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Managing Wet Weather with Green Infrastructure
Municipal Handbook
Rainwater Harvesting Policies
prepared by
Christopher Kloss
Low Impact Development Center
The Municipal Handbook is a series of documents
to help local officials implement green infrastructure in their communities.
December 2008
EPA-833-F-08-010
Front Cover Photos
Top: rain garden; permeable pavers; rain barrel;
planter; tree boxes.
Large photo: cisterns in the Wissahickon
Charter School's Harmony Garden in
Philadelphia
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Rainwater Harvesting Policies
Introduction
From the last half of the 20th century, the U.S. has enjoyed nearly universal access to abundant supplies of
potable water. But as witnessed by the recent serious and sustained droughts in the Southeast and
Southwest, this past luxury is not something that can be expected for the long term. Future population
growth will exert more demand on water systems while climate change is predicted to decrease available
supplies because of decreased snow pack and drier regional climatic patterns. The U.S. has been
identified as a country that faces imminent water shortages and a Government Accountability Office
(GAO) survey found that water managers in 36 states anticipate water shortages during the first two
decades of this century.1 These challenges will require a more sustainable approach to using water
resources, looking at not only how much water is used, but also the quality of water needed for each use.
The overwhelming majority of the water used in the U.S. comes from freshwater supplies of surface and
groundwater. Water extracted for public systems is treated to potable standards as defined by the Safe
Drinking Water Act. Access to high quality water has greatly benefited public health, but it has also
resulted in our current system that utilizes potable water for virtually every end use, even when lesser
quality water would be sufficient. In addition to conservation methods, using alternative sources of water
will be necessary for more efficient use of water resources.
Rainwater harvesting, collecting rainwater from impervious surfaces and storing it for later use, is a
technique that has been used for millennia. It has not been widely employed in industrialized societies
that rely primarily on centralized water distribution systems, but with limited water resources and
stormwater pollution recognized as serious problems and the emergence of green building, the role that
rainwater harvesting can play for water supply is being reassessed. Rainwater reuse offers a number of
benefits.2
• Provides inexpensive supply of water;
• Augments drinking water supplies;
• Reduces stormwater runoff and pollution;
• Reduces erosion in urban environments;
• Provides water that needs little treatment for irrigation or non-potable indoor uses;
• Helps reduce peak summer demands; and
• Helps introduce demand management for drinking water systems.
Rainwater harvesting has significant potential to provide environmental and economic benefits by
reducing stormwater runoff and conserving potable water, though several barriers exist that limit its
application. The U.S. uses more water per capita than any other country, with potable water delivered for
the majority of domestic and commercial applications. Typical domestic indoor per capita water use,
shown in Table 1, is 70 gallons per day (gpd); however outdoor water use can constitute 25% to 58% of
overall domestic demand, increasing per capita domestic use up to 165 gpd.
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Table 1. Typical Domestic Daily per Capita Water Use.3
Use
Potable indoor uses
• Showers
• Dishwashers
• Baths
• Faucets
• Other uses, leaks
Subtotal
Non-potable indoor uses
• Clothes washers
• Toilets
Subtotal
Outdoor uses
Gallons per Capita
11.6
1.0
1.2
10.9
11.1
35.8
15.0
18.5
33.5
95.7
% of Daily Total
7.0%
0.6%
0.8%
6.6%
6.7%
21.7%
9.1%
11.2%
20.3%
58.0%
While potable water is used almost exclusively for domestic uses, almost 80% of demand does not require
drinkable water. Similar trends exist for commercial water use. Table 2 provides examples of daily
commercial water usage.
Table 2. Typical Daily Water Use for Office Buildings and Hotels.4
Use
Potable indoor uses
Showers
• Faucets
• Kitchen
• Other uses
Subtotal
Non-potable indoor uses
• Toilets/urinals
• Laundry
• Cooling
Subtotal
Outdoor uses
Office Buildings
% of Daily Total
1%
3%
10%
14%
25%
23%
48%
38%
Hotels
% of Daily Total
27%
1%
10%
19%
57%
9%
14%
10%
33%
10%
Both the domestic and commercial water use statistics show that potable water is often being utilized for
end uses that could be satisfied with lesser quality water. The statistics also indicate that nearly all water
is used in a one-time pass through manner, with little attempt at reuse. Rainwater harvesting offers an
alternative water supply that can more appropriately match water use to the quality of water supplied.
Rainwater harvesting systems typically divert and store runoff from residential and commercial roofs.
Often referred to as 'clean' runoff, roof runoff does contain pollutants (metals or hydrocarbons from
roofing materials, nutrients from atmospheric deposition, bacteria from bird droppings), but they are
generally in lower concentrations and absent many of the toxics present in runoff from other impervious
surfaces. Installing a rainwater collection system requires diverting roof downspouts to cisterns or rain
barrels to capture and store the runoff. Collection containers are constructed of dark materials or buried to
prevent light penetration and the growth of algae.5 From the storage container, a dual plumbing system is
needed for indoor uses and/or a connection to the outdoor irrigation system.
