United States
Environmental Prote
Agency
EPA 600/R-07/059 | May 2007 | www.epa.gov/o
Spatial Variabilil
Podzolic Soils of
Central and Northern Europe
Office of Research and Development
National Health and Environmental Effe
rch Laboratory, Western Ecology Division
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EPA/600/R-07/059
May 2007
Spatial Variability in Podzolic Soils of
Central and Northern Europe
Marek Degorski
Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization,
Polish Academy of Sciences
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
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Preface
The results presented here represent a synthesis of the more than fifteen years of fieldwork that
I have had the pleasure of carrying out in Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Germany and
Poland. It was done in the course of my participation in several research projects funded by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as well as the Polish and Finnish Academies of
Sciences, the University of Oulu, the USDA Forest Service and the Global Environment Facility
(GEF).
At this point I would like to express my sincerest thanks to those who made my involvement
in the above programmes a possibility, and most especially: Prof. Alicja Breymeyer (IGiPZ PAN), Dr
Andrzej Bytnerowicz (USDA Forest Service, Riverside), Prof. Pavo Havasowi (University of Oulu),
Decent Urho Makirincie (University of Oulu), Prof. Wladyslaw Matuszkiewicz (IGiPZ PAN), Prof.
Reginald Noble (Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio), Prof. Rauni Ohtonen
(University of Helsinki), Prof. David Reed and Prof. Glenn Mroz (Michigan Technological University
in Houghton) and Dr Wethen Reed (US Department of Agriculture in Washington). I am also grateful
to the authorities at the Universities in Helsinki, Turku and Oulu, as well as the heads of field stations
of the Finnish Forest Research Institute (METLA), for making chemical laboratories available to me
as I was engaging in fieldwork. I would also like to thank Roger Blair (US Environmental Protection
Agency, retired) for assistance in editing the English version and publication in the United States.
The research described here is being continued with on Russian territory, within the framework of the
European Commission's Sixth Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development
- project e-LUP (Simulating land-use processes - an interactive e-toolfor SIA), as well as through a
project funded by the Polish Ministry of Education and Science - "Geographically conditioned trends
and discontinuation of podzolic soil development - its genetic and ecological aspects".
The preliminary synthesis of the results described here was published in Polish (Degorski
2002). I hope that characteristic of podzolic soils presented in English will be very helpful for
all, who are interested in this type of soil and its properties, as well as in soil geography. The
original data are available at
http: //www. igipz. pan. pl/geoekoklimat/degorski/home_pl. htm
Marek Degorski
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1. Introduction
Podzolic soils were first distinguished as "podzols" in the second half of the 19th
century by Russian soil scientists (after Glinka 1926 and Karpaczewski 1983), such that
Sibirtsev introduced the type into the official classification of soils (Yaalon 1997). However,
descriptions of podzolic soils may also in fact be found at the same time in the work of
Scandinavian soil scientists (Earth 1856; Forchhammer 1857; Miiller 1887). Subsequently,
the term gained acceptance among - and was used by - soil scientists in many countries,
irrespective of the classification actually in force (Muir 1961; Ponomariewa 1969; Petersen
1976; Mokma, Buurman 1982; Boul et al, 1989), or else served in the devising of new
regional names, such as popidoziem in Poland (Chodzicki 1933).
To afford misunderstandings, the present study uses the diagnostic spodic horizon to
be the criterion considered to distinguish podzolic soils. The definition of the spodic horizon
was first set out in the American taxonomy of soils (Soil Survey Staff 1960, 1975), and then
applied in FAO classifications (Dudal 1968, 1969), soil systematics (SGP 1989) and the
World Reference Base for Soil Resources (1998). In fact, the Polish soil systematics consider
the podzolic earths soils to encompass, not only the podzols (Densic Podzols according to the
WRB Classification) and podzolic soils (Haplic podzols according to the WRB Classification)
but also the rusty soils (Distric Arenosols according to the WRB Classification), with their
diagnostic sideric horizon (Kowalkowski et al, 1981; Prusinkiewicz, Bednarek 1985; SGP
1989).
Podzolic soils are among the zonal soils in the boreal and sub-boreal climatic and
vegetational belt. However, within the European regions of their zonal occurrence, their share
in the overall soil cover is very variable. They represent about 39.7% of all soils on the
Central Polish Lowlands (Prusinkiewicz, Bednarek and Pokojska 1980), and 67.7% on the
Byelorussian Plain (Anoszko, 1978), as opposed to more than 75% of those in Finland (Atlas
of Finland 1986). As azonal soils, they also occur in the Northern Hemisphere's polar belt
(Iceland and Spitsbergen), and in the Mediterranean region (FAO/UNESCO 1978; Certini et
al., 1998). Irrespective of geographical location, they are developed from sandy formations
(Petaja-Ronkainen et al., 1992; Sepponen 1985; Degorski 1998a; Lundstrom et al., 2000a, b),
and their occurrence links up with regions in which precipitation prevails over
evapotranspiration (Glazowska 1981; Mokma, Buurman 1982; Bednarek, Prusinkiewicz
1997; Degorski 1997b; Lundstrom et al., 2000a). They are also associated with ecosystems of
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acidophilous plant communities, most often coniferous forests1 (Crocker 1952;
Matuszkiewicz W. 1981; Ugolini et al, 1981; Matuszkiewicz W., Matuszkiewicz A.,
Degorski 1994; Lundstrom etal, 2000a; Matuszkiewicz J. 2001).
World pedological literature, and especially that of Europe, devotes much space to
podzolic soils, in relation to the understanding of mechanisms through which they arise
(Lundblad 1934, 1936a, b; Rode 1937; Ponomariewa 1964, 1969; McKeague etal.. 1971;
Sapek 1971; Prusinkiewicz 1972a, b; Kaniwec 1978; Pokojska 1979a, b, c; Mokma, Buurman
1982; Farmer, Fraser 1982; Mokma 1991; Raisanen 1996; Gustafsson et al, 1995, 1999,
2000; Lundstrom et al, 2000b; Melkerud et al, 2000; Olsson, Melkerud 2000), the
influence of pedogenic processes on the vertical differentiation of soil properties (Duchaufour
1982; Birkeland 1984; Sklodowski et al, 988), and their characteristics in different parts of
the Continent. The results of the research have been published, inter alia: for Northern Europe
- Jauhiainen (1973), Hinneri (1974), Rajakorpi (1984), Koutaniemi et al, (1988), Petaja-
Ronkainen etal, (1992), Kahkonen (1996), Kowalkowski (1995, 1998), Lundstrom etal., .
(2000 a, b), Melkerud et al, (2000), Olsson, Melkerud (2000), Western Europe - Mokma,
Buurman (1982), Eastern Europe - Ponomariewa (1969), Glazowska (1981), Degorski
(1995a, 1998b), Pietuchowa (1987), Khoroshev, Prozorov (2000) and the southern regions of
the continent - Certini etal, (1998).
Podzolic soils have likewise been studied in many physico-geographical mesoregions
of Poland (Musierowicz 1954; Marcinek 1960; Borowiec 1961; Pondel 1961, 1963;
Prusinkiewicz 1961b, 1965, 1969, 1972b; Siuta 1961; Dzi^ciolowski 1963, 1974;
Prusinkiewicz, Noryskiewicz 1966; Uggla 1968; Kowalkowski, Nowak 1968a, b; Jauhiainen
1969; Plichta 1970; Dzi^ciolowski, Kocialkowski, 1973; Uggla, Roszko 1974; Skiba 1977;
Kuznicki et al 1978a,b; Bialousz 1978; Konecka-Betley 1983; Cz^pinska-Kaminska 1986;
Degorski 1990; Konecka-Betley et al.,1994; Chodorowski 1995; Bednarek 1991; Komornicki,
Skiba 1996; Tobolsk! et al, 1997; Swiercz 1997; Prusinkiewicz, Michalczuk 1998; Janowska
2001), though only more rarely has work been done over larger parts of the country
(Miklaszewski 1912; Czerwinski 1965; Degorski, 2002).
Notwithstanding this extensive bibliography, the literature lacks work describing the
spatial differentiation of the properties of podzolic soils on the supra-regional scale, and
relating this to geographical variability of the factors conditioning the process of pedogenesis.
This paper is an in-depth conceptualisation of these issues through an analysis of many soil
1 in the zonal range of occurrence of podzolic
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properties defined in material collected by a single author employing the same laboratory
methods. The absence of such a study was one motivation behind the work presented here.
The research carried out hitherto had mostly concentrated on a single geographical region,
while studies of large spatial extent mostly confined themselves to narrowly-selected soil
properties (Sklodowski 1974).
Other types of soil have been subject to much fuller characterisations of the dependent
relationships between selected pedogenic factors and the variability of geographical zones, or
altitudinal zones in the mountains and their influence on the development of the properties of
the given soil cover (Skiba 1985; Melke 1997). This is the first such study for podzols for the
region described above.
In approaching the studies described here, I assumed that, if a defined soil type arises
across a quite broad spatial spectrum - i.e. with the influence of geographically-varied
pedogenic factors, then this must to some degree influence the geographical variability in soil
properties (Fig.l). The hypothesis advanced thus relates to interdependence between basic
pedogenic
D
factors and the
development of
soil cover and
its properties
(Dokuczajew
1948-1949).
Geographical
influences
include the type
of weathering
process, and in
particular the
breakdown of
silicates and
aluminosilicates
(Duchaufour
1982; Catt 1988; Bednarek, Prusinkiewicz 1997), the quantity and quality of organic matter
(Jenny 1941; Crocker 1952; Prusinkiewicz 1961a; Sapek 1971; Liski 1995; Lisk et al., 1997;
Degorski 2001c), the profile-related scope of impact of pedogenic processes (Yaalon 1975;
geographical variability
Figure 1. Relationship between geographical variability of pedogenic factors and soil properties.,.
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Birkeland 1984; Kowalkowski et al., 1994) and the course of elemental pedological processes
(Jenny 1941; Catt 1988; Degorski 2000). Each process by which a soil develops comprises a
specific complex of pedogenic microprocesses appropriate to it; these operating within single-
phase or multi-phase cycles in the soil environment (Catt 1987; Kowalkowski et al., 1994)
that are mainly determined by biotic and climatic factors (Jenny 1941; Crocker 1952; Ugolini
et al 1981; Degorski 200Ib). The processes in question shape primary features and
morphology of contemporary soil cover, while the development of the profile may continue
over a period of several hundred thousand years (Catt 1988; Boul et al., 1989). Time is thus an
important element in pedogenesis determining the degree of soil development.
According to M. Glazowska (1981),"permanent" properties of the pedosphere are of
cardinal importance in studies of the geographical differentiation of contemporary soil covers.
Included among these are: the sequence of genetic horizons, mineral composition, and
transformations of organic matter, as well as those physico-chemical properties that allow the
development of pedogenic processes to be better understood. In this regard, the dynamics of
many processes ongoing in soils contemporarily (e.g. changes in soil moisture, reaction and
the activity of soil solutions) are seen as characterizing nothing more than their state at the
given moment. Furthermore, the considerable spatial variability in the properties of soils
developing through the above processes at the microhabitat level ensures that the latter may
represent a very important augmentation of the information on how a given pedon or
polypedon functions (Degorski 1995c, 1998c, 2000, ZOOlb).
Pedogenic processes are also influenced by destructive human activity that disturbs
their natural course within the cycle of soil development, as well as their internal structure
(Degorski 1995d; Manikowska 1999). This can be true of direct use or indirect influences
through the transfer of pollution (Degorski 1995d). The communities of pine forest associated
with podzolic soils are also characterised by the greatest spatial continuity of forest utilisation
in Poland (Degorska 1996) and in northern Europe (Jauhiainen 1973).
A primary aim of the work described here is to determine the influence of
geographically-diversified pedogenic factors on the spatial variation to selected
morphological, physical, chemical and biochemical properties of the podzolic soils of the
Eastern and Northern European soil regions (as understood by Glazowska 1981), and then to
point out the regional differences thereof, and the diagnostic significance these may have in
studies of the spatial variability of soil cover. I attempt to assess the influence of two groups
of pedogenic factors - the biotic/climatic and the morpholithological - on the contemporary
geographical differentiation of properties of podzolic soils. The results obtained for spatial
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variability in podzolic soils as regards defined properties have then been set against the
geographical divisions of the pedosphere that are already in existence (Volobujev 1973;
Glazowska 1981; Boul et al, 1989; Bednarek, Prusinkiewicz 1997).
The focus of the work presented here is on two taxonomic units within the order of
podzolic earths, i.e. the podzolic soils (Haplic Podzols) and the rusty-podzolic soils2 (Distric
Arenosols, or Hiperdistric Arenosols), the nomenclature of which is in line with official
Polish soil systematics (SGP 1989).
2. Research assumptions
The fact that many endogenous and exogenous factors of the geographical
environment have an influence on the spatial variability of soil properties is sufficient to
necessitate a strict definition of both assumptions and procedures as pedological work is
carried out on the geographical scale so that comparisons between different soil profiles can
be made. These activities should seek to obtain a set of elements (soils), shaped in similar
natural conditions, by the same habitat factors, and hence differentiated only in temporal and
spatial terms. Also of importance in assessing the courses of pedogenic processes is such a
selection of research sites as will guarantee the least possible prior modification of the soils
for analysis by human activity (Mukherjee 1994; Degorski 1997a; Gworek, Degorski 1997).
The choice of research sites was guided by the following criteria:
autogenic soil with an endo-percolative type of water regime,
located at an altitude of less than 300 m a.s.L,
flat surface with an slope of less than 2°,
permeable rocky material beneath,
glaciofluvial sediments,
supported a forest ecosystem with a prevalence of Scots pine in the tree stand,
minimum tree-stand ages of 80 years,
not characterised by the direct impact of humankind on the ecosystem.
As research sites were denoted, every effort was also made to ensure their representativeness
of the given geographical region in respect of its geoecological conditioning (Degorski
1997b). From among the 418 pits dug in podzolic or rusty-podzolic soils within the study
area, the 39 selected for detailed analysis were those with habitat characteristics most typical
2 in line with the definition in the Systematyka Gleb Polski (SGP 1989), the rusty-podzolic soils are a sub-type of
the rusty soil type, while podzolic soils have been identified as a type rank.
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for the given geographical unit (Table 1). The remainder served in the verification of the
many variables linked with profile morphology, as well as the differentiation of certain soil
properties (Degorski 1994a, 2001a).
Profile
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Table 1. Geographical locations of research plots.
Location of research plots
„, ., , . . latitude longitude
Plot/country sub-province macroregion ,, p °
Kevo / Finland
Kessi / Finland
Oulanka / Finland
Tennila / Finland
Muhos / Finland
Luopioinen / Finland
Lammi / Finland
Hattula / Finland
Vitsiola / Finland
Punkaharju / Finland
Tipu / Estonia
Jaunjelgava / Latvia
Mincia / Lithuania
Strazdai / Lithuania
Plaska / Poland
Browsk / Poland
Jozefow / Poland
Baranowicze / Belarus
Krasna Swoboda / Belarus
Soligors / Belarus
Bychow / Belarus
Slowgorod / Belarus
Chotimsk / Belarus
Uzlogi / Belarus
Chrisdorf / Germany
Namyslin / Poland
Goscim / Poland
Krucz / Poland
Bobrowniki / Poland
Skrwilno / Poland
Glinojeck / Poland
Ceranow / Poland
Brok / Poland
Nowe Miasto / Poland
Miedzierza / Poland
Zloty Potok / Poland
Klucze / Poland
Tworog / Poland
Kuznia Raciborska /
n_i 1
Lapland
Lapland
Lapland
Lapland
Ostrobothnia
Finnish Lakelands
Finnish Lakelands
Finnish Lakelands
Finnish Lakelands
Finnish Lakelands
Eastern Baltic Costland
Eastern Baltic Lakeland
Eastern Baltic Lakeland
Eastern Baltic Lakeland
Eastern Baltic Lakeland
Podlasie- Byelorussian
Plateaus
Polnocne Podkarpacie
Podlasie- Byelorussian
Plateaus
Podlasie- Byelorussian
Plateaus
Berezina-Desna Lowland
Berezina-Desna Lowland
Berezina-Desna Lowland
Berezina-Desna Lowland
Berezina-Desna Lowland
Western Baltic Lakelands
Southern Baltic Lakelands
Southern Baltic Lakelands
Southern Baltic Lakelands
Southern Baltic Lakelands
Southern Baltic Lakelands
Central Polish Lowlands
Central Polish Lowlands
Central Polish Lowlands
Central Polish Lowlands
Central Malopolska
Uplands
Silesian-Cracovian Uplands
Silesian-Cracovian Uplands
Central Polish Lowlands
Central Polish Lowlands
Northern Lapland
Northern Lapland
Southern Lapland
Southern Lapland
Western Ostrobothnia
Hamme
Hamme
Hamme
Hamme
Karelian Lakeland
Estonian Lowland
Courland Lakeland
Lithuanian Lakeland
Lithuanian Lakeland
Lithuanian Lakeland
North Podlasie Plain
Sandomierz Basin
Western Pre-Polesie
Western Pre-Polesie
Eastern Pre-Polesie
Eastern Pre-Polesie
Eastern Pre-Polesie
Central Sub-Dnieper
Central Sub-Dnieper
North Mecklenburg Lakeland
Torun-Eberswald Proglacial Channel
Torun-Eberswald Proglacial Channel
Torun-Eberswald Proglacial Channel
Torun-Eberswald Proglacial Channel
Chelmno-Dobrzyn Lakeland
North Mazovian Lowland
South Podlasie Lowland
Central Mazovian Lowland
South Mazovian Elevation
Przedborze Upland
Krakow-Cz^stochowa Upland
Krakow-Cz^stochowa Upland
Silesian Lowland
Silesian Lowland
69°44' 46,48"
69°01'23,21"
66°21'33,45"
66°56' 23,45"
64°43'25,45"
61°32'34,28"
61°09'34,21"
61°11'45,38"
61°05'23,78"
61°39'41,64"
58°18'59,84"
56°37'22,24"
55°25' 50,32"
55°08'31,45"
53°52'27,92"
52°53' 19,32"
50°28' 38,42"
52°56' 47,68"
52°48' 14,76"
52°52'24,54"
53°14'22,35"
53°25'28,43"
53°20' 57,29"
53°20' 53,58"
53°06'08,50"
52°39'41,36"
52°44'22,33"
52°47' 17,81"
52°48' 50,93"
52°48' 10,81"
52°49' 36,93"
52°38'08,32"
52°40' 36,50"
51°35'02,64"
51°06'28,38"
50°43' 16,10"
50°20' 59,05"
50°34' 56,20"
50°10' 58,78"
27°01'20,78"
28°30'21,56"
29°21'34,12"
25°56'21,34"
26°01'48,40"
24°48' 35,44"
25°00' 12,08"
24°50' 12,34"
24°55'57,32"
29°16' 54,88"
24°59' 37,82"
24°53' 16,61"
26°01'05,70"
26°09'46,12"
23°18,30,14"
23°37' 10,05"
22°59' 29,06"
25°53'04,32"
27°08' 51,96"
28°25' 49,66"
30°12'44,27"
31°06' 47,80"
32°37' 38,00"
32°35' 54,04"
12°25'47,91"
14°32' 11,47"
15°42'21,82"
16°26' 13,96"
19°00'44,18"
19°19'49,27"
20°19' 28,70"
22°16'57,40"
21°42'37,45"
20°37'05,36"
20°25'06,86"
19°32' 17,15"
19°39' 12,63"
18°44'21,35"
18°20'35,18"
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3. Geographical locations of study areas
The work took in the area of zonal occurrence of podzolic soils, whose western and southern
limits are constituted by the natural ranges of fresh Scots pine forest of the Dicrano-Pinion
alliance, while the northern one relates to the distribution of the Phyllodoco-Vaccinion
alliance (Bohn at al, 1996). The eastern limit was the political boundary (border) with the
Russian Federation. The work was thus carried out in Germany, Poland, Belarus, Lithuania,
Latvia, Estonia and Finland, between longitudes 12°25' and 32°37' E and latitudes 50°10' and
69°44' N (Fig. 2). The analysed profiles were within 13 sub-provinces encompassing 23
physico-geographical macroregions (Table 1),
as adopted in line with division of Europe into
physico-geographical regions by Kondracki
(1997), and the nomenclature following Richter
(1968), Aartolahti (1977), Demietjew,
Romanowski (1977) and Kondracki (1992,
1994, 1995).
Lapland
Northern Lapland
Profile 1 - Kevo (Finland); podzolic soil.
A pit was dug beyond the zone of longlasting
permafrost, c. 200 m south of Lake Kevojarvi
(Hinneri 1974, 1975), on a plain formed from
glaciofluvial material markedly transformed
periglacially and accumulating in the
Holocene's Atlantic Period (c. 6000 years BP),
with Scots pine occurring naturally (Kallio
1969, 1986; Tobolsk! 1975). From the
syntaxonomic point of view, the plant
community was classified as Cladonio-Pinetum
boreale betuletum tortuosae (Roo-Zielinska,
Solon 1997), an association extending over more
(Heikkinenefa/., 1998).
CDa
Fig. 2. Distribution of studied podzolic and
podzolic-rusty soils in the northern and eastern
European Soil Regions (according to the division
by O-tazowskal981).
a -Northern European Region, b -Eastern
European Region, c -podzolic-rusty soils,
d - podzolic soils, 1-3 9-numbers of soil
profiles
than ten square kilometers in the Kevo area
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Profile 2 - Kessi (Finland); podzolic soil.
The pit was located in a flat part of a denuded esker, c. 1 km east of Lake Kessijarvi, on the
Inari Plain formed from glaciofluvial material (Johansson 1988; Derone 1993; Johansson,
Kujansuu 1995) that accumulated at the time of the deglaciation some 7200 years BP
(Sepponen 1985). The vegetation here is of Cladonio-Pinetum boreale dry coniferous forest,
wherein 96% of the trees in the stand are Scots pines (Sepponen 1985).
Southern Lapland
Profile 3 - Oulanka (Finland); podzolic soil.
A pit was dug in sandy cover on scoured ground moraine showing clear traces of aeolic
processes (Koutaniemi 1979, 1981, 1984, 1987; Winkelmolen, Koutaniemi 1986).
Deglaciation proceeded here from the Pre-boreal period 9300-9500 years BP, through to the
Atlantic Period 7800 years BP (Koutaniemi et al., 1988). The area is overgrown by fresh pine
forest that Euroli et al. (1991) have assigned to the Calamagrostio lapponicae-Pinetum
association, cf. the Empetro-Pinetum fenoscandicum as recognised by Matuszkiewicz et al.
(1994b), but showing considerable analogies with the community of fresh pine forest of the
Geranium-Myrtillus type when it comes to the Finnish classification (Soyrinki et al., 1977).
Profile 4 - Tennila (Finland); podzolic soil.
A pit was dug on a denuded esker showing signs of cryoturbation and deflation (Van Vliet-
Lamoe et al. 1993). The landform in question arose in the Eoholocene, while aeolic processes
developed in the Mesoholocene (Seppala 1995). Vegetation is of the Geranium-Myrtillus type
of fresh pine forest community (Sepponen et al., 1982).
Ostrobothnia
Western Ostrobothnia
Profile 5 - Muhos (Finland); podzolic soil.
This extensive coastal plain (around 25 km from the Gulf of Bothnia shoreline) comprises a
series of coastal terraces elevated by isostatic processes (Jauhiainen 1973). The area including
the soil pit was raised around 5800-6000 years BP (Pietilainen 1999), the pit itself being dug
into glaciofluvial material accumulated during the Atlantic Period, and subsequently subject
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to aeolic processes (Aartolahti 1973, Gibbard 1973). The plant community is dry Cladonio-
Pinetum boreale3 pine forest.
Finnish Lakelands
Hamme
Profile 6 - Luopioinen (Finland); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material on an esker (Wisniewski 1973). The landform in
question arose at the time of the Eoholocene deglaciation and was overlain upon earlier
accumulation forms of bottom moraine and drumlins (Gluckert 1973; Rajakorpi 1984). The
profile was obtained around 4 km south of Luopioinen. The local plant community is of the
Empetro-Pinetum fenoscandicum association (Matuszkiewicz et al., 1994a), corresponding in
the Finnish classification with the Calluna form of the fresh pine forest habitat type
(Heikkinen 1991).
Profile 7 - Lammi (Finland); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in the glaciofluvial material forming one of the Eoholocene eskers in the
Hamme region (Wisniewski 1973), ca. 2 km south-west of Tuulos (Degorski 1994a).
Vegetation here is of the Empetro-Pinetum fenoscandicum association (Matuszkiewicz et al,
1994a), as corresponding with the Calluna form of the Finnish classification's fresh pine
forest habitat (Heikkinen 1991).
Profile 8 - Hattula (Finland); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material of the Hattula esker, located ca. 5 km east of the
locality of the same name, this having arisen in the marginal zone of the Hameenkangas ice
lobe, during the Eoholocene (Rajakorpi 1984). The vegetation comprises a Scots pine forest
of the mixed/coniferous forest association Serratulo-Pinetum (Matuszkiewicz et al, 1994a).
Under the Finnish classification this is the Vaccinium form of the fresh pine forest habitat,
albeit with a considerable participation of Calamagrostis arundinacea and Galium boreale in
the herb-layer vegetation (Hekkinen 1991).
! Phytosociological diagnosis of research sites made after Roo-Zielinska and Solon (1997, 1998).
10
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Profile 9 - Vitsiola (Finland); rusty-podzolic soil
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material associated genetically with the accumulation of
sediment as the Hameenkangas lobe retreated in Eoholocene times (Rajakorpi 1984). This is
ca. 10 km east of Hameenlinn, and supports a pine forest within the Serratulo-Pinetum kind of
mixed/coniferous forest vegetation (Matuszkiewicz et al, 1994a). In Finnish terms it
represents the Vaccinium form of the fresh pine forest habitat, again with considerable
participation of Calamagrostis arundinacea and Galium boreale in the herb layer (Heikkinen
1991).
Karelian Lakeland
Profile 10 - Punkaharju (Finland); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material, associated in terms of its sedimentation with the
deglaciation processes ongoing in the marginal zone of the ice-sheet lobe from the last phase
of the Vistulian Glaciation, ca. 10,600 years BP (Kontturi 1984). The vegetation is of dry
Cladonio-Pinetum boreale pine forest (Roo-Zielinska, Solon 1997), classified in Finnish
terms as the Myrtillus form of pine forest (Tonteri et al., 1990).
Eastern Baltic Coastland
Estonian Lowland
Profile 11 - Tipu (Estonia); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in superficially-windblown glaciofluvial material of the Parnava pro-glacial
channel, ca. 15 km east of Tipu village. The sediments in question link up with the
accumulation taking place in the Late Pleistocene ca. 12,500 years BP (Liivrand 1984). The
vegetation comprises the typical form of the fresh pine forest Vaccinio-Pinetum boreale.
Eastern Baltic Lakelands
Kurzema (Courland) Lakeland
Profile 12 - Jaunjelgava (Latvia); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material of the Daugava proglacial channel, some 4 km south
of today's river channel. These sediments are associated with the accumulation that took place
here in the period of Late Vistulian deglaciation (Velichko et al., 1984). The vegetation is of
the sub-boreal variant to the typical form of Peucedano-Pinetum fresh pine forest.
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Lithuanian Lakeland
Profile 13 - Mincia (Lithuania); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug on an outwash plain north of Lake Utenas, where the sedimentation of
glaciofluvial material ceased around 14,000 years BP (Ceponiene, Sablevicius 1997). The
area is now overgrown with the sub-boreal variant of Peucedano-Pinetum fresh pine forest.
Profile 14 - Strazdai (Lithuania); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material close to a patch of ablation moraine, in the proximal
part of the outwash plain and in a deluvial area (Bauziene 1999). The processes of
accumulation of the sandy cover ceased around 14,000 years BP (Ceponiene, Sablevicius
1997). The vegetation is of the typical form of Querco roboris-Pinetum mixed/coniferous
forest.
Profile 15 - Plaska (Poland); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug to the east of Lake Plaska, in the glaciofluvial material of an outwash plain
that arose in the Poznan phase of the Vistulian Glaciation (Zurek 1991; Banaszuk 2001), i.e.
some 17,000-17,700 years BP (Kozarski 1995). The vegetation is of the sub-boreal variant of
Peucedano-Pinetum fresh pine forest in its typical form.
The Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus
North Podlosie Plain
Profile 16 - Browsk (Poland); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug on an accumulation plain formed from glaciofluvial material located on the
Bielska Plateau, albeit at the zone of contact between it and the valley of the Upper Narew.
This was part of the system of meltwater discharge during the period of ice-sheet deglaciation
of the Wkra phase to the Warta stadial of the Odra Glaciation (Mojski 1973; Banaszuk 1996),
the main phase of accumulation of material taking place around 140,000 years BP (Banaszuk
1996). The area now supports the sub-boreal variant of the typical form of Peucedano-
Pinetum fresh pine forest.
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Northern Podkarpacie
Sandomierz, Basin
Profile 17 - Jozefow (Poland); podzolic soil.
The pit is located on the Bilgoraj Plain, south-west of Jozefow, in the immediate vicinity of
the edge zone of the Roztocze Upland. The sandy plain on which the research was carried out
arose through the impact of slope processes taking place during the Vistulian. The sands cover
older sediments from the times of the San II Glaciation (Maruszczak, Wilgat 1956;
Buraczynski 1993; Maruszczak 2001). The vegetation present is Leucobryo-Pinetum fresh
pine forest in its typical form.
Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus
Western Pre-Polesie
Profile 18 - Baranavicy (Belarus); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug into glaciofluvial material on the Baranavicy Plain some 3 km east of the
Scara Valley and around 16 km south of Baranavicy. The accumulation of material took place
here during the deglaciation of the Soz ice sheet (Pietuchowa 1987), which corresponds with
the Warta stadial of the Odra Glaciation. The vegetation here is of mixed/pine forest Querco
roboris-Pinetum in its typical form.
Profile 19 - Krasna Slabada (Belarus); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material on the Slue Plain, ca. 10 km west of the Slue Valley
and around 5 km south of the locality of Krasna Slabada. Material accumulated here during
the deglaciation of the Soz ice sheet (Pietuchowa 1987), which corresponds with the Warta
stadial of the Odra Glaciation. The vegetation present here is the sub-boreal variant of
Peucedano-Pinetum sub-continental fresh pine forest.
Berezina-Desna Lowland
Eastern Pre-Polesie
Profile 20 - Salihorsk (Belarus); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material on the Central Berezina Plain, ca. 20 km south of
Staryja Darohi. Material accumulated here during the deglaciation of the Soz ice sheet
(Pietuchowa 1987), which corresponds with the Warta stadial of the Odra Glaciation. The
vegetation present is the sub-boreal variant of Peucedano-Pinetum sub-continental fresh pine
forest.
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Profile 21 - Bychau (Belarus); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material within the Middle Dniepr (Dnjapro) Valley, around
2 km west of the river channel and 20 km south of Bychau. Material accumulated here during
the deglaciation of the Soz ice sheet (Pietuchowa 1987), which corresponds with the Warta
stadial of the Odra Glaciation. The vegetation present is the typical form of Querco roboris-
Pinetum mixed/pine forest.
Profil 22 - Slawharad (Belarus); podzolic soil
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material on the Cacersk Plain, around 3 km south of the Soz
Valley and 4 km east of the locality of Slawharad (Slovgorod). The material in question
accumulated here in the course of the deglaciation of the Soz ice sheet (Pietuchowa 1987),
corresponding with the Warta Stadial of the Odra Glaciation. The vegetation present is the
sub-boreal variant of Peucedano-Pinetum sub-continental fresh pine forest.
Central Sub-Dnieper
Profil 23 - Chotimsk (Belarus); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in glaciofluvial material on the Orsa-Mahileu Plain, around 10 km south of
Chotimsk (Chocimsk). The main accumulation of geological material here took place in the
course of deglaciation of the Dniepr ice sheet (Pietuchowa 1987), corresponding in the Polish
classification to the pre-maximal and maximal stadials of the Odra Glaciation. The vegetation
here is of mixed/coniferous Querco roboris-Pinetum forest, in its typical form.
Profil 24 - Uzlogi (Belarus), podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in superficially-windblown glaciofluvial material accumulated in the course
of deglaciation of the Dniepr ice sheet (Pietuchowa 1987), corresponding in the Polish
classification to the pre-maximal and maximal stadials of the Odra Glaciation. The location is
some 2 km east of Uzlogi and 5 km south of the Besedz' Valley. The area supports a wetter
form of Peucedano-Pinetum fresh pine forest with Molinia caerulea.
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Western Baltic Lakelands
North Mecklenburg Lakeland
Profile 25 - Chrisdorf'(Germany); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in the glaciofluvial material of an outwash plain in the Kyritz-Ruppiner
Heide area, this arising in association with the Gardno Phase to the Vistulian Glaciation,
located ca. 4 km west of Chrisdorf village. The vegetation is of Leucobryo-Pinetum fresh pine
forest in the typical form.
Southern Baltic Lakelands
Toruii-Eberswald Proglacial Channel
Profile 26 -Namyslin (Poland); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug north of Namyslin on the higher, right-bank terrace of the Odra Valley ca. 4
km from its actual channel (in the Frelenwald Basin). The terrace mainly comprises
windblown glaciofluvial sands whose accumulation is associated with deglaciation of an ice
sheet lobe of the Chojna sub-phase to the Gardno Phase of the Vistulian Glaciation (Kozarski
1995). The area has the typical form of fresh Leucobryo-Pinetum pine forest.
Profile 27 - Goscim; rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug on a sandy glaciofluvial terrace extending within the lower Notec Valley and
representing part of the Torun-Eberswald Proglacial Channel, whose genesis was itself linked
with the Krajno-W^brzezno sub-phase of the Vistulian Glaciation, at the time of outflow of
meltwaters to the west (Sylwestrzak 1978; Kozarski 1995), i.e. ca. 16,800-17,000 years BP
(Kozarski 1995). The site is ca. 7 km west of the village of Goscim, the vegetation being the
typical form of Leucobryo-Pinetum fresh pine forest.
Profile 28 - Krucz (Poland); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug on a terrace built of glaciofluvial material, with clear traces of aeolian
processes, in the Warta's Oborniki Valley ca. 14 km north of Wronki. The sands in this area
accumulated as ice of the Chodziez sub-phase melted, ca. 17,700 years BP. The vegetation
here is fresh pine forest of the Leucobryo-Pinetum association in its wetter form with Molinia
caerulea.
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Profile 29 - Bobrowniki (Poland); podzolic soil.
The pit was located on the Bobrowniki Plain, itself part of the Torun Basin, on a terrace
formed from deglaciated glaciofluvial material from the full Vistulian (Wisniewski 1976) that
has been windblown superficially since that time. The vegetation is of Leucobryo-Pinetum
fresh pine forest in the typical form.
Chelmno-Dobrzyn Lakeland
Profile 30 - Skrwilno (Poland); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was established some 12 km east of Lipno on an outwash plain which arose in the
course of ice-sheet stagnation at the line of the moraine in the Dobrzyn area, during the
Poznan phase of the Vistulian (Dylikowa 1982), some 18,000-19,000 years BP (Kozarski
1995). The vegetation is of Querco roboris-Pinetum mixed/coniferous forest in its typical
form.
Central Polish Lowlands
North Mazovian Lowland
Profile 31 - Glinojeck (Poland); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug on the Raci^z Plain, which was mainly shaped when meltwaters flowed off in
the course of the Full Vistulian, as the ice sheet experienced stagnation on the Urszulewo
Plain, ca. 4 km east of today's village of Glinojeck. The vegetation here is typical of the
Querco roboris-Pinetum mixed/coniferous forest.
South Podlasie Lowland
Profile 32 - Ceranow (Poland); podzolic soil
The pit was dug on a plain terrace in the Bug Valley (specifically the Podlasie Gap), ca. 1 km
south of the river channel, in glaciofluvial material. In the period of deglaciation, which took
place here in the Eemian Interglacial, this was the track followed by meltwaters. The
vegetation today is a wetter form of Peucedano-Pinetum fresh pine forest with Molinia
caerulea.
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Central Mazovian Lowland
Profile 33 - Brok (Poland); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was fug on a sandy terrace in the Lower Bug Valley around 10 km west of Brok, in
superficial windblown glaciofluvial material. The vegetation there is the typical form of
Querco roboris-Pinetum mixed/pine forest.
South Mazovian Elevation
Profile 34 - NoweMiasto (Poland); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug on the flood terrace of the Pilica (Bialobrzeska) Valley. At the time of the
maximum extent of the Odra Glaciation's Warta Stadial, this served as a marginal valley
discharging meltwaters. The terrace is formed from wind-eroded glaciofluvial sands and
supports a vegetation of Leucobryo-Pinetum fresh pine forest.
Central Malopolska Upland
Przedborz Upland
Profile 35 - Miedzierza; podzolic soil.
The pit was dug to south of the Czarna Konecka Valley, on a sandy plain and in glaciofluvial
material accumulated at the time of the stadial of the Odra Glaciation maximum (Klimek
1966). The vegetation here is the typical form of Leucobryo-Pinetum fresh pine forest.
Silesian-Cracovian Upland
Krakow-Cz^stochowa Upland
Profile 36 - ZlotyPotok (Poland); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug on a sandy plain built of glaciofluvial sediments that accumulated during the
stadial of the maximum Odra Glaciation (Klimek 1966). It is on the boundary between the
Janow Plain and Lelow Threshold. The vegetation here is the typical form of
mixed/coniferous forest of the association Querco roboris-Pinetums.
Profil 37 - Klucze (Poland); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug in the Biala Przemsza Valley NE of Klucze, on a terrace of glaciofluvial
material accumulated during the stadial of the Odra Glaciation's maximum (Gilewska 1973).
Leucobryo-Pinetum fresh coniferous forest in the typical form is present here.
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Central Polish Lowlands
Silesian Lowland
Profile 38 - Tworog (Poland); podzolic soil.
The pit was dug ca. 4 km south of Mala Panwa (on the Opole Plain), in glaciofluvial material
accumulated during the stadial of the Odra Glaciation maximum (Klimek 1966). The
sediments are characterised by the presence of wind erosion at the surface, as well as by the
occurrence of various aeolian forms that Pernarowski (1968) is convinced originated in the
Vistulian during the Pomeranian Stadial. The typical form of Leucobryo-Pinetum fresh
coniferous forest grows here.
Profile 39 - Kuznia Raciborska (Poland); rusty-podzolic soil.
The pit was dug within the Raciborz Basin (around 6 km north of the village of Nedza), on the
fourth Odra accumulation terrace characterized by major aeolic transformation of
glaciofluvial material (Pernarowski 1968; Waga 1994). The vegetation here represents the
wetter form of Querco roboris-Pinetum molinietosum mixed/coniferous forest.
4. Methods
4.1. Methods of analysing pedogenic factors
The spatial differentiation between the study sites relative to pedogenic factors was
analysed with regard to climatic, hydrological and morpholithological conditions, as well as
plant cover. The analysis of contemporary climatic factors influencing the development of soil
cover first took into account the elements responsible for the shaping hygrothermal
relationships in the study areas. The type of weathering of lithological material, and indeed
the functioning of whole ecosystems, depends upon these relationships. The main
characteristics of the climate were characterised using information contained in relevant
syntheses (Seppala 1976; Chomicz 1977; Pakonen, Laine 1984; Gidrometeocentr 1987;
Wyszkowski 1987; Solantie 1990; Heino 1994), as well as the source data of the
meteorological services in Finland (years 1961-1999), Estonia (1945-1999), Latvia (1945-
1998), Lithuania (1925-1997), Belarus (1945-1997) and Poland (1951-1999)4. For the
purposes of creating an orthogonal set, data for the years 1950-1997 were used to provide the
basis for the adoption and application of procedures after Vogel-Daniels (1968) and Molga
(1980), as well as Puchalski and Prusinkiewicz (1990). The indices calculated were:
4 Data calculated on the basis of Monthly Agrometeorological Reviews (1951-1999), Institute for Meteorology
and Water Management, Warsaw (Instytut Meteorologii i Gospodarki Wodneji, Podle_na 61.01673 Warszawa)
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annual amplitude of temperature (Ar), the difference between the greatest and lowest
monthly mean air temperatures,
the de Martone index of climatic dryness (A): A = P / (t +10), (where P is total annual
precipitation in mm and t the mean annual air temperature),
- Sielaninov's hygrothermal index (H): H = (P x 10) / 2X (where P is as above and 2t - the
annual total for mean daily temperatures) (in Puchalski, etal, 1990),
the Conrad-Pollak index (K), assessing the degree of oceanicity or continentality of
climate: K = {[1.7 x Ar /sin (cp + 10)] - 14}, (where Ar is annual amplitude in temperature
and cp the latitude).
