GROWTH
United States
Agency
IGMA
leaders at the Core of Setter Communities
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SMART GROWTH
FOR COASTAL
AND WATERFRONT
COMMUNITIES
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vvEPA IGMA
UntodStaas I >^ l» UA
JSmSf*"1 leaders at tlie Cm of Better Camuaitia
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Acknowledgments
The authors of this report would like to
thank the numerous people who provided
invaluable input on the text and assistance
with collecting photographs.Through the
incorporation of the smart growth elements
defined in "Smart Growth for Coastal and
Waterfront Communities,"we hope to
positively impact the future of our coastal
and waterfront communities.
http://coastalsmartgrowth.noaa.gov
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Table of Contents
Introduction
Element
Mix land uses, including water-dependent uses
Element
Take advantage of compact community design that enhances,
preserves, and provides access to waterfront resources
Element
Provide a range of housing opportunities and choices to meet
the needs of both seasonal and permanent residents
Element
Create walkable communities with physical and visual access
to and along the waterfront for public use
Element
Element
Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense
of place that capitalizes on the waterfront's heritage
Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and the critical
environmental areas that characterize and support coastal
and waterfront communities
Element
Strengthen and direct development toward existing
communities and encourage waterfront revitalization
Element
Element
Element
Provide a variety of land- and water-based transportation
options
Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-
effective through consistent policies and coordinated
permitting processes
Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in
development decisions, ensuring that public interests in and
rights of access to the waterfront and coastal waters are upheld
Glossary
Endnotes
Photo Credits
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INTRO
Smart Growth
for Coastal and
Waterfront
Communities
2
...many coastal and
waterfront communities
have found that
conventional development
patterns threaten the
assets they treasure most.
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The natural beauty of the water draws people and development to its shores.
Coastal and waterfront communities have a distinctive
sense of place created by their history, as well as by their
characteristic sights, sounds, and smells. On the coast,
the bellow of tugboats and the salty taste of ocean air;
along lakes and rivers, the sound of the water and the
feel of brisk waterborne winds—all come together to
shape our sense of these special places.
The water, beaches, cliffs, rocky shores, and other natural
features attract people and spur development. But many
coastal and waterfront communities have found that
conventional development patterns threaten the assets
they treasure most. Smart growth approaches—guided
by a set of principles that help communities grow
in ways that expand economic opportunity, protect
public health and the environment, and enhance places
that people care about—can help these communities
accommodate development while protecting their
traditional sense of place. Some of these approaches
also can help communities be more resilient to hazards
created by weather and climate, such as drought, sea
level rise, and coastal and inland flooding.
Living near the water has historically been, and is expected
to remain, desirable. Lake and riverfront properties are
typically in demand. Coastal counties, which cover less than
17 percent of the land area in the United States,1 are home
to about 52 percent of the population and are expected
to continue to grow.2 The ways in which cities, towns, and
neighborhoods along the water handle the development
pressures they face will affect their environment, economy,
and quality of life for decades to come.
How can smart growth strategies help coastal
and waterfront communities manage growth and
development while balancing environmental, economic,
and quality of life issues? How can communities on the
water adapt smart growth strategies to fit their unique
character? This publication will help communities answer
these questions. It is specifically targeted to anyone who
plans, designs, builds, approves, or has an interest in
development at the water's edge.
Smart growth is defined by 10 principles. These
principles provide a framework for making growth and
development decisions that yield better economic,
environmental, community, and public health results.
Developed in 1996 by the Smart Growth Network,
a coalition of national and regional organizations
that believe where and how we grow matters, the
principles are based on the characteristics and
experiences of thriving, diverse, and successful
communities. These principles help guide growth and
development in communities that have a clear vision
for their future and understand the values they want
to sustain.
The coastal and waterfront elements presented in this
document augment the existing smart growth principles
to reflect the specific challenges and opportunities
characterizing the waterfront, be it on a coast, a river, or a
lake. These elements provide guidance for communities
to grow in ways that are compatible with their natural
assets, creating great places for residents, visitors, and
businesses (see table on page 4).
This guide begins with an overview of some of the
challenges and opportunities that communities along
the water face. Ten sections follow, one for each of
the smart growth coastal and waterfront elements.
Each section begins with a description of what smart
growth looks like and how it may be applied differently
along the water—and then offers examples, tools, and
techniques for implementing smart growth approaches.
The guide includes regulatory approaches as well as
voluntary, incentive-based tools.
Although this document is organized by individual
elements, the tools and techniques proposed in
each element should be used together to support
a comprehensive approach to achieve multiple
community goals. The guide closes with a glossary of
terms and notes. Additional tools and examples are
provided at http://coastalsmartgrowth.noaa.gov.
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4
_ _ _. SMART GROWTH COASTAL
SMART GROWTH PRINCIPLES ... ._
AND WATERFRONT ELEMENTS
7. Mix land uses
2. Take advantage of compact building design
3. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices
4. Create walkable communities
5. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong
sense of place
6. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical
environmental areas
7. Strengthen and direct development toward
existing communities
8. Provide a variety of transportation options
9. Make development decisions predictable, fair, and
cost effective
1 0. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration
in development decisions
1. Mix land uses, including water-dependent uses
2. Take advantage of compact community design that enhances,
preserves, and provides access to waterfront resources
3. Provide a range of housing opportunities and choices to
meet the needs of both seasonal and permanent residents
4. Create walkable communities with physical and visual access
to and along the waterfront for public use
5. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense
of place that capitalizes on the waterfront's heritage
6. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and the
critical environmental areas that characterize and support
coastal and waterfront communities
7. Strengthen and direct development toward existing
communities and encourage waterfront revitalization
8. Provide a variety of land- and water-based transportation options
9. Make development decisions predictable, fair,andcost
effective through consistent policies and coordinated
permitting processes
10. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in
development decisions, ensuring that public interests in and
rights of access to the waterfront and coastal waters are upheld
Coastal and Waterfront Challenges and Opportunities
Bounded by water, coastal and waterfront communities are challenged to make the best use of limited
land while protecting critical natural resources from the potentially damaging effects of growth. These
communities must consider a common set of overarching issues when managing growth and development.
Resilience to Natural Hazards
and Climate Change
Coastal and waterfront communities must be ready
to respond to and rebound from hazards created
by weather and climate. The uncertainty about
exactly how the climate will change should not stop
communities from acting to protect property and lives.
Although much of the attention on climate change
focuses on sea-level rise and coastal storm intensity,
other potential effects may also affect inland river and
lakefront communities, such as changing water levels
and more extreme precipitation patterns that could
lead to increased flooding and drought.3
Planning with smart growth principles can help
communities make efficient investments in buildings
and other infrastructure, protect and restore critical
environmental areas, and protect public health. In
applying these principles to any development project,
communities need to explicitly consider natural hazards,
including the potential impact of climate change.
Resilience to natural hazards, such as storms and storm
surges, sea-level rise, and shoreline erosion, is inextricably
linked to the siting and design of development, as well
as to the built and green infrastructure that supports it.4
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INTRODUCTION
Coastal and waterfront communities face unique challenges, including how to protect development from shoreline erosion, how to successfully manage
cumulative impacts from development, and how to best balance competing uses of the water and the waterfront.
Well-planned and well-maintained natural systems can
help protect communities in many ways. For example,
natural floodplains can act as protective buffers that
absorb floodwater, reducing the speed and amount of
flooding, controlling erosion, protecting drinking water
supplies and water quality, and insulating buildings and
roads from damage.
Vulnerability to the Combined Effects
of Development
The natural environment that draws residents and
visitors and defines the economy and character of
these communities is vulnerable to both site-specific
development impacts and the cumulative and secondary
effects of development decisions. For example, the
erection of a new dock or pier may have a small natural
resource impact on a large estuary, but if adjacent
channels are deepened to access the new pier, demand
for more docks in nearby areas may increase and cause
more extensive natural resource impacts (a cumulative
impact). Boat and shipping traffic may also rise over
time, causing congestion and additional pollution (a
secondary effect). Residential development and road
building in upland portions of coastal watersheds can also
cause cumulative and secondary coastal impacts, such
as reduced freshwater inflow to coastal areas, degraded
estuarine water quality, and increased air pollution from
increased traffic. The impacts of any single development
project may be minor, but when combined with all other
development impacts to a watershed over time, they
can threaten fragile coastal and waterfront resources
and the quality of life. Policies governing growth and
development along the water must be sensitive to these
unique vulnerabilities and protect the community's
valuable natural assets.
Competing Uses
A growing population creates a greater demand for
land for housing, placing pressure on coastal and
waterfront industries, recreation, and public access
to the water. Non-water-dependent uses, such as
residential waterfront development, can compete
with water-dependent uses like commercial and
recreational fishing and port commerce. Waterfront
and coastal communities must find ways to balance
these uses along the water's edge.
Public Trust Doctrine
Communities must consider the public's right of
access to the water when making development
decisions. The public trust doctrine establishes that all
navigable and historically navigable waters, including
the lands beneath and resources within, are held in
trust by the state for the public's benefit and use. The
doctrine protects a range of uses, including commerce,
navigation, and fishing. This doctrine is a key factor
affecting coastal and waterfront development and
must be considered in all land use decisions involving
the waterfront.
State and Federal Framework
This guide focuses on local solutions, but those solutions
must be crafted in accordance with the state and federal
regulations governing development along the water.
Regulatory issues along the water are complex, with
laws and regulations beyond the environmental, land
use, and transportation rules for inland development.
The Coastal Zone Management Act, the Clean Water
Act, the Rivers and Harbors Act, and other laws give
broad planning and regulatory authority to federal and
state agencies. In addition, a variety of federal agencies
have regulatory authority over floodplain management,
wetland protection, and disaster recovery. Given this
complicated web of regulations, coastal and waterfront
communities must coordinate with many agencies and
make development decisions in a process that is clear
and predictable.
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ELEMENT
Mix land uses,
including water-
dependent uses
6
In coastal and waterfront
communities, thoughtfully
integrating a mix of land
uses with the waterfront
can deliver many benefits
including generating
vibrancy from active,
pedestrian-friendly
streets, sidewalks, and
public spaces.
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Mizner Park in Boca Raton, Florida, features shops, restaurants,
homes, and office space all within easy walking distance.
A mix of restaurants and shops and an active waterfront create a
vibrant community in Newport, Rhode Island.
In contrast to conventional development approaches
that isolate residential, commercial, and civic uses from
one another, mixing these land uses creates vibrant,
sustainable communities. Putting homes, stores,
offices, schools, and other uses close to one another
makes it easier for residents to walk or bike to their
daily destinations instead of driving. Communities
can use existing infrastructure more efficiently,
with the same sidewalks, streets, and utility systems
serving homes, commercial centers, and civic places.
Having these diverse uses in the same neighborhood
generates vibrancy from active, pedestrian-friendly
streets, sidewalks, and public spaces.
In coastal and waterfront communities, thoughtfully
integrating a mix of land uses with the waterfront can
deliver these same benefits. This approach can also
incorporate the area's distinctive visual, historical,
and natural features into the daily life of residents
and visitors, giving people a strong connection to
the water. On the coast or waterfront, a mixed-use
approach to development may mean weaving water-
dependent uses with those not dependent on the
water. While some uses may complement one another,
others may require buffers, such as warehouses,
research facilities, or open space, to separate ports
and heavy industry from homes, schools, shops, and
other incompatible uses. Integrating compatible, non-
water-related uses with the water-dependent ones
that have traditionally defined the identity of coasts
and waterfronts can provide a more stable economic
base. If water-dependent activities slow down
because of economic conditions, weather, or seasonal
fluctuations, the compatible non-water-dependent
uses can help sustain the local economy and continue
to serve the daily needs of those who live, work, and
play in the community.
The challenge in many waterfront and coastal
communities is to provide and protect this mix of uses
when faced with changing development conditions.
Population growth, demographic changes, and
declining natural resources like fish stocks will affect
the value and use of waterfront land.5 In communities
experiencing rapid growth and high demand for land,
as well as those with slower growth or economic
decline, a mixed-use approach to development
provides a way to plan for growth that protects the
environment and strengthens the economy. In all
cases, preserving working waterfronts and public
access to the water requires communities to plan
ahead and create a vision for future growth that retains
this mix of uses.
A waterfront master plan can be an effective starting
point to engage the community in envisioning future
development and articulating the values that new
planning policies will support. In addition, an effective
harbor management plan can govern activity in the
water, complementing the community's waterfront
master plan, or can manage activities in both the
water and the adjacent land area.6 By recognizing the
interdependence of land and water uses and crafting
rules that value and support water-dependent uses,
both types of plans can help communities fulfill their
vision. In New York State, for example, waterfront
communities integrate these two approaches into a
comprehensive local waterfront revitalization program,
developed in partnership with the state's coastal
management program.The local plan provides a
framework for addressing waterfront issues, beginning
with a community's vision for its waterfront, and
leading to specific projects to achieve the vision.
By aligning local resources with state priorities
for economic growth and environmental health,
7
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The cities of Tonawanda and North Tonawanda, New York,
used their waterfront revitalization plan to enhance boater and
pedestrian amenities.
In Portland, Maine, compatible offices are co-located above
commercial fishing businesses.
With careful planning, water-
dependent uses such as fishing
facilities can be managed in
harmony with non-water-
dependent uses.
8
communities can leverage public investments for
revitalization. Since 1994, over $158 million has been
appropriated for at least 1,100 projects in 300 New
York waterfront communities to revitalize waterfronts,
downtowns, and local economies, create public
access, restore habitats and wetlands, and improve
water quality.7
Other approaches, such as building and zoning codes,
can help a community achieve its vision. Zoning, in
particular, is critical to managing and maintaining an
appropriate mix of water- and non-water-dependent
uses. Portland, Maine, adopted a comprehensive
approach to zoning for a mix of uses, both vertically
(within buildings) and horizontally (across the
waterfront), that resulted in a more vibrant working
waterfront (see the Portland, Maine, case study below
for more detail).
In addition to codes and ordinances, certain fiscal
policies can help communities ensure that water-
Portland, Maine
Portland, Maine, located on Casco Bay,
began its waterfront planning effort
by identifying a range of land uses
appropriate for its commercial harbor
(water-dependent, marine-related,
and compatible non-marine) and
then developing zoning approaches
that allowed these uses to be mixed
together. The community found
that adopting a mixed-use zone that
allows compatible non-marine uses to
dependent uses remain a viable, stable part of
the mix of uses. Tax abatements, tax exemptions,
and current-use taxation programs can reduce the
overhead costs for commercial activities that are critical
to a working waterfront. Tax increment financing
districts can generate funds to support infrastructure
improvements, such as pedestrian or boating access
to the water. Communities can better support their
working waterfronts by improving access to the water
and ensuring that space along the waterfront exists for
support facilities.
By ensuring that water-based activities and compatible
non-water-dependent uses are close together, where
appropriate, and by protecting and ensuring access
to the water for water-dependent uses, coastal and
waterfront communities can provide the basis for
more sustainable growth that allows residents and
businesses to thrive.
be located above, and in certain areas
along side, water-dependent uses
was more successful (and flexible)
than the previous zoning designation,
which restricted the waterfront area
solely to water-dependent uses. This
zoning change allowed pier and
wharf owners to fill vacant properties
and generate income by leasing
second-floor and other commercial
space, which helped pay for the high
costs of maintaining commercial
marine infrastructure. For instance,
Portland's Union Wharf rents dock-
level space to commercial fishers
and harbor support industries, while
the upper-level space is rented to
law offices and other businesses.
The rent from the non-marine
tenants subsidizes the water-based
activities on the dock. The mixed-use
overlay also allows development of
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ELEMENT 1
•SHOPS „_
interview A I
Portland, Oregon's vibrant downtown is a short walk from the
Willamette River.
Baltimore, Maryland's Inner Harbor provides a diverse mix of
uses along its revitalized waterfront.
