historical context of the
find (World War I, World War II, Korean war era, etc.) and any eyewitness information. The data
are then referred to a Materiel Assessment Review Board (MARB), chaired by the Commander of
TEU. The MARB is responsible for evaluating available assessment data on suspect recovered CWM
and making a final expert determination as to its explosive configuration and chemical fill.
10.7.2.1 Preoperational Safety Surveys
Before a chemical agent investigation or decontamination activity can begin, a preoperational
safety survey is required in order to ensure that all safety aspects of the activity will be achieved.
During the survey, all facilities, equipment, and procedures are certified, and operator proficiency
in performing SOPs is demonstrated. This survey is conducted by the major command (MACOM)
197NBC Field Handbook, Department of the Army Field Manual (FM) 3-7, September 1994.
198Toxic Chemical Agent Safety Standards, Department of the Army Pamphlet (DA PAM) 385-61, March 31,
1997.
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or its designee, often the Army Technical Center for Explosives Safety (USATCES) Toxic Chemical
Agent Team in the Chemical Safety and Data Division. The survey consists of a simulation of the
planned activity by the operational personnel and their first line supervisor using dummy (inert)
material. All Army regulations and provisions of the site plan and safety submission must be
complied with during the survey.199
10.7.2.2 Personnel Protective Equipment
The DoD safety standard requires the use of administrative and engineering controls to
minimize the personnel protective equipment (PPE) requirements (for example, the construction of
a temporary seal over soils contaminated with chemical agents to reduce or eliminate the exposure
potential to personnel). It is impossible to eliminate the need for PPE at all chemical agent sites. The
level and types of PPE required should be specified in the health and safety plan.
In order to protect workers who may be exposed to chemical agents and to determine the
appropriate level and type of PPE, the Army has set certain limits of chemical agent that a worker
can be exposed to in 8-hour and 72-hour time-weighted shifts. AR 385-61 and the DoD Ammunition
andExplosives Safety Standards (DoD 6055.9-STD) define these limits as the maximum permissible
concentrations of chemical agent also known as the Airborne Exposure Limits (AELs), as established
by the Army Surgeon General.
The levels of protection are identified in the regulatory requirements are as Levels A through
F., with Level A is used for the most hazardous situations and Level F used in the most benign
situations. Level A PPE involves wearing the maximum level of protection, which includes a
toxicological agent protective (TAP) suit with a self-contained breathing apparatus, TAP boots, a
hood, and gloves. Level F specifies that personnel carry a mask if they may be moving through clean
storage or operating areas. Intermediate levels E through B require progressively more protection.
These protection levels are designed by the Army and are specific to chemical agents. They do not
match EPA's A-D levels of protection for hazardous waste. For more information on the Army's
designation of PPE levels A through F see DA PAM 385-61.
10.7.3 Managing Chemical Agent Safety
Procedures for managing chemical safety require documentation of site safety and health
plans and site safety submissions. Site safety submissions for chemical agent sites follow the same
process as the explosives safety submission (ESS) review and approval process described in Chapter
6. However, because the Army is the lead agency for chemical safety, all safety submissions must
be prepared or formally endorsed by the installation safety director and sent to the U.S. Army
Technical Center for Explosive Safety (USATCES), which reviews, approves, and facilitates final
approval by the DDESB.
'"Ibid.
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10.8 Conclusion
In accordance with the Chemical Weapons Convention, all stockpile chemical weapons and
non-stockpile chemical warfare material and identified at the time of the ratification of the CWC and
located in the United States mustbe destroyed by 2012. Although the United States is in the process
of destroying all known stockpile and non-stockpile CWM, because of past disposal practices (e.g.,
burial) it is possible that CWM may still be present at former ranges, test areas and other sites. The
presence of this materiel may present acute and chronic risks to human health and the environment.
When considering appropriate methods for detection, destruction and treatment of CWM,
there are unique challenges that are encountered. Although the most common and effective method
for remediation of CWM is item separation and incineration, this method has been publicly opposed
because of possible health risks from emissions. The safety hazards imposed by the chemical agents
and the explosive safety risks from the munition itself pose additional challenges. Safety
requirements and common sense dictate that the explosive hazards be mitigated before the CWM is
addressed.
As a result, the Army has developed a number of safety requirements and protocols that
dictate how explosives CWM and RCWM are to be handled in order to minimize the risk to human
health and the environment and have established a national program to tackle the problem of
eliminating chemical weapons by 2012 and in so doing reducing the risks to human health and the
environment.
Additionally, each service has regulatory requirements that follow the guidance provided to
them by DoD's chemical and biological directives.
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SOURCES AND RESOURCES
The following publications, offices, laboratories, and websites are provided as a guide for handbook
users to obtain additional information about the subject matter addressed in each chapter. Several
of these publications, offices, laboratories, or websites were also used in the development of this
handbook.
Publications
CBRNE - Nerve Agents, Binary: GB2, VX2, Velez-Daubon, Larissa I, MD, Fernando L Benitez,
MD. eMedicine Journal 3:1, January 2002. 3:1,
http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic900.htm.
Chemical Agent Data Sheets, Volumes I and II, Edgewood Arsenal Special Report No.
EO-SR-74001, December 1974. Available through Defense Technical Information Center, DTIC No.
AD B028222.