Regulations
Although a few states and local jurisdictions have developed standards or guidelines for rainwater
harvesting, it is largely unaddressed by regulations and codes. Neither the Uniform Plumbing Code
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(UPC) nor International Plumbing Code (IPC) directly address rainwater harvesting in their potable or
stormwater sections. Other reuse waters are covered by codes. The UPC's Appendix J addresses
reclaimed water use for water closets and urinals and the IPC's Appendix C addresses gray water use for
water closets and urinals along with subsurface irrigation.6 Both sections focus on treatment requirements,
measures necessary to prevent cross-contamination with potable water, and appropriate signage and
system labeling. However, because of a general lack of specific rainwater harvesting guidance some
jurisdictions have regulated harvested rainwater as reclaimed water, resulting in more stringent
requirements than necessary. These issues have led to confusion as to what constitutes harvested
rainwater, graywater, or reclaimed water.7
UPC Definitions -Waters for Reuse8
Graywater- untreated wastewater that has not come in
to contact with black water (sewage). Graywater
includes used water from bathtubs, showers, lavatories,
and water from clothes washing machines.
Reclaimed wafer- water treated to domestic
wastewater tertiary standards by a public agency
suitable for a controlled use, including supply to water
closets, urinals, and trap seal primers for floor drains
and floor sinks. Reclaimed water is conveyed in purple
pipes (California's purple pipe system is one of the
better known water reclamation systems).
Harvested rainwater- stormwater that is conveyed
from a building roof, stored in a cistern and disinfected
and filtered before being used for toilet flushing. It can
also be used for landscape irrigation.
The confusion among waters for reuse and the
lack of uniform national guidance has resulted
in differing use and treatment guidelines among
state and local governments and presents an
impediment to rainwater reuse. Texas promotes
harvested rainwater for any use including
potable uses provided appropriate treatment is
installed; Portland, like many other
jurisdictions, generally recommends rainwater
use to the non-potable applications of irrigation,
hose bibbs, water closets, and urinals.
To develop general or national guidance for
rainwater harvesting, several factors must be
considered. While potable use is possible for
harvested rainwater, necessary on-site treatment
and perceived public health concerns will likely limit the quantity of rainwater used for potable demands.
Irrigation and the non-potable uses of water closets, urinals and HVAC make-up are the end uses that are
generally the best match for harvested rainwater. A lesser amount of on-site treatment is required for
these uses and, as seen from the use statistics presented above, these uses constitute a significant portion
of residential and commercial demand. Focusing harvested rainwater on irrigation and selected non-
potable indoor uses can significantly lower demand while allowing a balance and public comfort level
between municipal potable water and reused rainwater.
Guidance for the reuse of harvested stormwater will be similar to reclaimed water and graywater but will
differ because of lower levels of initial contamination and targeted end uses. The primary concerns of
indoor rainwater reuse are cross-contamination of the potable supply and human contact with bacteria or
pathogens that may be present in the collected rainwater. Portland's Rainwater Harvesting One and Two
Family Dwelling Specialty Code provides a good example
of specific rainwater reuse stipulations. Although the code
doesn't address multi-family residential or non-residential
applications, rainwater reuse is permitted for these facilities,
but due to the unique design of each system, commercial
reuse systems are considered on a case by case basis. In
addition, multi-family residential units and sleeping portions
of hotels are allowed to use rainwater for irrigation only;
non-residential buildings are permitted to use rainwater for
irrigation, water features, water closets and urinals. In these
applications, water provided for water closets and urinals
must be treated with filters and UV and/or chlorinating.9
Tucson Rainwater
Harvesting Requirements
Tucson, Arizona became the first city in the
country to require rainwater harvesting for
landscaping use. Beginning June 1, 2010,
50% of a commercial property's irrigation
water must be supplied from rainwater. In
addition to cisterns, the regulations allow
berms and contoured slopes to be used to
direct rainwater to trees and landscaped
areas.
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Portland's code permits rainwater reuse for
potable uses at family dwellings only
through an appeals process. In addition,
rainwater used only for outdoor irrigation is
not covered by the code and needs no
treatment prior to use. Acceptable indoor
non-potable uses are hose bibbs, water
closets, and urinals. The code illuminates
several important issues that need to be
considered when developing rainwater
harvesting code.
• Water quality - Water quality and
its impact on human health is a
primary concern with rainwater
harvesting. This issue is comprised
of two components: end use of the
rainwater and treatment provided.
Rainwater used for residential
irrigation (on the scale of rain
barrel collection) does not typically
require treatment. Commercial
applications and non-potable
indoor uses require treatment but
the type of use will determine the
extent of treatment. Each
jurisdiction will need to assess the
level of treatment with which it is
comfortable, but limiting rainwater
reuse to water closets, urinals and
hose bibbs presents little human
health risk. Each system will
require some level of screening and
filtration to prevent particles and
debris from traveling through the
plumbing system, and most
jurisdictions require disinfection
with UV or chlorination because of
bacterial concerns. Table 3
provides an example of minimum
water quality guidelines and
suggested treatment methods for collected rainwater.