The degree of development of the analysed soils was assessed using morphological
indices, account being taken of the sequences and thicknesses of genetic horizons, as well as
their coloration (Schaetzl, Mokma 1988; Barett, Schaetzl 1992; Bain et al, 1993), and their
chronosequences (Prusinkiewicz and Noryskiewicz 1966; Jauhiainen 1973; Vreeken 1975;
Kowalkowski 1988; Bain et al. 1993). Later stages of the work make these subject to
verification using the results of chemical analyses of the degree of weathering of rocks
(Bednarek, Pokojska 1996; Lundstrom etal, 2000a).
The morpholithological conditions at the study sites were determined through research
by the author, in the course of multiple field trips made in the years 1989-2000.The structure
to the vegetation of forest sites in the research area as a whole was evaluated using
phytosociological releves produced directly in the study areas - Matuszkiewicz et al, (1994a
and b); Roo-Zielinskaand Solon (1997, 1998).
4.2. Research methods in soil science
Soil material was taken in samples mixed for each genetic horizon of the soils from 10
points at each of the 39 study sites identified for detailed analysis. The proposed solutions to
the theoretical problems set by the present study required determinations of a series of soil
characteristics and properties. The following features and properties were in fact determined
on the basis of the procedures described.
Morphological features
thickness of soil horizons, the arithmetic mean of 50 measurements, with classification of
pedons following the system of soil systematics in force and applied in Poland (SGP
1989);
coloration of soils from Munsell (1971).
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The soil substratum
mineral composition for four fractions corresponding with grain sizes in the ranges 0.5-0.8
mm, 0.3-0.5 mm, 0.2-0.3 mm and 0.06-02 mm. The light fraction was studied under a
binocular microscope. In the light of the difficulties with the"dry" defractionation of some
coalesced soil samples, powdered preparations were also studied in immersion under a
polarized-light microscope. Heavy minerals were distinguished in bromoform in the 0.06-
0.2 mm fraction. The totals for resistant, moderately resistant and non-resistant minerals
were calculated from profiles 1, 3, 7, 11, 15, 16, 20, 24, 26, 29, 31, 35 and 39;
the abrasion of prepared quartz grains of diameter 0.5-1 mm using the mechanical
graniformometric method of Krygowski (1964), the results serving in the calculation of
selected further indices, i.e. the grain abrasion index (Wo) and index of non-homogeneity
(Nm);
soil grain-size distribution, by sieving as well as on the basis of the aerometric method
from Bouyoucos, as modified by Casagrande and Proszynski (in Dobrzaski and Uziak,
1972). Material was assigned to granulometric groups and fractions in line with
determinations from the Polish Soil Science Society, the results serving in the calculation
of selected further granulometric indices, i.e. mean grain diameter (GSS), standard
deviation (GSO), the co-factor of asymmetry, i.e. skewness (GSK) and graphic curtosis
(GSP), after Folk and Ward (1957). The calculations were carried out using version 2.0 of
the Analiza uziarnienia ("Grain Analysis") computer program (Prusinkiewicz 1993).
Physical properties of soils
bulk density (BD) in samples of undisturbed structure collected into 100 cm3 steel rings in
the case of the mineral horizons and 10 cm3 in the case of the organic horizons;
real specific gravity (RSG) determined picnometrically;
moisture (W) determined using the drying and weighing method5;
field capacity (PPW) by the method from Kaczynski as modified by Krolowa;
maximal capillary capacity (KPW max) by the method from Kaczynski as modified by
Krolowa;
maximal hygroscopicity (MH) by Nikolaev's method.
Soil organic matter
fractional composition of the humus in the organic and humus horizons by extraction and
fractionation of humic compounds after Duchaufour and Jacquin (1966); with a division
5 Soil moisture was determined on the basis of 10 measurements made in months within the warm (April-
September) half of years 1995-1998.
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into the light (free) fraction and heavy (bound) fraction via decanting with a solution of
sodium pyrophosphate - using the method of Monnier and Ture (1962);
lactic dehydrogenase activity in organic and humus horizons after the model from Casidy
etal., (1964);
content of organic carbon (Cto) with Alten's Method in the organic horizon and with a
modified version of Tiurin's (1965) Method in the mineral horizons;
organic carbon following sodium pyrophosphate extraction (Cp) using a SHIMADZU
automatic carbon analyser;
bulk density of organic carbon (Dc) and carbon reserve (Me), using the methodology from
Liska and Westman (1995), where DC = Corg x BD corrected for the content of the skeletal
fraction (>lmm)6, while Me = 1m2 X DC for each genetic horizon.
Chemical properties of soil
reaction (pHnzo and pHRci), determined potentiometrically;
total nitrogen (N), by a modified Kjeldahl method;
nitrate nitrogen (N-NOa) in 0.03 M acetic acid extract, using the distillation method in a
Bremner apparatus reducing nitrates using Devarda's alloy;
ammonium-nitrogen (N-NH4+), extracted in 0.03 M ethanoic acid by the method of MgO
distillation in a Bremner apparatus;
total phosphorus (P0), following extraction in 20 % HC1 by the calorimetric method using
ammonium molybdenate and applying tin (II) chloride as a reducing agent;
plant-available phosphorus (Pa), following extraction in NH4C1 and using a colorimetric
method;
exchangeable cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+), following extraction of samples in 1 M
ammonium ethanoate at pH 6.8, and the ASA method;
hydrolytic acidity (Hh) - by the Kappen method;
exchangeable aluminium (A13+) by the Sololov method;
exchangeable acidity (Hw) by the Sokolov method;
iron (Fep), aluminium (Alp) and carbon (Cp) associated in humus complexes with
sesquioxides, in a 0.1M extract of sodium pyrophosphate using the method from
McKeague (1981);
content of iron (Fez) extracted with 20 HC1 using the method of Pejwe and Rinkis, after
prior combustion of organic matter in a muffler furnace at 450°C (Rinkis 1963);
6 correction calculated on the basis of a series of measurements defining the mean content of the skeletal
fraction.
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amorphous iron (Fe0) and aluminium (A10), in an extract of Tamm's (oxalate) reagent
(VanReeuwijk 1995);
free iron (Fed) from a citrate-dithionite extraction following the method of Mehr and
Jackson (1960);
The results obtained were also used in the calculation of:
- total porosity (PT) - as (RSG - BD)/RSG;
- air capacity (ACA) - as PT - PPW;
total exchangeable base cations (S) - i.e. the sum of Ca++, Mg++, K+ and Na+;
capacity of the sorption complex (T) as Hh + S;
degree of saturation of soils with base cations (V) as S/T x 100%;
- index of soil elasticity (Ui), as £Ca2+Mg2+T * (Ulrich et al, 1984);
content of inorganic forms of iron (Feac) - as Fe0 - Fep;
content of inorganic forms of aluminium (Alac) - as A10 - Alp;
content of silicate forms of iron (Fegk) - as Fez - Fed;
content of non-silicate crystalline forms of iron (Fekr) - as Fed - Fe0.
4.3. Methods of analysis
The empirical results characterising different features of soil from the 39 study sites
(soil profiles) were used as a basis for the determination of similarities using cluster analysis.
The measure of non-similarity was Euclidean distance, while the grouping was achieved using
Ward's method (Hill 1973; Degorski 1999). Following that, each of the groups shown to
differ on a statistically significant basis was subject to calculations of selected parameters to
describe similarity of the studied variables (soil properties), i.e. the arithmetic mean (nm), the
scope of variability (nmin - nmax) and the standard deviation (d).
Linkages between the different pedogenic factors and spatial differences in soil
properties were in turn analysed multi-dimensionally and in terms of correlation (Sokal, Rohlf
1969). The relationships between geographical location and properties (as dependent
variables) were determined on the basis of correlation and regression analysis for two groups,
i.e. podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils, as well as two independent variables: latitude and
longitude. In the case of research along the W-E line, the latter analysis was performed for
factors located between 12°25' and 32°37' E, between 51° and 52° N. The N-S analysis in turn
extended from 50°28' to 69°44' N, between 25° and 28° E. A regression equation was
determined and correlation coefficients plus standard deviations were calculated. The optimal
regression model was taken from the set of linear, power, exponential and logarithmic
functions, the one adopted being that characterised by the minimum residual variance, as well
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as the lowest value for the standard deviation and the greatest value for the correlation
coefficient (Pielou 1984).
The soil characteristics not determined at all study sites (e.g. forms of iron and
aluminium) were also not considered in the analysis of soil geographical variability. However,
every effort was made to ensure that each of the groups obtained on the basis of cluster
analysis and characterising the soil of the given spatial unit was represented by data on forms
of iron and aluminium from a minimum of at least one profile. Mathematical analyses made
use of calculation sheets from Excel, Quattro Pro, as well as the Bio Diversity, Tytan and
Curve Expert statistical programs.
5. The time factor in the shaping of the studied soil cover
In the Quaternary Period, the area within which the research was carried out lay within
the range of impact of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet (Mojski 1985). The time of cessation of the
primary processes of the sedimentation of the geological material constituting the parent rock
of the given soils is subject to marked spatial differentiation. The youngest sediments are
those present in the north of Finland, associated with processes of accumulation taking place
in the Neo- and Mesoholocene (Aartolahti 1977; Heikkinen, Kurimo 1977, Karczewski 1975;
Koutaniemi 1987; Johansson 1995). This compares with an Eoholocene dating for sites in the
central and southern parts of that country (Aartolahti 1972; Zilliacus 1987). The oldest rocks
were in turn laid down in eastern Belarus, and are associated with deglaciation of the ice sheet
of the Dniepr Stadial (Pietuchowa 1987). Those in Poland - in the north-eastern area of the
Sandomierz Basin - are linked with the San II Glaciation (Maruszczak and Wilgat 1956). It
can thus be stated that the sediments in the area of Lapland and Ostrobothnia were
accumulated ca. 6-8,000 years BP (Hinneri 1974, 1975; Sepponen 1985; Koutaniemi et al,
1988; Pietilainen 1999), while other ages are ca. 10,600 years BP in the Karelian Lakeland
(Kontturi 1984), ca. 12,500 years BP in the Estonian Lowland (Liivrand 1984), ca. 14,000 BP
in Lithuanian Lakeland (Ceponiene and Sablevicius 1997), ca. 150,000 years BP in the
eastern parts of Berezina-Desna Lowland (Pietuchowa 1987), and ca. 400,000 BP in the
Sandomierz Basin (Mojski 1985).
While the role of time in the development of soil is widely known, the development of
palaeoenvironmental research allows for ever-more precise attempts at reconstructing the
course of pedogenic processes, and for their treatment as a continuum functioning in varying
space-time (Morozowa 1994; Kowalkowski 1994, 2001; Friedrich 1999; Manikowska 1999).
In the case of the soils existing now, the duration of development is denoted by the point of
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initiation of soil-creating processes (Kowalkowski 1988, 1993; Kowalkowski et al, 1994;
Manikowska 1999). It is the view of many soil scientists (Kopp 1965, 1970; Kowalkowski
1988, 2001; Manikowska 1999; Blume et al, 1998) that postglacial sites witnessed an
initiation of the evolutionary development of soils while the cryogenic post-glacial and
periglacial environment, conditions similar to Arctic tundra, was still in place. Their
contemporary properties are thus the result of a whole complex of pedogenic and
morphogenetic processes that have been ongoing until the present day. According to
Manikowska (1999), the Warta Stadial to the Odra Glaciation was followed by three main
pedogenic periods in Central Poland: the Eemian/Early Vistulian, the Central Plenivistulian
and the Late Vistulian/Holocene. It is possible to link these periods with the onset of
development of the studied soils in the central and southern parts of the region, albeit bearing
in mind the two phases of surface denudation and destruction of soil cover that took place in
the lower and upper Plenivistulian (Manikowska 1999). The development of soils should thus
be looked upon as a mono- or polygenetic process (involving different pedogenic processes)
taking place in a single phase or several phases, progressing under different habitat conditions
(Aleksandrowski 1983; Catt 1988; Kowalkowski 1988; Bednarek 1991).
However, the most important pedogenic phase in the Central European region came in
the Late Vistulian period, and in the Holocene (Kowalkowski 1990, 2001; Bednarek 1991;
Nowaczyk 1994; Manikowska 1999), during which today's soil cover developed. The lack of
accumulation of sediments characterizes today in Poland and ensured that the soil cover
present today made use of resources of old soils in its development, "coming together" with
them in a single profile (Manikowska 1999). The succession of plant communities,
particularly the appearance of forest vegetation, exerted a huge influence upon the direction of
pedogenic processes (Catt 1988). For example, the expansion of Scots pine in Central Europe
in the younger Dryas (11,900 years BP) and the pre-Boreal period (11,000 years BP) favored
the podzolization process (Friedrich et al. 1999), which intensified up to the Atlantic Period
(Manikowska 1999).
Some of the soils also arose in the period of the Late Vistulian and Holocene, from
redeposited material brought in via fluvial or aeolian transport. In the area studied, the aeolian
processes were also diverse in terms of the time of their depositiow as superficial layers of
sediments. Aeolian phenomena first began in Lapland an estimated 4800 years ago, and they
are thought to have persisted (via dune-formation) for 1300 years (Seppala 1995). In Poland,
this event took place in the oldest Dryas, while the main dune-forming processes occurred in
the older and younger Dryas, i.e. 12-10,200 years BP (Kozarski 1986; Bednarek 1991; Waga
24
-------
1994; Janowska 2001). In the east of Belarus, aeolian processes were already very advanced
in the oldest Dryas, some 14,000 years BP (Sanko 1987).
Data on the age of primary sedimentation of the substratum, assessment of the degree of
development and the concept of macrostructural areal generation of soils (Kowalkowski
1988) were all used to divide the pedons by the time of origin:
the Mesoholocene-Neoholocene; with sedimentation of soil material in the Mesoholocene
and the main phase of pedogenic processes in the Neoholocene (last 3000 years) - in the
case of the Lapland profiles (1 - 4),
the Holocene; with sedimentation of soil material in the Eoholocene and the main phase of
pedogenic processes in the Neoholocene - in the case of the Ostrobothnian and Finnish
Lakelands profiles (5 - 10),
the young-glacial and Holocene; with sedimentation of material in the Vistulian,
pedogenic initiation in the late glacial and the main phase of pedogenic processes in the
Neoholocene - as in the Baltic Coastland and Baltic Lakelands profiles (11 - 15 and 25 -
30);
the old-glacial and Holocene; with sedimentation of material in the period of older
glaciations, very much transformed in the Vistulian period and with Pleistocene pedogenic
initiation and a Holocene main pedogenic phase - as with the Northern Podkarpacie
profile (17), Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus (16, 18 and 19), Berezina-Desna Lowland
(20-24), the Central Polish Lowlands (31 - 34, 38 and 39), the Central Malopolska Upland
(35) and the Silesian-Cracovian Upland (36 and 37).
6. The geographical differentiation to pedogenic factors
6.1. Morpholithological conditions
The lithological material serving as the parent rock of soils is an important factor when
it comes to the diversity and the spatial and temporal variability of the soil populations on
Earth (Jenny 1980; Kowalkowski 2001). From the morphogenetic point of view, the study
sites at which soil pits were dug are characterised by relative homogeneity of the geological
material of the substratum - both in terms of sedimentation and lithology. This is because all
of the soils emerged on redeposited, polygenetic glaciofluvial formations whose accumulation
took place in the Pleistocene and Holocene (Kontturi 1984; Degorski 1998a). Because of the
considerable differences in geographical locations of the analysed profiles in terms of both
longitude and latitude, the covering lithological material has been and is subject to diversified
25
-------
processes of destruction (i.e. physical and chemical weathering) and transport that have
exerted an influence on textural properties.The degree of transformation of the primary
lithological material also results from the spatially-varied absolute age of the deglaciation (see
Section 5), which inter alia influenced the course and duration of periglacial processes, and
particularly cryogenic weathering in conditions of longlasting permafrost. While the southern
regions of the research area were free of this type of phenomenon as early as in the Late
Vistulian (Starkel 1977, 1986, 1988a and b, 1998; Kozarski 1986), the areas located to the
north remain within the scope of their impact to this day. Cryogenic phenomena favor the
emergence of profiled sequences of transformation (perstruction) that influence the properties
of the soil substratum, as has been noted in many regions of central and northern Europe
(Kopp 1965, 1970; Kowalkowski 1984, 2001; Degorski 1990; Blume etal., 1998).
Also influencing the transformation of the primary lithological material was the spatial
range of occurrence and intensity of transport of redeposited lithological material. For it was
upon these processes that there depended, inter alia, the degree of mechanical processing of
the primary material. The degree of abrasion of substratum grains, in turn, has an impact on,
among other things, the ion-exchange properties of soils (Catt 1985, 1987).
In the Plenivistulian, the old-glacial areas were subject to strong surface denudation
between periods of pedogenesis (Manikowska 1999). In turn, aeolian phenomena were
present in the Late Vistulian and Holocene (Prusinkiewicz 1969; Konecka-Betley 1983;
Bednarek 1991 and Waga 1994) - these also transforming the primary lithological material.
The diversified thermal-humidity conditions of the research area also influence the type
weathering ongoing within the soil (Degorski 1995a, 1998a), the breakdown of silicates and
aluminosilicates, and the rate at which alkaline components are washed through from the
surface layers of weathering waste rock (Yaalon 1982; Catt 1988; Bednarek and
Prusinkiewicz 1997 and Sandstrom 1997). In turn, the chemical composition of the residuum
affects the synthesis of secondary clay minerals, among which, in the conditions of the
Eurasian forest zone, there is an increase in the prevalence of illite as one moves from north to
south (Bednarek and Prusinkiewicz 1997).
The multiplicity of factors impacting a primary sedimented material that was relatively
uniform from a morphogenetic point of view ensured that a spatially diversified parent
material was established, ultimately giving rise to the present soil cover. In the north of the
study area, the lithological material that is young in sedimentary terms and less intensively
redeposited, is characterised by a lower degree of transformation in comparison with the old-
26
-------
glacial sediments that have been subject to a range of destructive processes and intensive
transport.
6.2. Climatic and aquatic conditions
Climate plays an exceptionally important role in soil-forming processes. It determines inter
alia the type of weathering or the movement of soil solutions within the profile (Jenny 1941;
Yaalon 1975; Catt 1988; Puchalski, Prusinkiewicz 1990 and Solantie 1992). From the point of
view of the development of podzolic soils, the most important elements of the climate include
air temperature and precipitation, and above all the inter-relationships between these two
elements, which shape the aquatic and thermal conditions of the habitat. The intensity of
climatic processes, as expressed in terms of basic climatic characteristics, has a major
differentiating effect in the study area. Mean annual air temperature ranges from -1°C in
northern Finland (profiles 1, 2 and 3) and 4°C in eastern Belarus (profiles 22, 23 and 24) to
8.5°C in Brandenburg (profile 25). Considerable spatial variability is also shown by such
thermal characteristics of the climate as annual amplitude in monthly mean values for air
temperature (Ar) and the K index for the degree of oceanicity or continentality after Conrad-
Pollak, with the difference that, from the point of view of continentality, the climatic
conditions of northern Finland and eastern Belarus are very similar (Table2).
27
-------
Table 2. Some climate characteristic of the research plot
locations. Ar - annual amplitude of mean monthly temperature,
A - the de Martone index of climatic dryness, H - Sielanin's
Hygrothermal index, K - the Conrad-Pollak index of the degree
of continentality
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Research plots
Kevo
Kessi
Oulanka
Tennila
Muhos
Luopioinen
Lammi
Hattula
Vitsiola
Punkaharju
Tipu
Jaunjelgava
Mincia
Strazdai
Ptaska
Browsk
Jozefow
Baranowicze
Krasna Swoboda
Soligorsk
Bychow
Stowgorod
Chotimsk
Uztogi
Chrisdorf
Namyslin
Goscim
Krucz
Bobrowniki
Skrwilno
Glinojeck
Ceranow
Brok
Miedzierza
Tworog
Nowe Miasto
Ztoty Potok
Klucze
Kuznia Raciborska
Ar
28.8
31.2
30.0
29.1
26.6
26.1
26.1
26.1
26.1
26.4
25.9
24.2
23.5
23.5
23.0
22.8
22.2
23.7
24.2
24.8
25.4
25.8
26.1
26.1
18.5
19.4
19.6
20.2
21.1
21.1
21.8
22.3
22.2
21.6
20.3
21.7
20.7
20.8
20.0
A
51.1
53.7
56.5
48.2
42.9
50.3
50.3
50.3
50.3
43.6
48.2
44.2
39.7
39.7
36.1
35.5
34.7
40.7
40.7
40.6
41.1
41.9
42.9
42.9
29.6
28.2
31.0
30.9
30.1
31.0
30.1
30.8
32.4
40.9
41.1
32.4
39.4
48.1
38.5
H
2.61
3.12
3.24
2.37
1.87
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.80
1.75
2.16
1.75
1.74
1.74
1.57
1.52
1.49
1.60
1.60
1.60
1.75
1.76
1.79
1.79
1.30
1.27
1.32
1.28
1.30
1.31
1.28
1.33
1.32
1.63
1.70
1.36
1.66
2.01
1.75
K
36.00
40.40
38.36
37.17
33.30
32.80
32.80
32.80
32.80
33.00
33.40
30.86
29.95
29.95
29.54
29.55
29.38
31.22
32.17
33.32
34.46
35.10
35.80
35.80
21.30
23.18
23.44
24.58
26.30
26.30
27.64
28.72
28.79
27.94
25.81
28.02
26.33
26.79
25.22
28
-------
A second important climatic factor impacting the development of soil cover is air
humidity. Like thermal relations, humidity is also characterised by marked differentiation
across the study area. It is clear from curves for monthly precipitation totals and mean
monthly air temperatures depicted on Walter climatic diagrams that the study area as a whole
has very favorable hygrothermal conditions from the point of view of the development of
podzolic soils. This is visible in the similar shape of the curves, typical for a humid climate
(Fig. 3).
a
b
Figure 3. Climatic diagrams according to Walter, (a - distribution curve for the monthly sum of
precipitation, b — distribution curve for the mean monthly temperature)
29
-------
The moist nature of the climate is also confirmed by Sielanin hygrothermal indices
determined for the warm
(April-October) half of
the year, albeit with
their values ranging
from 1.28-1.30 in the
area of central Poland
through to 3.24 in north-
eastern Finland (Fig. 4).
This points to the
prevalence of
precipitation over
evapotranspiration, and
thus to the highly moist
state of habitat in both
Fig. 4. Values of Sielaninov index determined for warmer part of the year (IV-X)
as a function of geographical position the north and south of
the studied area. In addition, the northern regions are characterised by the longest persistence
of snow cover - ca. 200-280 days a year on average (Dankers et al, 2001), as well as the
shortest growing season - lasting between 110 and 120 days (Solantie 1990). During the short
warm period ablation takes place, as well as as a very intensive washing through of the soil
profile due to both meltwaters and precipitation. The thermal and humidity-related relations
prevailing in the entire study area ensure that all of the soils feature an endopercolative type
of water economy.
6.3. Plant communities
Vegetation plays one of the more important in the contemporary mosaic character of
soils (Crocker 1952; Ugolini et al., 1981; Puchalski, Prusinkiewicz 1990; Oksanen, Virtanen
1995 and Degorski 1996, ZOOlb).
Almost all the forest communities occurring at study sites (except for those in parts of
northern Europe) are representative of the Dicrano-Pinion alliance. It was possible to identify
two associations of fresh pine forest, i.e. Leucobryo-Pinetum, which is characteristic for the
western regions of the study area, and Peucedano-Pinetum, which occurs in eastern parts
thereof. As was noted in the introduction, the most northerly study sites (profiles 1 and 2) -
30
-------
from the northern-boreal vegetation zone (Harriet-Ahti 1981) - are occupied by a community
of the Phyllodoco-Vaccinion alliance (Bohn etal., 1996).
In the north there are four study sites (numbers 1, 2, 5 and 10) which support a
community of dry coniferous forest of the association Cladonio-Pinetum boreale. Though
characteristic of what are locally the driest habitats, this community is characterised by high
humidity. The presence/absence of this community is due to a biocoenotic factor, grazing of
the herb layer by herds of reindeer (Matuszkiewicz et al., 1994 b). All of the aforementioned
communities of Scots pine forest overgrow the analysed podzolic soils.
The mixed coniferous forest community Querco roboris-Pinetum (Roo-Zielinska,
Solon 1997, 1998) and the Serratulo-Pinetum (Matuszkiewicz et al., I99^a)/Dicrano-Pinion
alliance are associated with the occurrence of rusty-podzolic soils, except in three cases.
These exceptions were noted beneath a vegetation of Leucobryo-Pinetum fresh pine forest,
two growing on habitats for acid beech forest of the alliance Luzulo-Fagion (profiles 25, 27)
and one on mixed/coniferous forest Querco roboris-Pinetum (profile 37) - Roo-Zielinska and
Solon (1998). The dominant species of the tree layer in all the plant communities occupying
the analysed soils is Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). In fact this is the only component in most of
the forests (Roo-Zielinska and Solon 1997, 1998).
Among the species occurring in the herb layer at almost all of the study sites are cowberry
Vaccinium vitis-idea (except in the westernmost areas - profiles 25 and 26) and heather,
Calluna vulgaris, which is absent from the northernmost study site (profile 1). Bilberry,
Vaccinium myrtillus, is a species present at more than 90% of the study sites, being absent
from just four (profiles 24, 26, 28 and 29).
The plant species richness of the herb layer increases from west to east (Nieppola and
Carleton 1991; Roo-Zielinska and Solon 1998), as well as in Lapland moving towards
Lithuania. However, species richness becomes lower further to the south of Poland (Solon and
Roo-Zielinska 2001). The eastern part of the study area stands out in its maximally diverse
herb layer, and possesses better habitat conditions for the development of the plant
communities under discussion than do areas located in the marginal range of occurrence of
Scots pine forests. It is worth emphasising that the forests of the most natural character are
those in northern Europe.Those in the eastern part of the continent are now mostly stands of
the third or second generation following earlier harvests (Degorski 1998a, Khotko 1998).
31
-------
7. A characterisation of selected soil properties and their spatial variability
7.1. Morphological features
Podzolic soils
Podzolic soils (profiles 1-7, 10-13, 15-17, 19, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29, 32, 35 and 38)
occur within the study area in association with the territorial range of Scots pine forests. They
are characterised by the following sequence of clearly-developed genetic horizons, i.e.: O -
AEes - Ees - Bh - Bfe - C or O - A - Ees - Bh - Bfe - C, each of different thicknesses
depending on geographical location (Fig. 5).
E
u
100 J-
Figure 5. Thickness of genetic horizons in the studied podzolic soils
The mor-type humus, with the organic horizon assigned to three (litter, fermentative
and epihumus) possible sub-horizons (Ol, Of and Oh respectively) is represented by two sub-
types; the drosomor occurring in most of the studied profiles and the hygromor humus which
is characteristic for northern Finland. The thickness of the organic horizon ranges from 4.4 cm
in southern Poland (profile 17)7 to 9.1cm in northern Finland (profile 1), while its spatial
variability is associated with both longitude and latitude. This relationship is best described by
regression models, inasuch as thicknesses are clearly greater at sites either further to the east
or further to the north (Fig. 6).
7 The values concerning the thickness of genetic horizons as given for each soil are the arithmetic means of 30
measurements made at the given study site.
32
-------
E
o
TC"|
O
N
5.5
O
CD
S. 4.5
o
4.0
O
.N
O
O
M—
O
(/)
(/)
CD
O
12.5 15.5 18.5 21.5 24.5 27.5 30.5 33.5
longitude (E)
3.5
48.0 51.0 54.0
66.0 69.0
57.0 60.0 63.0
latitude (N)
Figure. 6. Models of regression for the thickness of organic horizons (O) in podzolic soils
on geographical coordinates, (a - longitude, Y = 2.792 + 0.101 x, r = 0.951; b -latitude, Y =
40 + 1.38x +0.013x2, r = 0. 981)
Similarity analysis shows that the spatial difference in the thickness of the organic
horizon is divided into four significantly different groups. The first comprises the soils of
northern Finland (profiles 1 and 2), in which the mean thickness of the ectohumus is 9.0 cm (d
= 0.2 cm). The next group encompasses three profiles in southern Lapland (numbers 3, 4 and
5), in which the mean thickness of the O horizon is 7.0 cm (d = 0.4 cm). A further group
includes soils of south-eastern Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and central and southern
Poland (profiles 10, 11,12, 19, 20, 22, 24, 29, 32 and 38), and is characterised by a mean
thickness of the organic horizon of 5.6 cm (d = 0.3 cm). The thinnest organic horizon is in
southern Finland, west-central and eastern Poland (profiles 6, 7, 13, 15, 16, 17, 26, 28 and
35).
33
-------
14
12
10
e s
16
I \
2
'
'
ir
t f
r \
' I
t
f*
• O - • ' A or AEes
Figure 7. Thickness of organic and humus horizons in studied podzolic soils.
The humus (A) horizon is also characterised by spatial differences in thickness. In north
Finland (profiles 1 and 2), it is only 1.2 cm (d = 0.6 cm), while in the central and southern
parts of that country (profiles 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 10) it is 4.5 cm (d = 0.1 cm), and in other areas
10.4 cm (d = 2.4 cm). While the spatial variability in thickness of the humus horizon is
characterised by a clear trend towards increase in the southerly and easterly directions, the
difference within groups is sufficient to ensure that dependence on geographical location is of
limited statistical significance (Fig. 7). The humus horizon is brown-grey in color (10YR 4/1),
or beige-grey (7.SYR 4/1) where there are distinct traces of the podzolization process in the
humus horizon.
The eluvial horizon, with its single-grain structure, is diversified in terms of thickness.
It ranges from 3 cm in northern Finland (profile 1) to more than 38 cm in eastern Belarus
(profile 24). While there is a tendency for the Fes horizon to be thicker with increasing
latitude, it is difficult to determine if regional groups differ in a statistically significant manner
because the complex of factors impacting the rates and course of the podzolization processes.
The color of this horizon also differs, from grey-white (10 YR 7/1 - 5/1) and ash-grey (10YR
4/1) through to light ash (7.5YR 6/1 - 5/2), mainly in relation to local biotic conditions, inter
alia the thickness of the O horizon, as well as the extent and rate of decay of the roots of herb-
layer plants.
34
-------
The enrichment horizon has developed beneath the eluvial horizon at depths of
between 5 and 40 cm below the surface of the mineral part of the soil. The smallest distances
between this and the surface of the mineral part of the soil found in the two profiles from
northern Lapland. Profile 1 has a distance of 5 cm and profile 2 a distance of around 7.5 cm.
According to criteria from WRB (1998), these soils do not meet the conditions for the
minimum distance, 10 cm in the case of podzolic soils. Nevertheless, the configuration of
genetic horizons is in line with the profile structure of this type of soil, while the transition
point between the eluvial and illuvial horizons is sharp. These two horizons serve as a
diagnostic spodic horizon and are divided morphologically into two sub-horizons: Bh - with
the illuvial accumulation of organic matter and Bfe - with the illuvial accumulation of
aluminium and iron.
The Bh sub-horizon is usually 6 - 10 cm thick, only reaching markedly greater
thicknesses in eastern Poland and in Belarus (reaching 34 cm at profile 19). The thickness
criterion from the WRB (1998) is thus met, since this defines the minimum value for the Bh
sub-horizon of podzolic soils as 2.5 cm. The color in the pedons analysed is brownish-red,
differing in lightness and degree of saturation. The hue ranging from 2.5YR-10YR is
characterised by the greatest saturation of red in any of the soil mineral horizons, and this is
strongest in the northern regions of Europe (at 2.5 YR). The paleness value for fresh samples
ranges from 3-5 (most often 4), while the saturation with color (chroma) is in the range 2 to
6, falling to a value lower than for any other genetic horizons located below the Bh sub-
horizon.
The Bfe sub-horizon attains thicknesses of between 6.5 and 9 cm in northern Finland
(profiles 1-3), 10 - 25 cm in the southern parts of that country and 20-40 cm in the remaining
area. It is most often orange-brown in color, with hues in the range 7.5 YR-10YR, a value of 5
and a chroma of 6. This sub-horizon is characterised by a much more limited spatial
differentiation where changes in color parameters are concerned. The transition from the
illuvial horizon to that of the parent rock is gentle in most of the profiles.The overall thickness
of the solum8 of podzolic soils is characterised by the higher values noted for sites
increasingly far to the south or east. The parameters for the obtained linear regression (Y = a
+ bx) are as presented in Table 3
8 The solum is understood as the mineral part of the soil profile, i.e. the A, E and B horizons, in line with the
definition after Prusinkiewicz (1976, p. 137).
35
-------
Table 3. Parameters to the regression and correlation coefficient determined
for thickness of mineral horizons of podzolic soils in relation to its
geographical location.
Independent variable
longitude
latitude
Parameters to the regression
a
40.491
200.179
b
1.191
-2.581
Correlation coefficient
r
0,930
0.983
Rusty-podzolic soils
The rusty-podzolic soils (profiles 8, 9, 14, 18, 21, 23, 25, 27, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37 and
39) occur in the study area from central Finland to its south and east and are associated with
the range of mixed/coniferous forests. The soils in question are characterised by the following
sequence of genetic horizons: O - AEes - BfeBv - Bv - C or O - AEes - BfeBv - Bv - BvC -
C.
Over most of the study area, the drosomor-type humus comprises the litter (Ol),
fermentative (Of) and epihumic (Oh) sub-horizons of the organic horizons. However, in the
southern part there is drosomoder/mor-type humus with two ectohumus sub-horizons: litter
(Ol) and fermentative (Of). The weakly-humified Ol sub-horizon and strongly-humified Oh
horizons are characterised by limited thickness (ca. 0.5 cm), while the fermentative sub-
horizon represents ca. 75% of the total thickness of the overlying humus horizon. The mean
thickness of the O horizon in all of the studied soils is 4.2 cm (d = 0.6 cm). Notwithstanding
the limited differences to these values, the differentiation does reflect geographical variation,
with a trend towards increased thickness in a northerly or easterly direction. In the case of
latitude the relationship is a linear one (Y = -3.749 + 0.135x; r = 0.939), while that for
longitude is described by a second-order polynomial (Y = 6.802 - 0.31x + O.OOSx2, r = 0.772).
The humus (A) horizon - very often with morphological traces of the leaching of iron
and aluminium - is classified as an Aees humus-eluvial horizon, with a dark-grey color
(10YR 4/1-4/2 in the wet state), with paler patches (10YR 5/1 in the wet state). Its thickness
varies from 7 to 17 cm, the average for all of the profiles is 12.2 cm (d = 2.8 cm). The
variation in the thickness of this horizon does not reveal any spatial patterns.
The transition from the AE horizon to the diagnostic sideric horizon is usually very
gentle, while the thickness of the horizon varies from 34 to 61 cm (mean 55.1 cm; d = 9.8). In
the north, this horizon may be only 36 cm as compared with a maximum in southern Poland
of 61 cm. However, on account of the limited differentiation of its thickness over most of the
36
-------
studied regions, no statistically-significant linkage with geographical location could be
reported.
The diagnostic sideric horizon of all the studied profiles comprised two genetic
horizons: a rusty-illuvial BfeBv horizon and a rusty Bv horizon. The first of these is darker
(10YR 5/4 - 5/6 in the wet state), and with a mean thickness of 19.1 cm (d = 3.3). The Bv
horizon in turn has a mean thickness of 26.2 cm (d = 6.5 cm), and is characterised most
frequently by a color of 10 YR 6/4 (in the fresh state). The color of the BfeBv and Bv
horizons is almost identical throughout the study area. The transition from the Bv horizon to
that of the parent rock C was a sharp one in 8 profiles, but a gentle one proceeding via a
transitional BvC horizon in the remaining cases. The thickness of the solum of rusty-podzolic
soils shows statistically significant linkage with geographical location, as characterised by
greater values at sites further south or east. Parameters to the regression model for this
relationship are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Parameters to the regression and correlation coefficient
determined for thickness of mineral horizons of rusty-podzolic soil in
relation to its geographical location.
Independent variable
longitude
latitude
Parameters to the regression
a
-14559
2233.387
b
6,517
-73.885
c
-0.123
0.623
Correlation coefficient
r
0.832
0.996
7.2. Mineral material
7.2.1. Mineral composition
The podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils are mainly built from poor quartz sands. The
quartz content of the parent rock ranges from ca. 50% in the soils of northern Finland to 98%
in those of eastern Belarus. Feldspars account for up to 10+% of the mineral composition
(maximally 15%), while the share of heavy minerals does not exceed 10% (Table 5). In the
Finnish profiles this in large measure corresponds with the petrographic composition of the
crystalline rocks of Fennoscandia (Lahtinen 1994; Simonen 1994). Since the analysis
accounted for the organic components and these account for a major percentage of samples'
overall composition in Northern Europe, the effect is to lower the absolute content of quartz
(Table 5).
Characteristic of the spatial variation in mineral composition is the fact that the heavy
(0.06-0.2 mm) fractions of the soils developed on the older sediments linked with the Odra
37
-------
Table 5. Mineral composition of light fraction 0,5 - 0,8 mm (in weight % ), in some soil
profiles.
No.
ipofile
1
3
7
11
15
16
26
29
31
35
39
20
24
Soil
type
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
rp
P
IP
P
P
Genetic
horizon
AEes
c
AEes
C
AEes
c
AEes
c
AEes
c
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
c
AEes
c
AEes
c
AEes
c
Quartz,
59
69
43
74
31
77
20
78
10
85
80
89
25
44
19
95
50
70
1
85
5
84
84
93
12
98
Feldspars
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
10
5
0
2
15
10
+
0
1
2
2
3
1
+
Slivers
of rocks
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
+
4
0
2
18
15
0
4
2
2
1
1
4-
2
Micas
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
0
0
1
1
0
0
15
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Carponates
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Iron-
humus
aggregates
4
2
8
1
12
1
24
2
43
1
2
0
12
4
10
+
0
-t-
0
0
0
0
3
1
+
0
Organic
components
and parts
of plants
35
27
48
23
56
20
54
15
45
10
17
10
50
33
70
1
0
1
98
10
92
10
10
0
85
0
Antropogenic
components
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
+
0
0
0
1
0
Amphipoles
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
0
1
0
0
2
8
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
+
2
1
0
Pyroxynes
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
p -podzolic soils,rp - rusty-podzolic soils
and San II Glaciations. They have greater contents of quartz and minerals resistant to
exogenous factors (like granite and zirconium) and, simultaneously, lower contents of
feldspars and non-resistant minerals (mainly amphiboles) (Fig. 8). The relationships reported
may also result from the initial non-uniformity of the proportions of different minerals in
temporally-diversified sedimentation cycles, as well as from the duration of processes of
weathering and erosion of lithological material. It is possible to speculate that, as both fluvial
and aeolian transport was taking place (in the period of the multiple redeposition of geological
material), material less resistant to these processes (pyroxenes and amphiboles) were in part
lost, leading to a relative enrichment in resistant minerals.
