ro
Mine Site Cleanup for
| Brownfields Redevelopment:
A Three-Part Primer
The Brownfields and Land Revitalization
Technology Support Center
'
m
-------
Solid Waste and EPA 542-R-05-030
Emergency Response November 2005
(5102G) www.brownfieldstsc.org
www.epa.gov/brownfields
Mine Site Cleanup for Brownfields Redevelopment:
A Three-Part Primer
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
Brownfields and Land Revitalization Technology Support Center
Washington, DC 20460
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT
Notice and Disclaimer
Preparation of this document has been funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) under Contract No. 68-W-02-034. The document was subjected to the Agency's
administrative and expert review and was approved for publication as an EPA document.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
This document can be downloaded from EPA's Brownfields and Land Revitalization Technology
Support Center at http://www.brownfieldstsc.org. A limited number of hard copies of this
document are available free of charge by mail from EPA's National Service Center for
Environmental Publications at the following address (please allow 4 to 6 weeks for delivery):
EPA/National Service Center for Environmental Publications
P.O. Box42419
Cincinnati, OH 45242
Phone: 513-489-8190 or 1 -800-490-9198
Fax:513-489-8695
For further information about this document, please contact Mike Adam of EPA's Office of
Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation at 703-603-9915 or by e-mail at
adam.michael @ epa.gov.
The color photos on the cover illustrate the transformation possible when mine sites are cleaned
up and redeveloped. They depict reclaimed mine sites in Montana and Pennsylvania. Source:
Chuck Meyers, U.S. Office of Surface Mining. The sepia photo depicts a coal breaker at a mine
in Shenandoah, PA. It was obtained with permission from the website
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT
Mine Site Cleanup for Brownfields Redevelopment
Foreword
It is estimated that more than 500,000 abandoned mine sites are located throughout the United
States. Cleanup of mine sites for redevelopment provides an opportunity to turn these sites into
land that has beneficial uses. Mine sites have a variety of potential reuses, including recreation,
wildlife habitat, rangeland, historic and scenic preservation, and, depending on location,
conventional residential, commercial, and industrial construction. Complex economic, social,
and environmental issues face communities
planning to redevelop these sites.
Challenges to redeveloping mine sites
include finding the resources to characterize
and remediate sites with potentially
significant environmental issues; addressing
federal, state, and local regulatory
requirements; and working through
redevelopment issues with the local
community and other stakeholders.
To help address these challenges, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
through its Brownfields and Land
Revitalization Technology Support Center
(BTSC - see box on page iii) has prepared
this primer on Mine Site Cleanup for
Brownfields Redevelopment to provide
information about the cleanup aspects of
mine site redevelopment, including new and
innovative approaches to more efficiently
characterize and clean up those sites. The
use of these approaches to streamline
characterization and remediation of mine
sites offers the potential for redevelopment
at a lower cost and within a shorter
timeframe.
Brownfields
Section 101 of the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act (CERCLA) defines
brownfields as "real property, the expansion,
redevelopment, or reuse of which may be
complicated by the presence or potential
presence of a hazardous substance,
pollutant, or contaminant."
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) established its Brownfields Economic
Revitalization Initiative to empower states,
communities, and other stakeholders to work
together to accomplish the redevelopment of
such sites. With the enactment of the Small
Business Liability and Brownfields
Redevelopment Act in 2002, EPA assistance
was expanded to provide greater support of
brownfields cleanup and reuse. Many states
and local jurisdictions also help businesses
and communities adapt environmental
cleanup programs to the special needs of
brownfields sites.
With the enactment of the Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act
(commonly referred to as the "brownfields law"), the definition of brownfields was expanded to
include mine-scarred lands, making these properties eligible for the benefits of the brownfields
program. EPA defines mine-scarred lands as "lands, associated waters, and surrounding
watersheds where extraction, beneficiation (crushing or separating), or processing of ores and
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT
minerals (including coal) has occurred" (EPA, 2004a). The inclusion of mine-scarred lands in the
brownfields program strengthens existing mine reclamation programs administered by DOI's
Office of Surface Mining (OSM).
This primer is divided into three parts:
Part 1, Overview, summarizes the basic issues surrounding mine site cleanup for
brownfields redevelopment, including innovative characterization and remediation
approaches.
Part 2, Coal Mine Sites, includes detailed technical information about the
characterization, remediation, and redevelopment of coal mine sites, focusing on sites in
the eastern United States. It is intended for those with an interest in and knowledge of
the technical details of redevelopment of coal mine sites.
Part 3, Hard Rock Mine Sites, contains detailed technical information about the
characterization, remediation, and redevelopment of hard rock mine sites. It is designed
for an audience with knowledge of and interest in the technical aspects of hard rock
mine redevelopment.
The primer also includes appendices containing regional points of contact for the EPA
Brownfields Cleanup and Redevelopment Program, state and tribal points of contact for
Abandoned Mine Lands Programs, references used in the preparation of the document and
additional information resources, a glossary of terms, and a list of acronyms used in the
document.
Many of the resources cited in this primer and other relevant resources about redevelopment of
mine sites are available through BTSC at www.brownfieldstsc.org/miningsites.cfm.
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT
Brownfields and Land Revitalization Technology Support Center
The BTSC was established to ensure that brownfields and land revitalization decision-
makers are aware of the full range of technologies available for conducting site assessments
and cleanup in order to make informed decisions about their sites. The BTSC can help
decision-makers evaluate strategies to streamline the site assessment and cleanup process,
identify and review information about complex technology options, evaluate contractor
capabilities and recommendations, explain complex technologies to communities, and plan
technology demonstrations. The BTSC, coordinated through EPA's Office of Superfund
Remediation and Technology Innovation, offers access to experts from EPA's Office of
Research and Development, the Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, and
other federal agencies. Localities can submit requests for assistance directly through the
EPA Regional Brownfields Coordinators, online, or by calling toll free 1-877-838-7220.
Other publications developed through the BTSC:
• Road Map to Understanding Innovative Technology Options for Brownfields
Investigation and Cleanup, Fourth Edition
• Brownfields Technology Primer: Using the Triad Approach to Streamline Brownfields
Site Assessment and Cleanup
• Directory of Technical Assistance for Land Revitalization
• Assessing Contractor Capabilities for Streamlined Site Investigations
• Brownfields Technology Primer: Requesting and Evaluating Proposals that
Encourage Innovative Technologies for Investigation and Cleanup
• Understanding Procurement for Sampling and Analytical Services under a Triad
Approach
• Use of Dynamic Work Strategies Under a Triad Approach for Site Assessment and
Cleanup-Technical Bulletin
in
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT
IV
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
Parti
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.2 MINE SITES AND ASSOCIATED ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 1-2
1.2.1 Mines and the Mining Process 1-2
1.2.2 Definition of Mine-Scarred Lands 1-3
1.2.3 Contamination Associated with Mine Sites 1-4
1.3 CONSIDERATIONS FOR CLEANUP AND REDEVELOPMENT OF MINE SITES 1-6
1.3.1 Technical Considerations 1-6
1.3.2 Regulatory Considerations 1-8
1.3.3 Stakeholder Considerations 1-10
1.3.4 Financial Considerations and Funding Sources 1-12
Part 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2-1
2.2 SAFETY, ENGINEERING, AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO
COAL-MINED LANDS AND LAND REUSE 2-5
2.3 EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL SITE REUSE 2-8
2.4 IDENTIFYING AND CHARACTERIZING ISSUES RELATED TO SITE REUSE 2-11
2.5 TECHNOLOGIES FOR SITE CLEANUP AND REUSE 2-13
2.5.1 Safety Hazards 2-13
2.5.2 Control and Treatment—Contaminated Surface Soil or Mine Wastes 2-13
2.5.3 Control and Treatment—Mine Drainage 2-14
2.5.4 Control and Treatment—Engineering Considerations 2-16
2.6 STRATEGIES FOR SITE CLEANUP AND REDEVELOPMENT 2-18
2.7 CASE STUDIES 2-21
2.7.1 Reclamation of Dents Run Watershed, PA 2-21
2.7.2 Bark Camp Reclamation Project, Bark Camp Run, PA 2-22
Parts
3.1 INTRODUCTION 3-1
3.2 SAFETY, ENGINEERING, AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO
HARD ROCK-MINED LANDS AND LAND REUSE 3-3
3.3 EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL SITE REUSE 3-6
3.4 IDENTIFYING AND CHARACTERIZING ISSUES RELATED TO SITE REUSE 3-8
3.5 TECHNOLOGIES FOR SITE CLEANUP AND REVELOPMENT 3-11
3.5.1 Safety Hazards 3-11
3.5.2 Control and Treatment - Contaminated Surface Soil or Mine Wastes 3-11
3.5.2.1 Using Process Residuals 3-12
3.5.2.2 Correcting pH 3-12
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT
3.5.2.3 Addressing Metal Toxicities 3-12
3.5.2.4 Addressing Ecological Concerns 3-13
3.5.2.5 Establishing Performance Measures 3-13
3.5.3 Control and Treatment-Mine Drainage and Storm-Water Runoff 3-14
3.5.4 Control and Treatment-Mine Pit Lakes 3-15
3.6 STRATEGIES FOR SITE CLEANUP AND REDEVELOPMENT 3-17
3.7 CASE STUDIES 3-18
3.7.1 Use of Biosolids at Mine Sites in Joplin, Missouri 3-18
3.7.2 Use of In-situ Biosolids and Lime Addition at the California Gulch
Superfund Site, Operable Unit 11, Leadville, Colorado 3-19
3.7.3 Reclamation of Wickes Smelter Site in Jefferson County, Montana 3-20
APPENDIX A: EPA REGIONAL BROWNFIELDS COORDINATORS A-1
APPENDIX B: STATE/TRIBAL ABANDONED MINE LAND PROGRAMS B-1
APPENDIX C: REFERENCES AND ADDITIONAL RESOURCES C-1
APPENDIX D: ACRONYMNS AND GLOSSARY D-1
Tables
1-1 Source and Types of Contamination at Mine Sites 1-5
2-1 Examples of Parks and Recreational Areas Created on Coal Mined Land 2-11
Figures
2-1 Assessing, Understanding and Defining Issues Using the Triad Approach 2-3
2-2 Dirt Biker, Finger Lakes State Park, Missouri 2-10
2-3 Construction of Wetland for AMD Treatment, Dents Run Watershed, Pennsylvania 2-16
2-4 Example of Limestone Rip-Rap Channel 2-16
3-1 Example of Biosolids Compost 3-12
3-2 California Gulch Superfund Site Following Treatment 3-20
3-3 Reclaimed Residential Area at Wickes Smelter Site 3-22
VI
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A major challenge in cleaning up and redeveloping mine sites is finding the resources that are
needed to assess and address potential contamination at these large complex sites. However,
innovative approaches that streamline the assessment and cleanup of mine sites have the
potential to reduce the amount of resources needed by saving time and decreasing overall
project costs.
While a formal inventory of abandoned or inactive mine sites in the United States has not been
completed, the Mineral Policy Center estimates that there are 557,000 abandoned mines,
located primarily in the western part of the country (Earthworks, 2005). These sites have
potentially significant environmental issues that would need to be addressed as part of a
redevelopment strategy. Environmental contamination can come from mine drainage, waste
rock, tailings (rock discarded from milling processes), and industrial activities. In addition, mine
sites are typically characterized by abnormally low pH (i.e., highly acidic), acute toxicity of the
metals in the soil, nutrient deficiencies, and lack of vegetation.
Part 1 of this primer provides information about innovative approaches to assessing, cleaning
up, and redeveloping mine sites. It covers:
• General information about mine sites, including types of mines, and types of
contamination found at mine sites
• An overview of cleanup considerations for these sites (discussed in more detail in Parts
2 and 3)
• Potential sources of funding for mine site redevelopment
• Examples of mine sites where innovative approaches have been used for site
assessment and remediation
This primer also includes appendices containing regional points of contact for the EPA
Brownfields Cleanup and Redevelopment Program (Appendix A), state and tribal points of
contact for Abandoned Mine Lands Programs (Appendix B), references used in the preparation
of the primer and additional resources (Appendix C), and a glossary of terms and list of
acronyms used in the primer (Appendix D).
1-1
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
1.2 MINE SITES AND ASSOCIATED ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
This section summarizes the types of mines used to remove an ore from the ground and the
methods used to process the extracted ore at the mine site. The types of contaminants found at
mining sites are also summarized.
1.2.1 Mines and the Mining Process
Extraction of the mineral or ore from the ground is the first step in mining. There are three
general approaches to extraction:
• Underground mining—in which ore is extracted without removal of the overburden (the
topsoil and rock above the ore). Underground mining has been the major method for the
production of certain metals, but in recent years it has been increasingly less common in
the United States. It has significantly less impact on the surface environment than do the
surface methods described below, because there is less surface disturbance and a
much lower quantity of non-ore materials that must be removed and disposed as waste
(EPA, 2000a).
• Surface mining—in which overburden is first removed in order to reach and remove the
ore. Surface mines include:
Open-pit mines are those in which a small amount of overburden is present
relative to the amount of ore removed. The small amount of overburden is
insufficient to recreate the original contour of the land. When abandoned, open-
pit mines are sometimes left to fill with water, forming deep man-made lakes
(Younger, etal., 2002).
Open-cast mines, also known as "strip mines" or "highwall mines," are those in
which a large amount of overburden is present relative to the amount of ore
removed. It is feasible to backfill ("cast") the removed overburden in place as
mining operations advance further into the hill. Thus, more of the original contour
of the land is maintained (Younger, et al., 2002).
Dredge mines have been used to mine placer deposits, which are
concentrations of heavy metal minerals that occur in alluvial deposits associated
with current or ancient watercourses. Commercial dredging has not been widely
practiced in the United States in recent years, although placer mining is still an
important industry in Alaska (EPA, 2000a).
• In-situ solution mining—a method of extracting minerals from an orebody that is left in
place rather than blasted and excavated. It entails drilling a series of wells into the
orebody. A solvent is circulated through the formation by injection into some wells and
1-2
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
withdrawal from others. This form of mining is used in some parts of the southwestern
United States for copper mining and in other areas with salt mines for fertilizers like
potash (EPA, 2000a).
The second step in mining is beneficiation, which involves crushing or milling the ore to
separate the rock waste or concentrate the ore for use as a final product or in preparation for
further processing. Beneficiation also can involve leaching—separating a soluble metal or
mineral from the orebody by selectively dissolving it in a suitable solvent, such as water, sulfuric
acid, or a sodium cyanide solution, and removing it from the leaching solution chemically or
electrochemically (EPA, 2000a).
Following beneficiation, the processing step further refines the ore and prepares it for specific
uses. Processing may incude a variety of operations such as smelting (melting or fusing),
refining, roasting, or digesting. Both processing and beneficiation can be performed at facilities
co-located with the mine or at a separate location offsite that may serve one or more mines.
1.2.2 Definition of Mine-Scarred Lands
Mine sites include abandoned or inactive mines and associated lands. EPA considers mine-
scarred lands (MSL) to be "lands, associated waters, and surrounding watersheds where
extraction, beneficiation, or processing of ores and minerals (including coal) has occurred (EPA
2004a)."
Examples of coal MSL include:
• Abandoned surface and underground mines
• Abandoned coal processing areas
• Abandoned piles of mine spoils (waste rock removed to extract and process coal)
• Acid or alkaline mine drainage
• Local water bodies (including streams, ponds, and lakes) and watersheds affected by
mine drainage
Examples of hard rock MSL include:
• Abandoned surface and underground mines
• Abandoned waste rock or spent ore piles
• Abandoned roads constructed wholly or partially of waste rock or spent ore
• Abandoned tailings, tailings piles, or disposal ponds
• Abandoned smelters
• Abandoned heap leaches (engineered piles on which ore is placed before applying the
leaching solution)
• Abandoned dams constructed wholly or partially of waste rock, tailings or spent ore
• Abandoned dumps or dump areas used for the disposal of waste rock or spent ore
1-3
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
• Acid or alkaline rock drainage
• Local water bodies (including streams, ponds, and lakes) and watersheds affected by
mine drainage
1.2.3 Contamination Associated with Mine Sites
The sources and types of contamination at mine sites vary and can affect soil, ground water,
and surface water (see Table 1.1). Mine drainage, waste rock, tailings, heap leaches (where
ore is placed on lined pads in engineered lifts or piles before applying the leaching solution),
and dump leaches (where ore is placed on the ground before applying leaching solution) are
among the major sources of contamination. Surface-water runoff from open pits, tailings ponds
and ore stockpiles can carry both toxic and nontoxic materials (e.g., silt) to streams and lakes.
Seepage from impoundments or from water-filled pits and mine openings also can release
contaminants to surface water and ground water.
Waste from associated operations is another source of contamination at mine sites.
Operations that may result in contamination include machine maintenance, vehicle repair, or
other activities in which solvents, petroleum, lubricants, or other industrial chemicals may have
been used. In addition, contamination may result if electrical transformers and capacitors,
which can contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), were used to supply electricity to the site.
Table 1-1. Sources and Types of Contamination at Mine Sites
Source
Waste rock or spoil
Tailings and tailings piles
Pits
Machinery
Transformers/capacitors
Type
Acid mine drainage (AMD), metals
AMD, radionuclides
AMD
Solvents
PCBs
Although the activities associated with coal mining and hard rock mining are similar, the
characteristics and nature of the sites and the environmental effects differ.
At coal mines, extracted coal is separated from non-coal materials before it is distributed. This
process includes sorting the coal and removing any waste rock and disposing it in spoil piles,
washing the coal in water to remove sulfur and other impurities, and drying the coal. Some
waste rock removed from the coal during the sorting phase still contains small portions of coal
and is referred to as coal refuse. Historically, fires were common in coal refuse piles. Now,
however, many of these coal refuse piles are re-mined to extract the remaining coal.
Historically, waste from the wash step was discharged into adjacent water bodies. This practice
has become less common, however, and the waste now is disposed in other ways onsite
1-4
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
(Younger, et al., 2002). A common way is to dispose of the waste behind dams constructed
from coarser waste materials. Failures of these waste dams have caused large pollution events
in water bodies throughout the world.
For many years, remediation of mine spoil piles was advanced by revegetating the piles.
However, revegetation alone did not solve the problem of acid mine drainage (AMD). AMD is
water with a pH generally less than 4 that drains from mine workings and mine wastes. The low
pH is due to the formation of acids resulting from the oxidation of sulfide minerals (e.g., pyrite) in
the host rock when exposed to air and water. Due to its acidity, AMD tends to contain elevated
levels of metals leached from the ore and host rock. More detailed information about
contamination issues at coal mining sites is presented in Part 2 of this primer.
