United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Stormwater Runoff to
Prevent Contamination of
Drinking Water
Stormwater runoff is rainwater or snowmelt that flows over the land. Runoff can carry
sediment and contaminants from streets, rooftops, and lawns to surface water bodies or
can infiltrate through the soil to ground water. This bulletin focuses on the management of
runoff in urban environments.
This document is intended to serve as a resource for professionals and citizens involved in
planning and decision-making in the areas of Stormwater management and source water
protection. Those who may find this bulletin useful include: state and regional source
water, Stormwater, nonpoint source control, underground injection control (UIC), and
other managers; members or representatives of watershed groups; local officials and
permitting authorities; developers; and federal and state highway agencies.
SOURCES OF POLLUTION IN STORMWATER RUNOFF
Urban and suburban areas are dominated by impervious cover. This includes pavement on
roads, sidewalks, parking lots, and rooftops. It also includes heavily trafficked surfaces,
such as dirt parking lots, walking paths, baseball fields, and suburban lawns, that no
longer have adequate infiltrative properties.
During storms, rainwater flows across these impervious surfaces, mobilizing
contaminants. The pollutants carried in runoff originate from a variety of urban and
suburban nonpoint sources. Oil, gasoline, and
automotive fluids drip from vehicles onto roads
and parking lots. Landscaping by homeowners,
around businesses, and on public grounds
contributes sediment, pesticides, fertilizers, and
nutrients to runoff. Construction of roads and
buildings can contribute large sediment loads to
waterways. In addition, any uncovered materials
such as improperly stored chemicals (e.g.,
household cleaners, pool chemicals, or lawn care
products), pet and wildlife waste, and litter can be
carried in runoff. Illicit discharges to storm drains
(e.g., of used motor oil) can also contaminate Parkm? lo: nmoff
water supplies.
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Stormwater transports pollutants to water bodies such as lakes and streams.
Contaminated stormwater can also be directly injected into the subsurface through Class
V stormwater drainage wells, which promote subsurface infiltration (discussed below).
These wells are commonly used to divert stormwater runoff from roads, other paved
surfaces, and roofs. Direct injection is of particular concern from a water quality
standpoint in commercial and industrial settings (e.g., in and around material loading
areas, vehicle service areas, or parking lots).
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE STORMWATER RUNOFF NEAR
THE SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER?
Impervious surfaces in built-up environments prevent the natural infiltration of rainfall
into the soil. This reduces ground water recharge and the pollutant removal that occurs
when runoff moves through the soil. With less infiltration occurring, both the volume
and flow rate of surface runoff increase. Development also reduces the amount of land
available for vegetation, which would normally slow the flow of water and help filter
contaminants. These changes have deleterious effects on water bodies. A relationship
has been observed between the amount of impervious area in a watershed and surface
water quality; degradation of water quality may begin with as little as 10 percent
impervious cover1. There are three primary concerns associated with uncontrolled
runoff: (1) increased peak discharge and velocity during storm events resulting in
flooding and erosion; (2) localized reduction in ground water recharge; and (3) pollutant
mobilization and transport.
The increased runoff rate and volume
caused by impervious cover
contribute to erosion (especially in
areas without vegetative cover),
increased flooding in low lying areas,
and sedimentation in surface water
bodies. The excess sediment
transported by streams can increase
turbidity, provide a transport medium
for pathogenic bacteria and viruses,
and decrease reservoir capacity.
Sediment can also smother aquatic
species, leading to habitat loss and
decreased biodiversity.
Erosion
According to the 1983 Nationwide Urban Runoff Program
(NURP) study2, 77 of 127 priority pollutants tested were
detected in urban runoff. Contaminants commonly found in
stormwater runoff include heavy metals, organic
compounds, pesticides and herbicides, pathogens, nutrients,
sediments, and salts and other deicing compounds. Some of
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these substances are carcinogenic; others lead to reproductive, developmental, or other
health problems following long-term exposure. Pathogens can cause illness, even from
short-term exposure. Urban runoff is commonly collected in storm sewers and
discharged to waterways untreated. Thus, surface water bodies that are used for drinking
water routinely receive contaminants carried in runoff. Ground water may receive
contaminants through Class V stormwater injection wells. Under certain conditions,
some contaminants may reach ground water through infiltration from the surface (see
section below on ground water sensitivity and siting considerations for infiltration).
