nea
NATIONAL
EDUCATION
ASSOCIATION
Great Public Schools for Every Child
National
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every child, one voice.
t AMERICAN
LUNG
ASSOCIATION.
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
-------
vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
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Great Public Schools for Every Child
National
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every child, one voice."
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AMERICAN
LUNG
ASSOCIATION,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Indoor Environments Division, 6609J
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
(202) 564-9370
www.epa.gov/iaq
American Federation of Teachers
555 New Jersey Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 879-4400
www.aft.org
Association of School Business Officials
11401 North Shore Drive
Reston,VA 22090
(703) 478-0405
www.asbointl.org
National Education Association
1201 16thSteet, NW
Washington, DC 20036-3290
(202) 833-4000
www.nea.org
National Parent Teachers Association
330 North Wabash Avenue, Suite 2100
Chicago, IL 60611-3690
(312)670-6782
www.pta.org
American Lung Association
1740 Broadway
New York, NY 10019
(212)315-8700
www.lungusa.org
EPA 402/K-07/008 I January 2009 I www.epa.gov/iaq/schools
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Introduction
aderstanding the importance of good
indoor air quality (IAQ) in schools is the
backbone of developing an effective IAQ
program. Poor IAQ can lead to a large
variety of health problems and potentially
affect comfort, concentration, and staff/
student performance. In recognition of
tight school budgets, this guidance is
designed to present practical and often
low-cost actions you can take to identify
and address existing or potential air
quality problems. You can accomplish this
using current school staff to perform a
limited and well-defined set of basic
operations and maintenance activities.
However, some actions may require
specialized expertise.
Sections 1 and 2 of this Guide help
schools understand how IAQ problems
develop, the importance of good IAQ, and
its impact on students, staff, and building
occupants. Communicating this important
information with students, staff, parents,
and the community is the next step, which
is outlined in Section 3. Schools dealing
with an IAQ crisis will find the section on
communication particularly helpful.
Sections 4 to 6 contain valuable
information for schools that need
assistance diagnosing and responding to
IAQ problems with
inexpensive, practical solutions.
Refer to the appendices of this Guide for
detailed information on lAQ-related topics
including mold, radon, secondhand
smoke, asthma, and portable classrooms.
Schools may find the explanations of
integrated pest management programs,
typical indoor air pollutants, and
pollutants from motor vehicles and
equipment helpful while developing
school policies or pinpointing sources of
poor IAQ. In addition, schools
Indoor Air Quality
investigating or resolving IAQ problems
may want to refer to appendices on basic
measurement equipment, hiring
professional assistance, and codes and
regulations. There are numerous resources
available to schools through EPA and
other organizations, many of which are
listed in Appendix L. Use the information
in this Guide to create the best possible
learning environment for students and
maintain a comfortable, healthy building
for school occupants.
Tools for Schools
This common-
sense guidance is
designed to help
you prevent and
solve the
majority of indoor
air problems with
minimal cost and
involvement.
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Contents
Introduction
Acknowledgments
BASICS
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Section 6
Why IAQ Is Important to Your School
Why IAQ Is Important
Unique Aspects of Schools
Understanding IAQ Problems
Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants
Interaction of Sources, HVAC Systems,
Pathways, and Occupants
HVAC System Design and Operation
Description of HVAC Systems
Thermal Comfort
Ventilation For Occupant Needs
Pollutant Pathways and Driving Forces
Building Occupants
Effective Communication
Proactive Communication
Responsive Communication
Communication Principles
Resolving IAQ Problems
Is This an Emergency?
Who Will Solve the Problem?
Diagnosing IAQ Problems
How to Diagnose Problems
Spatial and Timing Patterns
Solving IAQ Problems
Developing Solutions
Solutions for Other Complaints
Evaluating Solutions
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Your Solution
Persistent Problems
1
V
1
1
2
3
3
4
5
5
6
6
7
9
9
10
11
13
13
14
15
15
15
17
Note: Separate
pieces in this Kit
include:
• IAQ Coordinator's
Guide;
• IAQ Road Map;
• IAQ Backgrounder;
• IAQ Checklists;
• Fact Sheet on
District-wide
Implementation;
• Awards Program;
• Managing Asthma
in the School
Environment;
• Two Videos; and
• IAQ Problem
Solving Wheel.
17
18
18
19
20
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APPENDICES
Appendix A Hiring Professional Assistance
Appendix B Basic Measurement Equipment
Appendix C Codes and Regulations
Appendix D Asthma
Appendix E Typical Indoor Air Pollutants
Appendix F Secondhand Smoke
Appendix G Radon
Appendix H Mold and Moisture
Appendix I Emissions from Motor Vehicles and Equipment
Appendix J Portable Classrooms
Appendix K Integrated Pest Management
Appendix L Resources
Appendix M Glossary and Acronyms
21
25
27
29
33
39
43
45
49
53
57
59
79
INDEX
85
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DISCLAIMER
Any information gathered using this Kit is
for the benefit and use of schools and
school districts. EPA does not require
retention or submission of any
information gathered, and EPA has no
regulatory or enforcement authority
regarding general indoor air quality in
schools. This Kit has been reviewed in
accordance with EPA's policies.
Information provides the current scientific
and technical understanding of the issues
presented. Following the advice given will
not necessarily provide complete
protection in all situations or against all
health hazards that may be caused by
indoor air pollution.
Mention of any trade names or
commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
REPRODUCTION
This Kit contains public information that
may be reproduced or modified in whole
or in part without permission. If it is
reproduced or modified, EPA would
appreciate knowing how it is used. Please
write:
IAQ Tools for Schools
Indoor Environments Division, #6609J
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
For more information, see EPA's Web site:
www.epa.gov/iaq.
WARNING
Please note the following as you prepare
to use this Kit:
• This Kit is not intended as a substitute
for appropriate emergency action in a
hazardous situation that may be
immediately threatening to life or
safety.
• Modification of building functions,
equipment, or structure to remedy air
quality complaints may create other
indoor air quality problems and may
impact life-safety systems and energy
use. A thorough understanding of all
the factors that interact to create indoor
air quality problems can help avoid this
undesirable outcome. Consult with
professionals as necessary.
• In the event that medical records are
used while evaluating an IAQ problem,
maintain confidentiality.
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Section 1 - Why IAQ Is Important
to Your School
lost people are aware that outdoor air
pollution can impact their health, but
indoor air pollution can also have
significant and harmful health effects. The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) studies of human exposure to air
pollutants indicate that indoor levels of
pollutants may be two to five times—and
occasionally more than 100 times—higher
than outdoor levels. These levels of indoor
air pollutants are of particular concern
because most people spend about 90
percent of their time indoors. For the
purposes of this guidance, the definition
of good indoor air quality (IAQ)
management includes:
• Control of airborne pollutants;
• Introduction and distribution of
adequate outdoor air; and
• Maintenance of acceptable temperature
and relative humidity.
Temperature and humidity cannot be
overlooked because thermal comfort
concerns underlie many complaints about
"poor air quality." Furthermore,
temperature and humidity are among the
many factors that affect indoor
contaminant levels.
Outdoor sources should also be
considered since outdoor air enters school
buildings through windows, doors, and
ventilation systems. Thus, transportation
and grounds maintenance activities
become factors that affect indoor
pollutant levels as well as outdoor air
quality on school grounds.
WHY IS IAQ IMPORTANT?
In recent years, comparative risk studies
performed by EPA and its Science
Advisory Board (SAB) have consistently
ranked indoor air pollution among the top
five environmental risks to public health.
Good IAQ is an important component of a
healthy indoor environment, and can help
schools reach their primary goal of
educating children.
Failure to prevent or respond promptly to
IAQ problems can:
• Increase long- and short-term health
problems for students and staff (such as
cough, eye irritation, headache, allergic
reactions, and, in rarer cases, life-
threatening conditions such as
Legionnaire's disease, or carbon
monoxide poisoning).
• Aggravate asthma and other respiratory
illnesses. Nearly 1 in 13 children of
school-age has asthma, the leading
cause of school absenteeism due to
chronic illness. There is substantial
evidence that indoor environmental
exposure to allergens, such as dust
mites, pests, and molds, plays a role in
triggering asthma symptoms. These
allergens are common in schools. There
is also evidence that exposure to diesel
exhaust from school buses and other
vehicles exacerbates asthma and
allergies. These problems can:
• Impact student attendance, comfort,
and performance.
• Reduce teacher and staff
performance.
• Accelerate the deterioration and
reduce the efficiency of the school's
physical plant and equipment.
• Increase potential for school closings
or relocation of occupants.
• Strain relationships among school
administration, parents, and staff.
• Create negative publicity.
• Impact community trust.
• Create liability problems.
Indoor air problems can be subtle and do
not always produce easily recognized
impacts on health, well-being, or the
physical plant. Symptoms, such as
headache, fatigue, shortness of breath,
sinus congestion, coughing, sneezing,
dizziness, nausea, and irritation of the eye,
nose, throat and skin, are not necessarily
Good IAQ
contributes to a
favorable
environment for
students,
performance of
teachers and staff,
and a sense of
comfort, health, and
well-being. These
elements combine
to assist a school in
its core mission—
educating children.
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due to air quality deficiencies, but may
also be caused by other factors—poor
lighting, stress, noise, and more. Due to
varying sensitivities among school
occupants, IAQ problems may affect a
group of people or just one individual. In
addition, IAQ problems may affect people
in different ways.
Individuals that may be particularly
susceptible to effects of indoor air
contaminants include, but are not limited
to, people with:
• Asthma, allergies, or chemical
sensitivities;
• Respiratory diseases;
• Suppressed immune systems (due to
radiation, chemotherapy, or disease);
and
• Contact lenses.
Certain groups of people may be
particularly vulnerable to exposures of
certain pollutants or pollutant mixtures.
For example:
• People with heart disease may be
more adversely affected by exposure
to carbon monoxide than healthy
individuals.
• People exposed to significant levels of
nitrogen dioxide are at higher risk for
respiratory infections.
In addition, the developing bodies of
children might be more susceptible to
environmental exposures than those of
adults. Children breathe more air, eat
more food, and drink more liquid in
proportion to their body weight than
adults. Therefore, air quality in schools is
of particular concern. Proper maintenance
of indoor
air is more than a "quality" issue; it
encompasses safety and stewardship of
your investment in students, staff, and
facilities.
UNIQUE ASPECTS OF SCHOOLS
Unlike other buildings, managing schools
involves the combined responsibility for
public funds and child safety issues. These
can instigate strong reactions from
concerned parents and the general
community. Many other aspects are unique
to schools:
• Occupants are close together, with the
typical school having approximately
four times as many occupants as office
buildings for the same amount of floor
space.
• Budgets are tight, with maintenance
often receiving the largest cut during
budget reductions.
• The presence of a variety of pollutant
sources, including art and science
supplies, industrial and vocational arts,
home economic classes, and gyms.
• A large number of heating, ventilating,
and air-conditioning equipment place
an added strain on maintenance staff.
• Concentrated diesel exhaust exposure
due to school buses. (Students, staff,
and vehicles congregate at the same
places at the same time of day,
increasing exposure to vehicle
emissions.) Long, daily school bus
rides may contribute to elevated
exposure to diesel exhaust for many
students.
• As schools add space, the operation and
maintenance of each addition are often
different.
• Schools sometimes use rooms, portable
classrooms, or buildings that were not
originally designed to service the
unique requirements of schools.
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Section 2 - Understanding IAQ
Problems
jver the past several decades, exposure
to indoor air pollutants has increased due
to a variety of factors. These include the
construction of more tightly sealed
buildings; reduced ventilation rates to save
energy; the use of synthetic building
materials and furnishings; the use of
personal care products, pesticides, and
housekeeping supplies; and the increased
use of vehicles and power equipment. In
addition, activities and decisions, such as
deferring maintenance to "save" money,
can lead to problems from sources and
ventilation.
The indoor environment in any building is
a result of the interactions among the site,
climate, building structure, mechanical
systems (as originally designed and later
modified), construction techniques,
contaminant sources, building occupants,
and outdoor mobile sources (cars, buses,
trucks, and grounds maintenance
equipment). This section contains a
discussion on how these elements can
cause IAQ problems, and Section 6:
"Solving IAQ Problems" provides
solutions. These elements are grouped into
four categories:
• Sources
• Heating, Ventilation, and Air-
Conditioning (HVAC) Systems
• Pathways
• Occupants
SOURCES OF INDOOR AIR
POLLUTANTS
Indoor air pollutants can originate within
the building or be drawn in from outdoors.
Air contaminants consist of numerous
particulates, fibers, mists, bioaerosols, and
gases. It is important to control air
pollutant sources, or IAQ problems can
arise—even if the HVAC system is
properly operating. It may be helpful to
think of air pollutant sources as fitting into
one of the categories in the table on the
following page, "Typical Sources of Indoor
Air Pollutants." The examples given for
each category are not intended to be an
exhaustive list. Appendix E: "Typical
Indoor Air Pollutants" contains a list of
specific air pollutants with descriptions,
sources, and control measures.
In addition to the number of potential
pollutants, another complicating factor is
that indoor air pollutant concentration
levels can vary by time and location
within the school building, or even a
single classroom. Pollutants can be
emitted from a variety of sources
including:
• Point sources (such as from science
storerooms);
• Area sources (such as newly painted
surfaces); and
• Mobile sources (such as cars, buses,
and power equipment).
Pollutants can also vary with time since
some activities take place over a short
period of time (such as stripping floors) or
occur continuously (such as mold growing
in the HVAC system).
Indoor air often contains a variety of
contaminants at concentrations that are
well below the published occupational
standards. Given our present knowledge, it
is often difficult to relate specific health
effects to exposures to specific pollutant
concentrations, especially since the
significant exposures may be due to low
levels of pollutant mixtures.
INTERACTION OF SOURCES,
HVAC SYSTEMS, PATHWAYS, AND
OCCUPANTS
If independently evaluated, a minor roof
leak and a dirty classroom carpet might
not cause much concern. But if the water
from the roof leak reaches the carpet, the
water can wet the dirt in the carpet and the
mold that has been dormant in the carpet.
The mold can grow and become a
pollutant source that releases spores into
the classroom air. The HVAC system may
act as a pathway that disperses the spores
to other parts of the school, where
occupants may experience allergic
reactions.
Interaction of
Sources,
HVAC Systems,
Pathways, and
Occupants
If independently
evaluated, a minor
roof leak and a dirty
classroom carpet
might not cause
much concern. But
if the water from
the roof leak
reaches the carpet,
the water can wet
the dirt in the
carpet and the
mold that has been
dormant in the
carpet. The mold
can grow and
become a pollutant
source that releases
spores into the
classroom air. The
HVAC system acts
as a pathway that
disperses the
spores to other
parts of the school,
where occupants
may experience
allergic reactions.
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TYPICAL SOURCES OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS
OUTDOOR SOURCES
O— . II XA *J
Polluted
Outdoor Air
• Pollen, dust, mold
spores
• Industrial emissions
• Vehicle and nonroad
engine emissions (cars,
buses, trucks, lawn and
garden equipment)
Nearby Sources
• Loading docks
• Odors from dumpsters
• Unsanitary debris or
building exhausts near
outdoor air intakes
Underground
Sources
• Radon
• Pesticides
• Leakage from
underground storage
tanks
BUILDING
EQUIPMENT
HVAC Equipment
• Mold growth in drip
pans, ductwork, coils,
and humidifiers
• Improper venting of
combustion products
• Dust or debris in duct-
work
Other Equipment
• Emissions from office
equipment (volatile
organic compounds
(VOCs), ozone)
• Emissions from shop,
lab, and cleaning
equipment
COMPONENTS/
FURNISHINGS
Components
• Mold growth on or in
soiled or water-
damaged materials
• Dry drain traps that
allow the passage of
sewer gas
• Materials containing
VOCs, inorganic
compounds, or
damaged asbestos
• Materials that produce
particles (dust)
Furnishings
• Emissions from new
furnishings and
floorings
• Mold growth on or in
soiled or water-
damaged furnishings
OTHER POTENTIAL
INDOOR SOURCES
• Science laboratory
supplies
• Vocational art supplies
• Copy/print areas
• Food prep areas
• Smoking lounges
• Cleaning materials
• Emissions from trash
• Pesticides
• Odors and VOCs from
paint, caulk, adhesives
• Occupants with
communicable diseases
• Dry-erase markers and
similar pens
• Insects and other pests
• Personal care products
• Stored gasoline and
lawn and garden
equipment
HVAC SYSTEM DESIGN AND
OPERATION
The HVAC system includes all heating,
cooling, and ventilating equipment serving
a school: Boilers or furnaces, chillers,
cooling towers, air-handling units, exhaust
fans, ductwork, and filters. Properly
designed HVAC equipment in a school
helps to:
• Control temperature and relative
humidity to provide thermal comfort;
• Distribute adequate amounts of outdoor
air to meet ventilation needs of school
occupants; and
• Isolate and remove odors and other
contaminants through pressure control,
filtration, and exhaust fans.
Not all HVAC systems accomplish all of
these functions. Some buildings rely only
on natural ventilation. Others lack
mechanical cooling equipment, and many
function with little or no humidity control.
The features of the HVAC system in a
given building will depend on:
• Age of the design;
• Climate;
• Building codes in effect at the time of
the design;
• Budget for the project;
• Designers' and school districts'
individual preferences;
• Subsequent modifications;
• Space type; and
• Expected occupancy.
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DESCRIPTION OF HVAC SYSTEMS
The two most common HVAC designs in
schools are unit ventilators and central air-
handling systems. Both can perform the
same HVAC functions, but a unit ventilator
serves a single room while the central air-
handling unit serves multiple rooms. For
basic central air-handling units, it is
important that all rooms served by the
central unit have similar thermal and
ventilation requirements. If these
requirements differ significantly, some
rooms may be too hot, too cold, or
underventilated, while others are
comfortable and adequately ventilated.
Most air-handling units distribute a
mixture of outdoor air and recirculated
indoor air. HVAC designs may also include
units that introduce 100 percent outdoor air
or that simply recirculate indoor air within
the building. Uncontrolled quantities of
outdoor air enter buildings by leakage
through windows, doors, and gaps in the
building exterior. Thermal comfort and
ventilation needs are met by supplying
"conditioned" air, which is a mixture of
outdoor and recirculated air that has been
filtered, heated or cooled, and sometimes
humidified or dehumidified. The basic
components for a central air handling unit
and a unit ventilator are illustrated in the
IAQ Backgrounder.
THERMAL COMFORT
A number of variables interact to
determine whether people are comfortable
with the temperature and relative humidity
of the indoor air. Factors such as clothing,
activity level, age, and physiology of
people in schools vary widely, so the
thermal comfort requirements vary for
each individual. The American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
Standard 55-1992 describes the
temperature and humidity ranges that are
comfortable for 80 percent of people
engaged in largely sedentary activities.
That information is summarized in the
chart to the right. The ASHRAE standard
assumes "normal indoor clothing." Added
layers of clothing reduce the rate of heat
loss.
Uniformity of temperature is important to
comfort. Rooms that share a common
heating and cooling system controlled by a
single thermostat may be at different
temperatures. Temperature stratification is
a common problem caused by
convection—the tendency of light, warm
air to rise, and heavier, cooler air to sink.
If air is not properly mixed by the
ventilation system, the temperature near
the ceiling can be several degrees warmer
or cooler than near the floor, where young
children spend much of their time. Even if
air is properly mixed, uninsulated floors
over unheated spaces can create
discomfort in some climate zones. Large
fluctuations of indoor temperature can
also occur when thermostats have a wide
"dead band" (a temperature range in
which neither heating or cooling takes
place).
Radiant heat transfer may cause people
located near very hot or very cold surfaces
to be uncomfortable even though the
thermostat setting and the measured air
temperature are within the comfort range.
Schools with large window areas
sometimes have acute problems of
discomfort due to radiant heat gains and
losses, with the locations of complaints
shifting during the day as the sun angle
changes. Poorly insulated walls can also
produce a flow of naturally-convecting air,
leading to complaints of draftiness.
All schools need
ventilation, which
is the process of
supplying
outdoor air to
occupied areas
within the school.
RECOMMENDED RANGES OF TEMPERATURE AND
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Relative humidity
Winter Temperature Summer Temperature
30%
68.5°F-75.5°F
74.0°F-80.0°F
40%
68.0°F-75.0°F
73.5°F-80.0°F
50%
68.0°F-74.5°F
73.0°F-79.0°F
60%
67.5°F-74.0°F
73.0°F-78.5°F
Recommendations apply for persons clothed in typical summer and winter clothing, at light,
mainly sedentary, activity.
Source: Adopted from ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy
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Selected Outdoor
Air Ventilation
Recommendations
(Minimum)
Application Cubic Feet per Minute (cfm)
per Person
Classroom 15
Music Rooms 15
Libraries 15
Auditoriums 15
Spectator Sport Areas 15
Playing Floors 20
Office Space 20
Conference Rooms 20
Smoking Lounges 60
Cafeteria 20
Kitchen (cooking) 15
Source: ASHRAE Standard 62-2001,
Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality
Closing curtains reduces heating from
direct sunlight and reduces occupant
exposure to hot or cold window surfaces.
Large schools may have interior ("core")
spaces in which year-round cooling is
required to compensate for heat generated
by occupants, office equipment, and
lighting, while perimeter rooms may
require heating or cooling depending on
outdoor conditions.
Humidity is a factor in thermal comfort.
Raising relative humidity reduces a
person's ability to lose heat through
perspiration and evaporation, so that the
effect is similar to raising the temperature.
Humidity extremes can also create other
IAQ problems. Excessively high or low
relative humidities can produce
discomfort, high relative humidities can
promote the growth of mold and mildew,
and low relative humidities can accelerate
the release of spores into the air. (See
Appendix H: "Mold and Moisture.")
VENTILATION FOR OCCUPANT
NEEDS
Ventilation is the process of supplying
outdoor air to the occupied areas in the
school while indoor air is exhausted by
fans or allowed to escape through
openings, thus removing indoor air
pollutants. Often, this exhaust air is taken
from areas that produce air pollutants
such as restrooms, kitchens, science-
storage closets, and fume hoods.
Modern schools generally use mechanical
ventilation systems to introduce outdoor
air during occupied periods, but some
schools use only natural ventilation or
exhaust fans to remove odors and
contaminants. In naturally ventilated
buildings, unacceptable indoor air quality
is particularly likely when occupants keep
the windows closed due to extreme hot or
cold outdoor temperatures. Even when
windows and doors are open, inadequate
ventilation is likely when air movement
forces are weakest, such as when there is
little wind or when there is little
temperature difference between inside and
outside (stack effect).
Stack effect is the pressure-driven airflow
produced by convection, the tendency of
warm air to rise. Stack effect exists
whenever there is an indoor-outdoor
temperature difference, and the effect
becomes stronger as the temperature
difference increases. Multi-story schools
are more affected than single-story
schools. As heated air escapes from upper
levels, indoor air moves from lower to
upper levels, and outdoor air is drawn into
the lower levels to replace the air that has
escaped. Stack effect can transport
contaminants between floors by way of
stairwells, elevator shafts, utility chases,
and other openings.
The amount of outdoor air considered
adequate for proper ventilation has varied
substantially over time. Because updating
building codes often takes several years,
current building codes may require more
ventilation then when the system was
designed. ASHRAE ventilation standards
are used as the basis for most building
ventilation codes. A table of outdoor air
quantities in schools as recommended by
ASHRAE Standard 62-2001, "Ventilation
for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality," is
shown to the left. Please note that this is a
limited portion of the Standard, and that
the quantities listed are in units of cfm per
person, which are cubic feet per minute of
outdoor air for each person in the area
served by that ventilation system.
POLLUTANT PATHWAYS AND
DRIVING FORCES
Airflow patterns in buildings result from
the combined forces of mechanical
ventilation systems, human activity, and
natural effects. Air pressure differences
created by these forces move airborne
pollutants from areas of higher pressure to
areas of lower pressure through any
available openings in building walls,
ceilings, floors, doors, windows, and
HVAC systems. For example, as long as
the opening to an inflated balloon is kept
shut, no air will flow. When opened,
however, air will move from inside (area
of higher pressure) to the outside (area of
lower pressure).
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Even if the opening is small, air will
move until the inside pressure is equal to
the outside pressure. If present, the HVAC
ducts are generally the predominant
pathway and driving force for air
movement in buildings. However, all of a
building's components (walls, ceilings,
floors, doors, windows, HVAC
equipment, and occupants) interact to
affect how air movement distributes
pollutants within a building.
As air moves from supply outlets to
return inlets, for example, it is diverted or
obstructed by walls and furnishings, and
redirected by openings that provide
pathways for air movement. On a
localized basis, the movements of people
have a major impact on pollutant
transport. Some of the pathways change
as doors and windows open and close. It
is useful to think of the entire building—
the rooms with connecting corridors and
utility passageways between them—as
part of the air-distribution system.
Air movement can transfer emissions
from the pollutant source:
• Into adjacent rooms or spaces that are
under lower pressure.
• Into other spaces through HVAC
system ducts.
• From lower to upper levels in multi-
story schools.
• Into the building through either
infiltration of outdoor air or reentry of
exhaust air.
• To various points within the room.
Natural forces exert an important
influence on air movement between a
school's interior and exterior. Both the
stack effect and wind can overpower a
building's HVAC system and disrupt air
circulation and ventilation, especially if
the school envelope (walls, ceiling,
windows, etc.) is leaky.
Wind effects are transient, creating local
areas of high pressure (on the windward
side) and low pressure (on the leeward
side) of buildings. Depending on the size
and location of leakage openings in the
building exterior, wind can affect the
pressure relationships within and between
rooms. Entry of outdoor air contaminants
may be intermittent or variable, occurring
only when the wind blows from the
direction of the pollutant source.