In hard rock mining, extracted ore typically is processed by grinding the ore, extracting the
minerals containing the metal(s) of interest from the ground material, and refining the metals
into marketable products. Refining primarily involves separating one metal from another after
they have been extracted and concentrated. Extracting the minerals from the ore can be
accomplished in various ways, including:
• Leaching with acids or cyanide
• Gravity concentration using jigs, screens, sluice boxes, and water
• Amalgamating using mercury
• Floatation separation using chemicals (or water slurry) and rising air bubbles
• Magnetic separation
• Solution extraction - electrowinning
Typical contamination concerns at hard rock sites include the mobility of the contaminants and
their bioavailability—i.e., the degree or ability of the contaminant to be absorbed by an organism
and interact with its metabolism. Hard rock mine sites are typically large non-residential areas
denuded of vegetation and covered with mine tailings and waste rock. More detailed information
about contamination issues at hard rock mining sites is presented in Part 3 of this primer.
1-5
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
1.3 CONSIDERATIONS FOR CLEANUP AND REDEVELOPMENT OF
MINE SITES
This section describes the considerations for identifying cleanup and redevelopment
approaches for mine sites. These considerations, which also are applicable to other types of
contaminated properties, include technical, regulatory, and stakeholder requirements,, as well
as financial issues, including potential sources of funding. It is important to recognize that the
considerations and the relative importance of those considerations will vary depending on site-
specific conditions and requirements. Parts 2 and 3 of this primer provide more detail about site-
specific conditions for coal mine sites and hard rock mine sites, respectively.
1.3.1 Technical Considerations
Identifying the specific contamination at a mine site and cleaning it up efficiently is critical to
success in redeveloping a site. One of the approaches that can be used for assessment and
cleanup of mine sites is the Triad. This is a dynamic, collaborative approach to site
characterization and cleanup that helps site stakeholders work toward cleanup that is faster,
better, and cheaper and sets the stage for appropriate redevelopment.
The Triad approach minimizes the likelihood of mistakes by cost-effectively supporting the
development of an accurate conceptual site model (CSM). Briefly, a CSM is any
graphical or written representation (or "conceptualization") of site contamination concerns: how
it got there, whether or not it is migrating or degrading, how variable concentrations are across
the site, what receptors might be exposed, and what risk-reduction strategies are most feasible.
An accurate CSM is a primary work product of the Triad approach, and it is continually refined
over the course of an investigation.
Use of the Triad approach at mine sites requires three important elements:
• systematic project planning (sometimes called "strategic planning") to provide a roadmap
and benchmarks for the stakeholder team to measure progress;
• dynamic work plan strategies that guide the course of the project but maintain the
flexibility to make decisions and adapt in real-time, as data are analyzed, which helps
achieve significant cost and time savings; and
• the use of real-time measurement technologies to enable real-time gathering,
interpreting, and sharing of data to support real-time decisions.
The CSM and the individual components of the Triad approach will be referenced throughout
this primer and discussed at some length in Parts 2 and 3. Technical considerations that could
be used to build a CSM for mine sites include an understanding of:
• Contamination due to past activities or disposal practices that may limit the suitability of
a site or a portion of a site for redevelopment.
1-6
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
• Types and volumes of media (e.g., soil, ground water, surface water, and sediment) to
be remediated.
• Type of technology— conventional technology, innovative technology, or a combination
of technologies—needed to address the contamination at the site.
• Time frame and budget available for the cleanup.
• Whether contamination is treated onsite or excavated for treatment and disposal offsite.
(The large volume of wastes and the often remote locations of mine sites can make
offsite treatment and disposal costly.)
• Whether physical barriers such as fences or institutional controls (such as zoning
restrictions or restrictions on building permits) are appropriate, alone or in combination
with a treatment or containment technology.
• Intended end use of the site, which may impact the levels that need to be achieved for
the cleanup, and the ability to leave wastes in place.
• Current topography of the land (For example, steeply sloping land may be inappropriate
for use as an industrial site without extensive regrading or geotechnical work.).
• Understanding the site characteristics (e.g., soil types and properties) and nature and
extent of contamination that may effect the location and movement of contaminants as
well as impacts on possible redevelopment scenarios.
• Presence of mine shafts, openings, and high walls that can be safety hazards.
• Hydrogeologic connections or interactions with other and or larger subterranean
systems, such as mine pools, mine shaft breakthroughs, relief borehole discharges, etc.
There are several cleanup approaches commonly used at mine sites. For example,
contaminated soil or buried equipment can be excavated for disposal at an offsite landfill. In
addition, containment technologies, such as engineered caps or vertical barrier walls (e.g.,
slurry walls) have been used where there are threats due to direct contact or concerns about
leaching of contaminants to ground water. Containment also might include technologies used to
collect or divert contaminants to reduce or minimize releases, such as detention or
sedimentation basins, or interceptor trenches.
Conventional treatment technologies for soil, ground water, or surface water include chemical
treatment (such as use of lime to neutralize AMD and to precipitate metals), stabilization,
solidification, and vapor extraction. For contaminated buildings, conventional decontamination
often is performed using pressure washing. In addition, some structural elements, such as any
saturated wooden components, may need to be removed.
Innovative and emerging treatment technologies include phytoremediation and amended
bioremediation. Residuals from waste-water treatment can be used as a soil amendment to add
organic matter and nutrients to the soil to recreate a fertile soil horizon with a reestablished
microbial community, invertebrates, and plants. Amendments can also address metals toxicity
and acidity. These types of technologies are discussed further in Part 3.
1-7
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
1.3.2 Regulatory Considerations
With regards to federal regulations, coal mine sites generally fall under the jurisdiction of the
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA). In addition, the Small Business Liability
Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act (commonly known as the "brownfields law"
http://www.epa.gov/brownfields/sblrbra.htm) has been interpreted to cover abandoned mine
sites (both coal and hard rock), which increases the potential sources of grants and assistance
available to stakeholder teams. Hard rock mine sites that fall on the National Priorities List are
regulated under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA), commonly known as Superfund.
The following paragraphs summarize the major federal laws governing the restoration of mine
sites. Reders should refer to the statutes and relevant regulations themselves for a full
understanding of the requirements under each. In addition, it is important to recognize that there
are many other federal, state, and even local ordinances that may be relevant to a particular site
restoration project.
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA): SMCRA governs surface coal mining
activities and established the Abandoned Mine Land (AML) Reclamation Fund. A surcharge is
levied on all coal mined in the United States to support the AML fund, and the monies are used
to reclaim mined lands abandoned prior to 1977. SMCRA established the OSM to administer
the provisions of SMCRA and to distribute AML fund monies. A total of 23 states and three
Native American tribes have approved abandoned mine reclamation programs that administer
annual OSM grants from the AML fund. Once a state has certified to the OSM that certain
requirements have been met in regards to clean up of abandoned coal mines, money from the
OSM grants can be used to fund reclamation of eligible abandoned hard rock mine sites.
Further information is available at http://www.thecre.com/fedlaw/legal26/smcra.htm.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA):
CERCLA created a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries and provided broad federal
authority to respond directly to releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that
may endanger public health or the environment.
Section 106 of CERCLA grants EPA the authority to compel persons to conduct cleanup
activities if there is a release of a hazardous substance that presents an imminent and
substantial danger to human health or the environment (pages 43-44 at
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/remedy/pdf/cercla.pdf). Section 106 allows EPA to use
administrative orders and judicial actions to direct a potentially responsible party (PRP) to
conduct a cleanup. CERCLA response actions include removal actions to remove sources of
contamination in emergency and non-emergency situations, and remedial actions that are
typically long-term responses performed at sites placed on the National Priorities List.
1-8
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
CERCLA authorities are often used to compel cleanup of mine sites. If both CERCLA and
SMCRA authorities are applicable, EPA generally defers to OSM and allows cleanup to proceed
under SMCRA provisions.
Clean Water Act (CWA): Mining often results in discharges to U.S. waters subject to regulation
under the CWA. The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit
requirements set forth in section 402, (http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/laws/section402.html)
and dredge and fill permit requirements set forth in section 404
(http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/facts/fact10.html) are most relevant to mine sites.
The NPDES permit program establishes specific requirements for discharges from industrial
sources, including mine sites. Depending on the type of industrial or commercial facility, more
than one NPDES program may apply. Stormwater that runs off the property of an industrial
facility may require an NPDES permit under the Stormwater program. The industrial facility may
also discharge waste water directly to a surface water and require an individual or general
NPDES permit. Finally, many industrial facilities, whether they discharge directly to a surface
water or to a municipal sewer system, are covered by effluent limitation guidelines and
standards. Many mining projects involve some filling of U.S. wetlands or other waters, which
requires authorization under section 404 of the CWA. Further information about the CWA is
available at http://www.epa.gov/region5/water/cwa.htm.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA): RCRA created a framework for the
management of hazardous waste, solid waste, underground storage tanks, and medical waste.
The hazardous and solid waste management programs authorized by RCRA are most relevant
to mine sites. RCRA Subtitle C establishes a system for controlling hazardous waste from its
point of generation to its final disposal (http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode42/
usc_sup_01_42_10_82_20_lll.html). The program under RCRA Subtitle D encourages states
to develop comprehensive plans to manage primarily nonhazardous solid waste, such as
household and industrial solid waste, and mandates certain minimum technological standards
for municipal solid waste landfills (http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode42/
usc_sup_01_42_ 10_82_20_IV.html).
RCRA contains specific exclusions from the definitions of solid waste and hazardous waste that
include specific aspects of mining activities and waste. EPA regulations affecting solid and
hazardous waste exclusions are codified in 40 CFR 261.4 (http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/get-cfr.cgi?TITLE=40&PART=261&SECTION=4&TYPE=TEXT). The mining waste
exclusion, referred to as the Bevill amendment, was congressionally mandated by §3001 (b)(3)
in the 1980 amendments to RCRA (http://www.epa.gov/compliance/assistance/
sectors/minerals/processing/bevillquestions.html). Under the current provisions of the RCRA
mining waste exclusion, solid waste from the extraction and beneficiation of ores and minerals,
and 20 specific mineral processing wastes are exempt from regulation as hazardous waste
under RCRA. Solid waste not subject to regulation as hazardous waste may be regulated under
RCRA Subtitle D. Materials exempted from the definition of solid waste may be subject to
regulation under other statutory authorities.
1-9
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA): TSCA provides EPA with authorities to regulate the
manufacture (including import), processing, distribution, use, and disposal of chemical
substances. Under Section 6 of TSCA, the EPA Administrator may take a variety of actions to
control or mitigate the risk posed by a chemical, including prohibiting the manufacture, import,
processing, or distribution of a chemical substance. Chemicals regulated under Section 6
include chlorofluorocarbons (prohibiting their use as aerosol propellants), asbestos, and certain
substances in metalworking fluids. The mining industry has traditionally used high levels of
PCBs as the dielectrics in transformers and capacitors. These items are commonly found
wherever there is a high electrical power demand. Transformers and capacitors, either single
units or in banks, can be expected in any phase of surface or underground mining operations
and the ore beneficiation process. EPA uses TSCA authorities in limited instances to address
PCB contamination at mine sites when other authorities are not sufficient or applicable to
address the risk.
Additional federal regulations: Other
federal regulations that may apply to mine
sites include the Clean Air Act (CAA), the
Emergency Planning and Community
Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), and the
Safe Drinking Water Act (SOWA).). For
more information on these reulations,
please see Appendix D of the Abandoned
Mine Site Characterization and Cleanup
Handbook (EPA, 2000a).
1.3.3 Stakeholder Considerations
A major goal for systematic project
planning is to include all of the
stakeholders in the decision-making
process for the redevelopment of the
property, including the local community,
regulators, financial entities, site owners,
technical and engineering professionals,
and other interested parties. A crucial part
of reclamation and redevelopment is
active involvement by all stakeholders,
including the members of the communities
in the mine vicinity. This up-front
involvement will curtail suprises and costly
changes to projects later. Community
stakeholder involvement creates a sense of
otherwise.
Example 1: Collaboration Among
Stakeholders Leads to Innovative
Treatment Approach
Remediation efforts at two mine sites are
examples of how important collaboration and
creativity are to success in mine site
reclamation and redevelopment. Underground
mining began in the 862-square-mile Patoka
River Watershed region (Indiana) in the 1830s,
and had been replaced by surface mining by
the 1920s. When sites were abandoned,
damage from acid mine drainage affected 60-
75% of the South Fork watershed. A collabor-
ative effort of local agencies, volunteers, and
the U.S. Department of Interior Office of
Surface Mining led to an innovative application
of anoxic treatment to acid mine drainage on
the watershed's Lick Creek. The partners
created a limestone dam in one of the lakes in
the area, using the anoxic properties of the
lake itself to allow the metals to settle out of
solution at one end of the lake before passing
the water into the wetland. The area now looks
like a park, and the water flowing into the
wetland is clear (Comp and Wood, 2001).
support for the project that is not possible
1-10
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
Community stakeholder considerations at mine sites may include:
• Community values and culture can impact how area residents react to cleanup efforts. It
is important to recognize and appreciate the historical significance of the mining industry
to the community.
• Residents' perceptions of the health risks posed by the site vary. At some sites, the
perceived contradiction between EPA's assessment of potential risk and residents' input
on health risks, such as blood lead tests, can cause area residents to be skeptical of
EPA's contention that mining sites pose a threat to human health.
• Liability concerns usually are an issue. The uncertainty about who will be responsible for
cleanup costs weighs heavily on communities and can impact residents' willingness to
participate in cleanup discussions
and activities.
• Cleanup and redevelopment have
economic impacts. Since many mine
sites have been abandoned for
some time, the attention that
cleanup and redevelopment brings
to the site can cause both real and
perceived economic concerns to a
currently thriving community (EPA,
2000a).
Development of a CSM using Triad ensures
that all stakeholders are offered the
opportunity to review a consistent set of
information as they participate in the
decision-making process. Involvement in
CSM development by all levels of regulators
provides important insight to the stakeholder
team and avoids many potential problems
after the project is well underway when it
becomes more difficult or expensive to
change.
Additionally, the CSM helps all stakeholders
understand the various viewpoints that exist
regarding a site restoration and to focus on
areas where uncertainties and data gaps
exist. For example, a family living near a
potentially hazardous site may have an
entirely different understanding of risk than
does a regulatory official working in a distant city. However, input from both parties are
important and consensus must be reached for credible restorations to be completed.
Example 2: TAG Involves Residents in
Developing Cleanup Plan
The Eagle Mine site (Colorado) includes the
Eagle Mine Workings; the town of Oilman; the
mine tailings pond areas of Rex Flats, Rock
Creek Canyon, and waste rock; and roaster pile
areas. Mining operations at the site began in the
1870s. In the early 1900s, the New Jersey Zinc
company consolidated a number of these
workings and operated them as Eagle Mine. In
1966, the company merged with Gulf Western.
Mining operations were abandoned in 1984.
Residues from the roasting process were left in
five waste piles. Mine tailings from the milling
process and polluted surface and ground water
from the site affected several nearby wetlands.
EPA added the site to the National Priorities List in
1986. EPA has worked with the Colorado
Department of Public Health and Environment,
the responsible party, and the affected community
since 1988 to clean up the site. EPA provided a
technical assistance grant (TAG), which allowed
residents to hire a technical advisor for
independent review of the cleanup.The
collaboration in implemeting the cleanup plan has
resulted in the elimination of public health risks
and significant recovery of the Eagle River trout
fishery (EPA, 2004e).
1-11
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
1.3.4 Financial Considerations and Funding Sources
Financial considerations are an important component of redevelopment. With the large size and
complexity of most mine sites, the availability of resources to assess, clean up, and redevelop a
mine site can be considerable.
In addition to the Abandoned Mine Land fund administered by Office of Surface Mining and
mentioned in Section 1.3.2, a number of funding programs are available for restoration of mine-
scarred lands. The Directory of Technical Assistance for Land Revitalization. available at
http://www.brownfieldstsc.org/directory/directory.cfm, has additional information on these types
of funding sources. Most federal funding available from EPA for mine-scarred brownfields sites
is administered under authority of CERCLA, Section 104(k) (EPA, 2004b). Brownfields grant
funds may be provided to state and local governments and community organizations. Additional
money may be used by these organizations to capitalize a brownfields revolving loan fund
(RLF). Non-government organizations are eligible to apply only for cleanup grants. For-profit
organizations are not eligible for brownfields grants, although they may borrow from a
brownfields RLF. Appendix A provides a list of EPA Regional Brownfields Coordinators who
may be able to assist in obtaining cleanup funds.
EPA is one of the agencies that participates in the Brownfields Federal Partnership. Other
participants that may be able to provide financial assistance and/or expertise include the DOI's
OSM and Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USAGE), Forest
Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of Commerce, Department of Transportation,
and Department of Health and Human Services.
Not all abandoned mine sites are reclaimed using federal funds. Where the location of a site is
advantageous and potential benefits of reclaiming and reusing the land exceed the costs of
cleanup and redevelopment, state and local governments, industry, land developers,
environmental groups, or private citizens may fund improvements or complete reclamation.
Funding may be available from state, tribal, and local agencies based on the specified reuse of
the area. These may include sport fisheries grants, wetlands grants, and wildlife habitat creation
grants. Obtaining these types of grants may be beneficial to organizations seeking to obtain
brownfields grants from EPA by making the grant application more attractive to agency officials.
A list of federal, state, and tribal points of contact for abandoned mine lands programs is
available online at http://www.osmre.gov/statefeddirectory.htm. In addition, a list of state and
tribal AML Programs is provided in Appendix B.
Mine-Scarred Lands Initiative -As an extension of the Brownfields Federal Partnership, a
MSL working group was established to collaboratively address the challenges of MSL cleanup
and revitalization. The MSL working group consists of the following six federal agencies: EPA,
DOI, Department of Agriculture, Department of Housing and Urban Development, USAGE, and
Appalachian Regional Commission. The group is co-chaired by EPA's Office of Brownfields
Cleanup and Redevelopment and DOI's OSM.