AVAILABLE MANAGEMENT MEASURES TO ADDRESS STORMWATER
RUNOFF
A variety of management practices, including pollution prevention strategies and
treatment strategies, are available to mitigate stormwater pollution. Individual
prevention measures might or might not be adequate to prevent contamination of source
waters. A robust management plan will combine individual measures in an overall
prevention approach that takes into consideration a number of factors, including:
potential contamination sources; cost of prevention measures vs. loss of resources from
pollution; operational and maintenance requirements of the measures; vulnerability of
the source waters; local soil and geology, precipitation, and land use characteristics; the
public's acceptance of the measures; and the community's desired degree of risk
reduction. Some of the more widely used management measures are described below.
Pollution source control and prevention measures include public education for
homeowners and business owners on good housekeeping, proper use and storage of
chemicals, and responsible lawn care and landscaping. Other pollution prevention
measures include storm drain stenciling, hazardous materials collection, and detection
and elimination of illicit discharges. The incorporation of best management practices
(BMPs) in building and site-development codes should be encouraged. On roadways,
proper maintenance of rights-of-way, control of chemical and nutrient applications,
street cleaning or sweeping, storm drain cleaning, use of alternative or reduced deicing
products, and calibration of chemical application vehicles can reduce the pollutant
content of runoff.
Without appropriate erosion and sedimentation control (ESC) measures, construction
activities can contribute large amounts of sediment to stormwater runoff. Erosion can be
controlled by planting temporary fast-growing vegetation, such as grasses and
wildflowers. Covering topsoil with geotextiles or impervious covers will also protect it
from rainfall. Good housekeeping measures for construction sites include construction
entrance pads and vehicle washing to keep sediment and soil on-site. Construction
should be staged to reduce soil exposure or timed to coincide with seasons of low
rainfall and low erosion potential. Other measures include sediment traps and basins;
sediment fences; wind erosion controls (e.g., mulch, seeding, geotextile covers); and
chemical and nutrient control. Ordinances and regulations for construction activities can
be written to require plan reviews for evaluation of erosion concerns or to require ESC
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measures during construction. ESC measures should be inspected and kept in good
repair.
Local governments can exercise a variety of land use controls. Subdivision controls,
for example, help to ensure that expected development will not compromise drinking
water quality or ground water recharge. Requiring proper stormwater management in
new developments and redevelopments can help prevent excessive runoff.
Environmentally sensitive design principles that can be incorporated into new
developments are an active area of research. Several of these are discussed in the next
few paragraphs.
Low impact development (LID) techniques are used to mimic pre-development
hydrology as closely as possible. Infiltration methods in particular can help to re-route
rainwater to recharge ground water, although siting should be done carefully and
pretreatment should be used to avoid ground water contamination.
Minimizing directly connected impervious areas
(DCIAs) is important for reducing the flow and
volume of runoff. Planners should direct runoff
from roofs, sidewalks, and other surfaces over
grassed areas. This will promote infiltration of
stormwater into the ground and also allow for
filtration of pollutants prior to discharge to surface
water and ground water. Planting landscaped
areas lower than the street level also encourages
drainage.
Use of porous pavements in parking lots provides
another opportunity for stormwater to infiltrate into
soils. (These are only appropriate in areas where no
hazardous materials are used, generated, or
transported.) One example of porous pavement,
concrete grid pavement, is typically placed on a sand or gravel base with void areas
filled with pervious materials such as sand, gravel, or grass. Stormwater percolates
through the voids into the subsoil.
Concrete grid paveaieDt
Rainwater harvesting may also be incorporated into an environmentally sensitive
design. The collection and storage of rainwater from rooftops, via gutters and
downspouts, reduces runoff and associated pollution and provides water for irrigation
and non-potable indoor use. A typical rain barrel is a 55- or 65- gallon drum. Larger
vessels are called cisterns. Instructions and guidebooks for rainwater harvesting are
available on the Internet (see "Additional Information" section below).