KEY ACTION OPTIONS
Adopt zoning policies and building codes that support
mixed-use development
POLICIES, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Create over/ay and special area zones that permit
horizontal and vertical mix of uses
Create form-based codes that prescribe building type,
not use
Plan for the needs of water-dependent recreational,
commercial, and industrial users
Employvisioning exercises to determine community
support for maintaining working waterfront
Develop waterfront master plans to guide
land-based uses
Develop harbor management plans to guide water-
based activities
Create special area management plans to supplement
existing plans for natural resource protection in
specific areas
9
Implement fiscal policies and incentives that support a
mix of uses
Use current-use zones, tax abatements, and tax
exemptions to reduce the cost of critical activities of
a working waterfront
• Create tax increment financing districts to improve
infrastructure to support water-dependent activities
appropriate "transitional" uses, such
as research facilities, that can buffer
marine industries (such as shipping
or processing facilities) from nearby
residential or commercial uses and
provide jobs within walking distance of
homes and services. Additionally, retail
and restaurant uses are concentrated
along Commercial Street, Portland's
waterfront drive, away from the
working ends of piers and closest to
downtown and historic shopping
areas. Economic downturns, coupled
with long-term declines in fishing
and maritime industries, continue to
challenge the feasibility of maintaining
the waterfront's aging marine-related
infrastructure. Portland's innovative
application of mixed-use zoning is an
important strategy to help generate the
funds needed to protect and maintain
that built infrastructure.8
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ELEMENT
10
Take advantage
of compact
community design
that enhances,
preserves, and
provides access
to waterfront
resources
Coastal and waterfront
communities have a
natural boundary—the
water—that makes
efficient land use critical.
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Annapolis, Maryland's compact downtown provides easy access
to a wide range of amenities.
Increasing density can increase stormwater runoff in the
immediate area. Incorporating site-specific design techniques,
like this "green street" in Los Angeles, California, can help
mitigate impacts.
Compact design of buildings and neighborhoods can
help communities use land more efficiently, which
has several advantages. Well-designed, appropriately
scaled compact development accommodates more
uses on less land, which preserves natural areas and
requires less funding for building and maintaining
infrastructure. Compact communities can provide a
wide range of housing choices, from single-family
homes to apartments and townhouses, allowing people
of different incomes and at different stages of life to live
in the same neighborhood. As mentioned in Element
1, when a variety of uses are close together, people are
more likely to walk, public places are livelier, and a civic
identity develops more readily than in a conventionally
planned development. Compact communities also
help achieve the population density needed to support
more transportation choices, including public transit.
The form and density of compact design will vary with
its context, with urbanized settings being generally
appropriate for more units per acre than rural ones.
Coastal and waterfront communities have a natural
boundary—the water—that makes efficient land use
critical. Not only is development physically limited
within this boundary, but proximity to the water is
often of highest value and at greatest risk from natural
hazards, requiring an approach to community and
building design that provides high structural integrity
and the greatest benefit on the least amount of land.
Compact community design accommodates increased
development in waterfront districts through higher
densities and narrower streets.Through smaller
building footprints for new construction, reuse of
existing buildings, and creative solutions to parking
(discussed in Element 8), compact building design can
leave undeveloped land to absorb rainwater, thereby
reducing the overall level of impervious surface in
the watershed. Together, compact community and
building design techniques reduce runoff, flooding,
and stormwater drainage needs, contributing to
better watershed health. For waterfront communities
dependent on the health and beauty of neighboring
waters, these outcomes are vital.
Since compact design will still include impervious
surfaces, communities are well-served by incorporating
site-level green infrastructure/low impact development
(LID) practices to manage stormwater runoff. Many
attractive techniques are available, including rain
gardens, tree boxes, and green roofs. Combining these
site-specific approaches with the preservation and
restoration of larger interconnected natural areas (a
green infrastructure network at the community and
regional scale) can protect local aquatic resources and
help communities be more resilient to the impacts of
natural hazards and climate change.
At the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia
Rivers, Portland, Oregon, is an excellent example of a
waterfront community that has made the connection
between how it grows and the health of its rivers. In
addition to its many efforts to build compactly within
existing neighborhoods, Portland has implemented
green infrastructure policies that support compact
design. Those policies include incentives, such as
stormwater fee discounts and higher allowed density,
for new construction projects that include green
roofs.9 Portland has combined these policies with a
comprehensive Metropolitan Greenspaces Program
that provides recreational opportunities while also
protecting the city's water quality, floodplains, and fish
and wildlife habitat.10
11
s
c
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Individual docks can crowd navigation channels, fragment habitat, and impair views of the water. A compact design, like the Skidaway
Island, Georgia, community marina (above right), can reduce those impacts.
12
Waterfront communities are linked to the water by
docks, piers, and boardwalks. Applying compact
community design principles to these uses
can improve both function and aesthetics. The
proliferation of individual docks shades and fragments
aquatic habitats and impairs the view of the water.
Docks also can crowd navigation channels, making it
difficult for large and small watercraft to maneuver.
Compact designs, including shared access points
and community docks, can reduce visual and habitat
impacts, navigational hazards, and conflicts among
water-dependent uses. These compact designs also
can create attractive community spaces. For example,
on Skidaway Island near Savannah, Georgia, the
Landings community built two community marinas
instead of allowing private docks. This compact
approach protects marsh habitat, preserves scenic
vistas, and lets residents enjoy the island's shorelines
free of the crowding from multiple docks. Since then,
the state has increasingly seen developers placing
deed restrictions on waterfront lots to prevent the
building of individual docks in favor of promoting
community-based approaches."
Waterfront views are an eagerly sought amenity;
communities can protect them by using compact
design approaches such as a "wedding cake"approach.
Here, the area with the highest development
density is a short distance inland at a higher
elevation. Building heights gradually decrease as
development approaches the waterfront. Putting
denser development on higher land with taller
buildings protects water views for all buildings as
they step down in height to the water. This preserves
visual access to the water across the community,
creating a compact neighborhood that complements
surrounding uses, including the waterfront itself.
Compact development can capitalize on the natural
advantages of the waterfront, provide attractive
communities by the water, protect valued assets,
and improve the overall quality of life. When applied
at both the building and community-level, compact
design can make better use of the land at the water's
edge, as well as the water bordering it.
Barnstable, Massachusetts
Located on Cape Cod, the
town of Barnstable has been
experiencing tremendous growth.
In particular, Hyannis, one of the
town's seven villages, was seeing
low-density growth at its edges
while its downtown emptied.
This pattern strained the town's
infrastructure and diminished its
historic character. In response,
Hyannis developed a strategy
that encourages growth in the
urban center, which is served
by existing sewer and water
lines. The strategy includes
mixed-use zoning and design
guidelines, expedited permitting
for downtown development,
incentives to shift development
from outlying areas to downtown,
and improved connections
to the waterfront. The town
also purchased land to protect
drinking-water aquifers and other
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ELEMENT 2
KEY ACTION OPTIONS
Offer incentives that encourage local communities to
increase density
POLICIES, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Provide floor-to-area-ratio (FAR) bonuses
Provide density bonuses
Create overlay districts
Create design guidelines
Create walkable communities and emphasize
pedestrian access to and along the waterfront
Create public access master plans
Use context-sensitive solutions for street designs
Prioritize pedestrian use on waterfront streets
Create transportation options (e.g., water-based transit,
bikes, rail)
Create networks to connect the waterfront to parks,
greenways, and other open space
Develop street standards in neighborhoods to ensure
connected grid designs
Match building scale to street
Employ form-based codes
Usezoning and permit approval processes that
automatically allow appropriate scale rather than require
individual variances for it
Maintain and increase viewshed for waterfront area
Incorporate tiered development by setting backtallest
and highest density development to maintain access
and viewshed
Use waterfront master plans
Integrate hazard mitigation into local comprehensive
and capital planning and regulations
Engage in hazard mitigation planning
Consider hazard mitigation plan findings and
recommendations when updating comprehensive plans
and regulations
13
Encourage green infrastructure approaches at the site,
community, and regional scales to increase resilience
to natural hazards (including climate change impacts)
and better manage stormwater runoff
Assess and protect critical areas as buffers
Create a setback from waterfront for natural
hazard mitigation
Plan for open space preservation (community-scale
green infrastructure)
Engage in floodplain mapping and protection
Employ site-specific green infrastructure/LID applications
Use U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (U.S. EPA) Water
Quality Scorecard to align local codes and ordinances with
waterq uality goals12
important natural areas. The result
is a renaissance for Hyannis's
downtown. As of 2007, 93 new
residential units and 22,000 square
feet of commercial space had
been created since the initiative
began, along with approximately
342 new jobs and $25 million in
private investment. Improvements
continue, including construction of
a harbor-front visitor's center and
additional segments for the town's
planned harbor walk.13
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ELEMENT
Provide a range
of housing
opportunities and
choices to meet the
needs of both
seasonal and
permanent
residents
14
A comprehensive
approach to housing that
offers options for seasonal
and permanent residents,
visitors, and workers
provides a strong basis for
a vibrant economy.
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Fernandina Beach, Florida's zoning code allows for residential
use on the second floor.
Orenco Station in Hillsboro, Oregon, has won accolades for both
livability and design.
As individuals pass through various stages of their lives,
their housing needs, as well as what they can afford,
vary. Young adults just starting out, families, and retired
people all need different types of housing, but because
of the way housing is built in many communities, they
may not be able to stay in the same neighborhood as
their needs and income levels change. Communities
with smart growth policies meet these challenges
by providing a broad range of housing types, with
easy access to jobs, schools, shops, and recreation,
to meet the needs of households at varying income
levels. Implementing this approach lets communities
use infrastructure more efficiently, accommodate the
housing needs of all residents, and help everyone, from
aging citizens to young people getting their first home,
remain in the community.
Waterfront communities face the additional challenge
of providing housing for permanent and seasonal
residents and workers. Seasonal influxes of visitors
and demand for second homes can overwhelm the
existing housing supply in resort towns or vacation
destinations, driving prices up and adding to the cost
premium already associated with land near water.
The result is that housing is unaffordable for much of
the workforce, such as police officers, teachers, and
retail employees, that communities need to grow
and thrive.These employees may choose to endure
long and costly commutes from less expensive inland
locations, generating congestion and pollution. In the
long term, affordable housing choices help protect the
environment and keep the local economy viable.
For all the challenges that communities have in
providing affordable housing, there are a variety
of tools to help meet the need. For example, local
jurisdictions can use land more efficiently by
encouraging flexibility for single family homes,
including the construction of accessory dwelling units
(ADUs). Detached cottages, spaces above garages, or
attic units with separate entrances are all potential
homes for seasonal visitors, as well as the elderly,
single adults, or young singles and families. These
"mother-in-law"apartments can generate seasonal
rents for permanent residents and provide affordable
options for workers, part-year residents, and seniors.14
To reap the benefits of ADUs, communities may have
to revise their zoning ordinances and building codes
and consider the concerns of neighbors, such as the
need for increased parking, to ensure that ADUs will
not make the lookandfeel of a neighborhood less
appealing. In addition, condo-hotels in a dense, multi-
family arrangement can help respond to the demand
for second homes and reduce pressure on the existing
housing supply. Furthermore, communities can use
inclusionary zoning to require developers to construct
or pay for new affordable housing units as part of the
approval of new developments. Communities that have
found the greatest success with inclusionary zoning
have offset the additional cost of these requirements
with density bonuses for the developer, thereby
allowing the affordable units to be constructed at little
or no net cost to the builder or the local government.
Where consistent with state and local regulations,
well-managed marinas and mooring fields provide
another opportunity to increase housing options.
Live-aboard vessels can provide an alternative for
seasonal and permanent residents in areas with high
land and housing costs, although environmental
and public access impacts must be addressed.15'16
Many marinas in Maryland accommodate live-aboard
15
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The award-winning Katrina cottage was developed in response
to the hurricanes of 2005 to meet the demand for affordable
housing while respecting the architectural tradition of the
Gulf region.
Houseboats on Lake Union provide an alternative housing
option for Seattle, Washington, residents.
Winooski, Vermont's downtown
revitalization effort added
much-needed housing, stores,
and public space.
16
vessels and protect coastal water quality from
adverse effects by adopting environmentally sound
operating and maintenance procedures as part of the
Clean Marina Initiative.17
These land- and water-based approaches help ease
pressure to convert undeveloped land into new
housing construction, and better distribute the
demand for housing over a larger number and wider
range of housing types. Yet the coastal premium
in home prices requires policies that go beyond
expanding the supply of affordable housing to also
maintain affordability over time. Deed restrictions can
be attached to units developed with public funds to
limit the share of appreciation that homeowners can
claim upon resale of the units, thereby guaranteeing a
permanent supply of affordable housing to local low-
wage employees.
In coastal and waterfront economies dependent on
tourism, the need to provide affordable workforce
housing can be an opportunity to galvanize support
among a broad range of stakeholders, including
environmentalists, business owners, civic leaders,
and other community members. A comprehensive
approach to housing that offers options for seasonal
and permanent residents, visitors, and workers
provides a strong basis for a vibrant and sustainable
local economy.
Santa Cruz, California
Like many communities in
northern California, Santa Cruz
has seen its housing costs
increase dramatically, in part
because of its coastal location on
Monterey Bay and its desirability
as a vacation, retirement, and
second-home destination. In
response to concerns over how
to retain teachers, police officers,
and service workers, the city
created an Accessory Dwelling
Unit (ADU) Development
Program.18 The program makes
it easier for homeowners to
build a new structure or to
convert all or part of a garage
into an ADU. The city revised its
zoning ordinance, commissioned
design guidelines, and produced
architect-generated building
prototypes that have been pre-
reviewed by city departments,
thereby reducing processing time,
planning fees, and design costs.
To encourage affordable housing,
loan and fee waiver programs are
available to homeowners who
will rent the unit at an affordable
level.The program has been
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ELEMENT 3
The High Point Redevelopment Project in Seattle, Washington,
increased low income housing opportunities by 43%.
Housing can be conveniently located above commercial space.
KEY ACTION OPTIONS
Provide a range of housing types
POLICIES, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Create indusionaryzoning, which requires new
construction to include a portion of affordable units
Create increased zoning for construction of multi-family
and rental units
Allow increased density near waterfront amenities
Consider vessel live-aboards, while addressing public-
access issues and environmental impacts
Provide seasonal rentals and time-shares
17
Promote affordable housing for permanent and
seasonal residents
Provide workforce housing accommodations (e.g.,
single-room occupancy projects, college dorm
conversions)
Develop live-near-your-work programs for permanent
and seasonal workers
Allow accessory dwelling units
Maintain affordable housing for permanent and
seasonal residents
Have community land trusts retain ownership of
underlying land while the house is bought and sold,
lowering cost for buyers and ensuring long-term
affordability
Write deed restrictions to maintain permanent
affordability
successful. In 2003, the program's
first full year, 35 accessory units were
built—a fourfold increase over the
eight units built in 2001. Between 40
and 50 new accessory unit building
permits have been issued each year
since the program began.19 (See
photo (left) and illustration (right) for
example of garage conversion.)
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ELEMENT
Create walkable
communities with
physical and visual
access to and along
the waterfront for
public use
18
The pedestrian connection
to the water can be
improved physically, with
better street, path, and
trail connections, and with
access points to the water
that are open to the public.
-------
Visitors to Annapolis, Maryland, can stroll within easy sight
of the harbor.
The beach is a short walk from downtown Lewes, Delaware.
In a walkable community, trips by bicycle or on foot are
viable transportation alternatives to the car. Walkable
communities locate a mix of uses, such as homes,
shops, and schools, close to each other. They provide
sidewalks, crosswalks, and bike lanes that create
safe passage for walkers and bikers, and they offer
convenient, well-designed parking that encourages
people to park and walk to their destination. Walkable
communities offer more transportation choices, higher
levels of social interaction, greater opportunities
for physical activity, and reduced emissions from
automobile travel.
For waterfront communities, improving the connection
between pedestrians and the water can increase
interest in walking and biking and help to decrease
the pressures of seasonal traffic. The pedestrian
connection to the water can be improved physically,
with better street, path, and trail connections, and with
access points to the water that are open to the public.
The connection also can be approached visually, by
designing the built environment in ways that preserve
the view of the water and encourage residents and
visitors to access the waterfront on foot. Orienting the
built environment to the water can improve public
access to it and encourage a better appreciation of this
precious asset.
Ensuring physical access from streets or sidewalks to
the waterfront can be a challenge, however. Many
coastal and waterfront communities have a shortage
of public-access facilities, such as public walkways and
boat launches. In some communities, traditional public
access sites have been converted to private uses. It can
be difficult to acquire new access points because of
the prohibitive costs of both land and maintenance.