1-12
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
The MSL working group has begun work on demonstration projects that represent the variety of
challenges facing mining communities across the country. Working group members are
assisting projects as needed to identify community redevelopment needs, facilitate local
visioning and action plan development, locate experts, share information, and involve the
private sector. Demonstration projects cover both coal and hard rock mine sites. Each requires
the collaboration of multiple federal agencies and offers the potential for valuable lessons that
will help improve future redevelopment of MSL. Demonstration projects are being conducted at
the:
• Barrick Bullfrog Mine in Beattv, Nevada—a former gold mine being considered for
redevelopment. Renewable energy production is at the forefront of reuse options.
• CAN DO Innovations Site in Hazleton. Pennsylvania—an 82-acre anthracite coal mine,
which is part of the larger 366-acre Cranberry Creek Gate Corridor project. The project
illustrates the challenge of integrating cleanup, compaction, infrastructure, and other site
development activities.
• Eureka Townsite in San Juan County. Colorado—an approximate one-mile segment of
the Upper Animus River Valley contaminated by tailings from abandoned gold, silver,
lead, and zinc mines. The stakeholders are providing input on cleanup strategies and
water quality standards applied to mine reclamation. They are discussing diverse and
sustainable reuse options.
• Kelly's Creek Watershed in Kenawha County, West Virginia—a watershed with poor
drinking water supplies affected by historic coal mining activities and improper sewage
disposal. The project involves innovative approaches to development of waste-water
infrastructure, remediation of AMD, and collaboration with a mineland owner to
redevelop a large tract of privately-owned land.
• Pennsylvania Mine in Summit County. Colorado—a site with a creek that discharges to
the Snake River that is contaminated by metals requiring cleanup. Stakeholders hope to
delist the creek and river from the CWA list of impaired waters as well as facilitate
economic growth and establish a trailhead and trout fishery.
• Stone Creek Tipple Site in Lee County. Virginia—a 1.5-acre abandoned coal loading
facility that poses a health and safety hazard due to stream bank erosion and possible
PCB contamination. Hundreds of tipple sites exist in Appalachia, and stakeholders hope
this demonstration serves as an example of cleanup and reuse of these sites.
Progress on these demonstrations is documented in Mine-Scarred Lands Revitalization -
Models through Partnerships (EPA, 2005a).
1-13
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 1-OVERVIEW
1-14
-------
Mine Site Cleanup for
Brownfields Redevelopment
Part 2-Coal Mine Sites
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Thousands of surface and underground coal mines occupying millions of acres of land across
the eastern and central United States were mined prior to the 1980s and were abandoned or
were reclaimed and closed with a minimal degree of restoration (EPA, 2000a). This legacy of
abandoned mines includes an enormous amount of public safety, engineering, and
environmental problems affecting their cleanup and reuse. Part 2 of this primer provides
technical information about the characterization, remediation, and redevelopment of coal mine
sites, with a focus on coal mine sites in the eastern United States. Part 2 is designed for an
audience with some knowledge of and interest in the technical aspects of coal mines and
redevelopment and includes:
• Specific characteristics and problems associated with coal mine sites
• Potential reuse scenarios for coal mine sites
• Approaches for assessment and cleanup of these sites, including use of the Triad
approach
• Specific technologies for coal mine site remediation
• Additional information about coal mine site redevelopment, including case studies and
resources
Common issues that hinder the cleanup and redevelopment of coal mines (discussed in more
detail in Section 2.2) include abandoned highwalls, subsidence, and acid mine drainage (AMD).
As an example of the extent of these issues, coal mining in Pennsylvania prior to 1965 left 2,400
miles of streams impacted by AMD, 252 miles of dangerous highwalls, over 1,200 open portals
and shafts, 38 underground mine fires, and 200,000 acres of subsidence-prone land
(http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/minres/BMR/BMRhome.htm).
Part 2 of the primer presents the potential for cleaning up and redeveloping abandoned, unused
coal-mined lands for a variety of purposes, including recreation and wildlife habitat, as well as
commercial, industrial, and residential development. Challenges to redeveloping coal mine sites
include characterizing and remediating their health and safety and environmental issues;
meeting federal, state, and local regulatory requirements; and working together with local
communities, environmental groups, and other stakeholders. One obstacle to the
redevelopment of abandoned mine lands (AML) is often the lack of money and tools available to
characterize and remediate the site. As discussed in Part 1, the EPA has several initiatives
underway to address these challenges and to promote the redevelopment of AML. The use of
the Triad approach is one way to streamline site cleanup. Triad, explained in more detail in
Figure 2-1, is a dynamic, collaborative approach to cleanup that helps site stakeholders work
toward cleanup that is faster, better, and cheaper and sets the stage for appropriate
redevelopment.
2-1
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
Figure 2-1. Assessing, Understanding, and Defining Issues
Using The Triad Approach
The Triad approach represents an evolution and progression of
technical thinking about contaminated sites. The Triad serves as a
platform to integrate the experiences, lessons learned, and advances
in science and technical tools and know-how gained over the past 25+
years of hazardous site investigation, cleanup, and reuse. Triad
supports second-generation practices that maximize the use of
innovative field tools. By using data in real time, these innovative tools
and techniques more effectively address the uncertainty related to the
variability of contamination across the site. The Triad approach, which
is different from current practices, truly support all three benchmarks of "better, faster, and
cheaper" projects. Further information about the Triad is available at www.triadcentral.org.
Among other criteria, a successful Triad project addresses:
Real-Time Mejsurc
"["ethnologies
• The length of the cleanup process
• The cost of assessment and cleanup
• Regulatory requirements
• Data collection components needed to successfully address site uncertainties
Building a Conceptual Site Model
A primary Triad product is an accurate
CSM. A CSM has two important
characteristics. It aids in delineating
contaminant populations requiring different
remediation techniques, and it improves the
confidence and resource-effectiveness of
project decision-making by actively
identifying and acknowledging decision and
data uncertainties early in the process.
Through use of a CSM, the Triad approach
helps to develop open channels of
communication that will increase trust
among stakeholders, as well as identifying
and acknowledging the differing viewpoints
of each stakeholder.
Conceptual Site Model
A CSM estimates:
• Where uncertainties and data gaps exist
• Where contamination is located
• What types of contaminants are present
• How much contamination is present
• How contaminant concentrations vary over
the site and how much spatial patterning is
present
• What is the predicted fate and migration of
the contaminants
• Who might be exposed to contaminants
• What might be done to mitigate exposures
• What issues stand between the
stakeholders and successful restoration of
the site
2-2
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
A primary characteristic of the CSM is its evolutionary nature. As new data are collected, the
CSM evolves incorporate new findings. Because the CSM is the foundation of the decision-
making process, and each update of the CSM is communicated to all team members, the
stakeholders can be confident that decisions are communicated to the entire team.
The CSM provides an up front analysis of potential reuses of the site. A site may not be suitable
for certain reuses (i.e., park or school) due to the nature of contaminants onsite or remaining
physical hazards, such as highwalls. For example, the Red Onion site in Virginia had to be
compacted carefully to provide sufficient
structural support for the prison
construction (redevelopment) on the site.
However, by identifying possible uses and
restrictions for the site early in the process
and restructuring project goals
accordingly, cost avoidance may be
realized. Further, by defining possible
reuse scenarios early, data collection can
focus on data gaps associated with those
reuse scenarios instead of collecting
information that can mislead or confuse
site decision-makers.
Products from Systematic Project Planning
• Consensus on the desired outcome
(i.e., end goal) for the site/project
• A preliminary CSM from existing
information
• A list of the various regulatory, scientific
and engineering decisions that must be
made in order to achieve the desired
outcome
• A list of the unknowns that stand in the
way of making those decisions
• Strategies to eliminate or "manage
around" those unknowns
• Explicit control over the greatest
sources of uncertainty in environmental
data (i.e., sampling related variables
such as sample volume and orientation,
particle size, sampling density,
subsampling)
• "Stakeholder capital" (i.e., an
atmosphere of trust, open
communication, and cooperation
between parties working toward a
protective, yet cost-effective resolution
of the "problem")
Systematic Project Planning
The most important element of the Triad
approach, systematic project planning
(sometimes called "strategic planning"),
supports the ultimate goal of confident
decision-making. Systematic project
planning provides the roadmap and
benchmarks for the stakeholder team to
assess progress. By carefully defining
benchmarks early in the process, all
stakeholders are given ownership of that
process. Frequently reviewing the
common measures of success help the
project to stay on course.
Dynamic Work Strategies
The second element, dynamic work strategies, is the element that allows projects to be
completed "faster" and "cheaper" than traditional, static work strategies. Unlike static work
plans, which require periods of inactivity while data are analyzed (both in the lab and relative to
2-3
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
the site), work plans written in a dynamic or
flexible mode guide the course of the project to
adapt in real-time (i.e., while the work crew is
still in the field). Flexible work plans allow the
preliminary CSM to be tested and evolved to
maturity (i.e., sufficiently complete to support
the desired level of decision confidence by the
entire stakeholder team). While the primary
benefit of flexible work plans is that they
support better resolution of uncertainties for the
entire stakeholder team, and therefore build
stakeholder confidence in the decision-making process, because the decisions are made in real
time, significant cost and time savings are also realized (i.e., by reducing expensive
remobilizations of sampling crews, a total project savings is realized).
Real-time Measurement Technologies
Dynamic Work Strategies
Provides flexibility to incorporate
new data
Reduces remobilization efforts
Can include use of Decision
Support Tools (DST) that can help
in developing sampling or remedial
strategies
The third element of the Triad, real-time
measurement technologies, makes dynamic
work strategies possible by gathering,
interpreting, and sharing data rapidly enough to
support real-time decisions. The range of
technologies supporting real-time
measurements includes field analytical
instrumentation, in-situ sensing systems,
geophysics, rapid turn-around from traditional
laboratories, and computer systems that assist
project planning, and store, display, map,
manipulate, and share data. Although field
analytical methods are usually less expensive
to operate than fixed laboratory analyses,
under the Triad approach, analytic budgets can
be the same or higher than conventional
sampling schemes because sample density is increased to manage sampling uncertainties.
However, by increasing sampling density, Triad investigations can significantly reduce
uncertainty associated with site conditions. More important than per-sample cost is the real-time
aspect of these innovative data tools that dramatically lower the life cycle costs of Triad projects
built on dynamic work strategies.
Real-time Measurement Technologies
• Use of technologies that result in
improved quality control and quality
assurance
• Significantly reduce costs
associated with laboratory
requirements that may not aid in
reaching consensus decisions
• Significantly increases sample
density
• Refer to fate.cluin.org for additional
information about these
technologies
2-4
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
2.2 SAFETY, ENGINEERING, AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
RELATED TO COAL-MINED LANDS AND LAND REUSE
Coal-mined lands have a wide variety of safety, engineering, and environmental problems that
can affect activities related to site redevelopment (EPA, 2000a).
Safety Problems. Safety problems at abandoned coal mines can pose immediate risk to people
onsite:
Hiqhwalls, which can exceed 100 feet in height, are the unexcavated faces of overburden and
coal in a surface mine. Left in place without regrading, abandoned highwalls pose a falling
hazard to users (e.g., dirt bikers, hikers, mountain bikers) of the site.
Old buildings, draglines, shovels, trucks, and other equipment in dilapidated condition can
remain scattered around abandoned mine sites. Children or adults climbing on equipment or
entering abandoned equipment and buildings can be subject to serious dangers, such as cuts
and falls.
Old air shafts or vertical entries of underground mines may also result in falls, especially when
located in woods, partially covered, and not readily visible. These shafts and open workings can
be hundreds of feet deep. If not sealed, drift entrances into underground mines can also pose
serious risks as old timbers and roofrock of these drifts can be very unstable and subject to
collapse. Hunters and hikers sometimes seek refuge from bad weather in these entrances, and
children may enter simply to hide or play.
Engineering Problems. Engineering problems at abandoned coal mines can affect existing
structures and the approach to construction of new buildings, roads, and other infrastructure for
redevelopment.
Subsidence of the ground surface occurs when it slowly sinks or collapses into underground
mine openings below. Underground mines may have vertical shafts, slopes, drift openings, and
mine workings (including haulageways water and drainage tunnels), and other passageways
excavated from the subsurface that may cause subsidence. Buildings and other structures
constructed on land undergoing active subsidence can crack, shift, tilt, and split. Damage to
buildings can be so severe that they must be abandoned and demolished.
Piles of mine spoil (the fragments of rock and soil removed during mining) and coal refuse (the
waste coal and crushed rock that results from coal processing) are often left at or near where
the coal was mined. These piles can be highly erodible and unstable and thus, could potentially
slide. These materials are particularly unstable if they are situated on steep hillsides, have water
impoundments on the upper surfaces, or were placed over natural springs. Impoundments of
coal slurry (a mixture of finely crushed coal and rock and water) can also slide or leak water and
slurry through its walls.
2-5
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
Mine spoils and coal refuse can be very difficult to build on. During the mining operation,
overburden rock and soil are crushed and disposed in mined areas. The crushed materials are
much looser than the original materials (i.e., have a lower bulk density). Over time, they
gradually consolidate. If spoils or coal refuse are redisturbed during preparation for land reuse,
and there are plans to construct buildings, roads, or other structures, then testing and
engineering studies should be conducted, and steps should be incorporated into the reclamation
plan to compact the spoils and improve the stability of the materials, so that differential
subsidence is not a potential problem.
Environmental Problems. Environmental problems related to abandoned coal mine lands are
environmental can cause health risks to humans as well as wildlife and vegetation.
Abandoned buildings and structures, such as coal preparation plants, mine hoists, mining
equipment, old vehicles, haul trucks, and other hardware related to the mining process, may
contain compounds, such as solvents, metals, PCBs (from transformers and capacitors), engine
oils, transmission fluid, antifreeze, fuels, grease, and other lubricants, that might have been
spilled or intentionally disposed at the site, thereby contaminating, soil, ground water, and/or
surface waters.
Open dumping or "midnight dumping" is the illegal disposal of municipal and industrial wastes
and is common at abandoned mine sites. People looking to avoid the costs or inconvenience of
legal dumping may dispose of their wastes in an abandoned pit or mine shaft causing additional
contamination concerns.
Mine spoils and coal refuse can be poor growth media for plants because they can have a low
water-retention capacity, low pH (i.e., acidic), high salinity, and high levels of toxic metals,
including cadmium, zinc, and manganese. High levels of other contaminants common at coal
mine sites, such as iron, aluminum, and sulfate, may cause additional cosmetic or aesthetic
effects in water by altering its taste, color, or odor. Large numbers of surface mine sites and
coal refuse disposal areas are barren and have lacked vegetation cover for more than a
century. They resist practically any form of invasive plant species. To return these mined lands
to agricultural fields, forests, or native vegetation, it is often necessary to add significant
amounts of agricultural limestone, lime, or alkaline soil amendments to neutralize acidity;
fertilizers to restore basic nutrients; and organic matter to help replenish soil and increase its
water-holding capacity.
Erosion of mine spoils and coal refuse caused by stormwater runoff can be a problem,
especially in the eastern and central United States where severe rainstorms can occur. Erosion
occurs because the piles of mine spoils and coal refuse are often loose, unconsolidated, steep-
sloped, and unvegetated. Transported sediments enter surrounding drainage channels, creeks,
streams, and reservoirs, and clogged stream channels can subsequently cause flooding. Heavy
sediment loads can coat streambeds and kill most benthic invertebtrates, which has a profound
impact on fish and other aquatic animals.
2-6
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
AMD is the most severe and well-recognized environmental problem related to coal mining and
can impact surface waters, including lakes, ponds, creeks, and even entire watersheds. AMD is
water typically with a pH less than 4 that drains from mine workings and from mine spoils, and
coal refuse (called acid rock drainage). The low pH is due to the formation of acid resulting from
the oxidation of sulfide minerals (e.g., pyrite) in the host rock as it is exposed to air and water
during mining. The acidic water solubilizes moderate to high concentrations of metals from the
rock and sulfate.
When a watershed has been heavily mined, AMD can constitute the majority of water in the
receiving surface waters. These water bodies can have pH values between 2.0 and 5.0 and
contain hundreds of milligrams per liter (mg/L) of acidity and dissolved iron. Water bodies
impacted this severely are usually devoid of fish and other aquatic oganisms. Only a very limited
number of animal and plant species can survive under these conditions. Hundreds of projects
have been performed in an attempt to evaluate and reclaim some of these watersheds and
return them to healthy aquatic habitats. Remediating AMD in a watershed can be extremely
difficult. Many times there is no at-source AMD abatement technique that is feasible or cost-
effective. In these cases, treatment of the AMD is sometimes the only alternative for improving
water quality and aquatic habitats in the receiving water bodies.
2-7
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
2.3 EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL SITE REUSE
There are large areas of land in the eastern and central United States that were mined prior to
1977, and some of this land is located in populated areas or near major avenues of
transportation. Hundreds of abandoned surface mine sites or coal refuse disposal areas in such
areas have been graded, compacted, and reused for commercial and residential purposes.
Examples of reuse include shopping centers, houses, and entire subdivisions. The Pittsburgh
International Airport is an example of a large commercial project sited in large part on former
surface-mined land. Generally, the mine sites most frequently reused are the ones that are in
good locations, generally flat, and non-acidic. For buildings and roads, the crucial issues for
reuse involve the overall stability and compaction of the underlying materials. If the mine spoils
have the potential to slide, undergo differential settlement, or fail for other geotechnical reasons,
these sites are typically avoided. Sites that are overly acidic are also generally avoided.
However, even these types of sites have been reclaimed and reused if the site conditions
allowed and the need for the land was great enough.
In some cases, mine sites may have very positive characteristics that have been used to full
advantage. For example, in the central United States (including Illinois, Indiana, Missouri,
western Kentucky, and Ohio) where the land is generally flat, abandoned surface mine sites
tend to have lakes interspersed between rows or sections of mine spoil ridges. If the water
quality of a lake is acceptable, then it is not uncommon for houses or entire subdivisions to be
built on the mine spoils around the lake (Illinois Department of Mines and Minerals, 1985). The
aesthetic value and the opportunity for fishing and boating makes these properties valuable and
attractive for redevelopment. The cost of grading, compacting, and adding topsoil to the mine
sites is offset by the value of the land after it is redeveloped.