A review of treatment standards among various jurisdictions shows a wide range of
requirements from minimal treatment to reclaimed water standards. A recent memorandum of
understanding from the City and County of San Francisco allows rainwater to be used for toilet
flushing without being treated to potable standards. Texas requires filtration and disinfection for
non-potable indoor uses, and Portland requires filtration for residential non-potable indoor uses,
but requires filtration and disinfection for multi-family and commercial applications. Treatment
requirements ultimately come down to risk exposure with risk of bacterial exposure determining
the most stringent levels of treatment. However, San Francisco's Memorandum or
Understanding indicates a belief in a low exposure risk with rainwater when used for toilet
flushing. Likewise, testing conducted in Germany demonstrated that the risk of E. coli contact
with the human mouth from toilet flushing was virtually non-existent, resulting in the
Excerpts of General Requirements
Portland Rainwater Harvesting Code Guide
General
• Harvested rainwater may only be used for water
closets, urinals, hose bibbs, and irrigation.
• Rainwater can only be harvested from roof surfaces.
• The first 10 gallons of roof runoff during any rain event
needs to be diverted away from the cistern to an Office
of Planning & Development Review (OPDR) approved
location.
Rainwater Harvesting System Components
• Gutters - All gutters leading to the cistern require leaf
screens with openings no larger than 0.5 inches across
their entire length including the downspout opening.
• Roof washers - Rainwater harvesting systems
collecting water from impervious roofs are required to
have a roof washer for each cistern. Roof washers are
not required for water collected from green roofs or
other pervious surfaces. The roof washer is required to
divert at least the first 10 gallons of rainfall away from
the cistern and contain 18 inches of sand, filter fabric,
and 6 inches of pea gravel to ensure proper filtration.
• Cisterns - Material of construction shall be rated for
potable water use. Cisterns shall be able to be filled
with rainwater and the municipal water system. Cross-
contamination of the municipal water system shall be
prevented by the use of (1) a reduced pressure
backflow assembly or (2) an air gap. Cisterns shall be
protected from direct sunlight.
• Piping - Piping for rainwater harvesting systems shall
be separate from and shall not include any direct
connection to any potable water piping. Rainwater
harvesting pipe shall be purple in color and labeled
"CAUTION: RECLAIMED WATER, DO NOT DRINK"
every four feet in length and not less than once per
room.
• Labeling - Every water closet or urinal supply, hose
bibb or irrigation outlet shall be permanently identified
with an indelibly marked placard stating: "CAUTION:
RECLAIMED WATER, DO NOT DRINK."
• Inspections - Inspections are required of all elements
prior to being covered.
• Maintenance - Property owner is responsible for all
maintenance.
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recommendation that special disinfection measures were unnecessary for rainwater dedicated to
non-potable uses.
10
The level of treatment required by each municipality can influence the number of harvesting
systems installed. Filtration and disinfection are not expensive treatment requirements but each
treatment requirement adds a cost to the system. Simplifying the treatment requirements when
there is not a threat to public health lowers the cost for private entities to install systems and
encourages broader adoption of the practice.
• Cross-contamination - Cross-contamination of the potable water system is a critical concern for
any water reuse system. Cross-contamination measures for rainwater reuse systems will be
similar to those for reclaimed and graywater systems. When rainwater is integrated as a
significant supply source for a non-potable indoor use, a potable make-up supply line is needed
for dry periods and when the collected rainwater supply is unable to meet water demands. The
make-up supply to the cistern is the point of greatest risk for cross-contamination of the potable
supply. Codes will require a backflow prevention assembly on the potable water supply line, an
air gap, or both. In addition to backflow prevention, the use of a designated, dual piping system
is also necessary. Purple pipes, indicating reused water, are most often used to convey rainwater
and are accompanied by pipe stenciling and point-of-contact signage that indicates the water is
non-potable and not for consumption.
• Maintenance and inspection - The operation and maintenance of rainwater harvesting systems
is the responsibility of the property owner. Municipal inspections occur during installation and
inspections of backflow prevention systems are recommended on an annual basis. For the
property owner, the operation of a rainwater harvesting system is similar to a private well.
Especially for indoor uses annual water testing to verify water quality is recommended as well
as regular interval maintenance to replace treatment system components such as filters or UV
lights. The adoption and use of rainwater harvesting systems will add to the inspection
responsibilities of the municipal public works department, but the type of inspection, level of
effort, and documentation required will be similar to those of private potable water systems and
should be readily integrated into the routine of the inspection department.
Table 3. Minimum Water Quality Guidelines and Treatment Options for Stormwater Reuse.1
Use
Potable indoor uses
Non-potable indoor uses
Outdoor uses
Minimum Water Quality
Guidelines
• Total coliforms - 0
• Fecal coliforms - 0
• Protozoan cysts - 0
• Viruses - 0
• Turbidity < 1 NTU
• Total coliforms < 500 cfu per
100 mL
• Fecal coliforms < 100 cfu per
100 mL
N/A
Suggested Treatment Options
• Pre-filtration - first flush diverter
• Cartridge filtration - 3 micron
sediment filter followed by 3 micron
activated carbon filter
• Disinfection - chlorine residual of 0.2
ppm or UV disinfection
• Pre-filtration - first flush diverter
• Cartridge filtration - 5 micron
sediment filter
• Disinfection - chlorination with
household bleach or UV disinfection
Pre-filtration - first flush diverter
*cfu - colony forming units
*NTU - nephelometric turbidity units
Institution Issues and Barriers
Although stormwater reuse offers environmental and economic benefits, its use has remained relatively
limited. This is caused by a number of perceived and actual barriers. The high rate of water consumption
in the U.S. is coupled with water cost rates that are among the lowest. For example, U.S. water use is
approximately twice that of Europe, but the annual cost of household water bills are roughly equal. The
cost of water in the U.S. ranges from $0.70 to $4 per thousand gallons, with the national average cost
5
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slightly more than $2 for a thousand gallons. Price, therefore, creates little incentive for conservation or
the use of alternative sources.12
m
»»WNV»»P<
a** MI f '.