The public also may be unsure of how to access the
water if adequate signage is not provided. Additional
challenges arise when people headed to the water
to swim, stroll, fish, or surf inadvertently degrade
sensitive natural areas near the water. Pedestrian
access to the water must not only be connected to the
built environment, but also accommodated in ways
that protect natural resources.
A number of tools can help. Communities can
inventory where the public access points are, flag the
gaps, and put all this information on a map.Then, with
maps and inventories at hand, visioning exercises can
help residents and visitors articulate how they expect
to access the water and what they expect to do there.
In Grand Marais, Minnesota, the city used a community
visioning process to define redevelopment options for
a derelict gas station located between the waterfront
and downtown. The community decided to create a
waterfront park on the site. Today, Harbor Park better
connects downtown Grand Marais to its waterfront;
visitors and residents walking its paths enjoy
unobstructed views of and access to Lake Superior. The
park has become a community centerpiece, regularly
hosting festivals and other community gatherings.20
Once a vision is developed, it should be incorporated
into pedestrian master plans, mixed-use zoning,
and capital improvement plans that codify and fund
improved access. Localities then can provide incentives
or adopt regulations guiding plans for water access
in future development. Along the Amelia River
waterfront area of Fernandina Beach, Florida, the city
established a "floating"overlay district that allows
property owners to double their density if they grant
the city an easement to build a public boardwalk along
-------
The City of Fernandina Beach, Florida, uses density
incentives to encourage visual and physical access
to the waterfront.
Informational signs encourage people to visit and
learn about the waterfront.
Homes, stores, restaurants
and the water all are within
an easy walk of downtown
Burlington, Vermont.
20
the riverfront, allow pedestrian access, and maintain
a view corridor. The overlay district also promotes a
mix of uses by requiring housing to be located above
ground-floor commercial or office uses.21
Efforts to ensure access are complemented by tools
that can make communities safer and more appealing
for pedestrians. A "park once" strategy encourages
development of centrally located parking (preferably
away from the water) that allows workers and visitors
to leave their cars and walk to their destinations. Proper
"wayfmding" planning can encourage more activity
on foot or bike by providing maps, good signage, and
other guidance directing people to the waterfront and
other amenities. Additionally, placing a public dock
near a walkable waterfront makes it easy for visitors
arriving by water, via a public ferry or private vessel,
to access the community by foot (see Element 8 for
additional information on water-based transportation).
Sidewalk design standards that provide ample room for
walking (buffered from traffic by parked cars or trees
and other vegetation) can encourage more pedestrian
activity. Trees, planting strips, and rain gardens create
more pleasant pedestrian environments and can
be designed to manage stormwater runoff. Finally,
routine evaluations of permits, zoning laws, street
design guidelines, and other policies can help ensure
that existing regulations and programs enhance the
walking environment and support the community's
desire to design and position buildings in ways that
make the water easy to access.
A walkable community requires much more than a
sidewalk, path, or boardwalk. In coastal and waterfront
communities, it calls for a comprehensive approach to
building and street design, parking, zoning, and water
access that ensures that pedestrians are safe, welcome,
and have a range of destinations—water- and land-
based—to which they can walk.
Ogunquit, Maine
In Ogunquit, Maine, the Marginal
Way is a public walkway along
the Atlantic shore, located
a block from Ogunquit's
downtown. The Marginal Way is a
remnant of a pre-colonial coastal
trail, which a coastal property
owner donated to the town in
the 1920s. The town, working
with several contiguous property
owners, acquired easements
in the 1940s to extend the trail
another 2,000 feet. Signs direct
pedestrians from downtown to
the entrance of the Marginal
Way, which extends along the
coastline for nearly two miles,
including access paths, ending
at Perkins Cove, a small working
harbor near Ogonquit with a
variety of shops and restaurants.
The town holds full title to most
of the land area of the trail and is
responsible for its management
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ELEMENT 4
KEY ACTION OPTIONS
Mix land uses and design buildings to
foster pedestrian activity and visual access
to the water
Foster a safe and supportive infrastructure
forwalking, biking, and other non-
motorized means of travel
Expand and manage physical access to
the water
POLICIES, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Adopt policies and codes that allow for a mix of uses
compatible with waterfront development
Adopt building codes that establish appropriate building
heights around water resources and ensure visibility of
sp ecial points of in te rest or viewing areas
Connect buildings, streets, and paths to the waterfront
Create central parking facilities to serve as park-once
locations within walking or shuttling distance of waterfronts
or central business districts
Establish a pedestrian master plan that supports
investment in good sidewalks, narrow streets, crosswalks,
bike lanes, on-street parking, street art, and appropriately
scaled green infrastructure
Ensure pedestrian safety through street design standards
and speed control measures
Provide maps for pedestrians, bikers, and "blue trail"
users (with tours and points of interest), informational
signage, and guides to boating storage facilities, racks,
and access points
Provide well-maintained pedestrian walkways and
bicycle paths
Assess and consider impacts from expected sea level rise or
lower lake levels
Inventory existing access sites compared to current and
projected demand for access
Prioritize access needs by identifying what types of access
are needed and their most appropriate location
Identify potential funding sources that will support
the acquisition of properties for new access and the
construction of any physical infrastructure needed
Provide attractive and safe pathways between parking
areas, public transportation, and waterfronts, ensuring
that the connections are well-lit with adequate signage
21
and maintenance. For an
Ogonquit resident or tourist, the
Marginal Way complements an
already walkable community. The
vibrant, mixed-use downtown has
wide sidewalks and shade trees,
and visitors are encouraged to
park in a municipal lot next to
the downtown and explore the
area on foot or via the Ogunquit
Trolley, which provides service
along the coast during the
summer months.22'23
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ELEMENT
Foster distinctive,
attractive
communities with
a strong sense
of place that
capitalizes on
the waterfront's
heritage
-
Coastal and waterfront
communities can
capitalize on their location
and strengthen their sense
of place by visually and
physically connecting their
streets, buildings, and
public spaces with
the water.
y
llBil
l<
ii
\rsrn
-------
Even simple design elements, like these gas lamps in Charleston,
South Carolina, can add to a community's sense of character.
Creating fun, interactive public spaces with a connection to the
waterfront can bring new vibrancy to a community.
Vibrant streets and attractive public spaces are
hallmarks of healthy communities. Distinctive features
such as tree-lined boulevards, historic buildings, or
rows of shops and cafes make neighborhoods and
downtown centers places where people want to be.
Old buildings lend themselves to reuse as housing,
businesses, and cultural centers; new building designs
can blend with the character of surrounding structures
and the environment. Smart growth approaches reflect
the varied interests of community residents, creating a
more cohesive community fabric that helps maintain
economic vitality.
Many of the techniques that inland communities use
to ensure that new growth and development enhance
the character of a place also apply to communities
along the water. Waterfront and coastal communities
are defined by the sights, sounds, and smells of the
water; the activity on the docks or wharves; and the
opportunity to boat, swim, and fish nearby. While
historically these communities took advantage of
their location for industries such as shipbuilding, fish
processing, and warehousing, over time many of the
buildings and docks that supported those activities
have fallen into disrepair. But communities can
adapt neglected historic buildings and structures for
reuse. Protected and restored lighthouses, harbors,
and public piers can affirm historical connections
and draw both visitors and residents. These features
not only represent physical assets that illustrate the
community's sense of place, but they can also be the
center point for redevelopment that strengthens the
local economy.
Regional and global economic changes may mean
that many small-scale fishing, shipping, and other
traditional ventures are now less viable. Efforts
to maintain a working waterfront often require
thoughtful intervention and land use management
by local government. Many communities envision
a working waterfront as part of their revitalization
efforts and adopt policies to support it. For example,
Newburyport, Massachusetts, used a number of
strategies to create a vibrant waterfront. The city
initiated an urban renewal project in the 1970s that
documented historic buildings and eventually led to
the establishment of a historic district.24 Newburyport
protected water-dependent uses, including boatyards
and marinas, from encroachment, created a mixed-use
district along the Merrimack River, and adopted design
and zoning guidelines for new development to protect
the town's historic character. The city also developed a
strategy for streets and public paths to protect views
and access to the water and extended a harbor walk
connecting neighborhoods to the downtown and its
waterfront parks.25 The waterfront is now a central
gathering place for residents and tourists alike and is in
easy walking distance of restaurants, art galleries, and
other amenities.
Coastal and waterfront communities can capitalize on
their location and strengthen their sense of place by
visually and physically connecting (or reconnecting)
their streets, buildings, and public spaces with the
water. The waterfront community of St. Andrews,
Florida, used its traditional working waterfront
and historic structures along the St. Andrews Bay
as the focal point for community revitalization.
Tourism and charter fishing flourished in St. Andrews
until the 1970s, when the charter boats moved to
neighboring beach communities, and the historic
community fell into decline. Through a community-
based visioning process, residents identified existing
historic and cultural resources as a revitalization
23
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Creative signage directs residents and visitors to local shops in
St. Andrews, Florida.
Chattanooga, Tennessee's riverfront redevelopment reclaimed
the city's link to the water.
Maritime heritage fosters a
strong sense of place in New
Orleans, Louisiana.
priority. The resulting redevelopment plan focused
on strengthening these assets through targeted
investments in the working waterfront and historic
district, including a wayfmding signage program.26
Chattanooga,Tennessee, also recognized the
opportunity that existed in its neglected waterfront
along the Tennessee River and made it a centerpiece
of its revitalization efforts. Faced with extensive air
pollution and a weakening economy, Chattanooga
initiated a public visioning process in 1984 and
created a plan to turn the city around. The plan helped
Chattanooga transform its riverfront into a focal point
for residents and tourists through the addition of an
aquarium, art museum, public art, picnic areas, natural
greenways to protect creek corridors leading to the
river, and pedestrian bridges to facilitate access. The
result is evident not only in Chattanooga's reclaimed
relationship with the river, but also in the revitalization
of the broader community that these waterfront
efforts inspired.27
In new coastal or waterfront communities, pedestrian-
scaled streets, well-designed buildings, and inviting
public spaces can be connected with the water to
create great places. In established communities,
redevelopment efforts can incorporate buildings,
docks, and other structures historically connected
to the working waterfront, capitalizing on the rich
heritage the waterfront provides.
Leland, Michigan
Leland, Michigan, turned
the challenge of a declining
commercial fishery into an
economic opportunity by
focusing revitalization efforts on
its historic and natural resources
fronting the Leland River and
Lake Michigan. Leland identified
the fishing complex known as
"Fishtown/'with its weathered
fishing shanties, smokehouses,
and docks,28 as a key element
to preserve in maintaining the
city's maritime heritage. Listed
on the National Register of
Historic Places, the preserved
and renovated structures of
Fishtown now provide visitors
with an opportunity to learn
about the Great Lakes' maritime
tradition and enjoy recreational
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ELEMENTS
The distinctive Victorian-style houses around San Francisco,
California's Alamo Square have become the backdrop for many
popular postcards of the city.
The beautiful buildings in San Diego, California's Gaslamp
Quarter create a welcoming vista for drivers and walkers alike.
KEY ACTION OPTIONS
Create an understanding of the community's assets
POLICIES, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Conduct a community asset inventory
Write an ecological history of the community
Incorporate community asset inventories and ecological
history into visioning efforts
Create a community vision for the future
Use visual preference surveys
Conduct visioning exercises
Incorporate ideas from citizen advisory committees
Consider potential short- and long-term impacts of
climate change
25
Incorporate the community vision into policies
and codes for new development as well as
redevelopmen t projects
Adopt design guidelines
Adopt form-based codes
Require new development projects to incorporate public
charrettes into the plan development process
Incorporate historic and cultural structures in
development projects, including working waterfront
features such as buildings, docks, and piers
Implement historic preservation districts
Implement tax incentives to protect historic resources
Provide grants for reuse of historic structures
Implementan economic development agenda that
capitalizes on the community's waterfront heritage and
natural assets
activities on Lake Michigan and Lake
Leelanau.29 Fishtown has helped
Leland, with its walkable downtown
and easy access to the water,
capitalize on its heritage and history
despite the decline of its traditional
fisheries-based economy.30
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ELEMENT
Preserve open
space, farmland,
natural beauty,
and the critical
environmental
areas that
characterize and
support coastal
and waterfront
communities
By preserving open space,
farmland, natural beauty,
and critical environmental
areas, communities
can maintain essential
environmental services
and improve
community resilience.
i
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Both visitors and locals enjoy the beauty and abundant wildlife
found in wetland areas.
Communities can protect important natural resources by
integrating green infrastructure assessments into their
comprehensive land use plans.
Natural and working lands play an essential role in
the economic, environmental, and social well-being
of communities. Natural areas and parks increase
neighboring property values, attract businesses
and residents, support tourism, offer opportunities
for recreation, and provide scenic value. Farmlands
provide food; working forests provide timber.
Wetlands, forests, stream buffers, and other critical
environmental areas provide many additional benefits,
including water and air filtration, recharge of precious
groundwater resources, protection of drinking water
supplies, and habitat for plants, animals, and beneficial
insects. Conserving these resources is important
to the environmental health and well-being of any
community as it grows or redevelops.
Coastal and waterfront communities depend on their
working lands, waterscapes, and ecological systems.
The dynamic natural processes that characterize the
shifting boundary between the land and the water
create beautiful landscapes that are essential to both
local ecology and economy. Freshwater and tidal
creeks, marshes, cliffs, dunes, estuaries, and beaches
intertwine to support complex ecological systems that
provide invaluable services. Wetlands provide critical
habitat, mitigate flooding, and capture and retain
sediments, helping to keep pollutants from reaching
downstream waters. Estuaries provide essential
nurseries for commercial and recreational fish species.
And beach and dune systems protect the shoreline
against the natural hazards of erosion, storms, and sea-
level rise. Local economies fueled by such activities as
sport and commercial fishing, recreation, and tourism,
as well as retiree and artist communities, rely on the
natural assets that support them.
Protecting the strength and health of waterfront
and coastal communities'natural resources requires
balancing the needs of the built environment with
those of the natural one. Green infrastructure planning
can help communities get this balance right. Through
green infrastructure planning, a community or
region can identify and prioritize natural areas that
should be preserved or restored to protect long-term
ecological health and build community resilience.
The process begins with an assessment of an area's
most important environmental assets, identifying
the natural and working lands and water bodies that
need to be protected or restored. Along the water,
this process should include a community vulnerability
assessment, which systematically identifies areas that
are vulnerable to, or that can help buffer communities
from, natural hazards. The result is a framework that
defines which lands and water bodies need protection
and which areas can best accommodate growth.
On the southern end of the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia,
the Hampton Roads Planning District Commission
illustrates the green infrastructure approach.The
commission developed a green infrastructure plan
that identifies and links riparian-based conservation
corridors, defines a future land use map outlining
no-development conservation areas, and identifies
land purchases to protect high-priority sites.This
multi-stakeholder effort balanced interests and
achieved many benefits, including habitat protection,
stormwater management, wetlands mitigation,
comprehensive planning, and support for recreation
and tourism.31
-------
Please use estaWished
iMiJkways to avoid
damage to fro fragile
coastal efltdronment
In Puget Sound, Washington, protecting natural areas can bring
many benefits, including protecting fish stocks and encouraging
appropriate recreation and tourism.
Protecting and restoring natural dunes also
protects coastal property.
Wetlands provide communities
with important enviromental
services.
A variety of tools can be used to protect high-priority
areas on land or in the water. On land, preservation
and protection tools include the purchase or transfer
of development rights, direct purchase of the land,
and various types of conservation easements. For
example, in 1990, San Juan County on Puget Sound,
Washington, established a land bank to permanently
protect areas with environmental, agricultural, and
scenic value. Since its inception, the land bank has
protected 4,300 acres using funds generated from
a real estate tax, donations, and grants.The San
Juan County Land Bank's work is guided by county
ordinance and overseen by a citizen commission.32
Central to any planning process along the shore must
be the recognition that shorelines are constantly
changing systems. Erosion, flooding, storm surges,
and sea-level change in response to tides, waves,
and storms are all natural and familiar processes, as
are Great Lake water level fluctuations, but when
they clash with the built environment, they can be
hazardous. Furthermore, these processes are likely
to intensify under some climate change scenarios.33
Smart shoreline development can mitigate the
damaging effects on the built environment caused by
these changes by incorporating land use approaches
that reduce the risks from coastal and waterfront
hazards. For example, protecting, maintaining, and,
where possible, restoring natural areas along the
water can create buffers that protect development
from environmental changes. Communities can use a
variety of tools to implement this approach, including
development setbacks (e.g., from the high tide line),
conservation easements, and rolling easements,
which shift automatically with natural changes in the
shoreline. Capitalizing on the inherent resilience of
these assets by properly protecting them can help
protect people and property from the impacts of
natural hazards and the additional challenges posed
by a changing climate.