Most public and commercial buildings are
designed to be positively pressurized, so
that unconditioned air does not enter
through openings in the building envelope
causing discomfort or air quality
problems. The interaction between
pollutant pathways and intermittent or
variable driving forces can lead to a single
source causing IAQ complaints in an area
of the school that is distant from the
pollutant source.
BUILDING OCCUPANTS
Occupant activities can directly affect
pollutant sources, the HVAC system
(operation, maintenance, controls),
pathways, and driving forces. Occupants
can also be carriers of communicable
disease and allergens, such as pet dander.
Teachers may use dry-erase markers or
laboratory chemicals that emit pollutants.
Similarly, many cleaning materials used in
schools contain VOCs that can degrade
IAQ.
Teachers and administrators often obstruct
proper air movement in their classrooms
and offices by using ventilation units as
bookshelves, unknowingly restricting the
pathway for fresh air to enter the area.
Similarly, covering air return ducts (with
posters, for example) restricts proper air
circulation. Therefore, it is important for
occupants to understand how their
activities directly affect ventilation
pathways and sources of pollutants in their
school.
Occupants can contribute to a healthy
indoor environment by completing the
IAQ checklists, monitoring their own
behavior, and immediately alerting the
IAQ Coordinator of any IAQ problems.
It is important
for occupants to
understand how
their activities
directly affect
ventilation path-
ways and sources
of pollutants in their
school.
-------
-------
Section 3 - Effective Communication
communication can help to
prevent IAQ problems and can allay
unnecessary fears. In addition, schools
should respond promptly and effectively
to any IAQ issues that may arise.
Communication can assist school
occupants in understanding how their
activities affect IAQ, which will enable the
occupants to improve their indoor
environment through proper choices and
actions. EPA's IAQ TfS Communications
Guide (EPA 402-K-02-008) provides more
information on communication strategies
for addressing IAQ concerns. To obtain
a copy of the Guide, call IAQ INFO at
800-438-4318 or visit EPA's Web site at
www.epa.gov/iaq/schools.
PROACTIVE COMMUNICATION
Schools and school districts can reap many
benefits from taking a proactive approach
to addressing IAQ issues. The positive
public relations that can result from this
approach can lead to a better
understanding of IAQ by school occupants
and the community. Communicating
effectively—both internally and
externally—is a key element.
Build rapport with the local media now.
An informed media that is aware of your
efforts to prevent IAQ problems and that
understands the basics of IAQ in schools
can be an asset instead of a liability during
an IAQ crisis.
Communicating the goals of the IAQ
Management Plan to those within the
school—teachers, custodians,
administrators, support staff, the school
nurse, students—is key. The following
steps can help develop good
communication between you and the
school occupants:
1. Provide accurate information about
factors that are affecting IAQ.
2. Clarify the responsibilities and
activities of the IAQ Coordinator.
3. Clarify the responsibilities and
activities of each occupant.
4. Notify occupants and parents of
planned activities that may affect IAQ.
5. Employ good listening skills.
The checklists, forms, and information
contained in this guide will assist you in
accomplishing the first three objectives.
In addition, refer to the list of communi-
cation principles on the next page.
The necessary level of communication is
often dependent on the severity of the IAQ
complaint. If the complaint can be
resolved quickly (e.g., an annoying but
harmless odor from an easily identified
source) and involves a small number of
people, communication can be handled in
a straightforward manner without risking
confusion and bad feeling among school
occupants. Communication becomes a
more critical issue when there are delays
in identifying and resolving the problem
and when serious health concerns are
involved.
The fourth objective deals with informing
occupants and parents before the start of
significant planned activities that produce
odors or contaminants. If occupants and
parents are uninformed, they may become
concerned about unknown air
contaminants, such as strange odors or
excessive levels of dust, and register an
IAQ complaint. Examples of planned
activities include pest control, painting,
roofing, and installation of new flooring.
Notification of planned activities can also
prevent problems from arising with
students and staff with special needs. For
example, an asthmatic student may wish to
avoid certain areas within a school, or use
alternative classrooms, during times when
a major renovation project will produce
higher levels of dust. A sample
notification letter is provided in the model
painting policy in Appendix B:
"Developing Indoor Air Policies," in the
IAQ Coordinator's Guide:A Guide to
Implementing an IAQ Program.
-------
The fifth objective involves effective
listening. School occupants can often
provide information that helps prevent
problems, and being "heard" may help
defuse negative reactions by occupants if
indoor air problems develop.
RESPONSIVE COMMUNICATION
When an IAQ problem occurs, you can be
assured that the school community will
learn about it quickly. Without open
communication, any IAQ problem can
become complicated by anxiety,
frustration, and distrust. These
complications can increase both the time
and money needed to resolve the problem.
Immediate communication is vital, and is
easiest if a few strategic steps are taken
before an IAQ problem arises. First,
ensure that a spokesperson is ready by
having a working understanding of the
communication guidance found in this
section, and a background knowledge of
IAQ as outlined in Sections 1 and 2. This
person should also have complete access
to information as the investigation
progresses. Because of these
qualifications, the IAQ Coordinator may
be a good choice for spokesperson.
Second, establish a plan for how you will
communicate to the school community.
The school community includes all
occupants of the school, parents, the
school district administration and school
board, the local union, and the local news
media.
Paying attention to communication when
solving a problem helps to ensure the
support and cooperation of school
occupants as the problem is investigated
and resolved. There are basic, yet
important, messages to convey:
• School administrators are committed to
providing a healthy and safe school.
• Good IAQ is an essential component of
a healthy indoor environment.
• IAQ complaints are taken seriously.
When a problem arises, communication
should begin immediately. You should not
wait until an investigation is nearly
completed or until final data are available
before providing some basic elements of
information. Communications, whether in
conversations or in writing, should include
the following elements in a factual and
concise manner:
• The general nature of the problem,
the types of complaints that have been
received, and the locations that are
affected;
• The administration's policy in regard to
providing a healthy and safe
environment;
• What has been done to address the
problems or complaints, including the
types of information that are being
gathered;
• What is currently being done, including
factors that have been evaluated and
found not to be causing or contributing
to the problem;
• How the school community can help;
• Attempts that are being made to
improve IAQ;
• Work that remains to be done and the
expected schedule for its completion;
• The name and telephone number of the
IAQ Coordinator, who can be contacted
for further information or to register
complaints; and
• When the school will provide the next
update.
Productive relations will be enhanced if
the school community is given basic
progress reports during the process of
diagnosing and solving problems. It is
advisable to explain the nature of
investigative activities, so that rumors and
suspicions can be countered with factual
information. Notices or memoranda can
be posted in general use areas and
delivered directly to parents, the school
board, the local union, and other interested
constituents of the school community.
Newsletter articles, the school Web site, or
other established communication channels
can also be used to keep the school
community up-to-date.
Problems can arise from saying either too
little or too much. Premature release of
information when data-gathering is still
incomplete can cause confusion,
frustration, and future mistrust. Similar
problems can result from incorrect
-------
representation of risk—improperly
assuming the worst case or the best.
However, if even simple progress reports
are not given, people will think that either
nothing is being done or that something
terrible is happening.
Even after the problem is correctly
diagnosed and a proper mitigation strategy
is in place, it may take days or weeks for
contaminants to dissipate and symptoms
to disappear. If building occupants are
informed that their symptoms may persist
for some time after solving the problem,
the inability to bring instant relief is less
likely to be seen as a failure.
Remember to communicate as the final
step in problem-solving—although you
may know that the problem has been
resolved, the school community may not
know, so be sure to provide a summary
status report. The graphic below
summarizes the main steps for responsive
communications.
BEFORE PROBLEM
Select & Prepare
Spokesperson
Develop
Notification
Strategy
COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
• Be honest, frank, and open. Once trust
and credibility are lost, they are almost
impossible to regain. If you don't know
an answer or are uncertain, say so.
Admit mistakes. Get back to people
with answers. Discuss data
uncertainties, strengths, and
weaknesses.
• Respect your audience. Keep
explanations simple, avoiding technical
language and jargon as much as
possible. Use concrete images that
communicate on a personal level.
People in the community are often
more concerned about such issues as
credibility, competence, fairness, and
compassion than about statistics and
DURING PROBLEM
Communicate
Immediately
Provide
Progress
Report
Provide
Summary
Status Report
details. However, provide sufficient
information to audiences that are
capable of understanding more
technical explanations.
Employ your best listening skills. Take
time to find out what people are
thinking, rather than assuming that you
already know.
Tailor communication strategies to
your audience. Use mass media for
providing information, and
interpersonal techniques for changing
attitudes.
-------
Involve school employees. An informed
staff is likely to be a supportive staff.
Involve parents. Inform parents about
what is being done and why, as well as
what will happen if problems are
detected.
Involve the school board. Encourage
board members to observe the process
(e.g., taking a walk-through of the
school with the IAQ Coordinator).
Involve businesses that provide
services to the school (e.g.,
exterminators, bus fleet administrators/
operators) and businesses located
around the school, which may also
negatively impact IAQ.
Emphasize action. Always try to
include a discussion of actions that are
underway or that can be taken.
Encourage feedback. Accentuate the
positive and learn from your mistakes.
Strive for an informed public. The
public should be involved, interested,
reasonable, thoughtful, solution-
oriented, and collaborative.
Be prepared for questions. Provide
background material on complex
issues. Avoid public conflicts or
disagreements among credible
sources.
Be responsive. Acknowledge the
emotions that people express and
respond in words and actions. When in
doubt, lean toward sharing more
information, not less, or people may
think you are hiding something.
Combat rumors with facts. For
example, set up a chalkboard in the
teachers' lounge or in another general
use area for recording what is heard.
Record rumors as they arise and add
responses. Then pass out copies to the
staff.
Do not over promise. Promise only
what you can do and follow through
with each promise.
Work with the media. Be accessible to
reporters and respect deadlines. Try to
establish long-term relationships of
trust with specific editors and reporters.
Remember that the media are
frequently more interested in politics
than in science, more interested in
simplicity than complexity, and more
interested in danger than safety.
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Section 4 - Resolving IAQ Problems
I Resolving IAQ problems involves
diagnosing the cause, applying practical
actions that either reduce emissions from
pollutant sources, remove pollutants
from the air (e.g., increasing ventilation
or air cleaning), or both. Problems
related to sources can stem from
improper material selection or
application, allowing conditions that can
increase biological contamination and
dust accumulation, or source location.
Ventilation problems stem from
improper design, installation, operation,
or maintenance of the ventilation
system.
This Guide provides information on most
IAQ problems found in schools, and does
not require that pollutant measurements be
performed and analyzed. It is important to
take reported IAQ problems seriously and
respond quickly:
• IAQ problems can be a serious health
threat and can cause acute discomfort
(irritation) or asthma attacks.
• Addressing an IAQ problem promptly is
good policy. Parents are sensitive to
unnecessary delays in resolving
problems that affect their children. Staff
have enough burdens without
experiencing frustration over unresolved
problems, and unaddressed problems
invariably lead to greater complaints.
• Diagnosing a problem is often easier
immediately after the complaint(s) has
been received. The source of the
problem may be intermittent and the
symptoms may come and go. Also, the
complainant's memory of events is best
immediately after the problem occurs.
In some cases, people may believe that
they are being adversely affected by the
indoor air, but the basis for their
perception may be some other form of
stressor not directly related to IAQ.
Section 6: "Solving IAQ problems,"
discusses some of these stressors such as
glare, noise, and stress.
IS THIS AN EMERGENCY?
The first decision that must be made in
dealing with an IAQ problem is whether
the problem requires an emergency
response, as shown in the diagram below.
Some IAQ incidents require immediate
response—for example, high carbon
monoxide levels or certain toxic
chemical spills will require evacuation
of all affected areas in the school, and
biological contaminants such as
Legionella may require a similar
response. In recent years, large
outbreaks of influenza have caused
entire schools and districts to cease
operation temporarily. Some schools
and districts may already have
established policies on what constitutes
a life and safety emergency. Local and
state health departments can also be
helpful in defining life- and safety-
threatening emergencies.
If this is an emergency situation, in
addition to immediate action to protect life
and health, it is vital that the school
administration, parents of students, and
Does Problem Threaten Life or Safety?
Notification and Communication (Section 3)
-------
For most IAQ issues,
schools can pull
together a team of
in-house staff to
solve and prevent
problems.
appropriate authorities be notified of
the situation in a carefully coordinated
manner. You must also be prepared to
deal quickly and properly with questions
from local media. Review the guidance in
Section 3: "Effective Communication,"
and in EPA's IAQ TfS Communications
Guide (EPA 402-K-02-008) to assist in
managing the issues of notification and
communication. The Guide is available
from NSCEP (800-490-9198) and EPA's
Web site.
WHO WILL SOLVE THE
PROBLEM?
For most IAQ issues, schools can pull
together a team of in-house staff with an
appropriate range of skills to resolve and
prevent problems. The IAQ Backgrounder
and checklists provide information on
typical IAQ problems found in schools.
On the other hand, unique or complex
IAQ problems may best be handled by
professionals who have specialized
knowledge, experience, and equipment.
Knowledge of your staff's capabilities will
help you decide whether to use in-house
personnel or hire outside professionals to
respond to a specific IAQ problem.
Regardless of whether it is in-house staff
or outside assistance that diagnoses and
resolves the problem, the IAQ
Coordinator remains responsible for
managing the problem-solving process
and for communicating with all
appropriate parties during the process. If
an IAQ Coordinator has not been
appointed already, please refer to Section
2: "Role and Functions of the IAQ
Coordinator," in the IAQ Coordinator's
Guide.
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Section 5 - Diagnosing IAQ Problems
lie goal of diagnosing an IAQ problem
is to identify the cause of the problem and
implement an appropriate solution. Often,
more than one problem can exist,
requiring more than one solution. For this
reason, EPA created the Problem Solving
Checklist (Appendix A: "IAQ
Coordinator's Forms" in the IAQ
Coordinator's Guide) and the IAQ
Problem Solving Wheel (a separate tab of
this Kit). For best results, it is also
important to have good background
knowledge of the basics of IAQ as
outlined in Sections 1 and 2.
The IAQ diagnostic process begins when a
complaint is registered or an IAQ problem
is discovered. Many problems can be
simple to diagnose, requiring a basic
knowledge of IAQ and some common
sense. If the cause (or causes) of the IAQ
problem has already been identified,
proceed to the solution phase outlined in
Section 6: "Solving IAQ problems."
Not all occupant complaints about IAQ
are caused by poor indoor air. Other
factors such as noise, lighting, and job-,
family-, or peer-related stress can—
individually and in combination—
contribute to a perception that IAQ is
poor.
HOW TO DIAGNOSE PROBLEMS
The Problem Solving Checklist and the
IAQ Problem Solving Wheel are your
primary tools for finding solutions to
problems. They will help simplify the
process and lead the investigation in the
right direction.
Start with the Problem Solving Checklist
and encourage school staff to answer
questions or perform activities posed by
the checklist and the wheel. Pollutant
sources and the ventilation system may
act in combination to create an IAQ
problem. Resolve as many problems as
possible and note any problems that you
intend to fix later.
Once you identify the likely cause of the
IAQ problem, or the solution is readily
apparent, refer to Section 6: "Solving
IAQ Problems," for potential courses of
action.
SPATIAL AND TIMING PATTERNS
As a first step, use the spatial pattern
(locations) of complaints to define the
complaint area. Focus on areas in the
school where symptoms or discomfort
have been reported. The complaint area
may need to be revised as the investigation
progresses. Pollutant pathways can cause
complaints in parts of the school that are
located far away from the source of the
problems. See the "Spatial Patterns of
Complaints" table on the next page.
After defining a location (or group of
locations), look for patterns in the timing
of complaints. The timing of symptoms
and complaints can indicate potential
causes and provide directions for further
investigation. Review the data for cyclic
patterns of symptoms (e.g., worst during
periods of minimum ventilation or when
specific sources are most active) that
may be related to the HVAC system or
to other activities affecting IAQ in or
near the school. See the "Timing Patterns
of Complaints" table on the next page.
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SPATIAL PATTERNS OF COMPLAINTS
SUGGESTIONS
Widespread, no apparent spatial pattern
Check ventilation and temperature control for entire building.
Check outdoor air quality.
Review sources that are spread throughout the building (e.g., cleaning
materials or microbiological growth inside the ventilation system).
Check for distribution of a source to multiple locations through the
ventilation system.
Localized (e.g., affecting individual
rooms, zones, or air handling systems)
Consider explanations other than air contaminants.
Check ventilation and temperature control within the complaint area.
Check outdoor air quality.
Review pollutant sources affecting the complaint area.
Check local HVAC system components that may be acting as sources
or distributors of pollutants.
Individual(s)
Check for drafts, radiant heat (gain or loss), and other localized
temperature control or ventilation problems near the affected
individual(s).
Consider that common background sources may affect only
susceptible individuals.
Consider the possibility that individual complaints may have different
causes that are not necessarily related to the building (particularly if
the symptoms differ among the individuals).
TIMING PATTERNS OF COMPLAINTS
SUGGESTIONS
Symptoms begin and/or are worst at the
start of the occupied period
Review HVAC operating cycles. Pollutants from building materials,
or from the HVAC system itself, may build up during unoccupied
periods.
Symptoms worsen over course of
occupied period
Consider that ventilation may not be adequate to handle routine
activities or equipment operation within the building, or that tem-
perature is not properly controlled.
Intermittent symptoms
Consider spills, other unrepeated events as sources.
Single event of symptoms
Look for daily, weekly, or seasonal cycles or weather-related patterns,
and check linkage to other events in and around the school.
Symptoms disappear when the individual(s)
leaves the school, either immediately, over-
night, or (in some cases) after extended
periods away from the building
Consider that the problem may be building-associated, though not
necessarily due to air quality. Other stressors (e.g., lighting, noise) may
be involved.
Symptoms never disappear, even after
extended absence from school (e.g.,
vacations)
Consider that the problem may not be building-related.
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Section 6 - Solving IAQ Problems
I [he purpose of this section is to provide
an understanding of basic principles in
solving IAQ problems. This guidance can
be helpful in selecting a mitigation
strategy and in evaluating the practicality
and effectiveness of proposals from
outside professionals or in-house staff.
DEVELOPING SOLUTIONS
The selection of a solution is based on the
data gathered during diagnostics (Section
5: "Diagnosing IAQ Problems"). The
diagnostics may have determined that the
problem was either a real or a perceived
IAQ problem, or a combination of
multiple problems. For each problem that
is identified, develop a solution using the
basic control strategies described below.
There are six basic control methods that
can lower concentrations of indoor air
pollutants. Often, only a slight shift in
emphasis or action using these control
methods is needed to control IAQ more
effectively. Specific applications of these
basic control strategies can be found in
each team member's checklist.
1. Source Management - Managing
pollutant sources, the most effective
control strategy, includes:
• Source removal - Eliminating or not
allowing pollutant sources to enter the
school. Examples include not allowing
buses to idle, especially not near
outdoor air intakes, not placing garbage
in rooms with HVAC equipment, and
replacing moldy materials.
• Source reduction - Improving
technology and/or materials to reduce
emissions. Examples include replacing
2-stroke lawn and garden equipment
with lower emitting options (e.g.,
manual or electrically powered or 4-
stroke); switching to low emissions
portable gasoline containers; and
implementing technology upgrades to
reduce emissions from school buses.
• Source substitution - Replacing
pollutant sources. Examples include
selecting less- or non-toxic art materials
or interior paints.
• Source encapsulation - Placing a
barrier around the source so that it
releases fewer pollutants into the indoor
air. Examples include covering pressed
wood cabinetry with sealed or
laminated surfaces or using plastic
sheeting when renovating to contain
contaminants.
2. Local Exhaust - Removing (exhausting
fume hoods and local exhaust fans to the
outside) point sources of indoor pollutants
before they disperse. Examples include
exhaust systems for restrooms and
kitchens, science labs, storage rooms,
printing and duplicating rooms, and
vocational/industrial areas (such as
welding booths and firing kilns).
3. Ventilation - Lowering pollutant
concentrations by diluting polluted
(indoor) air with cleaner (outdoor) air.
Local building codes likely specify the
quantity (and sometimes quality) of
outdoor air that must be continuously
supplied in your school. (If not, see
Section 2 of this Guide for ASHRAE
recommendations.) Temporarily increasing
ventilation as well as properly using the
exhaust system while painting or applying
pesticides, for example, can be useful in
diluting the concentration of noxious
fumes in the air.
4. Exposure Control - Adjusting the time
and location of pollutant exposure.
Location control involves moving the
pollutant source away from occupants or
even relocating susceptible occupants.
• Time of use - Avoid use of pollutant
sources when the school is occupied.
For example, strip and wax floors (with
the ventilation system functioning) on
Friday after school is dismissed. This
allows the floor products to off-gas over
the weekend, reducing the level of
If people are
provided with
information, they
can act to reduce
pollutant
exposure.
-------
pollutants in the air when the school is
reoccupied on Monday. Another
example is to mow around the building
and near play fields only before or after
school hours.
• Amount of use - Use air-polluting
sources as little as possible to minimize
contamination of the indoor air.
• Location of use - Move polluting
sources as far away as possible from
occupants or relocating susceptible
occupants.
5. Air Cleaning - Filtering particles and
gaseous contaminants as air passes
through ventilation equipment. This type
of system should be engineered on a case-
by-case basis.
6. Education - Teaching and training
school occupants about IAQ issues.
People in the school can reduce their
exposure to many pollutants by
understanding basic information about
their environment and knowing how to
prevent, remove, or control pollutants.
Some solutions, such as major ventilation
changes, may not be practical to
implement due to lack of resources or the
need for long periods of non-occupancy to
ensure the safety of the students and staff.
Use temporary measures to ensure good
IAQ in the meantime. Other solutions,
such as anti-idling programs, offer low-
cost options that can be easily and quickly
implemented.
SOLUTIONS FOR OTHER
COMPLAINTS
Specific lighting deficiencies or localized
sources of noise or vibration may be
easily identified. Remedial action may be
fairly straightforward, such as having
more or fewer lights, making adjustments
for glare, and relocating, replacing, or
acoustically insulating a noise or vibration
source.
In other cases, where problems may be
more subtle or solutions more complex,
such as psychogenic illnesses (originating
in the mind), enlist the services of a
qualified professional.
Remedial actions for lighting and noise
problems can range from modifications of
equipment or furnishings to renovation of
the building. Reducing stress for school
staff may involve new management
practices, job redesign, or resolution of
underlying labor-management problems.
EVALUATING SOLUTIONS
To help ensure a successful solution,
evaluate mitigation efforts at the planning
stage by considering the following criteria:
• Permanence;
• Durability;
• Operating principle;
• Installation and operating cost;
• Control capacity;
• Ability to institutionalize the solution;
and
• Conformity with codes.
Permanence. Mitigation efforts that create
permanent solutions to indoor air
problems are clearly superior to those that
provide temporary solutions, unless the
problems are also temporary. Opening
windows or running air handlers on full
outdoor air may be suitable mitigation
strategies for a temporary problem, such
as off-gassing of volatile compounds
from new furnishings, but they are not
acceptable permanent solutions because
of increased costs for energy and
maintenance. A permanent solution to
microbiological contamination involves
cleaning and disinfection as well as
moisture control to prevent regrowth.
Durability. IAQ solutions that are durable
are more attractive than approaches that
require frequent maintenance or
specialized skills. New items of equipment
should be quiet, energy-efficient, and
durable.
Operating Principle. The operating
principle of the IAQ solution needs to
make sense and be suited to the problem.
If a specific point source of contaminants
is identified, treatment at the source by
removal, sealing, or local exhaust is a
-------
more appropriate correction strategy than
diluting the contaminant with increased
ventilation. If the IAQ problem is caused
by outdoor air containing contaminants,
then increasing the outdoor air supply will
only worsen the situation, unless the
supply of outdoor air is cleaned.
Installation and Operating Costs. The
approach with the lowest initial cost
may not be the least expensive over the
long run. Long-term economic
considerations include energy costs for
equipment operation, increased staff
time for maintenance, differential cost
of alternative materials and supplies,
and higher hourly rates. Strong
consideration should be given to
purchasing ENERGY STAR qualified
products.
Control Capacity. It is important to select a
solution that fits the size and scope of the
problem. If odors from a special use area
such as a kitchen entering nearby
classrooms, increasing the ventilation rate
in the classrooms may not be successful. If
mechanical equipment is needed to correct
the IAQ problem, it must be powerful
enough to accomplish the task. For
example, a local exhaust system should be
strong enough and close enough to the
source so that none of the contaminant
moves into other portions of the building.
Ability to Institutionalize the Solution.
A solution will be most successful if it is
integrated into normal building operations.
To ensure success, solutions should not
require exotic equipment, unfamiliar
concepts, or delicately maintained
systems. If maintenance, housekeeping
procedures, or supplies must change as
part of the solution, it may be necessary to
provide additional training, new inspection
checklists, or modified purchasing
guidelines. Operating and maintenance
schedules for heating, cooling, and
ventilation equipment may also need
modification.
Conformity with Codes. Any modification
to building components or mechanical
systems should be designed and installed
in conformance with applicable fire,
electrical, and other building codes.
EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF YOUR SOLUTION
Two kinds of indicators can be used to
evaluate the success of correcting an
indoor air problem:
• Reduced complaints.
• Measurement of the properties of the
indoor air.
Although reduction or elimination of
complaints appears to be a clear
indication of success, it may not
necessarily be the case. Occupants who
feel their concerns are being heard may
temporarily stop reporting discomfort or
health symptoms, even if the actual cause
of their complaints has not been
corrected. On the other hand, lingering
complaints may continue after successful
mitigation if people are upset over the
handling of the problem. A smaller
number of ongoing complaints may
indicate that multiple IAQ problems exist
and have not been resolved.