38
-------
00 --
g? 90--
^3 80--
S 70"
^ 60 --
I 5°"
CO
OJ 40--
i
O 30--
Q-H
O 20 --
S
^ 10--
I 0-
160
-- 140
O
CO
O
O
0_
CO
-t—t
-a
OJ
CO
CO
11 15 16 29 26 31 39 20 35 24
number of research plot
Figure 8. Age of soil sediments BP and content of non-resistant minerals in
the heavy fraction (0.06 - 0.2 mm) on the parent rock of some soil profiles
(a - proportional share of non-resistant minerals in heavy fraction
(0.06 - 0.2 mm), b - age of sediments in 000's of years BP determined by C
dating according data from other papers)
14
The values of the index for content of non-resistant minerals range from several percent in
soils in the Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus and Berezina-Desna Lowland to more than 85% in
the case of the northern Finnish soils, while the ratios of resistant to non-resistant materials
are in the range 0.006 to 1.3 respectively (Table 6, Appendix B).
The geographical variation in the portion of non-resistant minerals in the overall
content of heavy minerals is very clearly marked in both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils.
This relationship is best described by a linear regression model of longitude (Y = 95.959 -
2.93x), while the linear relationship with latitude is depicted using a second-order polynomial
(Y = -647.128 + 21.12x + O.lSlx2) - (Fig. 9, below).
Mineral content of soil impacted by exogenous factors can be divided into four
statistically-significant regions. These are related to the age of sedimentation. The first group
encompasses Finnish profiles associated with accumulation in the late Vistulian and
Holocene, while a second comprises soils developed in material of the Vistulian Glaciation,
i.e. those in today's Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and northern Poland. A third group is linked
39
-------
V92;l
01
08
E
|7°;
fU;
0
o48
|37j
1.2 14.2 18.2 22.2 26.2
longitude (E)
30.2
34.2
6 48.0 51.0 54.0 57.0 60.0 63.0 66.0 69.0
latitude (N)
Figure 9. Some models of regression for the content of non-resistant minerals (MN)
related to geographical coordinates.
a - MN in podzolic-rusty soils on longitude Y = 0.959 - 2.93x; r = 0.983;
b - MN in podzolic soils on latitude Y = -647.128 + 21.12x - O.lSlx2; r = 0.994
with soils developed in sediments of the Warta (Soz) stadial of the Odra (Dniepr) Glaciation,
i.e. the profiles from central Poland and western Belarus. Finally, the fourth group comprises
soils that arose on the oldest material from the Odra (Dniepr) Glaciation, in southern Poland
and eastern Belarus (Fig. 10).
The data obtained for contents of non-resistant minerals do not depart from those in
earlier research carried out in
Poland in variously-aged soils
developed in glaciofluvial
sands shaped periglacially
(Turnau- Morawska 1955;
Degorski 1990 and Bednarek
1991).
7.2.2. Granulometric
composition
Percentage shares of
different grain classes in the
^? ,-_
A
^~
I II III IV
geographical groups
mineral material of soils
determine many of their
physical and chemical
properties (Krolikowski et al,
1968; Prusinkiewicz, Konys
and Kwiatkowska 1994). In spite of the morphological differences among the sites studied, all
Figure. 10. Mean value and standard deviation obtained
for the content of non-resistant minerals in statistical
significance different group (group I - profiles: 1,3, 7; II -
profiles: 11, 15, 16, 26, 29; III-profiles: 20, 31, 35, 39;
IV- profile 24)
40
-------
the forms (eskers, outwash plains, accumulation plains and valley terraces) are associated
genetically with glaciofluvial or fluvial processes. This is reflected in the similar shares of
fractions in the fine earth parts of the studied soils, which is to say the dominance of the sandy
fraction. In turn, the greatest differences in granular composition are in respect to the contents
of skeletal parts.
A majority of the analysed geological formations sampled from their different genetic
horizons are classified as loose sands (Table 7). What differences are observable in the
granulometric compositions of soil substrata therefore result from: the lithological properties
thereof, weathering processes (particularly those induced by frosts), processes shaping the
relief of the studied site and pedogenic processes.The terraces of proglacial channels and
rivers valleys are built of sands displaying a marked degree of sorting, as well as limited
skeletal content (profiles 29 and 39), while the glaciofluvial material of outwash-plain areas
and eskers is characterised by a greater share of grains of coarse sand and the marked
presence of a gravelly-stony fraction of diameters reaching several centimeters (Table 7)9.
This is particularly visible in material sampled in the north of Europe, where the content of
the gravelly-stony fraction (>1 cm) in some genetic horizons is more than 50% of mineral
material, while the dominant fraction of fine earth parts is coarse sand (up to 70% in the C
horizon of profile 1).
The superficial soil horizons, especially those developed in older geological material,
are characterised by minor increases in the shares of the clayey and dusty fractions within the
granulometric composition, this being a consequence of their intensive frost weathering, as
well as modelling by aeolian processes. During the Vistulian over central Poland, a period of
the intensified impact of this type of process on waste rock/soil cover took place between
25,000 and 12,000 years BP (Gozdzik 1991).
An enrichment of material in the fine dusty-clay fraction may be influenced not only
by frost weathering, but also by the phenomenon of corasion (Linde and Mycielska-
Dowgiallo 1980). The most intensive exogenous processes took place in the upper zone of
soils. The genetic horizons of the upper parts of certain soil profiles (e.g. nos. 11, 24, 26, 29
and 35) are also characterised by moderately good sorting, as manifested in a minimal (up to
5%) share for the skeletal fraction, as well as a very major content of the fractions of medium
and fine sands (up to 90%).
9 Documentation as regards granulometric composition in Poland is to be found in the studies Degorski (1994b,
1995b)
41
-------
Table 7. Soil grain-size distribution and granulometric indices determined for some
podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils.
No
profile
1
3
7
11
15
16
2O
26
31
35
39
2O
24
Genetic
horizon
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEos
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
Content of fractions in %
>1.O
mm
46.3
47 9
47.5
56.7
62.3
44.6
41.4
3O.1
24. 0
19.7
45.6
48.7
49.2
49.7
3.4
2.3
2.5
4.5
8.9
6.7
8.7
5.6
9.9
16.7
16.4
15.2
12.2
20. 6
21.8
3.5
33
1.4
O.7
O.6
2.O
7.O
7.6
6.6
6.2
12.4
9.2
4.6
5.2
3.7
3.4
2.3
1.8
1.7
1.1
5.6
4.8
4.2
32
4.6
7.O
14.3
5.O
12 2
16.7
O.O
14. 0
8.O
12.3
16.9
<1.O
mm
53.7
52.1
52.5
43.3
37 7
55.4
58.6
69.9
76. 0
SO. 3
54.4
51.3
5O.8
5O.3
96.6
97.7
97.5
95.5
91.1
93.3
91.3
94 4
9O.1
83.3
83.6
84.8
87 8
79.4
78.2
O6.5
96.7
98.6
99.3
99.4
98. 0
93. 0
92.4
93.4
93.8
87.6
9O.8
95.4
94.8
96.3
96.6
97.7
98.2
98.3
98.9
94.4
95.2
95.8
96.8
95.4
93. 0
85.7
95. 0
87.8
83.3
1OO.O
86. 0
92. 0
87 7
83.1
in
1-O.5 O5 -O.25 O.25-O.1 O.1-O.O2 0). They are characterised by a leptokurtic or very leptokurtic
42
-------
IPHIJ
89%
95
SO
5
1
-6
Pere 1=0.45
Pere 5=0.71
Perc. 16=0 93
Perc.25=1 20
Perc 50=2.20
Perc.5Q=2.2G
Perc 75=2.09
Perc. 84=2.97
Pa re 9 5=3.62
distributions (GSP>1.2).
Curves for blown sands are
close to linearity, possessing
a mesokurtic or platykurtic
distributions (GPS <1.2).
The characterisation of
granular structure are similar
to the results obtained by
other authors for lowland
Poland (Grzegorczyk 1970;
Nowaczyk 1976; Bednarek
1991), Lithuania (Bauziene
1999) and Finland
(Sepponen 1985), or from
previous results of research
(Degorski 1990, 1998a).
Differences in the grain
structure confirm
statistically-significant
spatial regularities in the
coarser fractions - which
show an age-related decline
in the DrODOrtion Of Skeletal
fractions and coarse sands. characteris«s fortk «™P«* ««*» c horizon, profile 7>
The remaining fractions show considerable local differences in their fraction of the
granulometric composition but do not translate into statistically-significant geographical
relationships.
Perc 1=-35i
Parc.5=-2.22
Perc 16=-1 OS
Perc 25=-0 48
Perc. 50=0 44
Perc 75=1 20
Pare.84=2 3/
Pere.95=4.77
Rg-H- Cumulative curves on the probability scale phi.(a -platyetirtie distribution
characteristics for the sample from A horizon in profile 24, b - leplocurtic distribution
43
-------
7.2.3. The degree of abrasion of quartz grains
Graniformametric analysis of the mineral material confirms the fluvial nature of the
sedimentation of all the studied samples. This indicates what is typical of fluvial formations -
the greatest content of grains of quartz rolling on the graniformometer with an incline of 12-
16°. However, as in the case of granulometric composition, the sandy parent formations differ
in the abrasion of quartz grains. All the soils have a prevalence of semisharp grain edges
(mature type - p), while their contents range from 52% in north Finland to more than 80% in
southern Poland and Belarus. The largest shares are reported from sites at which the most
marked impact of aeolian processes was observable (e.g. at profile 35). The northern profiles
are characterised by the smallest content of abraded grains (long term abrasion type - y) -
amounting to between 1 and 9% while sharp edged grains (early stage of abrasion type - a)
exceeded 40%. This shows primary weathering of the substratum, mainly of a cryogenic
nature. The reverse applies to clearly windblown sands, in which the phenomena of corasion
and deflation had an influence on the rounding of grains of quartz. The content of grains of
the y type amounts to 26% in these
Table 8. Share of different types of grains y, p, a
[long term abrasion type - y, semisharp edges grain (mature
type)- ft, early stage of abrasion type - a] and values of the
grain abrasion index (Wo) and index of non-
homogeneity (Nm) for some podzolic and rusty
podzolic soils.
No
profile
1
3
7
11
15
16
29
26
31
35
39
20
24
Genetic
horizon
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
AEes
C
Content of grains
y
1
1
2
3
9
9
16
11
12
19
12
19
12
14
17
16
19
19
10
12
19
19
21
18
26
24
P
53
52
57
77
53
69
66
68
51
50
64
65
68
70
65
69
74
76
73
83
70
73
58
77
64
65
oc
46
47
41
20
38
22
18
21
37
31
24
22
20
16
18
15
7
5
17
5
11
8
21
5
11
11
Wo
839
831
902
923
994
1020
1072
1178
996
1080
1012
1010
1070
1055
1096
1078
1188
1156
1125
1196
1160
1189
1178
1224
1240
1220
Nm
2.8
2.9
2.5
2.6
3.2
3.6
3.4
4.2
6.8
6.9
4.4
3.8
3.8
4.1
3.6
3.9
5.4
3.7
4.1
3.5
4.8
5.4
7.2
5.7
5.2
6.6
sediments (Table 8).
The Wo index of the grain
abrasion attests to the different
degrees of abrasion of the material.
The lowest values of the index (of
800-1000) are those obtained for
the youngest glaciofluvial sands in
Finland, while the greatest (1200-
1380) characterise the oldest
sediments in central Poland and
Belarus. Such high values for Wo
are typical for lithological material
that has been redeposited many
times, mainly as a result of aeolian
transport (Nowaczyk 1976;
Degorski 1990; Bednarek 1991).
At the same time, sands
44
-------
*.l
-t-*3
transformed as a result of the prolonged influence of exogenous processes are characterised
by greater non-uniformity of the material. This is particularly true of profiles located in B-P
(profile 20) and Berezina-Desna Lowland (profile 24), at which the index of non-homogeneity
(Nni) attains values of 7.2 (Table 8). The locations of points characterising the inter-
relationships of the two parameters (I/I/band Nni), as presented in a rectangular configuration,
point to their marked concentration at values of between 1000 and 1200 for the index of grain
abrasion (Wo), as well as 4 - 6 for the index of non-uniformity of material (Nni). The
breakdown obtained confirms the pedogenic maturity of the soils studied (Fig. 12).
The geographical variability in values of the indices of grain abrasion (Wo), and non-
uniformity of material
(Nni) is very clear. This
relationship with both
latitude and longitude
in podzolic soils, as
well as with longitude
in rusty-podzolic soils,
is characterised by a
linear regression
described by way of a
second-order Figure 12. Location of quartz grains on the configuration of quartz grain
nnlvnnmial (Y - a hx abrasion index (Wo) - X axis and non homogenous index (Nm) Yaxis
+ ex2). Only in the case of the relationship between latitude and the spatial differentiation of
the Wo and Nm indices in rusty-podzolic soils is the best approximation a linear regression
model (Y = a + bx) - Table 9.
Analysis of the similarity of distributions of the indices of non-uniformity and grain
abrasion supports assigning the soils to six regional units statistically different from one
another in various graniformametric properties (Fig. 13). (see Section 4.3, Methods of
Analysis)
E
2
200
400
eoo
800
1000
1200
1400
WH
45
-------
1400
1200
1000
o 800
5 600
400
200
0
234
Geographical Groups
These are:
Group I, encompassing the
two northernmost sites only, their
soils having developed from the
youngest glaciofluvial sediments
NTof the Neoholocene (Wo < 900,
Nm<3);
Group II, encompassing
three soil profiles in southern
Lapland that have developed from
Mesoholocene sediments (Wo «
900, Nm<3);
Group III, encompassing
soils from the Hamme region
developed from Eoholocene
sediments (Wo « 1000, 3 < Nm <
4);
Group IV, encompassing
soils across a wide spectrum of
geographical space;i.e., south-eastern Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Brandenburg,
western Poland and north-eastern Poland, and associated in terms of their sedimentation with
the Vistulian, (1000 1200, while the values of
Nm fall within the range 5 to 8.
The graniformametric method of Krygowski (1964), elaborated on geomorphological
bases, does not take account of the influence of soil processes on the shapes of quartz grains.
For this reason it is hard to unambiguously assess which features are a consequence of
pedogenic processes, and which are relief-forming processes, particularly in the so-called
"young soils" (Rotnicki 1970). The supplementation of analytical methods using Krygowski
graniformametry in the genetic classification of sediments, as well as in studies on
123456
Geographical Groups
Figure 13. Mean value and standard deviation obtained for the
quartz grain abrasion index (Wo) and non homogenous index
(Nm) in statistical significance different group (groups: I -
profiles 1-2, II profiles 3, 5, III - profiles 6-9, IV - profiles
10-16 and25-29, V - profiles30-35 and 38-39, VI-profiles 17,
20-24, 36-37)
46
-------
pedogenesis, makes ever more frequent use of determinations based on very precise
diagnostic techniques (Whalley 1979; Gozdzik 1991, 1995; Mycielska-Dowgiallo 1995). An
electron microscope is very helpful in these studies (Whalley 1979; Kowalkowski 1984;
Brogowski, Kocon 1984; Kowalkowski, Brogowski, Kocon 1986; Bednarek 1988, 1991;
Kowalkowski, Kocon 1998; Janowska 2001). The application of such techniques would have
been helpful but were beyond the scope of the research presented.
7.3 Physical properties
The physical properties of the analysed soils were discussed within two main groups, in
line with the division proposed by Uggli (1979). Presented in the first of these are primary
physical properties mainly associated with the quality of soil material (bulk density, real
specific gravity and porosity). Included in the second group are secondary (i.e. aquatic and
aerial) properties that reflect the primary ones.
7.3.1 Primary physical properties
In spite of the diversity in textural properties of the mineral material, the primary
physical properties are characterised by a limited variability, as well as by a lack of clear
(statistically significant) regularities in the spatial distribution of certain features. The
dominant (up to 98%) share accounted for by quartz, the limited (up to 10%) content of heavy
minerals within the petrographic composition, and the vertical distribution of humus in
profiles have a determining influence upon real specific gravity (RSG). Mean values range
from 2.34 g cm3 in the humus horizon, to 2.60 g cm3 in the parent rock horizon. In the case of
rusty-podzolic soils, the
Table 10. Mean (RSGJ and extreme values (RSGnim,
RSGmax) of specific gravity and its standard deviation (d)
determined for genetic horizons of podzolic and rusty-
podzolic soils.
Genetic
horizons
R3Gm
d
RSG™
g.cni3
Profile no.
with RSG™
RSG/V™
g.cnf
Rofile no.
wthRSQ™
podzdic soils
/aEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
234
253
245
259
260
0.11
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.05
202
242
232
247
251
29
38
24,29
38
38
2.51
2.65
2.59
2.69
2.69
7
24
10
1
4
rusty-podzdicsoils
/aEes
BfeB/
BJ
ac
C
236
251
258
260
261
0.11
0.08
0.06
0.03
0.06
221
235
251
256
255
34
37
8,34
36
8
2.53
2.61
2.66
2.67
2.67
25
25,24
25
24
18
respective figures range from 2.
36 g cm3 in the humus horizon to
2.61 gem3 in parent rock (Table
10). The greater differences in
RSG values reported from humus
horizons as opposed to mineral
horizons emphasize the major
significance organic matter has in
shaping these features. The
limited petrographic
differentiation is also the cause of
47
-------
small departures for extreme values of real specific gravity defined in the solum's different
genetic horizons, these mean values range from 13.7% noted in the humus horizon to 3.5% in
the parent rock (Table 10). All the profiles display an increase in real specific gravity with
depth. Only in podzolic soils - because of the increased content of organic compounds in the
spodic horizon - is its real specific gravity lower than those of adjacent horizons.
The spatial variability of real specific gravity precludes division of the soil profiles into
statistically significant groups nor is there any linkage with geographical location. Thus, from
the point of view of diagnosis of the geographical location of pedons, this variable should be
regarded as neutral.
A rather different situation applies to the spatial variability where bulk density (BD) is
concerned. This feature is not only influenced by lithogenic factors, since a major role is also
played by local (above all biogenic) conditions (e.g. content of organic matter, distribution of
plant roots, etc.). Bulk density has been thought of as one of the more important physical
features of soils (Derone et al., 1986; Alexander 1989; Manrique and Jones 1991; Tamminen
and Starr 1994) and is treated by many researchers as the product of a series of other elements
conditioning the soil development process (Alexander 1980; Strong and La Roi 1985;
Huntington etal., 1989; Hillel 1998).
The similar nature of both the litterfall (mainly comprising needles of Scots pine) and
the group of hemicryptophytes dominating in the herb layer (Solon 1998) ensures that the
sub-horizon of overlying humus is characterised by limited spatial differentiation in bulk-
density. Average figures for the podzolic soils were of 0.152 gem3 (d = 0.004) in the litter-
humus sub-horizon, 0.195 gem3 (d = 0.031) in the fermentative sub-horizon and 0.251 gem3
(d = 0.017) in the epihumus. The values are higher at sites progressively further to the south,
something that may be linked with the more rapid humification of organic matter in a warmer
climate. In the case of rusty-podzolic soils, the bulk-density data for the organic horizon are
still more uniform. The average for the litter humus at all sites was of 0.15 g cm3 (d = 0.012),
cf. 0.216 gem3 (d = 0.037) and 0.251 gem3 (d = 0.004) for the fermentative and epihumus
layers respectively. These values are not statistically significant..
In the horizons of the solum generated from sandy material, bulk density is greater at
greater depth, ranging from ca. 1.05 g cm3 for the humus horizon (of profile 28) through to
1.76 g cm3 in the parent rock (of profile 18). The mean values for bulk density in the different
genetic horizons of podzolic soils are between 1.30 gem3 in the AEes horizon and 1.58 gem3
in the C horizon. The corresponding range for rusty-podzolic soils is 1.24 tol.64 g cm3 (Table
11). The vertical and spatial variability of density in the profiles is related to the distribution
48
-------
of roots, as well as by the content of organic matter (r = - 0.522 for podzolic soils and r = -
0.557 for rusty-podzolic soils), granulometric composition (r = 0.376)10, and the intensity of
the podzolization process.
All the profiles from podzolic soils showed an increase in bulk density in the sub-
horizon of enrichment (Bh) in comparison with the adjacent horizons (Table 11). The
relatively low value for the correlation, though statisticallically significant, confirms the
complex nature of the factors influencing bulk density. However, since the greatest value for
this index was obtained in the case of organic matter, this may be regarded as one of the most
important elements determining the vertical and spatial differentiation in bulk density.
Table 11. Mean (BDm) and extreme values (BDnim, BDmax) of bulk density and its standard
deviation (d) determined for genetic horizons of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils as well as
for the obtained groups.
Genetic
horizon
All analysed soils
BDm
d
BDmn
9 cm '
no. of profile
with BDmm
BDmax
g cm*
no. of profile
with BDmax
Group I
BDm
d
Group II
BD,,,
d
9 crn !
podzolic soils
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
1.30
1.42
1.59
1.48
1.58
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.09
1.05
1.12
1.34
1.29
1.47
28
28
28
28
29
1.49
1.58
1.69
1.59
1.74
3
3,4
22,32
3, 4, 22
5
1.42
1.52
1.61
1.54
1.67
0.04
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.07
1.25
1.38
1.58
1.46
1.55
0.09
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.08
rusty-podzolic soils
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
1.24
1.41
1.52
1.70
1.64
0.12
0.11
0.06
0.04
0.1
1.10
1.23
1.43
1.65
1.52
8,25
37
27
8,21
8,25
1.48
1.62
1.67
1.74
1.76
18
23
18
18
18
1.40
1.56
1.62
1.72
1.74
0.11
0.08
0.02
0.02
0.02
1.20
1.37
1.49
1.65
1.61
0.08
0.07
0.03
0.01
0.09
Podzolic soils: group I - (profiles 1-7); group H - rest of profiles
Rusty-podzolic soils; group I (profiles; 18.21,23); group 2 — rest of profiles
Statistical analysis of spatial differences in the variability of vertical distributions of bulk-
density data resulted in the identification of two groups of podzolic soils in the study area that
were different from each other. The first group encompasses soils in Lapland and Finnish
Lakelands (profiles 1-7) while the second includes all remaining profiles (Table 11). The
greatest differentiation occurs in the humus (A) and eluvial (E) horizons and the most limited
differentiation is found in the sub-horizon of enrichment (Bh). In the case of rusty-podzolic
soils the Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus and Berezina-Desna Lowland group is characterised
10 the correlation between the GSS indicator and BDwas determined for all genetic horizons of the studied soil
profiles
49
-------
by the greatest values for BD relative to any other soils. Nevertheless, when all the profiles
studied are considered, there is no relationship between bulk density and geographical
location.
Total porosity (PT) is also associated with the vertical and spatial distribution of
structure-forming organic matter. The correlation coefficient between the porosity of all the
genetic horizons and the content of organic matter therein is 0.613, while that between PT and
the index of average grain diameter (GSS) - as determined for each genetic horizon - is
0.421. Porosity of the studied soils is greater with higher organic matter content in genetic
horizons, as well as where the average grain size of the soil substratum is smaller.
In the analysed profiles at least, the value for total porosity grows smaller as one
moves down from the humus horizon to the parent rock. In the case of podzolic soils this
decline is from 52.7% in the AEes horizon of profile 28, to 34.1% in horizon C of profile 3.
The respective figures for rusty-podzolic soils are 56.5% in profile 25 to 35.5% in profile 37
(Table 12).
[able 12. Mean (PTln) and extreme values (PI nim, PTInax) ft total porosity and its standard
deviation (d) determined lor genetic horizons of podzolic and mHty-potfeolic soils as well as
for (he obtained groups.
Genetic
horizon
All analysed soils
PTm
d
PTmln
%
no. of profile
with PTmn,
n m«x
%
no. of profile
with PTI1M
-------
northern parts of the research area, and above all the lower content of organic matter in the
solum of these soils, are what determine the lower porosity of these pedons (Table 12). These
soils are notable for the fact that differences in porosity between the sub-horizon of
enrichment Bh (36.1%) and the eluvial horizon E (36.6%), as well as the enrichment (Bfe)
horizon (40.1%) are smaller than is the case with the older soils of the Eastern European Soil
Region. The soils of this part of the continent have a Bh sub-horizon characterised by greater
compaction of material, as manifested in markedly lower porosity (37.6%) in comparison
with the eluvial E horizon and Bfe enrichment horizon (43.6%).
As in podzolic soils, the spatial variability in values for porosity in the different
profiles of rusty-podzolic soils permitted identification of two groups of soils. In this case,
those clearly different are from profiles situated in eastern regions of the study area, i.e. on the
Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateau and Berezina-Desna Lowland. In spite of the fact that the
substrata of these soils were the most transformed by aeolian processes in the periglacial
environment (and are thereby enriched in their dusty fractions), they are characterised by the
lowest porosities of any of the studied rusty-podzolic soils. The reason is the low proportion
of structure-generating organic matter in the solum of these soils - something that may be
linked with intensive forestry management engaged in in the areas in question several decades
ago (Jefremow, Degorski 1998). Thus, human activity may well have changed the primary
properties of these soils.The results show that, where soils are of similar granulometric
composition, a key role in the spatial diversification of their primary properties may be played
by organic matter.
51
-------
7.3.2 Secondary physical properties
It is primary physical properties, lithological properties of the substratum and the
content of organic matter, that are the main factors shaping secondary physical properties of
soil. The vertical differentiation of capillary capacity (KPW) and field capacity (PPW) in
profiles of the podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils features a decline in values with depth (Table
13). The exceptions to this rule are the Bh enrichment sub-horizons in podzolic soils, as well
Table 13. Mean values (KPWm> PPWm), extreme values (KPWnim, KPWmax; PPWmm,
PPWmax) and standard deviation (d) of capillary capacity and field capacity in genetic
horizons of studied podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils.
Genetic
horizon
podzolic
O
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
rusty-po
O
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
KPW
KPWm
d
KPWmtn
weight %
soils
n.o.
22.7
15.6
19.7
11.8
13.1
Izolic sc
n.o.
26.7
18.2
14.6
13.4
15.7
n.o.
3.2
2.4
5.5
2.2
1.2
ils
n.o.
5.2
2.6
1.3
1.0
1.4
n.o.
19.5
11.2
118
9.7
10.8
n.o.
19.5
13.2
11.8
11.8
142
no. of profiles
with KPWmil,
n.o.
7
10
7
2
2
no.
9
9
9
39
23
KPWm«
%wag.
n.o.
306
18.9
35.5
176
15.9
n.o.
36.9
23.9
16.5
14.3
173
no. of profiles
with KPWmax
n.o.
16
24
15
24
24
n.o.
30
37
21
34
36
PPW
PPWm
d
PPWmin
weight %
162.4
13.6
9.2
9.8
7.6
7.4
187.0
17.5
12.0
8.9
8.5
9.7
30.9
2.6
1.2
2.2
1.1
1.0
22.9
4.2
3.2
1.1
0.4
1.3
104.5
8.2
6.7
7.7
6.1
5.3
141.2
9.1
7.4
6.8
7.9
8.1
no. of profiles
with PPW™,
2
10
10
7
35
19
8
9
8
8
39
8
PPWm»
weight %
198.4
18.3
11.3
13.9
10.3
9.6
214.2
23.7
18.4
11.2
9.0
13.6
no. of profiles
with PPW,,,,,,
24
22
1
19
22,24
5
18
30
21
21
18
30
as the parent-rock horizon in both types of soil. The fact that both kinds of water capacity are
once again higher when the parent-rock layer is reached may reflect, not only a different
granular structure of the sediments, but also the fact that the impact of capillary forces is
greater at depth (Birecki and Trzecki 1964; Degorski 1990).
52
-------
Table 14. Mean values (MHm), extreme values (MHnjm, MHmax) and
standard deviation (d) of maximal hygroscopicity determined for genetic
horizons ofpodxolk and rust.y-pod/olic soils.
Genetic
horizon
MHm
d
MHmin
%
no. of profiles
with MHmin
MHmax
%
no. of profiles
with MHmax
podzolic soils
0
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
4.79
0.70
0.53
0.56
0.39
0.30
0.39
0.16
0.14
0.14
0.08
0.07
4.03
0.30
0.22
0.24
0.19
0.17
3
2
2
2
2
2
5.34
0.94
0.76
0.79
0.52
0.39
19
11
12,28
12
29
26
ru sty-pod zolic soils
O
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
5.07
1.07
0.74
0.53
0.37
0,31
0.49
0.18
0.07
0.14
0.05
0.05
4.65
0.78
0.63
0.41
0.32
0.22
8
37
36
31, 36
36
36
6.12
1.38
0.87
0.84
0.45
0.43
18
25
37
23
39
33
Higher values of KPW and PPW are located in regions in old-glacial areas. The soils of
these areas are developed from material with a greater share of the dusty fraction (more often
than in other geographical regions), and are also characterised by a greater accumulation of
organic matter (see Section 7.4.1). They also have higher soil colloids (mainly organic) that
enhances their sorptive properties (see Section 7.4.6), as compared with the pedons of the
remaining analysed regions. They also have greater capacity to adsorb water vapor than soils
developed on younger geological material (Table 14). This results in the greatest values for
maximal hygroscopicity (MH) in many genetic horizons of profiles in the Podlasie-
Byelorussian Plateaus, Berezina-Desna Lowland and the Central Polish Lowlands. The causes
underpinning differences in water capacity between the studied profiles need to be sought in
local habitat conditions, and particularly in contents of organic matter in soils. In spite of the
reported spatial differences, statistically significant regional groups could not be found.
Similar spatial trends in soil water retention water were found under different humidity
conditions. The reserves of water in the capillary state (ZKPW) or field state (Zppw) determined
for the organic horizon, as well as a 100-cm layer of mineral soil, are characterised by higher
values in geological material and soil of greater age. The lowest values occur in soils of the
study area's northern regions, as developed in lithological material with a considerable share
of skeletal fractions. The greatest reserves are characteristic of soils whose parent rock has
been subject to the most intensive disintegrative processes resulting in higher fractions of
dusty and clayey granulometric composition. In the case of podzolic soils, the range of values
53
-------
for ZPPW ranges from 114.4 mm in the Punkaharju profile (no. 10) to 206 mm in the Slavharad
(profile no. 22). The mean value for all soils is 146.3 mm (d = 23.7). For rusty-podzolic soils,
the range is from 147.9 mm in the Hatulla profile (no. 8) to 224 mm in the Skrwilno profile
(no. 30), with a mean reserve defined for all soils of 184 mm (d = 22.2).
The regional differentiation in retention properties is revealed much more completely
by data for the relationships between reserves of water or water capacity in the capillary state
(ZKPW), the field state (Zppw), the temporary moisture (ZWN) state or the plant-inaccessible
state (ZWTW), than by data for the reserves as such (Fig. 14 - see Section 4.3, Methods of
Analysis). Both the podzolic and the rusty-podzolic soils of old-glacial areas are characterised
by the broadest ratios for reserves of water in the PPW state to reserves in the KPW state (Fig.
14). This confirms the greater retentiveness of soils with a greater share of fine capillaries
(Rode 1956). The results obtained for Poland do not depart from those determined by other
authors for soils developed from loose and weakly-clayey sands (Musierowicz, Krolowa
1962; Krolowa 1966; Prusinkiewicz et al, 1981; Degorski 1990). The trends for greater
n Q -
n ft -
n 7
•-, n R
Q.
^
N nc;
Q.
n ^
0,2 -
0,1 -
0-
b
1
m — , — i
r
m — , — i
'-'-'- 1
b
2
I
m — , — i
':•:••:•%
r
1
H — , —
b
3
DAEes HC
m — , — i
r
m — , — i
b
4
m — , — i
r
Figure. 14. Relationship between soil water stock in field capacity (Zppw) and soil water stock in
capillary water capacity (Zkpw) obtained for the humus-eluvial horizon (AEes) and parent rock
horizon (C) in the regions with statistically significant distributions of features: b - podzolic and r -
rusty-podzolic soils. The regions are; 1 — Lapland and the Firrrish Lackelands; 2 — Western,
Southern, and Eastern Baltic Lakelands; 3 — Central Polish Lowlands and Silesion-Cracovian
Upland; 4 - Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands and Berezina-Desna Lowland
54
-------
values of the ZPPW/ZKPW in more southerly or easterly sites area are confirmed by the
regression functions obtained for this relationship in regard to geographical coordinates
(Table 15).
Table 15. Parameters of the regression and correlation coefficient determined for relationships
among reserves of water in the capillary state (ZKPW) or field state (Zppw) as a dependent
variable and longitude or latitude (independent variable).
Soil type
podzolic
rusty-
podzolic
Independent variable
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
Parameters to the regresson
a
0.346
-0.371
-0.010
4.272
b
0.012
0.035
0.032
-0.137
c
-
-0.0003
-0.001
0.001
Correlation coefficient
r
0.701
0.469
0.716
0.983
Spatial variation in soil properties dependent on the contemporary shaping of climatic
conditions follows a different course. For example, soil moisture deficit shows a strong
correlation with the Sielaninov hygrothermal index (r = 0.680). (Soil moisture deficit is the
relation between field water capacity (Kowda 1984), defined as the percentage share of the
reserve of water relative to the soil moisture state, compared to the reserves of water in the
field capacity state.) Because of the large range of humidities shown by the different genetic
horizons of the analysed soils (Degorski 1998c), this measure is also very labile. The mean
value for it ranges from 50% in south-eastern parts of the study area to ca. 90 % in its
northern regions (Fig. 15).
55
-------
250
200 --
150 --
100 -- ! I
100
50 - - ! I
-Dzw
Figure 15. Soil water stock in field capacity (Zppw) and deficit of soil water stock
(Dzw) in relation to the soil water stock in field capacity (Zppw) in podzolic soils.
North to south differentiation in the soil moisture deficit shows that the mean annual reserve
of water in the profiles in Lapland and Ostrobothnia is only some 10% lower than field-
capacity state. In contrast, in the soils of the Northern Pre-Carpathians, the value ranges from
40 to 50%.
In contrast, where the E-W transect is considered, greater deficit occurs in Western
Baltic Lakelands and Southern Baltic Lakelands in the west and Podlasie-Byelorussian
Plateaus and Berezina-Desna Lowland in the east. The area of central Poland features the
lowest moisture deficit in the soil, the mean annual reserve of soil water is less than 40% of
field water capacity. However, the values for different profiles along the west-east line do not
in fact vary greatly, their magnitudes being conditioned mainly by soil retention properties
(obviously apart from hygrothermal conditioning). This is best seen in the area of the
Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus and Berezina-Desna Lowland, where these soils are
characterised by a greater moisture deficit on account of their maximal capabilities of holding
soil water in the PPW state (notwithstanding the greater climatic humidity than in other areas
of Poland, as well as greater past anthropogenic interference in forest ecosystems - Degorski
1998a; Khotko 1998). This is depicted by regression curves of moisture deficit over
geographical coordinate (Fig. 16). Podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils resemble each other
elative to the relationship between the soil moisture deficit and geographical location.
56
-------
32
12
15
18
21
24 27
30
57
60
63
66
69
longitude (E)
Latitude (N)
Figure 16. Regression curves for the water shortage in podzolic soils on geographical
coordinates (a - longitude, Y = 95,106 - 4,863x + 0,103x2 , r = 0,407; b - latitude, Y = -
24,255+ 3,701x-0,046x2, r= 0,876).
Only a small part of the total reserves of soil water are plant-inaccessible (in the ZWTW
form), which is to say very strongly associated by molecular forces with the soil's solid phase.
In podzolic soils, the size of this reserve does vary - ranging from 5.0 mm in northern
Lapland (profile 1) to 13.3 mm in the Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateau (profile 19). The average
value is 9.8 mm (d = 1.9 mm). In the case of the rusty-podzolic soils, the differentiation is
much more limited, ranging from 10.1 mm (profile 34) to 14.6 mm (profile 37), with a mean
value of 12.2 mm (d = 1.1 mm). The reserves of soil water inaccessible to plants in rusty-
podzolic soils also do not display spatially-determined regularities, something that may result
from the greater uniformity of the geological material from which these soils developed, as
well as the much less-diverse contents of organic matter (see Section 7.4.1). The ZWTW values
are 3 to 13% of the reserve of water in the field-capacity state in the case of podzolic soils, 6
to 20% in the case of rusty-podzolic soils. These values are similar to those determined in
other soils developed from loose and weakly-clayey sands (Krolowa 1963, 1966; Degorski
1990).
The variability in the total capillary and non-capillary air capacity in podzolic soils and
rusty-podzolic soils varies spatially in a way similar to water properties. The greatest values
for air capacity (Pp) were reported in soils from regions of northern Europe, the lowest from
old-glacial areas of east-central Europe (Fig. 17). In the assessment of Kowda (1984), ahigher
value for capillary air capacity is associated with more difficult gaseous exchange between the
soil and the atmosphere. In line with this assumption, the best conditions for the exchange of
soil air with the atmosphere can be anticipated in soils situated where the cover is mature.
57
-------
This would be true of both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils. The eastern regions of the study
area are characterised by the lowest values for capillary air capacity in any of the genetic
horizons (Fig. 17- see Section 4.3, Methods of Analysis),
Data for air capacity in the soil profiles of Lapland and the Finnish Lakelands are
distinctly different (in comparison with other physico-geographical units in which studies
were carried out). The soils developed in the north of the continent have values for air
capacity that decline with depth - as compared with the rise noted in the remaining profiles
(Fig. 17). This difference may reflect three factors: the shallow rooting of plants, the low
content of organic matter in the solum of soils and the marked impact of cryogenic weathering
on the disintegration of the geological material of upper soil horizons (Liira and Hietaranta
1998).
Air capacity in the humus horizons of both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils is
characterised by relationships with profiles' geographical locations (Table 16). On the other
hand, inter-regional differences in the courses noted for the feature in question become less
distinct at increasing depth. This attests to the influence of other (not purely
morpholithological elements) of the soil environment on its vertical course, especially in the
upper part of profiles.
Table. 16. Parameters of regression and correlation determined for the
relationships between air capacity in podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils
(dependent variable) and longitude or latitude (independent variable).
Soil types
podzolic
rusty-
podzolic
Independent variable
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
Regression parameters
a
1 1 .652
29.367
36.767
-1257.265
b
1.057
-0.127
-0.767
43.196
c
-0.027
-
-
-0.361
Correlation coefficient
r
0.442
0.449
0.796
0.991
In the case of podzolic soils, the lowest absolute values and least varied values for air
capacity are those of the Bh enrichment sub-horizons, ranging from 19.3 % by volume in soils
of the northern regions to 14.0% in soils of Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus and Berezina-
Desna Lowland.
58
-------
7.4. Chemical and biochemical properties
7.4.1. Content and reserve of organic carbon
In both the analysed podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils, organic matter is mainly
accumulated in sub-horizons of the organic horizon and in the humus horizons. The quantity
of organic carbon (Cto) in the sub-horizons of the organic horizon declines with the degree of
humification of organic matter, from the fermentative sub-horizon (49.1-54.8%) to that of the
epihumus (21.3-42.8%). In the mineral parts of soil profiles (the solum), the content of
organic carbon declines with depth, except in the diagnostic spodic horizon of podzolic soils.
In the sub-horizon of enrichment (Bh) in particular, the illuvial accumulation of organic
matter is associated with a significant increase in Cto as compared with the situation in
adjacent genetic horizons (Fig. 18). Rusty-podzolic soils did not feature a rise in the content
of Cto in the diagnostic sideric sub-horizon. Indeed, the situation is quite the reverse, as the
content in the BfeBv and Bv horizons is markedly lower, amounting to between 0.5 and 1 %
on average (Fig. 18). Shaped similarly in the profiles is the content of the organic carbon
fraction extracted in 0.1 M sodium pyrophosphate (Cp) and forming part of iron- aluminium
humus complexes, (complexes of organic carbon with sesquioxides of aluminium and iron).
59
-------
lAlubAEes DEes HBh QBfe
53,
lAEes DBfeBv BBv BC
Figure 18. Content of organic carbon (Qo) in particular genetic horizons of the mineral part of soil (a
podzolic soils, b - podzolic-rusty soils)
60
-------
50 -i
O5
DJ
o
o
abcde abcde abcde abcde abcde abcde abcde abcde
Kevo Oulanka Jaunjelgava Plaska Browsk Jozefow Udogj Namyslin
II
c5 10 - lii
EEEEEi
is
;;;!;
IKK
|B
[
HE
1
frSTn
abce abce
Hattula Chrisdorf
mm
abce
Glinojeck
m Cx n Cp
m
m
i
111!!