Coastal and waterfront communities depend on
their natural and working lands and the water. By
preserving open space, farmland, natural beauty,
and critical environmental areas, communities can
maintain essential environmental services and
improve community resilience.
Brays Bayou, Houston,Texas
The National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration's
(NOAA) Coastal and Estuarine
Land Conservation Program
(CELCP) was established in 2002
to protect valuable coastal and
estuarine lands. One of CELCP's
projects is in Brays Bayou in
Houston,Texas.Through direct
acquisition, CELCP grant funds
are helping to protect about five
acres of undeveloped floodplains
along the bayou in a mixed-use
neighborhood in East Houston.
The city of Houston, in association
with the Houston Parks Board,
initiated this project in an effort
to set aside land for public open
space, restore and maintain water
quality, reduce the potential
for flood damage, and enhance
wildlife habitat along the bayou.
Although CELCP funds are buying
only a small number of acres,
these lands will complement
previously acquired parcels
and be combined with several
planned acquisitions along the
stream corridor. By improving
access to the bayou, including
walking and biking trails as well
as scenic, shaded spaces for
picnics, this project protects open
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ELEMENT 6
KEY ACTION OPTIONS
Plan with nature, anticipating dynamic waterfront
and coastal processes (e.g., storms, sea-level rise,
lake level fall, erosion) and manage ecological
systems to be adaptive to changes caused by
human activity
Protect, maintain, and, where feasible, restore
ecological systems, including submerged lands
and shore habitat
Preserve open space and natural lands for scenic
resources and recreational opportunities
POLICIES, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Conduct community vulnerability assessment to determine
natural hazard risks; model future scenarios; include
participatory approaches to understand risks perceived
by the community
Link community hazard mitigation plan to community
comprehensive plan; incorporate into zoning,
capital expenditure plans, and other local land use
management tools
Use green infrastructure assets (such as natural buffer zones)
to accommodate projected risks from climate change
Protect, restore, and enhance vulnerable shorelines through
acquisition, rolling easements, living shorelines, buffers and
setbacks, or site-level green infrastructure/LIDstormwater
management practices
Use green infrastructure planning to identify community and
regional environmental assets
Designate marine or terrestrial management areas
Use purchase of development rights, transfer of development
rights, and land or marine conservation agreements to
protect critical areas
Use best management practices promoting on-site
stormwater infiltration, native species, and living shorelines
Protect or restore connectivity between natural areas where
needed to support ecosystem function
Define appropriate indicators to measure and monitor
ecosystem function and health over time
Produce report cards and illustrative maps, based on goals and
community vision, to align science with management priorities
and to convey results to the public
Partner with community land trusts to protect high
priority lands
Designate protection of waterscapes or coastal viewsheds
within zoning schemes
Create nature preserves, hiking and blue trails
Use targeted funding for open space and habitat preservation
Zone waters for specific uses based on local circumstances
and constraints
29
space to reconnect a historically
underserved urban community
with the water. Restoration efforts
undertaken by local volunteers
and school groups are not only
restoring marshland vegetation
and wildlife habitat, but are also
teaching the participants about
the value of functioning wetlands.
By keeping the land undeveloped
and permeable to capture runoff
from storms, this project will help
reduce the potential for flood
damage in an area that, since its
early history, has had significant
flooding problems.The project is
also providing important wildlife
habitat and a welcome community
amenity that will strengthen
residents'connection to the bayou.
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ELEMENT
Strengthen and
direct development
toward existing
communities
and encourage
waterfront
revitalization
Waterfront revitalization
can enhance historic,
cultural, and scenic
resources, supporting
community efforts to
maintain a strong sense of
place while protecting the
water and other
natural resources.
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The site of a former brownfield, Seattle, Washington's Gas Works
Park was cleaned up and reused as a waterfront park.
The Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, is the site of continuing
revitalization efforts, including mixed-use development and
plans for a city park.
Infill development in existing communities, where
roads, utilities, and transportation connections
are already in place, is a preferred growth strategy
because of the many environmental and economic
benefits it provides. When communities convert
underused infill sites, such as parking lots or vacant
properties, into vibrant mixed-use developments, they
strengthen their local tax base, concentrate growth,
and reduce pressure to convert undeveloped land,
yielding significant air and water quality benefits.
Redevelopment of brownfields—sites where reuse
is complicated by real or perceived contamination—
removes environmental hazards from communities
and provides new investment opportunities in
areas already well served by infrastructure. New
development and investment in these infill locations
can re-energize lagging commercial corridors,
providing new stimulus to preserve traditional
uses and promote recreational opportunities that
strengthen the local economy.
In many coastal and waterfront areas, properties at
the water's edge are prime redevelopment targets,
si nee they a re in or near the historic center of the
community, are well connected to land- and water-
based modes of transportation, and are close to jobs,
services, and tourist sites. Waterfront revitalization
can enhance historic, cultural, and scenic resources,
supporting community efforts to maintain a strong
sense of place while protecting the water and other
natural resources.
However, redevelopment of waterfront properties
can pose challenges as well as opportunities.
Historic buildings are distinctive, potentially
profitable opportunities for reuse. But to encourage
their renovation, communities may have to adopt
"rehab"codes to offset the unintended barriers to
redevelopment that standard building codes for new
construction may contain. Brownfield revitalization
efforts along the water also may be complicated
because of the presence of protected, threatened, and
endangered species and the possibility of contaminant
runoff. Furthermore, the redevelopment of buildings
to support non-water-dependent uses in areas
traditionally dominated by water-dependent uses can
result in displacement and gentrification (see Element
1 for further discussion of mixing uses). Finally, all
coastal and waterfront communities need to consider
their vulnerability to natural hazards such as storms
and flooding, and, for those on the coast, the risks
from sea level rise, so that revitalizing the waterfront
does not make the community more vulnerable to
natural disasters.
Nevertheless, infill and redevelopment efforts at the
water's edge offer great potential for underscoring
the connections between a community's culture,
built environment, and natural resources. Thro ugh a
robust planning process, stakeholders representing
varied interests and organizations can unite in the
common goal of revitalizing the waterfront in ways
that protect the built and natural environments. For
example, the city of Glen Cove, New York, located
on Long Island Sound, used a community-based
waterfront revitalization planning process to transform
214 acres of brownfields to mixed-use development
along the north shore of Long Island. The city brought
together federal, state, and local partners to leverage
support for its waterfront revitalization. The city then
31
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Waterfront revitalization plans can provide guidance for
redevelopment, such as in Oswego, New York, where the
community has rehabilitated and reused historic buildings.
Compact, historic mixed-use development patterns provide a
strong sense of place in Provincetown, Massachusetts.
developed and implemented the Glen Cove Creek
Waterfront Revitalization Plan in partnership with
NOAA and the New York State Coastal Management
Program.The plan and resulting zoning changes
provided a road map for the community's vision and
was a basis for building stakeholder support and
developing partnerships for implementation. Because
of this work, Glen Cove has leveraged over
$40 million from public and private sources to
support its waterfront revitalization initiative.34
In addition to creating rehab codes and pursuing
brownfields redevelopment, communities can use
other tools to target development to strengthen
existing areas. Historic preservation districts, tax
benefits, and incentives can support retrofitting the
historic waterfront for new uses while protecting
important structures and facades. Also, state or
local "fix it first" policies can give priority for scarce
public infrastructure investment dollars to existing
communities, rather than expand services to
undeveloped areas. States such as Massachusetts,
New Jersey, and Maryland—all of which have many
waterfront communities—have implemented "fix
it first" policies to attend to the needs of existing
communities. In addition, concurrency policies can
ensure that new development supports itself—in the
form of roads, utilities, and schools needed to support
new growth—thereby conserving public resources
for repair and upgrading in already developed areas.
Communities must carefully consider the economic
and environmental context before determining
the best location for growth, development, and
redevelopment. Along the water, this has always
included factors such as sensitive natural areas,
storms, and flooding. Communities facing the
possibility of increased vulnerability from climate
change-related impacts, such as increased flooding
and sea level rise, may need to consider whether
infill or redevelopment is appropriate. In appropriate
locations, these development strategies can
yield important economic, environmental, and
community benefits.
Providence, Rhode Island's Downcity Providence and Waterplace Park
For much of the past two
centuries, the downtown and
Old Harbor of Providence,
Rhode Island, functioned as the
city's industrial and commercial
center. Now often referred to as
"Downcity,"the area declined
beginning in the 1950s, leading
to the departure of water-related
industries and the eventual
burial of the Providence River
for urban renewal purposes. In
the early 1990s, when many of
the Downcity buildings were
vacant or underused, Providence
developed a revitalization strategy
to create a "round-the-clock"
neighborhood and destination in
the core of the city and along the
Providence River. The Downcity
Master Plan and Implementation
Plan called for the city to focus
arts and entertainment uses in
the downtown; create personal
tax exemptions for artists, writers,
painters, and composers to move
to the area; and implement tax
incentives for developers to create
apartments and lofts in underused
properties. Providence also
reformed its zoning code to allow
residential uses in commercial
buildings. In combination
with tax credits for restoring
historic buildings, this led to the
rehabilitation and reuse of many
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ELEMENT?
Revitalization of Downcity, including Waterplace Park and Riverwalk, has signaled the rebirth of downtown Providence, Rhode Island.
KEY ACTION OPTIONS
Promote community-based waterfront
revitalization efforts
POLICIES,TOOLS, ANDTECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Conduct community vulnerability assessments to
ensure redevelopment is directed to appropriate areas
Create waterfront master plans
Use special area management plans
Use harbor management plans
Employ tax increment financing
Create business improvement districts
Promote infill development by preserving, upgrading,
and reusing existing properties
Fix current infrastructure (fix it first policies)
Employ development incentives such as
expedited permitting processes in areas with
existing infrastructure
Create concurrency policies for new development
33
Retrofit historic waterfront for new uses
Establish or promote historic preservation
districts with associated incentives such as tax
credits or easements
Establish rehab codes for renovation of historic
waterfront (or other area) buildings
Clean up and reuse brownfields
Use state and local brownfield assessment and
cleanup programs
historic structures. Downcity is
now connected with Waterplace
Park and the Riverwalk, public
spaces on the river that draw
hundreds of thousands of visitors
annually.These places were made
possible in part by uncovering
the Providence River, which once
again flows through the city and
is the focal point for Waterplace
Park and the Capital Center area.
Downcity and the area made up
of Waterplace Park, Riverwalk,
and the Capital Center have seen
more than $200 million in private
investment, including over 40 new
ground-level retail, entertainment,
and restaurant establishments.
While the nature of waterfront
activities has changed, the area
is again a thriving downtown
with a variety of entertainment,
shopping, cultural, and living
opportunities.35
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ELEMENT
Provide a variety
of land-and
water-based
transportation
options
All communities wrestle
with traffic congestion; in
waterfront communities,
this congestion can be
exacerbated by local
topography, bridges,
surges in seasonal visitors
and part-year residents,
and the hub-and-spoke
nature of marine-based
freight movement.
-------
Light rail helps make it easier to get around San Diego, California.
Bike racks on the Lake Michigan waterfront encourage
alternative transportation in Traverse City, Michigan.
Giving people more options for getting around meets
many community goals. When people find it easy and
safe to walk, bike, or take transit, they no longer have
to rely exclusively on cars to get to shops, work, and
school, reducing air pollution and traffic congestion.
Walking and biking also help people include physical
activity in their daily routines, give more freedom to
those unable or unwilling to drive, and can reduce
household transportation costs.
While waterfront and coastal communities share many
of the transportation-related concerns faced by inland
communities, their proximity to water creates distinct
transportation challenges as well as opportunities.
All communities wrestle with traffic congestion; in
waterfront communities, this congestion can be
exacerbated by local topography,36 bridges, surges in
seasonal visitors and part-year residents, and the hub-
and-spoke nature of marine-based freight movement.
Parking can be a challenge in any vibrant economic
center; seasonal and weekend waterfront visitors or
part-year residents compound that challenge.
Coastal and waterfront communities, though, can
offer water-based transportation options, such as
ferries and water taxis, that are unavailable to their
landlocked counterparts. When combined with higher
density, mixed-use, transit-oriented development on
the waterfront, water-based transportation becomes
more attractive to both tourists and commuters. The
Washington State ferry system, the largest in the
country, serves more than 26 million people per year
with 20 terminals throughout Puget Sound. The ferry
system has reduced automobile use in the region,
in part because of developments like the Bremerton
Harborside project.37This high-density, mixed-use
redevelopment connects the ferry terminal to homes,
stores, and other places and makes better use of
valuable waterfront land than its previous incarnation:
parking lots for ferry riders.38 (See Element 9 for more
information about Bremerton.) Elsewhere, Baltimore,
Maryland's water taxi system, the oldest in the country,
benefits from its connections to the redeveloped Inner
Harbor, which attracts tourists and houses permanent
residents and workers.39The Baltimore water taxi
service provides access to more than 30 attractions
and neighborhoods for tourists (and, increasingly,
commuters) across the city. Smaller watercraft can be
viable transportation alternatives, too. Communities
are adding blue trails for recreational and commuter
kayaking. In Seattle, for example, the Lakes-to-Locks
Water Trail connects inland lakes, rivers, waterways,
and the ship canal with the shores of Elliot Bay
and Puget Sound.40 Baltimore's Canton Kayak Club
maintains four docks with boats, paddles, and life vests
around the harbor, and some club members use the
boats to paddle to work.41
When appropriately connected, water-based
transportation options also can strengthen the
value and utility of ground transit (such as buses,
subways, commuter trains, and streetcars). Boston's
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority operates
commuter boats and ferries with many destinations
and with connections to subway lines, commuter
rail lines, and bus routes, making transfers and trip
planning easier for residents and visitors.
Other tools to improve transportation options apply
to both waterfront and inland settings.These tools
include variable pricing that charges higher fees
during peak demand, and convenient park-once or
shared parking facilities with good shuttle or walking
connections to desired destinations (see Element 4 for
more information on walkable communities). Locating
parking facilities away from the water's edge can free
35
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Kayaking provides great recreational opportunities, as illustrated
in this photo of Michigan's Detroit River. In some places,
communities are also exploring kayaking as a commuting option.
In Baltimore, water taxis provide viable transportation between
key sites throughout the harbor.
In Port Clinton, Ohio, ferries
provide access to islands in
Lake Erie.
valuable waterfront land for development or water
access. Other system-wide investments in reliable
public transit (including buses or streetcars), improved
connectivity among road networks, and better
infrastructure for biking and walking can help make
alternatives to driving easier and more appealing.
Besides the movement of people, the movement
of goods is an important transportation issue for
waterfront and coastal communities. Deep draft ports
accommodate oceangoing vessels, which carry more
than 99 percent of U.S. overseas trade by weight
and 64 percent by value.42 The connections between
water and surface transportation—specifically, port
connections to rail, air, road, and pipeline—are critical
to moving goods efficiently and cost-effectively.
These connections also affect the environment
and quality of life in adjacent communities. Many
of these communities have historically suffered a
disproportionate share of adverse environmental
impacts and are seeking alternatives to moving
freight from port to highway to reduce the truck
traffic going through their neighborhoods.43 The
20-mile, $2.4 billion Alameda Corridor project in
Los Angeles is one of the most visible efforts to shift
the movement of goods off roads and onto rails to
relieve traffic congestion, improve air quality, and
improve the quality of life for nearby neighborhoods.
Transportation options that reduce congestion can
help ensure the vital movement of goods while
protecting the quality of life in adjacent communities.
Providing a wide range of land- and water-based
transportation options can help communities by
the water create a welcoming, pedestrian-friendly
environment that also accommodates the
efficient movement of goods necessary to
waterfront commerce.
The Staten Island Ferry, New York
Every year, the Staten Island
Ferry gives more than 19
million passengers—including
commuters, residents, and
tourists—a ride across New York
Harbor between Staten Island
and lower Manhattan. The ferry
runs 24 hours a day, every day of
the year. Operated by New York
City as a municipal service since
1905, the ferry serves 65,000
passengers on a typical weekday
and is open to pedestrians only.