Measurements of airflows, ventilation
rates, and air distribution patterns can be
used to assess the results of control
efforts. Airflow measurements taken
during the building investigation can
identify areas with poor ventilation; later
they can be used to evaluate attempts to
improve the ventilation rate, distribution,
or direction of flow. Studying air
distribution patterns will show whether a
mitigation strategy has successfully
prevented the transportation of a pollutant
by airflow. While in some cases
measuring pollutant levels can help
determine whether IAQ has improved, in
many cases this may be difficult and/or
cost prohibitive. Concentrations of indoor
air pollutants typically vary greatly over
time, and the specific contaminant
measured may not be causing the
problem. Measuring a specific pollutant
by a professional is appropriate if the
problem can be limited to that pollutant.
For further information on IAQ
measurements, see Appendix B: "Basic
Measurement Equipment."
A solution will be
most successful if it
is integrated into
normal building
operations.
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Ongoing complaints
may indicate that
multiple IAQ
problems have not
been resolved.
PERSISTENT PROBLEMS
Sometimes even the best-planned
investigations and mitigation actions will
not resolve the problem. You may have
carefully investigated the problem,
identified one or more causes, and
implemented a control system.
Nonetheless, your efforts may not have
noticeably reduced the concentration of
the contaminant or improved ventilation
rates or efficiency. Worse, the problem
may continue to persist.
If your efforts to control a problem are
unsuccessful, consider seeking outside
assistance. The problem could be fairly
complex, occur only intermittently, or
extend beyond traditional fields of
knowledge. It is possible that poor IAQ is
not the actual cause of the complaints.
Bringing in a new perspective at this point
can be very effective. Appendix A:
"Hiring Professional Assistance" provides
guidance on hiring professional IAQ
assistance.
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Hiring Professional Assistance
Jy ome indoor air quality (IAQ) problems
are simple to resolve when school
personnel understand the building
investigation process. Many potential
problems will be prevented if staff and
students do their part to maintain good
IAQ. However, a time may come when
outside assistance is needed. For example,
professional help might be necessary or
desirable in the following situations:
• If you suspect that you have a serious
building-related illness potentially
linked to biological contamination in
your building, mistakes or delays could
have serious consequences (such as
health hazards, liability exposure,
regulatory sanctions). Contact your
local or state Health Department.
• Testing for a public health hazard (such
as asbestos, lead, or radon) has
identified a problem that requires a
prompt response.
• The school administration believes that
an independent investigation would be
better received or more effectively
documented than an in-house
investigation.
• Investigation and mitigation efforts by
school staff have not relieved an IAQ
problem.
• Preliminary findings by staff suggest
the need for measurements that require
specialized equipment and skills that
are not available in-house.
HIRING PROFESSIONAL HELP
As you prepare to hire professional
services for a building investigation, be
aware that IAQ is a developing area of
knowledge. Most individuals working in
IAQ received their primary training in
other disciplines. It is important to define
the scope of work clearly and discuss any
potential consultant's proposed approach
to the investigation, including plans for
coordinating efforts among team
members. The school's representatives
must exercise vigilance in overseeing
diagnostic activities and corrective action.
Performance specifications can help to
ensure the desired results. Sample
performance specification language is
provided at the end of this appendix in
italicized font.
Other than for lead and asbestos
remediation, there are no Federal
regulations covering professional services
in the general field of indoor air quality,
although some disciplines (e.g., engineers,
industrial hygienists) whose practitioners
work with IAQ problems have licensing
and certification requirements. Individuals
and groups that offer services in this
evolving field should be questioned
closely about their related experience and
their proposed approach to your problem.
In addition, request and contact
references.
Local, state, or Federal government
agencies (e.g., education, health, or air
pollution agencies) may be able to provide
expert assistance or direction in solving
IAQ problems. If available government
agencies do not have personnel with the
appropriate skills to assist in solving your
IAQ problem, they may be able to direct
you to firms in your area with experience
in IAQ work. You may also be able to
locate potential consultants by looking in
the yellow pages (e.g., under "Engineers,"
"Environmental Services," "Laboratories -
Testing," or "Industrial Hygienists"), or by
asking other schools for referrals. Often, a
multi-disciplinary team of professionals is
needed to investigate and resolve an IAQ
problem. The skills of heating, ventilation,
and air-conditioning (HVAC) engineers
and industrial hygienists are typically
useful for this type of investigation. Input
from other disciplines such as chemistry,
architecture, microbiology, or medicine
may also be important.
If problems other than IAQ are involved,
experts in lighting, acoustic design,
interior design, psychology, or other fields
may be helpful in resolving occupant
complaints about the indoor environment.
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EVALUATING POTENTIAL
CONSULTANTS
As with any hiring process, the better you
know your own needs, the easier it will be
to select individuals or firms to service
those needs. The more clearly you can
define the project scope, the more likely
you are to achieve the desired result
without paying for unnecessary services.
An investigation strategy based on
evaluating building performance can be
used to solve a problem without
necessarily identifying a particular
chemical compound as the cause. The idea
of testing the air to learn whether it is
"safe" or "unsafe" is very appealing. Most
existing standards for airborne pollutants,
however, were developed for industrial
settings where most occupants are usually
healthy adult men. Some state regulations
call for the involvement of a professional
engineer for any modifications or
additions to a school HVAC system.
Whether or not this is legally mandated
for your school, the professional
engineer's knowledge of air handling,
conditioning, and sequencing strategies
will help to design ventilation system
modifications without creating other
problems. In many situations, proper
engineering can save energy while
improving IAQ. An example of this might
be the redesign of outside air-handling
strategies to improve the performance of
an economizer cycle.
The following guidelines may be helpful
in evaluating potential consultants:
1. Competent professionals will ask
questions about your situation to see
whether they can offer services that
will assist you.
The causes and potential remedies for
IAQ problems vary greatly. A firm
needs at least a preliminary
understanding of the facts about what
is going on in your building to
evaluate if it can offer the
professional skills necessary to
address your concerns and to make
effective use of its personnel from the
outset.
2. Consultants should be able to describe
how they expect to form and test
explanations for and solutions to the
problem.
Discuss the proposed approach to the
building investigation. It may involve
moving suspected contaminant
sources or manipulating HVAC
controls to simulate conditions at the
time of complaints or to test possible
corrective actions. Poorly designed
studies may lead to conclusions that
are either "false negative" (i.e., falsely
concluding that there is no problem)
or "false positive" (i.e., falsely
concluding that a specific condition
caused the complaint).
Some consultants may produce an
inventory of problems in the building
without determining which, if any, of
those problems caused the original
complaint. If investigators discover
IAQ problems unrelated to the
concern that prompted the evaluation,
those problems should be noted and
reported. It is important, however, that
the original complaint is resolved.
3. The decision to take IAQ measurements
should be approached with caution.
IAQ investigators often find a large
number of potential sources
contributing low levels of various
contaminants to the air. These findings
frequently raise more questions than
they answer. Before starting to take
measurements, investigators need a
clear understanding of how the results
will be used and interpreted. Without
this understanding, planning
appropriate sampling locations and
times, instrumentation, and analysis
procedures is impossible. Non-routine
measurements (such as relatively
expensive sampling for volatile organic
compounds (VOCs)) should not be
conducted without site-specific
justification. Concentrations that
comply with industrial occupational
standards are not necessarily protective
of children, or other school occupants.
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4. A qualified IAQ investigator should
have appropriate experience,
demonstrate a broad understanding of
IAQ problems and the conditions that
can lead to them (e.g., the relationship
between IAQ and the building structure,
mechanical systems, sources, and
human activities), and use a phased
diagnostic approach.
Have the firm identify the personnel
who would be responsible for your
case, their specific experience, and
related qualifications. Contract only
for the services of those individuals,
or require approval for substitutions.
When hiring an engineer, look for
someone with the equipment and
expertise to perform a ventilation
system assessment and with strong
field experience. Some engineers
rarely work outside the office.
5. In the proposal and the interview, a
prospective consultant should present
a clear, detailed picture of the
proposed services and work products,
including the following information:
• The basic goal(s), methodology,
and sequence of the investigation,
the information to be obtained, and
the process of hypothesis
development and testing, including
criteria for decision-making about
further data-gathering.
• Any elements of the work that will
require a time commitment from
school staff, including information
to be collected by the school.
• The schedule, cost, and work
product(s), such as a written report,
specifications, and plans for
mitigation work; supervision of
mitigation work; and training
program for school staff.
• Additional tasks (and costs) that
may be part of solving the IAQ
problem but are outside the scope
of the contract. Examples include:
medical examination of
complainants, laboratory fees, and
contractor's fees for mitigation
work.
• Communication between the IAQ
professional and the client: How
often will the contractor discuss the
progress of the work with the
school? Who will be notified of
test results and other data? Will
communications be in writing, by
telephone, or face-to-face? Will the
consultant meet with students and/
or school staff to collect
information? Will the consultant
meet with staff, parent
organizations, or others to discuss
findings, if requested to do so?
• References from clients who have
received comparable services.
IAQ-RELATED VENTILATION
MODIFICATIONS
The school's representatives need to
remember: Oversee the work and ask
questions that will help you ensure the
work is properly performed. Specialized
measurements of airflow or pre- and post-
mitigation contaminant concentrations
may be needed to know whether the
corrective action is effective.
Performance specifications can be used as
part of the contract package to establish
critical goals for system design and
operation. Performance specifications can
be used to force contractors to
demonstrate that they have met those
goals. At the same time, performance
specifications should avoid dictating
specific design features such as duct sizes
and locations, thus leaving HVAC system
designers free to apply their professional
expertise. You may be able to adapt
appropriate sections of the following
sample performance specifications for
your school.
Performance Specifications
• The control system shall be modified
and the ventilation system repaired and
adjusted as needed to provide outdoor
air ventilation during occupied hours.
The amount of outdoor air ventilation
shall meet ASHRAE Standard 62-2001
minimum recommendations or shall be
the maximum possible with the current
air-handling equipment, but in no case
shall the minimum outdoor air
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ventilation rate be less than the
ventilation guideline in effect at the
time the school was constructed.
When designing the ventilation system
modifications, it is important to ensure
that: 1) Increased outdoor air intake
rates do not negatively impact
occupant comfort; 2) heating coils do
not freeze; and 3) the cooling system
can handle the increased enthalpy
load. A load analysis shall be
performed to determine if the existing
heating (or cooling) plant has the
capacity to meet the loads imposed by
the restored or increased ventilation
rates.
If the existing plant cannot meet this
load or, if for some other reason, it is
decided not to use the existing heating
system to condition outdoor air, then a
heating (or cooling) plant shall be
designed for that purpose. The proposal
shall include a life-cycle cost analysis
of energy conservation options (e.g.,
economizer cooling, heat recovery
ventilation).
All screens in outdoor air intakes shall
be inspected for proper mesh size.
Screens with mesh size smaller than
1/2 inch are subject to clogging; if
present, they shall be removed and
replaced with larger-sized mesh (not so
large as to allow birds to enter).
Demonstrating System
Performance
• The proper operation of control
sequence and outdoor air damper
operation shall be verified by school
personnel or the school's agent after
ventilation system modifications and
repairs have been completed. This shall
include, but not be limited to:
observation of damper position for
differing settings of low limit stats and
room stats, measurement of air pressure
at room stats and outdoor air damper
actuators, direct measurement of air
flow through outdoor air intakes, and
direct measurement of air flows at
exhaust grilles. The contractor shall
provide a written report documenting:
1) Test procedures used to evaluate
ventilation system performance; 2) test
locations; 3) HVAC operating
conditions during testing; and 4)
findings.
Institutionalizing the Corrective
Action
• After the ventilation system
modifications are completed, school
facility operators shall be provided with
training and two copies of a manual
that documents the ventilation system
control strategy, operating parameters,
and maintenance requirements.
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Basic Measurement Equipment
UG prevent or resolve indoor air quality
(IAQ) problems effectively and efficiently,
you must be able to take four basic
measurements relating to the air within the
school. Your school or school district may
already own some or all of the equipment
necessary to make these measurements. If
not, buying or borrowing that equipment
is important to assess the IAQ conditions
in your school accurately and ensure that
the ventilation equipment is working
properly (which can save the school
money in heating and cooling bills), as
well as improve IAQ. Check with your
EPA regional office about equipment
availability (see Appendix L:
"Resources," for a complete list of EPA
regional offices).
Four measurements are important to the
activities in this Guide:
• Temperature.
• Relative humidity.
• Air movement.
• Airflow volume.
In addition, a carbon dioxide (CO2)
monitor is useful for indicating when
outdoor air ventilation may be inadequate
(see the Ventilation Checklist).
Sampling for pollutants is not
recommended, since results are difficult to
interpret and can require costly
measurement equipment as well as
significant training and experience. The
activities described in this Guide are likely
to prevent or uncover problems more
effectively than pollutant sampling. The
four measurements listed above are readily
available, do not require expensive
equipment or special training, and are
straightforward to interpret.
If your school's budget does not allow the
purchase of some or all of the equipment,
try a cooperative approach:
• Combine resources with other schools
in the district or neighboring schools.
• Contact school organizations and local
government to inquire about
cooperative purchasing options.
• Borrow equipment from another school,
district, a state or local government, or
an EPA regional office.
Do not let a lack of equipment prevent you
from conducting the recommended
activities. Conduct as many activities as
possible with the equipment you have
available. If you cannot obtain the recom-
mended equipment due to lack of re-
sources, prioritize your equipment
purchases as follows:
1. Temperature, relative humidity, and
chemical smoke device for indicating
air movement;
2. Airflow volume measuring devices; and
3. CO, monitor.
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Codes and Regulations
POLLUTANT-RELATED
REGULATIONS
The Federal government has a long
history of regulating outdoor air quality
and the concentrations of airborne
contaminants in industrial settings. In an
industrial environment, specific chemicals
released by industrial processes can be
present in high concentrations. It has been
possible to study the health effects of
industrial exposures and establish
regulations to limit those exposures.
Some states have established regulations
regarding specific pollutants in schools,
such as testing for radon and lead. Various
States have also established anti-idling
policies that establish maximum idling
times for school buses and other vehicles.
Indoor air quality (IAQ) in schools,
however, presents a different problem. A
large variety of chemicals used in
classrooms, offices, grounds maintenance,
and kitchen and cleaning applications
exist at levels that are almost always lower
than the concentrations found in industry.
The individual and combined effects of
these chemicals are very difficult to study,
and the people exposed may include
pregnant women, children, and others who
are more susceptible to health problems
than the adult typically present in
regulated industrial settings.
There is still much to learn about the
effects of both acute (short-term) and
chronic (long-term) exposure to low levels
of multiple indoor air contaminants. At
this time, there are few Federal
regulations for airborne contaminants in
non-industrial settings. The Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
is the Federal agency responsible for
workplace safety and health. In the past,
OSHA focused primarily on industrial
worksites, but most recently has
broadened its efforts to address other
worksite hazards. In spring 1994, OSHA
introduced a proposed rule regarding IAQ
in non-industrial environments, although
the proposal was withdrawn in December
2001. School employees may be able to
obtain advice (in the form of training and
information) from their state OSHA office
on how to reduce their exposure to
potential air contaminants. In states
without OSHA organizations, the regional
OSHA contact may be able to provide
information or assistance (see Appendix
L: "Resources").
VENTILATION-RELATED
REGULATIONS
Ventilation is the other major influence on
IAQ that is subject to regulation. The
Federal government does not regulate
ventilation in non-industrial settings.
However, many state and local
governments do regulate ventilation
system capacity through their building
codes. Building codes have been
developed to promote good construction
practices and prevent health and safety
hazards. Professional associations, such as
the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) and the National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA),
develop recommendations for appropriate
building and equipment design and
installation (e.g., ASHRAE Standard 62-
2001, "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor
Air Quality"). Those recommendations
acquire the force of law when adopted by
state or local regulatory bodies. There is
generally a time lag between the adoption
of new standards by consensus
organizations such as ASHRAE and the
incorporation of those new standards as
code requirements. Contact your local
code enforcement official, your State's
Education Department, or a consulting
engineer to learn about the code
requirements that apply to your school.
In general, building code requirements are
only enforceable during construction and
renovation. When code requirements
change over time (as code organizations
adapt to new information and
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technologies), buildings are usually not
required to modify their structure or
operation to conform to the new codes.
Indeed, many buildings do not operate in
conformance with current codes, or with
the codes they had to meet at the time of
construction. For example, the outdoor air
flows that ASHRAE's Standard 62
recommends for classrooms were reduced
from 30 cubic foot per minute (cfm)/
person to 10 cfm/person in the 1930s, and
reduced again to 5 cfm/person in 1973 in
response to higher heating fuel costs
resulting from the oil embargo. Concern
about IAQ stimulated reconsideration of
the standard, so that its most recent
version, Standard 62-2001, calls for a
minimum of 15 cfm/person in classrooms.
However, many schools that reduced
outdoor air flow during the energy crisis
continue to operate at ventilation rates of
5 cfm/person or less. This
underventilation is contrary to current
engineering recommendations, but, in
most jurisdictions, it is not against the
law.
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Asthma
halsthma has reached epidemic
proportions in the United States,
affecting millions of people of all ages
and races. Asthma is one of the leading
causes of school absenteeism, accounting
for more than 14 million missed school
days in 2001.
Asthma can occur at any age but is
more common in children than in adults.
According to the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC), asthma is
the third-ranking cause of hospitalization
for children 15 years of age and under.
Moreover, the asthma rate among children
ages 5 to 14 rose 74 percent between 1980
and 1994, making asthma the most
common chronic childhood disease.
WHAT IS ASTHMA?
Asthma is a chronic disease typically
characterized by inflammation of the
airways. During an asthma episode, the
airways in the lungs narrow, making
breathing difficult. Symptoms usually
include wheezing, shortness of breath,
tightness in the chest, and coughing.
Asthma attacks are often separated by
symptom-free periods. The frequency and
severity of asthma attacks can be reduced
by following a comprehensive asthma
management plan that incorporates
medical treatment and environmental
management of asthma. While scientists
do not fully understand the causes of
asthma, outdoor air pollution and
environmental contaminants commonly
found indoors are known to trigger asthma
attacks.
ASTHMA TRIGGERS
Because Americans spend up to 90 percent
of their time indoors, exposure to indoor
allergens and irritants may play a
significant role in triggering asthma
episodes. Some of the most common
environmental asthma triggers found
indoors include:
• Animal dander
• Cockroaches
• Mold
• Secondhand smoke
• Dust mites
• Diesel exhaust
Other asthma triggers include respiratory
infections, pollens (trees, grasses, weeds),
outdoor air pollution, food allergies,
exercise, and cold air exposure.
ANIMAL ALLERGENS
Any warm-blooded animal—including
gerbils, birds, cats, dogs, mice, and rats—
can cause alergic reactions or trigger
asthma attacks. Proteins may act as
allergens in the dander, urine, or saliva of
warm-blooded animals. The most common
source of animal allergens in schools is a
pet in the classroom. If an animal is
present in the school, direct exposure to
the animal's dander and bodily fluids is
possible. It is important to realize that,
even after extensive cleaning, pet allergen
levels may stay in the indoor environment
for several months after the animal is
removed.
Schools can minimize exposure to animal
allergens by:
• Seating sensitive students away from
pets or considering removing pets from
the classroom.
• Vacuuming the classroom frequently
and thoroughly.
• Cleaning cages and the surrounding
area regularly and positioning these
cages away from ventilation systems.
COCKROACHES
Cockroaches and other pests, such as rats
and mice, often exist in the school setting.
Allergens from pests may be significant
asthma triggers for students and staff in
schools. Certain proteins that act as
allergens in the waste products and saliva
of cockroaches can cause allergic
reactions or trigger asthma attacks in some
individuals. Pest problems in schools may
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be caused or worsened by a variety of
conditions such as plumbing leaks,
moisture problems, and improper food
handling and storage practices. It is
important to avoid exposure to these
allergens through the use of commonsense
approaches and integrated pest
management (IPM) practices throughout
the entire school.
Schools can minimize cockroach exposure
by:
• Removing or covering food or garbage
found in classrooms or kitchens.
• Storing food in airtight containers.
• Cleaning all food crumbs or spilled
liquids immediately.
• Fixing plumbing leaks and other
moisture problems.
• Using poison baits, boric acid (for
cockroaches), and traps before
applying pesticidal sprays.
• If pesticide sprays are used, the school
should:
- Notify staff, students, and parents
before spraying.
- Limit spraying to the infested area.
- Only spray when rooms are
unoccupied.
Ventilate the area well during and after
spraying.
MOLD AND MOISTURE
Molds can be found almost anywhere;
they can grow on virtually any substance
when moisture is present. Molds produce
tiny spores for reproduction that travel
through the air continually. When mold
spores land on a damp spot indoors, they
may begin growing and digesting
whatever they are growing on in order to
survive. Molds can grow on wood, paper,
carpet, and food. If excessive moisture or
water accumulates indoors, extensive
mold growth may occur, particularly if the
moisture problem remains undiscovered
or ignored. Eliminating all mold and mold
spores in the indoor environment is
impractical—the way to control indoor
mold growth is to control moisture.
When mold growth occurs in buildings,
reports of health-related symptoms from
some building occupants, particularly
those with allergies or respiratory
problems, may follow. Potential health
effects and symptoms associated with
mold exposures include allergic reactions,
asthma, and other respiratory complaints.
Schools can minimize mold and moisture
exposure by:
• Fixing plumbing leaks and other
unwanted sources of water.
• Ensuring that kitchen areas and locker
rooms are well ventilated.
• Maintaining low indoor humidity,
ideally between 30 and 60 percent. The
humidity level can be measured with a
hygrometer, available at local hardware
stores.
• Cleaning mold off hard surfaces with
water and detergent, then drying
completely.
• Replacing absorbent materials, such as
ceiling tiles and carpet, if they are
contaminated with mold.
SECONDHAND SMOKE
Secondhand smoke is the smoke from the
burning end of a cigarette, pipe, or cigar
or the smoke exhaled by a smoker.
Secondhand smoke exposure causes a
number of serious health effects in young
children, such as coughing, wheezing,
bronchitis, pneumonia, ear infections,
reduced lung function, and more severe
asthma attacks. Secondhand smoke is an
irritant that may trigger an asthma
episode, and increasing evidence suggests
that secondhand smoke may cause asthma
in pre-school aged children. EPA estimates
that between 200,000 and 1,000,000
children with asthma have exacerbated
asthma conditions caused by exposure to
secondhand smoke. Secondhand smoke
can also lead to buildup of fluid in the
middle ear—the most common reason for
operations in children.
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Most schools in the United States
prohibit smoking on school grounds.
However, smoking often occurs in
school bathrooms, in lounges, and near
school entrances. If smoking occurs
within the building, secondhand smoke
can travel through the ventilation
system to the entire school. Even when
people smoke outside, secondhand
smoke may enter the school through the
ventilation system, windows, and doors.
Schools can minimize exposure to
secondhand smoke by implementing
and enforcing nonsmoking policies,
particularly indoors and near school
entrances.
DUST MITES
Dust mites are too small to be seen, but
they are found in homes, schools, and
other buildings throughout the United
States. Dust mites live in mattresses,
pillows, carpets, fabric-covered
furniture, bedcovers, clothes, and
stuffed toys. Their primary food source
is dead skin flakes. Dust mite allergens
may cause an allergic reaction or trigger
an asthma episode. In addition, there is
evidence that dust mites may cause
asthma.
Schools can minimize dust mite
exposure by:
• Vacuuming carpet and fabric-covered
furniture regularly. Use vacuums with
high-efficiency filters or central
vacuums, if possible.
• Removing dust from hard surfaces
with a damp cloth and sweep floors
frequently.
• Purchasing washable stuffed toys,
washing them often in hot water, and
drying them thoroughly.
Combining steps for reducing
environmental triggers with other
proactive measures—relocating areas
where vehicles (e.g., buses and delivery
trucks) idle away from air intakes,
ensuring sufficient ventilation in
classrooms and offices, eliminating the
use of air fresheners, choosing building
materials with minimal formaldehyde
content, and purchasing environmentally
preferable cleaning products—can help
schools reduce student and staff exposure
to asthma triggers.
For additional information on asthma and
asthma triggers, refer to Appendix E:
"Typical Indoor Air Pollutants" and
Appendix L: "Resources."
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Outdoor Air Pollution
Exposure to outdoor air pollution, such as diesel exhaust, ozone, and particulate matter,
can trigger an asthma episode or exacerbate asthma symptoms. There are simple actions
that schools can take to minimize student and staff exposure to outdoor air pollutants.
DIESEL EXHAUST
Exposure to diesel exhaust from school buses and other diesel vehicles can exacerbate
asthma symptoms. Diesel engines emit soot, also known as particulate matter (PM), as
well as ozone-forming nitrogen oxides and other toxic air pollutants. PM and ozone (a
primary ingredient of smog) are thought to trigger asthma symptoms and lung inflam-
mation, resulting in reduced lung function, greater use of asthma medication, increased
school absences, and more frequent visits to the emergency room and hospital. Diesel
PM is also associated with more severe allergies and respiratory disease. In recent
studies, outdoor ozone, or smog, has been associated with more frequent diagnoses of
new asthma cases in children.
Schools can take simple steps to reduce exposure to diesel exhaust pollutants:
• Do not allow school buses or other vehicles such as delivery trucks to idle on school
grounds and discourage carousing.
• Encourage your school bus fleet manager to implement district-wide anti-idling
policies and practices.