•
:z!!!!!!!!!
B
IB
abcde abcde
Kuznia Raciborska Baranowicze
Figure 19. Content of organic carbon (Q0) as a Q and Cp extracted by 0,1 M pyrophosphate in
some pedons (I — podzolic soils; a-e genetic horizons: a — A or AEes, b — Ees, c — Bh, d — Bfe, e
- C; II - podzolic-rusty soils; a-e genetic horizons: a - AEes, b - BfeBv, c - Bv, d - BvC, e -C).
II - podzolic-rusty soils; a-e genetic horizons: a - AEes, b - BfeBv, c - Bv, d - BvC, e - C).
. In the mineral part of podzolic soils, the quantity Cp in the humus horizon is 11.1
g'kg"1 on average, i.e. 1.1%, beyond which there is a clear decline in the eluvial horizon, prior
to a renewed rise in the sub-horizon of enrichment Bh - to 12.3 g'kg"1 ;i.e.; 1.2%; on average
(Fig. 19). In contrast, in the rusty-podzolic soils, organic carbon associated in complexes with
sesquioxides decline steadily from the top to the bottom of profiles. This attests to the weakly-
advanced process of illuviation and the small content of organically-bound iron and
aluminium in the diagnostic sideric horizon, as compared with the diagnostic spodic horizon
of podzolic soils (Fig. 19).
However, there is a marked increase in the proportion Cp in Cto in their diagnostic
horizons, as compared with the other genetic horizons, including the humus horizon. In the
61
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spodic horizons, the index Cp/CtoxlOO% ranges from 53 to 86%, cf. the humus horizons of
podzolic soils that have proportions of Cp in Cto within the range 20-40%. In rusty-podzolic
soils, there are much smaller differences between the humus and enrichment horizons in the
index values. In the case of the AEes horizon, the content of Cpto Cto ranges from 16 to 40%,
cf. 36-76% in the BfeBv horizon and 30-40% in the Bv horizon. These results emphasize the
role of complexes of humus with iron or aluminium in the ongoing pedogenic processes.
The greatest contents of organic carbon, for both the Cp and Cto fractions, were
reported in the Finnish Lakelands and Berezina-Desna Lowland profiles, attesting to the large
accumulation of organic matter in these areas. These are today characterised by the least
active soil environment, something that may reflect a climate in the area that is colder than
any other, and a consequently short growing season.
Assessments of the variability in organic carbon in soils make more and more use of
such measures as DC and MC, relating to density and resources (Liski 1995, 1997; Liski and
Westman 1995, 1997). The distribution of organic carbon in the profiles of forest soils needs
to be determined, in relation to the functioning not only of the given pedon, but the whole
ecosystems. In the view of Post et al. (1990), around 2/3 of the reserve of carbon in forest
ecosystems is in the form of soil organic matter. The spatial variability in reserves of organic
carbon in the genetic horizons of soils is mainly determined in reference to their thickness,
plus the density of organic carbon (DC).
When the vertical distribution of densities of organic carbon is considered, the greatest
values are found to be those in the sub-horizons of the organic horizon. The carbon
accumulated in the latter is younger and more uniform in terms of age than that in the mineral
horizons (Liski et al. 1997). It is worth stressing here that, notwithstanding the influence of
anthropogenic factors such as forest management, harvesting from the herb layer and forest
fires (Liski and Westerman 1997), it is the organic horizon that shows the smallest spatial
differences in the density by volume of organic carbon. In its sub-horizons, and most
especially the litter sub-horizon, the densities of organic carbon are actually very uniform,
amounting to between 75 and 83 kg.m3 in podzolic soils, and 75 - 77 kg.m3 in rusty-podzolic
soils (Fig. 20 and 21). A rather greater diversity in density (90-110 kg. m3) arises in the Of
and in the Oh sub-horizons comprising the humifying epihumus. A particularly significant
increase in values is to be noted in the epihumus of the soils of northern Europe, i.e. Lapland,
Ostrobothnia and the Finnish Lakeland (Fig. 20 and 21).
62
-------
Ol
Of
Oh
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
Ol
Of
Oh
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
Ol
Of
Oh
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
Ol
Of
Oh
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
Ol
Of
Oh
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
DC (kg.rrf3)
Figure 20 Carbon density (Dc) determined for the particular genetic horizons of
podzolic soils in five geographical regions with differing distribution of features.-- a -
Lappland and Ostro-Bothnia; b - Finnish Lakelands and Eastern Baltic Littoral
Region; c - Eastern Baltic Lakelands, Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands, Berezina-
Desna Lowland, Northern Pre-Carpathian Uplands; d - Western Baltic Lakelands; e
- Southern Baltic Lakelands, Silesian-Cracovian Upland and Central Malopolska
Upland.
63
-------
The solum has densities of organic carbon between 28.1 kg.m3 (in the A-horizon of
podzolic soils of the Silesian-Cracovian Upland and Central Malopolska, Poland) and 73.1
kg.m3 (in the Finnish Lakeland). The respective values for the parent rock range from 1.5 to
3.5 kg.m3 respectively. In rusty-podzolic soils, the respective values are in the range 7.8 to
23.4 kg.m3 in the A-horizon, and 0.4 to 1.2 kg.m3 in the parent rock. The results thus confirm
ideas regarding an increase in the density of organic carbon in conditions of a cold and moist
climate (Post etal 1982; Liski 1997; Liski and Westman 1997).
01
Of
Oh
AEes
BfeBv
BvC
C
ssse
01
Of
Oh
AEes
BfeBv
BvC
C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
Ol
Of
Oh
A
AEes
BfeBv
BvC
C
Ol
Of
Oh
A
AEes
BfeBv
BvC
C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120
DC (kg.rn'-
Dc (kg.rn"'
Figure 21. Carbon density (Dc) determined for the particular genetic
horizons of podzolic-rusty soils in four geographical regions with differing
distribution of features: a - Finnish Lakelands; b -Western and Southhern
Baltic Lakelands; c - Eastern Baltic Lakelands, Podlasie-Byelorussian
Uplands, Berezina-Desna Lowland; d - Central Polish Lowland and Silesian-
Cracovian Upland.
The studies described here reveal marked differences in the resources of organic
carbon (MC) determined for pedons of 1 m2 area and containing the organic and mineral
horizons down to a depth of 100 cm. Thus, the amount of carbon accumulated in pedons of
podzolic soil is 16.4 kg on average (ranging from 9.7 kg in the Southern Baltic Lakeland -
profile 29, to 23.5 kg in the Finnish Lakeland - profile 7). The mean value for rusty-podzolic
64
-------
soils is 12.3 kg (ranging from 9.2 kg on the Berezina-Desna Lowland - at profile 23, to 14.6
kg in the Eastern Baltic Lakeland - profile 14).
The much larger resources of organic carbon in podzolic soils probably reflect the
lower trophic status and more limited biological activity of their soil environment as
compared with that of rusty-podzolic soils. Podzolic soils also feature a greater diversity of
values for the characteristic in question from profile to profile. In contrast, the small
differences in resources of organic carbon in rusty-podzolic soils may reflect the more limited
geographical range of these soils in the study area, as well as a greater uniformity of biotic
and climatic conditions and less mosaic-like distribution. Also of importance is the level of
transfer of humic compounds down the soil - weaker in rusty-podzolic than in podzolic soils
(in which the diagnostic spodic horizon shows very significant elevations of organic carbon
content). These factors ensure that podzolic soils have greater reserves of carbon overall than
rusty-podzolic ones (Fig. 22), while the share of the organic horizon carbon in the total
storage of organic carbon in podzolic soils is smaller than in the rusty podzolic soils.
65
-------
mineral horizons
organic subhorizons: BOh BOf HOI|
Figure 22. Carbon storage determined for the pedon about 1 m surface, contains organic
horizon and mineral part to the 1 m deep, (a - podzolic soils, b— podzolic-rusty soil)
66
-------
Table 17. Mean values of carbon storage (MC) determined for pedons about 1 m contain
organic horizon and mineral part of the profile to 1 m deep in statistically significant
separation into geographical regions.
No. of
group
Number
of
profile
Organic
horizon
MCm
d
Mineral horizons
to 1 m deep
MCm
d
Whole
profile
MCm
d
kgm"2
podzolic soils
1
II
III
IV
V
5
4
10
1
4
10.3
5.6
4.3
3.7
5.2
3.2
0.5
1.2
0.0
0.7
9.2
14.3
11.5
8.8
6.4
3.4
4.0
4.3
0.0
0.8
19.5
19.9
15.8
12.5
11.6
5.4
5.9
4.5
0.0
1.4
rusty-podzolic soils
1
II
III
IV
2
4
2
6
9.0
5.0
5.1
7.0
0.0
2.0
0.6
1.5
5.1
7.1
6.8
5.1
0.0
1.0
0.6
1.2
14.1
12.1
11.8
12.0
0.1
2.0
1.2
0.8
Podzolic soils, groups:
I. Lappland (profiles: 1,2,3,4,5);
II. Finnish Lakelands (profiles: 6, 7, 10) and Eastern Baltic Coastland (profile 11);
III. Southern Baltic Lakelands (profile: 12, 13, 15), Podlasie-Byelorussian Plenteous (profile: 16, 19, 32),
Berezina-Desna Lowland (profiles: 20, 22, 24), Northern Podkarpacie (profile 17);
IV. Western Baltic Lakelands (profile 26);
V. Eastern Baltic Lakelands (profiles: 28, 29), Silesian-Cracovian Upland and Central Malopolska Upland
(profiles: 35, 38);
Rusty-podzolic soils, groups:
I. Finnish Lakelands (profiles: 8, 9);
II. Eastern Baltic Lakelands (profile 14), Podlasie-Byelorussian Plenteous (profile 18), Berezina-Desna
Lowland (profiles: 21, 23),;
III. Central Polish Lowlands (profiles: 30, 31, 34, 39), Silesian-Cracovian Upland (profiles: 36, 37);
IV. Western Baltic Lakelands (profile 25), Eastern Baltic Lakelands (profile 27).
Nevertheless, the shares in both types are very high, ranging from 28 to 68% and from 41-
64% in podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils respectively (Table 17.)
Analysis of the spatial distribution of resources of organic carbon in the soils studied
reveals a statistically-significant relationship between these and the geographical coordinates
of their profiles (as the independent variable). This confirms the trend for resources to
increase towards the east and north, albeit with MC also being elevated in the south of the
study area (Fig. 23). This result may point to the greater contemporary biological activity in
the soil environment of Central Europe's Lakeland areas.
67
-------
-T~ 22 -,
1-i
j*:
•— 18
0)
2 16
o
£ 14
O
-S 12 :
ro ;
o 10
'E
ro o
o 1
J. _ j
^^f •S
_^.
2 15 18 21 24 2
longitude (E)
» „/
X*
r 3
7
•
) 33
'E
.ci) 21
0) HQ
D) ISI "
2 :
2 17
m "
| 15-
ra
o 13
c
S, n
0 4
•
--1
*
8 51 &
*
4 5
i *
f «^>^ •
7 60 63 66 69
atitude (N)
Figure 23. Regression curves for the carbon storage in podzolic soils on geographical coordinates
(a - longitude Y = 30,363- 1,965x + 0,05x2, r= 0,790; b -latitude Y = 31,217-0,822x+ 0,01x2, r
= 0,802),
To determine regional differences to the spatial variability of the study area's
resources of organic carbon, spatial analysis found groups of geographical regions among the
podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils identified. Among the five such groups of podzolic soils
identified, those of Lapland have accumulated the greatest carbon resources in the O-horizon,
while it is the mineral parts of the profile in the soils of the Finnish and Eastern Baltic
Lakeland that are richest in carbon (Table 17). The greatest values of organic carbon in the
organic and mineral parts of podzolic soils taken together are again those of the northern part
of the study area.
Likewise, in the rusty-podzolic soils, the greatest carbon values in the organic horizon
occur in the Finnish Lowland, while the greatest figures for the solum characterize the Eastern
Baltic Lakeland, Podlasie-Belorussian Upland and Berezina-Desna Lowland. As with the
podzolic soils, the rusty-podzolic soils in the northern regions have the greatest overall
carbon. Differences between groups are nevertheless much more limited in these soils than in
the podzolic soils (Table 17).
The results show that podzolic soils have much greater organic carbon than rusty-
podzolic soils. This reflects the former's more limited biological activity and more intensive
illuviation and transfer of humic compounds. The resources also tend to be greater in more
humid climates, as indicated by their higher values in the northern and eastern parts of the
study area. A similar conditioning of the spatial variability of resources of organic carbon has
been reported for the podzolic earth in Scandinavia (Liski and Westman 1995), and northern
parts of the USA (Michaelson atal, 1996).
68
-------
Table 18. Total nitrogen and its mineral forms
(N-NH4+, N-NCV) as well as organic carbon
(C) and C : N ratio in epihumus subhorizon of
podzolic soils.
7.4.2. Nitrogen content and the C:N ratio
Alongside carbon, nitrogen is among the most important of the biogenic elements, for
determining the level of activity of biochemical processes in soils. Its content in the analysed
podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils does that noted by other authors (Bialousz 1978; Sepponen
1985; Bednarek 1991; Raisanen 1996). In the epihumus (Oh) sub-horizon of podzolic soils,
nitrogen ranges from 0.42 do 1.12 % (Table 18), wih a mean value of 0.64% (d = 0.16%). In
the mineral horizons, the mean content of
nitrogen was: in the A horizon - 0.16% (d
= 0.07%), in Fes - 0.07% (d = 0.04%),
then Bh - 0.08% (d = 0.05%), Bfe -
0.03% (d = 0.02%) and C - 0.01% (d =
0.01%). Rusty-podzolic soils had higher
nitrogen with their mean values in
different genetic horizons of: Oh - 0.93%
(d = 0.23%), AEes - 0.19% (d = 0.18%),
BfeBv - 0.09% (d = 0.06%), BvC 0.06%
(d = 0.04%) and C - 0.02% (d = 0.02%).
The standard deviations attest to the
marked spatial differentiation. The greatest
contents of nitrogen in either podzolic or
rusty-podzolic soils were those reported
the Finnish Lakelands profiles, while the
lowest came from southern Poland (Fig.
24). Nevertheless, there is no statistically-
significant relationship between the
content of total nitrogen in the studied
soils and geographical location. The only significant relationship was between the content of
N and latitude in rusty-podzolic soils. This linkage was best depicted by a linear regression
model in which Y = -2.262 + 0.047x (r = 0.984).
No. of
profile
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10
11
12
13
15
16
17
19
20
22
24
26
28
29
32
35
38
C
N
%
46.6
20.9
20.3
19.2
18.4
22.3
20.0
17.2
17.7
18.6
20.1
19.3
20.8
23.5
24.6
25.9
26.6
28.9
14.3
14.9
15.9
18.9
17.2
16.9
1.12
0.44
0.43
0.42
0.42
0.54
0.51
0.38
0.66
0.67
0.66
0.66
0.75
0.68
0.68
0.66
0.71
0.72
0.77
0.73
0.71
0.62
0.69
0.68
C:N
42
48
47
46
44
41
39
46
27
28
31
29
28
35
36
39
37
40
19
20
22
30
25
25
NH/
NCV
mg 100g~1
1.67
1.89
1,39
1.45
1.57
1.56
1.42
1.23
1.34
1.56
1.23
1.06
1.05
1.78
2.56
2.89
3,13
4.12
1,75
2,59
9,45
2.45
1.19
3.22
0.15
0.23
0,12
0,22
0.34
0.45
0.36
0.21
0.26
0.35
0.21
0,32
0,42
0.98
1.12
1.67
1,34
2,16
0.14
3.36
6.03
2.03
0.63
1,26
69
-------
0,65
0,6
0,55
lAlub AEes DEes BBh SBfe BC
I AEes QBfeBv 0Bv BC
Figure 24. Content of total nitrogen in particular genetic horizons of studied soils (a
podzolic soils, b - podzolic-rusty soils).
70
-------
Of significance to both the pedogenic process and the functioning of ecosystems are
the transformations of organic forms of nitrogen into mineral forms, as well as the
proportionality between nitrate and ammonium salts in the mineralized nitrogen. The
literature draws attention to the more favorable influence of ammonium-nitrogen than nitrate-
nitrogen with respect to the development of the Scots pine Pinus sylvestris (Lotocki, Zelawski
1973; Uggla and Uggla,1979), as well as other coniferous forest habitats (Brozek 1985). Of
the total mineralized nitrogen, nitrates accounted for 24.7% on average and ammonium salts
for 75.3% (d = 12.8%)n. Bearing in mind the high degree of variability among forms of
nitrogen within a given year (Brozek 1985), these results should be treated only as a general
indicator of the interrelationships between the nitrate and ammonium forms of nitrogen. The
spatial variability in these relationships is characterised by a statistically significant separation
into two groups of profiles. The first comprises the soils from Lapland, Finnish Lakelands and
the Coast and Eastern Baltic Lakelands. Its distinguishing feature is a larger proportion of
ammonium salts among the mineralized nitrogen (85.1%), when compared to the mean values
determined for the podzolic soils as a whole. It is also characterised by a marked internal
uniformity (d = 4.6%). The second group encompasses the remaining profiles of podzolic soil
in the Central European Lowlands. The mean share of ammonium salts within the mineralized
nitrogen of these soils is 67.0%. However, the values obtained for this group also differ
markedly from one another (d = 11.4%).
In spite of such major differences in the proportions of the different forms of nitrogen,
only in the case of N-NH4+ content in the
epihumus of podzolic soils was there any
statistically-significant link with longitude
(Fig. 25). The different forms of nitrogen in
rusty-podzolic soils relative to longitude and
latitude were statistically significant, although
the relationship is weak. The content of total
nitrogen and of its mineral forms are
presented for the epihumus of podzolic soils
in Table 18.
40 -
[se-
f
32
28
I24
§20
16
12
15
18 21 24 27
longitude (E)
30
33
Figure 25. Regression line for the content of
N-NH4+ in epihumus subhorizon of podzolic
soils on longitude. (Y = 0,051 + l,256x, r =
O.QKO).
11 Sampling done in the summer period
71
-------
The C:N ratio in the different genetic horizons is characterised by great variability
(Fig. 26). For podzolics the mean values and standard deviations calculated for different
IA lub AEes DEes
IBh
QBfe
35,0 -,
30,0
25,0
20,0
O
<^°
I AEes D BfeBv H Bv
Figure 26. Carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) in particular genetic horizons of studied soils
(a - podzolic soils, b — podzolic-rusty soils)
horizons were as follows: A - 27.3 (d = 8.5), Fes - 18.9 (d = 8.3), Bh - 28.3 (d = 11.8) and
Bfe 21.8 (d = 10.1). In rusty-podzolic soils this ratio had rather lower values, 24.4 (d = 5.3) in
the case of the AEes horizon, and in the cases of BfeBv - 16.2 (d = 8.0), BvC - 9.4 (d = 6.3),
etc with a decline in values with depth. A majority of the profiles of podzolic soils display a
72
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slow mineralisation of organic matter, particularly in the north of the study area. The rusty-
podzolic soils of the Central Polish Lowlands have the best bio-ecological properties. The
factors influencing the efficiency of ecosystems in this physico-geographical province are a
warm and sufficiently humid climate, as well as limited anthropogenic impact (Degorski
1998a). This favors the development of soil micro- and macro fauna, which in this area attain
their greatest total biomass (Jefremow and Degorski 1998; Khotko 1998; Olechowicz 1998).
The latitudinal spatial variability in organic carbon to nitrogen ratio is characterised by
a statistically-significant relationship for both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils, while the
longitudinal variability is shown to be weak and is confined to podzolic soils. In the former
case, the relationship is approximated by a linear regression model, Y = -29.425 + l.lOlx (r =
0.878) for podzolic soils, and Y = -45.804 + 247x (r = 0.894) for rusty-podzolic soils. The
slope of the linear regression indicates that C:N ratios are significantly higher as one moves
northwards, with all the influence this can be expected to have on soil biological activity.
7.4.3. Fractional composition of humus
As part of the research on soil cover, analysis of the fractional composition of humus
showed common features that were either invariable over time or, at most, showing slight
temporal change (Duchaufour 1964; Bednarek 1991). At the interface between the epihumus
or fermentative organic sub-horizon (O) and the humus horizon (A), the fractional
composition of the humus is dominated by light-fraction (Fl + F2) fulvic acids; i.e., free
fulvic acids and those associated with RzOa mobile forms. In quantitative terms, these account
for between 4 and 18 % of the total content of carbon in the case of podzolic soils and from 4
to 19% of the C in rusty-podzolic soils. The group of humic acids is dominated by the light
(HI + H2) fraction. The difference between the light and heavy fractions is less for rusty-
podzolic soils than podzolic soils. In the Silesian-Cracovian Upland there is a prevalence of
humic acids of the heavy fraction of extraction 2 and 3. This points to greater polymerization
of brown humic acids, leading to the emergence of a certain quantity of humic acids of greater
speck, i.e. the so-called grey humic acids which are very important in the processes by which
litter becomes mineralised. In comparison with fulvic acid, these are characterised by a
greater sorption capacity and more favorable hydrophilous properties (Jefremow and
Degorski 1998).
From the palaeopedological point of view, one of the most important features of
humus is the ratio of carbon from humic acids - Ch to carbon from fulvic acids - Cf
(Bednarek 1991). This ratio provides information on the direction the soil-generating process
73
-------
is taking, as well as the nature of transformations of organic matter and soil age (Sklodowski
1974; Bednarek 1991).
In the zone of contact between the organic horizon and the upper part of the humus
horizon in the podzolic soils of Lapland (i.e. the youngest such soils), the ratio assumes the
lowest values (0.33-0.36), compared with greatest values in the range 0.61-0.72 in the oldest
soils of Eastern Europe. Greater values for the Ch : Cf ratio are linked with a greatrer degree
of humification, as expressed in the total share of carbon from fulvic acids, humic acids, and
humins as a percentage of the total carbon content. Its value in the soils of northern regions
was 8.89-9.60%, cf. 24.47-33.85% in eastern and southern parts of the study area (Table 19).
The Ch:Cf ratio, as well as the degree of humification, attest to enrichment of humus in the
soils of old-glacial areas. These soils are also observed to have greater shares of non-
hydrolising residues of the heavy fraction, i.e. the most durable humus compounds (mainly
humins), as well as lower values for carbon in the residuum, something that can also be
regarded as a diagnostic geographical soil indicator.
An analogous spatial variability was obtained for rusty-podzolic soils in that their
Ch:Cf ratios were much higher - in the range from 0.26-0.30 in Western Baltic Lakelands to
0.92-0.96 in Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus, Berezina-Desna Lowland and Silesian-
Cracovian Upland. The sub-provinces in Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus and Berezina-Desna
Lowland were also seen to have the greatest degree of humification of organic matter,
reaching 48.9-64.5% (see Appendix C, Table 19,).
The increase in values for the Ch: Cf ratio, as well as the degree of humification, as
one moves south and east through the study area is confirmed by the relationships between
these features and geographical coordinates. The relevant parameters for the regression
functions and correlation coefficients are as presented in Table 20
74
-------
Table 20. Regression parameters and correlation coefficients determined for the
relationships between some features of fractional composition of humus in organic and
humus horizons of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils (dependent variable) and longitude
or latitude (independent variable).
Soil types
podzolic
rusty-
podzolic
podzolic
rusty-
podzolic
Dependent
variable
Ch:Cf
degree of
humification
Independent variable
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
Parameters to the regression
a
-44.524
1.090
-0.231
27.625
0.362
416.373
36.547
207.885
b
5.597
-0.017
0.037
0.950
0.009
-12.371
-1.992
-3.090
c
-0.106
9.184
-
0.008
-
0.094
0.078
-
Correlation coefficient
r
0.910
0.384
0.889
0.363
0.414
0.870
0.720
0.642
All profiles for all soils in this study had values below 1 for the content of carbon in
humic acids compared to that of carbon in fulvic acids, thereby corresponding to the type 1
humusclassification from Kononowa (1968), which is characterised by a limited degree of
condensation of aromatic rings.
7.4.4. Biological activity
Biological activity plays a major role in the transformation of organic matter and is
one of the most important elements to the functioning of the pedosphere (Kononowa 1968;
Richards 1979; Puchalski, Prusinkiewicz 1990; Wood 1995; Breemen, et al, 2000). As an
ion-exchange substance of considerable sorption capacity, soil humus is of particular
significance in the ecosystems developed on the biotopes of light soils otherwise characterised
by a very limited sorption complex (Pokojska 1992; Berggren, Mulder 1995).
Microorganisms play a decisive role in the processes by which organic matter is
humified and mineralised. The results of research to date show that a good surrogate indicator
for the composition and activity of assemblages of microorganisms is the content of nucleic
acids, as well as the ratio of the abundance of bacteria together with actinomycetes to that of
fungi (Kosinkiewicz 1985; Myskow et al., 1996; Jefremow 1999). On the basis of the
microbiological research carried out by Jefremow and Degorski (1998) in 16 soil profiles (of
the 39 referred to in this study - located between Western Baltic Lakelands and Berezina-
Desna Lowland), differences in the biomass of microorganisms, as well as the contents of
nucleic acids, depend in great measure on local habitat conditions and secondly on
geographical location. The main microbiological characteristics determined for the 16 soil
75
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profiles are similar to those obtained previously for podzolic earths of the Central European
Lowland (Jefremow 1998). The RNA/DNA ratio (indicative of the metabolic activity of the
microbiological complex - Jefremow 1990) ranged from 0.75 to 0.92 in the organic horizons
to 0.58 to 0.68 in the mineral horizons (Jefremow, Degorski 1998). The mass of
microorganisms12 in a 0.5 m layer of soil 1 m2 ranged between 167g in podzolic soils to433g
in rusty-podzolic soils. Nucleic acids ranged from 44 to 122g respectively, of which DNA
accounted for 58-60%, and RNA for 40-42%. Within the overall biomass of microorganisms,
bacteria accounted for 8-12%, and fungi for 88-92%.The ratio of bacteria to fungi had values
of 1:7 and 1:12. The profiles were characterised by considerably shorter lengths of fungal
hyphae in the humus horizon than in the organic. The differences were between 2.5-fold and
6-fold. Similar differentiation was obtained in the case of bacterial cells, though the figures
were only between 43 and 80% as great. The strong development of fungi within and on the
surface of the overlying humus (with its markedly acid reaction) is a natural phenomenon, but
one that is not favorable from the point of view of the biological efficiency of ecosystems.
Many species of fungi occurring at the sites studied display toxic properties (Smyk 1974;
Vareetal., 1996).
The vertical distribution of microorganisms in the profiles is related to the rate of
decomposition of organic matter. Work carried out in the profiles located within Poland using
cotton strips showed that, irrespective of the season of the year, the most rapid breakdown of
cotton occurred at the point of contact between the epihumus sub-horizon and humus horizon
(Degorski and Reed 1998).
According to Myskow etal. (1996), the metabolic activity of microorganisms is linked
with their development. Assuming that the activity in question is manifested in enzyme
activity, an indicator of the biological efficiency of soils is lactic dehydrogenase. Significant
correlations were obtained for the relationship between the activity of lactic dehydrogenase in
the humus horizon of the 16 studied soils and bacterial biomass (r = 0.821) or fungal biomass
(r = 0.816). Unlike measuring populations of selected groups of microorganisms, the
determination of enzymes is relatively simple, and it is easier to run in a series of analyses
(Myskow etal. 1996). It was for this reason that the determination of biological activity made
use of an analysis of lactic dehydrogenase activity.
12 The abundance of bacteria, biomass of fungal mycelia, length of hyphae and content of nucleic acids were all
determined at the Soil Enzymology Laboratory of the Belarussian Academy of Sciences in Minsk. A precise
description of the methods of determination is included in Jefremow and Degorski (1998).
76
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In podzolic soils, the mean amount of formazan indicative of dehydrogenase activity
was 0.749 mg'g"1 of soil in the organic horizon and 0.865 mg'g"1 of soil in the humus horizon.
In the rusty-podzolic soils, the respective figures were 0.441 and 1.211 mg'g"1. The spatial
variability in lactic dehydrogenase activity in rusty-podzolic soils was much more uniform
than for podzolic soils. The amounts of formazan obtained for the organic horizons of rusty-
podzolic soils differ across an almost-threefold range - from 0.258 mg'g"1 of soil in profile 31
to 0.750 mg'g"1 of soil in profile 27. There was nearly a 39-fold range observable in podzolic
soils, between 0.058 mg'g"1 of soil in profile 10 and 2.292 mg'g"1 of soil in profile 15. The
range of values in the humus horizons of rusty-podzolic soils was nearly 6-fold (between
0.362 mg'g"1 in profile 27 and 2.078 mg'g"1 in profile 33) compared to a 25-fold range in
podzolic soils (from 0.067 mg'g"1 of soil in profile 26 to 1.675 mg'g"1 in profile 20). In spite of
the large differences in lactic dehydrogenase activity between the different soils, and between
the fermentative sub-horizon and superficial parts of the humus horizon, the variability
displayed may reflect geographically-diversified hygrothermal properties of the climate. As
humidity and amplitudes of temperature decline, there is an increase in enzyme activity in the
humus horizon, as well as a decline in activity in the fermentative sub-horizon of the organic
horizon. The correlation coefficient determined for the relationship between the amplitude in
annual temperature and dehydrogenase activity in the O horizon is of r = - 0.588, cf. r = 0.639
for the humus (A) horizon.
Where the podzolic soils were concerned, those in the cool climatic conditions in the
north of the study area have greater biological activity in the humus horizon (A). In the areas
of central Europe with more moderate winters, it is the fermentative sub-horizon that is more
biologically active (Fig. 27 a). In a cold climate, the organic horizon (O) plays the role of
thermoregulator of the soil climate (Richards 1979), hence the greatest level of biological
activity is concentrated in the upper parts of the humus horizon.
Where rusty-podzolic soils are characterised by the moder type of overlying humus
(lacking an epihumus sub-horizon), and hence by a layer of more limited thickness than the
mor type of overlying humus in podzolic soils there was a frequent shifting of the whole
organic horizon during the growing season. This phenomenon may be the cause of another
characteristic of the profiles in Poland - a higher level of lactic dehydrogenase activity in the
humus horizon than in the organic horizon (Fig. 27b).
Lactic dehydrogenase is less resistant to exogenous hygrothermal factors than other
enzymes (e.g. phosphatase) (Galstyan 1982; Lahdesmakki and Piispanen 1988, 1992).
Relatively low correlation coefficients between climatic factors and dehydrogenase activity
77
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suggest that the spatial variability is under the direct or indirect impact of many other habitat
and pedogenic factors such as the content of humus, occurrence of fungi, thickness of the
organic horizon and intensity of podzolization processes. A major role is also played by such
anthropogenic factors as type of forestry management pursued now or in the past in the given
area (Jefremow, Degorski 1998).
In spite of the impact of a range of pedological and habitat factors, the activity of the
dehydrogenase enzyme shows statistically significant spatial differences. These entail a
difference in the intensity of lactic dehydrogenase activity in the humus or organic horizons of
areas with a cool-temperate or warm-temperate climate. Table 21 presents regression
parameters and correlation coefficients determined for formazan; i.e., lactic dehydrogenase
activity in the humus or humus-eluvial horizons of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils from
sites of different geographical coordinates.
Table 21. Regression parameters and correlation coefficients determined for relation
between dehydrogenase activity in humus horizons of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils
(dependent variable) and longitude or latitude (independent variable).
Soil types
podzolic
rusty-
podzolic
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
Reg ression Parameters
a
-0659
-12.96Q
-3.814
-0577
b
0059
0414
0.426
0042
c
-
-0003
-0.080
-
Correlation coefficient
r
0.775
0.749
0.856
0.998
78
-------
2.5 -i-
o
ifi
•5
T 1.
£ 0.5
o
--A or AEes
— — . o
o
in
"5
& 1'5 '
t
03
® n *=; -
n -
.•,
X "V
,>* N
X S
. •-' N ^
/
/ \
/ \
/ s
/
-.-/
m----' r *..
*-_ / •--.. ^ * _.... *
~~-^ •» * --.^.--
er
•o
--AEes
Figure 27. Value of formasan as an indicator of dehydrogenase activity in organic horizon (O) and
humus horizon (A) or humus-eluvial horizon (AEes) of studied soils
(a - podzolic soils, b — podzolic-rusty soils),
79
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7.4.5. Reaction
An acid reaction is one of the diagnostic features of podzolic earths. Both the podzolic
soils and the rusty-podzolic soils were found to be similar ir their reaction to analogous ones
in other regions of the Central European Lowland and Scandinavia. The lowest values for
pHRci or pHnzo characterise the organic horizon, in which pH values were 0.1-0.3 units lower
than in the A or AE horizons. In the soil solum, values for pHRci ranged from 3.1 in the humus
horizons of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils to 4.8 - 5.0 in parent rock. The lowest values for
pHRci - noted in the enrichment sub-horizon Bhfe - were even in the range 2.6 - 2.8. Similar
trends were obtained for pHnzo, except that the index had higher absolute values (Fig. 28)13.
5,6 -,
• C H Bfe
PEes
IA lub AEes
5,6
5,4
5,2
Figure 28. Reaction (pHnao) of particular genetic horizons of studied soils
(a - podzolic soils, b — podzolic-rusty soils)
' The pHH2o values are the means of 10 measurements made in different seasons over 3 - 5 years.
80
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While the spatial variability in the reactions of both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils
revealed no statistically-significant regional differences, certain tendencies were noted. In the
case of podzolic soils, pH values tend to be higher at lower latitudes; i.e., towards Central
Europe, irrespective of the genetic horizon being considered (Fig. 28a). In regions of Central
Europe, differences in reaction between different profiles depend mainly on local habitat
conditioning. The rusty-podzolic soils are characterised by a rather uniform spatial
distribution of pH values. The greatest differences between profiles are characteristic of the
humus horizon, with profiles assuming increasingly similar reactions at increasing depths
below the surface (Fig. 28 b).
The results obtained also support the observations of Tamm and Hallbacken (1988)
regarding the different degrees of impact of organic acids on the development of soil reactions
in relation to geographical location. Compared with southern parts, northern regions of the
study area displayed markedly smaller differences in pH between the humus horizons and
parent rock of profiles. This indicates much more limited biological acidification of soils
under the influence of the acidophilous vegetation present in regions with a short growing
season, as well as the washing-through of humic acids beyond the relatively thin solum layer
under the conditions of a wet climate. Soil age is significant. The young soils of northern
Europe are still a very active pedogenic environment, in which contemporary soil-creating
processes are proceeding very actively. A multiplicity of soil and non-soil factors influencing
the development of soil reaction ensure that the spatial differentiation to in pH is only weakly
associated with the geographical location of profiles.
Exchangeable acidity mainly reflects the presence of exchangeable aluminium ions,
the mean content of which in the humus horizon is 3.1 cmol (+) kg * (d = 1.4) in the case of
podzolic soils and 3.6 cmol (+) kg4 (d = 2.8) for rusty-podzolic soils. The figure for the sub-
horizon of enrichment (Bh) of the podzolic soils is 2.8 cmol (+) kg4 (d = 2.5). The average
share of A13+ in total exchangeable acidity is 74.4% (d = 19.3) in the humus horizon of
podzolic soils, 81% (d = 8.9) in the eluvial horizon and 83.9% (d = 8.7) in the enrichment
sub-horizon Bh - Fig. 29. The rusty-podzolic soils were characterised by
81
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A or AEes
Ees
11
10
£ 6
xy X-X*
12
11
10
6) 7
Bh
V^^^-^^^€>V
iHH+
Figure 29. Exchangeable hydrogen (H"*) and exchangeable aluminium (AI3+)
as an exchange acidity in some genetic horizons of podzolic soils.
82
-------
similar values throughout the profile; i.e., 84.7% (d = 16.8) in the humus horizon, 87.6% (d =
16.5) in the BfeBv horizon, and 89.6% (d = 13.5) in the BvC horizon (Fig. 30, below).
The spatial variability in the role aluminium plays in exchangeable acidity is related to
the reactions of the different soil profiles. The relationships between contents of the different
forms of aluminium (including exchangeable aluminium) and reaction, are known from the
literature (Ulrich 1981, 1989; Berggren 1992, 1994; Sullivan 1994). H. Ulrich (1981) among
others pointed to the rapid release of Al3+ ions where the pH of soils is in the range 3.8-4.2.
The elevation of the share of exchangeable activity accounted for by exchangeable
aluminium, as noted in profiles at intermediate latitudes, may point to the activity of non-soil-
related factors. For example, certain authors attribute the increased content of exchangeable
aluminium in the soils of Central Europe to environmental pollution (Filipek 1989, 1994).
The geographical locations of profiles are statistically significanly different for exchangeable
hydrogen, aluminium and acidity.These differences are clearly under the influence of many
factors including local conditioning, soil age and the mechanisms and activity of the processes
themselves. The regression functions approximating the relationship between each of the
features and geographical coordinates emphasise the influence of the above factors (Table
22).
Table 22. Regression parameters and correlation coefficients determined for the
relationship between exchangeable hydrogen (H+), exchangeable aluminium (Al.3+) and
exchangeable acidity (Hw) in humus horizons of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils
(dependent variable) and longitude or latitude (independent variable).
Dependent
variable
H+
AI3+
Hw
Independent variable
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
longitude
latitude
Regression parameters
a
-6.388
-19.249
1.030
-9.715
-6.595
25.325
3.339
151.006
-12.280
5.989
4.369
151.467
b
0.676
0.841
-0.053
0.196
0.850
-0.814
0.104
-5.246
1.474
0.031
0.051
-5.412
c
-0.015
-0.008
0.001
-
-0.018
0.007
-0.006
0.047
-0.032
-0001
-0.005
0.050
Correlation coefficient
r
0.601
0.839
0.536
0.821
0.838
0.419
0.716
0.459
0.768
0.404
0.712
0.754
83
-------
Figure 30. Exchangeable hydrogen (H+) and exchangeable
aluminium (A13+) as an exchange acidity in some genetic
horizons of podzolic-rusty soils.
AEes
y y
^
BfeBv
^
x^x
Bv
84
-------
Exchangeable hydrogen, aluminium ions and exchangeable acidity show spatial
differentiation in different genetic horizons. While absolute values for correlation coefficients
are similar, the directions in the variability differ. For example, in the case of the AEes humus
horizon of rusty-podzolic soils, the value of the correlation coefficient determined for
exchangeable acidity relative to the location of a profile was 0.75. This compares with r = -
0.70 for the BfeBv horizon. Note the reverse nature of the variability in these two genetic
horizons. In the BfeBv horizon, exchangeable acidity is greater at lower latitudes of podzolic
soils (Fig. 30). The humus horizon, however, in lower latitudes are associated with lower
contents of exchangeable aluminium and hydrogen ions. For rusty-podzolic soils, spatially-
related inter-profile differences observed for exchangeable acidity in the humus horizon may
also reflect greater humidity of climate towards the east, as well as more intensive processes
of leaching in pedons.
Habitat conditions manifested in features of biotopes in toposequences (inter alia
moisture conditions, soil reaction, and the abundance and composition of organic matter), are
also characterised by statistically-significant linkage with the vertical and spatial
differentiation of exchangeable acidity. This indicates that geographical variation in Hw in the
analysed soils is dependent on many local habitat factors. For example, greater organic matter
content in the humus horizon of podzolic soils can be linked with greater exchangeable
acidity in all the studied podzolic soils. The value of the correlation coefficient between
content of organic matter and Hw value in all of the studied podzolic soils was 0.53. A still
higher value for the correlation coefficient (r = -0.63) was obtained for an aggregated habitat
index taking account not only of reaction and the content of organic matter in soils, but also
their aerial and water-related properties, thereby confirming the complex nature of the
relationship. In contrast, the greatest content of exchangeable aluminium, noted for the profile
from Kuznia Raciborska (profile 39), clearly points to its anthropogenic nature. The profile
islocated in an industrialised region of Poland (Silesia) and thus within the zone of strong
impact of pollution, which reaches the soil via wet and dry deposition (Degorski 1998d).