Residential rain barrels are an inexpensive and easy retrofit that reduces stormwater
runoff and provides irrigation water. Photo at left: District of Columbia Water & Sewer
Authority; Photo at right: Ann English.
San Francisco Rainwater Harvesting MOU
In 2008, San Francisco's Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC), Department of Building Inspection (DBI), and
Department of Public Health (DPH) signed a Memorandum of Understanding for the permitting requirements for
rainwater harvesting systems located within the City and County of San Francisco. The MOU encourages rainwater
harvesting and its reuse for non-potable applications without requiring treatment to potable water standards. It also
defines the roles of the participating agencies. From the MOU:
• The SFPUC will create and distribute guidance and material on rainwater harvesting. The material will cover
system design, system components, allowable uses, owner responsibilities, and permitting requirements. The
SFPUC will encourage all rainwater harvesters to notify the SFPUC with the design specifications of their
systems for research purposes.
• DBI will issue permits for construction of properly designed rainwater harvesting systems for non-potable
uses that meet the minimum criteria described in the MOU and in guidance materials prepared by the
SFPUC. DBI will be responsible for review of permit applications and inspection of rainwater harvesting
systems that require permits.
• DPH will review rainwater harvesting projects that propose any residential indoor uses of rainwater other than
toilet flushing to assure the protection of public health.
It also stipulates that system design, maintenance, and use are the responsibility of the system owner.
The MOU classifies rain barrels and cisterns and defines the allowable uses of harvested rainwater. Water from rain
barrels may be used for irrigation and vehicle washing; it is prohibited to connect rain barrels to indoor or outdoor
plumbing. Water from cisterns connected to indoor plumbing may be used for irrigation, vehicle washing, heating and
cooling, and toilet flushing. If a cistern is not connected to indoor plumbing it cannot be used for toilet flushing.
The MOU also includes safety and maintenance requirements, required system components, labeling requirements,
and DBI permit requirements.
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To better manage natural resources and water infrastructure, EPA has advocated four pillars of
sustainable infrastructure, one of which is full cost pricing of water. Full cost pricing would result in
water rates that reflect the entire suite of costs associated with water delivery: past, present, and future
capital costs and operations and maintenance. Full cost pricing would ideally also include the external
costs associated with the environmental damage and resource depletion created by water use.13'14
However, user fees and other funding sources are insufficient in 29% of water utilities to cover the cost of
providing service, let alone including external costs.15 Insufficient pricing is a significant barrier to
collection and reuse.
Water needed for sanitation, cleaning, and cooking is less
responsive to price than discretionary uses such as
landscaping, but overall, water generally displays inelastic
demand. A 10% increase in domestic prices decreases demand
2 to 4%; a 10% increase in commercial prices decreases
demand 5 to 8%.16 While studies show that price has limited
effect on demand, they also do not consider the option of a
low-cost alternative source of water. Increased prices may not
significantly diminish water use, but may be sufficient to
encourage the use of lower cost alternatives. When faced with
sufficiently priced potable water, the investment in a low cost
alternative that provides continued savings becomes
increasingly favorable.
Regulations and codes also inhibit rainwater collection.
Plumbing codes have been identified as a common barrier.
Whether they make no provisions for rainwater reuse or
require downspouts to be connected to the stormwater collection system, thereby eliminating the
possibility of intervening to intercept roof runoff, code changes are often a necessary first step to enabling
rainwater harvesting. Other regulations complicate the implementation of rainwater harvesting. Western
water rights and the doctrine of "first in time, first in line" access to water can present a barrier to
rainwater harvesting. Colorado interprets its Western water rights laws as prohibiting rainwater
harvesting. The state's interpretation that cisterns and rain barrels prevent runoff from reaching rivers and
thereby decrease a downstream user's allotted water right has been questioned, but it currently prohibits
rainwater capture and reuse.
Albuquerque-Bernalillo County Building
Standards
In 2008, the Water Utility Authority of
Albuquerque-Bernalillo County instituted
new standards that require rainwater
harvesting systems for new homes.
Buildings larger than 2,500 square feet are
required to have a cistern and pump, while
smaller buildings can use cisterns, rain
barrels, or catchment basins. All rainwater
harvesting systems need to capture the
runoff from at least 85% of the roof area.
The standards also include a requirement
for high efficiency toilets and prohibitions
against installing turf on slopes steeper
than 5:1 and sprinkler irrigating areas
smaller than 10 feet in any dimension.
Rainwater Harvesting in the West
Western water rights can be an impediment to rainwater harvesting efforts because the doctrine of prior appropriation
has created ambiguity about the legality of intercepting and storing rainwater. In the strictest interpretation, diverting
rainwater to a collection system is a taking of a water previously appropriated.
