J>EPA Source Water Protection
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Practices Bulletin
Managing Highway Deicing to
Prevent Contamination of Drinking
Water
We depend on clear roads and highways for safe travel and the uninterrupted flow of
goods and services. Deicing chemicals help clear roads covered by snow and ice during
the winter, but road runoff may later carry these chemicals to surface water and ground
water sources of drinking water. This bulletin focuses on the management of highway
deicing chemicals. See the bulletin on stormwater runoff for additional source water
management measures.
This document is intended to serve as a
resource for professionals and citizens
involved in planning and decision-making
in the areas of stormwater management and
source water protection. Those who may
find this bulletin useful include: state and
regional source water, stormwater, nonpoint
source control, Underground Injection
Control (UIC), and other managers;
members or representatives of watershed
groups; local officials and permitting
authorities; developers; and federal and state highway agencies.
USE OF HIGHWAY DEICING CHEMICALS
Each winter, state, county, and local transportation departments prepare themselves for
whatever winter storms may bring. Their tools include a variety of chemicals to melt
snow and ice. This preparedness has a high price tag; in 2005, the Federal Highway
Administration estimated that more than $2 billion is spent in the U.S. each year on
chemicals, materials, labor, and equipment for winter road maintenance1.
The most commonly used and economical deicer is sodium chloride, better known as
salt; 15 million tons of deicing salt are used in the U.S. each year. Salt is effective
because it lowers the freezing point of water, preventing ice and snow from bonding to
the pavement and allowing easy removal by plows. However, the use of salt causes a
number of environmental problems. Salt contributes to the corrosion of vehicles and
infrastructure and can damage water bodies, ground water, and roadside vegetation.
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These issues have led to the investigation and use of other chemicals as substitutes for
and supplements to salt. Alternative deicing chemicals include magnesium chloride,
potassium acetate, calcium chloride, calcium magnesium acetate (CMA), potassium
chloride, and beet juice derivative. Abrasives such as sand are often used in conjunction
with deicing chemicals to provide traction for vehicles, particularly on corners, at
intersections, and on steep grades. When sand is overused, however, it often ends up in
the environment, either as dust particles that contribute to air pollution or in runoff to
streams and rivers.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE HIGHWAY DEICING NEAR
SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER?
Surface water and ground water quality problems resulting from road salt use are causing
concern among both state and local governments. Salt contributes to increased chloride
levels in ground water through infiltration of runoff from roadways2. Also, if runoff
containing road salt reaches a stormwater injection well, it can provide a concentrated
input of chloride to ground water. Unlike other contaminants, such as heavy metals or
hydrocarbons, chloride is not naturally removed from water as it travels through soil and
sediments and moves towards the water table. Once in the ground water, it may remain
for a long time if ground water velocity is slow and it is not flushed away. Chloride may
also be discharged from ground water into surface water. Direct input of salt into surface
water from runoff is also problematic3. Increasing chloride concentrations have been
observed over the last few decades in streams, lakes, and ponds in northern climates that
receive significant snowfall4. Reservoirs and other drinking water supplies near treated
highways and salt storage sites are especially susceptible to contamination. Thus,
regardless of the path that the runoff takes, salt poses a water quality problem. The best
chance for long term mitigation is to reduce the application of salt to road surfaces in a
manner that does not jeopardize public safety on the roads.
Sodium is associated with general human health concerns. According to the Centers for
Disease Control and other health agencies5'6, it can contribute to or cause cardiovascular,
kidney, and liver diseases, and is directly linked to high blood pressure. Elevated sodium
levels in sources of drinking water could prove harmful. There is no maximum
contaminant level (MCL) or health advisory level for sodium; however, there is a
Drinking Water Equivalent Level of 20 mg/L (a non-enforceable guidance level
considered protective against non-carcinogenic adverse health effects).
Chloride, for which EPA has established a national secondary drinking water standard of
250 mg/L, adds a salty taste to water and corrodes pipes. It can also cause problems with
coagulation processes in water treatment plants. The water quality standard for chloride
is 230 mg/L, based on toxicity to aquatic life.
