United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Transportation and Air Quality
Transportation and Regional
Programs Division
EPA420-F-00-034
March 2002
www.epa.gov
UCCESS STOfty
As they travel from
house to house, meter read-
ers for public utility com-
pany Virginia Power are
enjoying quiet, clean rides
in their EVs. The compa-
ny's 17 EV pickup trucks
can travel 50 miles on a
single battery charge.
The utility began pur-
chasing EVs in 1993 to test
and promote their use. As
an electricity provider, EVs
make good business sense
to Virginia Power. But the
company also is interested
in cutting U.S. dependence
on foreign oil and promot-
ing a cleaner, more energy-
efficient technology.
For more information on
Virginia Power's fleet of
EVs, contact Arlie Hahn at
(804) 257-4008.
Clean
Fuels:
Electric Vehicles
One in a series of fact sheets
More than 4,000 electric vehicles (EVs) are traveling U.S. roads and
highways. Although some EVs are found nationwide, California has
the greatest concentration of the alternative fuel vehicles. EVs do
not produce tailpipe emissions, but generators producing the electricity used to
charge EV batteries do emit pollutants.
Electricity for EVs is produced by power
plants, which send it to substations
through transmission lines and then to
homes and businesses through distribu-
tion systems. An EVs electric motor con-
verts electricity—usually from a battery
pack—into mechanical power that runs
the vehicle. After a certain vehicle driving
range, however, EV batteries must be
recharged.
AVAILABILITY
Several major auto manufacturers are pro-
ducing high-performance EVs, including
passenger cars, minivans, sport utility
vehicles, pickup trucks, and buses.
Homes, government facilities, and busi-
nesses must have adequate capacity for
vehicle recharging, however, and special
outlet hookups or upgrades may be
required. In California and Arizona, some
shopping malls, grocery stores, hotels, and
banks have chargers in place to fuel elec-
tric vehicles.
Auto manufacturers also are beginning
to sell "hybrid" vehicles that combine an
electric motor with a separate gasoline or
diesel engine. Hybrid vehicles can more
than double the gas mileage of conven-
tional gasoline- or diesel-powered cars and
can cut emissions significantly. Hybrid
vehicles do not require the use of recharg-
ing stations.
EV BATTERY
The following types of batteries have
the potential to power electric vehicles:
• Lead-Acid — Provides a low-cost,
low- range (less than 1 00 miles)
option with a 3-year life cycle.
• Nickel-Metal Hydride — Offers a
greater driving range and life cycle,
but is currently more expensive
than lead- acid batteries.
• Nickel-Cadmium — Offers a range of
100 miles, a long life, and faster
recharges than lead-acid batteries,
but is more expensive and has lower
peak power and recharging efficiency.
• Lithium-Ion — Offers the potential
for a long driving range and life
cycle, but is currently very costly.
• Zinc- Air — Currently under devel-
opment. Provides superior perfor-
mance compared to current battery
technology.
• Flywheels — Currently under develop-
ment. Could be capable of storing a
larger amount of energy in smaller,
lighter weight systems than chemical
batteries.
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AFFORDABILITY
PERFORMANCE
MAINTENANCE
At $15,000 to $40,000, EVs cost
more than comparable, mass-pro-
duced gasoline- or diesel-powered
vehicles. Some manufacturers lease
EVs to minimize maintenance costs
and potential risks such as lower
resale values associated with the new
technology. To encourage EV pur-
chases, some government agencies
offer incentives to offset the higher
initial costs. For example, the federal
government provides a tax credit
equal to 10 percent (up to $4,000) of
the purchase cost of an EV. Some
states offer partial sales tax exemp-
tions, one-time income tax credits, or
reduced license and registration fees.
EV purchase prices can potentially
be offset by lower "fuel" and mainte-
nance costs. The average monthly
electricity cost for a typical EV driver
is less than $15, compared to $50 for
gasoline. If EVs are recharged
overnight, off-peak rates can decrease
the cost of powering the vehicles. EVs
can also have lower maintenance costs
because they have fewer moving parts
than internal combustion engines and
do not require tune-ups or oil
changes. One obstacle to affordability,
however, is that EVs' lead-acid batter-
ies must be replaced every 3 years at a
cost of approximately $8,000.
Testing has demonstrated that EV
acceleration, speed, and handling can
equal or exceed that of conventional
vehicles. EVs are also more energy
efficient and produce less noise than
gasoline- or diesel-powered vehicles,
particularly in stop-and-go traffic,
because the engine does not run if
the car is not moving.
Currently, a large drawback is that
the driving range of EVs is much less
than that for gasoline- or diesel-pow-
ered vehicles. Depending on battery
type, climate, and terrain, an EV can
travel from 40 to 120 miles on a sin-
gle battery charge. There are also
space considerations with EVs
because their batteries can be large
and heavy, resulting in less room for
cargo or passengers.
SAFETY
EVs must meet the same safety stan-
dards as conventional vehicles. In
some instances, research shows that
EVs can be safer than gasoline-pow-
ered vehicles. EVs usually have lower
centers of gravity, making them less
likely to roll over in an accident. The
danger of fire in a collision is also
substantially reduced because EVs do
not have a gas tank or reservoir of
engine lubricating oil. As with con-
ventional vehicles, however, EV bat-
teries contain toxic elements that
raise battery production, transport,
use, and disposal safety issues.
EVs do not require tune-ups or oil
changes associated with conventional
vehicles. In addition, EVs do not
have timing belts, water pumps, radi-
ators, fuel injectors, or tailpipes to
replace. Battery recharging can be a
frequent and lengthy process, howev-
er, taking 4 to 14 hours depending
on the battery type and the voltage
level used in recharging. High-volt-
age, fast-charging units (which take
approximately 10 to 20 minutes to
charge) are under development. Cur-
rently, they are being designed for
limited use by some fleet operators
and public charging locations.
For More Information
EPA Alternative Fuels Web Site
www.epa.gov/otaq/consumer/
fuels/altfuels/altfuels.htm
Electric Vehicle Association of
the Americas
701 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Fourth Floor
Washington, DC 20004
Phone: 202 508-5995
Fax: 202 508-5924
Web site: www.evaa.org
Alternative Fuel Refueling
Station Locator
Web site: afdcmap.nrel.gov/nrel
Alternative Fuels Data Center
Web site: www.afdc.nrel.gov
National Alternative Fuels
Hotline
Phone: 800 423-1 DOE
Printed on paper that contains at least 30 percent postconsumer fiber.
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