• Work with your school bus fleet manager to replace the oldest buses and to reduce
emissions from newer buses by retrofitting them with emission control technology
and/or by switching to cleaner fuels.
• For more information, visit www.epa.gov/cleanschoolbus or call 734-214-4780.
OZONE AND PARTICULATE MATTER
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a tool to provide the public with clear and timely
information on local air quality and whether air pollution levels pose a health concern.
The AQI is reported and forecasted every day in many areas throughout the United
States on local weather reports and through national media. Asthma episodes are most
likely to occur the day after outdoor pollution levels are high.
Schools can take simple steps to ensure the health and comfort of students when the AQI
reports unhealthy levels:
• Limit physical exertion outdoors.
• Consider changing the time of day of strenuous outdoor activity to avoid the period
when air pollution levels are high or consider postponing sports activities to another
time.
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Typical Indoor Air Pollutants
Blhe following four pages present
information about several indoor air
pollutants common to schools, in a format
that allows for easy comparison. The
pollutants presented include:
• Biological contaminants (mold, dust
mites, pet dander, pollen, etc.)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Dust
• Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) or
secondhand smoke
• Fine particulate matter (PM)
• Lead(Pb)
• Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2)
• Pesticides
• Radon (Rn)
• Other volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) (formaldehyde, solvents,
cleaning agents)
Each pollutant is described or analyzed
across five categories:
• Description
• Sources
• Standards and guidelines for indoor air
quality
• Health effects
• Control measures
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Indoor Air Pollutant
Description
Sources
Biological contaminants
Common biological contaminants include mold,
dust mites, pet dander (skin flakes), droppings
and body parts from cockroaches, rodents and
other pests or insects, viruses, and bacteria.
Many of these biological contaminants are small
enough to be inhaled.
Biological contaminants are, or are produced by,
living things. Biological contaminants are often
found in areas that provide food and moisture.
Damp or wet areas such as cooling coils,
humidifiers, condensate pans, or unvented
bathrooms can be moldy. Draperies, bedding,
carpet, and other areas where dust collects may
accumulate biological contaminants.
Carbon dioxide (C02)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless
product of carbon combustion.
Human metabolic processes and all combustion
processes of carbon fuels, like those in cars,
buses, trucks, etc., are sources of CO2. Exhaled
air is usually the largest source of CO2 in
classrooms.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless
gas. It results from incomplete oxidation of
carbon in combustion processes.
Common sources of CO in schools are
improperly vented furnaces, malfunctioning gas
ranges, or exhaust fumes that have been drawn
back into the building. Worn or poorly adjusted
and maintained combustion devices (e.g., boilers,
furnaces), or a flue that is improperly sized,
blocked, disconnected, or leaking, can be
significant sources. Auto, truck, or bus exhaust
from attached garages, nearby roads, or idling
vehicles in parking areas can also be sources.
Dust
Dust is made up of particles in the air that settle
on surfaces. Large particles settle quickly and
can be eliminated or greatly reduced by the
body's natural defense mechanisms. Small
particles are more likely to be airborne and are
capable of passing through the body's defenses
and entering the lungs.
Many sources can produce dust including: soil,
fleecy surfaces, pollen, lead-based paint, and
burning of wood, oil, or coal.
Environmental tobacco smoke
(ETS), or secondhand smoke
Tobacco smoke consists of solid particles, liquid
droplets, vapors, and gases resulting from tobacco
combustion. Over 4,000 specific chemicals have
been identified in the particulate and associated
gases.
Tobacco product combustion
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Standards or Guidelines
Health Effects
Control Measures
There are currently no Federal government
standards for biologicals in school indoor air
environments.
Mold, dust mites, pet dander, and pest droppings
or body parts can trigger asthma. Biological
contaminants, including molds and pollens can
cause allergic reactions for a significant portion
of the population. Tuberculosis, measles,
Staphylococcus infections, Legionella and
influenza are known to be transmitted by air.
General good housekeeping and maintenance of
heating and air conditioning equipment are very
important. Adequate ventilation and good air
distribution also help. The key to mold control is
moisture control. If mold is a problem, get rid of
excess water or moisture and clean up the mold.
Maintaining the relative humidity between 30
and 60 percent will help control mold, dust
mites, and cockroaches. Employ integrated pest
management (IPM) to control insect and animal
allergens. Cooling tower treatment procedures
exist to reduce levels of Legionella and other
organisms.
ASHRAE Standard 62-2001 recommends 700
ppm above the outdoor concentration as the
upper limit for occupied classrooms (usually
around 1,000 ppm).
CO2 is an asphyxiate. At concentrations above
1.5 percent (15,000 ppm) some loss of mental
acuity has been noted. (The recommended
ASHRAE standard of 700 ppm above the
outdoor concentration is to prevent body odor
levels from being offensive.)
Ventilation with sufficient outdoor air controls
CO2 levels. Reduce vehicle and lawn and
garden equipment idling and/or usage.
The OSHA standard for workers is no more than
50 ppm for 1 hour of exposure. NIOSH
recommends no more than 35 ppm for 1 hour.
The U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards
for CO are 9 ppm for 8 hours and 35 ppm for 1
hour. The Consumer Product Safety Commission
recommends levels not to exceed 15 ppm for 1
hour or 25 ppm for 8 hours.
CO is an asphyxiate. An accumulation of this gas
may result in a variety of symptoms deriving
from the compound's affinity for and
combination with hemoglobin, forming
carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) and disrupting
oxygen transport. Tissues with the highest
oxygen needs—myocardium, brain, and
exercising muscle—are the first affected.
Symptoms may mimic influenza and include
fatigue, headache, dizziness, nausea and
vomiting, cognitive impairment, and tachycardia.
At high concentrations CO exposure can be
FATAL.
Combustion equipment must be maintained to
assure that there are no blockages and air and
fuel mixtures must be properly adjusted to ensure
more complete combustion. Vehicular use should
be carefully managed adjacent to buildings and
in vocational programs. Additional ventilation can
be used as a temporary measure when high levels
of CO are expected for short periods of time.
The EPA Ambient Air Quality standard for
particles less than 10 microns is 50 |ig/m3 per
hour for an annual average and 150 ng/m3 for a
24-hour average.
Health effects vary depending upon the
characteristics of the dust and any associated
toxic materials. Dust particles may contain lead,
pesticide residues, radon, or other toxic
materials. Other particles may be irritants or
carcinogens (e.g., asbestos).
Keep dust to a minimum with good
housekeeping. Consider damp dusting and high-
efficiency vacuum cleaners. Upgrade filters in
ventilation systems to medium efficiency when
possible and change frequently. Exhaust
combustion appliances to the outside and clean
and maintain flues and chimneys. When
construction or remodeling is underway, special
precautions should be used to separate work
areas from occupied areas.
Many office buildings and areas of public
assembly have banned smoking indoors or
required specially designated smoking areas with
dedicated ventilation systems be available. The
"Pro-Children Act of 1994" prohibits smoking in
Head Start facilities and in kindergarten,
elementary, and secondary schools that receive
Federal funding from the Department of
Education, the Department of Agriculture, or the
Department of Health and Human Services
(except Medicare or Medicaid).
The effects of tobacco smoke on smokers include
rhinitis/pharyngitis, nasal congestion, persistent
cough, conjunctiva! irritation, headache,
wheezing, and exacerbation of chronic respiratory
conditions. Secondhand smoke has been
classified as a "Group A" carcinogen by EPA and
has multiple health effects on children. It has also
been associated with the onset of asthma,
increased severity of or difficulty in controlling
asthma, frequent upper respiratory infections,
persistent middle-ear effusion, snoring, repeated
pneumonia, and bronchitis.
Smoke outside away from air intakes. Smoke
only in rooms that are properly ventilated and
exhausted to the outdoors.
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Indoor Air Pollutant
Description
Sources
Fine Particulate Matter (PM2t
Fine participate matter (PM25), or soot, is a
component of diesel exhaust, and is less than
2.5 microns in diameter; in comparison, the
average human hair is about 100 microns
thick. It may consist as a tiny solid or liquid
droplet containing a variety of compounds.
The main source of PM25 is diesel engines in
trucks, buses, and nonroad vehicles (e.g.,
marine, construction, agricultural, and
locomotive). Diesel engines emit large
quantities of harmful pollutants annually.
Lead (Pb)
Lead is a highly toxic metal.
Sources of lead include drinking water, food,
contaminated soil and dust, and air. Lead-based
paint is a common source of lead dust.
Nitrogen oxides (NO, N02)
The two most prevalent oxides of nitrogen are
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO).
Both are toxic gases, and NO2 is a highly
reactive oxidant and corrosive.
The primary sources indoors are combustion
processes, such as unvented combustion
appliances (e.g., gas stoves, vented appliances
with defective installations, welding, and
tobacco smoke). Outdoor sources, such as
vehicles and lawn and garden equipment, also
contribute to nitrogen oxide levels.
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Standards or Guidelines
Health Effects
Control Measures
There are currently no Federal government
standards for PM2 5 in school indoor air
environments. EPA's National Ambient Air
Quality Standards list 15 ng/m3 as the annual
limit and 65 ng/m3 as the 24-hour limit for
PM0, in outdoor air.
Particulate matter is associated with a variety of
serious health effects, including lung disease,
asthma, and other respiratory problems. In
general, children are especially sensitive to air
pollution because they breathe 50 percent more
air per pound of body weight than adults. Fine
particulate matter, or PM2 5, poses the greatest
health risk, because it can pass through the nose
and throat and become lodged in the lungs.
These particles can aggravate existing
respiratory conditions, such as asthma and
bronchitis, and they have been directly
associated with increased hospital admissions
and emergency room visits for heart and lung
disease, decreased lung function, and premature
death. Short-term exposure may cause
shortness of breath, eye and lung irritation,
nausea, light-headedness, and possible allergy
aggravations.
Effective technologies to reduce PM2 5 include
particulate filters and catalysts that can be
installed on buses. An easy, no-cost, and
effective way to control fine particulate matter
is to minimize idling by buses, trucks, and
other vehicles.
In 1978, the Consumer Product Safety
Commission banned lead in paint.
Lead can cause serious damage to the brain,
kidneys, nervous system, and red blood cells.
Children are particularly vulnerable. Lead
exposure in children can result in delays in
physical development, lower IQ levels, shorter
attention spans, and an increase in behavioral
problems.
Preventive measures to reduce lead exposure in
buildings painted before 1978 include: Cleaning
play areas; frequently mopping floors and wiping
window ledges and other smooth flat areas with
damp cloths; keeping children away from areas
where paint is chipped, peeling, or chalking;
preventing children from chewing on window sills
and other painted areas; and ensuring that toys are
cleaned frequently and hands are washed before
meals.
No standards have been agreed upon for nitrogen
oxides in indoor air. ASHRAE and the U.S. EPA
National Ambient Air Quality Standards list 0.053
ppm as the average 24-hour limit for NO2 in
outdoor air.
NO2 acts mainly as an irritant affecting the
mucosa of the eyes, nose, throat, and respiratory
tract. Extremely high-dose exposure (as in a
building fire) to NO2 may result in pulmonary
edema and diffuse lung injury. Continued
exposure to high NO2 levels can contribute to the
development of acute or chronic bronchitis.
Low-level NO2 exposure may cause increased
bronchial reactivity in some asthmatics,
decreased lung function in patients with chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, and increased
risk of respiratory infections, especially in young
children.
Venting the NO2 sources to the outdoors and
assuring that combustion appliances are correctly
installed, used, and maintained are the most
effective measures to reduce exposures. Develop
anti-idling procedures for all vehicles and
nonroad engines (cars, buses, trucks, lawn and
garden equipment, etc.).
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Secondhand Smoke
scondhand smoke, also known as
environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), is a
mixture of the smoke given off by the
burning end of a cigarette, pipe, or cigar,
and the smoke exhaled from the lungs of
smokers. This mixture contains more than
4,000 substances, more than 40 of which
are known to cause cancer in humans or
animals and many of which are strong
irritants. Exposure to secondhand smoke
is called involuntary smoking or passive
smoking.
EPA has classified secondhand smoke as a
known cause of cancer in humans (Group
A carcinogen). Passive smoking causes an
estimated 3,000 lung cancer deaths in
nonsmokers each year. It also causes
irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and
lungs. ETS-induced irritation of the lungs
leads to excess phlegm, coughing, chest
discomfort, and reduced lung function.
Secondhand smoke may also affect the
cardiovascular system, and some studies
have linked exposure to it with the onset
of chest pain.
SECONDHAND SMOKE EFFECTS ON
CHILDREN
Secondhand smoke is a serious health risk
to children. Children whose parents smoke
are among the most seriously affected by
exposure to secondhand smoke, being at
increased risk of lower respiratory tract
infections such as pneumonia and
bronchitis. EPA estimates that passive
smoking is responsible for between
150,000 and 300,000 lower respiratory
tract infections in infants and children
under 18 months of age annually, resulting
in 7,500 to 15,000 hospitalizations per
year.
Children exposed to secondhand smoke
are also more likely to have reduced lung
function and symptoms of respiratory
irritation like coughing, excess phlegm,
and wheezing. Passive smoking can lead
to a buildup of fluid in the middle ear, the
most common cause of hospitalization of
children for an operation.
Asthmatic children are especially at risk.
EPA estimates that exposure to
secondhand smoke increases the number
of episodes and severity of symptoms in
between 200,000 and 1,000,000 asthmatic
children. Passive smoking is also a risk
factor for the development of asthma in
thousands of children each year.
RECOMMENDATIONS
EPA recommends that every organization
dealing with children have a smoking
policy that effectively protects children
from exposure to secondhand smoke.
Parent-teacher associations, school board
members, and school administrators
should work together to make school
environments smoke-free. Key features of
smoking education programs include
multiple sessions over many grades, social
and physiological consequences of
tobacco use, information about social
influences (peers, parents, and media), and
training in refusal skills. School-based
non-smoking policies are important
because the school environment should be
free from secondhand smoke for health
reasons and because teachers and staff are
role models for children.
LEGISLATION
In general, the Federal government does
not have regulatory authority over indoor
air or secondhand smoke policies at the
state or local level. Restricting smoking in
public places is primarily a state and local
issue, and is typically addressed in clean
indoor air laws enacted by states, counties,
and municipalities. However, the "Pro-
Children Act of 1994" prohibits smoking
in Head Start facilities and in
kindergarten, elementary, and secondary
schools that receive Federal funding from
the Department of Education, the
Department of Agriculture, or the
Department of Health and Human
Services (except funding from Medicare
or Medicaid). The Act was signed into law
as part of the "Goals 2000: Educate
America Act."
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What follows are excerpts from the Act,
which took effect December 26, 1994.
PRO-CHILDREN ACT OF 1994
Following are excerpts from Public Law
103-227, March 31, 1994.
SECTION 1042. DEFINITIONS.
(1) CHILDREN. The term "children"
means individuals who have not attained
the age of 18.
(2) CHILDREN'S SERVICES. The term
"children's services" means the provision
on a routine or regular basis of health, day
care, education, or library services—
(A) That are funded, after the date of
the enactment of this Act, directly by the
Federal government or through state or
local governments, by Federal grant, loan,
loan guarantee, or contract programs—
(i) Administered by either the
Secretary of Health and Human Services
or the Secretary of Education (other than
services provided and funded solely under
titles XVIII and XIX of the Social
Security Act); or
(ii) Administered by the
Secretary of Agriculture in case of a
clinic; or
(B) That are provided in indoor
facilities that are constructed, operated, or
maintained with such Federal funds, as
determined by the appropriate Secretary in
any enforcement action under this title,
except that nothing in clause (ii) of
subparagraph (A) is intended to include
facilities (other than clinics) where
coupons are redeemed under the Child
Nutrition Act of 1966.
(3) PERSON. The term "person" means
any state or local subdivision thereof,
agency of such state or subdivision,
corporation, or partnership that owns or
operates or otherwise controls and
provides children's services or any
individual who owns or operates or
otherwise controls and provides such
services.
SEC. 1043. NONSMOKING POLICY
FOR CHILDREN'S SERVICES.
(a) PROHIBITION. After the date of the
enactment of this Act, no person shall
permit smoking within any indoor facility
owned or leased or contracted for and
utilized by such person for provision of
routine or regular kindergarten,
elementary, or secondary education or
library services to children.
(b) ADDITIONAL PROHIBITION. After
the date of the enactment of this Act, no
person shall permit smoking within any
indoor facility (or portion thereof) owned
or leased or contracted for and utilized by
such person of regular or routine health
care or day care or early childhood
development (Head Start) services to
children or for the use of the employees of
such person who provides such services.
(c) FEDERAL AGENCIES.
(1) KINDERGARTEN,
ELEMENTARY, OR SECONDARY
EDUCATION, OR LIBRARY SERVICES.
After the date of the enactment of this Act,
no Federal agency shall permit smoking
within any indoor facility in the United
States operated by such agency, directly or
by contract, to provide routine or regular
kindergarten, elementary, or secondary
education or library services to children.
(e) SPECIAL WAIVER.
(1) IN GENERAL. On receipt of an
application, the head of the Federal agency
may grant a special waiver to a person
described in subsection (a) who employs
individuals who are members of a labor
organization and provide children's
services pursuant to a collective
bargaining agreement that—
(A) Took effect before the date of
enactment of this Act; and
(B) Includes provisions relating
to smoking privileges that are in violation
of the requirements of this section.
(2) TERMINATION OF WAIVER.
A special waiver granted under this
subsection shall terminate on the earlier
of—
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(A) The first expiration date
(after the date of enactment of this Act) of
the collective bargaining agreement
containing the provisions relating to
smoking privileges; or
(B) The date that is 1 year after
the date of the enactment of this Act.
(f) CIVIL PENALTIES.
(1) IN GENERAL. Any failure to
comply with a prohibition in this section
shall be a violation of this section and
any person subject to such prohibition
who commits such violation, or may be
subject to an administrative compliance
order, or both, as determined by the
Secretary. Each day a violation
continues shall constitute a separate
violation.
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Radon
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
EPA and other major national and
international scientific organizations have
concluded that radon is a human
carcinogen and a serious public health
risk. An individual's risk of developing
lung cancer from radon increases with the
level of radon, the duration of exposure,
and the individual's smoking habits. EPA
estimates that 7,000 to 30,000 lung cancer
deaths in the United States each year are
attributed to radon.
Because many people spend much of their
time at home, the home is likely to be the
most significant source of radon exposure.
For most school children and staff, the
second largest contributor to their radon
exposure is likely to be their school. As a
result, EPA recommends that homes and
school buildings be tested for radon.
RESULTS FROM A NATIONAL
SURVEY OF RADON LEVELS
IN SCHOOLS
A nationwide survey of radon levels in
schools estimates that 19.3 percent of U.S.
schools, nearly one in five, have at least
one frequently occupied ground-contact
room with short-term radon levels at or
above the action level of 4 pCi/L
(picocuries per liter)—the level at which
EPA recommends mitigation.
Approximately 73 percent of these schools
will have only five or fewer schoolrooms
with radon levels above the action level.
The other 27 percent will have six or more
such schoolrooms. If your building has a
radon problem, it is unlikely that every
room in your school will have an elevated
radon level. However, testing all
frequently occupied rooms that have
contact with the ground is necessary to
identify schoolrooms with elevated radon
levels.
GUIDANCE FOR RADON TESTING
EPA's document, Radon Measurement in
Schools - Revised Edition (EPA 402-R-92-
014), provides guidance on planning,
implementing, and evaluating a radon
testing program for a school.
To assist schools with testing, helpful
aids, such as a checklist of the testing
procedure, are included in the document.
Before initiating radon testing in your
school however, contact your state Radon
Office (see Appendix L: "Resources")
for information on any state requirements
concerning radon testing or for a copy
of the document. Check
www.epa.gov/iaq/schools for documents
on radon in schools.
To reduce the health risk associated with
radon, EPA recommends that officials test
every school for elevated radon levels.
Because the entry and movement of radon
in buildings is difficult to predict, officials
should test all frequently occupied
schoolrooms that are in contact with the
ground. If testing identifies schoolrooms
with radon levels of 4 pCi/L or greater,
officials should reduce the radon levels
using an appropriate mitigation strategy.
GUIDANCE FOR RADON
MITIGATION
If you identify a radon problem in your
school, EPA developed guidance on radon
mitigation entitled Reducing Radon in
Schools -A Team Approach (EPA 402-R-
94-008) that describes the recommended
approach to radon mitigation in schools
and provides an overview of the mitigation
process to the IAQ Coordinator.
For a free copy, please call NSCEP at
1-800-490-9198 or contact your state
Radon Office (see Appendix L:
"Resources").
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GUIDANCE FOR RADON
PREVENTION IN RENOVATIONS AND
NEW BUILDINGS
EPA's document entitled Radon
Prevention in Design and Construction of
Schools and Other Large Buildings (EPA
625R-92-016) provides guidance for
incorporating radon resistant and/or easy-
to-mitigate features into the design of a
new school building including design
recommendations for heating, ventilation,
and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems.
This guidance is useful to school
personnel (e.g., school business officials)
and architects involved with the new
school construction.
For a free copy, contact 1-800-490-9198.
TRAINING FOR TESTING AND
MITIGATION
To develop public and private sector
capabilities for radon testing and
mitigation, EPA formed four Regional
Radon Training Centers (see Appendix L:
"Resources"). These training centers offer
courses on testing and mitigation in
school buildings designed to simulate
hands-on activities by having participants
solve practical problems. Contact your
state Radon Office (see Appendix L:
"Resources") for information on local
training opportunities or state training
requirements.
TESTING AND MITIGATION COSTS
Cost for radon testing in a typical school
building ranges from $500 to $1,500.
Costs for testing depend on the type of
measurement device used, the size of the
school, and whether testing is performed
in-house using school personnel or a
measurement contractor.
If a radon problem is identified, the cost
for radon mitigation typically ranges from
$3,000 to $30,000 per school. The cost of
mitigating a school depends on the
mitigation strategy, the school building
design, the radon concentration in the
school room(s), and the number of school
rooms affected. The appropriate mitigation
strategy will consider the school building
design and initial levels of radon.
Mitigation costs at the high end of the
cost range are often associated with a
mitigation strategy involving the
renovation of school HVAC systems.
Although the cost is higher, this strategy
has the added benefit of improving
ventilation within a school building,
which contributes to the overall
improvement of IAQ.
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Mold and Moisture
Jolds can be found almost anywhere;
they can grow on virtually any substance,
providing moisture is present. Molds can
grow on and within wood, paper, carpet,
and foods. When excessive moisture
accumulates in buildings or on building
materials, mold growth will often occur,
particularly if the moisture problem
remains undiscovered or unaddressed.
There is no practical way to eliminate all
mold and mold spores in the indoor
environment; the key to control indoor
mold growth is to control moisture. If
mold is discovered, clean it up
immediately and remove excess water or
moisture. In addition, maintaining the
relative humidity between 30 and 60
percent will help control mold.
Molds produce tiny spores to reproduce.
Mold spores waft through indoor and
outdoor air continually. When mold spores
land on a damp spot indoors, they may
begin growing and digesting whatever
they are growing on to survive.
There are many different kinds of mold.
Molds can produce allergens, toxins, and
irritants. Molds can cause discoloration
and odor problems, deteriorate building
materials, and lead to health problems—
such as asthma episodes and allergic
reactions—in susceptible individuals.
CONDENSATION, RELATIVE
HUMIDITY, AND VAPOR
PRESSURE
Mold growth does not require the
presence of standing water, leaks, or
floods; mold can grow when the relative
humidity of the air is high. Mold can also
grow in damp areas such as unvented
bathrooms and kitchens, crawl spaces,
ducts, utility tunnels, gyms, locker rooms,
wet foundations, leaky roof areas, and
damp basements. Relative humidity and
the factors that govern it are often
misunderstood. This section discusses
relative humidity and describes common
moisture problems and their solutions.
Water enters buildings both as a liquid and
as a gas (water vapor). Water is introduced
intentionally in bathrooms, gym areas,
kitchens, and art and utility areas, and
accidentally by way of leaks and spills.
Some of the water evaporates and joins the
water vapor that is exhaled by building
occupants. Water vapor also moves into
the building through the ventilation
system, through openings in the building
shell, or directly through building
materials.
The ability of air to hold water vapor
decreases as the air temperature falls. If a
unit of air contains half of the water vapor
it can hold, it is said to be at 50 percent
relative humidity (RH) or greater. The RH
increases as the air cools and approaches
saturation. When air contains all of the
water vapor it can hold, it is at 100 percent
RH or greater, and the water vapor
condenses, changing from a gas to a
liquid. The temperature at which
condensation occurs is the "dew point."
Reaching 100 percent RH without
changing the air temperature is possible by
increasing the amount of water vapor in
the air (the "absolute humidity" or "vapor
pressure"). It is also possible to reach 100
percent RH without changing the amount
of water vapor in the air, by lowering the
air temperature to the "dew point."
The highest RH in a room is always next
to the coldest surface. This is referred to
as the "first condensing surface," as it will
be the location where condensation
happens first, if the relative humidity of
the air next to the surface reaches 100
percent. Understanding this is important
when trying to understand why mold is
growing on one patch of wall or only
along the wall-ceiling joint. The surface of
the wall is likely to be cooler than the
room air because of a gap in the insulation
or because the wind is blowing through
cracks in the exterior of the building.
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TAKING STEPS TO REDUCE
MOISTURE AND MOLD
Respond to water damage within 24-48
hours to prevent mold growth, which
depends on moisture.
Mold growth can be reduced if relative
humidities near surfaces can be
maintained below the dew point. This can
be done by: 1) reducing the moisture
content (vapor pressure) of the air; 2)
increasing air movement at the surface; or
3) increasing the air temperature (either
the general space temperature or the
temperature at building surfaces).