Anti-caking agents are often added to salt, the most common of which is sodium
ferrocyanide. There is no evidence of toxicity in humans from sodium ferrocyanide, even
at levels higher than those employed for deicing. However, the resulting release of
cyanide ions is toxic to fish7.
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AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS HIGHWAY DEICING
This section provides an overview of several deicing management measures. The
reference materials cited at the end of this document provide additional information.
Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures might or might not be adequate
to prevent contamination of source waters. Individual measures will likely need to be
combined in an overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the potential
source of contamination, the purpose, cost, and operational and maintenance
requirements of the measures, the vulnerability of the source water, the public's
acceptance of the measures, and the community's
desired degree of risk reduction.
One management approach is to prevent the
overuse or mishandling of deicing chemicals. This
includes training road maintenance workers and
providing them with access to information on road
conditions through the use of technology.
Generally, optimal strategies for keeping roads
clear of ice and snow will depend on local climatic, site, and traffic conditions. Personnel
should also be made aware of areas where careful management of deicing chemicals is
particularly important (e.g., near sensitive water areas such as lakes, ponds, and rivers).
Similarly, workers should be aware of runoff concerns from roadways that drain to either
surface water or the subsurface (e.g., through a dry well or other infiltration structure). In
some regions, "no salt" zones have been established near and on bridges and other
sensitive areas.
Alternative deicing chemicals include calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, CMA, and
products that are mixtures of chlorides and organic compounds8. Although such
alternatives are usually more expensive than salt, their use may be warranted in some
circumstances, such as near habitats of endangered or threatened species or in areas
where the source water already has elevated levels of sodium or chloride. Sensitive areas
and ecosystems along highways should be mapped, and the use of deicing alternatives
should be targeted to those spots. Other considerations for using alternatives to salt
include traffic volume and weather conditions.
The various deicers are effective at different temperatures and have different
environmental effects. For example, salt is most effective at temperatures above 20° F.
As an alternative, calcium chloride is effective for temperatures that dip below 0°F and is
fast acting, making it very useful in some parts of the country. It is, however, more
expensive than sodium chloride. In New England, calcium chloride is often used on
roadways in areas with high sodium concentrations in source water. It is less harmful to
vegetation than sodium chloride, but it is corrosive to concrete and metal. Magnesium
chloride is effective in extremely cold temperatures (as low as -13 °F). Magnesium
chloride is also safer for vegetation, but can increase flaking of concrete. Calcium
magnesium acetate (CMA) has the benefit of low toxicity to plants and microbes, but it is
costly and is only effective above 23 °F. CMA can potentially lower dissolved oxygen
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concentrations in soils and receiving waters, damaging vegetation and aquatic life. Many
communities, however, have used CMA with no apparent adverse environmental effects.
Combining deicers, such as mixing calcium chloride and salt, can be cost-effective and
safe if good information on weather conditions and road usage are available.
Innovative products have allowed some communities to reduce their salt usage. For
example, a commercially available beet juice derivative or another product made from
the leftover mash of alcohol distilleries can be applied to road surfaces, mixed with a
brine for spray application, or used to treat salt. Salt treated with these compounds is
effective at much lower temperatures than untreated sodium chloride, and it works
quickly. The beet juice derivative, in particular, has been gaining popularity in the
Midwestern United States. Communities such as Elkhart and Cloverdale, Indiana, for
example, are finding that the beet juice helps salt and sand adhere to roadways, greatly
reducing the amount of salt that needs to be applied. These products are biodegradable
and are safer for roadside vegetation than sodium chloride. Communities are still gaining
experience with these "eco-friendly" alternatives; additional research and experience
with these and other alternatives is needed.
Maintenance Decision Support Systems (MDSS) utilize state-of-the-art weather
forecasting and data fusion techniques and merge them with computerized winter road
maintenance rules of practice. The result is better forecasting of surface conditions along
with customized treatment recommendations for winter maintenance managers. These
measures help minimize the potential for excessive application of anti-icing/deicing
chemicals.
Road Weather Information Systems (RWIS) help
maintenance centers determine current weather
conditions at a given location. They are a key component
of winter maintenance programs in Japan and many
Western European countries, and since the mid-1980s
increasing numbers of states have been using this
technology. Sensors, which can be 90-95 percent
accurate, collect data on air and pavement temperatures,
levels of precipitation, and the amount of deicing
chemicals on the pavement. The data are paired with
weather forecast information to predict pavement
temperatures for a specific area and to determine the
amount of chemicals needed in the changing conditions.