Hartman, H.M. Evaluation of Risk Assessment Guideline Levels for the Chemical Warfare Agents
Mustard, GB, and VX. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 35, pp. 347-356, 2002.
Munro, N.B. et al. The Sources, Fate, and Toxicity of Chemical Warfare Agent Degradation
Products. Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 107, No. 12, December 1999.
Munro, N.B. et al. Toxicity of the Organophosphate Chemical Warfare Agents GA, GB, and VX:
Implications for Public Protection. Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 102, No. 1, January
1994.
NAP (National Academy Press). Review of Acute Human-Toxicty Estimates for Selected Chemical-
Warfare Agents. National Research Council, National Academy Press, 1997.
NAP. Review of the U.S. Army's Health Risk Assessments for Oral Exposure to Six Chemical
Warfare Agents. National Research Council, National Academy Press, 2000.
NAP. Systems and Technologies for the Treatment of Non-Stockpile Chemical Warfare Agents.
National Research Council, National Academy Press, 2002.
NAP. Veterans at Risk: The Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite. Institute of Medicine,
National Academy Press, 1993.
Roberts, W.C., and W.R. Hartley. Drinking Water Health Advisory: Munitions. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 1992.
Somani, S.M., and J. Romano, Chemical Warfare Agents: Toxicity at Low Levels. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 2001.
U.S. Army. Non-Stockpile Chemical-Material Program, Survey and Analysis Report. U.S. Army
Chemical Materiel Destruction Agency, November 1993.
U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and Chemical Command Chemical Research, Development and
Engineering Center. Material Safety Data Sheet: Lethal Nerve Agent Tabun (GA).
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (USACHPPM). Detailed and
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Chapter 10. Chemical Munitions and Agents 10-33 May 2005
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General Facts About Chemical Agents, TG218.
U. S. Army Chemical Biological Defense Command Edgewood. Material Safety Data Sheet: Lewisite.
Last Technical Review on May 5, 1999.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Safety and Health Requirements Manual. EM 385-1-1, Washington,
D.C., Septembers, 1996.
U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command (SBCCOM). Material Safety Data Sheets.
Revised on August 13, 2001.
Information Sources
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
ATSDR Region 1
1 Congress Street
Suite 1100 HBT
Boston, MA 02114
(617)918-1494
http ://www. atsdr. cdc.gov/mmg.html
Deployment Health Clinical Center (DHCC)
Blister Agent Fact Sheet
http ://pdhealth.mil/wot/chemical. asp
International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS INCHEM)
World Health Organization (WHO)
20 Avenue Appia
1211 Geneva, Switzerland
http://www.inchem.org/pages/icsc.html
Mitretek Systems
3150 Fairview Park Drive
Falls Church, VA 22042-4519
(703) 610-2002
http://mitretek.org/home.nsf/homelandsecurity/chembiodefense
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
(800) 35-NIOSH
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/homepage.html
National Toxicology Program (NTP)
P.O. Box 12233, MD EC-03
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
(919)541-3419
http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Chemical Weapons Convention
http ://www. opcw. org/html/db/cwc/eng/cwc_frameset.html
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University of Oklahoma, College of Pharmacy
1110 N. Stonewall Avenue
Oklahoma City, OK 73117
(405)271-6484
http://www.okl ahomapoison,org/prevention/arsine.asp
U.S. Army Center for Explosives Safety (USATCES)
1 Tree Road, Building 35
McAlester, OK 74501
http://www.dac.army.mil/es/
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (CHPPM)
5158BlackhawkRoad
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010
(800) 222-9698
http://chppm-www.apgea.army.mil/
U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency Headquarters
Public Affairs
AMSCM-SSP
5183 Blackhawk Road
Aberdeen Proving Ground-Edgewood Area, MD 21010-5424
(800) 488-0648
http://www.cma.army.mil/home.aspx
U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational, Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
200 Constitution Avenue
Washington, D.C. 20210
1-800-321-OSHA
http://www.osha.gov
U.S. Army Engineering and Support Center, Huntsville
Directorate of Chemical Demilitarization
ATTN: CEHNC-CD
P.O. Box 1600
Huntsville, AL 35807-4301
(256)895-1370
http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil/chemde/index.asp
U.S. National Library of Medicine, Specialized Information Services
2 Democracy Plaza
Suite 510 6707 Democracy Boulevard, MSC 5467
Bethesda, MD 20892
(301)496-1131
http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/
Guidance Documents
Chemical Accident or Incident Response and Assistance (CAIRA) Operations. DA PAM 50-6,
Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., May 1991.
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U.S. Army. Army Chemical Safety Program, AR 385-61, Headquarters, Department of the Army,
Washington, D.C., February 1997.
U.S. Army. Chemical Surety, Army Regulation 50-6, Headquarters, Department of the Army,
Washington, D.C., February 1995.
U.S. Army. DoD Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards. DoD 6055.9-STD.
U.S. Army. Military Chemistry and Chemical Compounds. Army Field Manual (FM) 3-9, Air
Force AFR 355-7, Headquarters, Department of the Army, October 1975.
U.S. Army. NBC Field Handbook, Field Manual (FM) 3-7, Headquarters, Department of the
Army, Washington, D.C., September 29, 1994.
U.S. Marine Corps. NBC Decontamination, FM 3-5, Headquarters, Department of the Army,
MCWP 3-37.3, Commandant, Washington, D.C., July 28, 2000.
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