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Structural best management practices are used to control runoff or temporarily store
stormwater on site. In addition to reducing runoff volumes and rates, these structures
can reduce pollutant loads in runoff, especially through settling of particles. Several
types of BMPs rely on soils and vegetation to help with filtration, infiltration, and
trapping of suspended particles. Vegetation-based structures, such as swales and
bioretention cells, may be incorporated into LID designs. Some of the more commonly
used practices are described below. Information about the performance of BMPs can be
found in the International Stormwater BMP Database (http://www.bmpdatabase.org).
Grassed swales are shallow, vegetated ditches that reduce the speed and volume of
runoff. Soils remove contaminants by filtration and infiltration. Vegetation or turf
prevents soil erosion, filters out sediment, and provides some nutrient uptake.
Maintenance of grassed swales involves regular mowing, reseeding, weed control,
removal of leaves and other debris, and inspections to check for erosion and ensure the
integrity of the vegetative cover. To function properly, the inflow to the swale must be
sheet flow (shallow, even flow) from a filter strip or an impervious surface. Pollutant
removal efficiencies for structural BMPs vary, but swales have been found to be
particularly effective at removal of total suspended solids, achieving up to 70 percent
removal3'4. Besides grassed swales, grassed waterways (wide, shallow channels lined
with sod) are often used as outlets for runoff from terraces.
Buffer strips are combinations of trees, shrubs, and/or grasses parallel to a stream,
shoreline, or wetland. They provide a physical barrier to protect a water body from
disturbance or encroachment and from pollution. They may be planted or consist of
naturally occurring vegetation. By slowing runoff, buffer strips can moderate flooding
and prevent streambank erosion. The vegetation and soils can also strain and filter
sediments and sediment-associated pollutants. Constructed buffer strips are sometimes
structured in zones, with trees closest to the stream, followed by one or two rows of
shrubs, and a 20 to 24 foot wide grass zone on the outer edge. Buffer strips should be
maintained by controlling weeds and mowing grasses once or twice annually. About 10
to 20 percent removal of solids
has been demonstrated in buffer
zones. Some buffer strips might
provide infiltration, but many do
not because they exist in low-
lying areas with limited
infiltration and storage capacity
(or are in areas of ground water
discharge rather than recharge).
Filter strips are areas of close
growing vegetation (often grasses)
on gently sloped land surfaces
bordering a surface water body.
Filter snip Filter strips originated as an
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agricultural practice but are now being used in urban settings. They are intended to
capture sheet flow, slowing runoff and allowing for trapping of sediment (and sediment-
associated pollutants) and infiltration. Filter strips sometimes form the outer edges of
buffer strips and can also serve as pretreatments for other structural BMPs. The width
and length of the filter strip depend on the size and grade of the slope it drains.
Maintenance activities include inspections, mowing, and removal of sediment buildup.
Filter strips might not be appropriate for pollution hotspots because their ability to
remove high levels of pollutants is limited.
Stormwater ponds (wet ponds) consist of permanent ponds where solids settle during
and between storms, and zones of emergent wetland vegetation, where dissolved
contaminants are removed through biochemical processes. Wet ponds are usually
developed as water features in a
community, increasing the value of
adjacent property. Besides landscape
maintenance, annual inspection of the
outlets and shoreline is required. Vegetation
should be harvested every 3 to 5 years, and
sediment removed every 7 to 10 years.
Removal of pollutants associated with
particles can be expected through settling.
Data from the International Stormwater
BMP Database indicate that ponds are
capable of removing nitrogen and
phosphorous.
Storm water pond
Constructed wetlands are similar to wet ponds but have more emergent aquatic
vegetation and a smaller open water area. Constructed Stormwater wetlands are similar
in many respects to natural wetlands but typically have less biodiversity. A wetland
should have a settling pond, or forebay, if significant upstream soil erosion is
anticipated. Coarse particles remain trapped in the
forebay, and maintenance is performed on this
smaller pool. Wetlands remove the same pollutants
as wet ponds through settling of solids and
biochemical processes, with about the same
efficiency. Maintenance requirements for wetlands
are similar to those for wet ponds.