Rail and bus service is available
at both ferry terminals; the
Staten Island Terminal is served
by multiple buses and the
Staten Island Railway, while the
Whitehall Terminal in Manhattan
is within walking distance of the
city subway and three bus lines.44
According to New York City's
Independent Budget Office, about
40,000 weekday trips are made on
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ELEMENTS
The effective linkage of marine shipping with land-based transportation can be critical to water-based economies such as those
along the Great Lakes.
EY ACTION OPTIONS
Enhance water-based public transportation and link it
to pedestrian and land-based transit systems
POLICIES, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Encourage water-based public transportation options,
particularly those that accommodate walk-on
passengers (e.g., ferries and water taxis)
Coordinate water-based public transportation with
land-based systems and schedules (e.g., rail, bus)
Apply transit-oriented development principles to water
taxi or ferry terminal areas, using high-density, mixed-
use projects to attract water transit riders
37
Ensure that transportation options consider the
movement of goods, as wellaspeople
Ensure efficiency of intermodal connections (e.g., port to
truck, rail, air)
Coordinate between marine transportation and port
plans, local land use plans, and land transportation and
infrastructure plans
Plan for seasonal transportation needs
Use variable pricing policies for parking or tolls
Consider a park-once strategy for cars and boats;
complement with shuttle services and improved
pedestrian access
Locate parking structures and sites away from
water's edge
Increase shuttle service during seasonal peaks
the ferry by Staten Island residents,
equivalent to roughly 20,000 two-
way commuter trips a day across
the two bridge and tunnel routes
into lower Manhattan.45 Given that
a typical bridge or tunnel lane can
accommodate about 6,000 vehicles
during peak rush hours, the ferry
has helped to reduce congestion,
as well as the need for investment
in additional lane capacity.
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ELEMENT
Make development
decisions predictable,
fair, and cost-
effective through
consistent policies
and coordinated
permitting processes
JLJ
ht£k*
f!
In waterfront and
coastal communities,
strong and often
competing demands
between development,
recreational uses,
and protection of the
environment must
be balanced.
•T"
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The Digital Coast Legislative Atlas provides a searchable
database of coastal and ocean legislation, spatially illustrating
the boundaries of laws, jurisdictions, and policies (www.csc.noaa.
gov/digitalcoast/tools/legatlas/).
Bringing a community together to establish a vision for
growth is an important part of creating a predictable and fair
development process.
In most communities across the country, the private
sector is responsible for the overwhelming majority
of new development. New development has many
costs. Most of them—land, materials, and labor, for
instance—can be accurately identified and accounted
for by a developer. However, the costs for permitting,
zoning variances, site reviews, and compliance with
applicable regulations are often less clear and can
be compounded by the time each process takes.
Because compact, mixed-use projects diverge from
conventional plans for single-use projects, they are
more likely to need extra reviews in communities
that do not have smart growth-supportive zoning
codes. For development projects to succeed, they
must be buildable within a reasonable timeframe,
with a likely profit commensurate with their risk. The
public sector can support environmentally responsible
development by reducing barriers to smart growth,
ensuring that the development process for all projects
is efficient, fair, and transparent.
In waterfront and coastal communities, strong and
often competing demands between development,
recreational uses, and protection of the environment
must be balanced. The uncertainty in development
can be magnified by the extra layers of local,
state, and federal regulations that apply along the
water. Often, planning and permitting agencies
have different roles and responsibilities that must
be reconciled. By creating an easily understood,
predictable development process, waterfront and
coastal communities can create a climate that is
more likely to produce projects that meet multiple
community goals. This can be achieved by effectively
coordinating across regulatory agencies, providing
non-regulatory incentives, and allowing flexibility in
local development policies.
In any community, a first step toward greater fairness
and predictability is to establish a vision for growth.
Visioning is often accomplished through charrettes
and other stakeholder involvement processes (see
Element 10 for more detail on these processes).
Some communities have followed up on visioning
processes with "policy audit" tools that help identify
inconsistencies between their established vision for
growth and existing policies, codes, and regulations.
Others have directly approached developers,
public officials, and interested citizens to simply ask
what they each believe are the barriers to better
development. Whatever the method used, once these
obstacles are identified, communities can work with
the appropriate regulatory agencies to adopt a policy
framework that makes it easier for developers to
implement the community's vision.
Such a policy framework may include centralized,
easily accessible information for the planning,
review, and permitting processes, making them
more transparent and helping to hold responsible
regulatory agencies accountable. For example,
Louisiana's on-line Coastal Use Permit system allows
applicants to file an application and revisions, track
the application's progress through the entire permit
process, and receive expedited authorizations.46
Readily available information like this on the status
of pending applications makes the process more
predictable. Other jurisdictions coordinate the
review and approval of plans and permits. Florida,
for example, consolidates applications for coastal
construction permits, environmental resource
permits, wetland resource (dredge and fill) permits,
and submerged lands authorizations for a single
project into a "joint coastal permif'issued by a single
agency. This system minimizes potential conflicts
z
•r;
-------
Durban
coastal
greenway
C R M C
i *£|i
•— *-f— •—
The Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council's Metro Bay Special Area Management Plan is enhancing public access and
recreational opportunities along the shorelines of the Providence, Rhode Island, metro region.
among permitting agencies and helps ensure
efficient reviews.47
A tool specifically applicable to the coastal
development process is the Special Area
Management Plan (SAMP). Created by the Coastal
Zone Management Act, these plans provide a formal
mechanism for cross-jurisdictional coordination of
land-use policies in coastal areas.The Rhode Island
Metro Bay Region SAMP, which encompasses 24 miles
of shoreline at the head of Narragansett Bay, was
developed by the Rhode Island Coastal Resources
Management Council in collaboration with the
four metropolitan communities of Cranston, East
Providence, Providence, and Pawtucket. Covering
most of the waterfront in these four cities, the Metro
Bay Region SAMP was developed to improve the
working waterfront, provide public access to the
water and along the shoreline, and attract new
development with a more predictable and efficient
permitting process. Rhode Island state agencies and
municipalities are required by state law to hold joint
permit review meetings for large-scale projects. The
SAMP process ensures a coordinated review of coastal
projects and facilitates a more effective and efficient
local and state permitting process.48
Bremerton, Washington
The city of Bremerton,
Washington, recognized
that the revitalization of its
waterfront along Puget Sound
and its downtown next to the
waterfront were central to the
community's future. Revitalization
of the waterfront was particularly
challenging, since the area
included the U.S. Navy's Bangor
Design guidelines can also help streamline the
process. Communities can create guidelines that
show developers and builders the form of buildings,
streetscapes, setbacks, and elevations that are
compatible with local codes and ordinances.
Guidelines can include specific provisions reflecting
the community's distinctive natural setting and
heritage. The city of Norfolk, Virginia, on the
James River and Chesapeake Bay, commissioned a
pattern book that identifies various styles found in
different neighborhoods and illustrates architectural
components, such as the design of windows, doors,
and porches, that have the development character the
community wants.49This gives developers a clear guide
to what designs are acceptable.
In coastal and waterfront communities, the complex
local, state, and federal regulatory framework may
make it more challenging to create a predictable
development climate. However, these communities
have access to a wide variety of tools to make it easier
for the private sector to build projects that meet
multiple community goals.
shipyard and submarine base
and the state-controlled Seattle-
Bremerton Ferry terminal. Vacant
and underused sites that were
ideal places for new development
were subject to a myriad of
development regulations, as well
as Homeland Security regulations
(given the proximity to the
shipyard and submarine base).
To address these challenges,
Bremerton implemented a
Shoreline Master Program, a
waterfront redevelopment
policy tool available to localities
through Washington's Shoreline
Management Act and the
Bremerton Community Renewal
Program, and set out to create
a redevelopment climate that
-------
ELEMENT 9
"A Pattern Book for Norfolk Neighborhoods"features architectural components and styles that
reflect the community's design preferences.
Community members need forums where they can discuss
desired outcomes for future growth and development.
KEY ACTION OPTIONS
Come to consensus on a vision for future growth
POLICIES, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Employ design charrettes, comprehensive plans, and
other stakeholder visioning processes
Develop processes that make decisions
predictable and faster while meeting community
development objectives and protecting natural and
cultural resources
Create consistent cross-agency review criteria
and processes
Use one-stop shops for interagency review
Develop pattern books and design guidelines that
include form-based codes
41
Make development processes transparent, fair,
and inclusive
Create development policies and regulations that are
easy to understand and apply
Use published project review timelines
Build on-line databases showing project status
Use a variety of stakeholder involvement processes,
including community meetings, design charrettes, and
on-line discussion forums
Provide centralized, easily accessible information
Produce publications and websites that outline processes
Create on-line databases
Use one-stop shops for information on the
permitting process
would attract private developers
to build projects the city
needed and the market could
support. Public investments in
the ferry terminal, a conference
center, and a waterfront park
attracted private developers
who invested in office and
residential properties. Since
2000, over $500 million worth of
construction has occurred in the
Harborside District. Bremerton
has capitalized on this success
by adopting a new downtown
plan, complete with design
guidelines, mixed-use zoning,
and streetscape standards,
that has streamlined the
development process.50
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ELEMENT
Encourage community
and stakeholder
collaboration
in development
decisions, ensuring
that public interests
in and rights of access
to the waterfront and
coastal waters
are upheld
An inclusive planning
process is critical for
waterfront and coastal
communities because of
the complex regulatory
environment, the diversity
of stakeholders, the
demand for public
access to the water,
and the competing
interests for use of
waterfront resources.
-------
Public access to the water is critical to coastal and
waterfront communities.
Maps can help people better understand a community's
vulnerability to hazards.
One of smart growth's signature characteristics
is a meaningful public involvement process that
ensures that the needs and concerns of all affected
stakeholders are identified and addressed. Successful
development requires inclusive planning processes
that give community members and other stakeholders
a clear voice in the development process. Growth
can create great places to live, work, and play—if it
responds to the community's vision of how and where
it wants to grow.
An inclusive planning process is critical for waterfront
and coastal communities because of the complex
regulatory environment, the diversity of stakeholders,
the demand for public access to the water, and the
competing interests for use of waterfront resources.
What happens on and near the water can enhance
property values, support businesses, enhance
community resilience to natural hazards, and greatly
affect a community's overall quality of life.
The tools for effective involvement are similar for
inland and waterfront communities.The goal is to
fairly identify and respond to all legitimate interests
by providing clear and convenient opportunities
for substantive involvement at critical stages in the
development process. Involvement should begin well
before a development plan is on the table, the scope
of participants'decision-making power should be clear
at the outset, and all involved should be periodically
updated on how their input is being used.
One of the primary interests of people living and
working near the water can be access to the water.
However, the legal framework regulating access is
complex. In most waterfront settings, historic public
use can establish an easement allowing public access
to the water across private land. In addition, where
navigable or tidal waters are involved, the public trust
doctrine requires states to protect public use of and
access to the water, as well as the land beneath it. Each
state applies this common law principle according
to its own legal traditions. In most states, fishing and
boating, including recreational use of the water, must
be accommodated, and access cannot be denied
simply because adjoining lands are privately held.
But public access rights vary across jurisdictions.51 For
example, in a handful of states, shorefront property
owners also own the adjacent intertidal zone. The
quality of life in coastal and waterfront communities
depends in part on finding ways to constructively
balance these rights of public access and private
ownership. Well-designed, collaborative stakeholder
involvement processes can help reach this objective.
Identifying who to involve requires understanding
who has an interest in, or will be affected by, proposed
development. Near the water, there can be many
stakeholders, such as recreational users, commercial
fishers, developers, waterfront business owners, and
permanent and seasonal residents. On the coast, a
wide range of federal, state, and regional government
entities also must be engaged, since they are
responsible for community health and safety and for
protecting both the environmental quality of coastal
ecosystems and the public's right of access to them.
The stakeholder involvement process can help
create a vision for future development. In 2004, the
communities of Northwest Indiana began a regional
43
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The Marquette Plan provides a regional vision for 45 miles of shoreline along Lake Michigan in Northwest Indiana.
Community members and
planners worked together
to develop community
redevelopment maps for Pass
Christian, Mississippi.
plan for their 45 miles of shoreline along Lake
Michigan. The Marquette Plan unifies the area by
leveraging the collective strengths of these lakeshore
communities. Through a public involvement process
that included multiple community forums and
stakeholder interviews, five communities agreed
on three guiding principles: increased public access
to the shoreline; creation of a multi-purpose trail
connecting lakefront communities; and minimum
200-foot setbacks from the lakefront for all new
development. To date, one new development project
has been completed, five are funded, and 16 are in
the planning process.52
Engaging all affected stakeholders is especially
critical in the wake of natural disasters. After
Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Mississippi Governor
Haley Barbour created the Governor's Commission
on Recovery, Rebuilding and Renewal to develop
a strategy for rebuilding communities damaged
by the hurricane. The commission hosted design
forums in 11 communities. In the Gulf of Mexico
community of Pass Christian, the process included
walking tours through the devastated area and
a charrette involving community residents and
officials. The result was a plan with four goals:
recover economic sustainability; support and
unite the community by restoring the civic realm;
support and unite the diverse interests in the
community; and rebuild city-wide. The rebuilding
plan incorporates core smart growth approaches,
including mixed use, walkability, a variety of
housing options, and codes that support them.53
Involving stakeholders from the outset of a
waterfront development project creates the basis
for a shared vision of the future. The result can be
a development plan that uses the land efficiently
and wisely, upholds public rights of access, and
protects the community's interest in a precious
natural resource.
Vienna, Maryland
Vienna is a small town on the
Nanticoke River, a tributary of
the Chesapeake Bay. One of the
oldest settlements in Maryland,
with an original plan dating back
to 1706, this town on Maryland's
Eastern Shore retains a strong
fishing and agricultural base.54 In
response to growth pressures in
the early 2000's and to prepare
fora scheduled update of the
town's comprehensive plan,
Vienna asked The Conservation
Fund, a national nonprofit group,
to help develop a new vision for
the community. The town council,
the mayor, and experts from
The Conservation Fund worked
with the community to assess
the town's natural resources,
economic opportunities, land
use trends, and development
potential. The tools they used
included a public opinion survey
that involved about half the
town's adult population, in-
depth community interviews
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ELEMENT 10
Community meetings provide an opportunity to explore shared Rural Vienna, Maryland, is working to protect its historical ties to
goals, issues, and concerns. the river and the surrounding rural landscape.
KEY ACTION OPTIONS
Develop an inclusionaryprocess to
maximize participation and results
POLICIES, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Conduct a stakeholder analysis
Schedule meetings to accommodate all stakeholders (including seasonal residents)
Conduct individual and small group interviews
Administer community surveys through the mail
Develop a common understanding among
the diverse stakeholders
Engage all stakeholders to set goals
Conduct walkability tours and audits
Administer visual preference surveys
Hold community visioning exercises
Perform policy audits to ensure that plans, codes, and regulations are consistent
with community vision
45
Use appropriate and transparent meeting
and communication techniques
Use charrettes to resolve complex design issues
Use trained meeting facilitators
Employ a communication strategy to keep all interested constituencies updated
and involved
Use geographic information systems (CIS) to create maps depicting alternative
development scenarios
Analyze alternative development scenarios using visualization software
Collaborate with federal, state, and local
authorities who have jurisdiction over the
public trust and coastal natural resources
Employ special area management planning
Conduct joint coastal permit reviews
Provide feedback when federal agencies solicit input for environmental
impact statements
with individual residents, and
community workshops. As a
result, the town developed a
plan that preserves Vienna's
rural town character while
still accommodating growth.
Although the nationwide real
estate downturn of 2008 gave
the area some breathing room,
residents and real estate experts
expect development to return.
When it does, the Vienna-
Conservation Fund process can
serve as a model for conservation
and growth in the Chesapeake
Bay watershed.
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Accessory dwelling unit: An accessory dwelling unit (ADU) is a second
residential unit that may be contained within an existing single-family
home, garage, or carriage house. An ADU usually is required to be a
complete housekeeping unit that can function independently, with
separate access, kitchen, bedroom, and sanitary facilities. These units
are sometimes also termed "granny flats,""mother-in-law"apartments,
or elder cottages.55
Blue trail, blueway: Blue trails are the water equivalent to hiking trails.