Reusing mine sites for recreational purposes is also quite common. Many small county and
municipal parks, ballfields, commercial golf courses, and picnic areas have been constructed on
mined land. As shown in Table 2-1, a number of state parks and public recreation areas have
been developed on abandoned mine lands. These parks make use of the hilly terrain and the
large number of lakes, which are not common in much of the central U.S. states. At Goose Lake
Prairie State Park in Illinois, mine spoil ridges were graded, limed, and seeded with native
tallgrass species (Master and Taylor, 1979). The ridges were then incorporated as part of a
hiking trail and used as an overlook for the surrounding prairie and wetlands. At Lake Hope
State Park in Ohio and Moraine State Park in Pennsylvania, a large number of underground
mine entrances and abandoned oil wells were sealed prior to developing the parks. Sealing the
underground entrances prevented the discharge of AMD, thus upgrading and preserving the
quality of water in the lakes. The AMD&Art Project, winner of one of EPA's 2005 Phoenix
Awards (for excellence in brownfields redevelopment) uses passive treatment systems,
including wetlands, to treat AMD at a site in Vintondale, Pennsylvania. Former "dead land" now
is home to a rail trail and recreational park area (www.amdandart.org). At Finger Lakes State
Park in Missouri, little or no effort was required to grade or cover the acidic spoil ridges or to
treat the acidic water in the lakes because the primary uses of the park are off-road motorcycle
and all-terrain vehicle trails (Figure 2-2) and a motorcross track. The intended use of the land
2-8
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
did not warrant the high cost of reclaiming all of the
sections of the mined land that contained acid spoils and
acidic lakes, and there were no other contaminants or
safety hazards present to pose a threat to users of the
park. However, planning and foresight found a beneficial
use for the land, which is now heavily used by people
from around the country. (For more information on the
park, see http://www.mostateparks.com/fingerlakes.htm.}
As mentioned previously, older surface-mined lands
often contain numerous ponds and lakes. Besides fish,
these water bodies can also serve as excellent aquatic
habitats for beaver, muskrats, and waterfowl. Many of
the coal-mining states lie along migratory paths of geese
and ducks. Extensive research and field trials have been
conducted to improve wetlands and lakes on mined
lands for use by waterfowl, mammals, and other fauna
(Samual, etal., 1978; Leedyand Franklin, 1981;
Herricks, et al., 1982; Lawrence, et al., 1985; McConnell
and Samual, 1985; Klimstra and Nawrot, 1985; Mitsch, et
al., 1985; Brooks et al., 1985). At mine sites in Illinois,
Indiana, and western Kentucky, artificial islands have
been created and goose-nesting boxes have been built. Placing the nesting boxes on islands
separated from the main shoreline greatly reduces the predation of eggs and young. Ducks and
geese have made great use of these nesting opportunities.
Figure 2-2. Dirt Biker, Finger
Lakes State Park, Missouri
2-9
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
Table 2-1. Examples of Parks and Recreational Areas Created on Coal Mined Land
State
IL
IN
MO
OH
PA
Park Name
Kickapoo
State
Recreational
Area
Goose Lake
Prairie State
Park
Pyramid
State
Recreational
Area
Greene-
Sullivan
State Forest
Shakamak
State Park
Minnehaha
Fish and
Wildlife Area
Finger Lakes
State Park
Lake Hope
State Park
American
Electric
Power
Recreation
Area
B & N Coal
Inc. Lands
Moraine
State Park
Primary Uses
Boating, swimming,
fishing, camping,
picnicking, hunting,
horseback riding,
mountain biking,
scuba diving,
baseball
Native prairie,
wildlife, hiking
Boating, swimming,
fishing, camping,
picnicking, hunting,
horseback riding,
mountain biking,
hiking
Boating, swimming,
fishing, camping,
picnicking, hiking
Boating, swimming,
fishing, camping,
picnicking, hiking,
biking
Boating, swimming,
fishing, picnicking,
hiking
70 miles of
motorcycle and
ATV trails,
canoeing, fishing,
swimming, scuba
diving, camping,
hiking
Boating, swimming,
fishing, camping,
picnicking
Boating, swimming,
fishing, camping,
picnicking, hunting
Fishing, camping,
picnicking
Boating, swimming,
fishing, picnicking
Site Restoration Activities, Notes
Strip-mined between 1850 and 1938;
first park in nation built on mine spoils in
1939; 2,842 acres of land and 22 mine
lakes 0.2 to 57 acres in size; minimal
mine spoil grading and revegetation
Minimal mine spoil grading;
revegetation with tall prairie grasses,;
five ponds/wetlands remain; park
overlook on mine spoil ridge
Minimal mine spoil grading;
revegetation; more than 500 acres of
ponds and lakes ranging from 0.1 to
276 acres; largest recreational area in
State
6,764 acres of land, 122 mine lakes and
ponds, two-day canoe trail
Reclaimed in 1930s
1 1 ,400 acres of land; largest fish and
wildlife area in state
Minimal mine spoil
grading,; revegetation
Deep mines sealed
Minimal mine spoil grading, planting of
50 million trees; construction of 380
campsites
Minimal mine spoil grading
Deep mines sealed; surface mines
backfilled and graded; 422 gas and oil
wells plugged; fertilizer and lime added
to spoil; thousands of trees planted
Information Source (s)
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/
programs/recycle/pdfs/rec_mining.
pdf; http://dnr.state.il.us/lands/
landmgt/PARKS/R3/Kickapoo.htm
http://dnr.state.il.us/lands/
Landmgt/PARKS/l&M/EAST/
GOOSE/HOME.HTM
http://dnr.state.il.us/lands/Landmgt
/parks/r5/pyramid. h tm;
h ttp://www. lib. niu. edu/ipo/
io010214.html
http://www.in.gov/dnr/forestry/
index.html; http://www.in.gov/
dnr/forestry/stateforests/grnsull.
htm&2
http://www.in.gov/dnr/parklake/
properties/park_shakamak.html
http://www.in.gov/dnr/fishwild/
publications/minn.htm#history
http://www.mostateparks. com/
fingerlakes/geninfo.htm
http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/parks/pa
rks/lakehope.htm
http://www.aep.com/environmental/
stewardship/recland/ourstory.htm
http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/wildlife/
pdf/pub293.pdf
http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/state
parks/parks/moraine.aspx;
http://www. dep.state.pa. us/dep/
PA_Env-Her/moraine_state_
park.htm
2-10
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
2.4 IDENTIFYING AND CHARACTERIZING ISSUES
RELATED TO SITE REUSE
The environmental and geotechnical problems found at mine sites can be varied and significant.
Recognizing and fully characterizing these problems can be challenging, but necessary. Before
investing large amounts of time and money in mine site characterization or cleanup, proper
planning should be performed, input and consensus by stakeholders should be encouraged,
and the potential environmental liabilities and safety issues of a site should be fully investigated.
If the projected land use is industrial or residential and a large amount of construction is to take
place, then more time and money should be spent on planning, market evaluation, and
collection of existing site historical information and environmental data. These types of activities
are consistent with use of the Triad approach, as discussed in the box below.
Use of the Triad Approach in Coal Mine Site Characterization
For coal mine sites, use of the Triad approach includes
development of an accurate CSM. The CSM has two
important characteristics. It aids in delineating contaminant
populations requiring different remediation techniques, and it
improves the confidence and resource-effectiveness of
project decision-making by actively identifying and
acknowledging decision and data uncertainties early and
throughout the remedial process. These two products provide
the decision-making team with realistic remediation objectives and develop open channels of
communication that will increase trust among all stakeholders, as well as identifying and
acknowledging the differing viewpoints of each stakeholder.
For building a Triad CSM, existing site information can be used to help perform preliminary
assessments of the site's condition and the potential liabilities and limitations that might exist at
the site. For example, mine maps should be obtained for any underground workings that might
exist at the site. These maps can delineate the extent and interconnections of underground
works, the dip of the mine floor, the presence of geologic faults or fracture zones, the thickness
of overburden rock, areas where pillars may have been removed (these areas may be subject to
more intense subsidence problems), and the locations of any mine entries or shafts (including
air shafts and water drainage tunnels). Maps of surface mine sites often show the locations of
sediment retention basins and locations where coal wastes may have been buried within the
mine spoils (a common practice). Overall, these maps can be used to quickly identify potential
hazards or environmental problems at a site; however, users should be cautioned that the maps
may be incomplete or contain other inaccuracies. If records and files are available from the coal
company and/or OSM (e.g., mine permit applications, permit amendments, notices of violation,
inspector reports), these files may also provide useful information.
After the existing data and information have been collected and assessed, a plan or roadmap
should be formulated regarding the potential land uses being considered for the mined land, the
2-11
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
amount and types of additional data that may be needed, and the permits and approvals that
may be required for developing the mine site(s).
Work can be initiated to collect the additional site data and characterize a site to the extent
deemed appropriate for the intended post-reclamation land use. Some data are relatively easy
to collect. For example, simple pH meters, specific conductivity meters, and field test kits can be
used to quickly and cheaply evaluate water quality problems at a mine site or in a watershed.
Measuring the pH of mine spoils and coal refuse in the field is possible, but can be somewhat
more time consuming and tedious. Laboratory analyses of mine spoils and coal refuse for
essential nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), water holding capacity, and toxic
metals may be necessary if the land is to be used for agriculture, pastures, managed forests
(i.e., tree farms), or residential properties that have a lawn and landscaping.
Determining the metals concentrations in the various wastes is an important characterization
activity for making reuse decisions at coal mine sites. Total metals concentrations in soil, spoils,
and coal refuse can be determined quickly using field portable x-ray fluorescence (XRF)
spectroscopy. XRF analysis has been
demonstrated to be an effective tool at sites
with multiple metal contaminants, such as
hard rock mine sites. Generally, elements of
atomic number 16 (sulfur) through 92
(uranium) can be detected and quantified with
an XRF. Anode stripping voltammetry is an
innovative field portable instrument for
measuring trace metals in water and extracts
from soil, paint, dust, and particles.
If buildings or other large structures are to be
built on graded mine spoils or coal refuse,
professional geotechnical engineers need to
be involved with the assessment of the site.
They can make evaluations and
recommendations regarding the stability of
the geological materials and the potential for
underground mine subsidence, differential
compaction of mine spoils, and slumping,
sliding, or liquifaction of the mine spoils or
coal refuse. In addition, civil engineers may
be needed to evaluate coal refuse
impoundments and the structural integrity of
the dams or berms retaining the coal wastes.
Engineering studies and designs are also
needed if underground mine entrances or
shafts are to be sealed.
Demonstration of Method Applicability
When using field-portable site
characterization technologies such as
XRF, it is generally advisable to perform a
demonstration of method applicability
(DMA) study at the site where the
technology is to be used. A DMA is an
initial "pilot test" of the field-based
analytical method using a few actual site
samples and comparative laboratory
analyses. The DMA concept is founded in
EPA SW-846 guidance and performance-
based measurement standards, and DMAs
require clearly defined objectives and
decision criteria. DMAs involve collection
of samples from a site-specific matrix
(such as soil, water, air, or tissue) followed
by analysis of the samples using field-
based and comparative fixed-laboratory
analyses. They can provide useful
information about whether the technology
provides data of sufficient quality and
quantity to make required decisions, and
what the decision logic will be for using the
technology in real time to make confident
site decisions.
2-12
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
2.5 TECHNOLOGIES FOR SITE CLEANUP AND REUSE
Many approaches and technologies have been tested over the past 70 years to seal
underground mines, to reclaim surface mines and coal-cleaning wastes, and to prevent and
treat AMD. This section discusses control and treatment of mine wastes, including contaminated
surface soils and AMD. It also provides a brief overview of various engineering techniques
associated with mine site reclamation. Additional information about control and treatment
technologies is available at www.brownfieldstsc.org/miningsites/.
2.5.1 Safety Hazards
Elimination of potential safety hazards at abandoned hard rock mine sites is the first priority and
is relatively straightforward. The type of action to be taken is generally governed by the level of
public access anticipated after the site has been reclaimed. For example, at a remote mine site
that is being reclaimed for use as a wildlife habitat or rangelands, it may only be necessary to
fence potentially hazardous areas and post warning signs. At the other extreme, such as at an
urban mine site that is proposed for residential or commercial redevelopment, it may be
necessary to not only backfill and seal mine openings and tunnels but to also remove or
relocate all mine wastes in order to provide a stable ground surface for construction. In some
cases, such reuse may even require extensive underground backfilling and grouting to minimize
potential ground subsidence.
2.5.2 Control and Treatment—Contaminated Surface Soil or Mine Wastes
To minimize erosion problems and exposure of buried pyritic materials (the source of acidity) to
water and oxygen, it may be necessary to sustain a vegetative cover on the final mine surface.
Vegetation also serves to improve the aesthetics of a reclaimed site. Decades of research have
been conducted on the characteristics and deficiencies of mine spoils and coal refuse as
growing media and on the plant and tree species most tolerant to the sometimes extreme
growing conditions. Additives, such as lime, fertliizer, and organic matter, are usually needed to
improve the potential for revegetation. Because of the large areas of land that are usually
involved at a reclamation site, the costs for lime, limestone, fertilizer, and other soil additives
can be great.
Research, pilot testing, and full-scale reclamation operations have advanced the use of "waste"
or recyclable materials to help neutralize acidity, increase the levels of nutrients available to the
plants, increase organic carbon, and increase water-holding capacity in the reclaimed soil
materials. Some successes have been achieved using:
• Wastes from coal-burning power plants (fly ash, bottom ash, scrubber sludge, and
fluidized bed combustion wastes)
• Digested municipal sewage sludge (biosolids)
• Softening sludge from water treatment plants
• Dredged sediment from streams and rivers
2-13
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
These wastes can usually be obtained for free from the waste producers, or sometimes the
waste producers will actually pay to have their wastes removed. Large areas of surface mine
spoils and coal wastes have been reclaimed with sewage sludge in Illinois (Peterson et al.,
1979; Pietz et al., 1992) and Pennsylvania. Dredge sediment from rivers was used at
experimental plots at an abandoned mine site in Illinois in the 1980s and has recently been
applied to a mine site in Pennsylvania (Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
[PaDEP], 2004a). Softening sludge from water treatment plants and wastes from coal-burning
power plants can be very alkaline and therefore have a large potential for neutralizing acidic
mine spoils and coal refuse (Adams et al., 1971, 1972; Aljoe and Renninger, 1999; PaDEP,
2004a). These materials have also been tested successfully at numerous mine sites. In addition
to their unusually alkaline characteristics, digested sewage sludge and dredge sediment can
also contain high levels of organic carbon and nutrients, both of which improve the quality of the
reconstructed soil zone. However, some of these wastes or byproducts may have elevated
levels of metals or other contaminants; thus, the materials should be tested for these before
use. The webpages of EPA's Resource Conservation Challenge (EPA, 2005c,
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/osw/conserve/priorities/bene-use.htm) and EPA's policies and
goals on the use of coal ash to treat mine wastes (EPA, 2004a and 2004c) provide further
information.
2.5.3 Control and Treatment—Mine Drainage
AMD discharges emanating from mine sites may not be an impediment to reclaiming and
reusing the land for residential, commercial, farming, or other uses; however, acidic discharges
have a negative impact on receiving creeks and streams. One AMD discharge may have a
small impact on a stream, but when discharges are numerous or when there is one or more very
large point-source discharges in a watershed that are very acidic, then more severe impacts will
be observed in the receiving water body. The first objective in a reclamation project usually is to
bury or cover pyritic materials, hydraulically isolate them, or neutralize them in place (i.e., mix
lime or alkaline waste materials directly into the acidic spoils and coal refuse) so that they will
not continue to be a source of acidity. When this is not possible or when "at-source" controls are
not completely effective, passive treatment of AMD is generally used for controlling AMD at a
mine site.
The objective of passive AMD treatment is to use chemical and biological reactions that aid
AMD treatment in a controlled environment at the mine site before the water enters the
receiving stream (PaDEP, 2004b and 2005a; Milavec, 2005a). Other potential cost-saving
aspects of these technologies are that they do not require electricity, full-time operators, or
extensive maintenance or repairs. For more than 25 years, new and better methods of passive
AMD treatment have evolved. These techniques include the following:
• Constructed wetlands (aerobic and anaerobic)
• Limestone rip-rap lined channels and flow-through dams
2-14
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
• Anoxic limestone drains
• Limestone diversion wells
Constructed wetlands may include
one or more ponds or
compartments where AMD flows
through preferably at a slow rate.
The iron is oxidized and
precipitated within the wetland.
Acidity is neutrlized by the
vegetation photosynthesis and
other biological activity which
produces alkalinity. Numerous
demonstration projects and studies
have been performed which have
evaluated the performance, costs,
and longevity of passive wetland
treatment systems. Figure 2-3
shows an example of a
constructed wetland for AMD
treatment. Several comprehensive
documents provide details regarding the construction and performance of wetlands for the
treatment of waste waters in general (EPA, 2000b; ITRC, 2003).
Figure 2-3. Constructed Wetland for AMD Treatment, Dents
Run Watershed, Pennsylvania
Channels and flow-through dams constructed of limestone rip-rap have been designed and
implemented to treat AMD as it flows over and through the rip-rap (See Figure 2-4). However,
limestone channels and dams may not provide long-term effectiveness if the rip-rap becomes
coated with iron oxyhydroxide floe over time and is no longer reactive.
An anoxic limestone drain works similarly to a limestone channel. However, the drain is filled
with flowing AMD and the AMD is not exposed to oxygen during passage through the drain.
Hence, there is less potential for the limestone to become coated with iron oxyhydroxide
precipitate. A limestone diversion well is also similar. This is a variation of an anoxic drain. In
this design, AMD is diverted into the bottom of a vertical column (or well) of limestone under
anaoxic conditions. The agitation of the water flowing up the column helps keep fresh surfaces
on the limestone and makes it easier to load new limestone as it is used up.
Passive AMD treatment techniques are relatively simple and are designed to require little or no
maintenance over time. These technologies typically can only treat small to moderate size
discharges that have small to intermediate levels of iron and acidity. Otherwise, they tend to fail
after a year of more of existence. In cases of larger mine discharges (e.g., greater than 100
gallons per minute) and/or total acidity exceeding 100 mg/L, effective passive treatment
systems have been engineered; however sometimes a more complex treatment system is
needed. These more aggressive treatment plants can be expensive compared to passive
2-15
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
Acidic Inflow
Neutral Outflow?
160 ft (1ft. deep)
Figure 2-4. Example of Limestone Rip-Rap Channel
treatment systems, costing $1 million or more to build and $500,000 or more annually to
operate.