In spite of local factors influencing exchangeable acidity, we find a general regularity
to the spatial variation regarding this feature. The humus horizons in the northern parts of the
study area show higher exchangeable aluminium than those in the south. The reverse situation
applies to exchangeable hydrogen ions, which tends to be higher in sites further to the south.
Absolute differences in these exchangeable cations reveal different scopes of variability.
Aluminium is much more uniform among sites along the N-S axis than are exchangeable
85
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hydrogen ions, whose levels grow greater in sites further south thus raising the overall level of
exchangeable acidity.
The regression parameters and correlation coefficients for exchangeable acidity,
exchangeable aluminium and exchangeable hydrogen ions in the humus horizon as against
geographical coordinates are presented in Table 22.
86
-------
7.4.6. The content of exchangeable base cations and sorption properties
Exchangeable cations in this study and for several tens of other profiles analysed
previously from the macroregions of Hamme (Degorski 1994a) and Southern Lapland
(Degorski 200la), provided no basis for the identification of statistically-significant
differences across space (See Appendix A). Each of the studied exchangeable cations is
characterised by considerable spatial variability, the magnitude of which is linked with local
habitat conditioning more than with geographical variability of pedogenic factors. The range
of variability of the different exchangeable cations is very wide (Table 24).
Table 24. Mean values (Ca +m, Mg +m, K+m , Na+m), extreme values (Ca +min - Ca
Mg2+ min - Mg2+ max; K+ mm - K+ max! Na+ mm - Na+ max) and standard deviation (d) of
exchangeable cations in each genetic horizons of studied soils.
,2+
Genetic
horizon
Ca2+
Ca"+m
d
Ca"+min - Ca"+max
Mg2+
Mg"+m
d
Mg2+min " Mg2+max
K+
K+m
d
K+min - K+max
Na+
Na+m
d
Na+min- Na+max
cmol(+).kg-1
podzolic soils
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
0.62
0.47
0.34
0.41
0.37
0.23
0.28
0.17
0.29
0.29
0.19- 1.14
0.08- 1.23
0.11 -0.78
0.11 - 1.09
0.03- 1.02
0.17
0.08
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.13
0.04
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06-0.65
0.05-0.21
0.02-0.27
0.03-0.25
0.01 -0.25
0.25
0.13
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.10
0.07
0.12
0.12
0.13
0.07-0.42
0.02-0.29
0.04-0.43
0.03-0.40
0.02-0.39
0.17
0.10
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.08-0.37
0.03-0.16
0.06-0.20
0.03-0.20
0.01 -0.26
rusty-podzolic soils
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
1.12
0.40
0.30
0.28
0.25
0.71
0.24
0.15
0.13
0.19
0.29-2.83
0.12-0.89
0.13-0.51
0.09-0.43
0.05-0.57
0.36
0.16
0.11
0.07
0.09
0.36
0.12
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.11 - 1.34
0.05-0.44
0.05-0.26
0.03-0.11
0.04-0.13
0.30
0.13
0.13
0.05
0.13
0.26
0.09
0.13
0.01
0.12
0.07- 1.11
0.02-0.31
0.02-0.59
0.04-0.06
0.01 -0.44
0.21
0.14
0.11
0.07
0.10
0.14
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.08-0.68
0.07-0.27
0.05-0.18
0.03-0.12
0.03-0.26
The difference (R) between the noted maximum for a given cation (nmax) and the minimal
(nmin), as defined for all the studied soil profiles, shows that in both the podzolic soils and the
rusty-podzolic soils, the greatest spatial variability is that characterizing the horizon of parent
rock (R = 26.1 and R = 16.8 respectively). In turn, the smallest differences in exchangeable
cations were observed in the AEes and Bh horizons of the podzolic soils (R = 6.9 and 8.7
respectively), and in the BvC and Bv horizons of rusty-podzolic soils (R = 3.3 and 5.4
respectively). In contrast, when the R values determined for different cations were compared,
the greatest differences in content in podzolic soils relate to exchangeable calcium, followed
by potassium, magnesium and sodium (Ca > K > Mg > Na). The order in the rusty-podzolic
soils is in turn: K >Na > Ca > Mg.
The vertical distributions of exchangeable base cations in podzolic soils follow
different patterns depending on whether these are monovalent or divalent. Within-profile
variability for monovalent exchangeable cations is characterised by markedly lower levels in
the eluvial horizon, by higher values in the Bh sub-horizon, and then a decline in the deeper
mineral horizons. The contents of both exchangeable calcium and magnesium decline with
87
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depth in most of the profiles. In the case of rusty-podzolic soils, all the exchangeable base
cations are characterised by a steady decline in content with depth (See Appendix A).
The size of the change in Table 25. Percentage changeability of the exchangeable
content of the different cations between neighbor genetic honzons.
exchangeable base cations
between adjacent genetic horizons
- as determined on the basis of
the index of "loss of content"14
(Bain etal., 1993) - shows that, in
podzolic soils, the sequence for
cations from the one showing the
greatest variability down through
to the least diversified between
Podzolic soils
cations
Ca2+
Mcf
K+
Na*
AEes/Ees
99
129
138
119
Bh/Ees
55
68
65
72
Bh/Bfe
56
46
34
38
Bfe/C
40
38
56
73
nm
62.5
70.3
73.2
75.5
Rusty-podzolic soils
cations
Ca2+
Mc]2+
K+
Na*
AEes/BfeBv
291
145
142
55
BfeBv/Bv
51
35
52
28
Bv?BvC
55
42
69
78
BvC/C
45
30
368
324
nm
110,5
63.0
157,8
121.1
genetic horizons is: Na>K>Mg>Ca. However, differences in values for the index defined for
different cations are not large, and range from 62.5% do 75.5% (Table 25). Analogous results
for chronosequences of Scottish podzolic soils were presented by Bain et al. (1993) in their
work. A rather different ordering of cations in terms of the obtained indices was found for
rusty-podzolic soils, in which the greatest "loss" between genetic horizons were noted in the
case of exchangeable potassium. Cations may be arranged as follows: K > Na > Ca > Mg. The
most even distribution in exchangeable cations is observed for magnesium, probably a result
of its limited lability (Olsson and Melkerud 2000).
Values for the sum of base cations (S) are low in all the analysed soils and resemble
base cations in that they decline down the profile to parent rock. In podzolic soils, S in the
humus-eluvial horizon (AEes) ranges from 0.46 to 1.84 cmol (+) kg"1. In many profiles,
horizon C shows a slight increase. Certain of the soils also manifest an increase in the sum of
base cations in sub-horizon Bh. Compared with podzolic soils, rusty-podzolic soils have
greater values for the sum of base cations. For example, in the eluvial-humus horizon, these
range from 0.46 to 5.97 cmol (+) kg"1 (Appendix A).
Similar vertical differentiation is shown by sorption capacity (T). The only difference
in this case is a marked increase in its value in the sub-horizon of enrichment, Bh, when
compared with adjacent genetic horizons.Frequently the degree of elevation in comparison
with the eluvial horizon exceeds 50% (Appendix A).
14 The index of the loss of content is defined as [ 1 - Xa.xt,"1], where xa is the content of the given exchangeable
cation in horizon a and Xb the content of the given cation in horizon b.
88
-------
Of significance when it comes to assessing the functioning of pedons is the
proportionality between the content of different cations in the sorption complex. Irrespective
of geographical location, the dominant base cations are the divalent ones (Ca2+ and Mg2+), and
hence those of considerable exchange capacity. Their share of the total for base cations is 85%
in podzolic soils and 95% in rusty-podzolic ones (Appendix A). Nonetheless, the sorption
complex of the analysed soils is mainly saturated with hydrogen ions, which account for
between 70 and 90+% of sorption capacity (Appendix A). The sum of base cations is most
often between several and 10+ per cent of all cations in the sorption complex, maximally at or
below 40%. Most common are calcium ions (maximally to more than 20%), magnesium
(maximally 5%), potassium (to 10+%) and sodium (to 5%). These proportions increase with
depth. The degree of saturation of the sorption complex with base cations in the analysed soils
is thus very small, confirming the oligotrophic status (Fig. 31).
Also noteworthy is the limited range of proportionality values among cations. First
calcium v magnesium followed by calcium v potassium and magnesium v potassium. The
results obtained for this confirm earlier observations from Filipek (1990) and Szafranek
(2000) relative to the direct proportional influence of active acidity on these relationships. It
also confirms the inversely proportional relationship between reaction and the share of
exchangeable potassium ions. The best relationship of this kind may be observed in podzolic
soils, in which a decline in the pH of soils is associated with a narrowing of the ratios between
exchangeable cations and an increase in the content of exchangeable potassium (Appendix A).
Research by Reuss and Johnson (1986) shows that a relationship between the reaction of soils
and the content of exchangeable cations is ongoing at pH values below 4.2 or above 5.6. In
the analysed pedons, the strongest statistical link between pH and the content of exchangeable
base cations are those reported in very acid organic, humus and enrichment horizons in
podzolic soils - something that may confirm the thesis put forward by the aforementioned
authors.
All of the studied soils (both podzolic and rusty-podzolic) are characterised by a low
or average level of resistance to external (anthropogenic) factors. In most of the analysed
profiles, the mean values for the index of elasticity (after Ulrich et al. 1984)15 determined for
the different genetic horizons are lower than 15, thereby qualifying these soils as being of
limited stability where exogenous factors are concerned (Degorski 1990). Analysis of the
spatial variabilityof the Ulrich index shows that this is the only sorptive characteristic of the
1 The index of soil elasticity is defined as £Ca2+Mg2+ T1 (Ulrich et al, 1984)
89
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soils to allow for a significant differentiation of the studied profiles into two groups. It was
reported that podzolic soils situated in eastern Poland as well as Belarus (profiles 15, 17, 19,
Figure 31. Degree of base saturation (V) particular genetic horizons of studied soils
(a - podzolic soils, b podzolic-rusty soils)
a
50 i
45
• C BBfe BBh DEes
lAlub AEes
^ ^ >* ^ ^ ^° \^ ^
-------
20 and 22) are characterised by much higher values for this index, - indicative of moderately
resistant soils (values of the Ulrich index > 15). In the Bh sub-horizon (the main sorbent is
organic matter) of the humus-eluvial horizon, the mean value for the index is 11.8, indicating
the lesser resistance of these horizons to external factors (Table 26). In the case of rusty -
podzolic soils, all the profiles represent one group - albeit one internally diverse as shown by
the wide range of values for the index calculated for different genetic horizons (Table 26).
Table 26. Mean values (Uim), extreme values (Uimjn - Uimax) and standard deviation (d) of
Ulrich index determined for genetic horizons of all podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils.
Podzolic soils
genetic
horizon
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
group 1
Uirn
6.3
7.9
4.8
9.0
10.6
d
2.8
4.1
2.4
4.4
4.8
Ulmin " Ulmax
2.0- 13.4
3.1 - 16.6
1.5- 8.9
3.8 - 20.0
5.1 - 21.3
group II
nm
11.8
21.0
11.8
21.5
25.2
d
5.3
3,7
3.4
4.8
5.0
Ulmin " Ulmax
5.9-18.8
17.6-27.7
9.3- 17.6
13.6-28.5
18.4-33.7
Rusty-podzolic soils
genetic
horizon
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
all
Ulm
12.0
9.5
9.1
11.2
14.5
d
6.3
3.6
3.2
4.6
4.3
Drofiles
Ulmin " Ulmax
3.8-25.3
4.8- 15.2
5.1 -15,7
5.9- 19.6
9.0-22,8
Group I - profiles of podzolic soils (without profiles of group II)
Group II - profiles: 15, 17, 19, 20, 22 (Eastern Poland and Belarus)
Few of the sorption properties show statistically significant linkage with geographical
location. Very significant relationships were confined to the degree of saturation of the
sorption complexes of rusty-podzolic soils with calcium and hydrogen ions. Latitudinal
variability in Vca2+ is manifested by a decrease as one moves south.The relationship is
described by the second-order polynomial Y = -660.34 + 22.784x - 0.192x2; r = 0.951), where
VH+ increases markedly in that same direction. The mathematical formula for the regression
model regarding the degree of saturation with hydrogen ions in relation to latitude has the
form: Y = 1966.257 - 64.523x + 0.547x2, (r = 0.971). Also emerging as significant is the
longitudinal variation in the value of the Ulrich index in podzolic soils (Fig. 32).
Figure 32. Regression curves for the values of
7.4.7. Forms of iron and aluminium
The role of iron and aluminium as
pedogenic elements in the emergence and
development of podzolic earths is well-
documented. Particularly important in
podzolization process are the mutual
relationships between the different forms of
Ulrich index in podzolic soils on longitude
Y= 42,528-3,778x + 0,102x2, r = 0,819
37.0
32.0
x 27.0
01
TJ
.E 22.0
I 17.0
these elements. While the total content of
12.0
7.0
12 15 18 21 24 27
longitude (E)
30
33
-------
iron and aluminium in soils results from the resources in the parent rock, it is the content of
mobile (non-silicate) forms, as well as crystalline oxides, that determines the course and
intensity of the soil-forming process (Fridland 1957; Konecka-Betley 1968; Petersen 1976;
Pokojska 1979a; Mokma, Buurman 1982; Bednarek, Pokojska 1996; Melke 1997; Giesler et
al, 2000; Lundstrom etal., 2000b).
The content of iron characterizing the resource in the habitat (Fez)
The amount of iron extracted in 20% HC1 is taken by many authors to measure the
overall resource of this element in a given habitat (Prusinkiewicz and Kowalkowski 1964;
Bialousz 1978; Szafranek 1990). It constitutes the reserve of iron that may be liberated
steadily in soil from the primary and secondary minerals, as well as decomposing organic
matter. In light soils this represents between 90 and 100% of the total content of the element
(Gworek 1985; Szafranek 2000), as determined by the solution of samples in hydrofluoric and
perchloric acid (Mocek 1988; Melke 1997; Szafranek 2000), or else alloy from Na2CO3
(Konecka-Betley 1968; Bednarek 1991). On account of the very poor mineral composition,
the weathered parts of soils have iron contained in minerals of undisturbed crystalline
structure (undeterminable by the above method) that represent only a tiny fraction (just
several per cent) of the overall content of the element. Szafranek (2000) also pointed to the
highly significant relationship between the content of iron determined in 20% HC1 and the
total content of Fet in the rusty soils of central Poland, showing that the increase in Fet and Fez
is directly proportional.
The iron content (Fez) in podzolic soils ranged from 1.1 to 8.2 gkg-1 in horizon A, and
from 3.5 to 6.2 gkg4 in horizon C. In the rusty-podzolic soils, the range of variability is lower
- amounting to between 6.5 and 10 gkg * in horizon A, cf. 3 to 6 gkg4 in parent rock (Table
27). The higher content of iron (Fez) in the upper genetic horizons results from the stronger
impact of weathering processes on the soil substratum, as well as the accumulation of organic
matter. Differences in Fez content between the humus horizon and the ones underlying it do
not exceed 1-2 gkg * of soil (Table 27). On the other hand, the fact that Fez is greater in the
diagnostic spodic horizon compared with the eluvial or parent-rock horizons, emphasises the
trend towards the accumulation of iron. This occurs especially in the enrichment sub-horizon
Bh, as well as the sub-horizon Bfe in the northern part of the study area. The latter area also
features the most marked differentiation in content of Fez between the eluvial horizon and the
diagnostic spodic horizon, 34-fold in profile 1 and 35-fold in profile 3. Across the European
Lowland, these differences are much more limited, normally 2 to 3-fold. In certain profiles, a
92
-------
further factor which might encourage differentiation of contents of this form of iron is the
sedimentary lamination of layers of lithological material with diversified Fez
Table 27. Content of different forms of iron and aluminum in
some soil profiles.
No. of
profil e
podzolic s
1
3
12
15
16
17
24
26
rusty-pod
8
25
31
39
18
hori zon
oils
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
zolic soils
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
AI0
AU,
Alp
Fez
Fed
Fegk
Fe0
Fekr
Feac
Fep
fjkg-1
0.90
0 58
3 98
5.65
1 65
1.46
O 46
9.43
3 58
1 35
1.7O
O 52
3.75
2 54
1 33
1.79
O 93
5 14
1 63
O 98
1.62
O 88
2 98
1 .72
O 72
1-7O
O 46
2 72
2 54
1 33
O.98
O 72
6.78
3 77
1 83
1.89
O 89
3 81
1 87
O 89
O.95
3 87
1.12
O 73
O.69
1 56
1 21
O 28
O.69
2.23
1 15
O 28
0.76
1 33
O 98
O 78
O 67
O.54
1 46
3 46
O 92
O 45
0.53
0 44
2 85
3 99
1 34
1.16
O.39
5.66
2 75
O 98
1.44
O.30
1.O3
0 9O
0 21
1.37
O.69
313
1 O7
O.75
1.33
O 74
1 19
1 17
O.55
1.29
0 31
0 72
0 82
O.39
O.4O
O 56
2 22
O.98
O 93
1.51
O 62
1 92
1.29
O 87
O.70
3.25
O.99
O 71
O.42
1.13
1 O5
O 24
O.48
1 .73
O.85
O 1O
0.50
O 97
O 79
O.7O
O 66
O.35
O 99
3 24
O 85
O 42
0.37
0.14
113
1.66
0 31
0.30
0 O7
3.77
O 83
O 37
O.26
0.22
2.72
1 64
112
0.42
0.24
2.O1
O 56
0 23
0.29
0 14
1 79
O 55
017
0.41
0 15
2 00
1 72
O 94
0.58
O 16
4.56
2 79
0 9O
O.38
O 27
1.89
O.58
0 O2
0.25
0 62
013
O O2
0.27
0.43
016
0 O4
O.21
0 5O
0.3O
018
0.26
0 36
O 19
O.O8
O.O1
O.19
O 47
O.22
O O7
O O3
1.27
0 37
5 45
12 O6
3 45
1.10
0 44
15.61
6 62
4 6O
3.12
1 79
8.21
1 57
1.44
5.23
3 4O
8 53
8 34
3.53
5.34
311
9 O8
4.57
3 4O
5.12
2 O6
9 56
4 28
111
8.19
6 78
11 97
10.42
6. 2O
4.31
3 O9
5 89
5.45
418
3.68
3.92
3 45
416
6.52
5.6O
5.27
571
7.91
7 75
6. 2O
5 39
5.79
9 71
3 88
2 76
2 98
7.78
8 52
6 83
7 09
5 O1
0.79
016
2 69
6 03
1 68
0.68
O.26
7 14
3.57
1 O5
1.32
O 78
3.88
O 85
O 56
2.56
O 62
3 86
2 61
1 24
1.32
O 65
2 68
1 97
111
2.06
O 33
6 15
213
O58
3.37
1 42
7 39
6.05
3 56
2.34
111
2 98
1.98
O 93
2.69
3 04
1 36
O 99
1.56
243
1 23
O 87
1.18
1 53
O.97
O.67
1.89
2 79
1 66
O 86
O 71
1.76
2 98
1 35
1 O7
O 85
0.48
0 21
2 76
6 O3
1 77
O.42
O 18
8 47
3 O5
3 55
1.8O
1.O1
4.33
O 72
0 88
2.67
2 78
4 67
5 73
2 29
4. 02
2 46
6 4O
2 6O
2 29
3.O6
1 73
3 41
215
O 53
4.82
5 36
4 58
4 37
2 64
1.97
1.98
2.91
3.47
3 25
0.99
O.88
2.O9
317
4.96
3.17
4 O4
4 84
6.73
6 22
5.23
4 72
3.90
6 92
2 22
1.9O
2.27
6. 02
5.54
5 48
6 O2
4 16
0.49
012
212
443
O 59
0.47
O.2O
4.37
2 OS
O 59
1.13
O.72
1.53
O 28
013
1.46
O.26
2.24
1 57
O.78
O.96
O 23
1 68
1 24
O.56
1.77
0 24
1 98
0 65
O.28
1.25
O 34
2 96
2.O7
O 89
1.45
O 61
2 OS
1.26
O 34
1.48
2.36
O.85
O 47
O.98
1.66
O 35
O 23
O.59
O.96
O.41
O 33
0.98
1 46
O 68
O.39
O 30
1.O6
2 O8
O 73
O 35
O 21
0.30
0 04
O57
1 6O
1 09
0.21
O.O6
2.77
1 49
O 46
O.19
O O6
2.35
O 57
0.43
1.1O
O 36
1.62
1 O4
O.46
O.36
O 42
1 OO
O 73
O.55
O.29
O 09
453
1.48
O 3O
2-12
1 OS
443
3 98
2.67
O.89
O 5O
O 9O
O 72
O 59
1.21
O 68
O 51
O 52
O.58
O 77
O 89
O 64
O.59
O.57
O56
0 34
0.91
1 33
O 98
O 47
O 41
O.7O
O 9O
O 62
O 72
O 64
0-35
0 06
1 87
3 79
046
O.21
O 09
2.77
1 71
O 47
1.OO
O 63
0 .93
017
0 05
O.97
016
O 9O
O 69
O 24
O.62
O 14
O 45
O 26
O.35
1-49
O 09
0 51
0 22
O.07
0-78
O 25
O 39
O 99
O.48
O.93
O 56
O 81
O47
O 31
1.15
1.81
O 76
O 46
O.64
1.26
O 24
O 2O
O.33
O 67
O.26
0 21
0.69
0 95
0.51
O 36
O 3O
O.81
2 39
O 54
O 28
O 2O
0.14
0 06
O 25
O.64
013
0.26
O 11
1 6O
O 37
O 12
O.13
O O9
O.6O
011
0 08
0.49
O.1O
1 34
O 88
O.54
O.34
O O9
1 23
O 98
O.21
O.28
O 15
111
O43
O 21
O.47
O O9
2.57
1 OS
O 41
O.52
O O5
1 27
O.79
0 O3
0.33
O.55
O.O9
O O1
O.34
O.4O
O 11
O O3
O.26
O.29
O.15
O 12
0.29
O 51
O 17
O.O3
O OO
O.25
O 59
O 19
O O7
O O1
A.10 — amorphous forms of aluminium; Alac - inorganic forms of alurniniurn
(A-10 — Alp); Alp — organic forms of aluminium; Fez - iron extracted in 2O%
HC1; Fe^ — free iron; Fegk — silicate forms of iron (Fez — Fe^); Fe0 —
amorphoxis forms of iron; Fe^r — non-silicate crystalline forms of iron (Fea —
Fe0); Feac — inorganic forms of iron (Fe0 — Fep); Fep — organic forms of iron.
93
-------
content. An example of a manifestation of this is the greater amount of Fez in the parent-rock
horizon (in profile 25) - Table 27.
In the case of the rusty-podzolic soils, profiles from the Finnish Lakelands area
(profile 8), Silesian Lowland (profile 39) and Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus (profile 18) are
characterised by an increase in the quantities of this form of iron in horizon BfeBv, in
comparison with the humus horizon. In the remaining soils, the value for Fez declines between
the humus horizon and the parent rock (Table 27).
The results obtained make it clear that the lithological material from which podzolic
earths are developed is poor in metal sesquioxides, irrespective of geographical location. The
low content of metal sesquioxides in podzolic earths of the different regions of Scandinavia
and Poland were noted in earlier studies from Jauhiainen (1973), Bednarek (1991),
Kowalkowski 1995; Szafranek (1998) and Melkerud et al, (2000), as well as Janowska
(2001).
Free iron (Fed)
The content of free iron, not in silicate form and not associated with the crystalline
lattice of silicates, is indicative of the degree of weathering of primary minerals as well as the
advancement of pedogenic processes (Kowalkowski 1968; Mokma and Buurman 1982;
Bednarek 1991; Bednarek and Pokojska 1996; Melke 1997). The non-silicate part of soil is its
most reactive component, formed from the three main types of linkage between organic
substances and metals, of an amorphous nature or through crystalline non-silicate compounds
(Melke 1997).
In all of the studied profiles, the greatest absolute contents of free iron were those
observed in the spodic horizon of podzolic soils and the sideric horizon of rusty-podzolic soils
(Table 27). Similarly, the percentage share of Fed in Fez is greatest in the diagnostic horizons
of these soils (Table 28). In a profile from the Berezina-Desna Lowland area (profile 24), the
sub-horizon Bh has a value for the Fed/Fez that exceeds 60%. Such a large share of this form
of iron in Fez may be the result of a prolonged process of weathering of mineral material in
soil, as well as a long period of accumulation of Fed as a consequence of the podzolization
process. The profile in question represents the oldest podzolic soil of those studied (Table 28).
High shares of Fed in Fez were also reported in very young soils from Lapland (profiles 1 and
3), where the enrichment horizon has figures in the range 46 to 54%. Such high proportions
for the free form of iron within Fez and in young sedimented material may reflect very
intensive cryogenic weathering of both a physical and chemical nature.of the parent rock -
94
-------
found to be richest in aluminosilicates when compared with the substrata of the other studied
soils. Below the diagnostic horizons, the contents of free iron and percentage share of Fed
within Fez decline with depth. The parent rock of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils has an
absolute content of this form of iron of ca. 1 g.kg4 (Table 27), while the share of Fed in Fez is
now at just 10-20% (Table 28).
Amorphous forms of iron (Fe0) and aluminium (A10)
Amorphous or so-called weakly-ordered structures of iron and aluminium oxides
extracted in oxalate reagent define the freshly lost oxides of these elements (Tamm 1922,
1932; McKeague et al, 1971; Mokma and Buurman 1982; Bednarek 1991; Bednarek and
Pokojska 1996; Melke 1997; Gustafsson et al, 1998; Lundstrom et al, 2000b; Hess et al.,
2000). As in the case of free iron, the greatest contents of Fe0 and A10, as well as percentage
shares of Fe0 in Fez are characteristic of the Bh sub-horizons in all of the studied of podzolic
soils, as well as the BfeBv horizons of the rusty-podzolic soils (Table 27). The soils reporting
the greatest contents of amorphous forms of iron and aluminium are situated in the areas of
occurrence of the youngest pedons, namely Lapland (profiles 1 and 3), the Finnish Lakelands
(profile 8) and the Western Baltic Lakelands (profile 25). These are also characterised by the
greatest shares for Fe0inFez (up to 45%). Such percentages fall in older soils (like profiles 18
and 24) to ca. 20-25% (Table 28).
Freshly-lost iron oxides, most often formless or weakly-crystalline, experience a
gradual ageing process entailing dehydration and crystallisation (Bednarek and Pokojska
1996). One of the ways of assessing the state of advancement of these processes is via the
index of activity after Schwertmann (1964), which defines the interrelationship between the
most reactive, amorphous forms of iron (Fe0), and the amorphous and crystalline non-silicate
forms thereof (Fed). A higher value for the Feo/Fed ratio points to a lower degree of
crystallization or iron compounds and greater activity of iron in the soil-formation process.
In the A horizons, the values for the Schwertmann index range from 0.4 to 0.7 in
podzolic soils (other than profiles 1 and 3). The value is then lower in the eluvial horizons, but
higher once more in the enrichment horizon (at up to 0.8). This confirms the hindered nature
of the crystallisation process under conditions of an enhanced content of organic matter in the
Bh enrichment sub-horizon. A very high Feo/Fed ratio is typical for the diagnostic spodic
horizon of podzolic soils, the value often exceeding 0.6 (Schwertmann 1964; Blume and
Schwertmann 1969; Pokojska 1976, 1979a). The value is lower in three profiles of the
analysed soils.
95
-------
Table 28. Relationship between different forms of iron and aluminium in
some soil profiles.
No. of
profile
podzol
1
3
12
15
16
17
24
26
Horizon
c soils
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
Percentage content
Fed/Fe^Feak/FejFeJFeJFek/Fe2JFe,,<,/FejFeD/FejFe[/F9c|AVAI0
62.2
43.2
49.4
50.0
48.7
61.8
59.1
45.7
53.9
22.8
42.3
43.6
47.3
54.1
38.9
48.9
18.2
45.3
31.3
35.1
24.7
20.9
29.5
43.1
32.6
40.2
16.0
64.3
49.8
52.3
41.1
21.0
61.7
58.1
57.5
54.3
36.0
50.6
36.4
22.2
37.8
56.8
50.6
50.0
51.3
38.2
40.9
54.3
46.1
77.2
57.7
56.4
52.7
45.9
61.1
51.1
81.8
54.7
68.7
64.9
75.3
79.1
70.5
56.9
67.4
59.8
84.0
35.7
50.2
47.7
58.9
79.0
38.3
41.9
42.5
45.7
64.0
49.4
636
77.8
38.6
32.4
38.9
36.7
17.1
42.7
45.5
28.0
31 4
12.8
36.2
40.2
18.6
17.8
9.0
27.9
7.6
26.3
18.8
22.1
18.0
7.4
185
27.1
16.5
34.6
11.7
16.9
15.2
25.2
15.3
5.0
24.7
19.9
14.4
33.7
198
35.3
23.1
8.1
23.6
10.8
10.5
13.3
31.6
19.1
13.6
17.7
22.5
10.0
6.1
3.4
28.6
36.3
29.9
21.0
10.6
19.0
12.5
13.0
6.7
13.5
11.0
16.0
16.2
5.7
4.4
47.4
34.6
27.0
25.9
15.9
37.0
38.2
43.1
20.7
16.2
15.3
13.2
14.1
27.6
16.2
34.3
31.4
13.3
19.1
20.5
17.7
25.8
10.2
32.1
35.2
11.3
10.8
3.5
18.6
4.7
10.6
8.3
6.8
11.6
4.5
5.0
5.7
10.3
29.1
4.4
5.3
5.1
6.3
9.5
3.7
3.3
9.5
7.7
21.6
182
13.7
8.6
7.4
11.0
16.2
4.6
5.3
3.8
23.6
25.0
10.2
5.6
2.6
4.2
5.0
73
7.0
5.6
9.3
2.9
15.7
10.5
15.3
6.4
2.9
13.5
21.4
6.2
5.5
7.3
11.6
10.0
189
5.7
1.3
21.5
10.4
6.6
12.1
1.6
21.6
14.5
0.7
28.6
50.0
11.8
14.4
22.0
55.3
55.0
36.6
17 8
20.3
11.5
12.5
39.2
39.3
61.5
33.4
38.5
59.8
55.9
69.2
35.4
39.1
73.2
79.0
37.5
15.8
62.5
68.5
66.2
75.0
37.6
26.5
86.8
52.2
46.1
35.9
8.2
61.1
62.7
88
41.1
24.1
28.4
29.4
18.8
20.5
15.2
40.0
23.2
27.4
15.3
42.3
72.5
64.6
84.2
23.5
25.8
39.1
34.4
23.5
17.9
15.9
59.9
32.0
23.6
24.1
32.6
73.5
67.7
70.7
59.2
22.2
67.3
74.0
49.2
20.1
30.3
49.6
31.0
2.2
Pep/Fee
0.18
0.38
0.09
0.11
0.08
0.38
0.42
0.22
0.10
0.11
0.10
0.12
0.15
0.13
0.14
0.19
0.16
0.35
0.34
0.44
0.26
0.14
0.46
0.50
0.19
0.14
0.45
0.18
0.20
0.36
0.14
0.06
0.35
0.18
0.12
0.22
0.05
0.43
0.40
0.03
0.62
0.75
0.79
0.73
0.35
0.69
0.77
0.61
0.58
0.56
0.86
0.92
0.39
0.33
0.23
0.57
0.42
0.58
0.60
0.63
0.73
0.35
0.63
0.63
0.50
0.86
0.73
0.32
0.31
0.48
0.37
0.24
0.40
0.34
0.25
0.62
0.55
0.70
0.64
0.37
CD+A!D+FeD
%
1.27
0.43
1.45
0.85
0.08
1.61
0.59
2.38
0.44
0.11
1.02
0.39
1.76
0.47
0.24
1.04
0.47
1.23
0.42
0.13
0.78
0.35
1.00
0.36
0.08
1.30
0.71
1.13
0.93
0.16
1.44
0.34
2.62
0.90
0.22
1.02
0.49
1.22
0.33
0.01
62.7
55.0
23.7
7.0
2.2
82.2
103.6
9.1
7.1
3.0
68.0
30.9
10.7
3.9
2.4
32.4
29.0
7.6
6.4
2.3
35.5
40.2
6.6
4.4
3.7
50.8
68.3
7.2
8.4
0.9
37.0
347
7.4
3.5
1.8
33.2
35.2
8.2
4.4
1.3
AI0+ 1/2Fa
%
0.11
0.06
0.50
0.79
0.19
0.17
0.06
1.16
0.46
0.16
0.23
0.09
0.45
0.27
0.14
0.25
0.11
0.63
0.24
0.14
0.21
0.10
0.38
0.23
0.10
0.26
0.06
0.35
0.29
0.15
0.16
0.09
0.83
0.48
0.23
0.26
0.12
0.49
0.25
0.11
rusty-podzolic soils
8
25
31
39
18
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
73.0
77.6
39.4
23.8
23.9
43.4
23.4
15.2
14.9
19.8
15.7
12.4
32.6
28.7
42 8
31.2
23.8
22.6
35.0
19.8
15.1
17.0
27.0
22.4
60.6
76.2
76.1
56.6
766
84.8
85.1
80.2
84.3
87.6
67.4
71.3
57.2
68.8
76.2
77.4
65.0
80.2
84.9
83.0
40.2
60.2
24.6
11.3
15.0
29.6
6.5
4.0
7.5
12.4
6.6
6.1
16.9
15.0
17.5
14.1
10.1
13.6
24.4
10.7
4.9
4.2
32.9
17.3
14.8
12.5
8.9
13.7
16.8
11.2
7.5
7.4
9.0
6.3
15.7
13.7
25.3
17.0
13.8
9.0
10.6
9.1
102
128
31.2
46.2
22.0
11.1
9.8
22.5
4.5
3.5
4.2
8.7
4.2
3.9
11.9
9.8
13.1
13.0
10.1
10.4
28.1
7.9
4.0
4.0
9.0
14.0
2.6
0.2
5.2
7.1
2.1
0.5
3.3
3.7
2.4
2.2
5.0
5.3
4.4
1.1
0.0
3.2
6.9
2.8
1.0
0.2
22.3
23.3
10.6
2.1
34.7
24.1
31.9
13.0
44.1
30.2
36.6
36.4
29.6
34.9
25.0
7.7
0.0
23.6
28.4
26.0
20.0
4.8
26.3
16.0
11.6
2.7
39.1
27.6
13.2
14.3
30.4
22.4
26.1
64.3
34.2
27.1
19.4
10.3
1.5
35.2
32.2
6.4
7.6
6.7
0.12
0.18
0.07
0.01
0.22
0.16
0.09
0.03
0.22
0.19
0.15
0.18
0.15
0.18
0.10
0.03
0.00
0.14
0.20
0.14
0.07
0.01
0.55
0.78
0.63
0.47
0.63
0.68
0.28
0.26
0.50
0.63
0.42
0.49
0.52
0.52
0.41
0.45
0.42
0.60
0.70
0.54
0.33
0.25
0.57
0.53
0.15
0.02
0.46
0.41
0.14
0.03
0.43
0.27
0.12
0.06
0.47
0.45
0.25
0.07
0.01
0.53
0.44
0.17
0.07
0.03
29.4
10.7
13.7
4.6
25.0
11.8
22.8
20.9
25.9
6.8
4.3
29
34.7
167
15.6
11.6
2.2
45.0
133
16.2
17-6
11.6
0.17
0.51
0.15
0.10
0.12
0.24
0.14
0.04
0.10
0.27
0.14
0.04
0.13
0.21
0.13
0.10
0.08
0.11
0.25
0.38
0.11
0.06
96
-------
The soils involved are among the oldest - in Berezina-Desna Lowland (profile 24) and the
Sandomierz Basin (profile 17), as well as in the profile from the Courland Plain (profile 12) -
Table 28. In rusty-podzolic soils, the greatest values for the Schwertmann index (in the range
0.5 to 0.8) characterise the horizons of enrichment, being above the values noted for the
humus-eluvial horizon (which range from 0.5 to 0.6) - Table 28.
Organic forms of iron (Fep) and aluminium (Alp)
Iron-aluminium-humus complexes are subject to transfer down the profiles of podzolic
earths, and exert a direct influence on the sequences of genetic horizons, as well as their
properties (Alexandrowa 1960; McKeague 1967; Mokmaand Buurman 1982; Bednarek 1991;
Bednarek and Pokojska 1996; Szafranek 1998; Mokma and Szafranek 2001). In all the studied
podzolic soils, the greatest vaues for forms of iron and aluminium extractable in sodium
pyrophosphate (Fep and Alp) are characteristic of the spodic horizons - or the sideric horizons
in the case of rusty-podzolic soils (Table 27). Most of the enrichment horizons have Alp
prevailing over Fep (in Bh) with the exception of the Bfe horizon where Fep dominates over
Alp. This is particularly true of profiles located on the Polish lowlands. In the case of rusty-
podzolic soils, the greatest contents of Fep and Alp always occur in the BfeBv horizon. In
younger soils, the horizon of enrichment has a dominance of the Alp form of aluminium (in
profiles 8 and 25), while in older profiles it is the Fepform of iron (profiles 18 and 39).
Organic forms of iron account for 30-40% of Fe0 in the humus horizons of podzolic
soils, as opposed to values as high as 80% in the enrichment horizons (profile 16). In the case
of rusty-podzolic soils, the humus-eluvial horizon has Fep proportions of 30-40% Fe0, cf. 24 -
34% in the enrichment horizon (Table 28).
When compared to the overall content of iron (Fez - as extracted in 20% HC1), the
organic forms of the element account for between several per cent in the humus horizon of
podzolic soils to more than 20 % in the Bh sub-horizon (Table 28). Below the spodic horizon,
the proportion falls to 1-5% in the parent-rock horizon. While the soils from Lapland showed
the greatest proportions of Fep in Fez in the eluvial horizon, the profiles from elsewhere had
the greatest figures in their enrichment horizons. Such a differentiation may result from the
impact of two factors. On the one hand, the very limited thickness of horizons and intense
cryogenic weathering may affect the liberation of iron, while on the other, the very low pH
may limit the rapid transfer through the profile of iron and aluminium in organic complexes.
According to Sapek (1971), a highly acid soil reaction favors coagulation linkage between
humus compounds and the metals.
97
-------
Inorganic forms of iron (Feac) and aluminium (Alac)
The content of inorganic iron and aluminium reflect the differences between the
amorphous content of organically-bound iron and aluminium (o), and the organic forms of
these elements (p) and is a derivative of the oxalate and pyrophosphate forms.The forms of
iron deriving from the difference between Fe0 and Fep are termed inorganic and non-
crystalline iron (Bascomb 1968; McKeague et al, 1971; Mocek 1988; Melke 1997). Their
presence in the soil is important because of their high affinity for other organic and inorganic
chemical compounds (mainly phosphates and silicates).
As in the case of inorganic iron, the difference between A10 and Alp is considered to be
the content of inorganic aluminium Alac. In recent years, ever more attention has been paid to
the different forms of aluminium in podzolic soils, and most especially to the inorganic forms.
The interest results from a different way of looking at the process of podzolization. Certain
soil-scientists (mainly Scandinavian) link the transfer through the profile of sols of aluminium
with silicon (as proto-imogolite), while others link the transfer with the creation of soluble Fe-
Al complexes (Farmer et al, 1980; Farmer and Fraser 1982; Lumsdon and Farmer 1995;
Gustafsson etal., 1995, 1998, 1999; Lundstrom et al, 2000b).
The variability in inorganic forms of iron and aluminium resembles the distribution of
organic and amorphous forms. In podzolic soils, an elevation of their contents takes place in
the diagnostic spodic horizon, while in the rusty-podzolic soils this occurs in the sideric
horizon (Table 27). The greatest differences in contents of inorganic forms of iron and
aluminium between the E and BH horizons were those reported in the youngest soils in
Lapland (profiles 1 and 3). These differences tend to become progressively smaller in older
and older soils. Likewise, the greatest absolute contents of Feac and the greatest shares of
inorganic forms within total iron were reported in the soils from Lapland (profiles 1 and 3) -
Table 28.