This issue has been overlooked for many community rain barrel initiatives, because the individual storage units are
relatively small. The City of Seattle, however, obtained a citywide water-right permit to ensure the legality of water
harvesting efforts.
State legislation may ultimately be necessary to ensure the legality of rainwater harvesting and establish the upper
capacity limit for rainwater systems. Any efforts should fully assess the watershed impacts of rainwater harvesting
efforts. Colorado law, for instance has assumed that all rainfall eventually reaches groundwater or surface waters and
is therefore appropriated. In the dry regions of the state, however, a study has found that the majority of rainfall on
undeveloped lands is lost to evaporation and transpiration and only a small fraction actually reaches surface waters.
Likewise, rainwater harvesting is a water conservation practice which will reduce the overall withdrawal and use of
water, making a greater quantity of water available for downstream users. Harvested rainwater used for irrigation or
other outdoor uses reapplies the water in a manner similar to normal precipitation. Rainwater used for non-potable
indoor uses is collected in the sanitary system and eventually returned to receiving streams and available for
downstream use.
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Energy and Climate
In addition to the natural resources impacts that water use imparts, water collection, treatment, and
distribution has energy and climate consequences. The connection between water and energy is often
overlooked but the process of extracting water from surface or groundwater supplies, bringing it to
treatment facilities, treating it to drinking water standards, and delivering it to residential and commercial
customers expends energy primarily because of pumping and treatment costs. The water sector consumes
3% of the electricity generated in the U.S. and electricity accounts for approximately one-third of utilities'
operating costs.17 Reducing potable water demand by 10% could save approximately 300 billion kilowatt-
hours of energy each year.18 Water reuse systems, like rainwater harvesting, supplant potable water and
reduce demand. The reduced water demand provided by rainwater harvesting systems translates directly
to energy savings. Table 4 presents estimates of the energy required to deliver potable water to
consumers.
Table 4. Estimated Energy Consumption for
Water Treatment and Distribution.19
Activity
Supply and conveyance
Water Treatment
Distribution
Total
Energy Consumption
kWh/MG
150
100
1,200
1,450
Decreasing potable water demand by 1 million gallons can reduce electricity use by nearly 1,500 kWh.
An inch of rainfall produces 600 gallons of runoff per 1,000 square feet of roof. Coordinated residential
applications and large-scale non-residential rainwater harvesting systems offer an alternative method of
reducing energy use.
Limiting energy demand is significant but the impact that decreased energy demand has on carbon
dioxide emissions is critical. Carbon dioxide emissions associated with electricity generation vary
according to the fossil fuel source. Rough estimates suggest that reducing potable water demand by 1
million gallons can reduce carbon dioxide emissions 1 to \l/2 tons when fossil fuels are used for power
generation (Table 5).
Table 5. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Electric Power Generation.
20
Fuel Type
Coal
Petroleum
Natural gas
CO2 Output Rate
Pounds COz/kWh
2.117
1.915
1.314
CO2 Output per MG Water
Delivered (x 1,450 kWh)
3,070 Ibs
2,775 Ibs
1,905 Ibs
The carbon reductions associated with rainwater harvesting are admittedly not on the order of magnitude
required to significantly impact climate change. However, the connection between potable water use and
energy demand is important to recognize in the broader context of sustainable water management. It is
critical to assess water use not only from a resource availability and protection standpoint, but also with
the aim of improving overall sustainability of which energy is a critical component. As municipalities are
faced with the anticipated CO2 reductions that will be required over the coming decades, decreased
potable water demand (along with other measures such as increased energy efficiency and conservation)
represent the "low hanging fruit" that may provide the quickest and easiest reductions. Rainwater
harvesting along with graywater and reclaimed water reuse represent an integrated water management
approach that can not only limit contributions to climate change, but also protect and conserve limited
water resources developing resiliency to the uncertain effects of climate change.
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Conclusions and Recommendations
Encouraging rainwater harvesting and reuse requires enabling the practice through codes and regulations
and providing incentives. State or municipal codes need to address public health concerns by stipulating
water quality and cross-contamination requirements. Similar to reclaimed and graywater, specific
rainwater harvesting codes need to be developed. Codes should establish acceptable uses for rainwater
and corresponding treatment requirements. Disinfection of rainwater for reuse has been the standard, but
recent research and policies should encourage jurisdictions to evaluate lesser requirements for non-
potable uses in water closets and urinals. The simplification of the on-site treatment process and
associated cost savings could broaden the use of rainwater harvesting without increasing exposure risks.
In addition to code development, incentives for
rainwater harvesting should be instituted. The
incentives should recognize that rainwater is a
resource and that the use of potable water carries
and environmental and economic cost. Current
water policies and rates do not promote
sustainability, with a structure that inadequately
accounts for the value of water and does not
promote conservation. Municipalities should review
their water rates to see if they appropriately account
for the full cost of water. Pricing alternatives such
as increasing block rates, which increase the price
of water with increased use, create an incentive to
conserve potable water. An increased price of
potable water would encourage investment in
rainwater harvesting systems because they offer a
long-term inexpensive supply of water after the
initial capital investment. The combined actions of
establishing certain requirements for rainwater
harvesting systems and increasing the currently
underpriced cost of water creates a complementary
system that can encourage the use of alternative
water sources.