Either vapor pressure or surface
temperature can be the dominant factor in
a mold problem. A vapor pressure-
dominated mold problem may not respond
well to increasing temperatures, whereas a
surface temperature-dominated mold
problem may not respond very well to
increasing ventilation. Understanding
which factor dominates will help in
selecting an effective control strategy.
If the relative humidity near the middle of
a room is fairly high (e.g., 50 percent at
70° F), mold or mildew problems in the
room are likely to be vapor pressure
dominated. If the relative humidity near
the middle of a room is fairly low (e.g., 30
percent at 70° F), mold or mildew
problems in the room are likely to be
surface temperature dominated.
VAPOR PRESSURE-DOMINATED
MOLD GROWTH
Vapor pressure-dominated mold growth
can be reduced by using one or more of
the following strategies:
• Use source control (e.g., direct venting
of moisture-generating activities such
as showers to the exterior).
• Dilute moisture-laden indoor air with
outdoor air at a lower absolute humidity.
• Dehumidify the indoor air.
Note that dilution is only useful as a
control strategy during heating periods,
when cold outdoor air contains little total
moisture. During cooling periods, outdoor
air often contains as much moisture as
indoor air.
Consider a school locker room that has
mold on the ceiling. The locker room
exhaust fan is broken, and the relative
humidity in the room is 60 percent at 70°
F. This is an example of a vapor pressure-
dominated mold problem. In this case,
increasing the surface temperature is
probably not an effective way to correct
the mold problem. A better strategy is to
repair or replace the exhaust fan.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE-
DOMINATED MOLD GROWTH
Surface temperature-dominated mold
growth can be reduced by increasing the
surface temperature using one or more of
the following approaches:
• Raise the temperature of the air near
room surfaces.
• Raise the thermostat setting.
• Improve air circulation so that supply
air is more effective at heating the room
surfaces.
• Decrease the heat loss from room
surfaces.
• Add insulation.
• Close cracks in the exterior wall to
prevent "wind washing" (air that enters
a wall at one exterior location and exits
another exterior location without
penetrating into the building).
Consider an old, leaky, poorly insulated
school that has mold and mildew in the
coldest corners of one classroom. The
indoor relative humidity is low (30
percent). It is winter and cold air cannot
hold much water vapor. Therefore, outdoor
air entering through leaks in the building
lowers the airborne moisture levels
indoors. This is an example of a surface
temperature-dominated mold problem. In
this building, increasing the outdoor air
ventilation rate is probably not an effective
way to control interior mold and mildew.
A better strategy would be to increase
surface temperatures by insulating the
exterior walls, thereby reducing relative
humidity in the corners.
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MOLD CLEAN UP
Because moisture is the key to mold
control, it is essential to clean up the mold
and get rid of excess water or moisture. If
the excess water or moisture problem is
not fixed, mold will most probably grow
again, even if the area was completely
cleaned. Clean hard surfaces with water
and detergent and dry quickly and
completely. Absorbent materials such as
ceiling tiles may have to be discarded.
Note that mold can cause health effects
such as allergic reactions; remediators
should avoid exposing themselves and
others to mold. Wear waterproof gloves
during clean up; do not touch mold or
moldy items with bare hands. Respiratory
protection should be used in most
remediation situations to prevent
inhalation exposure to mold. Respiratory
protection may not be necessary for small
remediation jobs with little exposure
potential. Refer to Appendix L:
"Resources," for more information on
mold remediation. When in doubt consult
a professional, experienced remediator.
IDENTIFYING AND
CORRECTING COMMON MOLD AND
MOISTURE PROBLEMS
Exterior Corners and Walls
The interior surfaces of exterior corners
and behind furnishings such as chalk
boards, file cabinets, and desks next to
outside walls are common locations for
mold growth in heating climates. They
tend to be closer to the outdoor
temperature than other parts of the
building surface for one or more of the
following reasons:
• Poor indoor air circulation
• Wind washing
• Low insulation levels
• Greater surface area of heat loss
Sometimes mold growth can be reduced
by removing obstructions to airflow (e.g.,
rearranging furniture). Buildings with
forced air heating systems and/or room
ceiling fans tend to have fewer mold
problems than buildings with less air
movement.
SET-BACK THERMOSTATS
Set-back thermostats (programmable
thermostats) are commonly used to reduce
energy consumption during the heating
season. Mold growth can occur when
temperatures are lowered in buildings with
high relative humidity. (Maintaining a
room at too low a temperature can have
the same effect as a set-back thermostat.)
Mold can often be controlled in colder
climates by increasing interior
temperatures during heating periods.
Unfortunately, this also increases energy
consumption and reduces relative
humidity in the breathing zone, which can
create discomfort.
AIR-CONDITIONED SPACES
Mold problems can be as extensive in
cooling climates as they are in heating
climates. The same principles apply: either
surfaces are too cold, moisture levels are
too high, or both.
One common example of mold growth in
cooling climates can be found in rooms
where conditioned "cold" air blows
against the interior surface of an exterior
wall. This condition, which may be due to
poor duct design, diffuser location, or
diffuser performance, creates a cold spot
at the interior finish surfaces, possibly
allowing moisture to condense.
Possible solutions for this problem
include:
• Eliminate the cold spots (i.e., elevate
the temperature of the surface) by
adjusting the diffusers or deflecting the
air away from the condensing surface.
• Increase the room temperature to avoid
overcooling. NOTE: During the cooling
season, increasing temperature
decreases energy consumption, though
it could cause comfort problems.
Mold problems can also occur within the
wall cavity, when outdoor air comes in
contact with the cavity side of the cooled
interior surface. It is a particular problem
in rooms decorated with low maintenance
interior finishes (e.g., impermeable wall
covering such as vinyl wallpaper), which
can trap moisture between the finish and
the gypsum board. Mold growth can be
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Mold and
Health Effects
Molds are a major
source of indoor
allergens. Molds
can also trigger
asthma. Even
when dead or
unable to grow,
mold can cause
health effects such
as allergic reac-
tions. The types
and severity of
health effects
associated with
exposure to mold
depend, in part, on
the type of mold
present, and the
extent of the
occupants' expo-
sure and existing
sensitivities or
allergies. Prompt
and effective
remediation of
moisture problems
is essential to
minimize potential
mold exposures
and their potential
health effects.
rampant when these interior finishes are
coupled with cold spots and exterior
moisture.
A possible solution for this problem is to
ensure that vapor barriers, facing sealants,
and insulation are properly specified,
installed, and maintained.
THERMAL BRIDGES
Localized cooling of surfaces commonly
occurs as a result of "thermal bridges,"
elements of the building structure that are
highly conductive of heat (e.g., steel studs
in exterior frame walls, uninsulated
window lintels, and the edges of concrete
floor slabs). Dust particles sometimes
mark the locations of thermal bridges
because dust tends to adhere to cold spots.
The use of insulating sheathings
significantly reduces the impact of
thermal bridges in building envelopes.
WINDOW
In winter, windows are typically the
coldest surfaces in a room. The interior
surface of a window is often the first
condensing surface in a room.
Condensation on window surfaces has
historically been controlled by using storm
windows or "insulated glass" (e.g.,
double-glazed windows or selective
surface gas-filled windows) to raise
interior surface temperatures. In older
building enclosures with less advanced
glazing systems, visible condensation on
the windows often alerted occupants to the
need for ventilation to flush out interior
moisture, so they knew to open the
windows.
The advent of higher performance glazing
systems has led to a greater number of
moisture problems in heating climate
building enclosures because the buildings
can now be operated at higher interior
vapor pressures (moisture levels) without
visible surface condensation on windows.
CONCEALED CONDENSATION
The use of thermal insulation in wall
cavities increases interior surface
temperatures in heating climates, reducing
the likelihood of interior surface mold and
condensation. The use of thermal
insulation without a properly installed
vapor barrier, however, may increase
moisture condensation within the wall
cavity.
The first condensing surface in a wall
cavity in a heating climate is typically the
inner surface of the exterior sheathing.
Concealed condensation can be controlled
by any or all of the following strategies:
• Reducing the entry of moisture into the
wall cavities (e.g., by controlling entry
and/or exit of moisture-laden air with a
continuous vapor barrier).
• Raising the temperature of the first
condensing surface.
• In heating-climate locations: Installing
exterior insulation (assuming that no
significant wind washing is occurring).
• In cooling-climate locations: Installing
insulating sheathing to the interior of
the wall framing and between the wall
framing and the interior gypsum board.
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Emissions from Motor Vehicles
and Equipment
[•Emissions from gas or diesel-powered
engines are a source of pollution for
school grounds and buildings. Exhaust
emissions come from mobile sources such
as school buses, cars, delivery trucks, and
motorcycles, gasoline or diesel vehicles,
engines, and equipment used for
construction and grounds maintenance.
"Mobile sources" is a term used to
describe a wide variety of motor vehicles,
engines, and equipment that generate air
pollution and that move, or can be moved,
from place to place.
MOBILE SOURCES AT SCHOOL
Some mobile sources at your school may
include:
• School buses
• Cars
• Delivery trucks
• Portable fuel containers
• Mowers, snowblowers, trimmers, and
other equipment used for grounds
maintenance
Special situations involving motor
vehicles or equipment off school property
may also contribute to the deterioration of
the overall air quality near schools. These
might include, for example, truck loading
docks or construction sites.
MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS
Mobile sources pollute the air through fuel
combustion and fuel evaporation. These
emissions contribute to air pollution
nationwide and are the primary cause of
air pollution in many areas. Mobile
sources emit several significant air
pollutants that affect human health and the
environment, including carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and
particulate matter. See Appendix E:
"Typical Indoor Air Pollutants," for more
information about these pollutants.
In addition, mobile sources produce air
toxins (e.g., acetaldehyde, acrolein,
benzene, 1,3-butadiene, diesel exhaust,
and formaldehyde), which are pollutants
known or suspected to cause cancer or
other serious health or environmental
effects. Mobile sources are responsible for
about half the air toxin emissions and risk
nationwide.
Fine particulate matter (PM2 5) in diesel
exhaust creates further health concerns.
Recent studies suggest that children on or
near school buses may be exposed to
elevated levels of diesel exhaust. Children
are especially susceptible to advance
respiratory effects of PM25 because it can
penetrate children's narrower airways,
reaching deep within the lungs where it is
likely to be retained, and because children
have higher rates of respiration per unit of
their body weight than adults.
AIR QUALITY ISSUES
Mobile source air pollutants can
contribute to air quality issues at schools.
With sufficient concentrations and
duration, these pollutants may increase the
chance of cancer or other serious health
effects, such as asthma.
• Studies indicate that students can be
exposed to high levels of diesel exhaust
when they are inside school buses, near
idling school buses, and even inside
schools (due to exhaust penetration
from idling buses). Queuing of buses
for pick-up and drop-off and periods of
idling during the bus commute itself
may be particular problems. Diesel
exhaust can aggravate respiratory and
cardiovascular disease and existing
asthma. It can also cause acute
respiratory symptoms, chronic
bronchitis, and decreased lung function.
• Outdoor emissions can infiltrate
through windows and air intakes,
resulting in student and staff exposure
to pollutants and toxics.
• Chemicals and gasoline stored in
school buildings can contribute to
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indoor air quality concerns, and
equipment usage can result in exposure
to air pollutants and toxics.
• Students, staff, and vehicles sometimes
congregate in the same place at the
same time, which increases their
exposure.
REDUCING EMISSIONS
Successful reduction of vehicle and
equipment emission involves a variety of
approaches, some of which are no- or low-
cost options. Those concerned about
improving air quality in and around school
can choose from options ranging from
better vehicle technology and better transit
options to cleaner fuels.
Schools can help reduce air pollution from
mobile sources in a number of different
ways. A comprehensive program might
include bus retrofits and replacement, anti-
idling policies, reduced power equipment
usage, environmentally friendly
transportation choices, and equipment
replacement. Some other smart actions
that reduce emissions include adopting
driving practices that save gas and improve
mileage, maintaining vehicles on a regular
basis, and using cleaner fuels.
ANTI-IDLING
Policies to minimize idling offer a smart,
effective, and immediate way to reduce
emissions at little or no cost. In fact,
reduced idling will save money in most
cases because idling wastes fuel. The
easiest way to reduce vehicle idling
emissions is to "Just turn it off!" Today's
bus engines generally require only three to
five minutes of warm-up time, even in
cold weather. The problem of diesel fuel
gelling in cold weather has been resolved
by the creation of winter blends of fuel and
fuel additives that better withstand colder
temperatures.
Contrary to popular belief, idling actually
does more damage to an engine than
starting and stopping. Idling causes
additional wear on an engine's internal
parts and, therefore, can increase
maintenance costs and shorten the life of
the engine.
Several States and local communities have
already implemented anti-idling laws.
These programs can reduce pollution,
odor, and noise, and save schools money
by reducing engine wear and fuel
consumption. Finally, anti-idling
information is easy to incorporate into
existing training and communications
opportunities. See Appendix B:
"Developing Indoor Air Policies" in the
IAQ Coordinator's Guide for sample anti-
idling policies and a sample memo to bus
drivers.
TRANSPORTATION CHOICES
Alternative transportation choices can also
be beneficial for reducing emissions. For
instance, "school-pooling" programs
encourage carpools, bike partners, or
"walking school buses" that reduce the
number of vehicles on school grounds.
Public transit buses may also be an
appropriate option for some students or
staff.
OTHER MOBILE SOURCES ON
SCHOOL GROUNDS
Since cars and trucks are not the only
mobile sources on school grounds,
attention should also be paid to lawn and
garden equipment for reducing emissions.
The two main ways to reduce emissions
from such equipment are to replace
existing equipment with cleaner options
(e.g., manual, electric, or new 4-stroke,
gasoline engines) and to reduce usage.
EPA adopted more stringent standards for
gasoline-powered equipment, such as
lawnmowers and string trimmers, which
will lower hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide
emissions. Schools can reduce harmful
emissions by ensuring their grounds
maintenance equipment meets current
standards. Like school bus retrofits and
replacements, alternate equipment choices
will be specific to your school's situation.
While manual and electric equipment are
most beneficial because they do not
produce emissions, these options are not
always practical for large grounds.
Portable gasoline containers are another
source of emissions on school grounds.
Due to evaporation of gasoline, these cans
pollute even when they are not being used,
and especially when they are stored in a
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warm place. New, low-emission gasoline
cans are designed for easy use and have a
thicker lining in order to reduce fuel
evaporation. They meet specified
standards to minimize air pollution,
including automatic closure, automatic
shut-off, only one opening, and limited
permeation. Many portable containers
available nationwide meet all but the
permeation standard. In addition, they are
inexpensive (approximately $10), making
them cost-effective solutions for reducing
exposure to evaporated fuel.
Finally, proper maintenance and storage
help decrease exposure to emissions from
lawn and garden equipment. For example,
lawn and garden equipment should be
maintained regularly according to
manufacturer guidelines to prevent
problems that decrease efficiency and
increase emissions. Keeping equipment
tuned and in good condition is inexpensive
and beneficial for minimizing emissions.
In addition, fuels, chemicals, and
equipment should be stored appropriately
in a well-ventilated, cool, and dry space.
For extended periods of storage (e.g.,
wintertime), gasoline should be emptied
from equipment and containers or a
stabilizer should be added to decrease
evaporation.
BENEFICIAL OR ENVIRONMENTALLY
FRIENDLY LANDSCAPING
Beneficial landscaping refers to a suite of
landscaping practices that yield
environmental, economic, and aesthetic
benefits. These environmentally friendly
practices include planting native species
and low-maintenance turf grasses,
reducing lawn area, strategic use of trees,
integrated pest management (see
Appendix K: "Integrated Pest
Management"), and optimizing water
efficiency. Ultimately, beneficial
landscaping produces a healthier
environment and reduces air, water, and
soil pollution by minimizing emissions
from power equipment, chemicals,
fertilizer, and water.
In addition, beneficial landscaping is
effective on any size of land. Emission
reductions from beneficial landscaping
alone can result in nearly 100 pounds less
of smog-forming hydrocarbons and 10
pounds less of nitrogen oxide emissions
per year per acre of lawn converted to
natural landscaping due to reduced
mowing. Hence, even small converted
areas can contribute to notable reductions
in emissions.
Grass can be replaced with trees, shrubs,
native wildflowers, and other native plants
that do not require mowing and are
already adapted to local conditions. Trees,
shrubs, and native plants absorb water
more efficiently than lawns and therefore
minimize runoff and erosion. They can
also decrease the amount of time you
spend on weeding and watering and
reduce the need for fertilizers and
pesticides.
Beneficial landscaping can result in
reduced building heating and cooling
costs. For example, planting deciduous
trees on the south side of a building
provides shade, reducing heat absorbed by
the building during the summer. This
practice can decrease air conditioning
costs by up to 20 percent. In the winter,
deciduous trees lose their leaves, allowing
the winter sun to warm the building.
Planting conifers on the northwest side of
a building helps to block northwest winds,
reducing heating costs. Finally, planting
trellis vines on the bare walls of buildings
helps to keep these walls cooler by
absorbing the sunlight. Planting trees
around parking lots helps shade paved
areas and further reduce sun-heating
effects.
Finally, schools should use outdoor water
efficiently by laying mulch in appropriate
areas and installing efficient irrigation
systems.
WHAT ARE GOOD PRACTICES TO USE
IN AREAS WHERE MAINTAINING
LAWNS IS NECESSARY?
Where lawns are necessary on school
grounds, such as on play areas or sports
fields, the following practices are best
suited for reducing environmental impacts:
• Plant low-maintenance turf grasses that
grow slowly and require less mowing.
• Leave grass clippings on lawns. This
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Ways to Reduce
Emissions from
Mobile sources
• Diesel vehicle
replacement
and retrofit
• Idling policy and
training
• "School-
pooling" and
transportation
choices
• Environmentally
friendly
landscaping
• Low-emission
gas cans
• "Best Practices"
for equipment
maintenance
and storage
Cleanest
Equipment
Choices
Manually powered:
Reel mowers,
rakes, clippers,
shovels
Electric/battery-
powered:
Walk-behind
mowers,
shredders, edgers,
tillers, hedge
trimmers, hand-
held leaf blowers
4-stroke gasoline
engines:
Available in almost
all new lawn and
garden equipment
practice decreases the need for
fertilizers and the amount of municipal
solid waste entering landfills.
• Keep grass well maintained. Only one-
third of the grass blade should be cut
off at one time, and no more than one
inch should be cut at one time.
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS?
Many advantages are associated with
beneficial landscaping. Beneficial
landscaping can be incorporated into
science and environmental education. It
creates hands-on learning experiences for
students, while encouraging them to learn
about natural habitats and take an interest
in their surroundings.
Beneficial landscaping helps create a
safer environment by reducing student and
staff exposure to harmful emissions. It
leads to fewer emissions from fossil fuel
consumed during mowing, less fertilizer
use, and lower landscape maintenance labor
and costs. Beneficial landscaping can also
help decrease heating and cooling bills,
reduce noise pollution (due to less
mowing), conserve water, reduce flooding
and stormwater management costs, and
decrease the strain on municipal waste
collection and water treatment plants. In
addition, it can lead to cleaner water bodies
for fishing, swimming, and drinking due to
reduced chemical use and erosion.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
For more information about mobile
sources on school grounds, please visit
the EPA Clean School Bus USA Initiative
at www.epa.gov/cleanschoolbus. Clean
School Bus USA provides information
and resources to school districts on how to
reduce pollution from school buses
through retrofit, replacement, and anti-
idling programs.
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Portable Classrooms
jore than 385,000 portable classrooms,
or relocatables, are used in approximately
36 percent of school districts across the
nation, according to the National Center
for Education Statistics (NCES). Portable
classrooms are attractive to many school
districts because they provide a quick and
relatively inexpensive way to deal with
unpredictable school enrollment numbers,
limited building construction funds, and
the time lag between identification of
need and the construction of new
facilities. While portable classrooms are
intended to provide flexibility to school
districts, in reality, portable classrooms
are seldom moved and often become
permanent fixtures of the school.
Recent surges in student population fueled
an explosion in the use of portable
classrooms in many parts of the country.
Health-related concerns associated with
portable classrooms have arisen. Teachers
in the new units frequently complain of
chemical odors. In older units, odor
problems are often associated with moldy
classroom carpets. Both new and older
units are often subject to complaints about
poor ventilation and indoor air quality
(IAQ).
INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND
PORTABLE CLASSROOMS
All school buildings use similar
construction and furnishing materials, so
the types of chemicals present in the
indoor air are not likely to be different for
portable versus permanent classrooms.
However, pressed-wood products, which
may contain higher concentrations of
formaldehyde, are used more frequently in
factory-built portable units than in
buildings constructed on-site. As a result,
concentrations of some airborne chemicals
may be higher in new portable classrooms,
especially if ventilation is reduced.
The most common problems with portable
classrooms include:
• Poorly functioning ventilation systems
that provide inadequate quantities of
outside air;
• Poor acoustics due to loud heating and
cooling systems;
• Chemical off-gassing from pressed
wood and other high-emission
materials, which may be of greater
concern because of rapid occupancy
and poor ventilation after construction;
• Water entry and mold growth; and
• Site pollution from nearby parking lots
or loading areas.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SCHOOLS
USING PORTABLES
Although portable classrooms are often
the lowest cost option for housing
students, they range in quality. Care
should be taken during specification and
selection to ensure that the health of the
students is not compromised on
inexpensive, low quality designs. When
districts specify a portable design, they
typically create a term contract that other
districts can use to purchase the same (or
slightly different) design. This practice
(often called "piggy-backing") can save a
district valuable time and money on
specifications and approvals, but it can
also compound poor decisions made by
the original procurement.
Like all school facilities, portable
classrooms should contain appropriate
building materials and properly designed
ventilation systems to minimize the
presence of indoor air pollutants.
Commissioning and regular maintenance
are also important to maintain the quality
of the indoor environment.
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The following steps can help schools
maintain a healthy indoor environment in
their portable classrooms:
Specifying New Portable
Classrooms
• Specify the appropriate vapor barrier
location for exterior wall construction,
consistent with the climate where the
classroom will be used.
• When specifying a new portable
classroom, ensure that the heating,
ventilation, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system can: (a) provide a
minimum of 450 cfm of outside air
(based on 30 occupants at 15 cfm/
occupant); and
(b) heat and cool this outdoor air at
design outdoor air temperatures for the
specific geographic location where
each classroom is installed.
• Order an additional "outdoor air kit"
since manufacturers do not include
outdoor air intakes in their standard
classroom models. Outdoor air intakes
should not be located under portable
units; these areas are typically not well
ventilated and are prone to moisture,
biological contaminants, and other
pollutants.
• Outdoor air should be supplied
continuously when a classroom is
occupied. In order to provide a
continuous outdoor air supply, it is
important to ensure that the HVAC
thermostat fan switch is set in the "on"
or continuous mode when occupied.
• Air filters are needed for protection of
HVAC components and reduction of
airborne dust, pollens, and micro-
organisms from recirculated and
outdoor air streams. Air filters should
have a spot rating between 35 and 80
percent or a Minimum Efficiency
Rating Value (MERV) of between
8 and 13.
• If carpets are specified, use carpets that
have been tested under the Carpet and
Rug Institute's Green Label Carpet
Testing Program. Do not use carpet in
entryways to classrooms with direct
outdoor access. Supply waterproof
mats and walk-off mats over carpeted
entryways and other areas used for
drying clothing and umbrellas.
• Locate classroom away from areas
where vehicles idle or water
accumulates after rains.
• Ensure that at least one supply air
register and return air grille are located
in each enclosed area. Also, make sure
that building air intakes are located
away from any exhaust outlet(s) or
other contaminant sources.
• Specify operable windows to provide
user-controlled ventilation when
needed.
• Locate HVAC and air handler units as
far away as possible from teaching
areas to reduce noise.
• Specify minimal use of VOC emitting
building materials.
• Install an awning over the portable's
entrance to help prevent rain and snow
from blowing directly into classrooms.
• Specify complete documentation of
operation and maintenance
requirements.
Commissioning
• Prior to occupany of any new portable
units, operate HVAC systems at their
maximum outdoor air intake rate
continuously for several days. Start the
"flush out" as soon as the HVAC
system is operational, and continue
after furniture installation. During this
period, do not re-circulate return air. In
humid climates, avoid introducing
significant amounts of moisture during
the flush out.
• Measure the amount of outdoor air
entering the outdoor air intake of the
HVAC unit to ensure it meets or
exceeds the amount specified or 15 cfm
per person, whichever is greater.
• Do not "bake out" the unit. "Bake out"
is defined as increasing temperatures
up to 100°F in order to "artificially
age" building materials. Its
effectiveness has not been proven and it
may in fact damage parts of the HVAC
system or building components.
• Establish and implement an Integrated
Pest Management plan.
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Operations and Maintenance
• Provide training on operation and
maintenance of new HVAC equipment
for appropriate staff. Instruct teachers
and staff on proper use and settings of
thermostat and ventilation controls.
• Train teachers how to minimize
potential toxic emissions from the
decorations and cleaning materials used
in their classrooms. Develop and
implement a "list of things to do before
starting the class," including ensuring
that the ventilation system is operating
at least one hour before the class starts
and watching for rust spots, wet spots,
and other signs of deterioration of
infrastructure. Teachers should also be
educated about the potential risks of
turning off HVAC systems.
• Establish a regular and timely plan for
testing, inspecting, and performing
specific maintenance tasks: Inspect
roofs, ceilings, walls, floor, and carpet
for evidence of water leakage (e.g.,
stains), and for mold growth or odor.