Savings from reduced use of deicers can offset the high
cost of a RWIS. According to the Federal Highway
Administration, the Massachusetts Highway Authority
RWTS Unit (MHA) saved $39,000 on salt and sand costs in the first
year after installing nine RWIS stations. The MHA has estimated that a complete RWIS
in Boston could save up to $250,000 per year9. A RWIS on a bridge over the James
River in Virginia recovered 96 percent of equipment and installation costs over a single
mild winter by avoiding unnecessary deicer application10. Information gathered through
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RWIS is also used to target anti-icing treatment (described below). Several states are
developing satellite delivery of RWIS information to maintenance workers.
Anti-icing orpretreatment methods involve the application of deicing chemicals to
roads prior to a storm to prevent ice and snow from bonding to paved surfaces, making
roads easier to clear. Several states have reported improvements in traffic mobility and
traction after using anti-icing techniques. Anti-icing can reduce the amount of deicing
chemicals needed; a collection of estimates from state departments of transportation
compiled by the Dupage River Salt Creek Workgroup showed reductions in deicer usage
varying from 41 to 75 percent11.
Alternative deicing chemicals, such as magnesium chloride, a sodium chloride brine,
CMA, or the newer "eco-friendly" deicers (e.g., beet juice derivative and distillery
byproducts) may also be used for anti-icing. Timing is important in this process, and
weather reports or RWIS data can assist highway departments in determining the best
time and place to apply the anti-icing chemicals. The Southeast Michigan Council of
Governments recommends application of anti-icers two hours before weather events for
maximum effectiveness12.
The Pacific Northwest Snowfighters (PNS)
Association evaluates the safety,
environmental preservation, and performance
of winter road maintenance products, including
road deicers and anti-icers. PNS maintains,
monitors, and updates a list of approved
products on its Web site13.
Some states have installed fixed chemical
1—^^^^^^^"^^^™ spraying systems in highway trouble spots,
Anti-icing chemical application r j o j o j r •>
such as on curves and bridges, to prevent
slippery roads. Chemicals are dispensed through spray nozzles embedded in the
pavement, curbs, barriers, or bridge decks. Using pavement temperature and precipitation
sensors, maintenance workers can monitor conditions and activate these fixed
maintenance systems. This technique saves materials and labor expenses and reduces the
use of deicing chemicals during a storm. Though expensive to implement, these systems
are especially useful in locations such as bridges that cross sensitive water bodies
because the system's high efficiency reduces the risk of over-application. Additional
advice on anti-icing is provided in a 2004 article by Brown in Road and Bridges
Magazine14 and in guidance by the Federal Highway Administration15.
Spreading rates and the amount of deicer used are important considerations. Snow
tends to melt faster when salt is applied in narrow strips. In a technique known as
windrowing, spreading is concentrated in a four to eight foot wide strip along the
centerline to melt snow to expose the pavement, which in turn warms a greater portion of
the road surface and causes more melting. This technique can be used on lesser traveled
roads. The amount used is important; too much deicer is wasteful because the excess
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chemicals will just be dispersed (to the side of the road). If not enough deicer is used, the
chemical interaction with ice needed for melting will not occur, wasting the application.
Here is where knowledge of the road location and weather conditions is needed. For
example, shaded areas have lower pavement temperatures and ice forms more easily.
Therefore, heavier applications may be needed in these spots. As a general rule, less
chemical should be used when the temperature is rising, and more should be used when it
is falling.
Timing of application is an important consideration; it takes time for salt and other
deicers to become effective, after which a plow can more easily remove the snow. Sand
should not be applied to roadways if more snow or ice is expected soon, as it will no
longer be effective once covered. Traffic volume should also be taken into consideration,
as vehicles can disperse deicers and sand to the side of the road. The timing of a second
application should be dictated by the road conditions. For example, while the snow is
slushy on the pavement, the salt or deicer is still effective. Once it stiffens, however, it is
best to plow first to remove excess snow.
Appropriate application equipment aids in the proper distribution of deicing chemicals.