Infiltration basins and trenches. Infiltration basins
are shallow impoundments designed to permit
Stormwater to infiltrate into the soil. Infiltration
trenches are long, narrow stone-filled excavated
trenches, 3 to 12 feet deep. Runoff is stored in a
basin or in voids between the stones in a trench and
slowly infiltrates into the soil matrix below, where
Iroltraioii basin
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filtering removes pollutants. Infiltration devices should be combined with pretreatment
practices such as swales or sediment basins to prevent premature clogging and to
remove particle-associated pollutants. Infiltration basins and trenches should be
inspected annually and after major rain storms. Maintenance needs include debris
removal, especially in inlets and overflow channels. Infiltration devices and associated
practices can achieve a high degree of contaminant removal (55-90 percent) for
selected common contaminants5.
Bioretention/bioinfiltration. Bioretention and bioinfiltration cells are shallow,
landscaped depressions designed to store runoff and provide pollutant removal as runoff
flows through layers of vegetation, mulch, and soil. A bioretention cell discharges to a
surface conveyance, whereas bioinfiltration is intended to permit infiltration of the
treated runoff into the surrounding soil. Properly selected vegetation and a soil mixture
containing sand and organic material help with removal of a variety of pollutants,
including metals, hydrocarbons, nutrients, and bacteria6. Bioretention and bioinfiltration
are not recommended for large sites; they work best when they drain locations less than
five acres in area.
Green roofs. Green roofs are partially or completely covered with vegetation. They are
often constructed as a layered system with a waterproof layer, drainage layer, filter
membrane, soil, and plants. "Intensive" green roofs may have a variety of plants
including shrubs and small trees, and are intended to be accessible to people. They are
labor-intensive. "Extensive" green roofs are not intended for human interaction and
require only a thin layer of soil and minimal maintenance7. Plant options for extensive
roofs are more limited than for intensive roofs because the plants must be able to thrive
with little maintenance. Grasses, perennials, or succulents maybe used. A green roof can
capture anywhere from 15 to 90 percent of rainwater8. The ability to absorb rainwater
depends on a variety of conditions, such as climate and the selection of plants. Green
roofs confer other benefits such as aesthetics and a reduction in energy consumption for
the building. Green roofs have been used in Scandinavia for centuries and are popular in
Europe.
An operation and maintenance (O&M) plan is an important part of a stormwater
management program. The goal of an O&M plan is to ensure that individual and
interconnected stormwater BMPs continue to meet performance and design objectives.
This plan should include an inventory of BMPs, their locations, design parameters, and
other life cycle data. The plan should also include and budget periodic inspections to
determine whether BMPs require routine maintenance, repair, rehabilitation,
replacement, or design adjustments to meet water quality and quantity objectives.
Staff training for stormwater management should include continuing education and
certification to ensure that staff have up to date knowledge regarding the selection,
planning, design, construction, and maintenance of stormwater management measures.
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An Environmental Management System (EMS) can provide a framework for a
stormwater management program by helping to set program objectives and benchmarks
and implement stormwater management strategies. Responsibilities should be identified,
training requirements specified, and documentation and communication protocols
established. Through periodic program evaluations, areas of improvement can be
identified. Modifications can then be made to the program and its O&M practices.
EPA'S NATIONAL POLLUTANT DISCHARGE ELIMINATION SYSTEM
(NPDES) PERMITTING PROGRAM
EPA's NPDES program regulates stormwater runoff from municipal separate storm
sewer systems (MS4s) and industrial activity (including construction). The current rules
establish permit requirements for more than 5,000 MS4s nationwide. NPDES
stormwater permits issued to MS4s require those MS4s to develop the necessary legal
authority to reduce the discharge of pollutants in stormwater to the maximum extent
practicable and to develop and implement a stormwater management program that
includes:
• structural and source control measures to reduce pollutants in runoff from
commercial and residential areas, including maintenance, monitoring, and
planning activities;
• detection and prevention of illicit discharges and improper disposal into
storm sewers;
• monitoring and control of stormwater discharges from certain industrial
activities;
• stormwater control at construction sites; and
• public education and outreach.
In addition, the stormwater rule for certain small MS4s requires post-construction
stormwater management controls. These local controls are in addition to existing federal
regulations that require NPDES permits for all construction activities disturbing more
than one acre.
EPA has published more than 100 fact sheets on the wide variety of BMPs that small
MS4s can use to control urban stormwater runoff. The menu is available from EPA's
website at www.epa.gov/npdes.