Silicate forms of iron (Fegk)
The content of silicate forms of iron in the soil is calculated as the difference between
the total content of the element, Fet, and the content of free iron, Fed. The determination of this
content in soils may be helpful in an assessment of the degree of weathering of material and
the age of soils (Mokma and Buurman 1982; Mocek 1988; Bednarek and Pokojska 1996).
Since the content of iron is limited to that extractable in 20% HC1 (Fez) - the values of which
are several percent lower than the true total Fe content in soils (Gworek 1985; Szafranek
98
-------
2000), the results obtained for silicate forms of iron should only be treated as indicative of
trends and spatial variability of Fegk.
In both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils, the content of silicate forms of iron decrease
down the profile, reaching lowest values in the parent-rock horizon. This is in line with the
differentiated impact of processes of weathering on the different genetic horizons (Table 27).
Data from other literature show that silicate forms of iron following weathering of the parent
material do not move through a profile (Karltun etal., 2000; Szafranek 2000).
The distribution of Fegk iron in profiles is the reverse of that of forms of free iron (Fed) •
This is best seen in the soils of old-glacial areas, in which the share of free iron is twice as
high as that of silicate iron. The proportions in young-glacial areas are comparable.
Analysis of the spatial variation in values for Fegk shows that there is more of this form
of iron in the youngest soils of Lapland (profiles 1 and 3), as well as Western Baltic
Lakelands and Southern Baltic Lakelands (profiles 25 and 26), areas whose lithological
material has greatest amounts of aluminosilicates (e.g. feldspars), or silicates (e.g.
amphiboles) in its mineral composition. These regions are also characterised by considerable
climatic humidity which accelerates processes by which primary geological material is
weathered.
Non-silicate crystalline forms of iron
Among the iron compounds in soil not associated with silicates, some are present in
crystalline form (Mokma and Buurman 1982; Melke 1997; Kartlun et al. 2000). The non-
silicate, crystalline form of iron is determined as the difference between the content of free
iron (Fed) and that of amorphous and organic iron (Fe0).
It is in the oldest soils that the share of total iron that is in crystalline form assumes its
greatest values (in excess of 20% in profiles 24 and 39) - Table 28. The greater content of Fekr
and greater share taken by this in Fez that characterise old-glacial areas may confirm earlier
views of other authors concerning the role of the time factor relative to the course of the
crystallization of iron in podzolic soils (Bednarek and Pokojska 1996). Apart from the age of
soils as such, other influences on the content of crystalline forms of iron are exerted by
climate and other factors that hinder crystallization including a high proportion of humus,
phosphate ions, and silicates (Bednarek and Pokojska 1996). This may be explained by a large
resource of Fekr in the parent-rock horizons of the analysed soil, especially in the
northernmost profiles of limited thickness. Here the content of this form of iron in the C
horizon amounts to more than 1 g'kg"1.
99
-------
The most limited degree of crystallization of oxides of Fe, and greatest activity of this
element in the processes shaping both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils, are most
characteristic of the humus horizons followed by the eluvial horizons of podzolic soils. Below
these, in the diagnostic spodic horizons (of podzolic soils) or sideric horizons (of rusty-
podzolic soils other than profiles 8 and 31) there is a greater portion of crystalline forms of
iron (Table 27). While a greater content of organic matter in the Bh enrichment sub-horizon
hinders crystallisation, the cumulation of this form of iron nevertheless does occur.
Nevertheless, in almost all the spodic and sideric horizons, it is still the active forms of
amorphous Fe that dominate. Exceptions are the oldest soils (profiles 17 and 24), which also
show the greatest differences in content of Fekr between the humus and eluvial-humus
horizons and the Bh enrichment sub-horizon.
7.4.8. Total and plant-accessible phosphorus
Phosphorus is present in different forms in the soil (Brogowski 1966a; Stewart and
McKercher 1985; Cz^pinska-Kaminska 1992) and its distribution through profiles is regarded
as a diagnostic feature of podzolization (Kundler 1956; Pokojska 1976, 1979c). It may also be
suitable for estimating the age of soils in chronosequences (Bain et al. 1993). In this study,
two forms of the element were determined. Phosphorus compounds soluble in 20% HC1
represent the overall reserve of this element in the soil (Musierowicz 1955; Uggla, Uggla
1979; Sepponen 1985) and is only several per cent lower than the total content (Musierowicz
1955). In addition, there is the most active form of the element occurring in the soil solution
as F^PO/f ions, a form available to plants (Musierowicz 1955; Chang and Jackson 1958).
The content of total P (P0) in the studied podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils is low and is
similar to results obtained for soils developed from fluvioglacial material across Poland
(Brogowski 1966b; Cz^pinska-Kaminska 199216) and Scandinavia (Sepponen 1985; Olsson
and Melkerud 2000). In the parent-rock horizon the P0 content does not exceed 0.3 g kg4,
while in the humus horizons the maximum level is 0.5 g kg4 (Fig. 33).
1 The author referred to the total content of phosphorus
100
-------
Figure 33. Content of phosphorus (Po) in particular genetic horizons of studied soils
(a - podzolic soils, b - podzolic-rusty soils)
0,60
a
1,24 1,17
lAlubAEes DEes
IBh QBfe
0,40
lAEes DBfeBv i3Bv fflC
Where podzolic soils are concerned, the greatest values of P0 occur in the Bh sub-horizon,
while the lowest values characterise the eluvial horizon, thereby indicating the transfer of this
form of phosphorus through the profiles. Total P differs greatly between the eluvial and
101
-------
enrichment horizons - expressed via the ratio P0B/P0E, the value for this index ranging from
12.2 in profile 1 to 2.1 in profile 7. This index supported the division of the soils into three
statistically-significant groups. The first group comprises the five northernmost profiles
(numbers 1-5), with a mean value of the index equal to 9.3 (d = 2.7). The second group
comprises profiles of soils developed from the oldest sedimented material in Northern
Podkarpacie, Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus and Berezina-Desna Lowland (profiles 17, 19,
20, 22 and 24), and has a mean value for the index of 8.4 (d = 1.6). The remainder of the
studied soils form the third group, in which the mean value equals 4.0 (d = 1.2).
Among the rusty-podzolic soils, 11 of the 15 studied profiles had greater content of
total phosphorus in the enrichment horizon than in the eluvial-humus horizon. The differences
were between ca. 10 and 40%. On the basis of the content of this form of phosphorus in the
AEes and BvBfe horizons, the studied soils could be divided into three significantly-different
groups. The first of these encompasses areas with the youngest soils, i.e., the Finnish
Lakelands, Eastern Baltic Lakelands and Southern Baltic Lakelands (profiles 8, 9, 14, 25 and
27), in which the mean content of total P are: in the AEes horizon - 0.27 gkg-1 (d = 0.03) and
in the BvBfe horizon - 0.29 gkg4 (d = 0.08). The second group comprises the oldest soils; i.e.,
Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus, Berezina-Desna Lowland and the Silesian Lowland area
(profiles 18, 21, 23 and 39), in which the mean contents of total P are in the AEes horizon -
0.18 gkg * (d = 0.05) and in the BvBfe horizon - 0.19 gkg4 (d = 0.06). The remaining profiles
situated in the east-central and southern parts of Poland form the third group, which shows a
relatively high level of internal uniformity. The mean content of P0 in the AEes horizon is
0.09 gkg * (d = 0.01) while that in the BvBfe horizon is 0.10 gkg * (d = 0.03).
Plant-available phosphorus is a very labile form of the element mainly occurring in
ionic form (Fotyma and Mercik 1995). Phosphate ions liberated both as minerals and
weathered or mineralised organic matter are subject to relatively rapid "retrogradation"
(Stewart, McKercher 1985). Their capacity to migrate therefore depends mainly on solubility
of organometallically-linked forms (Pokojska 1976). On account of both the poor nature of
the parent rock and the very acidic reactions, the studied soils have limited contents of plant-
available phosphorus (Fig. 34). The humus horizons of the podzolic soils have 0.011 gkg * (d
= 0.006), the rusty-podzolic ones 0.011 gkg1 (d = 0.004).The respective figures for the
parent-rock horizon are 0.004 gkg4 (d = 0.002) and 0.006 gkg * ( d = 0.003). As in the case
102
-------
Figure 34. Content of phosphorus accessible to plants (Pa) in particular genetic horizons
of studied soils (a - podzolic soils, b - podzolic-rusty soils)
0.030
0.025
a
• AorAEes DEes HBh QBfe DC
0,025 -r
0,020 —
- 0,015 \
3)
^
en
* 0,010 4
0,005 -
0,000
• AEes DBfeBvUBvBC
of forms of total P, the greatest content of active phosphorus in podzolic soils is that in the Bh
sub-horizon, while the lowest content is formed in the eluvial horizon. Data for the P0B/P0E
103
-------
ratios separate the studied soils into two statistically different groups. The first of these
comprises profiles from Finland (nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 10), for which the mean value of
the index is 4.6 (d = 1.0). The Finland profiles form the only statistically significant group.
The mean value for the P0B/P0E index the remaining profiles is 8.6 (d = 2.9). In the rusty-
podzolic soils, the content of active phosphorus is similar in humus-eluvial and rusty-illuvial
horizons, while the P0BvBfe/P0AE ratio is 1.0 (d = 0.2), indicating that the soils in question
have only very limited movement of plant-available phosphorus.
The relationships between content of total phosphorus (Po) and active forms of P (Pa)
make it clear that the greatest proportion of total active P are in the eluvial horizon. The
values here range from the 5 - 10 % in soils of the south-eastern parts of the study area to the
ca. 30% characterizing the northernmost profile. In spite of the absolute increase in values for
the two forms of phosphorus in the Bh sub-horizon, the Pa/Po index declines, indicating only
a weak elevation of the content of phosphate ions in relation to total P in this sub-horizon.
This is probably the result of the greater sorption of phosphate ions. In the very acidic
podzolic soils, these ions react with aluminium and iron cations and their hydroxides.The iron
forms are stronger sorbents than the different forms of aluminium (Sinha 1971; Pokojska
1976, 1979c; Cz^pinska-Kaminska 1992; Szafranek 2000). In the deeper mineral horizons, the
share of plant-available phosphorus is at just 1-5% of the overall reserve of the element.
In rusty-podzolic soils, the share of Pa within P0 declines with depth through the
profile. It is ca. 10% in the humus-eluvial horizons and declines to 1-5% in the parent-rock
horizon. Several profiles had parent-rock horizons in which there is a slight renewed elevation
of the share of all forms of plant-available phosphorus. This may indicate the transfer of this
form of phosphorus down the profile or may be caused by the more limited uptake by plants
in the lower parts of profiles.
In the humus horizons of both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils, the content of total P
and plant-available P show a statistically-significant linkage with geographical location. The
content of these two forms of phosphorus is higher at more northerly sites (Fig. 35 a, b).
Values trend lower from east to west in Polish territory. This is particularly true of total P - in
both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils (Fig. 35 c, d).
104
-------
Figure 35. Regression models for content of total phosphorus (Po) and content of
phosphorus accessible to plants (Pa) in humus horizon of studied soils as related to
geographical coordinates:
a - phosphorus in podzolic soils on latitude, Y = -0.483+ 0.012x, r = 0.934;
b - phosphorus accessible to plants on latitude, Y = -0.112 + 0.003x - 2.271x2, r = 0.893;
c - phosphorus in podzolic soils on longitude, Y = 1.297 - 0.098x + 0.002x2, r = 0.757;
d - phosphorus in rusty-podzolic soils on longitude, Y = 0.793 - 0.056x + O.OOlx2, r = 0.772.
0.021
" 0.018
48 51
57 60 63 66 69
latitude (N)
D)
d)0.015
£o.011
'o
c 0.008
§ 0.005-
0.002
48 51 54 57 60 63
latitude (N)
66 69
0.43
§ 0.19;
"c
o
O 0.13
0.07
12 15 18 21 24 27
longitude (E)
30
33
0.29
I0'25
S 0.21 -
o
0.
»_ 0.17
o
1 0.12
0.04
10
14
18 22 26
longitude (E)
30
34
8. The spatial differentiation in selected diagnostic chemical pedogenic indicators of
podzolic earths
The contents of different forms of iron and aluminium, as well as the relationships
between them, are used to define both paleopedological criteria (see Section 7.4.8) and the
degree of advancement of pedogenic processes in the development of a given soil. The
relationships between different forms of iron and aluminium allow for the development of
several quantitative indicators by which to assess the course of the process of podzolization
(Konecka-Betley 1968; Mokma, Buurman 1982; Bednarek, Pokojska 1996). They also serve
as diagnostic criteria by which to identify the spodic horizon in podzolic soils and the sideric
horizon in rusty soils (Mokma and Buurman 1982; Mokma 1983; Bednarek 1991; WRB,
1998).
105
-------
The content of amorphous iron and aluminium in the enrichment horizon was one of
the criteria characterising the process of podzolization proposed for classifying a given pedon
within the taxonomic unit of "podzol" - WRB (1998). In line with this criterion, the total for
amorphous aluminium (A10) and ¥2 amorphous iron ought to constitute a minimum 0.5% of
the soil mass. In the studied podzolic soils, the value varied from the level of 0.35% in profile
17 to 1.16% in profile 3 (Table 29). The respective figures for the rusty-podzolic soils were
0.21% (in profile 39) to 0.51% (in profile 8). Thus half of the analysed podzolic soils meet the
above criterion (profiles 1, 3, 15 and 24). Only the rusty-podzolic soil profile from northern
Finland has a value for the index in excess of 0.5%, pointing to a strong process of
podzolization. However, a number of opinions recently circulating hold that the value for the
index proposed by WRB (1998) is too high since many podzolic soils fulfilling the remaining
morphological/chemical criteria have an index value below 0.5%.17 It is also possible for a
greater concentration of amorphous aluminium and iron to occur in the Bfe sub-horizon than
the Bh sub-horizon, or in the Bv horizon in comparison with BfeBv. Such was the case in
profiles 3 and 18.
Spatial variation in the index of the content of amorphous iron and aluminium in
podzolic soils is higher in the diagnostic spodic horizon of the youngest soils.These are under
the strongest impact from exogenous factors (profiles 1 and 3) as are the oldest profiles
(profile 24). Similar observations may be found in a description of podzolic soils in Michigan,
USA (Mokma 1991), in which the author draws the attention to the progressively higher
contents of amorphous aluminium and iron that are present in the spodic horizon of older and
older soils.
Another diagnostic criterion used in classifying podzolic earths as proposed by the
WRB (1998) is the index of the transfer of amorphous forms of iron and aluminium. This is
determined as the ratio of their value in the eluvial (diagnostic albic) horizon to their value in
the enrichment (diagnostic spodic or sideric) horizon. It is expressed mathematically as: (A10
+ 0.5 Fe0B)/( A10 + 0.5 Fe0E). According to the proposal from WRB (1998), the minimal
value for this index in the case of podzolic soils should be 2. This indicates that the diagnostic
spodic horizon ought to contain at least twice as much of the amorphous forms of iron and
aluminium as does the eluvial horizon. All the analysed podzolic soils meet this criterion,
since values for this index are in the range from 3.8 (in profile 16) to 20.8 (in profile 3). The
greatest values occur in soils of the northern regions (profiles 1 and 3), as well as in profiles
"inter alia, such a suggestion was made during the Polish-German seminar held in 2000 (Bednarek -
unpublished information)
106
-------
located in eastern parts of the study area - in the Berezina-Desna Lowland (profile 24). The
lowest values characterise the area of Poland (Table 29). In the rusty-podzolic soils, the
greatest value for the index is in central Finland (profile 8). The values observed for the rusty-
podzolic soils are much lower, between 1.6 for profile 39 and 3.0 for profile 8, in line with the
WRB (1998) guidelines. Thus, only profile 39 is characterised by a more limited transfer of
amorphous iron and aluminium than has been set as the classification of the process of
podzolization. These results point to a quite strong process of illuviation of the kind ongoing
in the analysed rusty-podzolic soils.
A similar spatial differentiation characterises the index of illuviation (Wi), as
determined by Mokma (1983) via: £B Cp Alp Fep - £A Cp Alp Fep. Among the podzolic soils,
the greatest value,2.29, was obtained for the profile situated in the Berezina-Desna Lowland
(profile 24), followed by soils in northern Lapland (profiles 1 and 3) where the respective
figures are 1.03 and 1.79 (Table 29). Soils from Poland show limited variability (0.42 - 0.76).
In rusty-podzolic soils, the values for the index of illuviation range from 0.02 do 0.16, and are
thus only slighter greater than 0, which is characteristic for this type of soil (SGP 1989).
The index for the transfer of free iron Wppe, proposed by Konecka-Betley (1968) and
defined as the ratio of the Fd contents in two adjacent genetic horizons; e.g., humus-eluvial or
eluvial-spodic horizons in podzolic soils and sideric horizons in rusty soils. In the analysed
podzolic earths, the index assumes a wide range of values, from 2.7 in profile 26 to 27.5 in
profile 3 (Table 29). This points to marked differences in the movement of free iron. The
greatest values were found in the northern regions (profiles 1 and 3); i.e., the areas today
subject to the strongest impact due to exogenous factors, and from profile 17, close to
Jozefow in southern Poland, which has the oldest sediments associated with the San II
Glaciation. The other soils did not yield significant differences, the values obtained varying
from 2.7 (profile 26) to 6.2 (profile 15). Similar results for Poland were obtained by Konecka-
Betley (1968). Quite different values for the index are found in the rusty-podzolic soils (Table
29). Both the value of the index and the degree to which these differ between profiles are
much lower, ranging from 1.1 in profile 8 to 1.7 in profile 18. Comparable results for the
rusty-podzolic soils of northern Poland were presented by Bednarek (1991).
107
-------
Table 29. Values of indices for characteristic of podzolization process criteria.
No. of
profile
Al0+1/2Fe0B
%
a
Aln+1/2F9nB
Al0+1/2Fe0E
b
FenB
FedE
c
podzolic soils
1
3
12
15
16
17
24
26
0.50
1.16
0.45
0,63
0.38
0.35
0.83
0.49
13,0
20.8
5.2
5.9
3.8
6.1
9.3
4.0
16.8
27.5
5.0
6,2
4.2
18.6
6,2
2.7
rusty-podzolic soils
8
25
31
39
18
0.51
0.24
0.27
0.21
0.25
3,0
2.0
2.7
1.6
2.3
1.1
1.6
1.3
1.5
1.7
W,
d
Cp+Alp+FepB
Cp+Alp+FepB
Cp+Alp+FepA
%
e
f
___cp___
Alp+FepB
g
1,03
1,79
1,37
0,76
0,65
0,42
2,29
0,57
1.45
2.38
2.41
1.22
1.00
1.13
2.62
1.22
112
130
173
104
110
115
159
106
0,03
0,05
0,16
0.02
0.08
0.53
0.41
0.27
0.45
0.44
86
88
58
86
73
23.7
9,1
10.7
7,6
6.6
7.2
7.4
8.2
10.7
11.8
6.8
16.7
13.3
Explanatory:
a. content of amorphous iron and aluminium in the enrichment horizon, according to
WRB(1998)
b. index of the transfer of amorphous forms of iron and aluminium, according to
WRB(1998)
c. index for the transfer of free iron, according to Konecka-Betley (1968) and
Bednarek (1991)
d. index of illuviation (Wi) according to Mokma(1983)
e. iron-aluminium-humus complexes in B horizon, according to Mokma (1983)
f. relationships ongoing between the contents of iron-aluminium-humus complexes
in the humus horizon and the diagnostic spodic or syderic horizons according to
Mokma (1983) and Bednarek (1991)
g. characteristics of immobile complexes according to Mokma (1983).
A further significant diagnostic criterion in the evaluation of processes of
podzolization is the molar ratio of organic carbon to the sum of aluminium + iron determined
in pyrophosphate extraction. This is very often used in identifying the diagnostic spodic and
sideric horizons (Mokma and Buurman 1982; Bednarek 1991; Karltun et al. 2000). It is on
these that many soil classifications are based, including also the one used in Poland (SGP
1989). According to Mokma (1983), the iron-aluminium-humus complexes are characterised
by different degrees of mobility. This author established that, when the ratio exceeds 5.8 but is
lower than 25, the complexes become immobile. In the diagnostic spodic horizons of all of the
analysed podzolic soils, as well as the sideric horizons of the rusty-podzolic soils, the obtained
108
-------
molar ratios of Cp/(Alp+Fep) are in line with that criterion (Table 29). The values for this
index are in the range from 6.6 in profiles 16 to 23, to 7 in profile 1. In eluvial horizons
located above the spodic horizon the molar ratio was much greater, varying between 29 in
profile 15 to 103.6 in profile 3. In humus-eluvial horizons of rusty-podzolic soils, the molar
ratios were greater than 25 (Table 29). This attests to the mobility of iron-aluminium-humus
complexes in the upper parts of the analysed soil profiles, as well as to their very limited
mobility in the diagnostic spodic and sideric horizons.
Mokma (1983) proposed yet two more indices diagnosing podzolization. These are
based on assessments of the contents of iron-aluminium-humus complexes in different genetic
horizons. The index indicates that the diagnostic spodic horizon should contain more than
0.5% of the complexes linking humus with RzOa. It is based on results obtained in the course
of sample extractions in sodium pyrophosphate. All of the studied podzolic soils meet this
criterion, since values for the sum Cp,+Alp+Fep range from 1.0% in profile 16 to 2.64% in
profile 24. In the case of rusty-podzolic soils these values are much lower, between 0.27% in
profile 31 and 0.53% in profile 8 (Table 29). These results also correspond to criteria for the
classification of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils proposed by Bednarek (1991) He defined a
value for the index of 0.5% as borderline between the two types of soil. The content of iron-
aluminium-humus complexes in the diagnostic spodic and sideric horizons is higher in soils
located in the northern and eastern regions of the study area (profiles 1, 3 and 8 and profile 24
respectively).
A second index makes use of the relationships between the content of iron-aluminium-
humus complexes in the humus horizon and the diagnostic spodic or sideric horizons.
According to Mokma (1983), and then Bednarek (1991), the content of these complexes in the
diagnostic spodic horizon is greater than in the humus horizon, while the share in the humus
horizon of rusty-podzolic soils is greater than in the sideric horizon. In fact, all of the analysed
profiles of both kinds of soil meet these criteria also (Table 29). In podzolic soils, the greatest
difference between the contents of complexes in these horizons is present at profiles 12
(73%), 24 (159%) and 3 (130%). The most marked transfer of iron-aluminium-humus
complexes have taken place in the oldest soils and those located in areas that today experience
intensive leaching processes. In the rusty-podzolic soils, major differences between content of
iron-aluminium- humus complexes in the humus and diagnostic sideric horizons are indicative
of the weakest process of transfer. The result is that the decided majority of the chemical
structures in question have accumulated in horizon A. The greatest differences in contents of
the complexes were reported in the oldest soils, in B-P - profile 18 (73%) - Table 29.
109
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9. Pedological properties as features diagnostic of the geographical diversity to podzolic
earths
Significant spatial variation was found in certain soil properties based on correlation
and regression analyses between the morphological, physical and biochemical properties of
the humus, diagnostic and parent-rock horizons of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils compared
latitude and longitude (Section 6). These properties are recognised as diagnostic features
where space-related pedological diversity is concerned.
Two geographic groups were identified using different combinations of analysis (types
of soil - geographical coordinates), The first group included properties emerging as
statistically significant in their association with geographical locations in all four analytical
variants, i.e. for both podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils in relation to both longitude and
latitude. These were termed universal diagnostic features. Those present in one type of soil or
in relation to one or other of the sets of geographical coordinates were defined as specific
diagnostic features.
Among the 51 soil properties18 and four primary characteristics of soils19 subjected to
analysis in all profiles, only 24 could be considered diagnostic (Figs. 36 and 37), of which 17
were characterised by statistically-significant differences with all types of statistical analysis.
These were thus regarded as universal features, and they are found to include two
morphological, six physical and nine biochemical features (Table 30). The remaining seven
are specific features, i.e., ones typical for just one systematic group of soils (podzolic or rusty-
podzolic), or of the two geographical arrays (longitudinal or latitudinal) of study sites.
Studying longitudinal and/or latitudinal variation in soil properties, the numbers of diagnostic
features characterizing the different relationships were found to be as follows (Fig. 36, 37):
rusty-podzolic soils in relation to latitude - 22 features, including 17 universal and 5
specific: the C:N ratio, Vca2+, VH+, V and N;
18 Thicknesses of the 0, A and mineral horizons; colour of the diagnostic horizons; content of the skeletal,
sandy, dusty fragments and silty and clay; content of non-resistant minerals; real gravity and bulk density;
porosity; moisture; field and capillary water capacity; reserves of soil water in the field and capillary capacity
states; maximal hygroscopicity; air capacity; contents: of organic carbon, total N, ammonium- and nitrate-
nitrogen; C:N, Ch:Cf; degree of humification; content of exchangeable base cations (Ca, Mg, K, Na); sum of
exchangeable base cations; sorption capacity; degree of base saturation with cations (VCa, VMg, VK, VNa, VH);
total for base cations; exchangeable hydrogen and aluminium ions; active, exchangeable and hydrolytic
acidity; lactic dehydrogenase activity; total and plant-available P.
19 The Nm, Wo, Zppw/ZRpwand Ui indices.
110
-------
podzolic soils in relation to longitude - 20 features, including 17 universal and 3 specific:
the Ulrich index of soil elasticity, C:N and N-NH4+;
podzolic soils in relation to latitude - 19 features, including 17 universal and 2 specific
color saturation of sub-horizon Bh and the C:N ratio;
rusty-podzolic soils in relation to longitude - 17 features, universal only.
Diagnostic features could be divided into two groups.
Group I - geographical variation of a continuous nature decided mainly by factors on the
supraregional scale, with the relationship between the feature and geographical coordinates
expressed via linear regression models. This group includes the 3 identified diagnostic
features of:
thickness of the organic horizon (Fig. 6),
content of non-resistant minerals (Fig. 9),
- content of N-NH4+(Fig. 25)
Group II - geographical variation in features expressed by means of second-order
polynomials (the remaining diagnostic features), based on the modifying influence of local or
regional conditions.
Other analysed properties behaved neutrally as regards geographical location, denoting
that their differentiation across space is more even than is the case for the diagnostic features
or else presents major random variation. This latter situation results from the determining
influence of local habitat factors in shaping the variability of a given feature in the soil profile
- the reverse of diagnostic pedological features wherein influence is exerted by pedogenic
factors, especially the age of sediments, hygrothermal conditions and plant cover. These
relationships are discussed more widely in Section 11.
Ill
-------
N
direction of geographical variability
physical weathering
chemical weathering
climate humidity
amplitudes of temperature
wiek osadow
influence into the soil properties
soil moisture deficit
d,
O
Wo
Nm
non-resistant minerals
thickness of O horizon
thickness of mineral horizons
_ air capacity __
dehydrogenase activity in A horizon
,, organic carbon storage mmu
C:N
degree of humification
= Ch: Q __
__ Po, Pa ___
A13+
^^^s M , riw _
VH+
a b c d
Figure 36. Directions of increase of some pedogenic factors into the studied soils and values of diagnostic
feature along meridian
(a - lines of directions of increase of pedogenic factors, b - directions of increase of feature values in podzolic
and podzolic-rusty soils, c - directions of increase of feature values only in podzolic-rusty soils, d - feature with
strong influence of local conditions for its spatial variability)
112
-------
w
direction of geographical variability
amplitudes of temperature
continentality of climate
number of species in the herb layer
age of sediments
influence into the soil properties
soil moisture deficit
_ Wo ___
Nm
non-resistant minerals
thickness of O horizon
thickness of mineral horizons
air capacity ^__
dehydrogenase activity in A horizon
>. . . < organic carbon storage (
___ degree of humification __
====== Ch: Q =====
Po,Pa ,
E
TT+ TT
C:N
N-NH/
Ca21 + Mg^
T
a b c d
Figure37. Directions of increase of some pedogenic factors into the studied soils and values of
diagnostic feature along parallel, (a - lines of directions of increase of pedogenic factors, b - directions
of increase of feature values in podzolic and podzolic-rusty soils, c - directions of increase of feature
values only in podzolic soils, d - feature with strong influence of local conditions for its spatial
variability)
113
-------
10 Regional differentiation of podzolic earths
10.1. Podzolic soils
Differentiation in soil properties in the humus horizon
All the studied profiles can be divided into two groups based on analyses of
similarities in soil properties in humus horizons. The first mainly comprises soils of the
Karelian Lakeland, Eastern Baltic Lakelands and western parts of the Podlasie-Byelorussian
Plateaus (profiles 10. 11, 12, 13, 15 and 16). The second includes the remaining profiles.
However, it needs to be made clear that the second group can be divided into four lower-rank
units encompassing geographical regions as follows:
Lapland (profiles: 1, 2, 3),
Eastern Baltic Lakelands, Central Polish Lowlands, and Central Malopolska
Upland (profiles: 26, 28, 29, 32, 35, 38),
Ostro-Bothnia and the Finnish Lakelands (profiles: 4, 5, 6, 7),
Northern Podkarpacie Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands and Berezina-Desna
Lowland (profiles: 17, 19, 20, 22, 24).
A noteworthy feature is that the properties of soils in northern Finland and western
Poland are very similar (Fig. 38), these both being young pedons shaped under conditions of a
wet climate.
. 3
' r
— 26
— 32
— sa
-- S3
— 35
— 3a
T
B
6
1 T
i a
20
22
24
1 O
1 1
_.„ 1 2>
1 3
1 S
Figure 38. Dendrogram of similarity of humus horizon
properties in studied. podzolic soils (similarity
determined on the basis of Euclidean distance and
method)
114
-------
Differentiation of soil properties in the parent-rock horizon
Similarity analysis of different parent rocks of podzolic soils points to the much
greater differentiation compared with the humus horizon. The division obtained encompasses
eight primary units that are subject to further internal diversification (Fig. 39):
Northern Lapland (profiles: 1,2),
Ostro-Bothnia, and the northern part of the Finnish Lakelands (profiles: 5, 6),
the southern part of Finnish Lakelands and the Karelian Lakeland (profiles: 7, 10),
the Eastern Baltic Coastland and Eastern Baltic Lakelands and (profiles: 11, 12,
13),
the southern part of Lithuanian Lakeland, western part of Podlasie-Byelorussian
Uplands and Northern Podkarpacie (profiles: 15, 16, 17),
the Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands and Berezina-Desna Lowland (profiles: 19,
20, 22),
the eastern part of Central Polish Lowlands and Central Malopolska Upland
(profiles: 32, 35).
The horizons of parent rock in the three profiles 1, 4 and 24 are one of the units
differing from all the others.
. 9
. a
. 7
, 6
. 5
. 4
. 3
. 1
24
26
32
35
2
3
5
6
28
29
38
10
1 9
2O
22
1 1
12
1 3
15
1 7
1 6
Figure 39. Dendrogram of similarity of parent rock horizon
properties in studied podzolic soils, (similarity determined on the
basis of Euclidean distance and Wards method)
115
-------
The results obtained confirm two hypotheses advanced in the present work. The first of
these concerns the influence of vegetation of similar species composition as a major element
in the generation of humus, and the reduction or evening-out of spatial differences in the
properties of soils in organic and humus horizons. The second hypothesis points to strong
linkage between the age of a soil substratum and the associated soil and its properties.
Attesting to this is the marked similarity between profiles in areas of Finland and northern-
western Poland; i.e., between soils developed in material accumulated during the last stadial
of the Vistulian or the Holocene, which differ significantly from the soils of the eastern part of
the study area arising in material that accumulated during the Odra Glaciation.
The differentiation to the properties of soils in all genetic horizons
Analysis of all of the properties of podzolic soils determined for each profile (mineral and
organic horizons) supports identification of similarities between the studied soils. These are
differentiated into two large groups that separate the study area into a northern and a southern
part (Fig. 40). Within each of these there are lower-order units of considerable internal
cohesiveness. Overall, the podzolic soils are formed into six units in reference to the spatial
differentiation of morphological, physical and biochemical properties. This division takes the
following form:
. 8
. 7
. 6
. 5
. 3
. 2
. 1
[ '
I i
1 1C
..... * "7
I *.u
J=
Figure 4O. Dendrogram of similarity of properties
in all genetic horizons in studied podzolic
soils, (similarity determined on the basis of
Euclidean distance and ^Vards method)
116
-------
- Lapland (profiles: 1, 2, 3, 4),
Ostro-Bothnia, the Finnish Lakelands and the Karelian Lakeland (profiles: 5, 6, 7,
10),
the Eastern Baltic Coastland and Eastern Baltic Lakelands and (profiles: 11, 12,
13, 15),
the Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands and Northern Podkarpacie (profiles: 16, 17,
19)
the Berezina-Desna Lowland (profiles: 20, 22, 24) and profile 26,
the Southern Baltic Lakelands, Central Polish Lowlands and Central
Malopolska Upland (profiles: 28, 29, 32, 35, 38),
The ordering identifies a profile from the western part of Southern Baltic Lakelands
(profile 26) characterised by its marked similarity to the soils of Berezina-Desna Lowland. In
spite of the considerable differences in morphological and petrographic composition, many
physical and chemical properties of these soils show large similarities with one another,
particularly in the superficial horizons. The results make it clear that stronger local habitat
conditions may "disturb" the geographical differentiation in soil properties that results from
spatial variability to pedogenic factors - as the author has noted in previous work (Degorski
1998b).
10.2. Rusty -podzolic soils
Differentiation of soil properties in the humus horizon
Two large groups resulted from similarity analysis of soil properties in the humus
horizons of rusty-podzolic soils.The first of these comprises the soils of the northern and
eastern regions of the study area and the second those of the remaining sites - i.e. in the south-
west (Fig. 41). Each of these may subsequently be divided into two units of lower rank, giving
four groups that are statistically different. These groups are:
the Finnish Lakelands and Western Baltic Lakelands (profiles: 8, 9, 25),
the Eastern Baltic Lakelands and Central Polish Lowlands (profiles: 27, 30,31,
33, 34),
the Southern Baltic Lakelands, Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands and Berezina-
Desna Lowland (profiles: 14, 18, 21),
the Silesian-Cracovian Upland and Silesian Lowland (profiles: 36, 37, 39).
117
-------
1 .9 ,8 .7 .6 .5 .4 ,3 .2 .1 0
_J I 1 I I 1 L
J
1 rt
1 *-J
J **e
I
. , I 4 ft
I
A1
^17
1
i
I IT
JJ
1 34
. J&
^7
1 • wf
1 *$<%
The rusty-podzolic soils
show major similarities in soil
properties in profile 25,
located in Western Baltic
Lakelands, and profile 23 in
Berezina-Desna Lowland.
These pedons differ in terms
of age.
I I I I I II I I I T
Figure 41. Dendrogram of similarity of humus horizon
properties in studied podzolic-rusty soils.(similarity
determined on the basis of Euclidean distance and
Wards method)
Differentiation of soil properties in the parent-rock horizon
Three main groups were found based on the properties of the parent-rock horizon of the
rusty-podzolic soils. These are the northern, south-eastern and western groups (Fig. 42).
Further divisions into units of greater internal cohesion - thanks to similar shaping of soil
properties in the analysed profiles - give rise to seven identifiable groups:
the Finnish Lakelands (profiles: 8, 9),
the Eastern Baltic Lakelands and Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands (profiles: 14,
18),
the Southern Baltic Lakelands (profiles: 27, 30),
- the Central Polish Lowlands (profiles: 31, 33, 34, 39),
the Berezina-Desna Lowland (profiles: 21, 23),
the Western Baltic Lakelands and Silesian-Cracovian Upland (profiles: 25, 36,
37).
Like the podzolic soils, the
rusty-podzolic soils showed
.7
,8
.5
.3
,2
9
14
is greater regional differentiation
3° due to spatial variability in
39
properties of their parent-rock
21
23 horizons than in properties of
38
37 more superficial layers.
Figure 42. Dendrogram of similarity of parent rock
horizon properties in studied podzolic-rusty
soils, (similarity determined on the basis of Euclidean
distance and Wards method)
118
-------
Differentiation of the properties of soils in all genetic horizons
The rusty-podzolic soils differ from the podzolic in the more limited spatially-conditioned
differentiation of their properties (Fig. 43). Two large groups result from similarity analysis of
soil properties between different profiles. The first includes profiles of the northern part and
the second the southern. The soils in the north in turn form three regional units, while the
remaining soils are in one group demonstrating considerable internal uniformity (Fig. 43).
The division is as follows:
the Finnish Lakelands and Eastern Baltic Lakelands (profiles: 8, 9, 14),
the Western Baltic Lakelands and Southern Baltic Lakelands (profiles: 25, 27,
30),
the Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands and Berezina-Desna Lowland (profiles: 18,
21,23),
the Central Polish Lowlands and Silesian-Cracovian Upland (profiles: 33, 34, 36,
37, 39).
,9
.8
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
14
18
21
23
25
2?
30
31
33
34
36
37
39
Figure 43, Dendrogram of similarity of properties
in all genetic horizons in studied podzolic-rusty
soils, (similarity determined on the basis of
Euclidean distance and Wards method)
Differences among
the properties of rusty-
podzolic soils look
much greater in the N-
S configuration,
between Finland and
Central Europe, than
when considered in the
east-west dimension.
This may suggest that
it is the age of soils
and the biotic-climatic
element which are the
pedogenic factors
exerting the strongest
influence on the spatial variability of properties of the analysed rusty-podzolic soils.
119
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10. Discussion and summary of results
The analysis of the links between pedogenic factors and soil properties represents a major
thrust to soil-science research, the origins of which are linked to the emergence of the
scientific discipline as a whole (Glinka 1926; Yaalon 1997). The spatial scope to any studies
that were carried out was mainly confined by technical opportunities. In work on soil
geography, presenting spatial studies on a supraregional scale, both the description of the
variability in soil cover and the analysis of linkage between pedogenic factors and properties
of pedons made most frequent use of compilations of point results collected and processed by
many scientific centers (Glazowska 1981; Boul et al, 1989; Bednarek and Prusinkiewicz
1997). These studies are of cognitive value, but the non-uniformity of the material prevented
any application of mathematical analyses of similarity in assessing the spatial variability in
properties.
In contrast, the results presented here could be used in wide-ranging comparative analysis
since the procedures adopted in the choice of research sites confined the potentially-distorting
influence of many external factors that could impact the course of pedogenic processes (see
Section 2). Also important was the application of uniform methods in field studies and
analytical techniques. The data thereby obtained offers a valuable supplement to any previous
work including knowledge of the geography of Europe's podzolic earths and the inter-
relationships between spatial variability of their properties and pedogenic factors resulting
from conditioning in the natural environment.
The time factor is also of great importance in shaping soil features. I, along with many
other soil scientists, adopted the assumption that the evolutionary development of soils in
post-glacial areas was initiated and took place while conditions of arctic tundra and a
cryogenic post-glacial and periglacial environment were still present (Kopp 1965, 1970; Catt
1988; Kowalkowski 1988, 2001; Manikowska 1999; Blume et al., 1998). This assumption
states that the dates of onset of morphogenetic and pedogenic processes vary from 6 - 8000
years BP in the north to ca. 400,000 years in the south of the study area. The factors that
shaped the soils may thus be divided into the palaeopedogenic - initial development of soils -
and the pedogenic - those occurring in the present. Irrespective of the genetic or temporal
classification applied, the two groups of factors are directly dependent on two factors; one -
the morphogenesis (morpholithological conditions) in the study area regarded by many soil
scientists as the element conditioning the development of soil cover (Jenny 1961; Huggett
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1975; Yaalon 1982; Catt 1988; Kowalkowski 1993, 2001; Janowska 2001) and, two, the
temporally-variant biotic-climatic factors that determine the dynamics in and type of
weathering, the quantity and quality of the organic matter and the cyclical development of
whole ecosystems. These are regarded as elements steering the development of the
pedosphere (Jenny 1961; Huggett 1975, 1985; Duchaufour 1982; Birkeland 1984;
Kowalkowski 1988 and Lundstrom et al, 2000a). The functional interlinkages between
pedogenic factors ensure that the podzolic earths have been subject to their synergistic
impacts. As a result, it is hard to assess unambiguously which of the complex of factors is
more important in the soil-forming process (Fig. 44).