Commercially sized cistern at the Chicago Center for
Green Technology. Photo: Abby Hall, EPA.
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Considerations when Establishing a Municipal Rainwater Harvesting Program
1. Establish specific codes or regulations for rainwater harvesting
• Building and plumbing codes are largely silent on rainwater harvesting. Consequently, graywater
requirements are often used to govern rainwater harvesting systems, resulting in requirements that are more
stringent than necessary. Codes should define rainwater harvesting and establish its position as an
acceptable stormwater management/water conservation practice.
2. Identify acceptable end uses and treatment standards
• Each municipality will need to consider and identify acceptable uses for harvested rainwater and the required
treatment for specified uses. Rainwater is most commonly used for non-potable applications and segregated
by indoor and outdoor uses.
• Typical outdoor uses:
1. Irrigation; and
2. Vehicle washing.
• Typical indoor uses:
1. Toilet flushing;
2. Heating and cooling; and
3. Equipment washing.
• Non-potable uses typically require minimal treatment. Outdoor uses normally need only prescreening to limit
fouling of the collection system. Indoor non-potable uses do not necessarily require treatment beyond
screening, although some municipalities have adopted a conservative approach and require filtration and
disinfection prior to reuse.
• Harvested rainwater can be used for potable applications although a special permitting process should be
established to ensure that proper treatment (e.g., filtration and disinfection) is provided and maintained.
3. Detail required system components
• Jurisdictions often delineate between rain barrels and cisterns because of the size and potential complexity of
the systems. Rain barrels collect relatively small quantities of water and generally only require mosquito
prevention, proper overflow, and an outlet for outdoor uses. Cisterns can be 100 to several thousand gallons
in size and may be connected to various indoor plumbing and mechanical systems. Needed system
requirements include:
• Pre-filtration - Filtration prior to the rain barrel or cistern should be provided to remove solids and debris.
• Storage containers - Rain barrels and cisterns should be constructed of a National Sanitation
Foundation approved storage container listed for potable water use.
• Back-flow prevention - For cisterns that require a potable water make-up for operation, back flow
prevention in the form of an air gap or backflow assembly must be provided.
• Duel piping system - a separate piping system must be provided for harvested rainwater distribution.
The pipe should be labeled and color coded to indicate non-potable water. Purple piping indicating
reclaimed water is often used for rainwater harvesting systems. Cross connections with the potable
water supply system are prohibited.
• Signage - permanent signage should be provided at every outlet and point of contact indicating non-
potable water not for consumption. In addition, biodegradable dyes can be injected to indicate non-
potable water.
4. Permitting
• Rain barrels should not need to be permitted provided that they are installed correctly and direct overflow to a
proper location. A permit application process should be instituted for cistern systems used for non-potable
uses. If harvested rainwater is used for potable water, the collection and treatment system should be
inspected and approved by the public health department.
5. Maintenance
• Adequate design and maintenance of the cistern and piping system is the responsibility of the cistern owner.
6. Rates of reuse
• For harvesting systems to be efficient stormwater retention systems, the collected rainwater needs to be used
in a timely matter to ensure maximum storage capacity for subsequent rain events. Cistern systems generally
supply uses with significant demands, ensuring timely usage of the collected water. Outreach and education
is a critical component of rain barrel programs, however, because of the more episodic and less structured
use of this collected water. Municipalities should inform homeowners of the steps needed to maximize the
effectiveness of their rain barrels. Harvesting programs targeting susceptible combined sewer areas have
used slow draw down of the rain barrels to delay stormwater release to the sewer system, yet ensure
maximum storage capacity for subsequent rain events.
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Case Studies
King Street Center, Seattle
The King Street Center in Seattle uses rainwater for toilet flushing and irrigation. Rainwater from the
building's roof is collected in three 5,400 gallon cisterns. Collected rainwater passes through each tank
and is filtered prior to being pumped to the building's toilets or irrigation system through a separate
piping system. When needed, potable makeup water is added to the cisterns. The collection and reuse
system is able to provide 60% of the annual water needed for toilet flushing, conserving approximately
1.4 million gallons of potable water each year.21
The Solaire, Battery Park City, New York
The 357,000 square foot, 27 floor building was the first high-rise residential structure to receive LEED®
Gold certification. The Solaire was designed to comply with Battery Park City's progressive water and
stormwater standards; more than 2 inches of stormwater must be treated on site to meet the standards.
Rainwater is collected in a 10,000 gallon cistern located in the building's basement. Collected water is
treated with a sand filter and chlorinated according to New York City Standards prior to being reused for
irrigating two green roofs on the building. Treated and recycled blackwater is used for toilet flushing and
make-up water. Water efficient appliances and the rainwater and blackwater reuse system have decreased
potable water use in the building by 50%.22 Because of its innovative environmental features, the Solaire
earned New York State's first-ever tax credit for sustainable construction.