They are created to facilitate recreation in and along rivers and water
bodies and are found in urban settings as well as remote environments.
They may also be used for commuting purposes.56
Brownfield: A brownfield is real property (e.g., a parcel of land), the
expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by
the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant,
or contaminant.57
Business improvement district: Business improvement districts
(BIDs) are an expansion of the Principal Shopping Districts Act of 1961.
BIDs allow qualified downtown and commercial areas to levy a special
assessment to fund improvements to the district.58
Capital expenditure plan: Also called a capital improvement plan,
a capital expenditure plan is a schedule or budget, usually covering
five years and updated annually, for funding capital improvements.
Capital improvements can include buildings, sanitary and storm sewer
facilities, water systems, roads and highways, sidewalks, and parks
and open space. A capital improvement plan is one of the major tools
for implementing comprehensive plans. It includes a list of projects,
priorities, estimated costs, financing methods, and time schedules for
project completion.59
Charrette: A charrette (sometimes spelled charette and often called
"design charrette") is a community planning and design technique
for consulting with stakeholders and incorporating their concerns in
final development designs. Charrettes are typically intense, possibly
multi-day meetings that bring municipal officials, developers,
community residents, and other local stakeholders together with
planning, architecture, and design professionals. A charrette promotes
joint ownership of the solution and attempts to diffuse traditional
confrontation between communities and developers.58
Clean Marina Program: A Clean Marina Program is a voluntary,
incentive-based program promoted by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and others that encourages
marina operators and recreational boaters to protect coastal water
quality by engaging in environmentally sound operating and
maintenance procedures. While Clean Marina Programs vary from
state to state, all programs offer information, guidance, and technical
assistance to marina operators, local governments, and recreational
boaters on best management practices that can be used to prevent or
reduce pollution. Marinas that participate in the Clean Marina Program
are recognized for their environmental stewardship.
Coastal and Estuarine Land Conservation Program: The Coastal and
Estuarine Land Conservation Program is a land conservation program
run by NOAA and established to protect coastal and estuarine lands
considered important for their ecological, conservation, recreational,
historical, or aesthetic values.The program provides matching
funds to state and local governments to acquire outright, or protect
through conservation easement, properties they have prioritized for
conservation. Lands may only be purchased from willing sellers and are
protected in perpetuity.
Coastal county: A coastal county meets one of the following criteria:
(1)a minimum of 15 percent of the county's land area is located within
a coastal watershed or (2) part of the county accounts for at least 15
percent of a"coastal cataloguing unit."For more information see: NOAA,
National Ocean Service. Population Trends along the Coastal United
States: 1980-2008. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, 2004.60
Coastal viewshed: The coastal viewshed encompasses the area of
coastal land and water that is visible from one or more viewing points.
Community asset inventory: A community asset inventory is a list of a
community's assets, including community-based service and advocacy
organizations, religious institutions, public institutions, businesses,
schools, locally owned real estate, and parks and public spaces
where residents can socialize or just enjoy being outside. Developing
an inventory of a community's assets helps people understand
the diversity of their community as well as what their friends and
neighbors value and consider important to life in the community.61
Community land trust: Community land trusts are private non-profit
corporations created to acquire and hold land for the benefit of a
community and to provide affordable access to land and housing for
community residents. Their missions are often shaped by the intent to
meet the needs of residents least served by the prevailing market.62
Community vulnerability assessment: A community vulnerability
assessment assesses a community's vulnerability to hazards.
Vulnerability is the susceptibility of people, property, and resources
to negative impacts from hazard events. A vulnerability assessment
can be a guide for developing hazard mitigation strategies and
prioritizing hazard mitigation projects. One approach to community
vulnerability assessment is to evaluate a community's physical, social,
environmental, and economic vulnerabilities.63
Concurrency policies: Concurrency policies require that adequate
public facilities either are in place when new development is approved
or will be in place within two years.64
Condo-hotel: Condo-hotels typically are high-rise buildings developed
and operated as luxury hotels, usually in major cities and resort areas.
These hotels have condominium units that allow individual ownership
of each unit. When property owners are not using their condo-hotel
unit, they can let the hotel chain rent it out as if it were a hotel room.65
Conservation easement: A conservation easement is a voluntary
agreement between a private landowner and a municipal agency
or qualified not-for-profit corporation to restrict the development,
management, or use of the land.The agency holds the interest and
is empowered to enforce the agreed-upon restrictions against the
current landowner and all subsequent owners of the land.55
Current use taxation program: Current use taxation designations
give landowners a tax break when the "current use" of their land
meets the criteria for farm/agricultural land, timber land, open space,
or forest land. Current use lands are taxed according to the value of
their current, existing use instead of the presumably higher market
value of the land if it were developed for residential, commercial, or
industrial use.66
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Deed restriction: A deed restriction is a requirement placed in a deed
to restrict the current and future use of the land in some way.55
Density bonus: A density bonus lets a developer build a larger number
of market-rate units on a site than would otherwise be permitted in
order to provide an incentive for the construction of affordable housing
or another public good.58
Ecological history: Ecological history "traces the ongoing dialectical
relations between human acts and acts of nature, made manifest in
the landscape."67
Fix it first policy: A fix it first policy makes upgrading existing public
facilities a community's first priority. Fix it first policies direct public
investment to maintaining and upgrading the streets, highways,
sidewalks, water and sewer systems, lighting, schools, and other civic
buildings and facilities that have already been built in a community.
This helps maintain the value of investments already made in the
community by both public and private sources, and it can help attract
additional investment in rehabilitation and redevelopment projects.68
Floor-to-area ratio bonus: A floor-to-area ratio (FAR) bonus is an
allowed increase in the amount of buildable space relative to the
area of the land upon which the building is sited.This bonus can be
negotiated on a floor-by-floor basis to permit buildings to cover more
of the site at ground levels, and step back from the street at higher
levels. FAR bonuses are particularly useful to support form-based
codes because they allowthe design of the building to be adjusted to
both achieve higher density, and ensure adequate air flow, light, and
visibility between buildings.
Geographic information system (CIS): A geographic information
system (CIS) is a computerized database that integrates hardware,
software, and data for capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying
locationally defined information. CIS allows users to view, question,
and interpret data in ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and
trends in the form of maps, reports, and charts. Commonly, a CIS
portrays a portion of the earth's surface in the form of a map on which
this information is overlaid.69
Green infrastructure: Green infrastructure is defined by a range of
natural and built systems that can occur at the regional, community,
and site scales. At the larger regional or watershed scale, green
infrastructure is the interconnected network of preserved or restored
natural lands and waters that provide essential environmental
functions. Large-scale green infrastructure may include (but is not
limited to) forested corridors and hubs that provide multiple services,
including habitat and water resource protection. At the community
and neighborhood scale, green infrastructure incorporates urban
forestry practices that reduce impervious surfaces and help create
walkable, attractive communities. At the site scale, green infrastructure
mimics natural processes to help infiltrate, evapotranspire, capture, and
reuse stormwaterto maintain and restore natural hydrology. Site scale
green infrastructure practices, sometimes referred to as low impact
development (LID) techniques, include but are not limited to rain
gardens, ecoroofs, permeable pavements, and cisterns or rain barrels.
Green roof: A green roof is a roof planted with vegetation. Intensive
green roofs have thick layers of soil (6 to 12 inches or more) that can
support a broad variety of plant or even tree species. Extensive roofs
are simpler green roofs with a soil layer of 6 inches or less to support
grasses or other ground cover.70
Groin: A groin is a structure built perpendicular to the shore that traps
sand to stabilize eroding shorelines.
Harbor management plan: Municipal harbor management plans
area means for communities to plan and manage uses in coastal
waters to support waterfront land use plans and regulations. The
goals are to integrate the community's land and water use objectives,
promote water-dependent uses, minimize conflicts among competing
users, coordinate multi-jurisdictional (state and municipal) decision-
making, and protect coastal resources. Depending on the enabling
authority, harbor management plans may cover just the water area and
complement the community's waterfront master plan or may include
both the water and the adjacent land area.71
Hazard mitigation plan: A hazard mitigation plan is a plan that forms
the foundation for a community's long-term strategy to reduce impacts
from future disasters. Hazard mitigation is sustained action taken to
reduce or eliminate long-term riskto people and their property from
hazards.72
Historic district: Historic districts are officially designated by local
ordinance or by state or federal government action. Historic districts
have defined geographic boundaries, within which are properties or
buildings that mayor may not be landmarks, but which contribute to
the overall historic character of the designated area. Historic districts
are also referred to as"historic preservation districts."58
Hub-and-spoke: In a working port context, hub-and-spoke refers
to transportation connections arranged like a wheel, where traffic
moves along spokes connected to a hub in the center. In the marine
transportation system, the working port is the hub.73
Impervious surface: Impervious surfaces are mainly constructed
surfaces—rooftops, sidewalks, roads, and parking lots—covered by
impenetrable materials such as asphalt, concrete, brick, and stone.
These materials seal surfaces, repel water, and prevent precipitation
and meltwaterfrom infiltrating soils. Soils compacted by urban
development are also highly impervious.74
Inclusionary zoning: Inclusionary zoning requires that some portion
of every new housing development (e.g., 10%) beyond a given
threshold size (e.g., 50 units) will be affordable to below-median-
income residentsto both increase the number of affordable units
and create mixed income communities. Some inclusionary zoning
programs permit developersto make "in lieu" contributions to a
regional housing trust fund to construct affordable housing, rather
than requiring units to be constructed on site.
Infill development: Infill development is development or re-
development of land that has been bypassed, has remained vacant,
or is underused as a result of the surrounding development process.
Generally, infill areas or sites are not of prime quality; however, they
are usually served by or are readily accessible to the infrastructure
services and facilities provided by the applicable local governmental
entity. Use of such lands for new housing or other urban development
is considered a more desirable alternative than supporting continued
extension of the development pattern laterally and horizontally
out from the existing community, which would entail higher capital
improvement costs than would be required for infill development.The
use of infill development, among other strategies, promotes efficient
use of resources and contributes to the economic health of existing
communities.75
Intertidal zone:The area along the shoreline that is submerged at high
tide and exposed at low tide.
Live-near-your-work program: Live-near-your-work programs
provide financial incentives that encourage people to live near their
workplaces. The intention is to reduce traffic congestion and vehicle
miles travelled, thus generating environmental benefits such as
reduced air and water quality impacts. Incentives can include rent
subsidies and special loans or grants to purchase homes.76
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Living shoreline: Living shorelines are stabilization techniques that
restore, protect, and enhance the natural shoreline environment
by mimicking nature. Nonstructural approaches include vegetative
plantings and sand fill; hybrid techniques combine vegetative planting
with low rock sills.These approaches can be effective alternatives to
"hard"stabilization structures such as bulkheads, riprap, or groins.77
Live-aboard housing: Live-aboard housing involvesthe use of a
watercraft as a permanent or temporary residence, and is typically
located in a marina, alongside a dock, or in a mooring field.
Local waterfront revitalization plan: A local waterfront
revitalization plan is a locally prepared land and water use plan
and strategy used in New York for a community's waterfront that
addresses critical issues and refines waterfront policies to reflect local
conditions and circumstances.78
LID (low impact development): Low impact development is an
approach to land development, or redevelopment, that works with
nature to manage stormwater as close to its source as possible in order
to maintain or restore natural hydrologic function. Recently, this term
has come to be used interchangeably with the term "site-scale green
infrastructure practices."79 (See Green Infrastructure.)
Marine conservation agreement: Marine conservation agreements
are formal or informal agreements between parties to exchange
benefits, take or refrain from certain actions, or transfer certain
rights and responsibilities to restore and protect fragile coastal and
marine ecosystems.80
Natural hazard: A natural hazard is a natural process that
threatens lives, property, and other assets. Often, a natural
hazard can be predicted and tends to occur repeatedly in the
same geographical location.81
Overlay district: An overlay district is a zoning technique that allows
a jurisdiction to superimpose additional requirements over a basic use
zoning district without disturbing the requirements of the basic use
district. In the instance of conflicting requirements, the stricter of the
conflicting requirements applies.58
Park-once strategy: A park-once strategy is an approach to promoting
"walkable communities"through which ample parking facilities are
provided within safe walking distance and easy access of a variety of
destinations, including waterfront areas and land-based transportation
options. Park-once strategies let residents, workers, and visitors
"park once," leaving their car behind and using others means (e.g.,
walking, community shuttles, bicycle rentals) to get to their desired
destination(s) within the community.82
Pedestrian master plan: A pedestrian master plan provides the
rationale, goals, objectives, strategies, standards, and maps for
implementing a comprehensive approach to making a community
safe and walkable for people travelling on foot. This includes
approaches for linking sidewalks, walking paths, and pedestrian-
related facilities and amenities.75
Policy audit: A policy audit is typically a checklist that guides the
review of a community's land use and development policies to help
evaluate whether those policies support the community's vision
for smarter growth. Policy audits can help identify areas in which a
community's intentions are at odds with existing policy statements
and implementation rules (e.g., comprehensive plans, zoning codes,
building codes, street design requirements, and infrastructure
financing priorities).83
Public trust doctrine: The Public Trust Doctrine provides that public
trust lands, waters, and living resources in a state are held by the state
in trust for the benefit of the public, and establishes the rights of the
public in public trust lands, waters, and living resources for a variety of
uses. The public trust doctrine may be applicable whenever tidelands,
navigable waters, or submerged lands are altered, developed,
conveyed, or otherwise managed or preserved. It may apply whether
the trust lands are publicly or privately owned. In addition to
establishing the rights of the public in these lands and waters, the
doctrine also imposes limitations on the states and the public and
private owners, as well as establishing duties and responsibilities of the
states when managing these public trust assets.84
Purchase of development rights: Purchase of development rights
(PDRs) programs place a permanent restriction on the land, protecting
it from all future development. PDRs are typically used to protect and
conserve natural lands (such as open meadows or forests) or rural lands
(including farmland). Owning land conveys a set of rights, including
the right to develop the land for residential, commercial, or industrial
use (subject to applicable zoning restrictions). Under a PDR program,
property owners can choose to sell their development rights to a land
trust or other entity. A permanent deed restriction is then placed on
the property.85
Rehab code: A rehab code, also known asa"rehabilitation code"ora
"building rehabilitation code,"is a code designed to permit, encourage,
and facilitate the re-use of existing buildings by exempting them
from new construction code requirements that are not necessary
to renovation and might make the renovation and rehabilitation of
existing buildings economically uncompetitive.86
Riprap: Riprap consists of broken stone, cut stone blocks, or rubble
that is placed on slopes to protect them from erosion or scour caused
by floodwaters or wave action.87
Riparian habitat: Riparian habitat refers to a stream or river, its
bordering lands within the floodplain, and the areas that contribute
leaves, wood, and other materials to the stream or river, including
canopy cover. Riparian habitat provides home and shelter to animals,
insects, and plants and often includes wetlands.88
Rolling easement: A rolling easement is a policy approach that
preserves natural habitats and public access to the coast as shorelines
erode or retreat by requiring structures to be removed once they
are no longer on dry land (because submerged land is publicly
owned under the public trust doctrine). Usually, engineered shore
protection measures are prohibited. As the sea advances, the easement
automatically moves or"rolls"landward.89
Special Area Management Plan: Special Area Management Plans
(SAMPs)are resource management plans and implementation
programs developed to better manage specific geographic areas, such
as an urban waterfront. SAMPs also supplement existing management
programs to help address complex multijurisdictional coastal issues.
SAMPs have increased cooperation among coastal localities and
provided a more comprehensive approach to addressing coastal
issues. For example, the communities of New Bedford and Fairhaven,
Massachusetts, developed a multijurisdictional SAMP for their harbor
that protects water-dependent port uses and identifies areas for
waterfront revitalization.
Smart Growth Network: The Smart Growth Network is a coalition of
national and regional organizations united in the belief that where and
how we grow matters. For additional information, see
www.smartgrowth.org.