Replace water-damaged materials
promptly and fix leaks as soon as
possible.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
For more information about portable
classrooms and recommendations for
designing, constructing, and renovating
school facilities to maintain good IAQ,
please visit EPA's IAQ Design Tools for
Schools Web site at www.epa.gov/iaq/
schooldesign/.
National Clearinghouse for Educational
Facilities Portable Classrooms/Modular
Construction Resource List available at
www.edfacilities.org/rl/portable.cfm.
California Advisory on Relocatable and
Renovated Classrooms available at
www.cal-iaq.org/ADVISORY.pdf.
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Integrated Pest Management
ntegrated Pest Management (IPM) is a
comprehensive approach to eliminating
and preventing pest problems with an
emphasis on reducing pest habitat and
food sources. IPM is a safer and usually
less costly option for effective pest
management in the school community. A
well-designed integrated pest management
program is both effective and
environmentally sensitive. IPM relies on a
combination of (1) low-impact pesticides;
(2) comprehensive information about
pests; (3) available and economical pest
control methods; and (4) safety
considerations for people, property, and
the environment.
Pests seek habitats that provide basic
needs—air, moisture, food, and shelter.
Pest populations can be eliminated,
prevented, or controlled by:
• Creating inhospitable pest
environments;
• Removing basic elements that pests
need for survival; or
• Blocking pest access into buildings.
Pests may also be managed by other
methods such as traps and vacuums.
MANAGING PESTS IN SCHOOLS
Common pests found in schools (or on
school grounds) include flies,
cockroaches, yellow jackets, ants, spiders,
mice, and termites.
Although they can help control pests,
pesticides need to be used carefully.
Children may be more sensitive to
pesticides than adults. In particular, young
children may be particularly susceptible as
they can encounter pesticides while
crawling, exploring, or through hand-to-
mouth activities.
Public concern about health and
environmental risks associated with
pesticides and other chemicals is
increasing, particularly when children are
involved. School administrators and
others responsible for decisions about
school-based pest control need to be aware
of these risks and knowledgeable about
safe alternatives.
There are many safe IPM practices for
schools:
• Keep vegetation, shrubs, and wood
mulch at least one foot away from
structures.
• Fill cracks and crevices in walls, floors,
and pavement.
• Empty and clean lockers and desks at
least twice a year.
• Clean food-contaminated dishes,
utensils, and surfaces right away.
• Clean garbage cans and dumpsters at
least bimonthly.
• Collect and properly dispose of litter or
garbage at least once a week.
• Identify the problem or pest before
taking action.
• Apply smaller amounts of fertilizers
several times during the year (spring,
summer, and fall, for example) rather
than one heavy application.
• Use spot applications or pesticides (if
necessary) rather than area-wide
applications.
• Store pesticides in well-ventilated
buildings that are inaccessible to
undesignated personnel or located
offsite.
• Lock lids of bait boxes and place bait
away from the runway of the box.
ESTABLISH AN IPM PROGRAM FOR
YOUR SCHOOL
An efficient IPM program can and should
be integrated with other school
management activities, such as preventive
maintenance, janitorial practices,
landscaping, occupant education, and staff
training.
-------
To establish an IPM program in your
school:
Step 1: Develop an official IPM Policy
Statement. In addition to showing the
district's support for an integrated
approach to pest management, the
statement should outline methods to
educate and train staff, store pesticides,
notify parents and school occupants of
pesticide applications, and keep accurate
records. This policy statement can also act
as a guide for the IPM manager while
developing an IPM program.
Step 2: Designate specific roles for pest
management personnel, school occupants,
and key decision-makers. For example,
encourage occupants to keep their areas
clean, encourage parents to learn about
IPM practices and follow them at home,
designate a qualified person to be the pest
manager, and gain the support decision-
makers who control the funds for IPM
projects. Establish methods for good
communication among these groups of
people, and educate or train them in their
respective roles.
Step 3: Set specific pest management
objectives for each site. Tailor each
objective to the site and situation.
Examples of objectives for school
buildings may include preserving the
integrity of building structures or
preventing interference with the learning
environment of the students. Providing
safe playing areas and best possible
athletic surfaces are sample objectives for
school grounds.
Step 4: Inspect site(s) to identify and
estimate the extent of pest problems. After
identifying potential pest habitats in
buildings and on school grounds, develop
plans to modify the habitats (for example,
exclusion, repair, and sanitation).
Establish a monitoring program that
involves routine inspections to track the
success of the habitat modifications and
to estimate the size of the pest population.
Step 5: Set thresholds for taking action.
These thresholds are the levels of pest
populations or site environmental
conditions that require remedial action. It
is important to consider sensitive
individuals when setting thresholds.
Step 6: Apply IPM strategies to control
pests when you reach an action threshold
or to prevent pest problems. These
strategies may include redesigning and
repairing structures, establishing watering
and mowing practices, and storing
pesticides in well ventilated areas. Refer to
the 7PM Checklist for a list of possible
strategies for indoor and outdoor sites as
well as information on safe pesticide use
and storage.
Step 7: Evaluate the results of your IPM
practices to determine if pest management
objectives are being met. Keep written
records of all aspects of the program,
including records for state and local
regulations.
EVALUATING THE COSTS
IPM programs may actually cost less in
the long-term than a conventional pest
control program that relies solely on the
use of pesticides. Although the long-term
labor costs for IPM may be higher than
those for conventional pesticide
treatments, the labor costs are often offset
by reduced expenditures for materials.
Whether an IPM program raises or lowers
costs depends in part on the nature of the
current housekeeping, maintenance, and
pest management operations. The costs of
implementing an IPM program also
depend on whether the pest management
services are contracted, performed in-
house, or a combination of both. To fit the
IPM program into the existing budgetary
framework, school administrators must
consider what additional and redistributed
expenditures are involved. As with any
program, insufficient resources will
jeopardize the success of an IPM program.
SUMMARY
IPM provides schools with an economical,
environmentally friendly alternative to
control and prevent pest problems.
Schools should tailor IPM programs to
meet their specific needs and set
appropriate objectives and thresholds to
help them implement a successful pest
management program.
For additional information on IPM, see
Appendix L: "Resources."
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Resources
appendix lists organizations with information or services related to indoor air quality
(IAQ). In addition, the appendix includes a section on lAQ-related publications. Following is
a list of the subsections contained in this appendix.
Federal Agencies with Major Indoor Air
Responsibilities for Public and Commercial Buildings 60
EPA Regional Offices 60
Other Federal Agencies 61
State and Local Agencies 62
Professional and Standards Setting Organizations 62
Product Manufacturer Associations 63
Building Service Associations 64
Unions 65
Environmental/Health/Consumer Organizations 65
Multiple Chemical Sensitivity-Related Organizations 66
Organizations Offering Training on Indoor Air Quality 66
Radon 66
Other EPA Contacts and Programs of Interest 67
Publications 68
General Information 69
Indoor Air Quality 69
- Secondhand Smoke (Environmental Tobacco Smoke)
- Asthma
- Radon
- Asbestos
- Biological Contaminants
- Carbon Monoxide
- Lead
- PCBs
Building Management, Investigation, and Remediation 75
New Building Design 76
Ventilation/Thermal Comfort 76
Standards and Guidelines 79
Please Note:
Reference herein
to any specific
commercial
products, process,
or service by trade
name, trademark,
manufacturer, or
otherwise, does
not necessarily
constitute or imply
its endorsement,
recommendation,
or favoring by the
United States
Government. The
views and
opinions of
authors expressed
herein do not
necessarily state or
reflect those of the
United States
Government and
shall not be used
for advertising or
product
endorsement
purposes.
-------
FEDERAL AGENCIES WITH MAJOR INDOOR AIR RESPONSIBILITIES FOR PUBLIC
AND COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency conducts a non-regulatory IAQ program that
emphasizes research, information dissemination, technical guidance, and training. EPA
issues regulations and carries out other activities that affect IAQ under the laws for
pesticides, toxic substances, and drinking water.
EPA Indoor Environments Division
(Headquarters)
Mailing Address:
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, #6609J
Washington, D.C. 20460
www.epa.gov/iaq
Additonal Resources from EPA:
Indoor Air Quality
Information Hotline
(sponsored by U.S. EPA)
P.O. Box 37133
Washington, DC 20013-7133
Toll Free: 1-800-438-4318
EPA Office of Transportation and
Air Quality
National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions
Laboratory
2000 Traverwood Drive
Ann Arbor, MI 48105
734-214-4333 (voicemail) or
734-214-4462
www.epa.gov/otaq
Advances clean fuels and technology to
reconcile the transportation sector with the
environment and promote more livable
communities. Sponsors a voluntary diesel
retrofit program.
EPA REGIONAL OFFICES
Address inquiries to IAQ staff in the EPA regional offices at the following addresses:
(CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, VT)
EPA Region 1
1 Congress Street, Suite 1100 (CAP)
Boston, MA 02114-2023
617-918-1639 (indoor air)
617-918-1285 (radon)
617-918-1524 (asbestos)
(NJ, NY, PR, VI)
EPA Region 2
290 Broadway (MC R2DEPDIV)
28th Floor
New York, NY 10007-1866
212-637-4013 (indoor air)
212-637-4013 (radon)
212-637-4081 (asbestos)
(DC, DE, MD, PA, VA, WV)
EPA Region 3
1650 Arch Street, (3PM52)
Philadelphia, PA 19103-2029
215-814-2086 (indoor air)
215-814-2086 (radon)
215-814-2103 (asbestos)
(AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN)
EPA Region 4
61 Forsyth Street, SW
Atlanta, GA 30303-3104
404-562-9143 (indoor air)
404-562-9145 (radon)
404-562-8978 (asbestos)
(IL,IN,MI,MN,OH,WI)
EPA Region 5
77 W Jackson Boulevard
(MC AE-17 J) (MC AT-18 J)
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
Region 5 Environmental Hotline:
1-800-621-8431
312-353-2000 (outside Region 5)
312-886-6053 (indoor air)
312-886-6053 (radon)
312-353-9062 (asbestos)
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(AR,LA,NM,OK,TX)
EPA Region 6
1445 Ross Avenue, Suite 1200
(6 PD-T)
Dallas, TX 75202-2733
Region 6 Environmental Hotline:
1-800-887-6063
214-665-7298 (indoor air)
214-665-8541 (radon)
214-665-3127 (asbestos)
(IA,KS,MO,NE)
EPA Region 7
901 N. 5th Street (MC ARTD/RALI)
Kansas City, KS 66101
913-551-7391 (indoor air)
913-551-7605 (radon)
913-551-7020 (asbestos)
(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY)
EPA Region 8
999 18th Street, Suite 3 00
(MC 8P-AR)
Denver, CO 80202-2466
303-312-6017 (indoor air)
303-312-6031 (radon)
303-312-6406 (asbestos)
(AZ, C A, HI, NV, AS, GU)
EPA Region 9
75 Hawthorne Street (MC AIR-6)
San Francisco, CA 94105
415-947-4189 (indoor air)
415-947-4193 (radon)
415-947-4168 (asbestos)
(AK,ID,OR,WA)
EPA Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue (MC OAQ-107)
Seattle, WA 98101-9797
206-553-1189 (indoor air)
206-553-7660 (radon)
206-553-4762 (asbestos)
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) promulgates
safety and health standards, facilitates
training and consultation, and enforces
regulations to ensure that workers are
provided with safe and healthful working
conditions.
RoomN3641
200 Constitution Avenue
Washington, DC 20210
1-800-321-OSHA
www.OSHA.gov
National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducts
research, recommends standards to the
U.S. Department of Labor, and conducts
training on various issues including IAQ to
promote safe and healthful workplaces.
Undertakes investigations at request of
employees, employers, other Federal
agencies, and state and local agencies to
identify and mitigate workplace problems.
Requests for Field Investigations:
Hazard Evaluations and Technical
Assistance Branch (R-9)
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
513-841-4382
Requests for Information:
1-800-35-NIOSH
www. cdc .gov/niosh
Centers for Disease Control &
Prevention
4770 Buford Highway, NE
Mail Stop K50
Atlanta, GA 30341
770-488-5705
www.cdc.gov
• Office on Smoking and Health
Disseminates information about the
health effects of passive smoke and
strategies for reducing exposure to
secondhand smoke.
-------
• National Center for Environmental
Health
Provides information and materials
regarding air pollution and respiratory
health, including asthma education and
prevention.
www.cdc.gov/nceh
• Division of Adolescent and School
Health
Provides information on school health,
including environmental health policy
and guidance.
www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash
National Heart, Lung, & Blood Institute
Information Center
P.O. Box 30105
Bethesda, MD 20824-0150
301-592-8573
www.nhlbi.nih.gov
Provides information and materials
regarding asthma education and prevention.
U.S. Department of Energy
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
1000 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20585
202-586-9220
www.eere.energy.gov
Developing industry standards for
ventilation and ventilation strategies.
• Bonneville Power Administration
P.O. Box 3621-RMRD
Portland, OR 97208
503-230-3000
800-282-3713
www.bpa.gov
Within the Department of Energy, BPA
serves the Northwest and provides
information on radon-resistant
construction techniques, source control,
and removal technology for indoor air
pollutants. Also provides teacher
resources and a variety of classroom
curricula.
AND
Your questions and concerns about indoor air problems can frequently be answered most
readily by the government agencies in your state or locality. Responsibilities for IAQ issues
are usually divided among many different agencies. You will often find that calling or
writing the agencies responsible for health or air quality control is the best way to start
getting information from your state or local government. Check the EPA Web site for state
agency contacts (www.epa.gov/iaq/contacts.html).
AND
Air and Waste American Conference of
Management Association Governmental Industrial Hygienists
1 Gateway Center, 3rd Floor 1330 Kemper Meadow Drive
Pittsburgh, PA 15222 Cincinnati, OH 45240
412-232-3444 513-742-2020
www.awma.org www.acgih.org
Air-Conditioning and
Refrigeration Institute
4301 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 425
Arlington, VA 22203
703-524-8800
www.ari.org
American Industrial
Hygiene Association
2700 Prosperity Avenue
Suite 250
Fairfax, VA 22031
703-849-8888
www.aiha.org
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The American Institute
of Architects
1735 New York Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20006
202-626-7300
www.aiaonline.com
American Society for Testing
and Materials
100 Bar Harbor Drive
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
610-832-9710
www.astm.org
American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers
179 ITullie Circle, NE
Atlanta, GA 30329
404-636-8400
www.ASHRAE.org
Art and Craft Materials Institute
P.O. Box 479
Hanson, MA 02341
781-293-4100
www.acminet.org
Conducts a certification program to
ensure nontoxicity (orproper labeling)
and quality of products. Works to develop
and maintain chronic hazard labeling
standard for art and craft materials.
Association of Higher Education
Facilities Offices (APPA)
1643 Front Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
703-684-1446
www.appa.org
Council of Educational Facilities
Planners International (CEFPI)
9180 E. Desert Cove Drive, Suite 104
Scottsdale, AZ 85260
480-391-0840
www.cefpi.org
National Association
of School Nurses
1416 Park Street, Suite A
Castle Rock, CO 80109
1-866-627-6767
National Conference of States on
Building Codes and Standards, Inc.
505 Huntmar Park Drive
Suite 210
Herndon,VA20170
703-437-0100
www.ncsbcs.org
Adhesive and Sealant Council
7979 Old Georgetown Road
Bethesda, MD20814
301-986-9700
www.ascouncil.org
Asbestos Institute
1002 Sherbrooke St., West
Suite 1750
Montreal, Quebec
Canada H3A3L6
514-844-3956
www.asbestos-instirute.ca/main.html
Association of Wall and Ceiling
Industries, International
803 West Broad Street, Suite 600
Falls Church, VA 22046
703-534-8300
www.awci.org/
e-mail: jones@awci.org
Carpet and Rug Institute
310 Holiday Avenue
Dalton, GA 30720
706-278-3176
www.carpet-rug.com
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Chemical Specialties
Manufacturers' Association
1913 I Street, NW
Washington, DC 20006
202-872-8110
Electric Power Research Institute
P.O. Box 10412
Palo Alto, C A 943 03
650-855-2902
www.epri.com
Gas Technology Institute
1700 South Mount Prospect Road
DesPlaines, IL 60018-1804
847-768-0500
www.gri.org
Manufacturers of Emissions Controls
Association
1660 L Street, NW
Suite 1100
Washington, DC 20036
202-296-4797
www.meca.org
National Paint and
Coatings Association
1500 Rhode Island Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20005
202-462-6272
www.paint.org
North American Insulation
Manufacturers' Association
44 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 310
Alexandria, VA 22314
703-684-0084
www.naima.org
Outdoor Power Equipment Institute,
Inc.
341 South Patrick Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
703-549-7600
www.mow.org
Sustainable Building Industry Council
1331 H Street, NW, Suite 1000
Washington, DC 20005 USA
202-628-7400x210
www.sbicouncil.org
Air-Conditioning and
Refrigeration Institute
4301 North Fairfax Drive
Suite 425
Arlington, VA 22203
703-524-8800
www.ari.org
Air-Conditioning Contractors
of America
1712 New Hampshire Ave., NW
Washington DC 20009
202-483-9370
www.acca.org
American Council of Engineering
Companies
1015 15th Street, NW, Suite 802
Washington, DC 20005
202-347-7474
www.acec.org
Associated Air Balance Council
1518 K Street, NW, Suite 503
Washington, DC 20005
202-737-0202
www.aabchq. com
Association of Energy Engineers
4025 Pleasantdale Rd., Suite 420
Atlanta, GA 3 0340
404-447-5083
www.aeecenter.org
Association of Specialists in
Cleaning and Restoration Intl.
8229 Clover Leaf Drive, Suite 460
Millersville, MD21108
410-729-9900
www.ascr.org
National Air Duct
Cleaners Association
1518 K Street, NW, Suite 503
Washington, DC 20005
202-737-2926
www.nadca. com
National Association
of Power Engineers
5707 Seminary Rd, Suite 200
Falls Church, VA 22041
703-845-7055
ww wnape .net/nape .html
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National Energy
Management Institute
601 North Fairfax St., Suite 120
Alexandria, VA 22314
703-739-7100
www.nemionline .org
National Environmental
Balancing Bureau
8575 Grovemont Circle
Gaithersburg, MD 20877-4121
301-977-3698
www.nebb.org
National Pest Control Association, Inc.
8100 Oak Street
Dunn Loring, VA 22027
703-573-8330
www.pestworld.org
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning
Contractors National Association
P.O. Box 221230
Chantilly,VA20153
703-803-2980
www.smacna.org
American Association of Classified
School Employees
7140SWChildsRoad
Lake Oswego, OR 97035
503-620-5663
www.aacse.org
American Federation of Teachers
555 New Jersey Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20001
202-879-4400
www.aft.org
National Education Association
1201 16th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
202-833-4000
www.nea.org
American Lung Association
(or your local lung association)
61 Broadway, 6th Floor
New York, NY 10006
212-315-8700
www.lungusa.org
Consumer Federation of America
1424 16th Street, NW, Suite 604
Washington, DC 20036
202-387-6121
www.consumerfed.org
National Environmental
Health Association
720 South Colorado Blvd.
South Tower, Suite 970
Denver, CO 80222
303-756-9090
www.neha.org
Occupational Health Foundation
815 16th Street, NW, Room 312
Washington, DC 20006
Wild Ones—Natural
Landscapers, Ltd.
P.O. Box 23576
Milwaukee, WI 53223-0576
920-730-3986
www.for-wild.org
National Education Association
Health Information Network
1201 16th St. NW, Suite 521
Washington, DC 20036
800-718-8387
www.neahin.org
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National Foundation for the
Chemically Hypersensitive
4407 Swinson Road
Rhodes, MI 48652
517-689-6369
Human Ecology Action League (HEAL)
P.O. Box 29629
Atlanta, GA 30359
404-248-1898
www.members.aol.com/HEALNatnl
National Center for
Environmental Health Strategies
1100 Rural Avenue
Voorhees, NJ 08043
856-429-5358
www.ncehs.org
wwwmcsrelief. com
ON AIR
Also, note Regional Radon Training Centers in next section.
American Industrial
Hygiene Association
2700 Prosperity Avenue, Suite 250
Fairfax, VA 22031
703-849-8888
www.aiha.org
Sponsors IAQ courses in conjunction with
meetings for AIHA members only.
American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers
179 ITullie Circle NE
Atlanta, GA 30329.
404-636-8400
www.ASHRAE.org
Sponsors professional development
seminars on IAQ.
Mid-Atlantic Environmental
Hygiene Resource Center
University City Science Center
3624 Market Street, 1st Floor East
Philadelphia, PA 19104
215-387-2255
Provides training to occupational safety and
health professionals andparaprofessionals.
OSHA Training Institute
155 Times Drive
DesPlaines, IL60018
www.OSHA.gov/fso/ote/training/
training_resources.html
OSHA.ucsd.edu
Provides courses to assist health and safety
professionals in evaluating IAQ.
RADON
State Radon Offices
For information, call the radon contact in the EPA Regional Office for your state, or visit the
EPA Radon Web site www.epa.gov/radon
Regional Radon Training Centers
EPA has coordinated the formation of four Regional Radon Training Centers (RRTCs). The
RRTCs provide a range of radon training and proficiency examination courses to the public
for a fee. See www.epa.gov/radon/rrtcs.html
-------
Eastern Regional Radon Training
Center (ERRTC)
Cook College
102 Ryders Lane
New Brunswick, NJ 08901-8519
732-932-9271
www. cookce .rutgers .edu/programs/
radon.html
Midwest Universities Radon Consortium
(MURC)
University of Minnesota
1994 Buford Avenue (240)
St. Paul, MN 55108
800-843-8636 or 612-624-4754
radon.oznet.ksu.edu/radon courses.htm.
Southern Regional Radon Training
Center (SRRTC)
Auburn University
217 Ramsay Hall
Auburn University, AL 36849-5331
800-626-2703 or 334-844-5719
eng.auburn.edu/contedu/pd/radon/
index.html
Western Regional Radon Training
Center (WRRTC)
University of Colorado
1420 Austin Bluffs Parkway
Colorado Springs, CO 80918
1-877-723-6601
www.wrrtc.net
EPA AND OF
EPA Asbestos and Small Business
Ombudsman
1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NW
Mail Code: 1808T
Washington, DC 20460
1-800-368-5888
http://www.epa.gov/sbo/
Provides information on asbestos.
EPA Clean School Bus U.S. Initiative
734-214-4780
Email: cleanschoolbususa@epa.gov
www.epa.gov/cleanschoolbus
Provides information and resources to
schools and school districts on how to
reduce pollution from school buses
through retrofit, replacement, and
anti-idling programs.
EPA ENERGY STAR Programs
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW. (6202J)
Washington, DC 20460
1-888-STAR-YES
www.epa.gov/energystar
EPA Healthy Schools Web Site
www.epa.gov/schools
Comprehensive resource for all healthy
schools-related programs at EPA. Links to
individual EPA programs.
IPM School Contacts
Biopesticides and Pollution Prevention
Division (7511C)
Pollution Prevention Staff
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NW
Washington, D.C. 20460
www.epa.gov/oppbppdl/biopesticides/
bppd_contacts .htm
Field and External Affairs Division
(7506C)
Office of Pesticide Programs
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20460
www.epa.gov/pesticides/
National Lead Information Center
1-800-424-5323
Provides information on lead, lead
contamination, and lead hazards.
National Pesticide Information Center
Oregon State University
333 Weniger
Corvallis, OR 97331-6502
1-800-858-7378
npic.orst.edu/
National Pesticides Telecommunications
Network
1-800-858-7378
In Texas: 806-743-3091
Provides information on pesticides,
hazards, and risks.
-------
Purdue University's IPM Technical
Resource Center
Serves only Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
1-877-668-8IPM (1-877-668-8476)
www.entm.purdue.edu/entomology/
outreach/schoolipm/
EPA Supported Technical Resource Center
far IPM in Schools and Day Cares.
Provides tools, training and technical
support far schools and day care centers
to start an IPM program. Training
opportunities, IPM principles, and specific
management techniques are available far
custodial and maintenance staff.
RCRA/Superfund/EPCRA Hotline
1-800-424-9346
Safe Drinking Water Hotline
1-800-426-4791
Provides information on lead in drinking
water.
Stratospheric Ozone Information
Hotline
1-800-296-1996
Provides information on
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Texas A&M University's IPM Technical
Resource Center
Serves only Texas, New Mexico, and
Oklahoma.
1-877-747-6872
schoolipm.tamu.edu/
EPA Supported Technical Resource Center
for IPM in Schools and Day Cares.
Provides tools, training and technical
support far schools and day care centers to
start an IPM program. Training
opportunities, IPM principles, and specific
management techniques are available far
custodial and maintenance staff.
TSCA Hotline Service
202-554-1404
Provides information on asbestos and
other toxic substances.
University of Florida's IPM in Schools
schoolipm.ifas.ufl.edu/
Provides free, useful information for school
administrators, staff members, pest
managers, and parents to start an IPM
program.
Voluntary Diesel Retrofit Program
Office of Transportation and Air Quality
(6401 A)
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
202-564-1682
www.epa.gov/otaq/retrofit
Addresses pollution from diesel
construction equipment and heavy-duty
vehicles that are on the road today.
PUBLICATIONS
Items marked * are available for order from the National Service Center for
Environmental Publications (NSCEP). 1-800-490-9198 or Fax: 513-489-8695. Contact:
P.O. Box 42419 Cincinnati, OH 45242-0419. www.epa.gov/ncepihom/index.htm
Items marked ** are available for order from NIOSH Publications Dissemination. 1-800-
356-4674 or 513-333-8287. Contact: 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45202. View
the list of available publications at www.cdc.gov/niosh/publistd.html
Items marked *** are available for order from the U.S. General Accounting Office. 202-
512-6000, Fax: 202-512-6061. Contact: P.O. Box 37050 Washington, DC 20013. Search for
available publications at www.gao.gov:8765/
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General Information
America s Schools Report Differing
Conditions. (June 1996)*** Prepared by
the U.S. General Accounting Office.