Many trucks are equipped with a spinning circular plate (i.e., "spinner") that throws the
chemicals in a semi-circle onto the road. However, this method of application can lead to
significant salt wastage because the salt has enough momentum to bounce or roll away
from the application area. A study by the Indiana Department of Transportation16 found
that salt applied by ordinary spreaders ends up off pavement 30 percent of the time and
in non-target areas on the pavement 24 percent of the time. To correct for this problem,
zero-velocity spreaders have been developed that "place" salt on the road with little
impact velocity, reducing waste. For windrows, a chute is used to distribute chemicals,
typically near the centerline of the road.
Spreader calibration controls the amounts of chemicals applied and allows different
chemicals to be distributed at different rates. Modified spreaders prevent the over-
application of materials by calibrating the application rate to the speed of the truck.
Automatic spreader/controller systems are also available that continuously adjust for the
speed of the truck and speed of the auger. A study led by the Wisconsin Department of
Transportation has indicated that such systems can reduce unnecessary salt application
by as much as 47 percent17.
Equipment can also be used to vary the width of the deiced area. General equipment
inspection and maintenance should be conducted at least once a year to ensure proper
and accurate operation. Follow-up inspections during the snow removal season can also
help detect problems caused by in-season equipment wear and tear.
Employee training and education is as important as proper, well maintained equipment.
This is especially true in light of rapidly evolving best management practices and the
increasing complexity and variety of snow management options. Training can help
counteract pressures to overuse salt, especially when past job performance was measured
by the quantity of salt applied per shift. Supplying operators with the tools and
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knowledge necessary to make better decisions on the road can lead to significant
reductions in salt usage, as was observed in one Minnesota Department of Transportation
Program18 aimed at improving operator decision making and rewarding improved
performance. Suggestions for training modules from the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials include discussing spreader calibration, electronic
spreader settings, integrating RWIS data, and anti-icing fluids18.
Plowing and snow removal are chemical-free options to keep roads clear of snow and
ice. With plowing, less deicing material is needed to melt the remaining snow and ice
pack. For specific weather conditions, specialized snow plows may be used. For
example, various materials such as polymers and rubber can be used on the blade.
Pre-wetting of sand or deicing chemicals is a widespread practice because salt needs
moisture to become a melting agent. The resulting brine mixture can provide faster
melting. Salt can be pre-wetted through a spray as it leaves the spreader. Sand is often
pre-wetted with liquid deicing chemicals just prior to spreading; this is an effective
method for embedding the sand into the ice and snow on the pavement. Pre-wetting can
pay for itself through the savings in materials because less sand or salt is lost by
bouncing off the pavement.
Street sweeping during or soon after the spring snow melt can prevent excess sand and
deicing residue from entering surface and ground waters. Many road departments sweep
and/or vacuum streets at least once in the spring. Sand can be filtered out of the
sweepings and added back to the sand piles for future reuse.
Proper salt storage is key to preventing the introduction of potentially harmful
contaminant loads to nearby surface and ground waters. Salt storage sites should be
located outside of wellhead and source water protection areas, away from private wells,
sole source aquifers (where feasible), and public water supply intakes. These areas
should be identified so that application can be controlled and storage precautions
implemented. It is important to shelter salt piles from moisture and wind because
unprotected piles can contribute large doses of salt to runoff. Salt should be stored inside
a covered, waterproof structure such as a dome or shed. A liner or impermeable concrete
slab may also be appropriate. Any runoff should be cleaned up immediately and the
collected brine reused. Spills during loading and unloading should be cleaned as soon as
possible.
Ground water quality monitoring near salt storage and application sites should be
performed at least once each year. Site-specific water table maps that show the direction
of ground water flow should be reviewed, and monitoring performed up-gradient and
down-gradient of storage and selected application sites to detect contamination.
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ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These resources contain information on deicing chemicals, best management practices
(BMPs), and related topics. Most of the documents listed are available without a fee on
the Internet. State departments of transportation, whose contact information can be found
on the Internet or in the phone book, are also good sources of information.
Organizations
Center for Watershed Protection, 8390 Main Street, Second Floor, Ellicott City, MD,
21043. http://www.cwp.org. CWP also maintains the Stormwater Manager's Resource
Center, http://www.stormwatercenter.net.