GROUND WATER SENSITIVITY AND SITING CONSIDERATIONS FOR
INFILTRATION
Infiltration of stormwater through the soil profile to ground water, whether planned by
humans or due to natural features of the landscape, has long been an accepted and
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important component of stormwater management. As the nation's population has
increased and become more urban, many natural areas have given way to development
and impermeable surfaces, inhibiting infiltration and producing larger volumes of
stormwater runoff over shorter time periods. As shown by the 1983 NURP study, this
runoff may contain many contaminants. Such pollution can threaten surface waters that
support ecosystems and human recreation and provide water for drinking, industry, and
farming.
In an effort to protect surface waters from the effects of runoff, the use of infiltration
practices (e.g., infiltration basins, infiltration trenches, bioinfiltration, and porous
pavement) is being increasingly encouraged. Infiltration offers many benefits: reducing
and delaying runoff volumes, enhancing aquifer recharge (thereby sustaining stream
baseflow and supporting stream ecosystems), and decreasing flow velocities (allowing
for pathogen die-off). However, under some conditions, these practices may introduce
certain pollutants to ground water. Although contamination from stormwater runoff is
usually greater than that resulting from infiltration and subsequent discharge, ground
water is difficult and costly to remediate after contamination. Also, ground water
movement can be challenging to predict and monitor. The potential for ground water
contamination is of particular concern in areas where a shallow aquifer may serve as a
drinking water source because ground water is generally not treated prior to
consumption.
Stormwater managers can help protect underground drinking water sources from
contamination by being aware of areas with sensitive ground waters and exercising care
in deciding where to locate infiltration practices. Factors to consider in this decision
include the nature of the soils, the type of aquifer, the depth to the water table, presence
or absence of confining layers, and land use. Rare and highly valuable ground waters
such as sole source aquifers (those that provide more than 50 percent of the drinking
water in the area above the aquifer) should also be afforded careful protection.
Sandy soils with low clay and organic matter content may be problematic if runoff is
highly contaminated. Clay minerals and organic matter provide pollutant removal for
metals and organic compounds, and soils low in these constituents will be less effective
at removing pollutants from infiltrating stormwater. It may be necessary to augment
soils in certain infiltration BMPs, such as bioinfiltration cells, to provide adequate clays
and organic matter.
Certain types of aquifers are especially sensitive to contamination. These include gravel,
fractured bedrock, and karst aquifers. In general, as grain size in an aquifer increases,
permeability also tends to increase because pore openings are larger. Aquifers with large
grain size and/or large fractures and openings tend to have relatively high permeability
and may have high ground water flow rates. These high flow rates enable stormwater
that has moved down to the water table to move rapidly through the subsurface.
Although the upper soil layer in an infiltration structure removes pollutants, this
removal may not be complete for all contaminant types. Also, the labile (active) organic
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carbon content of soil typically decreases with depth, making deeper soil horizons less
effective at contaminant removal. Further pollutant removal can take place in the
aquifer, but the high flow rates in highly permeable aquifers might not allow enough
time for this removal to take place, and contaminants may travel long distances. A
shallow water table also renders ground water vulnerable because there is only a narrow
opportunity for pollutant removal between the ground surface and the water table. A
combination of a sandy soil with low organic content, a shallow water table, and a
highly permeable aquifer would be an especially vulnerable setting.
Karst areas present a particular challenge for remediation of contaminated stormwater
due to the presence of large dissolution structures and rapid ground water flow rates.
Karst is a type of geologic setting within which flowing ground water has dissolved
significant portions of the rock (typically limestone). These regions are typically
characterized by features such as sinkholes and underground drainage networks, with
openings ranging in size from fractures to caverns. Given the solubility and
heterogeneity of bedrock in karst areas, stormwater management should be approached
very carefully in such regions.
In addition to soil and aquifer characteristics, the amounts and types of pollution
anticipated in runoff should be considered. Constituents that are not retained by soils or
quickly degraded by microbes may move through the soil and reach ground water.