In addition to treating AMD, it is important that the redevelopment of mine sites consider the
impacts that the proposed development may have on the generation of new AMD. Construction
of buildings, parking lots, tennis courts, etc. increases the amount of storm-water runoff from the
property. If the storm-water runoff is not managed properly, it can drain through untreated mine
spoils creating more AMD that transports contaminants offsite. Source controls, such as surface
water diversions, can reduce the quantity of storm water running onto or off of a site. Regrading
and revegetation of abandoned mine sites can reduce the quantity of storm-water runoff
needing treatment by increasing infiltration into the soil surface and increasing plant
transpiration. Construction of sedimentation basins and other such sediment capturing features
should also be considered to reduce potential transport of contaminants offsite.
2.5.4 Control and Treatment—Engineering Considerations
Sealing techniqes for underground mine entrances have evolved since the 1930s, when the
Civilian Conservation Corps sealed hundreds of abandoned mine entrances. Some of the
simpler seals were intended to prevent human entry into a mine (to protect life) and to prevent
air passage into or out of a mine. The intent was to keep oxygen out of a mine, halt the
oxidation of pyrite, and gradually eliminate the source of AMD. The seals did not prevent the
flow of water out of a mine and were not designed to withstand elevated water pressures (i.e.,
they were not bulkhead seals). Over several decades of research, the early types of seals
proved to be ineffective for reducing acid loads in mine discharges. A strong bulkhead seal is
necessary to seal a mine if stopping a discharge is desirable and if elevated water pressure in
the flooded mine is anticipated (Scott and Hays, 1975). Such an approach is often complicated
by the fact that once a mine is flooded and the water pressure increases, the mine water often
finds other avenues to reach the ground surface, such as through fractures in rock; through
abandoned, leaky oil, gas, water, or exploration wells; or through unknown air shafts or an
2-16
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
adjacent underground mine. Sealing and flooding abandoned underground mines should be
approached carefully and with appropriate levels of engineering studies and design.
Backfilling, grading, and contouring mine spoils and coal refuse can be costly, simply due to the
large quantities of materials that commonly must be relocated, compacted, and smoothed.
Pyritic mine spoil and coal refuse should be compacted and buried beneath non-acidic spoils.
Efforts should be made to minimize the contact of acidic materials with air, surface water, and
ground water. If the acidic materials can be surrounded and encapsulated with a thick layer of
clayey, low permeability soil, the oxidation and leaching of these materials in the future can be
minimized (OSM, 2002, http://www.osmre.gov/amdpvm.htm). Caution should be taken when
grading or working on the surface of slurry materials. Slurry pond materials are typically
saturated and do not drain easily. The bearing capacity of these materials is very low.
Numerous instances have occurred in which trucks, dozers, or other vehicles have sunk quickly
into slurry wastes because of engine vibrations even though the surface of the material was
very dry and appeared to be stable.
One way of minimizing the erosion of mine spoils and coal refuse materials, and to minimize the
formation of AMD is to keep water away from a mine site or have it pass through the mined area
with minimal contact with the pyritic materials. This can be accomplished a number of ways
through surface-water diversions, ground-water diversion, and channels liners (Scott and Hays,
1975; Miorin et al., 1979).
Industrial Sources of Contamination. For many sites, contamination sources include
traditional types of industrial processes, such as machine maintenance and repair, vehicle
repair, rail loading/unloading, electrical supply, fuel storage, and processing operations. These
sources can lead to contamination of soil and ground water with solvents, petroleum, lubricants,
PCBs, heavy metals, and other industrial compounds. For information about technologies and
approaches for addressing these types of contaminated areas, see EPA's Road Map to
Understanding Innovative Technology Options for Brownfields Investigation and Cleanup,
Fourth Edition (http://www.brownfieldstsc.org), which outlines the steps in the investigation and
cleanup of a site slated for redevelopment and introduces brownfields stakeholders to the
range of innovative technology options and resources available to them; the Federal
Remediation Technologies Roundtable Cost and Performance Case Studies web page
(http://www.frtr.gov/costperf.htm), which provide details about site-specific experiences and
lessons learned in selecting and implementing treatment and site characterization technologies
to clean up soil and ground water; and EPA REACHIT (http://www.epareachit.org/), an online
database of information about providers of innovative remediation and characterization
technologies.
2-17
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
2.6 STRATEGIES FOR SITE CLEANUP AND REDEVELOPMENT
The first steps toward site cleanup should be to determine the desired land use for the mined
area and the impediments to site retoration and redevelopment (these are some of the key
elements to strategic planning and a CSM). Contacting federal, state, and local government
agencies to develop a list of stakehoders (interested parties) and potential sources of
information and funding is also an early step. Stakeholders should include the members of the
local community to gain their ideas and support early on in the planning process. Otherwise,
public opposition to cleanup and redevelopment plans may arise as a result of their unfamiliarity
with and distrust in the process.
The potential sources of information on mine sites, mining-related environmental problems, and
cleanup programs in progress is quite large. Important sources of information on the history and
environmental problems related to individual mine sites can often be obtained from OSM offices
or state mine regulatory agencies and AML programs. Information on AMD point sources and
impacted water bodies in a watershed can often be obtained from the EPA, U.S. Geological
Survey, and state environmental and mine regulatory agencies. Thousands of scientific papers,
reports, books, and government documents that deal with mining-related problems and remedial
options are available.
Where the location of a site is advantageous and potential benefits of reclaiming and reusing
the land exceed the costs of cleanup and redevelopment, state and local governments, industry,
land developers, environmental groups, or private citizens may fund improvements or complete
reclamation. However, in many cases additional sources of funding may be needed. One of the
primary sources of funding for reclaiming abandoned coal-mined lands is OSM's AML fund.
Funds for reclamation of abandoned lands comes from a tonnage-based fee levied on active
coal mine operations. The AML fund also obtains money from other fees, contributions, late
payment interest, penalties, administrative charges, and interest earned on investment of
principal.
Discharges from abandoned mines can severely impact streams, creeks, lakes, and reservoirs.
Because impacts to a watershed are cumulative and because several mine sites (both surface
and underground) can be the sources of the discharges, AMD problems and related impacts
need to be evaluated and addressed on a watershed scale. In other words, it would not make
sense to restore one mine site and eliminate problems caused by its discharge if there are many
more sites contributing to the watershed problems. Therefore, efforts have been made and are
continuing to be made to evaluate mine drainage problems on a watershed basis. In the 1960s
and 1970s, Pennsylvania was evaluating AMD from abandoned mines on a watershed basis
through its "Operation Scarlift" program. Currently, AML funding to remediate AMD problems in
Pennsylvania is guided by "Pennsylvania's Comprehensive Plan for Abandoned Mine
Reclamation" and "A Model Plan for Watershed Restoration" (PaDEP, 1998, 1999), which
establish a framework for organizing reclamation activities where they will provide the most
positive benefits, coordinating with those involved with reclamation activities, and prioritizing
expenditures and decision-making criteria.
2-18
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
State-supported programs may be available to provide additional sources of funding. As part of
Pennsylvania's Growing Greener Program, the Environmental Stewardship and Watershed
Protection Act authorizes PaDEP to allocate nearly $547 million in grants for AMD abatement,
mine cleanup efforts, abandoned oil and gas well plugging, and local watershed-based
conservation projects (PaDEP, 2005b, http://www.dep.state.pa.us/growgreen/). These projects
can include watershed assessments and development of watershed restoration or protection
plans, implementation of watershed restoration or protection projects, construction of mine
drainage remediation systems, reclamation of previously mined lands, and
demonstration/education projects and outreach activities.
Over the years, private citizens, volunteers, and cooperating businesses and industry have
formed their own watershed groups aimed at the cleanup, restoration, and protection of streams
impacted by coal-mining activities. These grassroot organizations have a strong, local, vested
interest in seeing that streams are cleaned up and protected in the future. These groups have
had real positive effects on the attitudes of the citizenry of an area and have led to success
stories in cleaning and improving the watersheds of Appalachia and elsewhere. For example,
"Hope and Hard Work, Making a Differenence in the Eastern Coal Region" (Comp and Wood,
2001) describes numerous examples of these grassroots organizations and their
accomplishments. Beginning in 2001, some AML funds have been made available to help
develop and foster not-for-profit organizations, especially small watershed groups, that
undertake local AMD projects. The maximum award for each cooperative agreement is normally
$100,000 in order to assist as many groups as possible to undertake actual construction
projects. A description of the Appalachian Clean Streams Initiative program, managed by OSM,
is presented on the website http://www.osmre.gov/acsihome.htm. At this website, examples of
numerous watershed organizations can be found and the varied goals and accomplishments for
each of these groups. Similar types of information can be obtained from the document by Comp
and Wood mentioned above.
The Section 206 Program of the U.S. Army Corps of Enfineers (USAGE) allows the USAGE to
complete and implement a comprehensive watershed rehabilitation plan in cooperation with a
local sponsor. Expenditures under this program up to $5 million are allowed, as long as the local
sponsor provides up to 35% of the total project cost (Cavazza et al., 2003).
EPA is another source of funds through both its Brownfields Program and the Clean Water Act
Section 319 Program. The Brownfields Program awards grants to eligible recipients for mine
site assessment and cleanup. The Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization
Act of 2002 authorizes up to $250 million in funds for brownfields grants annually. Both
assessment grants and cleanup grants are available in amounts of $200,000. Revolving loan
fund grants can range up to $1 million. EPA awards these grants to eligible recipients on a
competitive basis once a year. From its inception in 1995 through 2005, the program awarded
709 assessment grants totaling over $190 million, 189 revolving loan fund grants worth more
than $165 million, and $26.8 million for 150 cleanup grants. For more information on the grants
program, visit http://www.epa.gov/brownfields/pilot.htm.
2-19
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
Section 319 of the Clean Water Act establishes the Nonpoint Source Management Program.
Under Section 319, states, territories, and Indian tribes receive grant money to implement
programs that are designed to reduce nonpoint source pollution, such as that from mining
activities. From 2002-2004, $11 million of Section 319 monies were spent on 52 AMD sites
within EPA's Region 3 alone (Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, West
Virginia, and Virginia). For more information on Section 319 grants, visit
http.v/wuw.epa.gov/owow/nps/cwact.html (EPA, 2005d).
2-20
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
2.7 CASE STUDIES
The following case studies provide examples of team-building, grassroots involvement, proper
planning, and innovative techniques that have been used in redevelopment of coal mine sites.
2.7.1 Reclamation of Dents Run Watershed, PA
Neutralization of mine spoils and passive AMD treatment are ongoing within the Dents Run
Watershed to reclaim more than 160 acres of surface-mined land for use as rangeland for elk
herds. Working with the Bennetts Branch Watershed Association (BBWA), Pennsylvania Game
Commission, USAGE, Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry, Western Pennsylvania Conservancy,
and P&N Coal Company, the Pennsylvania Bureau of Abandoned Mine Reclamation developed
a comprehensive watershed restoration plan for the 25-square-mile Dents Run Watershed.
Located in Elk County in north-central Pennsylvania, the upper reaches of the Dents Run
support a healthy native trout population, and the surrounding area is in the center of the state's
growing elk range. AMD has severely degraded the lower 4.5 miles of stream, however, with the
Porcupine Run sub-basin contributing over 90% of the pollution load.
Six areas occupying more than 160 acres that contain the most significant discharges were
targeted for remediation. Site work began in October 2002 and is expected to be completed in
2008. The reclamation approach includes adding and mixing limestone with the acid spoils,
which will be used to backfill surface mine pits. In addition, other acidic spoils will be isolated
and 12 passive treatment systems for AMD constructed (see Figure 2-3), including anoxic
limestone drains, vertical flow limestone reactors, manganese oxidation beds, aerobic wetlands,
and settling ponds. Surface drainage controls are being implemented to minimize infiltration into
the acid spoil burial areas.
The estimated total cost of the restoration project is $12 million, which will be provided by the
Bureau of Abandoned Mine Reclamation, the USAGE, BBWA, and P&N Coal Company. The
coal company's contribution includes mining the limestone (for acid spoil neutralization) and
reclaiming one of the six areas (Cavazza, et al., 2003; PaDEP, 2004b). The post-reclamation
land use plan was developed in coordination with the Pennsylvania Game Commission, one of
the primary landowners. Since the Dents Run Watershed is within a prime location for the
state's elk herd, rangeland was selected by the stakeholders as the post-reclamation land use.
An elk rangeland planting mix was recommended by the game commission and will be used to
provide permanent soil cover after reclamation (Milavec, 2005b).
For further information:
Pamela Milavec
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
Bureau of Abandoned Mine Reclamation
814-472-1832
pmilavec@state.pa.us
2-21
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 2-COAL MINE SITES
2.7.2 Bark Camp Reclamation Project, Bark Camp Run, PA
A public-private endeavor through the Bark Camp Reclamation Project is facilitating the
reclamation of an abandoned surface mine to its original contour using dredged sediments
mixed with waste ash. The Bark Camp Reclamation Project is dedicated to conducting research
and technology demonstrations on AMD and AML reclamation issues at abandoned coal mine
sites within the Bark Camp Run watershed, which lies within the Moshannon State Forest in
Pennsylvania. From the 1950s to 1988, two underground mines, a surface mine, and a coal
preparation plant operated in the watershed, after which the operator went bankrupt and
orphaned the site.
The surface reclamation demonstration is a cooperative agreement between PaDEP, the
permitting and regulatory oversight agency; the New York/New Jersey Clean Ocean and Shore
Trust, which provided dredge material for the effort; and Clean Earth Dredging Technologies, a
Pennsylvania environmental contracting and recycling firm. The demonstration seeks to backfill
two large strip mine pits and eliminate the dangerous highwalls exposed in the pits. Sediment
dredged from harbors in New Jersey and New York is partially dewatered, mixed with 15%
municipal incinerator ash, and shipped to central Pennsylvania via gondola railcars. After
arriving at the site, more ash and waste lime is added to the mixture to form a cementitious
blend. The blend is spread across the mine pits in one- to two-foot lifts and is roller-compacted
to achieve a minimum compressive strength of 35 pounds per square inch within 28 days. The
presence of the weak concrete will prevent air and water from contacting mine spoils, thus
preventing AMD.
A total of 435,000 cubic yards of dredge material was placed in the mine pits between spring
1998 and 2002, and the land surface was returned to approximate original contour (PaDEP,
2004a). The final surface was covered with approximately 18-20 inches of artificial soil (crushed
shale, paper fiber cellulose, organic material from a vegetable tannery, coal ash, and lime),
which was intended to serve as a rooting medium for grasses and legumes. The mines were
successfully backfilled, the highwalls were eliminated, and the acid discharges from the mine to
the stream were eliminated. Monitoring of surface water and ground water showed no adverse
impacts, except a short-term increase in chloride in the stream. It was determined that the
municipal incinerator ash used contained elevated levels of chlorides; thus, the use of coal ash
is recommended for future efforts (Varner, 2005).
The project is about 90% complete. The remaining 10% will be completed using sediment
dredged from the Delaware River.
For further information:
John Varner
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
Moshannon District Mining Office
814-342-8200
varner.john @dep. state, pa.us
2-22
-------
Mine Site Cleanup for
Brownfields Redevelopment
Part 3-Hard Rock Mines
I
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Roughly 40% of the abandoned mine sites located in the United States are non-coal or hard
rock mine sites. Hard rock mine sites are often characterized by acidic waters and acid mine
drainage (AMD) as well as soil with acidic pH, acute metals toxicity, nutrient deficiencies, and a
lack of vegetation. Hard rock mine sites typically have a variety of potentially contaminated
materials, including waste rock and ore, mill tailings, smelter slag, and other wastes that may
require investigation and remediation. Sometimes, the site contamination is fairly localized and
well understood, but more commonly it is spread across many acres and throughout surface
and subsurface environments. Many such sites have large, unvegetated areas associated with
disposal of mill tailings and waste rock.
The types of hard rock (metal) mining can be grouped into the following four categories (EPA,
2000a):
Underground Mining. Underground mining has been the major method for production of
certain metals but in recent years has been less common in the United States. The amount of
underground mining fluctuates based on metal prices, the depth below the surface of the
mineral deposits, the costs of tunneling compared to those of open pit mining, and other
economic factors. Underground mining typically has less impact on the surface environment
than do surface mining methods. This is the case because underground mining produces less
surface disturbance (that is, there is a smaller facility "footprint") and because smaller
quantities of non-ore materials must be removed and disposed of as waste rock. Some large,
underground hard rock mines may have AMD containing solubilized metals that can impact
ground water and surface water quality. The quantity and nature of mine drainage are highly
dependent on a site's hydrogeology and geochemistry and can vary widely (EPA, 2000a).
Surface Mining in Open Pits. Surface mining in open pits has become the primary type of
mining operation for most of the major metal ores in the United States. This type of mining was
not common in the past, when mining operations focused on vein deposits. Open pit mining is
typically used when the characteristics of the ore deposit (its grade, size, and location) make
removing overburden (the host rock overlying the ore) cost-effective. At present, this is the most
economical way of mining highly disseminated (lower-grade) ores. Open pit mining involves
excavating an area of overburden and removing the ore exposed in the resulting pit. Depending
on the thickness of the orebody, it may be removed as a single vertical interval or in successive
intervals or "benches" (EPA, 2000a).
Dredging. Dredging is another method of surface mining that has been used to mine placer
deposits, which are concentrations of heavy metallic minerals that occur in alluvial deposits
associated with current or ancient watercourses. In some mining districts, widespread stream
disturbance caused by placer mining or dredging may be present alongside other disturbances
caused by underground mining and mineral processing. Commercial dredging has not been
widely practiced in the United States in recent years, although placer mining is still an important
industry in Alaska. Some abandoned large-scale dredging sites remain in the western United
3-1
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
States, and in some cases the dredges are still present in the dredge ponds created as part of
the mining operations (EPA, 2000a).
In-Situ Solution Mining. In-situ solution mining is a method of extracting minerals from an
orebody that is left in place rather than blasted and excavated. In general, a series of wells are
drilled into the orebody, and a solvent is circulated through the formation by injection into
certain wells and withdrawal from others. Although in-situ solution mining is not commonly
used, it has been applied to uranium and copper deposits in suitable hydrogeologic settings.
Although there may be little disturbance to the surface or subsurface in an in-situ solution
mining operation, the potential effects on ground water may be significant. The ground-water
geochemistry must be drastically altered for minerals to leach, and the ground-water flow may
be altered by the pumping operations. Furthermore, minerals other than the target minerals
may be dissolved and transported, which may be detrimental to the local ground water. The
surface facilities for in-situ mining are mainly the surface impoundments or tanks needed to
manage barren solutions (the solutions prior to injection) and pregnant solutions (the leachate
withdrawn that contains the mineral value) (EPA, 2000a).