Stakeholder analysis: Stakeholder analysis is a technique for
identifying and assessing the importance of key people, groups of
people, or institutions that may significantly influence, or will be
significantly influenced by, a proposed activity or project. It can be
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Glossary
used to identify people, groups, and institutions that will affect a
proposed initiative or project (either positively or negatively), help
anticipate the kind of influence to expect, and develop constructive
strategies to get the most effective support, and most constructive
involvement, possible.90
Stormwater fee discount: A stormwater fee discount reduces
stormwater fees for property owners who implement measures to
manage and reduce stormwater runoff.91
Sustainable: Sustainable, from an ecological standpoint, is the
ability to meet the needs of the present human generation without
compromising the integrity of the ecosystems that future generations
(human and other) will need to rely upon to meet their needs.92
Taxabatement/exemption:Taxabatement/exemption isa strategy
to lower, restrict, or otherwise reduce the tax burden associated with
a piece of property in exchange for the provision of a desired public
good. Tax exemptions make the property owner"exempt"from parlor
all of the taxes related to the improvements upon a property for a fixed
period of time.93
Tax increment financing district: A tax increment financing (TIP)
district is a tool used by cities and other development authorities to
finance certain types of development costs. The public purposes of a
TIP are the redevelopment of blighted areas, construction of low- and
moderate-income housing, provision of employment opportunities,
and improvement of the tax base. With a TIP, the taxing entity "captures"
the additional property taxes generated by the development over and
above the pre-developmenttax revenue, and uses the resultant "tax
increments"to finance the development costs.58
Tiered development: Tiered development is development where the
height of buildings increases as one moves away from the coast or
waterfront. This optimizes panoramic water views for more buildings.
Transfer of development rights: Transfer of development rights
programs create a market for selling development rights on one parcel
of land and conveying them to another.These rights are transferred
away from areas designated for preservation, such as agricultural and
forestry lands, towards areas deemed appropriate for development and
higher density.75
Transit-oriented development: A transit-oriented development
(TOD) is a development with a mix of land uses (e.g., residential, office,
shopping, civic, and entertainment) within easy walking distance
of a transit station. The close proximity of transit decreases people's
dependence on driving for meeting their everyday needs. Reducing
vehicle miles travelled in this way can help lower air emissions. TODs
can also benefit regional water quality by concentrating development
and reusing previously developed land, thereby reducing development
pressure on open space. Reuse of previously developed land often
means accommodating new development without any net increase in
impervious surface or runoff.94
Visioning exercise: Visioning isa participatory planning process that
seeks to create a shared image of a desired future fora community.
To do this, citizens and stakeholders actively engage in discussions
and exercises about alternative futures. Successful Visioning
processes lead to broad agreement about a preferred future, which
in turn lead to implementation strategies involving changes in
public policy and actions.95
Visual preference survey: A visual preference survey is a technique
that helps a community determine what attributes they value in
overall community design. As the name implies, the technique is
based on the development of one or more visual concepts of a
proposed plan or project. The actual technique may rely on sketches,
photographs, computer images, or similar techniques to provide
the basis for participants to rate or assess each visual depiction. As
a result, participants can express judgments and possibly reach a
consensus about a visual design, architecture, site layout, landscape,
and similar design features, which may be incorporated in the goals,
objectives, design guidelines, enhancement/mitigation measures, or
recommended standards for a study, plan, or project. Visual preference
surveys can also be used at the beginning of a planning process to help
participants identify what they value most about their community.
In this application, a series of photographs are used, usually from the
community itself but they can be from elsewhere, to help people
identify what it is they like, and dislike, about various aspects of
community design, including roads, buildings, and open space.96
Visualization software: Visualization software is image editing
software that digitally alters images of real places to create photo-
realistic simulations of proposed changes. Digital images of the
planning area are modified with proposed design features, such as
new buildings, bike lanes, trolley cars, streetlights, or natural features
like trees, to give the public, designers, and decision makers a better
sense of the impact of proposed changes on the built or natural
environment.97
Walkability tour: A walkability tour is a tour (usually on foot) to
evaluate how pedestrian friendly and walkable an area is.Through a
walkability tour, the overall "feel"of the community's streets is assessed
with regard to how comfortable and safe those streets feel to a person
walking along them. Walkability tours look at many factors, including
how parking is handled, how wide the streets are, how many "curb cuts"
intersectthe sidewalk,the location of street trees and street "furniture"
(e.g., benches), as well as how buildings are designed and the ways in
which buildings do or do not interact with the pedestrian environment.
Water-dependent uses: While the definition of water-dependent use
varies among states and locales, a water-dependent activity typically
requires the use of, location on, or direct access to navigable waters
or submerged lands to achieve its primary purpose, whether it is
recreational, commercial, or industrial. Such water-dependent uses
include fishing facilities, marinas, and ports, and are important to
maintaining the viability of working waterfronts.
Waterfront master plan: A waterfront master plan is a comprehensive
long-range plan for the waterfront intended to guide growth
and development.
*Glossary definitions are from a variety of sources. The numbers at
the end of glossary entries correspond with the sources listed in
the endnotes.
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End
1 Excluding Alaska.
2 Statistic calculated by U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) using U.S. Census Bureau 2007 County
Population Estimates. U.S. Census Bureau, 2007. Available at U.S. Census
Bureau. Population Estimates, www.census.gov/popest/estimates.
php (accessed March 1,2009). Also Woods and Poole Economics, Inc.
Complete Economic and Demographic Data Source (CEDDS). 2007.
3 Bates, B.C., Z.W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu, and J.P. Palutikof, Eds. Climate
Changeand Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. IPCC Secretariat, 2008, pages 3, 29, 30,41, and 42.
/\va\\ab\eatwww.ipcc.ch/pdf/technical-papers/climate-change-water-en.
pdf (accessed May 5, 2009).
4 Jacob, J., and S. Showalter. The Resilient Coast: Policy Frameworks for
Adapting the Built Environment to Climate Change and Growth in Coastal
Areas of U.S. Gulf of Mexico.Texas Sea Grant and National Sea Grant
Law Center, 2007, pages 8 and 25. Available at www.urban-nature.org/
publications/documents/TheBuiltEnvironment08-sm_OOO.pdf (accessed
May 8, 2009).
5 Maine Sea Grant College Program. Access to the Waterfront: Issues and
Solutions across the Nation. Maine Sea Grant College Program at the
University of Maine, 2007, pages 4 to 8. Available at www.seagrant.
umaine.edu/files/pdf-global/07access.pdf (accessed April 19, 2009).
6 Personnel communication with JackWiggin, Director, Urban Harbors
Institute, University of Massachusetts Boston, on February 4, 2009.
7 New York Department of State, Division of Coastal Resources.
Coastal Resources Online: Local Waterfront Revitalization Program
(LWRP), www.nyswaterfronts.com/aboutus_LWRP.asp (accessed April
19, 2009); Personal communication with Stephen Ridler, Bureau Chief
of Local and Regional Programs, New York State Department of State,
Office of Coastal, Local Government and Community Sustainability,
on April 6, 2009.
8 Davis, E. "Preserving Municipal Waterfront in Maine for Water-
Dependent Uses: Tax Incentives, Zoning, and the Balance of Growth
and Preservation." Ocean and Coastal Law Journal, 2001, volume 141,
issue 1, pages 163 to 185; Moore, B."Coastal Character: On the Maine
Coast, Working Waterfronts Set the Tone."The Working Waterfront.
Island Institute, August 2005. Available at www.workingwaterfront.
com/articles/Coastal-Character-On-the-Maine-coast-working-
waterfronts-set-the-tone/10891/(accessed April 19, 2009); Richardson,
J. "Uncertain Times on the Portland Waterfront." Portland Press
Herald Maine Sunday Telegram. Blethen Maine Newspapers, Inc.,
January 25, 2009. Available at http://pressherald.mainetoday.com/
story_pf.php?id=235191&ac=PHnws (accessed April 19, 2009); Personal
communication with Bill Needelman, AICP, Senior Planner, City of
Portland Planning Division, Maine, on August 25,2009.
9 Portland Bureau of Environmental Services, City of Portland Oregon.
Stormwater Discount program: Clean River Rewards. Available at www.
portlandonline.com/bes/index.cfm?c=41976 (accessed April 21,2009);
City of Portland Bureau of Planning and Sustainability. Ecoroofs, www.
portlandonline.com/osd/index.cfm?a=114728&c=42113 (accessed April
21,2009).
10The Conservation Fund, Green Infrastructure. Metropolitan
Greenspaces Program - Portland, OR, http://greeninfrastructure.
net/content/project/metropolitan-greenspaces-program-portland-or
(accessed April 21, 2009).
11 Personal communication with Karl Burgess, Habitat Management
Program Manager, Coastal Resources Division, Georgia Department of
Natural Resources, on April 2, 2009.
"The latest version of the scorecard can be found at www.epa.gov/
smartgrowth/.
13 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). National Award for
Smart Growth Achievement 2007. EPA-321-K-08-001, November 2008.
14 Massachusetts Government. Smart Growth/Smart Energy Tool kit:
Accessory Dwelling Units, www.mass.gov/envir/smart_growth_toolkit/
pages/mod-adu.html (accessed April 21, 2009).
15 Using marinas and mooring fields as residential alternatives can be
controversial, and must be implemented in ways that protect public
access to the water and mitigate the environmental impacts of live-
aboards. Thoughtful planning for public infrastructure to support live-
aboard vessels, like pump-out facilities, waterfront parking and access,
and public services, is necessary to avoid unintended environmental
and social impacts.
16 See, for example, Paley, A.R."High Housing Costs Chasing More into
Water: Lack of Property Taxes, Lower Fees among Lures of Boat Living
in DC, MD" Washington Post. The Washington Post Company, April 18,
2005, page B1. Available at www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/
A61358-2005Aprl7.html (accessed May 5,2009).
17 Personal communication with Donna Morrow, Clean Marina Program
Coordinator, Maryland Department of Natural Resources Boating
Services, on February 23,2009.
18 Sustainable Communities Network. Smart Growth Online: Smart
Growth Network Resource Library, Accessory Dwelling Units, www.
smartgrowth.org/library/articles.asp?art=1828&res=1280 (accessed April
21,2009).
19 Personal communication with Carol Berg, Housing and Community
Development Manager, City of Santa Cruz, on August 21,2008.
20 Personal communication with Pat Collins, Program Manager,
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Minnesota's Lake
Superior Coastal Program, on February 23,2009.
21 City of Fernandina Beach. City of Fernandina Beach Comprehensive
Plan: Adopted May 4,2004. As amended by Ordinance 2005-30, Ordinance
2006-28, Ordinance2008-05. City of Fernandina Beach, May 4, 2004,
Future Land Use Element, page 13. Available at www.fbfl.us/index.
aspx?nid=81 (accessed April 19, 2009); Personal communication with
Shawna E. Beji, Waterfronts Florida Program Coordinator, Division of
Community Planning, Florida Department of Community Affairs, on
April 14,2009.
-------
22 Personal communication with Kristen Grant, Marine Extension
Associate, Maine Sea Grant and University of Maine Cooperative
Extension at the Wells Reserve, and Helen Horn and Louisa Gillespie,
Marginal Way Committee, Ogunquit Maine, on March 3, 2009.
23 Ogunquit Chamber of Commerce. Ogunquit Beautiful Place
by the Sea: Questions about the Beach, Marginal Way, and More,
www.ogunquit.org/faqQuestionsAboutTheBeach.php (accessed
April 19,2009).
24 Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation and
Essex National Heritage Commission. Newburyport Reconnaissance
Report: Essex County Landscape Inventory. Massachusetts Heritage
Landscape Inventory Program, May 2005, page 10. Available at www.
mass.gov/dcr/stewardship/histland/reconReports/newburyport.pdf
(accessed May 7, 2009).
25 U.S. EPA Smart Growth Implementation Assistance Program.
Implementing the Aquidneck Island West Side Master Plan. U.S. EPA,
September 2006, page 1 1 . Available at www.epa.gov/dced/pdf/
aquidneck.pdf (accessed May 7, 2009).
26 City of Panama City. Strategic Revitalization Plan for St. Andrews: A
Community's Vision for Its Future. City of Panama City, n.d. Available at
www.historicstandrews.com/business-district (accessed May 7, 2009);
Personal communication with Shawna E. Beji, Waterfronts Florida
Program Coordinator, Division of Community Planning, Florida
Department of Community Affairs, on April 14, 2009.
27 Smart Growth Network. This Is Smart Growth. International City/
County Management Association (ICMA), 2006, page 21 ; Minnesota
Sustainable Communities Network. Mehrhoff. W. Case Study:
Chattanooga Shapes a Sustainable Future, www.nexfsfep.sfofe.mn.us/
casestudy.cfm?id=74 (accessed April 9, 2009).
28 Fishtown Preservation Society. Historic Fishtown, www.
preservingfishtown.org/about.html (accessed April 20, 2009).
29 Leland, Michigan, Chamber of Commerce. Visit Historic Leland,
Leelanau County, Michigan: About Us, www.lelandmi.com/about/
(accessed October 23, 2008). Fishtown Preservation Society. Historic
Fishtown, www.preservingfishtown.org/about.html (accessed October,
23, 2008).
30 Personal communication with Catherine Cunningham Ballard,
Michigan Coastal Program Manager, Michigan Department of
Environmental Quality, on May 8, 2009.
31 Walberg, E. Green Infrastructure in Hampton Roads. Hampton Roads
Planning District Commission, July 2007. Available at www.hrpdcva.
gov/Documents/Phys%20Planning/Green_lnfrastructure_in_HR.pdf
(accessed April 21, 2009).
32 San Juan County Land Bank. About Us: The Land Bank Story,
sjclandbank.org/aboutus.html (accessed April 21, 2009); Personal
communication with Lincoln Bormann, Director, San Juan County Land
Bank, on Aprils, 2009.
33 Bates, B.C., Z.W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu, and J.P. Palutikof, Eds. Climate
Changeand Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. IPCC Secretariat, 2008, pages 27 to 30, 41 . Available
at www.ipcc.ch/pdf/technical-papers/climate-change-water-en.pdf
(accessed May 5, 2009).
34 NOAA, Office of Response and Restoration. Glen Cove, New York. U.S.
Department of Commerce, NOAA, April 2002, pages 1 and 2. Available
athttp://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/103_GlenCove_508.
pdf (accessed May 6, 2009).
35 Project for Public Spaces. Great Public Spaces, Riverwalkand
Waterplace Park, www.pps.org/great_public_spaces/one?public_
place_id=86 (accessed August 5, 2008); Providence Foundation.The
Providence Foundation, www.prowyencedownfown.com/prow'dence_
foundation.php (accessed August 5, 2008); Paul, D."Providence
Begins to See Its Future around the Corner." New YorkTimes. The New
YorkTimes Company, February 27, 2008. Available at www.nytimes.
com/2008/02/27/realestate/commercial/27prov.html?fta=y (accessed
May8, 2008); Personal communication with Dave Everett, Principle
Planner, City of Providence Department of Planning and Development,
on March 27, 2009.
36The linear nature of the shoreline and the physical limits to access
posed by bodies of water, wetlands, and other sensitive natural areas
can all contribute to choke points in traffic if not managed properly.
37 A 2001 analysis of system-wide users noted increases in walk-
on passengers and decreases in vehicle drive-ons. Rosenberg, M.
"Expanded Passenger-Ferry Service Could Ease Region's Traffic
Congestion."Seattle Times. The Seattle Times Company, August 25,
2002. Available at http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/
?date=20020825&slug=ferries25 (accessed May 8, 2009); Source for ferry
ridership statistics: Washington State Department of Transportation.
Washington State Ferries: History, www.wsdof.wo.gov/ferr/es/yo(;r_wsf7
index.cfm?fuseaction=our_history (accessed April 20, 2009).
38 Lee, M."Mike Hlastala: A Developer with Vision and Sense of Civic
Duty."SoufnSeoff/e Beacon. Pacific Publishing Company, April 17, 2009.
Available at http://southseattlebeacon.com/main.asp?SectionlD=40&sub
sectionlD=262&articlelD=23534 (accessed April 17, 2009).
39 Wentworth, S. "Legg's Move to Harbor Gives Water Taxi Time for Dry
Ru n" Baltimore Business Journal. American City Business Journals, March
2, 2007. Available at www.bizjournals.com/baltimore/stories/2007/03/05/
story5.html(accessed June 2,2009).
40 Washington WaterTrails Association. Lakes-to-Locks WaterTrail, www.
wwta.org/trails/L2L/(accessed April 21, 2009).
41 Canton Kayak Club. Welcome to the Canton Kayak Club, www.
cantonkayakclub.com (accessed April 16, 2009). See alsoThayer, L."Heat
Stroke." Baltimore City Paper. Times-Sham rock Communications, May 26,
2004. Available at http://classified.citypaper.com/arts/story.asp?id=7472
(accessed March 5, 2009).