Chloride is not attenuated by soil, and chloride carried in runoff can be expected to
reach the water table. Because of this, deicing salts used in cold climates pose a ground
water contamination problem. Nitrate moves readily through soil and is a common
ground water contaminant. Among heavy metals, zinc is the most mobile, although it
will undergo some removal by soils. Some pesticides are highly mobile, and if they do
not degrade quickly, they can present a high ground water contamination potential.
Among microbial contaminants, enteroviruses, if present in stormwater, are likely to
have a high ground water contamination potential.
Land use and proximity to concentrated sources of contamination must also be
considered in siting infiltration practices. This is a concern not only with surface
infiltration but also with subsurface injection (i.e., stormwater drainage wells, discussed
below). Sites of known contamination that have not undergone remediation would
present a high risk; infiltration should be avoided at these sites. Also, hot spots of
hydrocarbon and trace metal contamination in the urban landscape should be recognized
as posing a high risk. These are often places associated with motor vehicles: gas
stations, service stations, vehicle and equipment cleaning facilities, fuel storage areas,
marinas, public works storage areas, and loading docks. They may also include facilities
that generate or store hazardous materials. Many states have defined lists of such areas
and some facilities are required to develop stormwater pollution prevention plans. In
general, installing an infiltration system close to a hot spot is not advised. Ongoing
research has shown, however, that soil media used in bioretention/bioinfiltration
systems can be highly effective at removing hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and nutrients6.
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As research progresses, these systems may prove to be useful in settings where
contaminants are expected in runoff.
CLASS V STORMWATER DRAINAGE WELLS
Class V stormwater drainage wells are shallow disposal systems designed to infiltrate
(inject) stormwater runoff below the ground surface. They are sometimes also called dry
wells, bored wells, or infiltration galleries. They may pose a threat to underground
sources of drinking water if they are not properly sited, designed, operated, and
maintained. BMPs for Class V stormwater drainage wells address siting, design,
pretreatment, and operation for these wells.
Siting BMPs for stormwater drainage wells include minimum setbacks from surface
waters and drinking water wells. Having an adequate thickness of soil between the
drainage well and the water table is especially important. Stormwater drainage wells
may be prohibited from areas of critical concern, such as source water protection areas,
or from areas where the engineering properties of the soil are not ideal for their
performance. Having an organic-rich layer in or below a stormwater drainage well can
help retain pollutants such as organic compounds and metals and limit their movement
towards the ground water.
Available design BMPs for stormwater drainage wells include the use of sediment
removal devices (such as filter strips) and oil and grease separators. Also, pretreatment
structures can remove sediment and sediment-associated pollutants, helping both to
protect water quality and to maintain infiltration capacity. Pretreatment structures can
include such green infrastructure components as wetlands, bioretention cells, and
vegetated filter strips.
Maintenance of stormwater drainage wells is crucial to their proper operation.
Management measures related to operation include spill response, monitoring, and
maintenance procedures. Source separation, or keeping spills and runoff from industrial
areas away from stormwater drainage wells, involves using containment devices such as
berms or curbs (see the fact sheets on vehicle washing and small quantity chemical use
for more information on these devices).
The discharge of untreated stormwater directly to underground sources of drinking
water through stormwater drainage wells should be avoided when the discharge might
contain contaminants that can threaten water supplies—for example, discharge from
urban and industrial sites, pollution hot spots, highways, or other areas where high
levels of contaminants in runoff are anticipated. In such areas, use of other stormwater
management measures such as green infrastructure or pretreatment of the discharge is
recommended. Preferably, the infiltrating stormwater should have received pretreatment
sufficient to ensure that contaminants of concern do not exceed drinking water
maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) at the point of discharge.
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ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
The sources listed below contain additional information on stormwater management
measures. All of the documents listed are available for free on the Internet. State
departments of environmental protection are good sources of information about all
aspects of stormwater management, including compliance with underground injection
regulations governing well injection of stormwater. State departments of transportation
or agriculture are also good sources of information.
Contact state and local government authorities in your area to find out if there are
regulations, guidance, or ordinances in place to guide your management of stormwater.
To propose local ordinances or regulations to effect stormwater controls, contact city or
county public works departments, zoning offices, permitting offices, or transportation
departments. Numerous examples of local source water protection-related ordinances
for various potential contaminant sources can be found at:
• http://cfpub.epa.gov/safewater/sourcewater/sourcewater.cfm?action=Publicati
ons&view=filter&document type id= 105
• http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance, and
• http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/links.htm.