Part 3 of this primer provides detailed technical information about characterization, remediation,
and redevelopment of hard rock mine sites. It covers:
• Specific characteristics and problems associated with hard rock mine sites
• Potential reuse scenarios for hard rock mine sites
• Approaches for assessment and cleanup of these sites, including use of the Triad
approach
• Specific technologies for hard rock mine site remediation
• Additional information about hard rock mine site redevelopment, including case studies
and resources
The remainder of Part 3 presents information on reclaiming and redeveloping abandoned and
inactive hard rock mine sites for a variety of purposes, including recreational, wildlife habitat,
reforestation, pastureland, commercial, industrial, and residential uses. One obstacle to the
redevelopment of abandoned mine lands (AML) is often the lack of money and tools available to
characterize and remediate the site. As discussed in Part 1, the EPA has several initiatives
underway to address these challenges and to promote the redevelopment of AML. The use of
the Triad approach is one way to streamline site cleanup. Triad, explained in more detail in
Figure 2-1, is a dynamic, collaborative approach to cleanup that helps site stakeholders work
toward cleanup that is faster, better, and cheaper and sets the stage for appropriate
redevelopment.
3-2
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
3.2 SAFETY, ENGINEERING, AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
RELATED TO HARD ROCK-MINED LANDS AND LAND REUSE
Hard rock-mined lands may have a wide variety of safety, engineering, and environmental
problems that can affect activities related to redevelopment (EPA, 2000a).
Safety Problems. Safety problems at abandoned hard rock mines can pose immediate risk to
people onsite:
Hiqhwalls, which can exceed 100 feet in height, are the unexcavated faces of overburden and
coal in a surface mine. Left in place without regrading, abandoned highwalls pose a falling
hazard to users (e.g., dirt bikers, hikers, mountain bikers) of the site.
Old buildings, draglines, shovels, trucks, and other equipment in dilapidated condition can
remain scattered around abandoned mine sites. Children or adults climbing on equipment or
entering abandoned equipment and buildings can be subject to serious dangers, such as cuts
and falls.
Old air shafts or vertical entries of underground mines may also result in falls, especially when
located in woods, partially covered, and not readily visible. These shafts and open workings can
be hundreds of feet deep. If not sealed, drift entrances into underground mines can also pose
serious risks as old timbers and roofrock of these drifts can be very unstable and subject to
collapse. Hunters and hikers sometimes seek refuge from bad weather in these entrances, and
children may enter simply to hide or play.
Engineering Problems. Engineering problems at abandoned hard rock mines can affect
existing structures and the approach to construction of new buildings, roads, and other
infrastructure for redevelopment:
Subsidence of the ground surface occurs when it slowly sinks or collapses into underground
mine openings below. Underground mines may have vertical shafts, slopes, drift openings, and
mine workings (including haulageways water and drainage tunnels), and other passageways
excavated from the subsurface that may cause subsidence. Buildings and other structures
constructed on land undergoing active subsidence can crack, shift, tilt, and split. Damage to
buildings can be so severe that they must be abandoned and demolished.
Piles of waste rock, tailings, and ore are often left at or near where the coal was mined. The
geotechnical and engineering properties of the wastes can pose problems for land
development. The waste piles can be highly erodible and unstable and thus, potentially could
slide. They are particularly unstable if they are situated on steep hillsides, have water
impoundments on the upper surfaces, or were placed over natural springs. Tailings
impoundments were often constructed using wood cribbing or rock buttresses and were not
designed or engineered to withstand major flooding or precipitation events.
3-3
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
Waste piles can be very difficult to build on. During mining, the waste rock and overburden were
usually blasted, excavated, and dumped in unconsolidated piles nearby. Although the piles may
gradually consolidate with time, they may need to be regraded and compacted in lifts or layers
to prepare them for construction of buildings, roads, or other structures. Geotechnical testing
and engineering studies should be conducted, and steps should be incorporated into
reclamation plans to ensure the stability of waste rock and overburden materials.
Environmental Problems. A variety of environmental impacts may be associated with an
abandoned hard rock mine site:
AMD may occur both from underground workings and from aboveground wastes such as waste
rock and mill tailings. As indicated in the Abandoned Mine Site Characterization and Cleanup
Handbook (EPA, 2000a), the severity and impacts of AMD are mainly a function of rock
mineralogy and the availability of water and oxygen. Acid is generated at mine sites when metal
sulfide minerals are oxidized and sufficient water is present to mobilize the sulfur ions. Acid
generation can occur rapidly or can take years or decades to appear and reach its full potential.
Even long-abandoned hard rock mine sites may have active AMD production and worsening
environmental impacts.
Metal sulfide minerals are common constituents in the geologic formations associated with hard
rock mining. The metals that are typically found in AMD are aluminum, copper, iron, lead,
manganese, silver, and zinc. Elevated concentrations of these metals in ground water or
surface water can preclude its use as drinking water or aquatic habitat.
Metal contamination of ground water, surface water, and sediments can result from the
presence of abandoned hard rock mining operations can. Most mining occurred below the
water table in either underground workings or open pits. Ground-water quality at the mining
sites may be affected by metal transport resulting from surface water infiltration into overlying
wastes or by direct hydraulic connections (open shafts) to ground water. Disturbances of
ground-water hydrology by mine dewatering and pumpback systems also can cause impacts
on local ground water. Surface water and sediments may be impacted when metal-
contaminated ground water discharges to surface water downgradient of a mine site.
The dissolved contaminants in ground water and surface water at hard rock mine sites are
primarily metals but may include sulfates, nitrates, and radionuclides. The dissolved metals
typically include arsenic, cadmium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, silver, and zinc. Nitrates can
be present at elevated concentrations because of the use of ammonium nitrate fuel oil blasting
material. Low pH levels and high metal concentrations can have both acute and chronic effects
on aquatic life. The metal contamination associated with AMD is a well-known problem, but
metals can be mobilized and cause water pollution at near-neutral pH levels.
Sediment contamination can result when dissolved pollutants in surface water and storm water
discharges from a site partition to stream sediments. In addition, fine-grained waste materials
can be eroded from a mine site and transported by runoff, which deposits the sediments in
3-4
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
nearby surface waters. Sediment contamination may affect human health through people's
consumption of fish and other biota that bioaccumulate toxic pollutants from the sediments. In
addition, elevated levels of toxic pollutants in sediments can have a direct acute impact on
macroinvertebrates and other benthic organisms. Lower levels of sediment contamination may
provide a long-term source of pollutants through their re-dissolution in the water column, which
could lead to chronic contamination of water and aquatic organisms. No national sediment
standards or criteria have been established for toxic pollutants associated with hard rock mining
operations. An ecological risk assessment may be an appropriate tool for evaluating sediment-
related impacts and potential reuse alternatives at a site.
Cyanide has a long history of use in hard rock mining. For decades, it has been used for gold
recovery and to depress pyrite in base metal (copper, lead, and zinc) milling processes. In the
1950s, cyanide began to be used in large-scale leaching of gold. Continued improvements in
cyanide heap-leach methodology have allowed increasingly lower-grade gold ores to be mined
economically. The large-scale use of cyanide in the heap leaching of gold ores has significantly
increased the potential for adverse environmental impact due to leakage or spills from such
facilities.
Acute toxicity from cyanide can occur through inhalation or ingestion. Such exposure interferes
with an organism's oxygen metabolism and can be lethal. Incidents have been reported in which
waterfowl have died when using tailings ponds or other cyanide-containing solution ponds. In
addition, a number of major cyanide spills have occurred, including one in South Carolina in
1990 when a dam failure resulted in the release of more than 10 million gallons of cyanide
solution that caused fish kills for nearly 50 miles downstream. Regulatory authorities have been
under increasing pressure to develop and enforce more stringent regulations and guidelines for
the design, operation, closure, and reclamation of sites where cyanide is used.
Gaseous and particulate matter (PM) emissions to air occur during mining and mineral
processing of hard rock ores. Gaseous emissions are primarily generated during roasting or
smelting processes, thus, are not a concern at abandoned mine sites. The primary PM
emissions are associated with flue dust from smelter or refinery stacks and fugitive dust from
crushers, tailings ponds, and roads. If a smelter or refinery operated at a site, flue dust may still
be found onsite, and uncontrolled releases may have contaminated downwind areas. Fugitive
dust can be an issue at all mine sites because it is generated from waste rock dumps, spoil
piles, tailings, soil stockpiles, roads, and other disturbed areas as well as during reclamation
activities.
Spillage or disposal of nonhazardous or hazardous materials that are common to industrial sites
(e.g., petroleum leaks from underground storage tanks or disposal of solvents used for
machinery) may result in site contamination.
3-5
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
3.3 EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL SITE REUSE
Many hard rock mine sites are relatively large and are located in non-urban areas.
Contamination at hard rock mine sites is commonly spread across many acres and throughout
surface and subsurface environments. Potential reuse scenarios for these types of sites in non-
urban areas include use as recreational areas, wildlife habitats, and historic and scenic
preservation areas. Hard rock mine sites located in urban areas as well as urban areas that
have been affected by mine sites offer many of the same reuse scenarios as other types of
brownfields, such as use as commercial, industrial, or residential sites (EPA, 2004d).
The increasing demand for land for residential, industrial, commercial, and recreational
development is increasing both the pressure and the opportunities to use AML that was once
ignored or avoided. In addition, the public has a general desire to protect and improve the
streams, lakes, reservoirs, and aquatic resources of the country wherever possible.
Consequently, efforts have been made at all levels of government (federal, state, and local) and
by private fishing, boating, and ecology groups and organizations to clean up mine sites that are
contributing contaminated sediments or AMD to streams, lakes, and reservoirs.
Communities are developing innovative recreational uses for AML. Recreational areas provide
many benefits in that they help to attract tourists and investors, revitalize communities, and
promote healthier communities. Recreational opportunities can be defined in two major
categories: active and passive recreation. Active recreation is structured; can involve an
individual or team; and requires a special facility, course, field, or equipment. Examples of active
recreation include baseball, soccer, golf, and downhill skiing (EPA, 2005e).
Several factors can affect the ability of a former hard rock mine site to be reused for active
recreation including the desired use of the site. In addition, the willingness of the property owner
to sell the property or allow access to it can be crucial. Support from the property owner and
cooperation between EPA and the property owner can often facilitate funding and
redevelopment opportunities.
Passive recreation does not require a special facility and generally places minimal stress on a
site's resources. Examples of passive recreation include hunting, camping, hiking, bird-
watching, cross-country skiing, bicycling, and fishing.
Almost any former hard rock mine site offers opportunities for passive recreational use.
However, sites with a variety of ecosystems and recreational opportunities are often more
appealing to a larger and more diverse population. In addition, the accessibility of a site can be
a key factor in its popularity as a recreational area (EPA, 2005e).
There are many examples of abandoned hard rock mine sites that have been remediated and
reused for either active or passive recreational purposes. For example, the Anaconda Smelter in
Anaconda, Montana, once operated as a copper smelting facility. The smelter closed, leaving
the town of Anaconda in a severe economic depression from the loss of jobs and revenue. In
3-6
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
addition, contamination from the smelter operations scarred the landscape of the area. EPA, the
community, and the current owners of the site successfully collaborated to remediate the site
and reuse it as an award-winning golf course designed by Jack Nicklaus. The golf course not
only has significantly improved the landscape of the site, but it has provided local jobs and is
supporting the efforts of the community to establish itself as a recreational resort (EPA, 2004a).
Silver Bow Creek in Butte, Montana, was also a copper smelting site. This site was added to
EPA's National Priorities List (NPL) in 1993 as a result of severe contamination of area ponds
and soils. Through a partnership between EPA and the Atlantic Richfield Company, the site has
been remediated, and portions of the site have been redeveloped as a sports complex.
Recreational opportunities provided by the sports complex include youth baseball, a driving
range, and volleyball courts. In addition, many of the site's ponds and wetlands have been
restored for use by local and visiting fishermen. Additional plans are underway for continued
restoration of the site to provide walking trails and a playground (EPA, 2004c).
The Bunker Hill Mining and Metallurgical Complex, a former lead smelter site in Silver Valley,
Idaho, is another NPL site that was redeveloped for commercial use. The closure of the Bunker
Hill Mine and several other area mines resulted in severe economic impacts on Silver Valley.
EPA, the Panhandle Health District, and the State of Idaho collaborated to restore the ecology
and soil of the area by remediating lawns and parks containing mine tailings, and planting trees.
Redevelopment of more than 800 acres of the site included construction of a Motel 8; a
McDonald's restaurant; and the Silver Mountain Resort, a popular ski resort. The new
businesses have created approximately 225 new jobs. Institutional controls were also
developed to ensure the protection of area residents from the contaminated soil remaining
onsite (EPA, 2004d).
The former Murray Smelter site in Murray City, Utah, provides an example of a successful effort
between the Superfund and Brownfields programs to reuse a hard rock mine site for commercial
and industrial purposes. The 141-acre site is surrounded by residential areas, schools, and
commercial buildings. The site was redeveloped to contain a Utah Transit Authority light rail
station with a parking lot, a connector road, and a major retail warehouse club. Construction is
also underway for a hospital on portions of the site. Site redevelopment is being supported in
part by a Brownfields program grant. In addition, the site remedy could be integrated with
identified reuse opportunities (EPA, 2004d).
AML often serves as excellent locations for wind farms as it is often located in mountainous
areas that receive consistent wind flows. In addition, AML is often near existing infrastructure,
including roads and utilities (EPA, 2005e). The large size of much AML means that many large
wind turbines can be installed in one location. Wind farms are beneficial to an area because
they can provide a renewable energy source, enhance economic growth, generate tax revenue,
and return AML to productive use.
3-7
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
3.4 IDENTIFYING AND CHARACTERIZING ISSUES RELATED
TO SITE REUSE
The environmental and geotechnical problems found at mine sites can be varied and significant.
Identifying and fully characterizing these problems can be challenging, but such efforts are
necessary. Before large amounts of time and money are invested in mine site characterization
or cleanup, proper planning should be performed, input and consensus should be obtained from
stakeholders, and potential environmental liabilities and safety issues should be fully
investigated. If the projected land reuse for a mine site is industrial or residential, and if a large
amount of construction is to take place, more time and money should be spent on planning,
market evaluation, and collection of site historical information and environmental data. These
types of activities are consistent with use of the Triad approach as discussed in the box below
(Crumbling, 2004, EPA, 2003)
Use of the Triad Approach in Hard Rock Mine Site Characterization
Systematic
Projet t
Planning
The Triad approach represents an evolution of technical
thinking about contaminated sites. Triad supports second-
generation practices that maximize use of innovative field
tools. Through generation and use of data in real time, these I uncertainty
innovative tools and associated techniques more effectively \ Management
address the uncertainties related to variability of \
contamination across a site. Although it is somewhat different , __" \ , '
from traditional practices, the Triad approach truly supports I R(al"
the goal of conducting "better, faster, and cheaper" projects.
Further information about the Triad approach is available at www.triadcentral.org.
For abandoned hard rock mine sites, use of the Triad approach includes development of an
accurate CSM. The CSM has two important characteristics. It aids in delineating contaminant
populations requiring different remediation techniques, and it improves the confidence and
effectiveness of project decision-making by identifying decision and data uncertainties early
as well as throughout the entire cleanup process. Thus, the CSM provides the decision-
making team with realistic remediation objectives, supports development of open channels of
communication that increase trust among all stakeholders, and allows for identification and
acknowledgment of differing stakeholder viewpoints.
For building a Triad CSM, existing information should be used to help perform preliminary
assessments of a hard rock mine site's condition and the potential liabilities and limitations that
might be associated with the site. For example, mine maps should be obtained for any
underground workings that might exist at the site. These maps can delineate the extent and
interconnections of underground workings, the dip of the mine floor, the presence of geologic
faults or fracture zones, the thickness of overburden rock, areas where pillars may have been
removed (such areas may be subject to more intense subsidence problems), and the locations
of any mine entries or shafts (including air shafts and water drainage tunnels). Maps of surface
3-8
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
mine sites often show sediment retention basins and locations where wastes may have been
buried within mine spoils (a common practice). Overall, these maps can be used to quickly
identify potential hazards or environmental problems at a site; however, users should be
cautioned that the maps may be incomplete or contain other inaccuracies. If records are
available from the mining company or OSM (for example, mine permit applications, permit
amendments, notices of violation, or inspector's reports), they may also provide useful
information.
After existing site information has been collected and assessed, a plan or roadmap should be
formulated that addresses the potential land uses being considered for the site, the amounts
and types of additional data that might be needed, and the permits and approvals that might be
required for redeveloping the site.
Work can then be initiated to collect additional site data and characterize a site to the extent
appropriate for the intended post-reclamation land use. Some data are relatively easy to collect.
For example, simple pH meters, specific
conductivity meters, and field test kits can
be used to quickly and inexpensively
evaluate water quality problems at a mine
site or in a watershed. Measuring the pH of
mine spoils and refuse in the field is
possible but would be somewhat more time-
consuming. Analysis of mine spoil and
refuse for essential nutrients (such as
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium),
water holding capacity, and toxic metals is
necessary if the site is to be used for
agriculture, pastures, managed forests (tree
farms), or residential properties with lawns
and landscaping.
Determining the metals concentrations in
the various wastes at a hard rock mine site
is typically the most important
characterization activity for making reuse
decisions. Total metals concentrations in
soil, tailings, and other solid matrices can
be determined quickly using field portable x-
ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy. XRF
analysis has been demonstrated to be a
very effective characterization tool at sites
with multiple metal contaminants, such as
hard rock mine sites. Generally, elements of
atomic number 16 (sulfur) through 92
Demonstration of Method Applicability
When using field-portable site
characterization technologies such as
XRF, it is generally advisable to perform a
demonstration of method applicability
(DMA) study at the site where the
technology is to be used. A DMA is an
initial "pilot test" of the field-based
analytical method using a few actual site
samples and comparative laboratory
analyses. The DMA concept is founded in
EPA SW-846 guidance and performance-
based measurement standards, and DMAs
require clearly defined objectives and
decision criteria. DMAs involve collection
of samples from a site-specific matrix
(such as soil, water, air, or tissue) followed
by analysis of the samples using field-
based and comparative fixed-laboratory
analyses. They can provide useful
information about whether the technology
provides data of sufficient quality and
quantity to make required decisions, and
what the decision logic will be for using the
technology in real time to make confident
site decisions.