Report to Congressional requesters on
School Facilities. GAO/HEHS 96-103
Publication #B260872.
Conditions of America s Schools.
(February 1995)*** Prepared by the U.S.
General Accounting Office. Report to
Congressional requesters on school
facilities. GAO/HEHS 95-61 Publication
#B259307.
Healthy Buildings, Healthy People: A
Vision for the 21" Century. (October
2001)** Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA 402-
K-01-003.
Profiles of School Conditions by State.
(June 1996)*** Prepared by the U.S.
General Accounting Office. Report to
Congressional requesters on School
Facilities. GAO/HEHS 96-148 Publication
#B272038.
Report of the Inter-ministerial Committee
on Indoor Air Quality. (1988) G. Rajhans.
Contact: G. Rajhans, Health and Safety
Support Services Branch, Ministry of
Labour, 400 University Avenue, 7th Floor,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada M7A 1T7.
Indoor Air Quality
General IAQ Information
IAQ Tools for Schools Kit (CD ROM).
(Third Edition, December 2003)*
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Includes all written
materials provided in the Kit, including the
IAQ Backgrounder and checklists, in
Adobe PDF and MS Windows PageMaker
format. EPA 402-C-00-002.
Indoor Air Quality and Student
Performance. (August 2003)* Prepared
by U.S. EPA. Presents information about
the problem of poor IAQ, its causes, health
consequences, and solutions. EPA 402-K-
03-006.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools:
Actions to Improve IAQ. (September
1999)* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Serves as a
marketing tool for the IAQ Tools for
Schools Kit and program. EPA 402-F-99-
008.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools Case
Studies* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Shares
experiences, including issues in
communicating problems, financing, and
remediation, of schools across the country
that have or are implementing the IAQ TfS
Kit. View a list of case studies available for
order on the EPA Web site at
www.epa.gov/iaq/schools
Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools
Communications Guide. (September
2002)* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Offers
communication strategies for school
personnel addressing IAQ concerns
expressed by the school community. EPA
402-K-02-008.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools
Program: Benefits of Improving Air
Quality in the School Environment.
(October 2002)* Prepared by U.S. EPA.
EPA402-K-02-005.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools
Training Modules 1 and 2. (CD ROM)*
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides three
modules, including Power Point
presentation slides, to assist in the training
of school district personnel for use of the
IAQ Tools for Schools Kit. EPA 402-C-99-
002.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools
Companion Documents
Air Quality Guidelines for Europe.
Prepared by the World Health Organization
(WHO). (1987) Available from WHO
Publications Center USA. Contact: 49
Sheridan Avenue, Albany, NY 12210.
WHO Regional Publications, European
Series Number 23.
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Purdue University's IPM Technical
Resource Center
Serves only Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
1-877-668-8IPM (1-877-668-8476)
www.entm.purdue.edu/entomology/
outreach/schoolipm/
EPA Supported Technical Resource Center
far IPM in Schools and Day Cares.
Provides tools, training and technical
support far schools and day care centers
to start an IPM program. Training
opportunities, IPM principles, and specific
management techniques are available far
custodial and maintenance staff.
RCRA/Superfund/EPCRA Hotline
1-800-424-9346
Safe Drinking Water Hotline
1-800-426-4791
Provides information on lead in drinking
water.
Stratospheric Ozone Information
Hotline
1-800-296-1996
Provides information on
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Texas A&M University's IPM Technical
Resource Center
Serves only Texas, New Mexico, and
Oklahoma.
1-877-747-6872
schoolipm.tamu.edu/
EPA Supported Technical Resource Center
for IPM in Schools and Day Cares.
Provides tools, training and technical
support far schools and day care centers to
start an IPM program. Training
opportunities, IPM principles, and specific
management techniques are available far
custodial and maintenance staff.
TSCA Hotline Service
202-554-1404
Provides information on asbestos and
other toxic substances.
University of Florida's IPM in Schools
schoolipm.ifas.ufl.edu/
Provides free, useful information for school
administrators, staff members, pest
managers, and parents to start an IPM
program.
Voluntary Diesel Retrofit Program
Office of Transportation and Air Quality
(6401 A)
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
202-564-1682
www.epa.gov/otaq/retrofit
Addresses pollution from diesel
construction equipment and heavy-duty
vehicles that are on the road today.
PUBLICATIONS
Items marked * are available for order from the National Service Center for
Environmental Publications (NSCEP). 1-800-490-9198 or Fax: 513-489-8695. Contact:
P.O. Box 42419 Cincinnati, OH 45242-0419. www.epa.gov/ncepihom/index.htm
Items marked ** are available for order from NIOSH Publications Dissemination. 1-800-
356-4674 or 513-333-8287. Contact: 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45202. View
the list of available publications at www.cdc.gov/niosh/publistd.html
Items marked *** are available for order from the U.S. General Accounting Office. 202-
512-6000, Fax: 202-512-6061. Contact: P.O. Box 37050 Washington, DC 20013. Search for
available publications at www.gao.gov:8765/
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The Health Consequences of Involuntary
Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General.
(1986) Prepared by U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Office on Smoking and Health.
1600 Clifton Road, NE (Mail Stop K50)
Atlanta, GA 30333.
The Secondhand Smoke Community
Action Kit (online only).* Prepared by
U.S. EPA. Assists community leaders in
educating communities about the dangers
of secondhand smoke. EPA 402-C-06-005.
Asthma
Asthma Media Campaign: Fish Out of
Water Brochure. Prepared by U.S. EPA.
Provides information to people with
asthma and parents and caretakers of
children with asthma on strategies for
managing asthma and exposure to triggers.
EPA402-F-01-008. (Also available in
Spanish, EPA402-F-01-008A.)
Asthma Speakers Kit. Prepared by U.S.
EPA. Provides resources, including 35mm
slides for educating the general public on
asthma topics, including high-risk
populations, effects of the indoor
environment on asthma prevalence, and
common indoor asthma triggers. EPA 402-
B-01-002.
Asthma Speakers Kit (CD ROM). Prepared
by U.S. EPA. Provides all resources
available in the asthma education module
in electronic format. EPA 402-C-01-002.
Managing Asthma: A Guide for Schools.
Prepared by NHLBI. A 17-page booklet
that provides action steps for school
personnel to develop an asthma
management program for students with
asthma. Available for order from NHLBI,
P.O. Box 30105, Bethesda, MD 20824.
Publication 91-2650. (Order fee: $3.50.)
Additional resources are available for order
from the NHLBI Web site at
emall.nhlbihin.net
Clear Your Home of Asthma Triggers: Your
Children Will Breathe Easier* Prepared by
U.S. EPA. This tri-fold brochure educates
parents and caretakers of children with
asthma on common environmental
allergens and asthma triggers found in the
home and offers suggestions for easy steps
to control exposure to and reduce or
eliminate the presence of allergens in the
home. EPA402-F-99-005. (Also available
in Spanish EPA 402-F-99-005D,
Vietnamese EPA 402-F-99-005B, Chinese
EPA 402-F-99-005A, and Korean EPA
402-F-99-005C.)
Health at Home: Controlling Asthma
(English/Spanish VHS Video)* Prepared
by U.S. EPA. EPA 402-V-01-006.
IAQ Tools for Schools Bulletin: Asthma
and Allergy. (Fall 2001)** Prepared by
U.S. EPA. Presents articles on various issues
relating to asthma and allergies management
in schools. EPA 402-F-01-019.
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Radon
A Citizen's Guide to Radon: The Guide to
Protecting Yourself and Your Family from
Radon (January 2009)* Prepared by U.S.
EPA, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, and U.S. Public Health
Service. Offers strategies for testing radon
levels and what to do after testing,
discussion of the risks of radon and
common myths. EPA 402-K-09-001.
Consumers' Guide to Radon Reduction:
How to Reduce Radon Levels in Your
Home* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides
guidelines for buildings that have tested
positive for radon and have elevated radon
levels. EPA 402-K-06-094.
Home Buyer's and Seller's Guide to
Radon. (January 2009)* Prepared by
U.S. EPA. Provides information on testing
for radon in homes and related health risks
for new homebuyers, sellers, real estate,
relocation professionals, and home
inspections. EPA 402-K-09-002. Also
available for downloading in PDF from the
EPA Web site at www.epa.gov/radon/pdfs/
hmbuygud.pdf. Also available in
Spanish (EPA 402-K-02-001).
Indoor Radon and Radon Decay Product
Measurement Device Protocols. (July
1992) Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides
information, recommendations, and
technical guidance for using radon decay
product measurement methods to establish
standard operating procedures. EPA 402-
R-92-004. Online only at www.epa.gov/
radon/pubs.
Learning About Radon: A Part of Nature.
(February 2002) Prepared by U.S. EPA.
Targeted to Native Americans, discusses
the basics of radon sources in the natural
environment, testing for radon and how
homes can be fixed to reduce radon levels.
EPA 402-K-02-002. Online only at
www.epa.gov/radon/pubs.
Radon in Schools (3rd Edition, October
2003) Prepared by the National
Education Association and the American
Lung Association. Presents information on
radon to raise awareness among students,
teachers, and parents for potential radon
problems in schools. EPA 402-F-03-025.
Online only at www.epa.gov/radon/pubs.
Radon Measurements in Schools—Revised
Edition. (1993)* Prepared by U.S. EPA.
EPA 402-R-92-014. Online only at
www.epa.gov/radon/pubs.
Radon Measurement in Schools: Self-
Paced Training Workbook. (1994)*
Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA 402-B-94-001.
Radon Prevention in the Design and
Construction of Schools and Other Large
Buildings. (June 1994)* Prepared by U.S.
EPA. Provides comprehensive information,
instructions, and guidelines on designing
and constructing a new building with
radon-resistant features and techniques for
radon mitigation that are currently being
studied and applied. EPA 625-R-92-016.
Available online at www.epa.gov/ORD/
NRMRL/pubs.
Asbestos
ABCs of Asbestos in Schools* Prepared by
U.S. EPA. EPA 745-K-93-017.
Abatement of Asbestos-Containing Pipe
Insulation. (1986)** Prepared by U.S.
EPA. Technical Bulletin No. 1986-2.
A Guide to Monitoring Airborne Asbestos
in Buildings. (1989) Dale L. Keyes and
Jean Chesson. Environmental Sciences,
Inc., 105 E. Speedway Blvd., Tucson,
Arizona 85705.
A Guide to Respiratory Protection for the
Asbestos Abatement Industry. (1986)**
Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA 560-OTS-86-
001.
Asbestos Abatement Projects: Worker
Protection. 40 CFR Part 763. (February
1987)** U.S. EPA.
Asbestos Ban and Phaseout Rule. 40 CFR
Parts 763.160 to 763.179. ** U.S. EPA.
Federal Register, July 12, 1989.
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Asbestos Fact Book* Prepared by U.S.
EPA. EPA745-K-93-016.
Asbestos in Buildings: Guidance for
Service and Maintenance Personnel
(English/Spanish). (1985)** Prepared by
U.S. EPA. EPA 560-5-85-018. ("Custodial
Pamphlet")
Asbestos in Buildings: Simplified Sampling
Scheme for Surfacing Materials. (1985) **
Prepared by U.S. EPA. 560-5-85-030A.
("Pink Book")
Asbestos in Schools: Evaluation of the
Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act
(AHERA).* Summary report prepared by
U.S. EPA. EPA 560-491-012.
Construction Industry Asbestos Standard.
29 CFR Part 1926.58.
Fact Sheet: Asbestos* Prepared by U.S.
EPA. EPA 745-F-93-007.
Fact Sheet: Asbestos in Schools:
Evaluation of AHERA* Prepared by U.S.
EPA. EPA745-F-91-100.
General Industry Asbestos Standard. 29
CFR Part 1910.1001.
Guidance for Controlling Asbestos-
Containing Materials in Buildings.
(1985)** Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA 560-
5-85-024. ("Purple Book")
Guidelines for Conducting the AHERA
TEM Clearance Test to Determine
Completion of an Asbestos Abatement
Project. ** Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA
560-5-89-001.
Managing Asbestos In Place: A Building
Owner's Guide to Operations and
Maintenance Programs for Asbestos-
Containing Materials. (1990)** Prepared
by U.S. EPA. 1990. ("Green Book")
Measuring Airborne Asbestos Following An
Abatement Action. (1985)** Prepared by
U.S. EPA. EPA 600-4-85-049. ("Silver
Book")
National Emissions Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants. 40 CFR Part 61.
(April 1984)** Prepared by U.S. EPA.
Biological Contaminants (Mold, Pests,
A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture, and Your
Home.** Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides
information and guidance for homeowners
and renters on how to clean up residential
mold and moisture problems and how to
prevent build-up. (Available in Spanish.)
EPA 402-K-02-003. Available for
downloading in PDF from the EPA Web
site at www.epa.gov/mold/pdfs/moldguide.pdf
Bioaerosols, Assessment and Control.
(1999) Prepared by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists, Inc. Cincinnati, OH. ISBN 1-
882417-29-1. 513-742-2020.
www.acgih.org
Fact Sheet: Mold in Schools. (2004)**
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides an
organized summary of information related
to facts of mold growth in school buildings
and portable classrooms. EPA 402-F-03-
029.
Etc.)
Guidelines for the Assessment of
Bioaerosols in the Indoor Environment.
(1989) Prepared by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists. 6500 Glenway Avenue,
Building D-7, Cincinnati, OH 45211.
Integrated Pest Management in Schools (A
Better Method). (VHS Video or CD-ROM)
Prepared by Safer Pest control Project
(SPCP). Explains in simple language what
IPM is and how to get it started. Available
from the SPCP Web site at spcpweb.org/ or
at 312-641-5575.
Integrated Pest Management for Schools: A
How-to Manual. (1997) Prepared by U.S.
EPA, Region 9. Provides a full discussion
of IPM concepts, policies, and
implementation practicalities. It also has
specific management strategies for 14
common pests and problem sites at
schools. EPA 909-B-97-001. Available
-------
from the EPA Web site at www.epa.gov/
pesticides/ipm/schoolipm/index.html
Mold Remediation in Schools and
Commercial Buildings. (March 2001)**
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Presents guidelines
for the remediation and clean-up of mold
and moisture problems in schools and
commercial buildings, including measures
for protecting the health of building
occupants and remediators during
improvements. EPA 402-K-01-001.
Available for downloading in PDF from
the EPA Web site at www.epa.gov/mold/
pdfs/moldremediation.pdf
Pest Control in the School Environment:
Adopting IPM. (1993)* Prepared by U.S.
EPA. This booklet is designed to
encourage and assist school officials in
examining and improving their pest
management practices. It identifies ways
to reduce the use of pesticides in school
buildings and landscapes, as well as
alternative methods of managing pests
commonly found in schools. EPA 735-F-
93-012. Available from the EPA Web site at
www.epa.gov/pesticides/ipm/brochure.
Pesticides: Uses, Effects and Alternatives
to Pesticides in Schools. (November
1999)*** Prepared by the U.S. General
Accounting Office. Report to the Ranking
Minority Member, Committee on
Government Affairs, Resources,
Community and Economic Development
Division. GAO/RCED-00-17.
Protecting Children in Schools from Pests
and Pesticides. (2002)* Prepared by U.S.
EPA. The brochure provides resources,
success stories and examples of IPM
practices for safer pest management within
our nation's schools. EPA 735-F-02-014.
TheABCs of IPM: A Modular Video
Training Course. (VHS Video 2087)
Prepared by the Texas Agricultural
Extension Service. Available from the
Texas A&M University Web site at
schoolipm.tamu.edu/
Carbon Monoxide
Protect Your Family and Yourself from
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning. (October
1996)** Prepared by U.S. EPA. This fact
sheet discusses common health hazards
associated with exposure to CO and
provides guidance on what to do if
suffering from CO poisoning and how to
prevent exposure to CO, including the use
of carbon monoxide detectors. EPA 402-F-
96-005. (Also available in Spanish EPA
402-F-97-004, Vietnamese EPA 402-F-99-
004C, Chinese EPA 402-F-99-004A, and
Korean EPA 402-F-99-004B.)
What You Should Know About Combustion
Appliances and Indoor Air Pollution.
(1991) Prepared by the U.S. Consumer
Product Safety Commission, American
Lung Association, and EPA. Answers
commonly asked questions about the effect
of combustion appliances (e.g., kitchen
ovens, fuel-burning furnaces, fireplaces,
space heaters) on IAQ and human health,
and suggests ways to reduce exposure to
combustion pollutants with proper
installation, use, and maintenance of
combustion appliances in the home. EPA
400-F-91-100.
Lead
Fight Lead Poisoning with a Healthy Diet.
(2001) Prepared by U.S. EPA. Contains
lead poisoning prevention tips for families.
For hard copies, call the National Lead
Information Center at (800) 424-LEAD.
(Available in Spanish.) EPA 747-F-01-004.
Lead Poisoning and Your Children. (2000)
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Presents general
lead information and safe practices for
parents in a foldout poster. For hard copies,
call the National Lead Information Center
at (800) 424-LEAD. (Available in
Spanish.) EPA 747-K-00-003.
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Lead Poisoning Prevention Media
Outreach Kit. (2001). Prepared by U.S.
EPA. Assists state and local health,
environmental, and housing agencies in
working with the media, and to create
press and outreach materials. For hard
copies, call the National Lead Information
Center at (800) 424-LEAD. (Available in
Spanish.) EPA 747-K-01-002.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
A Recommended Standard for
Occupational Exposure to Polychlorinated
Biphenyls. (1977) Prepared by U.S.
Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers
for Disease Control, and National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health.
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 77-225.
Available from the National Technical
Information Service, 5285 Port Royal
Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
Current Intelligence Bulletin 45:
Polychlorinated Biphenyls—Potential
Health Hazards from Electrical Equipment
Fires or Failures. (1977) Prepared by U.S.
Department of Health And Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers
for Disease Control, and National Institute
of Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS
(NIOSH) Publication No. 86-111.
Available from the National Technical
Information Service, 5285 Port Royal
Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
Transformers and the Risk of Fire: A Guide
for Building Owners. (1986)** Prepared
by U.S. EPA. OPA/86-001.
Building Management, Investigation, and Remediation
An Update on Formaldehyde. (1997)
Prepared by the U.S. Consumer Product
Safety Commission. Provides information
about where consumers can come in
contact with formaldehyde, health effects,
and how to reduce exposure to chemicals.
Available from the CPSC Web site at
www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/725.pdf
Building Air Quality Action Plan (BAQ
Action Plan).** Prepared by U.S. EPA.
Follows eight logical steps and includes a
checklist to assist building owners and
managers in understanding building
conditions and implementing good IAQ
management practices. EPA 402-K-98-
001. (A companion to BAQ: A Guide for
Building Owners and Facility Managers)
Available for downloading in PDF from the
EPA Web site at www.epa.gov/iaq/
largebldgs/pdf_files/baqactionplan.pdf
Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building
Owners and Facility Managers. (December
1991)* Prepared by U.S. EPA and U.S.
Department of Health and Human
Services. EPA 402-F-91-102. Also
available for downloading in PDF from the
EPA Web site at www.epa.gov/iaq/
largebldgs/pdf_files/iaq.pdf
Fact Sheet: Flood Cleanup: Avoiding
Indoor Air Quality Problems. (August
1993)* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides
tips to avoid creating IAQ problems during
flood cleanup and making residential
repairs. EPA402-F-93-005.
Healthy Indoor Painting Practices. (May
2000) Prepared by U.S. EPA, Office of
Pollution Prevention and Toxics, the
Consumer Product Safety Commission,
and the Montgomery County Maryland
Department of Environmental Protection.
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Available for download in PDF from the
EPA Web site at www.epa.gov/opptintr/
exposure/docs/inpaint5 .pdf
EPA 744-F-00-011. (Also available in
Spanish, www.epa.gov/opptintr/exposure/
docs/sp-pai~l.pdf)
IAQ Building Education and Assessment
Model (I-BEAM). (2001)** Prepared by
U.S. EPA. I-BEAM software updates and
expands EPA's existing Building Air
Quality guidance and is designed to be
comprehensive state-of-the-art guidance
for managing IAQ in commercial
buildings. This guidance was designed to
be used by building professionals and
others interested in indoor air quality in
commercial buildings. I-BEAM contains
text, animation/visual, and interactive/
calculation components that can be used to
perform a number of diverse tasks.
EPA 402-C-01-001.
Interior Painting and Indoor Air Quality in
Schools. (March 1994) Bruce Jacobs.
Maryland State Department of Education,
Division of Business Services, School
Facilities Branch, 200 West Baltimore
Street, Baltimore, MD 21201.
410-333-2508.
Office Building Occupant's Guide to
Indoor Air Quality. (October 1997)*
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides
information on factors contributing to IAQ
in office buildings, promoting a
partnership between building managers
and occupants to ensure a comfortable
working environment. EPA 402-K-97-003.
Orientation to Indoor Air Quality.**
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Includes instructor
and student materials to conduct a 2-day
training course. (Order fee: $180)
Science Laboratories and Indoor Air
Quality in Schools. Bruce Jacobs. March
1994. Maryland State Department of
Education, Division of Business Services,
School Facilities Branch, 200 West
Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD 21201.
410-333-2508.
What You Should Know About Using Paint
Strippers. (February 1995)** Prepared by
U.S. EPA and the U.S. Consumer Product
Safety Commission. Discusses proper
procedures for handling and using paint
strippers to reduce exposure to chemicals
and lessen health risks. CPSC Publication
#F-747-F-95-002.
New Building Design
Indoor Air Quality Design Tools for
Schools. EPA's Web site for guidance on
designing and maintaining healthy, high-
performing school buildings.
www.epa.gov/iaq/schooldesign
Building A Healthy Environment. (March
1997) Prepared by Elizabeth Simon.
Published by Learning by Design,
pp 17-20. Available from the Educational
Resources Information Center (ERIC)
Clearinghouse, Publication EF 501126.
www.ericse.org/
Healthy Building Design for the
Commercial, Industrial and Institutional
Marketplace. (1999) Prepared by William
A. Turner. Provides examples for high
performance building design. Available
from the ERIC Clearinghouse, Publication
EF 005342. www.ericse.org/
High Performance Schools Best Practices
Manual. (March 2001) Prepared by
Charles Eley, Ed. The Collaborative for
High Performance Schools. This three-
volume guide presents guidelines for
designing high performing schools,
including issues of IAQ, ventilation and
thermal comfort. Available from Eley
Associates, 142 Minna Street, San
Francisco, CA 94108.
Preventing Indoor Air Quality Problems in
New Buildings. (March 1998) Prepared by
Lisa M. Jackson. Published by College
Planning and Management, vl, n2,
pp 65-66, 68-69. Describes how IAQ can
be built into new facility planning, design
and construction. Available from the ERIC
Clearinghouse, Publication EF 501170.
www.ericse.org/
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Right from the Start - Constructing a
Healthy School. (June 1994) Prepared by
Mary Oetzel. Published by School
business Affairs v. 60, n. 6, pp 4-8, 10-11.
Describes school construction practices
used to design high performance schools
in Minnesota. Available from the ERIC
Clearinghouse, Publication EA 529542.
www.ericse.org/
School Indoor Air Quality Best
Management Practices Manual. (1995)
Prepared by Richard Hall, Richard Ellis,
and Tim Hardin. Describes best practices
that can be followed during siting, design,
construction and renovation of schools to
ensure good IAQ. Published by the
Washington State Department of Health,
Office of Environmental Health and
Safety. PO Box 47825, Olympia, WA
98504-7825. Available from the ERIC
Clearinghouse, Publication EF 005693.
www.ericse.org/
Texas Sustainable School Design
Guideline. (1999) Prepared by Michael
Nicklas, Gary Bailey, Harshad D. Padia,
Nadav Malin. Published by Innovative
Design, Inc, Padia Consulting, Inc. and E
Build, Inc. Explores a detailed list of
practices and technologies that can help
create a sustainable school, from site
selection to construction. Available from
the ERIC Clearinghouse, Publication EF
005655. www.ericse.org/
Ventilation/Thermal Comfort
ASHRAE materials are available from
their Publication Sales Department, 1791
Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329.404-
636-8400.
Air Cleaning Devices for HVAC Supply
Systems In Schools. (December 1992)
Arthur Wheeler. Maryland State
Department of Education.
Energy Cost and IAQ Performance of
Ventilation Systems and Controls Modeling
Study.** Prepared by U.S. EPA. Reports on
the results from a 1999 EPA study to assess
the compatibilities among energy, IAQ,
and thermal comfort for HVAC systems,
comparing an office building, a school,
and an auditorium, www.epa.gov/iaq/
largebldgs/eiaq_page .htm
Guideline for the Commissioning of HVAC
Systems. (October 1989) ASHRAE
Guideline 1-1989. ASHRAE Standard 62-
1989. Available from the ASHRAE
Journal. www.ASHRAE.org/template/
JournalLanding
Healthy Indoor Air for America s Homes:
Indoor Hazards Every Homeowner Should
Know About* Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA
402-K-98-002.
Indoor Air Facts, Number 7: Residential
Air Cleaners. (February 1990)* Prepared
by U.S. EPA. Discusses air cleaning as a
method of reducing indoor air pollutants
and lists types of air cleaners for the home,
factors to consider, and sources for
additional information. EPA 20A-4001.
Indoor Air Facts, Number 8: Use and Care
of Home Humidifiers. (February 1991)*
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Describes the
different types of humidifiers, common
pollutants dispersed from the water tanks,
and recommendations for their use and
maintenance. EPA 402-F-91-101.
Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-
Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency
by Particle Size. (2000) ASHRAE Standard
52.2-1999.
-------
Ozone Generators That Are Sold As Air
Cleaners. Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides
accurate information to consumers on
using ozone-generating devices in indoor
occupied spaces, www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/
Practices for Measurement, Testing,
Adjusting and Balancing of Building
Heating, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning and
Refrigeration Systems. ASHRAE Standard
111-1988. resourcecenter.ASHRAE.org/
store/ASHRAE/
Reducing Emissions of Fully Halogenated
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Refrigerants in
Refrigeration and Air Condition
Equipment and Applications. (1996)
ASHRAE Guideline 3-1996.
resourcecenter.ASHRAE.org/store/
ASHRAE/
School Advanced Ventilation Engineering
Software (SAVES). Prepared by U.S. EPA.
Helps school designers assess the potential
financial payback and indoor humidity
control benefits of Energy Recovery
Ventilation (ERV) systems for school
applications. To download the software,
visit: http://www.epa.gov/iaq/
schooldesign/saves.html.
Residential Air-Cleaning Devices: A
Summary of Available Information.**
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Describes the
general types of residential air cleaners
and their effectiveness in reducing indoor
pollutants and provides tips for choosing
an air cleaner and when to use it.
Selecting HVAC Systems for Schools.
(October 1994) Arthur Wheeler and Walter
Kunz, Jr. Maryland State Department of
Education, Division of Business Services,
School Facilities Branch, 200 West
Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD 21201.
410-333-2508.
Should You Have the Air Ducts in Your
Home Cleaned? (October 1997)**
Prepared by U.S. EPA. Presents
information to help consumers and
homeowners understand air duct cleaning,
assess if they need the service performed,
choose a duct cleaner, determine if the
cleaning was done properly, and prevent
contamination of air ducts. EPA 402-K-97-
002.
Thermal Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupancy. (1992) ASHRAE
Standard 55-1992.
resourcecenter.ASHRAE.org/store/
ASHRAE/
The Ventilation Directory. National
Conference of States on Building Codes
and Standards, Inc., 505 Huntmar Park
Drive, Suite 210, Herndon, VA 22070.
703-481-2020. Summarizes natural,
mechanical, and exhaust ventilation
requirements of the model codes,
ASHRAE standards, and unique state
codes.
Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality. (2001) ASHRAE Standard 62-
2001. resourcecenter.ASHRAE.org/store/
ASHRAE/
Standards and Guidelines
NIOSHRecommendations for
Occupational Safety and Health.
(1991)*** Prepared by U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health. Compendium of Policy
Documents and Statements. DHHS
(NIOSH) Publications 91-109.
OSHA Standards for Air Contaminants. 29
CFRPart 1910.1000. Prepared by U.S.
Department of Labor. OSHA Regulations.
Available from the U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
202-783-3238. Additional health standards
for some specific air contaminants are also
available in Subpart Z.
Threshold Limit Values and Biological
Exposure Indices. (1990-91) American
Conference of Government Industrial
Hygienists. 6500 Glenway Avenue,
Building D-7, Cincinnati, OH 45211.
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Glossary and Acronyms
AHERA - Asbestos Hazard Emergency
response Act
AHU - See "Air handling unit."
AQI - The Air Quality Index is a tool that
provides the public with clear and timely
information on local air quality and
whether air pollution levels pose a health
concern.
ASHRAE - American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers. See Appendix L: "Resources"
for more information.
ASTM - Consensus standard-setting
organization. See Appendix L:
"Resources" for more information.
Aftertreatment Device - Engine
pollutant emissions are generally reduced
by engine modifications, fuel
specifications, or exhaust gas
aftertreatment. An aftertreatment device is
a component used to reduce engine
pollutant emissions downstream of the
combustion chamber. Catalytic converters
and paniculate filters are examples of
aftertreatment devices.
Air Cleaning - An IAQ control strategy
to remove various airborne particulates
and/or gases from the air. The three types
of air cleaning most commonly used are
particulate filtration, electrostatic
precipitation, and gas sorption.
Air Exchange Rate - The rate at which
outside air replaces indoor air in a space.
Expressed in one of two ways: The
number of changes of outside air per unit
of time—air changes per hour (ACH); or
the rate at which a volume of outside air
enters per unit of time—cubic feet per
minute (cfm).
Air Handling Unit - For purposes of this
document, refers to equipment that
includes a blower or fan, heating and/or
cooling coils, and related equipment such
as controls, condensate drain pans, and air
filters. Does not include ductwork,
registers and grilles, or boilers and
chillers.
Air Toxics - Chemicals in the air that are
known or suspected to cause cancer or
other serious health effects, such as
reproductive problems or birth defects. Air
toxics are also known as "hazardous air
pollutants." Mobile sources emit a number
of air toxics associated with both long-
term and short-term health effects in
people, including heart problems, asthma
symptoms, eye and lung irritation, cancer,
and premature death.
Alternative Fuel - An alternative fuel is
any fuel other than gasoline and diesel
fuels, such as methanol, ethanol,
compressed natural gas, and other gaseous
fuels. Generally, alternative fuels burn
more cleanly and result in less air
pollution.
Antimicrobial - Agent that kills microbial
growth. See "disinfectant," "sanitizer," and
"sterilizer."
BRI - See "Building-related illness."
Benzene - A cancer-causing hydrocarbon
(C6H6) derived from petroleum. Benzene
is a component of gasoline. Benzene
emissions occur in exhaust as a byproduct
of fuel combustion and when gasoline
evaporates.
Biological Contaminants - Biological
contaminants are or are produced by living
organisms. Common biological
contaminants include mold, dust mites, pet
dander (skin flakes), droppings and body
parts from cockroaches, rodents and other
pests, or insects, viruses, and bacteria.
Biological contaminants can be inhaled
and can cause many types of health effects
including allergic reactions, respiratory
disorders, hypersensitivity diseases, and
infectious diseases. Also referred to as
"microbiologicals" or "microbials." See
Appendix E: "Typical Indoor Air
Pollutants" for more information.
Building-Related Illness - Diagnosable
illness with identifiable symptoms for
which the cause can be directly attributed
to airborne building pollutants (e.g.,
Legionnaire's disease, hypersensitivity
pneumonitis).
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Central AHU - See "Central air handling
unit."
Central Air Handling Unit - For
purposes of this document, this is the
same as an Air handling unit, but serves
more than one area.
CFM - Cubic feet per minute. The
amount of air, in cubic feet, that flows
through a given space in one minute. 1
CFM equals approximately 2 liters per
second (L/s).
CO - Carbon monoxide. See Appendix
E: "Typical Indoor Air Pollutants" for
more information.
CO2 - Carbon dioxide. See Appendix B:
"Basic Measurement Equipment" and
Appendix E: "Typical Indoor Air
Pollutants" for more information.
Combustion - The process of burning.
Motor vehicles and equipment typically
burn fuel in an engine to create power.
Gasoline and diesel fuels are mixtures of
hydrocarbons, which are compounds that
contain hydrogen and carbon atoms. In
"perfect" combustion, oxygen in the air
would combine with all the hydrogen in
the fuel to form water and with all the
carbon in the fuel to form carbon dioxide.
Nitrogen in the air would remain
unaffected. In reality, the combustion
process is not "perfect," and engines emit
several types of pollutants as combustion
byproducts.
Conditioned Air - Air that has been
heated, cooled, humidified, or
dehumidified to maintain an interior space
within the "comfort zone." (Sometimes
referred to as "tempered" air.)
Dampers - Controls that vary airflow
through an air outlet, inlet, or duct. A
damper position may be immovable,
manually adjustable, or part of an
automated control system.
Diesel Engine - An engine that operates
on diesel fuel and principally relies on
compression-ignition for engine
operation. The non-use of a throttle during
normal operation is indicative of a diesel
engine.
Diffusers and Grilles - Components of
the ventilation system that distribute and
return air to promote air circulation in the
occupied space. As used in this document,
supply air enters a space through a diffuser
or vent and return air leaves a space
through a grille.
Disinfectants - One of three groups of
antimicrobials registered by EPA for
public health concerns. A disinfectant
destroys or irreversibly inactivates
undesirable (and often infectious)
organisms. EPA registers three types of
disinfectant products based upon
submitted efficacy data: limited, general/
broad spectrum, and hospital disinfectant.
Drain Trap - A dip in the drain pipe of
sinks, toilets, floor drains, etc., which is
designed to stay filled with water, thereby
preventing sewer gases from escaping into
the room.
Emissions - Releases of pollutants into
the air from a source, such as a motor
vehicles, furnishings, or cleaning
products.
Emissions Standards - Rules and
regulations that set limits on how much
pollution can be emitted from a given
source. Vehicle and equipment
manufacturers have responded to many
mobile source emissions standards by
redesigning vehicles and engines to reduce
pollution.
EPA - United States Environmental
Protection Agency. See Appendix L:
"Resources" for more information.
ETS - Environmental tobacco smoke.
Mixture of smoke from the burning end
of a cigarette, pipe, or cigar and smoke
exhaled by the smoker (also secondhand
smoke or passive smoking). See
Appendix E: "Typical Indoor Air
Pollutants," Appendix F: "Secondhand
smoke," and Appendix L: "Resources" for
more information.
Evaporation - The process by which a
substance is converted from a liquid to a
vapor. "Evaporative emissions" occur
when a liquid fuel evaporates and fuel
molecules escape into the atmosphere. A
considerable amount of hydrocarbon
pollution results from evaporative
emissions that occur when gasoline leaks
or spills, or when gasoline gets hot and
evaporates from the fuel tank or engine.
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Exhaust Ventilation - Mechanical
removal of air from a building.
Fine Particulate Matter (PM2 5 or
PM fine) - Tiny particles or liquid
droplets less than 2.5 microns in diameter
suspended in the air that can contain a
variety of chemical components. PM fine
particles are so small that they are not
typically visible to the naked eye. These
tiny particles can be suspended in the air
for long periods of time and are the most
harmful to human health because they can
penetrate deep into the lungs. Some
particles are directly emitted into the air.
Virtually all particulate matter from
mobile sources is PM25. See Appendix E:
"Typical Indoor Air Pollutants" for more
information.
Flow Hood - Device that easily measures
airflow quantity, typically up to 2,500 cfm.
Highway Engine - Any engine that is
designed to transport people or property
on a street or highway.
HVAC - Heating, ventilation, and air-
conditioning system.
Hypersensitivity Diseases - Diseases
characterized by allergic responses to
pollutants. The hypersensitivity diseases
most clearly associated with indoor air
quality are asthma, rhinitis, and
hypersensitivity pneumonitis.
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis is a rare but
serious disease that involves progressive
lung damage as long as there is exposure
to the causative agent.
IAQ - Indoor air quality.
IAQ Backgrounder - A general
introduction to IAQ issues as well as IAQ
program implementation information that
accompanies the IAQ checklists.
IAQ Checklist - A list of suggested easy-
to-do activities for school staff to improve
or maintain good indoor air quality. Each
focuses on topic areas and actions that are
targeted to particular school staff (e.g.,
teachers, administrators, kitchen staff,
maintenance staff) or specific building
functions (e.g., HVAC system, roofing,
renovation). The checklists are to be
completed by the staff and returned to the
IAQ Coordinator as a record of completed
activities and requested assistance.
IAQ Coordinator - An individual at the
school and/or school district level who
provides leadership and coordination of
IAQ activities. See Section 2: "Role and
Functions of the IAQ Coordinator," in the
IAQ Coordinator's Guide for more
information.
Indoor Air Pollutant - Particles and dust,
fibers, mists, bioaerosols, and gases or
vapors. See Section 2: "Understanding
IAQ Problems" and Appendix E: "Typical
Indoor Air Pollutants" for more
information.
IPM - Integrated Pest Management. A
comprehensive approach to eliminating
and preventing pest problems with an
emphasis on reducing pest habitat and
food sources. See Appendix B:
"Developing Indoor Air Policies" in the
IAQ Coordinator's Guide and Appendix
K: "Integrated Pest Management" for
more information.
MCS - See "Multiple Chemical
Sensitivity."
Make-up Air - See "Outdoor Air
Supply."
Microbiologicals - See "Biological
Contaminants."
Mobile Sources - Motor vehicles,
engines, and equipment that move, or can
be moved, from place to place. Mobile
sources include vehicles that operate on
roads and highways ("on-road" or
"highway" vehicles), as well as nonroad
vehicles, engines, and equipment.
Examples of mobile sources are cars,
trucks, buses, earth-moving equipment,
lawn and garden power tools, ships,
railroad locomotives, and airplanes.
Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS) -
A condition in which a person reports
sensitivity or intolerance (as distinct from
"allergic") to a number of chemicals and
other irritants at very low concentrations.
There are different views among medical
professionals about the existence, causes,
diagnosis, and treatment of
this condition.
NIOSH - National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health. See
Appendix L: "Resources" for more
information.
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Negative Pressure - Condition that exists
when less air is supplied to a space than is
exhausted from the space, so the air
pressure within that space is less than that
in surrounding areas. Under this
condition, if an opening exists, air will
flow from surrounding areas into the
negatively pressurized space.
Nonroad Engine - A term that covers a
diverse collection of engines, equipment,
vehicles, and vessels. Sometimes referred
to as "off-road" or "off-highway," the
nonroad category includes garden tractors,
lawnmowers, bulldozers, and cranes.
Although nonroad engines can be self-
propelled, their primary function is to
perform a particular task. See Appendix I:
"Mobile sources" for more information.
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health
Administration. See Appendix L:
"Resources" for more information.
Outdoor air supply - Air brought into a
building from the outdoors (often through
the ventilation system) that has not been
previously circulated through the system.
Oxidation Catalyst - A type of catalyst
(catalytic converter) that chemically
converts hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide to water vapor and carbon
dioxide.
Particulate Filter/Trap - An
aftertreatment, anti-pollution device
designed to trap particles in diesel
particulate matter from engine exhaust
before they can escape into the atmosphere.
Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2 5) -
See "Fine Particulate Matter".
Plenum - Unducted air compartment
used to return air to central air handling
unit.
Pollutant Pathways - Avenues for
distribution of pollutants in a
building. HVAC systems are the primary
pathways in most buildings; however, all
building components and occupants
interact to affect how pollutants are
distributed. See Section 2:
"Understanding IAQ Problems" for more
information.
Pollutants (Pollution) - Unwanted
chemicals or contaminants found in the
environment. Pollutants can harm human
health, the environment, and property. Air
pollutants occur as gases, liquid droplets,
and solids. Once released into the
environment, many pollutants can persist,
travel long distances, and move from one
environmental medium (e.g., air, water,
land) to another.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) -
Mixtures of synthetic organic chemicals
with the same basic chemical structure
and similar physical properties ranging
from oily liquids to waxy solids. PCBs
were used in hundreds of industrial and
commercial applications including
electrical, heat transfer, and hydraulic
equipment; as plasticizers in paints,
plastics, and rubber products; in pigments,
dyes, and carbonless copy paper, and
many other applications. Production of
PCBs in the United States ceased in 1977.
Positive Pressure - Condition that exists
when more air is supplied to a space than
is exhausted, so the air pressure within
that space is greater than that in
surrounding areas. Under this condition, if
an opening exists, air will flow from the
positively pressurized space into
surrounding areas.
PPM - Parts per million.
Pressure, Static - In flowing air, the total
pressure minus velocity pressure. The
portion of the pressure that pushes equally
in all directions.
Pressure, Total - In flowing air, the sum
of the static pressure and the velocity
pressure.
Pressure, Velocity - The pressure due to
the air flow rate and density of the air.
Preventive Maintenance - Regular and
systematic inspection, cleaning, and
replacement of worn parts, materials, and
systems. Preventive maintenance helps to
prevent parts, material, and systems
failure by ensuring that parts, materials,
and systems are in good working order.
Psychogenic Illness - This syndrome has
been defined as a group of symptoms that
develop in an individual (or a group of
individuals in the same indoor
environment) who are under some type of
physical or emotional stress. This does not
mean that individuals have a psychiatric
disorder or that they are imagining
symptoms.
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Radon - A colorless, odorless gas that
occurs naturally in almost all soil and
rock. Radon migrates through the soil and
groundwater and can enter buildings
through cracks or other openings in the
foundation. Radon can also enter through
well water. Exposure to radon can cause
lung cancer. See Appendix G: "Radon"
and Appendix E: "Typical Indoor Air
Pollutants" for more information.
Re-entry - Situation that occurs when the
air being exhausted from a building is
immediately brought back into the system
through the air intake and other openings
in the building envelope.
Retrofit - An engine "retrofit" includes
(but is not limited to) any of the following
activities:
• Addition of new/better pollution
control aftertreatment equipment to
certified engines.
• Upgrading a certified engine to a
cleaner certified configuration.
• Upgrading an uncertified engine to a
cleaner "certified-like" configuration.
• Conversion of any engine to a cleaner
fuel.
• Early replacement of older engines with
newer (presumably cleaner) engines (in
lieu of regular expected rebuilding).
• Use of cleaner fuel and/or emissions
reducing fuel additive (without engine
conversion).
SBS - See "Sick Building Syndrome."
Sanitizer - One of three groups of anti-
microbials registered by EPA for public
health uses. EPA considers an
antimicrobial to be a sanitizer when it
reduces but does not necessarily eliminate
all the microorganisms on a treated
surface. To be a registered sanitizer, the
test results for a product must show a
reduction of at least 99.9 percent in the
number of each test microorganism over
the parallel control.
Secondhand Smoke - See Appendix F:
"Secondhand Smoke" for more information.
Short-circuiting - Situation that occurs
when the supply air flows to return or
exhaust grilles before entering the
breathing zone (area of a room where
people are). To avoid short-circuiting, the
supply air must be delivered at a
temperature and a velocity that result in
mixing throughout the space.
Sick Building Syndrome - Term
sometimes used to describe situations in
which building occupants experience
acute health and/or comfort effects that
appear to be linked to time spent in a
particular building, but where no specific
illness or cause can be identified. The
complaints may be localized in a
particular room or zone, or may be spread
throughout the building.
Soil Gases - Gases that enter a building
from the surrounding ground (e.g., radon,
volatile organic compounds, gases from
pesticides in the soil).
Sources - Sources of indoor air pollutants.
Indoor air pollutants can originate within
the building or be drawn in from outdoors.
Common sources include people, room
furnishings such as carpeting,
photocopiers, art supplies, etc. See
Section 5: "Diagnosing IAQ Problems"
for more information.
Stack Effect - The flow of air that results
from warm air rising, creating a positive
pressure area at the top of a building and a
negative pressure area at the bottom of a
building. In some cases the stack effect
may overpower the mechanical system and
disrupt ventilation and circulation in a
building.
Sterilizer - One of three groups of anti-
microbials registered by EPA for public
health uses. EPA considers an
antimicrobial to be a sterilizer when it
destroys or eliminates all forms of
bacteria, fungi, viruses, and their spores.
Because spores are considered the most
difficult form of a microorganism to
destroy, EPA considers the term sporicide
to be synonymous with "sterilizer."
TVOCs - Total volatile organic compounds.
See "Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)."
ULSD - Ultra-low Sulfur Fuel. The
manufacturers of retrofit technologies,
which reduce sulfur emissions, specify the
maximum allowable sulfur level for
effective operation of its products. For the
purposes of the diesel retrofit program,
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diesel fuel must contain less than 15 ppm
sulfur to be considered as ultra-low sulfur
fuel. The use of ultra-low sulfur fuel alone
can reduce emissions of paniculate
matter. Sulfate, a major constituent of
particulate matter, is produced as a
byproduct of burning diesel fuel
containing sulfur. Reducing the sulfur
content of fuel, in turn, reduces sulfate
byproducts of combustion and, therefore,
particulate matter emissions.
Unit Ventilator - A single fan-coil unit
designed to satisfy tempering and
ventilation requirements for individual
rooms.
VOCs - See "Volatile Organic
Compounds."
Ventilation Air - Defined as the total air,
which is a combination of the air brought
inside from outdoors and the air that is
being recirculated within the building.
Sometimes, however, used in reference
only to the air brought into the system
from the outdoors; this document defines
this air as "outdoor air ventilation."
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) -
Compounds are a gas at room tempera-
ture. Common sources that may emit
VOCs into indoor air include housekeep-
ing and maintenance products and
building and furnishing materials. In
sufficient quantities, VOCs can cause eye,
nose, and throat irritations, headaches,
dizziness, visual disorders, memory
impairment; some are known to cause
cancer in animals; some are suspected of
causing, or are known to cause, cancer in
humans. At present, not much is known
about what health effects occur at the
levels of VOCs typically found in public
and commercial buildings. See Appendix
E: "Typical Indoor Air Pollutants" for
more information.
Zone - The occupied space or group of
spaces within a building that has its
heating or cooling controlled by a single
thermostat.
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Index
air
distribution
19,34
flow
23, 24, 28, 82, 83
movement
6, 7, 25, 27, 46, 47
air filters
54,79
air handling unit
5, 79, 80, 82
air pressure
6, 24, 25, 82
allergens
1,7,29,30,31,34,45,48,71
animals
39
antimicrobial
79, 80, 83
art supplies
83
asbestos
4,21,34,59,60,61,63,67,68,71,
72, 73, 79
ASHRAE
5, 6, 17, 24, 25, 27, 28, 34, 36, 63, 66,
76, 77, 78, 79
asthma
1,2,3,6,9,13,29,30,31,32,34,36,
39,45,48,49,59,62,71,72,79,81
B
basic measurement equipment
25
biological contaminants
13, 33, 34, 73, 74, 79
building occupants
3,5,7,11,30,45,70,83
building-related illness
21,79
carbon dioxide
25, 33, 34, 80, 82
carbon monoxide
1,2, 13,33,34,49,59,74,80,82
carpet
3, 30, 31, 34, 45, 53, 54, 55, 63, 75, 83
chemical smoke
25,27
cleaning agents
33
codes
3,4,6,17,18,19,27,28,63,77
combustion appliances
34, 36, 74
communication
3,5,9,10,11,13,14,23,50,58,67,
69,70
condensation
45,48
construction
3, 27, 28, 34, 36, 43, 44, 49, 53, 54,
55, 62, 68, 72, 73, 76
D
dampers
80
diagnosing an IAQ problem
15
diesel engine
32,36,80
diffuser
47,80
disinfectants
80
drafts
7,16
drain trap
4,80
ductwork
4,79
dust
34,36
dust mites
1,29,31,33,34,79
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E
education
2, 18, 21, 27, 34, 39, 40, 52, 53, 55,
57, 62, 63, 65, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77
emergency response
13,73,79
exposure control
17
E
fans
4, 6, 47
flooring
4,9
food
2,4,29,30,31,34,36,45,57,81
formaldehyde
31,33,49,53,75
fume hoods
6
fumes
17,34
grille
24, 25, 54, 79, 80, 83
H
health problems
1,3,27,45
heating system
24, 25,47
housekeeping
3, 19, 34, 58, 84
humidity
1,4,5,6,25,27,30,34,45,46,47
IAQ Coordinator
7,9, 10, 12, 14, 15,43,50,81
IAQ Management Plan
9
IAQ measurements
19, 22, 23
IAQ problems
21,23
integrated pest management (IPM)
30,34
lead
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28,
29, 30, 33, 34, 36, 39,45, 52, 67, 68,
81
leaks
30,45,46,55,80
local exhaust
17, 19
locker room
45,46
M
maintenance
1, 2, 3, 7, 13, 18, 19, 24, 25, 27, 34,
47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58,
68,73,74,77,81,82,84
mobile sources
3,49,50,52,79,81,82
moisture
6, 18, 30, 34, 45, 46, 47, 48, 54, 57, 73
mold
1,3,4,5,6,29,30,33,34,45,46,47,
48, 53, 55, 73, 79
N
natural disaster
43
nitrogen oxides
32,33,36,49
O
odors
4, 5, 6, 9, 19, 53
off-gassing
18,53
OSHA
27,28,34,59,61,66,78,79,82
outdoor air intake
5, 17, 24, 25, 54
outdoor air supply
19, 54, 82
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paint
3,4,9,17,34,36,64,75
parents
1,2,3,9, 10, 11, 13, 14,30,39,58,
68,70,71,72
pest control
9, 57, 58, 65, 73, 74
pesticides
3,4,5,17,33,34,51,57,58,60,61,
67, 68, 74, 83
pollutants
3,6,19,22,25,27,28,31,32,33,36,
49, 50, 53, 54, 62, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80,
81,82,83,84
professional assistance
3, 6, 20, 21
R
radon
3,6,5,21,27,28,33,34,41,43,44,
59, 60, 61, 62, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 82,
83
relative humidity
1,4,5,6,25,27,34,45,46,47
renovation
9, 18,27,28,43,44,76,81
retrofit (engine)
32, 50, 52, 60, 67, 68, 83
roof
3,9,45,47,54,55,81
temperature
25,27
thermal bridges
48
thermal comfort
77
thermostats
5,47
tobacco smoke
34,39,70,71
U
unit ventilators
5
ventilation
23, 24, 25, 28, 34,44, 77
ventilation system
23, 25, 28, 34
volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
23
W
water
34,36,61,68
sample memo
50
school bus
1, 2, 17, 27, 32, 43, 49, 50, 52, 67, 76
science supplies
2
secondhand smoke
3,6,29,30,31,33,34,39,59,61,70,
71,80,83
solvents
33
solving IAQ problems
3,5,3,13,15,17,21
sources
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,12,13,15,16,17,
18,22,23,25,27,30,31,33,34,36,
43, 44,47, 49, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57, 58,
59, 60, 62, 66, 67, 71, 72, 74, 76, 77,
79,80,81,82,83,84
spills
13, 16,45,81
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