Also, university extension services are excellent sources of information on water quality
issues, including stormwater management. Oklahoma State University's Division of
Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources is one such example:
http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/View/Collection-590.
The following organizations and documents provide information on selection and
design of specific management measures:
Low Impact Development Center, http://www.lowimpactdevelopment.org/sitemap.htm.
Kloss, C. 2008. Managing Wet Weather with Green Infrastructure Municipal
Handbook: Rainwater Harvesting Policies. EPA-833-F-08-010.
http ://www. epa. gov/npdes/pubs/gi_muni chandbook_harvesting.pdf.
North Carolina State University Cooperative Extension. 2007. Rain Barrels.
http://guilford.ces.ncsu.edu/files/library/41/rainbarrel-2008.pdf.
The Center for Watershed Protection's Storm Water Manager's Resource Center
(www.stormwatercenter.net) provides technical assistance on storm water management
issues.
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The Center for Watershed Protection's Practice of Water shed Protection provides
numerous articles on issues related to watershed and storm water management.
http://www.cwp. org/Resource_Library/pwp .htm.
The International Stormwater BMP Database provides BMP performance data from
over 300 studies, http://www.bmpdatabase.org/.
U.S. EPA, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water. September 1999. The Class V
Underground Injection Control Study. Volume 3: Storm Water Drainage Wells.
EPA/816-R-99-014c. http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps45859/volume3.pdf
U.S. EPA, Office of Science and Technology. August 1999. Preliminary Data Summary
of Urban Stormwater Best Management Practices. EPA-821-R-99-012.
http ://www. epa. gov/guide/stormwater/.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. May 2006. National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), Menu ofBMPs.
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/menuofbmps/index.cfm.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. September 1992. Storm Water
Management for Industrial Activities: Developing Pollution Prevention Plans and
BMPs. http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/owm0236a.pdf
U.S. EPA, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds. January 1993. Guidance
Specifying Management Measures for Sources of Nonpoint Pollution in Coastal Waters.
EPA-840-B-93-001c. http://www.epa.gov/nps/MMGI/.
U.S. EPA, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water. Class V UIC Study Fact Sheet:
Storm Water Drainage Wells, http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/ui c/class5/pdf/studv_uic-
class5_classvstudy_fs_storm_wells.pdf.
U.S. EPA: Green Infrastructure and Green Communities: Linking Landscapes and
Communities, http://www.epa.gov/greenkit/green_infrastructure.htm.
U.S. EPA: Polluted Runoff (Nonpoint Source Pollution), Low Impact Development.
http ://www. epa. gov/nps/lid/.
U.S. EPA: Polluted Runoff (Nonpoint Source Pollution). 2008. National Management
Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Urban Areas.
http://epa.gov/nps/urbanmm/.
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Washington State Department of Transportation. June 2008. Highway Runoff Manual.
M31-16.01. http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/publications/manuals/fulltext/M31-
16/Hi ghwayRunoff.pdf
Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality. February 1999. Urban Best
Management Practices for Nonpoint Source Pollution. Draft.
http://deq. state. wy.us/wqd/watershed/Downloads/NPS%20Program/92171 .pdf
REFERENCES CITED IN BULLETIN
1 The Center for Watershed Protection. 2000. The Importance of imperviousness.
Article 1 from The Practice of Water shed Protection.
http://www.cwp.org/Resource Library/Center Docs/PWP/ELC PWP1.pdf.
2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983. Nationwide Urban Runoff Program
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3 Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality. 1999. Urban Best Management
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4 Iowa State University. 2009. Iowa Stormwater Management Manual.
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5 Schueler, T. 1987. Controlling Urban Runoff: A Practical Manual for Planning and
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6 Davis, A.P., Hunt, W.F., Traver, R.G., and Clar, M. 2009. Bioretention technology:
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7 Green Roofs for Healthy Cities North America, http://www.greenroofs.org/.
8 Duluth Streams: Green Roofs.
http ://www. duluthstreams. org/stormwater/toolkit/greenroofs.html.
Office of Water (4606) EPA 816-F-09-007 July 2009 www.epa.gov/safewater
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