Philip Merrill Building, Annapolis, MD
The Chesapeake Bay Foundation's
headquarters is a LEED® Version 1 Platinum
certified building. Rainwater from the roof is
collected in three exposed cisterns located
above the entrance.25 Roof runoff passes
through roof washers before entering the
cisterns; following the cisterns the water is
treated with a sand filter, chlorination, static
mixer, and carbon filter prior to reuse. The
building uses composting toilets, so the reused
water is used for bathroom and mop sinks, gear
washing, irrigation, fire suppression, and
laundry. The building's design allows for a
90% reduction in potable water use with 73%
of the water used within the building supplied
by the cistern collection system.
23,24
26, 27, 28
Cisterns at CBF headquarters. Photo: Chesapeake Bay
Foundation.
Alberici Corporate Headquarters, Overland, Missouri
Alberici Corporation, a construction company, chose to relocate its corporate headquarters to a 14-acre
site in the St. Louis suburbs in 2004. The site renovation included refurbishing a 150,000 square foot
former metal fabrication facility into a LEED® platinum certified office building. The building design
includes a rainwater collection and reuse system. Rainwater is collected from 60% of the garage roof area
and stored in a 38,000 gallon cistern. The collected water is filtered and chlorinated and used for toilet
flushing and the building's cooling tower. The stormwater reuse system saves 500,000 gallons of water
each year, reducing potable water demand by 70%.29'30
Lazarus Building, Columbus, Ohio
After Federated Department Stores closed the 750,000 square foot retail store in 2002, it donated the
building to the Columbus Downtown Development Corporation. The building renovation completed in
2007 achieved LEED® Gold certification and the building's largest tenant is Ohio EPA. The renovated
building includes a rainwater collection and reuse system. The system makes use of an existing 40,000
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gallon tank on the building's roof and a new 50,000 gallon tank installed in the basement. The collected
rainwater is used for toilet flushing, irrigation, and HVAC makeup. A biodegradable blue dye is added to
the water used for toilet flushing to visually identify it as non-potable water. The system reduces potable
water use in the building by several million gallons a year.31'32
Stephen Epler Hall, Portland State University
PSU's 62,500 square foot mixed-use student housing facility (classrooms and academic office space are
located on the first floor) was completed in 2003 and is LEED® Silver Certified. The stormwater
management system was designed to be engaging to the public; rain from the roofs of Epler Hall and
neighboring King Albert Hall is diverted to several river rock "splash boxes" in the public plaza.33 The
water then travels through channels in the plaza's brick pavers to planter boxes where it infiltrates and is
filtered before being collected in an underground cistern. UV light is used to treat the water prior to its
reuse for toilet flushing in the first floor restroom and irrigation. Placards located in the water closets
indicate that the non-potable toilet flushing water is not for consumption. The stormwater collection and
reuse system conserves approximately 110,000 gallons of potable water annually, providing a savings of
$1,000 each year.34'35
Natural Resources Defense Council's Robert Redford Building, Santa Monica
NRDC's renovation of a 1920s-era structure in downtown Santa Monica achieved LEED® New
Construction, Version 2 Platinum certification. The innovative water systems in the 15,000 square foot
building are a key component of the project's
sustainability. The plumbing system delivers
potable water only to locations where drinking
water is needed, such as faucets and showers.
Water from the showers and sinks is collected in
gray water collection tanks and treated on-site. The
treated graywater is reused for toilet flushing and
landscaping. Rainwater from the building is
collected in outdoor cisterns, which were installed
beneath planters adjacent to the building. The
collected rainwater is filtered prior to being added
to the graywater collection tank as part of the water
reuse system. The graywater/rainwater reuse
system and high-efficiency features such as duel-
flush toilets, waterless urinals, and drought-tolerant
plants reduce potable water demand by 60%. Each
waterless urinal, for instance, saves 40,000 gallons
of water each year.36
The City's plumbing code complicated the
installation of many of the building's water
features. The plumbing code prohibited waterless
toilets or urinals, requiring a resolution that
allowed the waterless urinals to be installed with
water supply stubbed out behind the wall if needed
for future use. The City is now seeking a change to
City Code to allow for waterless urinals to be installed without an available water supply. Similarly,
California's graywater ordinance did not contain a provision for rainwater collection; an agreement was
negotiated with the County Health Department after which the City's Building and Safety Division agreed
to sign off on the plans.37'38
Rainwater cistern at NRDC's Santa Monica Office
(inset photo after planter planting). Photo: NRDC.
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1 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Freshwater Supply: States' View of How Federal Agencies Could Help
Them Meet the Challenges of Expected Shortages, GAO-03-514, July 2003.
Texas Rainwater Harvesting Evaluation Committee, Rainwater Harvesting Potential and Guidelines for Texas,
Report to the 80th Legislature, Texas Water Development Board, Austin, TX, November 2006.
3 American Waterworks Association Research Foundation (AWWARF), Residential End Uses of Water, Denver,
CO, AWWARF, 1999.
4 Pacific Institute, Waste Not, Want Not: The Potential for Urban Water Conservation in California, November
2003.
5 See note 2.
6 Alan Traugott, Reclaimed Water and the Codes, Consulting-Specifying Engineer, April 1, 2007, available at
http://www.csemag.com/article/CA6434236.html (accessed June 2008).
7 Susan R. Ecker, Rainwater Harvesting and the Plumbing Codes, Plumbing Engineer, March 2007, available at
http://www.plunibingengineer.com/march 07/rainwater.php (accessed June 2008).