The Salt Institute, 700 N. Fairfax Street, Suite 600, Alexandria, VA 22314. Website
contains information on salt storage and its Sensible Salting Program.
http://www.saltinstitute.org.
USEPA links to sites on roads, highways, and bridges:
http ://www. epa. gov/owow/nps/roadshwys.html.
Reports and Fact Sheets
Caraco D. and R. Claytor. 1997. Stormwater BMP Design Supplement for Cold Climates.
Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
http://www.cwp.org/Resource Library/Center Docs/special/ELC coldclimates.pdf.
Church, P. and P. Friesz. 1993. Effectiveness of Highway Drainage Systems in
Preventing Road-Salt Contamination ofGroundwater: Preliminary Findings. Reprinted
from: Transportation Research Record. No. 1420. National Research Council.
http://www.nap.edu/books/NI000009/html/index.html.
Granato, G.E. andK.P. Smith. 1999. Estimating Concentrations of Road-Salt
Constituents in Highway-Runoff from Measurements of Specific Conductance. U.S.
Department of the Interior. U.S. Geological Survey. Water Resources Investigation
Report 99-4077. http://ma.water.usgs.gov/ggranato/WRIR99 4077.pdf.
Michigan Department of Transportation. 1993. The Use of Selected Deicing Materials on
Michigan Roads: Environmental and Economic Impacts. December.
http://www.michigan.gov/documents/toc-deice_5145 l_7.pdf.
New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. 1996. Road Salt and Water
Quality. Environmental Fact Sheet WMB-4.
http://des.nh.gov/organization/commissioner/pip/factsheets/wmb/documents/wmb-4.pdf.
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Ohrel, R. 1995. Choosing Appropriate Vegetation for Salt-Impacted Roadways.
Watershed Protection Techniques. 1(4): 221-223.
http://www.stormwatercenter.net/Database_Files/Publications_Database_lPage92.html.
Ohrel, R. 1995. Rating Deicing Agents: Road Salt Stands Firm. Watershed Protection
Techniques. 1(4): 217-220.
http://www.stormwatercenter.net/Database Files/Publications Database lPage423.html.
Road Management Journal. 1997. Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance.
[Information reproduced with permission from the Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin
No. 6, March 1996.] December.
http://www.usroads.eom/journals/p/rmi/9712/rm971202.htm.
Seawell, C. and N. Agbenowosi. 1998. Effects of Road Deicing Salts on Groundwater
Systems.
http://www.cee.vt.edu/ewr/environmental/teach/gwprimer/roadsalt/roadsalt.html.
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. 1991. Highway Deicing:
Comparing Salt and Calcium Magnesium Acetate. Special Report 23 5.
http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/sr/sr23 5 .html.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. 1996. Manual of
Practice for an Effective Anti-icing Program: A Guide for Highway Winter Maintenance
Personnel. Publication No. FHWA-RD-95-202. June.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/mopeap/eapcov.htm.
USEPA. 2007. Shallow Injection Wells (Class V).
http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/uic/class5/index.html.
United States Geological Survey. 1999. An Overview of the Factors Involved in
Evaluating the Geochemical Effects of Highway Runoff on the Environment. Open-File
Report 98-630. http://ma.water.usgs.gov/FHWA/products/ofr98_630.pdf.
United States Geological Survey. 2000. National Highway Runoff Water Quality Data
and Methodology Synthesis, State Transportation Agency Reports.
http://ma.water.usgs.gov/FHWA/qw/state.htm.
Warrington, P.D. 1998. Roadsalt and Winter Maintenance for British Columbia
Municipalities. Best Management Practices to Protect Water Quality. December.
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wat/wq/bmps/roadsalt.html.
Wilfrid A. Nixon, Ph.D., P.E. Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, College of
Engineering, The University of Iowa. (2001) The Use of Abrasives in Winter
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Maintenance: Final Report of Project TR 434. IIHR Technical Report No. 416.
http://www.iihr.uiowa.edu/products/pubvid/pdf/IIHR416.pdf.
Winter Maintenance Virtual Clearinghouse, Federal Highway Administration. U.S.
Department of Transportation.
http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/weather/resources/publications/tech briefs/tech briefs.htm.