3-9
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
(uranium) can be detected and quantified with an XRF. At hard rock mine sites where mercury
may be a contaminant and health and safety measures are critical, field portable mercury vapor
analyzers can be used to detect mercury vapors in air, water, soil, and geological samples.
Anode stripping voltammetry is an innovative field portable instrument for measuring trace
metals in water and extracts from soil, paint, dust, and particles.
If buildings or other large structures are to be built on graded mine spoils or refuse at a site,
geotechnical engineers need to be involved in the site assessment. Such personnel can make
evaluations and recommendations regarding the stability of the geologic materials and the
potential for underground mine subsidence; differential compaction of the mine spoils; and
slumping, sliding, or liquefaction of the mine spoils or refuse. In addition, civil engineers may be
needed to evaluate refuse impoundments and the structural integrity of the dams or berms
retaining the wastes. Engineering studies and designs are also needed if deep mine entrances
or shafts are to be sealed.
3-10
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
3.5 Technologies for Site Cleanup and Revelopment
The degree of cleanup required at an abandoned hard rock mine site depends on the type of
reuse anticipated. Site reuse that includes access to the site by the public requires elimination
or mitigation of potential safety hazards such as open adits or shafts, highwalls, and unstable
slopes. Many types of reuse require removal or isolation of contaminated materials such as
waste rock, tailings, slag, or other mineral processing wastes. Contaminated mine drainage
(both acidic and nonacidic) may also require treatment or control measures to make a site
suitable for reuse. The remainder of this section discusses various technologies that address
safety hazards, as well as control and treatment of environmental media.
3.5.1 Safety Hazards
Elimination of potential safety hazards at abandoned hard rock mine sites is the first priority and
is relatively straightforward. The type of action to be taken is generally governed by the level of
public access anticipated after the site has been reclaimed. For example, at a remote mine site
that is being reclaimed for use as a wildlife habitat or rangelands, it may only be necessary to
fence potentially hazardous areas and post warning signs. At the other extreme, such as at an
urban mine site that is proposed for residential or commercial redevelopment, it may be
necessary to not only backfill and seal mine openings and tunnels but to also remove or
relocate all mine wastes in order to provide a stable ground surface for construction. In some
cases, such reuse may even require extensive underground backfilling and grouting to minimize
potential ground subsidence.
3.5.2 Control and Treatment - Contaminated Surface Soil or Mine Wastes
The cleanup of contaminated surface soil or mine wastes typically involves removal and
relocation of the contaminated materials or covering or capping of the materials with clean soil.
These cleanup approaches are generally expensive, and as the cost of fuel continues to
increase, they will become even more so. Costs can be a significant issue because many
abandoned mine sites are quite large. Cleanup options that appear to have relatively low costs
(for example, $50 or less per cubic yard of contaminated material) may end up costing millions
of dollars because of the large quantities of material to be cleaned up.
To minimize erosion and exposure of mine waste and improve the aesthetics of a reclamation
site, it may be necessary to establish a self-perpetuating vegetative cover on the final reclaimed
surface. Decades of research has been conducted on the physical and chemical characteristics
and nutrient deficiencies of mine wastes and contaminated soil to determine the best methods
for transforming these materials into plant growing media. Research has also identified certain
plants that can tolerate and survive on acidic and metal-contaminated soils that are toxic to
most other plants. Soil amendments, such as lime, fertilizer, and organic materials are often
needed to improve the harsh soil conditions and thus the potential for successful revegetation.
Because large areas of land usually must be reclaimed at a mine site, the costs for soil
amendments can be high. Considerations associated with use of soil amendments are
discussed below.
3-11
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
3.5.2.1 Using Process Residuals
Use of process residuals as soil amendments (see Figure 3-1) may help address the problems
of metal toxicity, infertility, and acidity that are common in soils at abandoned hard rock mine
sites. Examples of useful process residuals are dairy, swine, and chicken wastes; waste water
and drinking water treatment residuals; phosphorous fertilizer manufacturing by-products; pulp
and paper production wastes; sugar beet processing wastes; and residuals from coal or wood-
related processes. These materials are available in many parts of the country and may be free
except for transport and application costs.
Residuals and other soil amendments can
help rebuild soils by enhancing the soil
structure, soil aggregation, nutrient cycling,
and soil microbial populations. When
potentially toxic levels of metals are present
in soils at a site, it is important to understand
that metal toxicity and bioavailability are
directly related to the soil pH, metal
speciation, and other site-specific plant and
soil factors. For example, mine tailings at the
California Gulch site in Leadville, Colorado,
that contained 3,000 milligrams per kilogram
(mg/kg) of zinc were toxic to plants, whereas
yard soils at a site in Joplin, Missouri,
containing similar zinc levels supported
Figure 3-1. Example of Biosolids Compost healthy vegetation.
3.5.2.2 Correcting pH
At many hard rock mine sites, the waste rock and ore may contain large amounts of iron pyrite
(FeS2). Over time, as the pyrite is exposed to air and water, the sulfur in the pyrite turns into
sulfuric acid. The waste rock and ore may have some neutralization capacity but typically not
enough to neutralize all the sulfuric acid. Additional liming (neutralization) materials can be
applied to help neutralize the acidity. Liming materials may include agricultual limestome,
cement kiln dust, coal fly ash, wood ash, or sugar beet process wastes. For limestone and
commercial lime, the particle size is an important factor because small particles will go into
solution and react with acid much more quickly than larger particles.
3.5.2.3 Addressing Metal Toxicities
The metal contaminants of greatest concern at abandoned hard rock mine sites are arsenic,
cadmium, lead, and zinc (EPA, 2000a). If it was used onsite in amalgamation milling, mercury
also can be a major contaminant. Free mercury is a risk to both human health and the
environment and is very difficult to locate in the subsurface because it is dense and can migrate
3-12
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
downward to some depth through unconsolidated materials. Only general information,
recommendations, and precautions regarding metal toxicities at hard rock mine sites are
presented in this section.
Arsenic behaves differently in the environment than cadmium, lead, and zinc. Arsenic's
bioavailability and toxicity are determined by many factors, including the physical and chemical
forms of the arsenic, the route of exposure, the dosage, and the organism affected. Terrestrial
plants accumulate arsenic by root uptake from soil and by adsorption of airborne arsenic
deposited on leaves. In general, inorganic arsenic compounds are more toxic than organic
arsenic compounds, and trivalent species (As3+) are more toxic than pentavalent species (As5+).
Cadmium, lead, and zinc in soil can be rendered less mobile and thus less bioavailable by
adding soil amendments. Three soil amendments that help immobilize these metals in soils are
phosphorous fertilizer materials (such as diammonium phosphate, phosphoric acid, and triple
super phosphate), organic amendments (such as biosolids, compost, manure, and chicken
litter), and Portland cement. Many soil amendment types and application rates can be used to
help immobilize metals in soils.
Before soil amendments are used, treatability studies should be conducted. These studies are
crucial to optimizing the design mix or "recipe." The design mix can be optimized by conducting
pilot studies to determine the blending, mixing, and incorporation methods needed to achieve
the best end results in the field.
3.5.2.4 Addressing Ecological Concerns
At sites where ecological risks are the primary concerns, in-situ remediation techniques, such as
theuse of soil amendments may have advantages over other remedial options. In-situ
remediation methods can improve soil fertility, water-holding capacity, microbial populations,
and tilth. In addition, the cost of in-situ remediation is often an order of magnitude lower than
that of other options. Properly amended soils will support long-term, self-perpetuating plant
communities.
Sites in close proximity to residential areas where the risk to human health is also a concern can
be remediated using a combination of alternatives, such as excavation of surface
contamination, in-situ soil treatment with phosphorous fertilizer, and use of soil covers with
organic amendments.
3.5.2.5 Establishing Performance Measures
It is important to establish performance measures early in the remediation process with the input
and support of local stakeholders and appropriate regulators. It may be difficult to identify
relevant and appropriate measures for judging the performance of in-situ remediation methods
in which wastes are left onsite, albeit with reduced contaminant mobility or bioavailability.
Existing toxicity and bioaccumulation tests, such as the earthworm toxicity and rye grass
3-13
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
germination tests, may have limited applications. Other traditional sampling and leach test
procedures (such as the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure and the synthetic precipitation
leaching procedure) may not accurately represent human or ecological exposure routes at a
site. Specialized measures, such as the relative bioavailability tests for the human health
physiologically based extraction test, are good for lead contamination and adequate for arsenic
contamination but address only the ingestion route of exposure.
3.5.3 Control and Treatment-Mine Drainage and Storm-Water Runoff
Drainage from adits and shafts occurs at many abandoned hard rock mine sites. Although most
hard rock mine drainage is acidic, there are cases in which such drainage is not. Depending on
the proposed reuse of a site and the nature and quantity of the mine drainage, it may be
necessary to provide either control or treatment of the drainage as part of site reclamation.
Reducing or eliminating mine drainage through use of source controls such as surface water
diversion or collection, ground-water diversion, and channel liners is generally the preferred
option. Unfortunately, past experience has shown that such containment actions as shaft
sealing, tunnel backfilling or grouting, and curtain grouting may be ineffective in reducing or
eliminating mine drainage in the long term. Even when source controls do not completely
eliminate mine drainage, they may be successful in reducing the volume of drainage that needs
treatment.
Conventional treatment methods for mine drainage include chemical precipitation, clarification,
and filtration. Although these methods are effective, they are usuallly very expensive and labor-
intensive. Where mine drainage flows are greater than 100 gallons per minute and/or total
acidity levels exceed 100 milligrams per liter, conventional water treatment methods may be
needed to meet water quality standards. Conventional water treatment plants can cost $1
million or more to build and $500,000 or more per year to operate.
Passive treatment systems for AMD are relatively simple to construct and may require minimal
operation and maintenance. However, passive treatment systems can generally treat only small
to moderate flows with low to moderate levels of iron, dissolved metals, and acidity. The main
objective for a passive treatment system is to facilitate chemical and biological reactions that will
precipitate and remove contaminants from the AMD before it enters a receiving stream. Passive
treatment systems for AMD have evolved over the last 25 years and include the following types:
• Constructed wetlands (aerobic and anaerobic)
• Aeration channels and settling ponds
• Limestone riprap-lined channels and flow-through dams
• Anoxic limestone drains or diversion wells
• Anaerobic sulfate-reducing bioreactors
• Successive alkalinity-producing systems
• Synthetic rock leach beds
• Phytoremediation
3-14
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
This primer is not the appropriate place to describe these passive technologies in detail, but it
should be noted that a constructed wetland may include one or more ponds or compartments
sized to allow mine drainage to flow through at a low rate. Aluminum, iron, and other metals are
oxidized and precipitated within the wetland. Acidity is neutralized by vegetation photosynthesis
and other biological activities that produce alkalinity. Numerous demonstration projects and
studies have been performed to evaluate the performance, costs, and longevity of passive
treatment systems for AMD. Comprehensive documents are available that provide details
regarding the performance of wetlands constructed for treatment of waste waters in general
(EPA, 2000b; ITRC, 2003).
Storm-water runoff from abandoned hard rock mine sites also has the potential to leach and
transport contaminants offsite. Source controls, such as surface water diversions, can reduce
the quantity of storm water running onto and off a site. Regrading and revegetation of
abandoned mine sites can reduce the quantity of storm-water runoff to be treated by increasing
infiltration into the soil surface and increasing plant transpiration. Construction of sedimentation
basins and other such sediment capturing features should also be considered to reduce
potential transport of contaminants off the site.
3.5.4 Control and Treatment-Mine Pit Lakes
Some abandoned hard rock mine sites may have unreclaimed, open pits that have filled with
water from surface water runoff and from ground water. Hydrogeologic research efforts and
computer modeling applications have focused on mine pit lake water quality. Physical and
biogeochemical characteristics of the mine pit lakes must be evaluated to reclaim existing acidic
mine pits and help predict the water quality of future pit lake systems. Pit lake water quality
variables include bathymetry, distributions of temperature and salinity, compositions of surface
inflow and ground water, lake turn over, precipitation, evaporation, dissolved oxygen, and
concentrations of major ions such as manganese and iron. Computer models use these
variables to predict the water-rock reactions within the pit lake and the effects of these reactions
on pit lake water quality over short and long time periods.
Most hard rock pit lakes will have poor to very poor water quality. In some cases, these pit lakes
may be able to be reclaimed for recreational use, or for use as reactors to treat AMD, however
reclamation of pit lakes is generally viewed as an exception. One example of where this type of
research is ongoing is for the Sleeper Pit Lake in Nevada, where a pit lake was neutralized and
various nutrients added, and now sustains various fish populations. Further information is
available at http://www.kinross.com/op/mine-kubaka/kubaka-report-ed1-appendix.Mml.
Industrial Sources of Contamination. For many sites, contamination sources include
traditional types of industrial processes, such as machine maintenance and repair, vehicle
repair, rail loading/unloading, electrical supply, fuel storage, and processing operations. These
sources can lead to contamination of soil and ground water with solvents, petroleum, lubricants,
PCBs, heavy metals, and other industrial compounds. For information about technologies and
approaches for addressing these types of contaminated areas, see EPA's Road Map to
3-15
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
Understanding Innovative Technology Options for Brownfields Investigation and Cleanup,
Fourth Edition (http://www.brownfieldstsc.org), which outlines the steps in the investigation and
cleanup of a site slated for redevelopment and introduces brownfields stakeholders to the
range of innovative technology options and resources available to them; the Federal
Remediation Technologies Roundtable Cost and Performance Case Studies web page
(http://www.frtr.gov/costperf.htm), which provide details about site-specific experiences and
lessons learned in selecting and implementing treatment and site characterization technologies
to clean up soil and ground water; and EPA REACHIT (http://www.epareachit.org/), an online
database of information about providers for innovative remediation and characterization
technologies.
3-16
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
3.6 STRATEGIES FOR SITE CLEANUP AND REDEVELOPMENT
The degree and type of cleanup required at an abandoned hard rock mine site depend to a
large degree on how the site will be reused. Therefore, the first thing to determine as part of a
mine site reclamation project is the desired future land use. In addition to traditional site reuse
scenarios, such as development for residential or commerical purposes or reclamation as
parkland or wildlife habitat, a wide variety of innovative reuse scenarios have been proposed
and implemented over the last several years. Examples of such scenarios include reuse of sites
as wind farms, wetland mitigation banking, water quality trading credits, and carbon
sequestration areas. EPA has published previous reports on innovative site reuses and is
currently developing additional reports. Such reports can be found on EPA's AML website at
http://www. epa/gov/superfund/ programs/aml/revital/index.htm.
Once a proposed reuse scenario is selected for a site, impediments to site reclamation,
including identification of impacted populations and associated risk divers, can be identified. It is
important to remember that certain populations, especially children, may be especially
vulnerable to common hard rock mine contaminants, such as arsenic, cadimum, and lead. At
this point, it is necessary to contact the appropriate government agencies (federal, state, and
local) in order to identify interested parties (stakeholders) and potential sources of information
and funding. As discussed earlier, these necessary steps are elements of the Triad approach.
Drainage from abandoned hard rock mine sites can severely impact streams, lakes, and
reservoirs. These watershed impacts are cumulative and need to be evaluated and addressed
on a watershed basis. Over the years, private citizens, volunteers, and cooperating businesses
and industries have formed their own watershed groups to pursue the cleanup, restoration, and
protection of local water bodies impacted by hard rock mining activities. These grassroots
organizations have strong, vested interests in the cleanup and future uses of these waters.
Such groups have had positive effects on the attitudes of local residents and have produced
success stories in cleaning up and otherwise improving mine-impacted watersheds. Grassroots
organizations may be extremely useful in promoting and supporting AML reclamation as part of
their watershed protection and improvement programs.
The potential sources of information on abandoned mine sites, mine-related environmental
problems, and AML cleanup programs are numerous. Important sources of information on the
histories and environmental problems of individual mine sites can often be obtained from OSM,
state regulatory offices or environmental protection agencies, and state AML programs. Other
abandoned mine information can be obtained from EPA; the U.S. Geological Survey;
government documents; and scientific papers, reports, and books.
A primary source of funding for reclamation of abandoned hard rock mine sites in the western
United States is OSM's AML fund. This fund obtains monies from a tonnage-based fee levied on
active coal mine operations, and these monies are distributed to states for use in reclaiming
abandoned coal mine sites and other abandoned mine sites.
3-17
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
3.7 CASE STUDIES
The following case studies provide examples of team building, grassroots involvement, proper
planning, and innovative techniques that have contributed to reclamation and redevelopment of
hard rock mine sites.
3.7.1 Use of Biosolids at Mine Sites in Joplin, Missouri
The Jasper County Mine Site in Missouri contains over 8 million cubic yards of mine tailings
spread over 7,000 acres. Mine tailings were processed and left in piles or impoundments on the
ground surface, and as a result, large areas of the site are barren. In pilot studies conducted by
the Missouri Department of Natural Resources and the University of Washington, biosolids from
local waste-water treatment plants were applied to the mine tailings at a rate of 50 to 100 dry
tons per acre. Agricultural lime was added at a rate of 10 to 25 dry tons per acre. The mine
tailings are composed primarily of silt- to gravel-sized carbonate and silicate rock, and are very
nutrient poor. The addition of biosolids provides much-needed organic matter to the mine
wastes to promote plant growth. The treated area now supports a self-sustaining plant cover
(Doolan, 2005). Studies have shown that earthworms can now survive in the area's soil. Plant
tissue analysis revealed low metal concentrations, indicating that plants are not taking up metals
to a point that creates a threat to wildlife. Statistics indicate that this area has become a habitat
for local wildlife.
The record of decision signed for cleanup of mine wastes at the site in 2004 includes provisions
for the use of biosolids to amend metals-contaminated soils and remnant waste piles. EPA
anticipates this addition of biosolids will reduce the bioavailability of lead and zinc in the mined
areas to the point where the land can be returned to productive wildlife habitat.
In studies to determine the in-situ treatment of lead in residential yard soils, test plots were
established to assess the effect of phosphate addition on reducing the bioavailability of the lead.
Residential yards, particularly in the city of Joplin, were contaminated with high concentrations
of lead, zinc, and cadmium as a result of air depositions from smelting of locally mined ore and
runoff from mine tailings piles. As part of the pilot study, a range of amendments were tested to
assess their ability to reduce the threat posed by lead in the soils. The amendments included
phosphorus as phosphoric acid, trisodium phosphate, and phosphate rock. A high-iron biosolid
compost was also tested. The phosphoric acid amendment (which was added to soils at 1%
phosphorus) resulted in approximately a 50% reduction in blood lead levels in immature swine.