42 American Association of Port Authorities. Trade and Economic
G rowth, www.aapa-ports.org/lndustry/content.cfm?ltemNumber= 1024
(accessed April 21,2009).
43 Port of Los Angeles. Facilities, Rail and Intermodal Yards, www.
portoflosangeles.org/facilities/rail_intermodal_yards.asp (accessed
February 5, 2009).
44 New York City Department of Transportation. Ferries & Buses: Ferry
Information, Facts about the Ferry, www.nyc.gov/nfm//dof/nfm//
ferrybus/statfery.shtml#facts (accessed April 17, 2009).
45 Lowenstein, R., Director of the City of New York Independent Budget
Office, Letter to Council Member Oddo with Attachment, October
6, 2006. Available at www.ibo.nyc.ny.us/iboreports/TouristFare.pdf
(accessed May 8, 2009).
51
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46 Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, Office of Coastal
Resource Management, Coastal Management Division. Applying for a
Coastal Use Permit (CUP), http://dnr.louisiana.gov/crm/coastmgt/cup/
cup.asp (accessed July 29, 2008).
47 Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Florida
Environmental Permitting System: Joint Coastal and Environmental
Resource Permit, Environmental Permitting Section, www.dep.state.
fl.us/beaches/programs/envpermt.htm#JCP (accessed July 29,2008).
48 Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council. Metro Bay
SAMP, www.crmc.state.ri.us/samp_mb.html (accessed February 6,
2009); Personal communication with James Boyd, Coastal Policy
Analyst, Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council, on
August 14,2009.
49 City of Norfolk, VA. Pattern Book for Norfolk Neighborhoods, www.
norfolk.gov/Planning/ComeHome/Pattern_Book.asp (accessed July
29, 2008).
50 City of Bremerton, Washington. City of Bremerton, www.ci.bremerton.
wa.us (accessed August 6, 2008).
51 Maine Sea Grant College Program. Access to the Waterfront: Issues and
Solutions across the Nation. Maine Sea Grant College Program at the
University of Maine, 2007, page 8. Available at www.seagrant.umaine.
edu/files/pdf-global/07access.pdf (accessed April 19, 2009); NOAA
Coastal Services Center. Public Trust Doctrine: Module 5, Lesson 2,
www.csc.noaa.gov/ptd/module05/lesson02/0502d.htm (accessed Apri I
10,2009).
52 Personal communication with Mike Molnar, Program Manager, Lake
Michigan Coastal Program, Indiana Department of Natural Resources,
on Aprils,2009.
53 Mississippi Renewal Forum. Current Ideas: Final Team Reports (Pass
Christian), www.mississippirenewal.com/info/plansReports.html (accessed
March 19,2009); Personal communication with Dave Dennis, President,
Specialty Contractors and Associates Inc., on April 8,2009, and Tina
Shumate, Director, Mississippi Department of Marine Resources, Office of
Coastal Management and Planning, on March 8,2009.
54 Chesapeake NEMO (Network for Education of Municipal
Officials). Developing a Community Vision -Town of Vienna, www.
chesapeakenemo.net/communitystory.cfm?story=2&level2=Technical&
level3=Create%20Your%20Vision&level3url=yourvision (accessed Apri I
10, 2009).
55 Land Use Law Center, Pace University School of Law. Beginner's Guide
to Land Use Law. Pace Law School, Pace University, n.d., Pages 41 to 54.
Available at www.pace.edu/lawschool/files/landuse/LandUsePrimer.pdf
(accessed May 29, 2009).
56Adapted from: American Rivers, About BlueTrails, Guide Files, What
are BlueTrails, www.bluetrailsguide.org/about/(accessed June 3, 2009).
57 Adapted from: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Brownfields and Land Revitalization, http://epa.gov/brownfields/
(accessed May 29, 2009).
58 Michigan State University. Citizen Planner Online Glossary, http://
cponline.msu.edu/resources/Glossary.php (accessed May 29, 2009).
59 Sierra Club North Star Chapter. Glossary of Planning Terms,
http://northstar.sierraclub.org/campaigns/open-space/land-use/
planningGlossary.html (accessed May 29, 2009).
60 NOAA, National Ocean Service. Population Trends along the Coastal
United States: 1980-2008. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, 2004,
page 2.
61 National Coalition for Dialogue & Deliberation. Quick Reference
Glossary, www.thataway.org/?page_id=499 (accessed May 29, 2009).
62 Institute for Community Economics. Community Land Trusts, www.
iceclt.org/clt/(accessed May 29, 2009).
63 Adapted from: NOAA, Coastal Services Center (CSC). Vulnerability
Assessment, www.csc.noaa.gov/products/nchaz/htm/tut.htm (accessed
May 29,2009).
64 American Planning Association (APA). Growing Smart Legislative
Guidebook: Model Statutes for Planning and the Management of
Change. 2002. Chapter 8, page 8-20. Available at www.planning.org/
growingsmart/guidebook/ (accessed May 29,2009).
65 Chin, C."Helium Report Guide to Condo Hotels-Parti." Halogen
Guides, April 16, 2007. Available at http://realestate.halogenguides.com/
archives/641-helium-report-guide-to-condo-hotels-part-l (accessed June
3, 2009).
66Stienbarger, D, and P. Ramey. Current Use Taxation. Washington
State University, Clark County Extension and Clark County, n.d. page 1.
Available at http://clark.wsu.edu/horticulture/smallAcreageProgram/sm-
ac-Current-Use.pdf (accessed May 29, 2009).
67 C ru m ley, C. Historical Ecology: Cultural knowledge and changing
landscapes. School of American Research Press, 1994, page 2.
68 Smart Growth Network and ICMA. Getting to Smart Growth: 100
Policies for Implementation. 2002, page 53.
69 Adapted from: ESRI. What is CIS? www.gis.com/whatisgis/(accessed
June 4, 2009).
70 U.S. EPA. Heat Island Effect Glossary, www.epa.gov/hiri/resources/
glossary.htm (accessed May 29, 2009).
71 Adapted from: Personnel communication with Jack Wiggin, Director,
Urban Harbors Institute, University of Massachusetts Boston, on
February 4,2009.
72 Adapted from: Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
Multi-Hazard Mitigation Planning, www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/
index.shtm (accessed May 29, 2009).
73 Adapted from: CBS Interactive Inc. BNET Business Dictionary,
http://dictionary.bnet.com/definition/hub+and+spoke.html (accessed
May 29, 2009).
74Towson University Center for Geographic Information Sciences. What
is an Impervious Surface? http://chesapeake.towson.edu/landscape/
impervious/whatjmp.asp (accessed May 29, 2009).
75 Adapted from: Michigan State University. Citizen Planner Online
Glossary, http://cponline.msu.edu/resources/Glossary.php (accessed May
29, 2009).
76 Adapted from: U.S. EPA and U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT),
Federal Highway Administration. Commuter Choice Decision Support
System, http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/PrimerDSS/cc-options/live-near-work.
htm (accessed May 29, 2009).
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Endnotes
77 Adapted from: NOAA Habitat Program. NOAA Restoration Portal:
Living Shorelines, https://habitat.noaa.gov/restorationtechniques/
public/shoreline_tabl.cfm (accessed May 29,2009) and NOAA,OCRM.
Alternative Shoreline Stabilization Methods, http://coastalmanagement.
noaa.gov/initiatives/shoreline_stabilization.html (accessed May 29,2009).
78 Adapted from: New York Department of State, Division of Coastal
Resources. Coastal Resources Online: Local Waterfront Revitalization
Program (LWRP), www.nyswaterfronts.com/aboutus_LWRP.asp (accessed
May 29, 2009).
79 U.S. EPA. Polluted Runoff (Nonpoint Source Pollution): Low Impact
Development, www.epa.gov/nps/lid (accessed May 29,2009).
80 Adapted from:The Nature Conservancy. Marine Conservation
Agreements: Practitioner's Toolkit, www.mcatoolkit.org/(accessed June
3, 2009).
81 Adapted from: FEMA. Are you ready? Natural Hazards, www.fema.gov/
areyouready/natural_hazards.shtm (accessed May 29, 2009).
82 Adapted from: Arlington County, VA. Columbia Pike Parking Strategy.
November 2005, pages 1 to 5. Available at www.arlingtonva.us/
Departments/CPHD/Documents/4087Columbia%20Pike%20Parking%20
Strategy.pdf (accessed May 29,2009).
83 Adapted from: Smart Growth Leadership Institute. Smart Growth
Toolkit: Policy Audit, www.smartgrowthtoolkit.net/policy-audit/about-
the-policy-audit.html (accessed May 29, 2009).
84 Adapted from: Coastal States Organization (CSO). Putting the Public
Trust Doctrine to Work. The Application of the Public Trust Doctrine to the
Management of Lands, Waters and Living Resources of the Coastal States.
Second Edition. CSO, June 1997, page 3.
85 Adapted from: Ohio State University Extension. Ohio State University
Fact Sheet, Purchase of Development Rights, http://ohioline.osu.edu/
cd-fact/1263.html (accessed May 15, 2009).
86 Adapted from: Maryland Department of Planning. Maryland Building
Rehabilitation Code Program Frequently Asked Questions, www.dnr.
state.md.us/education/growfromhere/Lesson15/MDP/SMARTCODE/
REHAB_FAQ.HTM (accessed May 29, 2009).
87 NOAA, CSC. Risk and Vulnerability Assessment Tool (RVAT): Glossary,
www.csc.noaa.gov/rvat/glossary.html (accessed May 29, 2009).
88 Adapted from: NOAA Habitat Program. NOAA Restoration Portal:
Terms and Definitions, https://habitat.noaa.gov/restorationtechniques/
public/terms.cfm (accessed May 29, 2009).
89 Adapted from: Climate Change Science Program. Coastal Sensitivity
to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic. U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C.,
2009, Page 248 and NOAA, OCRM. Erosion Control Easements, http://
coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/initiatives/shoreline_ppr_easements.html
(accessed May 29, 2009).
90 Adapted from: Management Sciences for Health and the United
Nations Children's Fund.The Guide to Managing for Quality:
Stakeholder Analysis, http://erc.msh.org/quality/ittools/itstkan.cfm
(accessed May 29, 2009).
91 District of Columbia, Department of Environment. Changes
to the District's Stormwater Fee, http://ddoe.dc.gov/ddoe/cwp/
view,a, 1209,q,498382.asp (accessed May 29, 2009).
92 Adapted from: United Nations General Assembly. Report of the
World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common
Future. Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to
document A/42/427 - Development and International Co-operation:
Environment. Available at www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm
(accessed June 3, 2009).
93 Adapted from: Smart Growth Gateway. Smart Growth Solutions,
www.smartgrowthgateway.org/local_redev_tax.shtml (accessed
May 29, 2009).
94 U.S. EPA. Using SGI to Evaluate Transit Oriented Development:
Wilmington Area Metropolitan Planning, www.epa.gov/dced/fop/cs/
tod_case_study1-ES.htm (accessed May 29, 2009).
95 APA. PAS QuickNotes No. 15, Visioning. APA Planning Advisory Service,
2008, page 1. Available at www.planning.org/pas/quicknotes/pdf/
QN15text.pdf (accessed May 29, 2009).
96 Adapted from: U.S. DOT, Federal Highway Administration/Federal
Transit Administration. Public Involvement Techniques, www.planning.
dot.gov/pitool/4c-g.asp (accessed May 29, 2009).
97 Adapted from: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agroforestry
Center. Visual Simulation, www.unl.edu/nac/simulation/index.htm
(accessed May 29, 2009).
53
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o C dits
Cover:
From left to right and top to bottom: Ohio
DNR, Office of Coastal Management; U.S. EPA;
OhioDNR, Office of Coastal Management;
Todd Marsee, Michigan Sea Grant; Ohio DNR,
Office of Coastal Management; City of Traverse
City Planning Department; Brad McCrea, San
Francisco Bay Conservation and Development
Commission
Acknowledgments page:
Jenny McCormick, New Jersey Sea Grant
Page 2:
New York State Department of State
Page 3:
Right: University of Hawai'i Sea Grant
College Program
Partial right: NOAA
Page 5:
Partial left: NOAA; Middle: University of Hawai'i
Sea Grant College Program; Left: Jeff Gunderson
U.S. EPA
Page 7:
Left: U.S. EPA; Right: Pam Rubinoff
Page 8:
Left: New York State Department of State; Middle:
Bill Needelman, AICP, City of Portland Planning
Division; Partial right: Pam Rubinoff
Page 9:
Top partial left: Pam Rubinoff; Bottom right:
Bill Needleman, AICP, City of Portland
Planning Division
Page 10:
OhioDNR, Office of Coastal Management
Page 11:
Left: NOAA; Right: J. Coyier Ankrom
Moisan Architects
Page 12:
Left and right: Georgia Department of
Natural Resources
Page 13:
Town of Barnstable, Growth
Management Department
Page 14:
Seattle Housing Authority
Page 15:
Left: Waterfronts Florida Program; Right: U.S. EPA
Page 16:
Partial right: U.S. EPA
Page17:
Top partial left: U.S. EPA; Top middle: Seattle
Housing Authority;Top right: U.S. EPA; Bottom
left and right: Photo and Illustration by Public
Architecture, courtesy of City of Santa Cruz, CA
Page 18:
Kris Wall
Left: NOAA; Right: U.S. EPA
Left: Waterfronts Florida Program; Middle: Ohio
DNR, Office of Coastal Management; Partial right
U.S. EPA
Top partial left: U.S. EPA; Bottom right: Enji Park
Page 23:
Right: Todd Marsee, Michigan Sea Grant
Left: Waterfronts Florida Program; Middle:Todd
Stailey,Tennessee Aquarium
Page 25:
Top middle: Adrienne Lynne Harris; Bottom left:
Erhardt Peters Collection, Leelanau Historical
Society; Bottom right: Rick Lahmann
© George Cathcart. Reproduced with permission.
Page 27:
Left: Ohio DNR, Office of Coastal Management;
Right: Courtesy of Hampton Roads Planning
District Commission
Partial right: New York State Department of State
Page 29:
Top partial left: New York State Department
of State; Bottom right: © Harris County Flood
Control District. Reproduced with permission.
Page 31:
Right: Ohio DNR, Office of Coastal Management
Page 32:
Left: New York State Department of State; Partial
right: Jason Martin, Providence Department of
Planning and Development
Page 33:
Top: Jason Martin, Providence Department
of Planning and Development; Bottom right:
Pam Rubinoff
Page 35:
Left: U.S. EPA; Right: City of Traverse City
Planning Department
Page 36:
Left:Todd Marsee, Michigan Sea Grant; Partial
right: Ohio DNR, Office of Coastal Management
Page 37:
Top partial left and middle: Ohio DNR, Office of
Coastal Management;Top left: Jeff Gunderson
Page 38:
Jason Martin, Providence Department of
Planning and Development
Page 39:
Left and right: NOAA
Page 40:
Left and Middle: Courtesy of Rhode Island Coastal
Resources Management Council; Partial right:
A Pattern Book for Norfolk Neighborhoods,
City of Norfolk
Page 41:
Top partial left and middle: A Pattern Book for
Norfolk Neighborhoods, City of Norfolk;Top
right: NOAA; Bottom right: U.S. EPA
Page 42:
Delaware Sea Grant College Program
Left: University of Hawai'i Sea Grant College
Program; Right: Louisiana Sea Grant
Page 44:
Left: JJR Consulting; Partial right:
Evelina Shmukler
Page 45:
Top partial left: Evelina Shmukler;Top middle:
NOAA;Top right:Tracey Gordy, Maryland Coastal
Zone Management Program; Bottom right:The
Conservation Fund
Inside back cover:
Dave Brenner, Michigan Sea Grant
Back cover:
From left to right and top to bottom: Brad
McCrea, San Francisco Bay Conservation and
Development Commission; Kris Wall; Brad
McCrea, San Francisco Bay Conservation and
Development Commission; Delaware Sea Grant
College Program; U.S. EPA; Seattle Housing
Authority; Kris Wall; University of Hawai'i Sea
Grant College Program; Ohio DNR, Office of
Coastal Management; Jeff Gunderson; Todd
Marsee, Michigan Sea Grant
-------
To access this report on-line or for more information,
visit http://coastalsmartgrowth.noaa.gov.
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