REFERENCES CITED IN BULLETIN
Federal Highway Administration. 2005. How Do Weather Events Impact Roads?
http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/Weather/ql roadimpact.htm.
2 Wilde, F. 1994. Geochemistry and Factors Affecting Ground-water Quality at Three
Storm-water Management Sites in Maryland. Maryland Geological Survey, Report of
Investigations No. 59. Contact Maryland Geological Survey at: http://www.mgs.md.gov/
to order a copy.
3 Kaushal, S.S., P. M. Groffman, G E. Likens, K. T. Belt, W. P. Stack, V. R. Kelly, L. E.
Band, and G. T. Fisher. 2005. Increased salinization of fresh water in the northeastern
United States. PNAS 102 (38):13517-13520.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0506414102.
4 Amirsalari, F. and Li, J. 2007. Impact of Chloride Concentrations on Surface Water
Quality of Urban Watersheds Using Landsat Imagery. Environmental Informatics
Archives 5: 576- 584.
5 Centers for Diesease Control and Prevention. 2009. Americans Consume Too Much
Salt. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Press Release: March 26, 2009.
http://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2009/r090326.htm.
6 Florida Agency for Health Care Administration. 2008. "Sodium in diet." Reviewed by
Patrika Tsai, MD/MHP & David Zieve, MD/MPH.
http://www.floridahealthfmder.gov/health-
encvclopedia/health%20illustrated%20encvclopedia/l/002415.shtml.
7 Noga, Edward. 2000. Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment. Wiley-Blackwell. 295 p.
8 Ramakrishna, D., and T. Viraraghavan. 2005. Environmental impact of chemical
deicers - a review. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 166: 49-63.
9 Federal Highway Administration. 1996. Clearer Roads at Less Cost. FHWA Road
Weather Management - Publication No.: FHWA-SA-96-045 (CS036).
http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/weather/resources/publications/tech briefs/cs036.htm.
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10 Wyant, David C. 1998. Exploring ways to prevent bonding of ice to pavement: Report
VTRC 98-R18. Virginia Transportation Research Council, in cooperation with the U.S.
Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration. Charlottesville,
Virginia, http://www.virginiadot.org/vtrc/main/online reports/pdf/98-r 18.pdf.
11 Dupage River Salt Creek Workgroup. 2008. Fact Sheet: Chloride Usage Education
and Reduction Program. http://www.drscw.org/reports/CFS_PWS.pdf.
12 Southeast Michigan Council of Governments. 2009. Salt Storage and Application
Techniques.
http ://www. semcog. org/uploadedFiles/Programs_and_Proj ects/Water/Stormwater/Munic
ipal Training/Streets and Parking Lots/Road%20Salt%20Application.pdf
13 Pacific Northwest Snowfighters Association. 2009. Website includes a monitored and
updated list of approved deicing products.
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/partners/pns/pdf/PNSOPL.pdf.
14 Brown, P., 2004. "Snow Patriots: New England fights winter's wrath by staying loyal
to anti-icing techniques." Roads and Bridges Magazine, April 2004.
http://www.glchloride.com/brochure/Article%20-%20Snow%20Patriots.pdf.
15 Federal Highway Administration. 1995. Manual of Practice for an Effective Anti-Icing
Program. FHWA-RD-95-202. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/mopeap/eapcov.htm.
16Nantung, T. 2001. Evaluation of a zero-velocity deicer spreader and salt spreader.
Indiana Department of Transportation in cooperation with U.S. Department of
Transportation Federal Highway Administration. FHWA/IN/JTRP-2000/24.
http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/jtrp/95.
17 Clear Roads. 2008. Saving Resources through Accurate Materials Delivery. Report
No. CR2005-02. http://www.clearroads.org/files/06-21 calibration-b.pdf.
18 Venner Consulting and Parsons Brinckerhoff. 2004. Environmental Stewardship
Practices, Procedures, and Policies for Highway Construction and Maintenance.
Chapter 8: pp 563-620. Requested by the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO). http://www.trb.org/NotesDocs/25-
25%284%29 FR.pdf.
Office of Water (4606) EPA 816-F-09-008 July 2009 www.epa.gov/safewater
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