8 See note 7.
9 City of Portland Office of Planning & Development Review, Rainwater Harvesting - ICC - RES/34/#l &
UPC/6/#2: One & Two Family Dwelling Specialty Code: 2000 Edition; Plumbing Specialty Code: 2000 Edition,
March 13, 2001.
10 See note 7.
11 See note 2.
12 U.S. EPA, Drinking Water Costs & Federal Funding, EPA 816-F-04—038, Office of Water (4606), June
2004.
13 U.S. EPA, Sustainable Infrastructure for Water & Wastewater, January 25, 2008, available at
http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/basicinformation.html (accessed June 2008).
14 U.S. EPA, Water & Wastewater Pricing, December 18, 2006, available at
http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/pricing/About.htm (accessed June 2008).
15 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Water Infrastructure: Information on Financing, Capital Planning,
and Privatization, GAO-02-764, August 2002.
16 U.S. EPA, Water and Wastewater Pricing: An Informational Overview, EPA 832-F-03-027, Office of
Wastewater Management, 2003.
17 G. Tracy Mehan, Energy, Climate Change, and Sustainable Water Management, Environment Reporter - The
Bureau of National Affairs, ISSN 0013-9211, Vol. 38, No. 48, December 7, 2007.
18 Michael Nicklas, Rainwater, High Performance Buildings, Summer 2008.
19 California Energy Commission, California Water - Energy Issues, Public Interest Energy Research Program,
Presented at the Western Region Energy - Water Needs Assessment Workshop, Salt Lake City, Utah, January 10,
2006.
20 U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. EPA, Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Generation of Electric Power
in the United States, July 2000.
21 King County Washington, King Street Center, Water Reclamation, available at
http://www.metrokc.gov/dnrp/ksc_tour/features/features.htm (accessed June 2008).
22
Natural Resources Defense Council, Case Study: The Solaire, Building Green from Principle to Practice,
available at http://www.nrdc.org/buildinggreen (accessed June 2008).
23 Don Talend, Model Citizens - High Rises in Manhattan's Battery Park City are ahead of the Curve in
Residential Water Treatment and Reuse, Onsite Water Treatment: The Journal for Decentralized Wastewater
Treatment Solutions, September/October 2007, available at http://www.forester.net/ow 0709 model.html (accessed
June 2008).
24 Michael Zavoda, NYC High-Rise Reuse Proves Decentralized System Works, WaterWorld, February 2006.
25 Center for the Built Environment, University of California, Berkeley, The Chesapeake Bay Foundation's
Philip Merrill Environmental Center, Mixed Mode Case Studies and Project Database, 2005, available at
http://www.cbe.berkelev.edu/mixedmode/chesapeake.html (accessed June 2008).
26 SmithGroup, CBE Livable Building Awards, Chesapeake Bay Foundation Philip Merrill Environmental
Center.
27 Center for the Built Environment, University of California, Berkeley, Award Winner 2007: Philip Merrill
Environmental Center, Livable Buildings Award, available at
http://www.cbe.berkelev.edu/liveablebuildings/2007merrill.htm (accessed June 2008).
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U.S. Department of Energy, The Philip Merrill Environmental Center, Chesapeake Bay Foundation Annapolis,
Maryland, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, DOE/GO-102002-1533, April 2002.
29 Jessica Boehland, Case Study: Alberici Corporate Headquarters, GreenSource.
30 Alberici Enterprises, Alberici Corporation Builds Green, 2004, available at
http://www.alberici.com/index.cfm/Press%20Room/Alberici%20Corporation%20Builds%20Green (accessed May
2008).
31 National Association of Industrial and Office Properties, Lazarus Building Serves as Example of Sustainable
Development in Renovation of Community, September 19, 2007, available at
http://www.naiop.org/newsrooni.pressreleases/pr07greenaward.cfni (accessed June 2008).
32 Matt Burns, "Green " Lazarus Building Gets National Accolade, Business First of Columbus, September 25,
2007, available at http://columbus.bizjournals.com/columbus/stories/2007/09/24/daily 10.html (accessed June 2008).
33 Interface Engineering, Case Study: Stephen E. Epler Hall, Portland State University.
34 Portland State Sustainability, Stephen Epler Residence Hall, available at
http://www.pdx.eud/sustainabilitv/cs co bg epler hall.html (accessed June 2008).
35 Cathy Turner, A First Year Evaluation of the Energy and Water Conservation of Epler Hall: Direct and
Societal Savings, Department of Environmental Science and Resources, Portland State University, March 16, 2005.
36 Amanda Griscom, Who's the Greenest of Them All - NRDC's New Santa Monica Building May be the Most
Eco-Friendly in the U.S., Grist, November 25, 2003, available at
http://grist.org/news/powers/2003/ll/25/of/index.html (accessed June 2008).
37 Center for the Built Environment, University of California, Berkeley, The Natural Resources Defense Council
- Robert Redford Building (NRDC Santa Monica Office), Mixed Mode Case Studies and Project Database, 2005,
available at http://www.cbe.berkelev.edu/mixedmode/nrdc.html (accessed June 2008).
38 Natural Resources Defense Council, Building Green - CaseStudy, NRDC's Santa Monica Office, February
2006.
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