A good example of the multi-factor impact on soil properties is provided by the degree to
which substances wash through the profile, as expressed in terms of the index of illuviation
(XB Cp Alp Fep - £A Cp Alp Fep) proposed by Mokma (1983). The value of this index is
influenced by primary properties of the lithological material and by biotic-climatic features.
The former are the primary source of nutrients and the latter determine the type and rate of
weathering of the substratum, the species composition of the vegetation, the rate of
decomposition of organic matter, and the processes of humification and mineralisation. The
significance of the relationship between the amount of humus in soils and the intensity of the
illuviation process is well documented in the literature (Konecka-Betley 1976, 1977; Catt
1988; Janowska 2001). In this study, the greatest value for the index of illuviation was
obtained for pedons located in areas of the wettest climate and those wth the greatest reserves
of organic carbon, those in northern Finland and eastern Belarus.
Another example of the joint impact of the pedogenic factors is the share non-resistant
minerals within the heavy fraction of a soil's mineral composition. The morphogenetic
development has been determined by the mineral composition of the soil substratum, but also
has been impacted by biotic-climatic factors through the type of physical, chemical and
biochemical weathering. The degree of change induced by exogenous processes in primary
soil properties also depends upon the length of time for which these processes persisted.
Attesting to this is the fact that shares of non-resistant minerals in the substratum become
progressively lower in a manner that is directly proportional with the age of the lithological
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rGeographical 1 o cation ==|l|
r
X
^
type of ^^
weathering
1
climatic conditions .. Ill
^Xk. JL
II
t
organic master properties of O arid A horizons j
=^' Ch : Cf _^_^ dehydrogenase L_J degree of j
activity | humificatioii j_
IIZZIIIIIIIIZ^EIIZIII;
chemical properties of mineral horizons
nrcrarm
^r^
HW content of
*- ) different
forms Fe
f * and Al
H+ ^
^ J
• carbon storage j^^^^=
i r ^
Jff ^ i
x total P i
^\ [ J |
' i :
i • !
f olant- M ^
F1'-11" | ;
_ accessible P ! i
V^A^ i— kl
V J ; :
lithological properties \ \
^ content of non-resistant minerals J I !
1
[ Wo ,
f
lithological
i ! ;
*k. "Nm ''
^ V
^*^k type of
•weathering
, * :
I morphological I
1 conditions I
if ~] \
thickness of °
•
1 I O horizon 1 !
\ i' \
! /" , -\ !
1 thickness of !
\ mineral ;
_»J horizons !
i v J i
1 •* ' ^^_
physical properties of mineral j
horizons I
[_ shortage J ZRPW \
lr~- • — i " :
air capacity
H J
T
f
J L
^" composition
Figure 44. Relationship between pedogenic factors and diagnostic features of
geographical variability of studied podzolic soils, (a -- directions of influence of
pedogenic factors into the soil properties, b — relationship between soil properties)
material. This is a result of the time and intensity of chemical or biochemical processes acting
on primary minerals. The role of weathering in the formation of the residuum has already
been commented on in the soil-science literature as has its influence on the synthesis of
secondary clay minerals (Yaalon 1975; Whalley 1979; Duchaufour 1982; Catt 1988; Lahtinen
1994; Bednarek and Prusinkiewicz 1997). This literatures emphasizes the impact of these
122
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secondary minerals on the shaping of chemical properties of soils - particularly the
proportions between exchangeable cations (Farmer, Fraser 1982) and the buffering of acids
(Ulrich 1981, 1988). In the studies presented here, I observed higher proportions of divalent
exchangeable cations in the sorption complexes of soils developed in regions further to the
south and east. These soils are found in areas with the oldest soil cover characterised by the
greatest contents of secondary clay minerals (Pietuchowa 1987).
The division of soils into regions via statistical analysis is associated with the mutual
impacts of the morpholithological and biotic-climatic impacts on the shaping of properties of
soil cover. Most of the soil profiles form into groups of regions designated on the basis of
similarities in soil properties and referencing the extent of different glaciations, or stadials
thereof - something that confirms the conditioning role of morpholithological factors in the
process of pedogenesis. Sometimes, however, the strength of the relationship between
properties of soils developed from formations of very different ages of primary sedimentation
is greater than those in areas located within the same or neighbouring glacial periods. For
example, the differences between properties of soils developed in the oldest sedimented
material (Berezina-Desna Lowland, Northern Podkarpacie) and the youngest (Lapland) were,
in the case of certain profiles of podzolic or rusty-podzolic soils, more limited than that
between soils arising in formations of the Vistulian Glaciation (Southern Baltic Lakelands)
and the Odra Glaciation (Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateau respectively). Hence they are less
differentiated by the age of the sedimentation. In the case of properties of podzolic soils, no
differences were reported among the profiles of the Southern Baltic Lakelands, the Central
Polish Lowlands and the Central Malopolska Upland, i.e. between areas in which the soils
developed in material accumulated in the course of two different Glaciations (of the Odra or
Vistula). This emphasises the leading role biotic-climatic factors play in steering the
development of soil cover - something that has been noted in many earlier studies on the
geography of soils (Terlikowski 1951; Crocker 1952; Prusinkiewicz 1961a; Ugolini et al,
1981; Degorski 1985; Huggett 1985; Catt 1988; Bednarek, Prusinkiewicz 1997; Liski et al,
1997; Manikowska 1999).
The location of the study area within two physiognomic and ecological plant formations -
mesophilic and hygrophilous coniferous forest and mesophilic broadleaved and
mixed/coniferous forests (Bohn et al, 1996) - has an influence in diversifying the biotic
factors, and thus the current course of pedogenic processes. The courses of accumulation,
decomposition, and the vertical distribution of organic matter in profiles are dependent on the
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geographical location of the pedon in the given spatial vegetational and ecological unit
(Duchaufour 1982; Catt 1988).
The mutual impacts of these two groups of pedogenic factors (the morpholithological and
the biotic-climatic) shaped the soils through the following kinds of spatial differentiation:
1. in Lapland, there are soils developed from the youngest glaciofluvial sediments of the
Eoholocene that show strong contemporary processes of destruction of the soil substratum
(very different from others);
2. in Qstrobothnia, the Finnish Lakelands, the Coastal Region and Eastern Baltic Lakelands,
there are soils developed from glaciofluvial sediments of the Late Vistulian (which in the
case of the rusty-podzolic soils show marked similarity to other sites as regards material
accumulated during the Plenivistulian);
3. in Western Baltic Lakelands and Southern Baltic Lakelands, soils developed from
glaciofluvial sediments of the Plenivistulian (in the case of podzolic soils of the western
part of the study area not showing differences with others on material of the Warta Stadial
to the Odra Glaciation)
4. soils developed from glaciofluvial sediments of the Odra Glaciation, divided into three
geographical units located from east to west:
the Central Polish Lowlands and Central Malopolska Upland (western part of the
study area) - with the greatest degree of oceanicity of climate and material
accumulated mainly during the Warta Stadial of the Odra Glaciation;
the Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus, characterised by a transitional climate between
the western and eastern parts of the area and associated with the accumulation of
geological material during the maximal range of the Odra Glaciation;
the Berezina-Desna Lowland (eastern part of the study area), with the greatest
continentality of climate, and material accumulated during the pre-maximal stadial
of the Odra Glaciation.
In contrast, there were no differences reported between the profile developed in the
oldest sediments associated with the San II Glaciation and the soils developed in sediments of
the Odra Glaciation. The profile in question revealed many features in common with the soils
in Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateau. The lack of significant differences between the properties of
these soils could have been influenced by the superficial covering of the older sediments by
younger ones (Maruszczak and Wilgat 1956; Buraczynski 1993; Maruszczak 2001). The
development of soils in this region thus proceeded in lithological, biotic and climatic
conditions similar to those developed in younger geological material.
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There was a considerable degree of concordance between the arrangement of the
studied profiles on the basis of analysis of similarities in the properties of pedons, as well as
the adopted division to the macrostructural, superficial generation of soils (after
Kowalkowski, 1988). Notwithstanding the more limited spatial range of rusty-podzolic soils
(not shown to occur in Lapland), the remaining part of the study area was characterised by a
significant statistical linkage between the two types of podzolic earths analysed even though
there are great differences in their macrostructural, superficial generation. However, in
comparison with podzolic soils, rusty-podzolic soils are characterised by a lesser strength of
statistical linkage with lithological properties of the substratum.
Spatial categorization revealed the complex nature of the impact of pedogenic factors,
which are in addition dependent on the time function in pedogenesis. Pedogenic processes -
dynamic phenomena described by certain soil scientists as cyclical and pulsating (Jenny 1941;
Kowalkowski 1988, 1993) - proceed in conditions of the natural environment that change
over time (Yaalon 1975, Catt 1988; Manikowska 1999). In addition to the results of long-term
research on the pedogenesis of soils in Central Poland (as carried out by Manikowska, 1999),
this study shows that - following the Warta Stadial of the Odra Glaciation - the central and
southern regions of the analysed area experienced three main pedogenetic periods: the
Eemian/Early Vistulian, the central Plenivistulian, and the Late Vistulian/Holocene. The onset
of development of the studied soils is linked with these periods. However, the most important
pedogenic phase, in which the contemporary soil cover developed, is the period of the Late
Vistulian and Holocene (Catt 1988; Kowalkowski 1990. 2001; Bednarek 1991; Nowaczyk
1994; Bronger, Catt 1998; Manikowska 1999). The concept of the development of spatio-
temporal pedological systems (Jenny 1983, Kowalkowski 1993), treats soil cover as a
continuum functioning in changing space-time (Morozowa 1994; Manikowska 1999;
Friedrich 1999; Kowalkowski 2001). Following this concept, the podzolic and rusty-podzolic
soils of central and northern Europe form a chronosequence (in the meaning of Vreeken 1975)
characterised by the same direction of development. This was developed in geological
material of a similar nature from the morphogenetic point of view (Aho 1979; Lahtinen and
Korhonen 1996; Degorski 1998a) although with a different age of primary sedimentation and
period of impact of exogenous processes on the substratumand resulting in a different
duration of weathering processes. A lithological material comprises re-deposited, polygenetic
formations of glaciofluvial sands that accumulated at different times. In spite of the similar
morphogenesis of the studied areas (glaciofluvial accumulation of material), certain
fundamental differences and spatial variability of textural properties of the soil substratum
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were noted. These related, not only to the age of sediments, but also to the type of exogenous
process. The younger the sedimented material (characterised by a shorter period of
disintegration and eluviation), the richer soils are in feldspars and non-resistant minerals in the
heavy fraction,. The younger sediments, with a much shorter path of transport of sand grains,
are also characterised by their weaker abrasion and much more limited non-uniformity of
material as compared with older formations that were subject to processes of surface
denudation at least twice - in the Lower and Upper Plenivistulian (Manikowska 1999). The
material of the older formations was also transferred over longer distances, something which
influenced the degree of abrasion of quartz grains. In contrast, in younger formations
(Lapland), processes of frost-induced weathering promoted a greater share of grains with early
stage of abrasion (a) in the graniformametric composition of the substratum. The elevated
amounts of early stage abrasion of quartz grains (characteristic of the juvenile type of grain) in
areas active contemporarily have been noted in studies by Whalley (1975); Yaalon (1975);
Kowalkowski and Mycielska-Dowgiallo (1985); Catt (1988); Kowalkowski (1993); and
Kowalkowski and Kocon (1998).
Where the fine earth element in granulometric composition is concerned, the soils
studied are not shown to differ significantly from one another. The glaciofluvial formations
from which they developed represent loose sands, albeit ones of very different shares of the
skeletal fraction. The greatest contents of this fraction characterise the soils of the northern
part of the study area, confirming the existence there of a very active morphogenic and
pedogenic environment, and pointing to the limited transport of lithological material.
An active morphogenetic environment causes the surface enrichment of soils in the
northern regions of the dusty fraction. The augmentation of this fraction within the granular
composition was also observed in soils associated with the formations of the Odra Glaciation
during which they were transformed by periglacial processes - in the Vistulian, mainly. This is
best seen in the soils of Belarus and southern Poland Melke (1997) has also noted similar
granulometric composition of brown soils in northern and central Europe.
Granular composition is one of the factors influencing densities of the studied soils. In
the northern parts of Europe, greater bulk densities also reflect a major content of organic
carbon as well as a concentration of plant roots in the upper part of the profile. The influence
of organic matter in developing the bulk density of podzolic soils has been demonstrated
previously in other parts of the world by Alexander (1989), as well as Huntington et al,
(1989), among others.
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Greater the impact of chemical weathering is found further south. This is a factor
inducing enrichment with colloidal molecules. Nonetheless, in the acidic environment of
podzolic earths, they are unstable, soluble, and washed out of soil to the extent that the
correlations between geographical location of a profile and the content of colloidal molecules
are not statistically significant. The augmentation of the clayey fraction in certain profiles is
local in character. Nevertheless, it has an influence on the trophic status of habitats. In the
nutrient-poor environment that podzolic earths represent, even very limited differences in the
content of the clayey fraction, especially that of a colloidal nature, are of great significance in
shaping physico-chemical properties (Adamczyk 1965; Bialousz 1978; Catt 1988; Boul et al.,
1989; Degorski 1990, 1998a). Similarly, textural properties as regards quarts grains are
important (Whalley 1979).
Irrespective of the geographical scale in differences in petrographic, granulometric and
graniformametric properties, lithological material exerts an influence on the development of
other physical and chemical properties of the studied soils (Fig. 44). A greater role of the fine
fractions within the granulometric composition of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils is one of
the reasons for the more favorable water-related and aerial properties of the soils in the
Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateau, Berezina-Desna Lowland, and Silesian-Cracovian; i.e., those
developed in old-glacial lithological material subject to the most prolonged processes of
weathering and combined with the high content and best quality of humus (greatest value of
Ch : Cf). It is in their profiles that the greatest quantity of water is retained in the capillary
water capacity (KPW) state, the greatest moisture maintained in the face of free gravitational
flow of water (PPW), and maximal adsorption of water vapour (MH) takes place. This high
water capacity occurs simultaneously with good aeration. This is also favored by greater
porosity of these soils than of the remaining profiles studied.
The spatial variability in properties of the substratum also relates to the direction of the
differences in biochemical soil properties that are most strongly associated with biotic-
climatic elements like hygrothermal relations or the type of biochemical weathering. The
shorter periods of biological activity in the environment occurring in northern and eastern
regions limit the processes of humification and mineralization. This also favors the
accumulation of organic matter, as is manifested in differentiation of the spatial reserves of
carbon organic (Degorski 200Ic). The literature tends to accept that regional differences in
reserves of organic carbon result from the time of accumulation in soil horizons (Liski et al.
1997). In areas with slower processes of mineralisation and humification of organic matter,
diagnostic horizons have older fractions of carbon than in areas of enhanced biological
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activity. On the basis of 14C datings of organic matter done in different regions of Europe, the
oldest fractions of carbon in the Bh horizon (assigned an age of 1942 years) occur in northern
Sweden. There are 1260-year-old ones in central Sweden (Tamm and Ostlund 1960) and 560-
year-old ones in France (Guillet 1979). The mineral parts of the profiles of northern regions
have processes of the accumulation of organic carbon and then its mineralisation that have
been proceeding at one-third or one-quarter of the speed characteristic for the soils in the
southern part of the study area. The limited biological activity of soils located in the north and
east of the research area is confirmed by the low activity of lactic dehydrogenase in the
organic horizon. Low temperature, as well as the slowing of the uptake of nitrogen by
microorganisms and even temporary immobilisation thereof, may be among the causes
(Coleman, Crossley 1995; Robertson et al, 1999). These areas are also characterised by a
lower overall biomass of soil macro- and microfauna, in comparison with the south-western
regions of the study area (Jefremow and Degorski 1998; Khotko 1998; Olechowicz 1998).
Bearing in mind the knowledge on geographical differences in reserves of organic
carbon in podzolic earths, one of the factors determining the value thereof is the hygrothermal
conditioning. This influences the rate of decomposition of organic matter (Prusinkiewicz
1961a; Kononowa 1968; Dziadowiec 1990; Breymeyer et al, 1997, 1998; Breymeyer and
Laskowski 1999), its humification and mineralisation (Volobuev 1964; Witkamp 1966;
Lahdesmakki, Piispanen 1988; Dziadowiec 1990) and the cycling of carbon in the ecosystem
as conditioned by habitat fertility and vegetational structure (Liski 1995).
The greatest total organic carbon (Cto) and of carbon extractable in sodium
pyrophosphate (Cp) are present in the soils of southern Lapland and Finnish Lakelands with
respect to a north-south distribution. These are greatest in soils of Berezina-Desna Lowland
when it comes to the E-W dimension. Greater humidity and soil moisture as well as a shorter
period of biological activity in the environment limit processes of mineralisation and favor the
accumulation of organic matter in these regions.
Forest ecosystems - especially coniferous ones - provide specific conditions for the
formation of soil humus. Its generation is favored by a continuous fall of litter with an acid
reaction (Volobuev 1964; Puchalski, Prusinkiewicz 1990). As a rule, this is a humus saturated
with a relatively large quantity of functional groups containing oxygen (Kononowa 1968 of
the most mobile fractions. Humus of such a chemical composition shows an affinity for
forming linkages with iron and aluminium (Dziadowiec 1976, 1990; Pokojska 1992; Bergelin
et al, 2000) that, in wet conditions, easily wash down through the profile (Lundstrom et al,
2000b). The organic horizons of all of the podzolic earths are dominated by first-extraction
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fulvic acids. While shares of humic acids and humins were observed to be greater in older
soils, all of those studied had ratios of humic acids to fulvic acids below unity (in the range
0.26 to 0.96), indicating that the humus has a limited degree of condensation of aromatic rings
very typical of soils with advanced illuviation (Kononowa 1968).
Forms of iron (Fep) and aluminium (Alp) are associated with organic matter and are
linked to the geographical variability ino reserves of organic carbon. The greatest values were
reported in soils of the northern and eastern parts of the study area. In the northern regions, the
greater incidence of pedogenic linkages, especially with organic matter (p), show the greatest
content of iron and aluminium in parent material to be found in any of the pedons studied.
Here, the process of weathering of soil material is intensive and the aforementioned fractional
composition of humus is characterised by a threefold prevalence of fulvic over humic acids.
This dominance of acids of the first fraction is responsible for linkages with metals (Konecka-
Betley 1968; Yaalon 1975; Bednarek 1991; Bergelin etal, 2000; Lundstrom 2000b).
The northern part of the research area also reported the greatest concentrations of the
forms of phosphorus (total and plant-available). Research carried out to date has noted the
major affinity of the content of inorganic forms of iron (Feac) and aluminium (Alac) for
phosphates (Me Keague et al, 1971; Pokojska.l979c; Mokma 1991). The largest amounts of
inorganic forms of iron and aluminium, as well as reserves of carbon, were reported in these
very soils from Lapland. This may also link up with the higher content of phosphorus in these
soils. Soil-science literature reports that the movement of phosphorus through podzolic soils
takes place by way of three-component humic acid-metal-phosphate complexes (Sinha 1971;
Pokojska 1976, 1979c; Cz^pinska-Kaminska 1992). The greatest differences in the vertical
distribution of forms of phosphorus in pedons with the greatest contents of inorganic forms of
iron and aluminium and humus were found in the northern and eastern sites in this study.
Inorganic forms of iron and aluminium, as well as the content of organic matter, were higher
than in the central part of the research area, on the Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateau and at
Berezina-Desna Lowland. One of the reasons for the lower content of forms of inorganic iron
(Feac) and aluminium (Alac) in soils of this part of the continent may be the inhibitory
influence of organic matter on the crystallisation processes for compounds of iron and
aluminium (Schwertmann 1966, Pokojska 1979c). This is especially true of humic acids
(Sklodowski 1974; Bergelin et al, 2000). Their share in the fractional composition of the
humus of Polish and Belarussian soils is greater than in the pedons of regions located in the
north of the research area.
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A greater content of humic acids in the fractional composition of humus from soils
originating from old glacial material (as opposed to others) may also be a cause of the
obstructed crystallisation of iron oxides in the southern and eastern regions of the research
area. The role humus plays in slowing down the crystallisation of iron by organic matter and
phosphate ions has been documented (Schwertmann 1964, 1966; Pokojska 1976; Bednarek,
Pokojska 1996; Melke 1997). Although the studied soils display lower values for the
Schwertmann index (Fe0/Fed), in line with the age of sediments as well as soil, the differences
in profiles are not statistically significant. The limited differentiation may be a consequence of
the fact that active forms of humus increase in abundance as one moves to sites further to the
south or east. The content of "young" oxides of iron is lowest the easternmost part of the area
(profile 24), which developed on the oldest sedimentary material.
Many studies in the palaeopedological field have shown that, when it comes to soils
developed from similar lithological material under similar topoclimatic conditions, greater age
is associated with a higher degree of transformation of iron silicates into oxides of the element
(Pokojska 1979a; Catt 1988; Arduino et al, 1986; Mokma 1991; Bednarek and Pokojska
1996). One of the manifestations of this is a greater proportion of free iron (Fe0) within the
total content of this element in the soil. These results are similar to the aforementioned thesis.
The greatest content of Fe0 in Fezwas generated over a very long period of time, mainly in
periglacial conditions, in the profiles in Podlasie-Byelorussian Plateaus and Berezina-Desna
Lowland; i.e., areas of markedly transformed lithological material,.
Moreover, high shares of Fed in Fez were also reported in the soils of Lapland, which
have been shaped on the youngest geological material, but develop in conditions of ongoing
severe weathering (mainly of a cryogenic nature) and very high levels of soil moisture. This
points to a pedogenic environment that remains very active to this day. Similar observations
have been presented for areas of northern Europe (Sweden and Spitsbergen) by Yaalon
(1975); Catt (1988); Plichta and Kuczynska (1991); Kowalkowski (1995, 1998) and Melke
(1997), as well as for the Antarctic by Blume et al, (1996) Here, emphasis is placed on the
role a very active pedogenic environment plays in the transformation of silicates of iron into
oxides of that element.
The differentiation in the climatic factors on weathering also influences the course of
ongoing pedogenic processes and the shaping of soil properties (e.g. water relations, acidity,
sorption properties, etc.) - Fig. 44. In the northern and eastern parts of the area studied, the
weathering of rocks is great enough to ensure that the content of exchangeable base cations
(above all magnesium) in the eluvial horizon is greater than that in the Bh sub-horizon. This
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occurs in spite of the fact that precipitation is much greater than evapotranspiration resulting
in severe downwashing of these profiles. In contrast, in regions further to the south-west, we
find ever-greater amounts of exchangeable cations (mainly divalent) in the enrichment sub-
horizon Bh as compared with the eluvial horizon. This occurs in spite of the fact that
conditions for sorption in this sub-horizon are unfavorable because of their acid reaction,
while divalent cations are of limited lability. There is faster weathering in the north of the
study area and extensive washing-through of the profile and eluviation of magnesium ions.
Eluviation of exchangeable magnesium and other exchangeable base cations from the E
horizon is frequently greater than the amounts liberated from weathering rock (Alexander et
al, 1994). This occurs even though the parent rock in this part of Europe is richer in this
element than in other areas (Sairanen 1990; Lahtinen 1994). According to Jersak et al. (1995),
the podzolic soils of Holocene origin in north-eastern regions of the USA have losses for the
total mass of all exchangeable base cations are equal to 102 - 105 kg.ha"1. These losses are
somewhat balanced by organic matter, which represents an important source of exchangeable
base cations.
Spatial variability in chemical and physical properties in the different genetic horizons
are greatest in the parent rock of the studied soils. Sands, being poor in chemical components
and characterised by physical properties unfavorable relative to the functioning of the
pedosphere, are a very dynamic element. They change their properties across a wide spectrum
of values in the face of minor changes in pedogenic factors.As the author stressed in his
previous studies (Degorski 2001b), the greatest heterogeneity is indeed characteristic of the
organic horizon. Composition of the overlying humus was very limited because of the
"mixed sample" method used in collecting material and that the main components are pine
needles and dead plants of the herb layer - be these hemicryptophytes, mosses or lichens -
(Solon 1998). Organic matter was thus operating as a "leveling" factor evening out
differences in the physico-chemical properties of the organic and humus horizons. This result
confirms findings from earlier work by the author carried out in the soil catena in an area of
central Poland (Degorski 1990). The greatest similarity between profiles was characteristic of
the diagnostic sideric (Bv) horizon in rusty-podzolic soils, as well as the Bfe (enrichment)
sub-horizon in the podzolic soils.
Vertical and horizontal variation in pedogenic factors was significantly linked to the
geographical location of pedons in 47% of the features analysed (24 of the 51). Many of these
factors are mutually synergistic (Fig. 44). These can therefore be considered diagnostic
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indicators of the geographical variability in pedogenic conditions. Local habitat is the decisive
element shaping the remaining soil properties.
It is noteworthy that more than 70% (17 out of 24) of the properties shown to be of
diagnostic value in respect to spatial differences (those showing statistical linkage with
geographical location in the N-S or E-W directions) are present in both podzolic and rusty-
podzolic soils. They are regarded as"universal" features for the geographical location of the
two types of pedon. They include the following:
• thickness of the organic horizon,
• thickness of the soil solum,
• content of non-resistant minerals in the soil's heavy fraction,
• the granulometric heterogeneity to the soil substratum,
• degree of processing of lithological material,
• deficit in moisture in relation to field capacity,
• the ratio between the reserve of soil water in the field-capacity state to that in
the capillary capacity state,
• the air capacity,
• the reserve of organic carbon,
• the Ch to Cf ratio,
• the degree of humification,
• lactic dehydrogenase activity,
• total and plant-available P,
• exchangeable aluminium,
• exchangeable hydrogen,
• exchangeable acidity
• the relationship between different forms of aluminium and iron.
The high coefficients for the correlations between the spatial variability of universal
soil features and indices characterising pedogenic factors offer support for the idea that a
significant influence on the contemporary properties of soils has been exerted by the process
of podzolization. This result is confirmed by the work of Manikowska (1999) and Janowska,
which points to an optimum for the emergence of rusty soils in the pre-Boreal and Boreal
periods, that is, an optimum for the origin of podzolic soils in the Atlantic period. It was the
Late Vistulian/Holocene phase of development that gave rise to soil cover in central Poland.
Podzolization is thus younger, and capable of transforming rusty soils into rusty-podzolic
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ones. The intensity of illuviation was great enough to ensure that, in all profiles but number
39, the values of the index for the transfer of amorphous forms of iron and aluminium [(A10 +
0.5 Fe0B)/( A10 + 0.5 Fe0E or AE )] met the requirements adopted by the WRB (1998) as one
of the criteria by which to assess the presence of the podzolization process. This confirms the
suitability of jointly considering the spatial variability of properties associated with podzolic
and rusty-podzolic soils. It is the result of the impact of a similar set of geographically-
diversified soil-forming factors, wether these are morpholithological or biotic-climatic.
A summary of the results supports the idea that the similarities among the analysed
pedons allow for a geographically-based division of the studied podzolic eatrhs into two zones
(I and II) and regional sub-zones (a, b, c).
1) Zone I - the podzolic earths of coniferous and mixed/coniferous forests within mesophilic
and hygro-mesophilic vegetation formations of coniferous forests associated with a cool
temperate climate.
Sub-zones:
a). Mesoholocene-Neoholocene illuvial-humus podzolic soils of coniferous
forests within the regional vegetation formation of the North Boreal coniferous forests.
These occur in conditions of a very humid climate in which there is a marked
prevalence of precipitation over evaporation, in areas today characterised by very
active pedogenic environments in which the soil substratum comprises the youngest
Eoholocene sediments (as in Lapland). These soils are characterised by limited
thickness, as well as intensive downwashing. These factors are favored by the
glaciofluvial material with its typically large share of coarse-grained sands and a
gravelly-stony fraction. Typical in such soils is a considerable accumulation of humus
in the organic horizon, as well as greater biological activity in the upper parts of the
humus horizon. The fractional composition of the humus is dominated by first-
extraction fulvic acids associated with mobile RzOa forms, while the ratio of fulvic to
humic acids is below 0.4. The ratio of total organic carbon to total nitrogen (C:N) is
greater in these soils than any of the others studied (Table 31). The ammonium form of
nitrogen prevails, and this favors the development of ecosystems with Scots pine. The
intensity of cryogenic weathering processes, be these physical or chemical or both,
increases the rate of breakdown of aluminosilicates. The soils contain considerable
amounts of free iron (Fed), as well as amorphous forms of the element (Fe0).They also
contain aluminium (A10), as well as the greatest contents of silicate forms of iron
(Fegk). The podzolization process is very intensive, as is confirmed by the very high
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values obtained for indices of illuviation (determined in line with criteria from
Mokma, 1983). Also confirming podzolization is the content of iron-aluminium-
humus complexes in the enrichment horizon (Cp + Alp + Fep), the transfer of
amorphous iron and aluminium (A10 + ¥2 Fe0 in the B horizon to A10 + ¥2 Fe0 in the E
horizon), and the transfer of free iron (Fed in horizon B to Fed in horizons E or AE) -
Table 31.
b). Holocene podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils of coniferous or
mixed/coniferous forests. These are developed from Late Vistulian sediments (in
Ostrobothnia, the Finnish Lakelands and the Eastern Baltic Coastland and Lakelands),
which occur in what are today conditions of a very humid climate, in the zone of the
regional vegetational formation of the Central and Southern Boreal coniferous forests.
In comparison with the soils of the Northern Boreal coniferous forests, these are
characterised by greater thickness, as well as more favorable physical properties. They
also contain much more organic matter. The fractional composition of their humus has
a greater share of humic acids, although values for the ratio of fulvic to humic acids
remain very low - in the range 0.4 to 0.6 (Table 31). The greatest biological activity is
shown by the organic horizon, in which lactic dehydrogenase activity is greater than in
the humus horizon.
2) Zone II - podzolic earths of coniferous (mostly pine) and mixed/coniferous forests of the
vegetational formation of mesophilic broadleaved forests and mixed/coniferous forests in
a warm temperate climate.
Sub-zones:
a). Late Vistulian/Holocene podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils of coniferous and
mixed/coniferous forests developed from Plenivistulian sediments (Western and
Southern Baltic Lakelands). They occur today in conditions of a temperate and humid
climate of a lowland zone featuring the regional vegetational formation of beech forest
and mixed/beech forest. As in the case of the soils of Lapland and the Finnish
Lakelands, they are characterised by the greatest contents of amorphous forms of iron
and aluminium, as well as a limited proportion of crystalline forms of Fe. This attests
to their young age. The limited degree of weathering of soil material is also confirmed
by the large shares of non-resistant minerals within the mineral composition of the
heavier fraction, and silicate forms of iron (Fegk). They are also characterised by a very
limited share of humic acids within the fractional composition of their humus. The
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Ch:Cf ratio for rusty-podzolic soils of this sub-zone have lower values than in any of
the other pedons (Table 31).
b). Neopleistocene/Holocene podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils of coniferous and
mixed/coniferous forests, with a multiphasic cycle of development. These developed
from sediments of the Warta Stadial to the Odra Glaciation (in the Central Polish
Lowlands, Central Malopolska Upland and Silesian-Cracovian Upland). They now
occur in conditions of an adequately humid climate, in the zone of the lowland form of
the regional vegetational formation of mixed/oak-lime-hornbeam forests. The nature
of the area as one of geographical transition exerts an influence on the soils as they
develop. Values for properties tend to be intermediate between those characterizing
areas of the youngest or oldest soil cover (Table 31).
c). Meso- and Neopleistocene/Holocene podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils of
coniferous and mixed/coniferous forests, with a multiphasic developmental cycle.
These developed from sediments of San II Glaciation and the pre-maximal and
maximal stadials of the Odra Glaciation (Northern Podkarpacie, Podlasie-Byelorussian
Plateau and Berezina-Desna Lowland). They occur today in conditions of a markedly
humid climate, in a lowland zone featuring the regional vegetational formation of
hemi-boreal and nemoral Scots pine forest. These are characterised by the most
favorable physical properties of any of the studied pedons because they experienced
the longest period of impact of exogenous factors on the soil substrata. Their
granulometric composition features the greatest shares of the dusty and clayey
fractions. They are also characterised by the greatest contents of organic matter, an
aspect which combines with granular composition to make these soils the most porous.
In the eastern part of the sub-zone, as in northern Scandinavia, there is greater
biological activity in the upper part of the humus horizon as compared with the O
horizon. The fractional composition of humus is dominated by first-extraction fulvic
acids, as in the soils of the other geographical units, but the ratio of fulvic to humic
acids is greatest for these soils amounting to between 0.6 and 0.7 in the podzolic soils,
and 0.9-1.0 in the rusty-podzolic soils. The values for the ratio of total organic carbon
to total nitrogen (C:N) are the lowest in this sub-zone (20), confirming the greatest
level of biological activity and in lactic dehydrogenase activity these soils. The Bh
enrichment sub-horizon has a value of 16 and the BfeBv enrichment horizon one of
11, as compared to the means for all podzolic soils of 27 in A, 28 in Bh, as well as for
rusty-podzolic soils of 24 in A and 16 in BfeBv. These soils also differ in their greater
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shares of divalent cations in the sorption complex, as well as the degree of saturation
of that complex in base cations. The greater shares of divalent cations are determined
by amounts of secondary clay minerals that are higher in these soils than in the
younger ones arising in other regional sub-zones. The prolonged impact of factors
destructive of the soil substratum combined with the course of pedogenic processes is
visible, not only in textural properties of sediments (e.g. very limited shares of non-
resistant minerals in the fraction of heavier lithological material), but also in physico-
chemical properties. This is best conveyed by the diagnostic chemical indicators. The
soils of this sub-zone are also characterised by the greatest values for the Fed/Fez
index. This confirms their greatest weathering (most silicates of Fe converted into
oxides), as well as lowest values for the Fe0 to Fed ratio attesting to the "age" of the
lost oxides of Fe and their crystallisation (Bednarek and Pokojska 1996. All this in
spite of the fact that the extant climatic conditions do not favor these processes. The
very longlasting and intensive process of podzolization in these pedons is confirmed
by the greatest values for the index of illuviation (£3 Cp Alp Fep - £A Cp Alp Fep)
according to Mokma (1983) criteria, as well as that of the contents of amorphous iron
and aluminium (A10 + ¥2 Fe0 in the B horizon to A10 + ¥2 Fe0 in the Fes or AEes
horizons) - Table 31
The proposed division could supplement existing divisions into soil-geographical
regions (Glazowska 1981; Boul et al, 1989). In comparison with these, the presented
proposal for the geographical division of podzolic earths has combined within one spatial unit
the sub-zones of the central and southern taiga. Differences in the analysed soil properties in
these two sub-zones did not differ in a statistically significant manner. One of the main
reasons for this could be the restricting of analyses to only forest soils. According to Russian
researchers, deforested areas of the southern taiga very characteristically fall within the turf-
podzolic soil category. The physical and chemical properties of this soil category represent a
significant taxonomic factor in the division of the podzolic soils of the permafrost-free zone of
the taiga (Glazowska 1981; Bednarek, Prusinkiewicz 1997). According to soil systematics in
force in Poland, these would be closer to lessive soils.
The presented spatially-conditioned differentiation of the analysed soils suggests a
division of the zone of podzolic earths in the warm temperate climatic belt into regional sub-
zones. The spatial division of this area, reflecting soil properties that are statistically different
is confirmed by the now-accepted concept for the spatial differentiation of the physiological-
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ecological vegetational formations of Europe (Bohn et al, 1996 and in the variability in the
morpholithological properties of the substratum from which they are developed.
The work presented has confirmed the many difficulties with methodology and
interpretation that are inherent in the pursuit of research on the spatial differentiation of soil
cover at a supra-regional level. Soil as a component of the landscape (Huggett 1975;
Kowalkowski 1993, 2001; Degorski 2001b); i.e., as a spatial unit that is both a product of the
natural environment and a shaper thereof (Terlikowski 1951; Catt 1988; Puchalski,
Prusinkiewicz 1990; Szafranek 2000), and is characterised by great variability of properties,
irrespective of the level of spatial organisation (Degorski 2001b). This interactive relationship
between soil and the environment ensures that its properties are shaped by a set of pedogenic
factors dependent on site morphology and lithology plus climatic conditions and factors
created by the soil itself. There would thus seem to be every justification for the division of
the properties of soils proposed by Glazowska (1981), envisaging "permanent" properties
linked with pedogenesis of the given soil, as well as "supplementary" ones resulting from
mutual dynamic interlinkage between the pedon and the natural environment.
In recent years, it has become particularly important to appreciate the
interdependences governing the relationship between the pedosphere and the factors shaping
it. In these days of intensifying population pressure and global changes in the natural
environment, a precise knowledge of the relationship between spatial variability in soil
properties and the geographical differentiation in pedogenic factors will be important in
forecasting the directions to pedospheric change. For this reason, the many difficulties of both
a methodological and technical nature and the necessarily long period of research, should not
discourage continuation of this work and its extension of it into other types of soil and other
regions.
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Conclusion
The analysis conducted in this research supports several conclusions relative to the
spatial differentiation in podzolic soil properties in northern and central Europe.
1. The time-dependent conditioning role of the morpho-lithological factor and the steering
role of the biotic-climatic factor were confirmed where the process of pedogenesis in the
studied podzolic soils was concerned.
2. The spatial division of the studied podzolic soils based on similarity analysis of properties
defining the direction and type of pedogenic processes can be related to: the age of the
original sediments expressed by reference to glaciation, the textural properties of the
substratum from which the pedons are shaped, and the ecological and physiological plant
formations and climatic (especially hygrothermic) conditions.
3. The soils present in similar hygrothermic conditions and shaped from lithological material
of different geological periods have similar chemical properties, thereby attesting to the
important influence of the biotic/climatic factor of the pedogenic process in relation to
age.
4. Soils of similar granulometric composition do not merely differ in grain size. A large role
in the spatial differentiation of primary and secondary physical properties (as well as some
chemical properties) is played by the local environmental conditioning, and especially the
organic-matter content.
5. Some pedogenic diagnostic features may be regarded as diagnostic indicators of the
spatial variability of soils. These include:
the content of amorphic iron and aluminium ( A10 + ¥2 Fe0) in the illuvial horizon
(spodic and syderic),
the content of iron-aluminium-humus complexes (Cp + Alp + Fep) in the enriched
illuvial horizon, both spodic and sideric,
the magnitude of the index for the movement of free iron in profiles (ratio of Fed in B
to Fed in E),
the degree of illuviation (£B Cp Alp Fep - £A Cp Alp Fep),
the molar ratio [Cp/(Fep + Alp)] in the spodic and sideric zones of enrichment.
6. Among the properties of podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils, the universal diagnostic
features of their differentiation; i.e., those showing statistically-significant relationships
with geographical location, were:
thickness of the organic horizon,
thickness of the soil solum,
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non-resistant minerals in the soil's heavy fraction,
granulometric heterogeneity of the soil substratum,
degree of abrasion of lithological material,
temporary soil moisture deficit in relation to field capacity,
ratio of the stock of soil at field capacity to the stock in a state of capillary water
capacity,
air capacity,
stock of organic carbon,
ratio of the huminic to fulvic acid contents,
degree of humification,
lactic dehydrogenase activity,
total phosphorus and plant-available phosphorus,
exchangeable aluminium,
exchangeable hydrogen ions,
exchangeable acidity,
the relationships between forms of aluminium and iron.
7. The following groups of regions were obtained based on the statistical similarity of all of
the studied pedogenic and pedological properties:
• 6 groups of podzolic soils:
Lapland,
Ostro-Bothnia and the Finnish Lakelands,
Eastern Baltic Coastland and Eastern Baltic Lakelands,
Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands and Northern Podkarpacie,
Berezina-Desna Lowland,
Southern Baltic Lakelands, Central Polish Lowlands and Central Malopolska
Upland.
• 4 groups of rusty-podzolic soils:
Finnish Lakelands and Eastern Baltic Lakelands,
- Western and Southern Baltic Lakelands,
Podlasie-Byelorussian Uplands and Berezina-Desna Lowland,
Central Polish Lowlands and Silesian-Cracovian Upland.
8. The spatial variability in pedogenic factors and the properties of the pedons studied
showed geographical differences in podzolic soils that were divided into two zones and
five regional sub-zones:
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The Holocene and Late Vistulian-Holocene podzolic soils of pine and mixed/pine
forests in the vegetation formation of mesophilic and hygromesophilic coniferous
forests of the cool-temperate climate:
meso-Holocene/eo-Holocene illuvial-humic podzolic soils of pine forests within
the north-Boreal coniferous forest regional vegetation formation, in conditions of
a highly humid climate, in areas characterised today by a very active pedogenic
environment in which the soil substrata are meso-Holocene or youngest eo-
Holocene sediments,
Late Vistulian-Holocene podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils of pine and
mixed/pine forests, developed from eo-Holocene and Late Vistulian sediments,
occurring today in conditions of a highly humid climate, in the zone of the
Central and Southern Boreal coniferous forest regional vegetation formation,
Pleistocene-Holocene podzolic soils of pine and mixed/pine forests of the
vegetational formation of mesophilic deciduous and coniferous forests in the zone of
warm-temperate climate:
Plenivistulian-Holocene podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils of pine and mixed/pine
forests, developed from Plenivistulian sediments and occurring today in the
conditions of a humid temperate climate within the zone of the regional form of
the beech and mixed/beech vegetation formation,
Neo-Pleistocene-Holocene podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils, developed from
sediments of the Warta stage of the Odra Glaciation, occurring today in
conditions of a sufficiently humid climate, in the zone of the lowland form of the
mixed oak-lime-hornbeam forest regional vegetation formation,
Meso- and Neopleistocene-Holocene podzolic and rusty-podzolic soils of pine
and mixed/pine forests, developed from the sediments of the San II Glaciation
and the pre-maximal and maximal stages of the Odra Glaciation, occurring today
in conditions of a highly humid climate, in the lowland zone of the hemi-boreal
and nemoral pine forest regional vegetation formation.
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Wyszkowski A., 1987, Microclimatic temperature characteristics around the Oulanka
Biological Station, NE Finland. Oulanka Reports 7, Oulu, p. 3-24.
Yaalon D., 1975, Conceptual models in pedogenesis - can soil-forming functions be solved?
Geoderma, 14, p. 189-205
Yaalon D., 1982, Arctic soils andgeomorphicprocesses. Catena Supplement 1, 219pp.
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Geoecology 29, p. 1-13.
Zilliacus H., 1987, De Geer moraines in Finland and the annual moraine problem. Fennia
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Problemowe Post^pow Nauk Rolniczych. 372, p. 219-250.
170
-------
Appendix A. Table 23. Some sorption properties of studied soils.
No. of
profile
a
podzolic s
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10
11
12
13
15
16
horizon
b
oils
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
H*
Ca" |Mg"
K*
Na
S
T
cmol(+).kg"1
c
9.19
6.23
8.72
4.22
4.08
12.34
7.12
9.34
4.11
3.23
23.50
3.45
6.47
3.90
2.89
22.45
2.78
6.32
2.78
1.37
12.90
5.32
6.23
6.12
5.14
15.59
8.89
10.40
6.49
1.00
9.10
5.20
12.23
4.12
1.09
6.53
5.11
10.41
4.39
3.86
15.60
5.51
10.34
5.78
3.00
6.45
5.23
8.43
2.34
1.43
8.32
4.29
6.12
2.98
2.01
2.85
2.76
5.68
1.78
1.31
15.00
3.45
5.67
5.11
2.62
d
e
f
fl
h
i
0.53
0.45
0.38
0.32
0.49
0.61
0.53
0.34
0.17
0.15
0.52
0.18
0.13
0.11
0.11
0.58
0.08
0.11
0.16
0.14
0.62
0.12
0.24
0.92
0.82
0.85
0.31
0.21
0.26
0.15
0.69
0.56
0.27
0.14
0.03
0.74
0.48
0.32
0.67
0.81
0.63
0.46
0.28
0.56
0.46
0.84
0.76
0.65
0.57
0.43
0.73
0.76
0.31
0.34
0.31
0.64
0.66
0.34
0.53
0.45
0.69
0.61
0.56
0.41
0.23
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.08
0.14
0.07
0.07
0.04
0.03
0.65
0.07
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.15
0.08
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.20
0.06
0.08
0.15
0.14
0.40
0.07
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.40
0.10
0.12
0.07
0.05
0.15
0.08
0.12
0.23
0.25
0.10
0.05
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.24
0.21
0.22
0.13
0.08
0.18
0.16
0.18
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.18
0.09
0.07
0.13
0.11
0.14
0.10
0.07
0.30
0.16
0.27
0.09
0.06
0.19
0.14
0.19
0.12
0.03
0.24
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.12
0.02
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.42
0.09
0.16
0.25
0.29
0.29
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.41
0.12
0.15
0.12
0.02
0.34
0.11
0.16
0.23
0.34
0.32
0.10
0.34
0.30
0.30
0.33
0.24
0.31
0.30
0.27
0.28
0.20
0.23
0.19
0.14
0.35
0.23
0.27
0.28
0.28
0.18
0.10
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.19
0.04
0.20
0.09
0.08
0.13
0.05
0.16
0.20
0.08
0.18
0.12
0.13
0.10
0.11
0.15
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.37
0.08
0.12
0.15
0.20
0.22
0.10
0.11
0.09
0.01
0.26
0.10
0.14
0.12
0.03
0.26
0.10
0.16
0.20
0.24
0.18
0.11
0.17
0.20
0.26
0.19
0.12
0.15
0.16
0.18
0.16
0.12
0.13
0.10
0.09
0.17
0.11
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.22
0.16
0.18
0.17
0.16
1.11
0.72
0.98
0.56
0.71
1.07
0.79
0.76
0.53
0.29
1.58
0.39
0.35
0.30
0.30
1.00
0.21
0.25
0.26
0.18
1.61
0.35
0.60
1.47
1.45
1.76
0.51
0.39
0.42
0.20
1.76
0.88
0.68
0.45
0.13
1.49
0.77
0.76
1.33
1.64
1.23
0.72
0.88
1.15
1.11
1.60
1.33
1.33
1.16
0.96
1.35
1.24
0.85
0.78
0.68
1.30
1.12
0.94
1.05
0.94
1.22
0.98
1.00
0.79
0.56
10.30
6.95
9.70
4.78
4.79
13.41
7.91
10.10
4.64
3.52
25.08
3.84
6.82
4.20
3.19
23.45
2.99
6.57
3.04
1.55
14.51
5.67
6.83
7.59
6.59
17.35
9.40
10.79
6.91
1.20
10.86
6.08
12.91
4.57
1.22
8.02
5.88
11.17
5.72
5.50
16.83
6.23
11.22
6.93
4.11
8.05
6.56
9.76
3.50
2.39
9.67
5.53
6.97
3.76
2.69
4.15
3.88
6.62
2.83
2.25
16.22
4.43
6.67
5.90
3.18
V
VH
Vc,
VMg
VK | VNa
%
J
k
I
m
n
10.8
10.4
10.1
11.7
14.8
8.0
10.0
7.5
11.4
8.2
6.3
10.2
5.2
7.1
9.3
4.3
7.0
3.8
8.6
11.6
11.1
6.2
8.8
19.4
22.0
10.1
5.4
3.6
6.1
16.7
16.2
14.5
5.3
9.8
10.7
18.6
13.1
6.8
23.3
29.8
7.3
11.6
7.8
16.6
27.0
19.9
20.3
13.6
33.1
40.2
14.0
22.4
12.2
20.7
25.3
31.3
28.9
14.2
37.1
41.8
7.5
22.1
15.0
13.4
17.6
89.2
89.6
89.9
88.3
85.2
92.0
90.0
92.5
88.6
91.8
93.7
89.8
94.8
92.9
90.7
95.7
93.0
96.2
91.4
88.4
88.9
93.8
91.2
80.6
78.0
89.9
94.6
96.4
93.9
83.3
83.8
85.5
94.7
90.2
89.3
81.4
86.9
93.2
76.7
70.2
92.7
88.4
92.2
83.4
73.0
80.1
79.7
86.4
66.9
59.8
86.0
77.6
87.8
79.3
74.7
68.7
71.1
85.8
62.9
58.2
92.5
77.9
85.0
86.6
82.4
5.15
6.47
4.64
6.69
10.23
4.55
6.70
3.37
3.66
4.26
2.06
4.56
1.95
2.62
3.52
2.47
2.68
1.67
5.26
9.03
4.27
2.12
3.51
12.12
12.44
4.90
3.30
1.95
3.76
12.50
6.35
9.21
2.09
3.06
2.46
9.23
8.16
2.86
11.71
14.73
3.74
7.38
2.50
8.08
11.19
10.43
11.59
6.66
16.29
17.99
7.55
13.74
4.45
9.04
11.52
15.42
17.01
5.14
18.73
20.00
4.25
13.77
8.40
6.95
7.23
0.87
1.01
0.62
1.26
1.67
1.04
0.88
0.69
0.86
0.85
2.58
1.74
0.77
1.19
1.60
0.64
2.68
0.30
0.99
0.65
1.38
1.06
1.17
1.98
2.12
2.31
0.74
0.28
0.58
1.67
3.68
1.64
0.93
1.53
4.10
1.87
1.36
1.07
4.02
4.55
0.59
0.80
0.80
1.30
2.19
2.98
3.20
2.25
3.71
3.35
1.86
2.89
2.58
3.99
5.20
3.37
3.09
2.72
3.18
3.11
0.80
2.48
2.10
1.69
2.20
2.91
2.30
2.78
1.88
1.25
1.42
1.77
1.88
2.59
0.85
0.97
0.73
0.52
0.95
0.73
0.51
0.67
0.91
1.32
1.29
2.89
1.59
2.34
3.29
4.40
1.67
0.32
0.37
0.43
1.67
3.78
1.97
1.16
2.63
1.64
4.24
1.87
1.43
4.02
6.18
1.90
1.61
3.03
4.33
7.30
4.10
3.66
3.18
8.57
11.30
2.90
3.62
3.30
5.05
5.20
8.43
5.93
4.08
9.89
12.44
1.11
2.26
1.80
1.86
3.14
0
1.84
0.58
2.06
1.88
1.67
0.97
0.63
1.58
4.31
2.27
0.70
3.14
1.95
2.38
3.42
0.64
1.00
0.91
0.99
0.65
2.55
1.41
1.76
1.98
3.03
1.27
1.06
1.02
1.30
0.83
2.39
1.64
1.08
2.63
2.46
3.24
1.70
1.43
3.50
4.36
1.07
1.77
1.52
2.89
6.33
2.36
1.83
1.54
4.57
7.53
1.65
2.17
1.87
2.66
3.35
4.10
2.84
2.27
5.30
6.22
1.36
3.61
2.70
2.88
5.03
Ca:Mg
P
5.9
6.4
7.5
5.3
6.1
4.4
7.6
4.9
4.3
5.0
0.8
2.6
2.5
2.2
2.2
3.9
1.0
5.5
5.3
14.0
3.1
2.0
3.0
6.1
5.9
2.1
4.4
7.0
6.5
7.5
1.7
5.6
2.3
2.0
0.6
4.9
6.0
2.7
2.9
3.2
6.3
9.2
3.1
6.2
5.1
3.5
3.6
3.0
4.4
5.4
4.1
4.8
1.7
2.3
2.2
4.6
5.5
1.9
5.9
6.4
5.3
5.5
4.0
4.1
3.3
Mg:K
r
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.7
1.3
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
1.0
2.7
2.4
1.5
1.3
2.2
1.3
4.0
0.3
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.5
1.4
2.3
0.8
1.3
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
2.5
0.4
0.7
0.8
1.0
0.7
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.7
1.1
1.2
0.9
0.7
Ca+Ma
K+Na
s
1.3
2.6
1.1
2.1
4.1
2.3
3.2
1.2
0.7
1.6
2.8
1.6
1.1
1.1
1.2
2.7
3.2
1.1
2.7
5.0
1.0
1.1
1.1
2.7
2.0
2.5
2.9
1.6
2.5
5.7
1.6
3.0
1.3
0.9
1.6
1.5
2.7
1.4
2.1
1.8
1.5
2.4
0.7
1.3
1.0
2.1
2.7
1.9
1.5
1.1
2.1
2.9
1.4
1.7
2.0
1.5
2.3
1.2
1.4
1.2
2.1
2.8
2.3
1.8
1.2
<*"" 1M%
T
t
6.0
7.5
5.3
7.9
11.9
5.6
7.6
4.1
4.5
5.1
4.6
6.3
2.7
3.8
5.1
3.1
5.4
2.0
6.3
9.7
5.7
3.2
4.7
14.1
14.6
7.2
4.0
2.2
4.3
14.2
10.0
10.9
3.0
4.6
6.6
11.1
9.5
3.9
15.7
19.3
4.3
8.2
3.3
9.4
13.4
13.4
14.8
8.9
20.0
21.3
9.4
16.6
7.0
13.0
16.7
18.8
20.1
7.9
21.9
23.1
5.1
16.3
10.5
8.6
9.4
171
-------
Appendix A continued
a
17
19
20
22
24
26
28
29
32
35
38
b
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
AEes
Ees
Bh
Bfe
C
c
4.39
3.11
4.12
2.67
1.58
12.56
3.76
4.67
2.51
1.84
8.18
3.11
4.21
3.45
2.66
5.81
3.09
4.29
2.79
1.86
9.69
7.19
8.45
9.34
5.40
3.47
5.87
8.48
3.12
1.53
21.98
4.45
5.30
4.24
4.06
12.30
3.54
4.86
2.82
2.28
13.62
4.92
6.26
3.12
2.29
7.08
4.78
12.82
2.71
1.25
10.81
5.99
6.24
4.11
1.67
d
0.49
0.64
0.56
0.41
0.39
0.80
0.78
0.42
0.66
0.65
0.48
0.89
0.41
1.03
0.93
1.14
1.23
0.78
1.09
1.02
0.50
0.52
0.31
0.55
0.47
0.23
0.31
0.58
0.15
0.17
1.05
0.36
0.24
0.18
0.18
0.73
0.21
0.27
0.16
0.15
0.19
0.12
0.13
0.11
0.10
0.19
0.12
0.15
0.09
0.08
0.40
0.24
0.22
0.24
0.09
e
0.09
0.07
0.11
0.08
0.06
0.11
0.08
0.11
0.10
0.10
0.06
0.05
0.21
0.15
0.21
0.18
0.11
0.27
0.25
0.21
0.11
0.09
0.23
0.21
0.17
0.06
0.07
0.11
0.04
0.06
0.21
0.08
0.11
0.06
0.06
0.15
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.04
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.10
0.07
0.05
0.05
0.03
f
0.28
0.14
0.30
0.27
0.27
0.28
0.13
0.32
0.31
0.27
0.29
0.18
0.43
0.39
0.39
0.35
0.29
0.43
0.40
0.39
0.30
0.23
0.40
0.37
0.28
0.09
0.10
0.12
0.08
0.08
0.23
0.11
0.15
0.11
0.10
0.16
0.10
0.11
0.09
0.09
0.07
0.04
0.09
0.05
0.04
0.09
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.04
0.11
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.04
a
0.13
0.07
0.16
0.16
0.14
0.13
0.08
0.19
0.15
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.19
0.15
0.18
0.17
0.12
0.19
0.17
0.17
0.19
0.12
0.16
0.14
0.20
0.15
0.14
0.16
0.12
0.13
0.16
0.15
0.17
0.15
0.14
0.15
0.06
0.16
0.10
0.15
0.11
0.08
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.12
0.09
0.13
0.08
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.07
h
0.99
0.92
1.13
0.92
0.86
1.32
1.07
1.04
1.22
1.18
0.95
1.20
1.24
1.72
1.71
1.84
1.75
1.67
1.91
1.79
1.10
0.96
1.10
1.27
1.12
0.53
0.62
0.97
0.39
0.44
1.65
0.70
0.67
0.50
0.48
1.19
0.42
0.60
0.40
0.46
0.46
0.28
0.39
0.30
0.26
0.46
0.30
0.40
0.25
0.24
0.69
0.46
0.42
0.44
0.23
i
5.38
4.03
5.25
3.59
2.44
13.88
4.83
5.71
3.73
3.02
9.13
4.31
5.45
5.17
4.37
7.65
4.84
5.96
4.70
3.65
10.79
8.15
9.55
10.61
6.52
4.00
6.49
9.45
3.51
1.97
23.63
5.15
5.97
4.74
4.54
13.49
3.96
5.46
3.22
2.74
14.08
5.20
6.65
3.42
2.55
7.54
5.08
13.22
2.96
1.49
11.50
6.45
6.66
4.55
1.90
i
18.4
22.8
21.5
25.6
35.2
9.5
22.2
18.2
32.7
39.1
10.4
27.8
22.8
33.3
39.1
24.1
36.2
28.0
40.6
49.0
10.2
11.8
11.5
12.0
17.2
13.3
9.6
10.3
11.1
22.3
7.0
13.6
11.2
10.5
10.6
8.8
10.6
11.0
12.4
16.8
3.3
5.4
5.9
8.8
10.2
6.1
5.9
3.0
8.4
16.1
6.0
7.1
6.3
9.7
12.1
k
81.6
77.2
78.5
74.4
64.8
90.5
77.8
81.8
67.3
60.9
89.6
72.2
77.2
66.7
60.9
75.9
63.8
72.0
59.4
51.0
89.8
88.2
88.5
88.0
82.8
86.8
90.4
89.7
88.9
77.7
93.0
86.4
88.8
89.5
89.4
91.2
89.4
89.0
87.6
83.2
96.7
94.6
94.1
91.2
89.8
93.9
94.1
97.0
91.6
83.9
94.0
92.9
93.7
90.3
87.9
I
9.11
15.88
10.67
11.42
15.98
5.76
16.15
7.36
17.69
21.52
5.26
20.65
7.52
19.92
21.28
14.90
25.41
13.09
23.19
27.95
4.63
6.38
3.25
5.18
7.21
5.75
4.78
6.14
4.27
8.63
4.44
6.99
4.02
3.80
3.96
5.41
5.30
4.95
4.97
5.47
1.35
2.31
1.95
3.22
3.92
2.52
2.36
1.13
3.04
5.37
3.48
3.72
4.72
5.27
4.74
m
1.67
1.74
2.10
2.23
2.46
0.79
1.66
1.93
2.68
3.31
0.66
1.16
3.85
2.90
4.81
2.35
2.27
4.53
5.32
5.75
1.02
1.10
2.41
1.98
2.61
1.50
1.08
1.16
1.14
3.05
0.89
1.55
1.84
1.27
1.32
1.11
1.26
1.10
1.55
2.55
0.64
0.77
0.90
1.17
1.18
0.80
0.79
0.38
1.35
2.01
0.87
1.09
1.07
1.10
1.58
n
5.20
3.47
5.71
7.52
11.07
2.02
2.69
5.60
8.31
8.94
3.18
4.18
7.89
7.54
8.92
4.58
5.99
7.21
8.51
10.68
2.78
2.82
4.19
3.49
4.29
2.25
1.54
1.27
2.28
4.06
0.97
2.14
2.51
2.32
2.20
1.19
2.53
2.01
2.80
3.28
0.50
0.77
1.35
1.46
1.57
1.19
0.98
0.53
1.35
2.68
0.96
1.09
1.50
1.54
2.11
o
2.42
1.74
3.05
4.46
5.74
0.94
1.66
3.33
4.02
5.30
1.31
1.86
3.49
2.90
4.12
2.22
2.48
3.19
3.62
4.66
1.76
1.47
1.68
1.32
3.07
3.75
2.16
1.69
3.42
6.60
0.68
2.91
2.85
3.16
3.08
1.11
1.52
2.93
3.11
5.47
0.78
1.54
1.65
2.92
3.53
1.59
1.77
0.98
2.70
6.04
0.70
1.24
1.72
1.76
3.68
P
5.4
9.1
5.1
5.1
6.5
7.3
9.8
3.8
6.6
6.5
8.0
17.8
2.0
6.9
4.4
6.3
11.2
2.9
4.4
4.9
4.5
5.8
1.3
2.6
2.8
3.8
4.4
5.3
3.8
2.8
5.0
4.5
2.2
3.0
3.0
4.9
4.2
4.5
3.2
2.1
2.1
3.0
2.2
2.8
3.3
3.2
3.0
3.0
2.3
2.7
4.0
3.4
4.4
4.8
3.0
r
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.9
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.3
1.0
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.7
1.0
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.7
0.7
0.8
s
1.4
3.4
1.5
1.1
1.1
2.2
4.1
1.0
1.7
1.7
1.3
3.6
1.0
2.2
2.0
2.5
3.3
1.7
2.4
2.2
1.2
1.7
1.0
1.5
1.3
1.2
1.6
2.5
1.0
1.1
3.2
1.7
1.1
0.9
1.0
2.8
1.6
1.2
1.1
0.9
1.6
1.3
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.1
0.8
2.6
2.1
1.8
1.9
1.1
t
10.8
17.6
12.8
13.6
18.4
6.6
17.8
9.3
20.4
24.8
5.9
21.8
11.4
22.8
26.1
17.3
27.7
17.6
28.5
33.7
5.7
7.5
5.7
7.2
9.8
7.3
5.9
7.3
5.4
11.7
5.3
8.5
5.9
5.1
5.3
6.5
6.6
6.0
6.5
8.0
2.0
3.1
2.9
4.4
5.1
3.3
3.1
1.5
4.4
7.4
4.3
4.8
4.1
6.4
6.3
rusty-podzolic soils
8
9
14
25
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
10.52
5.60
2.96
1.35
7.95
4.58
2.93
1.13
7.34
6.24
4.12
1.91
11.93
9.54
8.12
2.11
2.83
0.18
0.06
0.05
1.44
0.14
0.13
0.12
1.12
0.73
0.45
0.12
1.42
0.89
0.45
0.20
1.34
0.24
0.13
0.11
0.82
0.17
0.11
0.13
0.65
0.43
0.24
0.11
0.45
0.44
0.26
0.09
1.11
0.23
0.17
0.14
0.54
0.11
0.07
0.08
0.42
0.31
0.19
0.09
0.33
0.30
0.19
0.08
0.68
0.27
0.18
0.14
0.31
0.13
0.10
0.10
0.27
0.17
0.09
0.07
0.21
0.18
0.14
0.05
5.97
0.91
0.54
0.45
3.11
0.56
0.42
0.42
2.46
1.64
0.97
0.39
2.41
1.81
1.04
0.42
16.49
6.51
3.50
1.80
11.06
5.14
3.34
1.55
9.80
7.88
5.09
2.30
14.34
11.35
9.16
2.53
36.2
14.0
15.4
24.9
28.1
10.9
12.5
27.3
25.1
20.8
19.1
17.0
16.8
15.9
11.4
16.6
63.8
86.0
84.6
75.1
71.9
89.1
87.5
72.7
74.9
79.2
80.9
83.0
83.2
84.1
88.6
83.4
17.14
2.81
1.69
2.84
13.00
2.80
3.98
7.43
11.43
9.26
8.84
5.22
9.90
7.84
4.91
7.91
8.15
3.62
3.83
6.12
7.39
3.35
3.38
8.14
6.63
5.46
4.72
4.78
3.14
3.88
2.84
3.56
6.75
3.50
4.77
7.90
4.90
2.18
2.12
5.10
4.29
3.93
3.73
3.91
2.30
2.64
2.07
3.16
4.15
4.08
5.09
8.01
2.80
2.57
2.99
6.65
2.76
2.16
1.77
3.04
1.46
1.59
1.53
1.98
2.1
0.8
0.4
0.5
1.8
0.8
1.2
0.9
1.7
1.7
1.9
1.1
3.2
2.0
1.7
2.2
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.8
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.1
2.3
0.8
0.6
0.6
2.6
1.3
1.4
1.3
2.6
2.4
2.5
1.4
3.5
2.8
2.2
2.2
a b cdefghijk I m n oprs
25.3
6.4
5.5
9.0
20.4
6.2
7.4
15.6
18.1
14.7
13.6
10.0
13.0
11.7
7.8
11.5
t
172
-------
Appendix A continued
a
27
30
31
33
34
36
37
39
18
21
23
b
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
AEes,
AEes2
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
AEes
BfeBv
Bv
BvC
C
AEes,
AEes2
BfeBv
Bv
C
c
16.64
8.85
6.59
2.38
12.38
4.79
4.53
2.11
10.14
4.67
3.08
1.51
10.76
4.44
3.45
1.32
8.36
3.02
1.83
1.76
1.47
7.23
2.37
2.92
2.21
1.12
3.71
2.07
1.49
0.69
32.81
7.22
9.69
3.31
1.45
18.34
5.12
3.65
2.99
2.66
3.68
3.25
2.98
2.02
1.91
5.25
4.12
3.96
3.28
2.96
d
1.39
0.64
0.29
0.20
0.51
0.29
0.25
0.16
0.64
0.22
0.18
0.13
0.64
0.18
0.18
0.15
0.62
0.12
0.09
0.09
0.10
0.25
0.15
0.17
0.18
0.10
0.29
0.22
0.15
0.19
2.30
0.31
0.51
0.20
0.18
0.64
0.54
0.45
0.34
0.74
0.57
0.51
0.48
0.43
0.49
1.08
0.57
0.42
0.41
0.57
e
0.31
0.14
0.08
0.06
0.14
0.08
0.07
0.09
0.14
0.08
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.05
0.06
0.04
0.11
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.56
0.08
0.10
0.06
0.06
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.11
0.15
0.09
0.11
0.10
0.08
0.07
0.13
0.12
0.12
0.10
0.09
f
0.21
0.14
0.10
0.09
0.15
0.11
0.59
0.09
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.10
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.10
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.33
0.06
0.07
0.06
0.04
0.30
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.34
0.29
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.44
0.29
0.11
0.09
0.06
0.29
g
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.07
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.05
0.16
0.10
0.14
0.06
0.09
0.14
0.11
0.12
0.04
0.08
0.10
0.09
0.09
0.03
0.09
0.09
0.10
0.04
0.16
0.09
0.10
0.09
0.06
0.16
0.09
0.08
0.03
0.26
0.16
0.09
0.05
0.03
0.13
0.12
0.07
0.06
0.03
0.16
h
2.07
1.07
0.61
0.49
0.94
0.62
1.05
0.41
0.97
0.47
0.46
0.31
1.00
0.35
0.40
0.26
0.92
0.37
0.28
0.29
0.26
0.46
0.35
0.37
0.37
0.23
0.54
0.42
0.36
0.32
3.35
0.54
0.78
0.41
0.34
1.21
0.78
0.67
0.52
1.49
1.11
0.83
0.71
0.58
1.13
1.62
0.87
0.69
0.60
1.11
i
18.71
9.92
7.20
2.87
13.32
5.41
5.58
2.52
11.11
5.14
3.54
1.82
11.76
4.79
3.85
1.58
9.28
3.39
2.11
2.05
1.73
7.69
2.72
3.29
2.58
1.35
4.25
2.49
1.85
1.01
36.16
7.76
10.47
3.72
1.79
19.55
5.90
4.32
3.51
4.15
4.79
4.08
3.69
2.60
3.04
6.87
4.99
4.65
3.88
4.07
11.1
10.8
8.5
17.1
7.1
11.5
18.8
16.3
8.7
9.1
13.0
17.0
8.5
7.3
10.4
16.5
9.9
10.9
13.3
14.1
15.0
6.0
12.9
11.2
14.3
17.0
12.7
16.9
19.5
31.7
9.3
7.0
7.4
11.0
19.0
6.2
13.2
15.5
14.8
35.9
23.2
20.3
19.2
22.3
37.2
23.6
17.4
14.8
15.5
27.3
k
88.9
89.2
91.5
82.9
92.9
88.5
81.2
83.7
91.3
90.9
87.0
83.0
91.5
92.7
89.6
83.5
90.1
89.1
86.7
85.9
85.0
94.0
87.1
88.8
85.7
83.0
87.3
83.1
80.5
68.3
90.7
93.0
92.6
89.0
81.0
93.8
86.8
84.5
85.2
64.1
76.8
79.7
80.8
77.7
62.8
76.4
82.6
85.2
84.5
72.7
I
7.43
6.45
4.03
6.97
3.83
5.36
4.48
6.35
5.76
4.28
5.08
7.14
5.44
3.76
4.68
9.49
6.68
3.54
4.27
4.39
5.78
3.25
5.51
5.17
6.98
7.41
6.82
8.84
8.11
18.81
6.36
3.99
4.87
5.38
10.06
3.27
9.15
10.42
9.69
17.83
11.90
12.50
13.01
16.54
16.12
15.72
11.42
9.03
10.57
14.00
m
1.66
1.41
1.11
2.09
1.05
1.48
1.25
3.57
1.26
1.56
2.82
5.49
1.28
1.04
1.56
2.53
1.19
1.47
1.42
1.46
3.47
0.78
1.84
1.52
1.94
4.44
1.41
2.01
2.70
3.96
1.55
1.03
0.96
1.61
3.35
0.56
1.53
1.85
3.13
3.61
1.88
2.70
2.71
3.08
2.30
1.89
2.40
2.58
2.58
2.21
n
1.12
1.41
1.39
3.14
1.13
2.03
10.57
3.57
0.36
0.39
0.85
1.65
0.43
0.42
0.52
0.63
1.08
1.77
2.37
2.44
3.47
0.91
1.84
1.82
1.94
2.96
2.35
2.41
3.24
4.95
0.91
0.77
0.67
1.61
2.23
1.53
1.02
1.39
1.14
8.19
6.05
2.94
2.17
1.54
14.47
4.22
2.20
1.94
1.55
7.13
0
0.86
1.51
1.94
4.88
1.05
2.59
2.51
2.78
1.35
2.92
4.24
2.75
1.36
2.09
3.64
3.80
0.97
4.13
5.21
5.85
2.31
1.04
3.68
2.74
3.49
2.22
2.12
3.61
5.41
3.96
0.44
1.16
0.96
2.42
3.35
0.82
1.53
1.85
0.85
6.27
3.34
2.21
1.36
1.15
4.28
1.75
1.40
1.29
0.77
3.93
P
4.5
4.6
3.6
3.3
3.6
3.6
3.6
1.8
4.6
2.8
1.8
1.3
4.3
3.6
3.0
3.8
5.6
2.4
3.0
3.0
1.7
4.2
3.0
3.4
3.6
1.7
4.8
4.4
3.0
4.8
4.1
3.9
5.1
3.3
3.0
5.8
6.0
5.6
3.1
4.9
6.3
4.6
4.8
5.4
7.0
8.3
4.8
3.5
4.1
6.3
r
1.5
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.1
1.0
3.5
4.0
3.3
3.3
3.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
1.1
0.8
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.9
1.0
0.8
1.0
1.5
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.7
1.3
1.4
1.0
1.5
0.4
1.5
1.3
2.8
0.4
0.3
0.9
1.3
2.0
0.2
0.4
1.1
1.3
1.7
0.3
s
4.6
2.7
1.5
1.1
2.2
1.5
0.4
1.6
4.1
1.8
1.6
2.9
3.8
1.9
1.5
2.7
3.8
0.9
0.8
0.7
1.6
2.1
1.3
1.5
1.6
2.3
1.8
1.8
1.3
2.6
5.8
2.6
3.6
1.7
2.4
1.6
4.2
3.8
6.4
1.5
1.5
3.0
4.5
7.3
1.0
3.0
3.8
3.6
5.7
1.5
t
9.1
7.9
5.1
9.1
4.9
6.8
5.7
9.9
7.0
5.8
7.9
12.6
6.7
4.8
6.2
12.0
7.9
5.0
5.7
5.9
9.2
4.0
7.4
6.7
8.9
11.9
8.2
10.8
10.8
22.8
7.9
5.0
5.8
7.0
13.4
3.8
10.7
12.3
12.8
21.4
13.8
15.2
15.7
19.6
18.4
17.6
13.8
11.6
13.1
16.2
173
-------
Appendix B.
Table 6. Mineral composition of heavy fraction 0,06 -0,2 mm (in weight %), in some soil
profiles.
MO
Relationship
between minerals
AEes
4.6
1.2
88.9
4.6
1.1
344
1.4
85.2
1.2
4.4
11.8
19.7
AEes
87.4
12
12.34
3.6
839
0,4
0,004
AEes
9.7
87.2
85.3
0.7
1.4
1 1
4.7
9.3
0,02
494
5.2
6.64
917
80.9
0.6
03
11.5
4.1
85.0
144
141'
AEes
9.6
1.9
88.2
63.2
0.9
1.1
0.8
0.3
16.2
5.6
4.3
0.2
68.8
11.1
4.0
90.9
55.4
1.0
0.6
8.7
6.0
5.7
1.7
30.0
0.1
3.4
AEes
339
8.2
49.2
07
1.1
0.9
0.8
1.1
12.9
5.4
37
2.1
0.4
54.6
35.7
97
0.1
56
3.7
4.23
61
905
52.3
1.2
11.6
16.0
8.9
04
6.9
3.4
AEes
0.64
0.4
41.9
47.6
4.0
337
49.0
15.9
61.5
AEes
339
1.1
16.3
46.6
1.6
1.6
14.6
31.8
AEes
1.34
390
73.3
26.9
04
0.6
1.4
04
14.0
43.0
14
04
04
5.9
590
113
01
379
20.4
1.8
77.8
4 1
13.9
38.6
4.4
14
0.3
0.3
6.1
07
1.2
3.7
AEes
1.16
16.4
766
23.7
19.8
37.2
1.2
2.4
0.7
24.9
58.9
1.5
20.4
77.8
0.4
0.4
4.5
0.8
31.8
4.5
0.4
1.1
0.4
7.2
1.1
52.8
15.1
3.5
AEes
10.4
56
84.0
5.4
03
1.3
45.6
5 1
1.3
8.2
7.3
74.7
18.0
12
0.4
8.4
1.1
0.7
3.0
0.7
13.8
0.7
68.5
21.7
1.3
0.4
AEes
510
1.9
03
3.1
3.4
421
74.6
1.6
4.5
1.3
1.3
3.9
AEes
1.1
1.1
75.6
0.66
1.5
85.3
0.4
1.1
15.5
50.5
6.1
18.1
14.8
4.5
AEes
86.2
10.4
62.1
1 7
10.7
732
03
321
9.3
0.9
0.3
3.5
03
11 1
42
3.1
838
01
87
MN - non-resistant minerals, MS - medium-resistant minerals, MO - resistant minerals.
174
-------
Appendix C
Table 19. Total content of different forms of organic compounds in separate fractions of the
humus and some characteristics of organic matter humification in epihumus subhorizon.
No.of
profile
C
total
%
C of fulvic. hiimic acids and humiis
in total C(%)
light fraction
F1+F2
H1+H2
heavy fraction
F3+F4
+F5
H3+H4
+H5
hiimins
Ch:Cf
Degree
of
humi-
fication
Percentage content of C in each fraction in relation
to the mass of the sample
light fraction
R
F1+F2
H1+H2
heavy fraction
F3+F4
+F5
H3+H4
+H5
liumins
podzolic soils
1
2
5
7
10
11
13
15
16
17
19
20
22
24
26
28
29
32
35
38
29.12
26.53
25.68
19.12
12.15
9.24
7.23
15.91
4.88
3.72
4.12
3.79
6.24
4.98
7.27
4.85
5.38
3.26
2.15
2.86
6.34
4.42
5.00
4.84
5.74
3.87
6.31
4.12
12.79
10.27
6.92
7.36
6.33
6.00
3.00
4.43
3.87
7.42
11.63
8.84
2.05
1.47
2.50
1.63
1.93
1.45
2.17
1.71
2.22
4.81
4.05
3.56
4.31
3.59
2.35
1.69
1.80
4.08
4.19
3.32
0.14
0.18
0.18
0.28
0.55
0.77
1.16
0.43
3.48
2.93
2.26
3.27
2.45
1.14
0.64
1.14
1.97
7.32
4.00
7.65
0.12
0.17
0.17
0.25
0.58
0.80
1.02
0.47
0.69
2.69
2.16
2.88
1.71
1.59
1.37
0.93
1.54
4.38
4.97
4.72
0.95
2.65
1.55
4.75
7.84
7.49
7.11
4.17
14.67
12.34
11.87
12.27
9.66
14.74
8.58
9.07
11.62
6.99
8.23
8.95
0,33
0.36
0.64
0.37
0.40
0.48
0.42
0.47
0.18
0.57
0.68
0.61
0.69
0.72
0.60
0.47
0.57
0.57
0.59
0.49
9.6
8.9
9.4
11.8
16.6
14.4
17.8
11.0
33.9
33.0
27.3
29.3
24.5
27.1
15.9
17.3
20.8
27.2
33.0
26.5
26.321
24.170
23.264
16.873
10.126
7.911
5.945
14.166
3.228
2.491
2.997
2.678
4.713
3.632
6.111
4.013
4.261
2.275
1.440
1.902
1.849
1.173
1.284
0.925
0.698
0.358
0.456
0.660
0.624
0.382
0.285
0.279
0.395
0.299
0.221
0.215
0.208
0.242
0.250
0.253
0.598
0.389
0.642
0.312
0.234
0.134
0.157
0.270
0.108
0.179
0.167
0.135
0.269
0.179
0.168
0.082
0.097
0.133
0.090
0.095
0.041
0.049
0.046
0.053
0.067
0.071
0.084
0.070
0.170
0.109
0.093
0.124
0.153
0.057
0.046
0.055
0.106
0.239
0.086
0.219
0.035
0.045
0.045
0.048
0.070
0.074
0.074
0.076
0.034
0.100
0.089
0.109
0.107
0.079
0.098
0.045
0.083
0.143
0.107
0.135
0.276
0.703
0.399
0.909
0.952
0.692
0.514
0.664
0.716
0.459
0.489
0.465
0.603
0.734
0.624
0.440
0.625
0.228
0.177
0.256
rusty-podzolic soils
9
14
18
21
25
27
30
31
33
36
37
39
15.34
6.23
3.49
3.89
5.31
5.37
10.30
5.55
9.18
1.68
2.81
5.86
8.75
9.10
18.88
17.43
11.13
9.06
7.98
6.84
6.34
3.39
3.88
7.36
6.40
6.60
17.16
14.58
1.71
2.27
2.61
1.59
5.04
2.09
3.74
2.32
2.84
2.68
3.55
2.80
2.01
2.14
1.43
2.74
1.29
4.76
10.29
2.49
1.23
1.88
3.50
2.75
1.74
1.05
0.58
1.29
0.92
5.71
4.34
1.34
3.80
2.83
21.43
11.31
13.01
11.51
5.77
7.86
5.69
14.50
8.50
11.52
0.66
0.72
0.92
0.86
0.26
0.30
0.41
0.30
0.80
0.96
0.57
0.37
23.0
23.1
64.5
48.9
29.6
26.0
16.7
20.3
19.1
18.6
30.8
25.0
11.809
4.792
1.238
1.989
3.738
3.972
8.584
4.422
7.425
1.168
1.946
4.393
1.342
0.567
0.659
0.678
0.591
0.486
0.647
0.380
0.582
0.057
0.109
0.431
0.982
0.411
0.599
0.567
0.091
0.122
0.269
0.088
0.463
0.035
0.105
0.136
0.435
0.167
0.124
0.109
0.107
0.115
0.147
0.152
0.104
0.080
0.289
0.146
0.189
0.117
0.122
0.107
0.092
0.057
0.059
0.072
0.084
0.096
0.122
0.069
0.583
0.176
0.748
0.440
0.691
0.618
0.594
0.436
0.522
0.244
0.239
0.792
C - organic carbon
Cj, - carbon ofhumic adds
Cf - carbon of fulvic acids
R - residuum
F(l.,n) -fraction of separate extraction
175
-------
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Agency
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