Rats fed the same material exhibited a 30% reduction in blood lead levels. The same reduction
in blood-lead levels in rats was observed when biosolid compost was added to the soil at 10%
by volume.
These studies showed that the toxicity of metals can be reduced through the addition of
phosphate, or phosphate rich materials. Phosphoric acid alone can reduce the bioavailibilty of
metals to both people and animals, as well as, plants. The addition of biosolids, rich in
3-18
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
phosphate, reduces the metals toxicity, and also provide the organic requirements for plant
growth in revegetating mine wastes.
For further information:
Mark Doolan
U.S. EPA Region 7
913-551-7169
doolan.mark@epa.gov
Harry Compton
U.S. EPA Environmental Response Team (ERT)
732-321-6751
compton.harry@epa.gov
3.7.2 Use of In-situ Biosolids and Lime Addition at the California Gulch Superfund Site,
Operable Unit 11, Leadville, Colorado
The California Gulch Superfund Site, located in Leadville, Colorado, includes 16.5 square miles
of land contaminated by heavy metals from historic mining operations. Mining operations, dating
back to 1859, included mining for lead carbonate, zinc, copper, silver, and iron-manganese ore;
smelting operations; and cyanide, molybdenum, and zinc-concentrating mills. These operations
resulted in large volumes of mine waste and AMD from mine workings. California Gulch was
placed on the National Priorities List in 1983. The primary contaminants of concern at this site
are cadmium, copper, lead, manganese, and zinc.
A field demonstration of using amendments was conducted at Operable Unit 11, the Arkansas
Floodplain, where tailings have been deposited into and along the banks of the Upper Arkansas
River. Because of the acidic nature of the tailings, the deposits were devoid of vegetation,
resulting in streambank instability and an increased risk to wildlife from exposure to metals. In
1998, EPA Region 8 and EPA's Environmental Response Team Center evaluated the use of
amendments to reduce the bioavailability of metals to the biota at Operable Unit 11.
An amendment mixture of municipal biosolids and agricultural limestone was applied to portions
of the tailings deposits. Samples were collected from four areas, ranging in size from 72,000 to
123,400 square meters, that received the amendment mixture. Samples were collected in 1998
and for two years following amendment addition. The samples were analyzed for a variety of
parameters, including various forms of nitrogen and carbon, metals (e.g., cadmium, lead, and
zinc), earthworm survival and biomass, plant growth, and small mammals.
The use of biosolids and lime amendments reduced metal availability and increased soil fertility
sufficiently to restore function to the ecosystem. Following treatment, the tailings had ecosystem
functions that were generally comparable with those from the contaminated vegetated area, with
greater microbial activity than in upstream control samples. (Brown et al., 2005; EPA, 2005b).
Figure 3-2 shows the site following treatment.
3-19
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
Figure 3-2. California Gulch Site Superfund Site
Following Treatment
While this project was geared
toward cleanup, the Leadville
site also has recieved
Superfund grants targeted for
redevelopment. These
redevelopment activities
include a bike path,
interpretative signage of the
historic cultural resources,
development of a lake and
open space along the
Arkansas River for public
recreation, preservation of
buildings at a historic ranch,
redevelopment plans for a slag
waste site, and putting together
a storm water management
plan for a abandon railyard.
(Holmes, 2005)
For further information:
Sally Brown
University of Washington
206-616-1299
sib @ u. Washington, edu
Harry Compton
U.S. EPA ERT
732-321-6751
compton.harry@epa.gov
3.7.3 Reclamation of Wickes Smelter Site in Jefferson County, Montana
The Montana Department of Environmental Quality was responsible for reclaiming the Wickes
Smelter site, a historical mine and smelter site located around the unincorporated community of
Wickes in Jefferson County, Montana. Mining and ore processing activities were conducted at
the site from the late 1860s to 1893; the ore processing activities included roasting and mercury
amalgamation for gold, silver, and lead ores. A portion of the site has been reclaimed and
redeveloped into community open space that is used as a ball field and for other recreational
purposes. In addition, the area's residential yards were remediated to achieve risk-based
cleanup levels (Figure 3-3).
3-20
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
The reclamation work included cost-effective investigation and characterization of the mine and
smelter wastes, soils, sediments, and intermittent surface water. Surface and subsurface areas
were investigated using backhoes, drill rigs, and hydraulic push-probes. Solid matrix samples
were analyzed using a field-portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Engineers,
environmental scientists, and toxicologists completed an integrated investigation and
engineering evaluation, which included a streamlined risk assessment, evaluation of applicable
or relevant and appropriate requirements, and evaluation of potential reclamation alternatives
along with the costs and schedules for implementing them. Other characterization efforts
included surface sampling of residential yards, subsurface sampling of mercury-containing
wastes, evaluation of potential waste repository sites, hydrologic modeling in support of
repository cap design, evaluation of mercury-containing waste treatment and disposal options,
and structural and restoration evaluations of the site's 67-foot-tall smokestack. Assessment of
remedial options for approximately 400 tons of mercury-contaminated soils at the site included
analysis of land disposal restrictions, and application of corrective action management units.
Surface soils in the smelter area contained arsenic concentrations ranging from 45 to 10,592
mg/kg and lead concentrations ranging from 70 to 32,226 mg/kg. Subsurface materials in the
smelter area contained arsenic concentrations ranging from 146 to 64,267 mg/kg and lead
concentrations ranging from 1,096 to 28,689 mg/kg. The recreational risk-based cleanup levels
for arsenic and lead were 323 and 2,200 mg/kg, respectively. The residential yard soils and
mine waste rock did not contain arsenic and lead concentrations as high as those in the smelter
waste materials. The residential risk-based cleanup levels for arsenic and lead were 23 and 400
mg/kg, respectively.
The site reclamation project cost approximately $1.9 million and was completed in June 2005.
Figure 3-3 shows a portion of the residential area that was reclaimed. Directly behind and uphill
of the residential area is the reclaimed waste rock dump that was removed during the project.
The project included the following major activities (Surbrugg, 2005):
• Excavating and transporting 101,747 cubic yards of mine waste for disposal in a 5-acre
waste repository in the northwest portion of the site
• Excavating soils from nine residential yards, replacing cover soils, sodding eight yards,
and seeding one yard
• Constructing a separate mercury-containing waste disposal cell within the repository and
excavating, transporting, and disposing of 2,264 cubic yards of mercury-containing
waste
• Seeding, fertilizing, and mulching over 41 acres of excavation and construction areas
and installing 8,252 square yards of erosion control mat
For further information:
J. Edward Surbrugg, Ph.D.
TetraTech EM Inc.
406-442-5588
edward.surbrugg @ ttemi. com
3-21
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: PART 3-HARD ROCK MINES
Reclaimed Atlas Mine Dump
(covered with erosion-control
fabric)
Figure 3-3. Reclaimed Residential Area at Wickes Smelter Site
3-22
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A
EPA Regional Brownfields Coordinators
An online list of regional contacts is available at www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf/regcntcthtm
REGION 1
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont
http://www. epa.gov/region01/Brownfields/
U.S. EPA Region 1 Brownfields Office
One Congress Street (HBT)
Boston, MA 02114-2023
Phone:617-918-1221
Fax:617-918-1291
REGION 2
New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico, Virgin
Islands
http://www.epa.gov/r02earth/superfnd/brownfld/
bfmainpg.htm
U.S. EPA Region 2 Brownfields Office
290 Broadway
18th Floor
New York, NY 10007-1866
Phone:212-637-3000
Fax:212-637-4360
REGIONS
Delaware, Washington, D.C., Maryland,
Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia
http://www. epa. gov/reg3h wmd/bro wnfld/hmpage 1.
htm
U.S. EPA Region 3 Brownfields Office
1650 Arch Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103
Phone: 215-814-3129 or 1-800-814-5000
Fax:215-814-3254
REGION 4
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina,
Tennessee
http://www.epa.gov/region4/index.html
U.S. EPA Region 4 Brownfields Office
Atlanta Federal Center
61 Forsyth Street
Sam Nunn Atlanta Federal Center
Waste Management Division
Brownfields/State Support Section
Atlanta, GA 30303
Phone: 404-562-8684
Fax: 404-562-8566
REGIONS
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio,
Wisconsin
http://www.epa.gov/R5Brownfields/
U.S. EPA Region 5 Brownfields Office
77 West Jackson Boulevard (SE-4J)
Chicago, IL 60604-3507
Phone:312-886-7576
1-800-621-8431 or 312-353-2000
Fax:312-886-7190
A-1
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX A
REGION 6
Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma,
Texas
http://www. epa.gov/earth 1 r6/6sf/bfpages/sfbfh
ome.htm
U.S. EPA Region 6 Brownfields Office
1445 Ross Avenue, Suite 1200
Dallas, TX 75202-2733
Phone:214-665-6736
Fax:214-665-6660
REGION?
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska
http://www.epa.gov/region07/Brownfieldss/ind
ex. html
U.S. EPA Region 7 Brownfields Office
SU PR/STAR
901 North 5th Street
Kansas City, KS 66101
Phone:913-551-7646
Fax:913-551-9646
Main Number: 1-800-223-0425 or
913-551-7066
REGION 8
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South
Dakota, Utah, Wyoming
http://www.epa. gov/region08/land_waste/bfho
me/bfhome.html
U.S. EPA Region 8 Brownfields Office
999 18th Street, Suite 300
Denver, CO 80202-2406
Phone: 1-800-227-8917
Fax:303-312-6067
REGION 9
Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, American
Samoa, Guam
http://www.epa.gov/region09/waste/brown/ind
ex. html
U.S. EPA Region 9 Brownfields Office
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
Phone:415-972-3188
Fax:415-947-3528
REGION 10
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington
http://www.epa.gov/Region 10/
U.S. EPA Region 10 Brownfields Office
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98011
Phone: 1-800-424-4372
Fax:206-553-0124
Headquarters
http://www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf/index.htmlffot
her
U.S. EPA- Headquarters
Outreach and Special Projects Staff, Office of
Solid Waste and Emergency Response
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: 202-260-6837
Fax: 202-260-6066
A-2
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B
State/Tribal Abandoned Mine Land Programs
The following are members of the National Association of Abandoned Mine Land Programs
(www.onenet.net/~naamlp/), a nonprofit corporation comprised of state and tribal governments
implementing abandoned mine land programs funded through grants from the OSM Regional
Directorates.
ALABAMA
Michael R. Skates, Director
Mining and Reclamation Division
Department of Industrial Relations
649 Monroe Street, Suite 2211
Montgomery, AL 36131-5200
Phone: 334-242-8265
Fax: 334-242-8403
E-mail: mskates@dir.state.al.us
Web address: www.dir.state.al.us/mr
ALASKA
Joe Wehrman, AML Program Manager
Division of Mining, Land, and Water
Department of Natural Resources
550 W. 7th Ave., Suite 900D
Anchorage, AK 99501-3577
Phone: 907-269-8630
Fax: 907-269-8930
E-mail: joe_wehrman@dnr.state.ak.us
Web address:
www. dnr.state.ak. us/mlw/mining/aml
ARIZONA
Alene McCracken, Abandoned Mines
Supervisor
Office of State Mine Inspector
1700 West Washington, Suite 400
Phoenix, AZ 85007-2805
Phone: 602-542-5971
Fax: 602-542-5335
E-mail: Abandonedmines@mi.state.az.us
Web address:
www. asm/, state, az. us/abandoned.html
ARKANSAS
James F. Stephens, Chief
Department of Environmental Quality
Surface Mining and Reclamation Division
P.O. Box 8913
Little Rock, AR 72219-8913
Phone:501-682-0807
Fax:501-682-0880
E-mail: Stephens©adeq.state.ar.us
Web address:
www. adeq. state.ar. us/mining/default. htm
COLORADO
Loretta Pineda
Inactive Mine Program Supervisor
Division of Minerals and Geology
Department of Natural Resources
1313 Sherman Street, Room 215
Denver, CO 80203
Phone:303-866-3819
Fax:303-832-8106
E-mail: loretta.pineda@state.co.us
Web address: www.mining.state.co.us
CROW TRIBE
Marvin L. Stewart, Director
Crow Office of Reclamation
P.O. Box 460
Crow Agency, MT 59022
Phone: 406-638-3988
Fax: 406-638-3973
E-mail: Stewart marvin@email.com
B-1
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX B
HOPI TRIBE
Norman Honie, Jr., Director
Office of Mining and Mineral Resources
The Hopi Tribe
P.O. Box 123
Kykotsmovi, AZ 86039
Phone:520-734-7140
Fax:520-734-7148
E-mail: Nhonie@hopi.nsn.us
IDAHO
Scott Nichols, Bureau Chief
Bureau of Minerals
Department of Lands
1215 W. State Street
Boise, ID 83720
Phone: 208-334-0232
Fax: 208-334-3698
E-mail: snichols@idl.state.id.us
Web address:
www2. state, id. us/lands/Bureau/MineralsBC. htm
ILLINOIS
Al Clayborne, Manager
Division of Abandoned Mine Reclamation
Office of Mines and Minerals
Department of Natural Resources
One Natural Resources Way
Springfield, IL 62702-1271
Phone:217-782-0588
Fax:217-524-4819
E-mail: aclayborne@dnrmail.state.il.us
Web address:
dnr. state, il. us/mines/aml/recpgm.htm
INDIANA
Ron McAhron, Director
Bureau of Resource Regulation
Department of Natural Resources
402 West Washington St., Room W-256
Indianapolis, IN 46204
Phone:317-232-4020
Fax:317-233-6811
E-mail: rmcahron@dnr.in.gov
Web address: www.in.gov/dnr/reclamation
IOWA
VACANT , Chief
Mines and Minerals Bureau
Department of Agriculture and Land
Stewardship
Wallace State Office Building
Des Moines, IA50319
Phone:515-281-6147
Fax:515-281-6170
Web address:
www. agriculture, state, ia.us/minesminerals.htm
KANSAS
Murray J. Balk, Section Chief
Surface Mining Section
Department of Health and Environment
4033 Parkview Drive
Frontenac, KS 66763
Phone:620-231-8540
Fax:620-231-0753
E-mail: mbalk@kdhe.state.ks.us
Web address: www.kdhe.state.ks.us/mining
KENTUCKY
Mr. Steve Hohmann, Director
Division of Abandoned Mine Lands
Department for Surface Mining and
Enforcement
2521 Old Lawrenceburg Road
Frankfort, KY 40601
Phone:502-564-2141
Fax: 502-564-6544
E-mail: steve.hohmann@ky.gov
Web address: www.surfacemining.ky.gov/aml
B-2
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX B
LOUISIANA
Dale Bergquist
Abandoned Mine Lands Program Coordinator
Office of Conservation
P.O. Box 94275
Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9275
Phone: 225-342-5586
Fax: 225-342-3094
E-mail: daleb@dnr.state.la.us
Web address:
www. dnr. state, la. us/CONS/CONSERIN/SURF
MINE/Abandprog. ssi
MARYLAND
John E. Carey, Director
Bureau of Mines
Department of the Environment
160S. Water Street
Frostburg, MD 21532-2145
Phone: 301-689-6764 ext. 206
Fax:301-689-6544
E-mail: jcarey@allconet.org
Web address:
www. mde. state, md. us/Programs/WaterProgram
s/MininglnMaryland/MineReclamationProgram
MICHIGAN
S. Paul Sundeen, Supervisor
Geological Survey Division
Department of Environmental Quality
P.O. Box30256
Lansing, Ml 48909-7756
Phone:517-334-6907
Fax:517-334-6038
MISSOURI
Tom Cabanas, Environmental Manager
Band 2, Land Reclamation Program
Department of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 176
Jefferson City, MO 65102
Phone:573-751-4041
Fax:573-751-0534
E-mail: tom.cabanas@dnr.mo.gov
Web address:
www. dnr. state, mo. us/alpd/lrp/homelrp. htm
MONTANA
Vic Andersen, Chief
Mine Waste Cleanup Bureau
Department of Environmental Quality
P.O. Box200901
Helena, MT 59620-0901
Phone: 406-444-4972
Fax: 406-444-0443
E-mail: vandersen®state.mt.us
NAVAJO NATION
Madeline Roanhorse, Department Manager
Navajo AML Reclamation/UMTRA
Department
P.O. 60x1875
Window Rock, AZ 86515
Phone:928-871-6982
Fax:928-871-7190
E-mail: mroanhorse@frontiernet.net
Web address: www.navajoaml.osmre.gov
NEW MEXICO
John Kretzmann, Program Manager
Abandoned Mine Land Program
Mining and Minerals Division
Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources
Dept.
1220S. St. Francis Drive
Santa Fe, NM 87505
Phone: 505-476-3423
Fax: 505-476-3402
E-mail: jkretzmann® state.nm.us
Web address:
www. emnrd. state, nm. us/Mining/aml/
B-3
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX B
NORTH DAKOTA
Dr. Lou Ogaard, Director
AML Division
Public Service Commission
600 E. Boulevard Ave., Dept. 408
Bismarck, ND 58505
Phone:701-328-4108
Fax:701-328-2133
E-mail: logaard® state.nd.us
Web address:
http://www.psc. state, nd. us/jurisdiction/aml. html
OHIO
John F. Husted, AML Administrator
Division of Mineral Resources Management
Department of Natural Resources
2045 Morse Road, Building H-2
Columbus, OH 43229
Phone:614-265-7072
Fax:614-265-7999
E-mail: John.husted@dnr.state.oh.us
Web address:
www. dnr. state, oh. us/mineral/abandoned/
index.html
OKLAHOMA
Michael L. Kastl
AML Program Director
Oklahoma Conservation Commission
2800 N. Lincoln Blvd., Suite 160
Oklahoma City, OK 73105
Phone:405-521-2384
Fax:405-521-6686
E-mail: mikek@okcc.state.ok.us
Web address:
www. okcc. state, ok. us/AML/AML home.htm
PENNSYLVANIA
Rod Fletcher, Director
Bureau of Abandoned Mine Reclamation
Department of Environmental Protection
P.O. Box 8476
Harrisburg, PA 17105-8476
Phone:717-783-2267
Fax:717-783-7442
E-mail: rfletcher@state.pa.us
Web address:
www. dep. state, pa. us/dep/dep. html
TENNESSEE
Tim Eagle, Program Manager
Land Reclamation Section
Division of Water Pollution Control
2700 Middlebrook Pike, Suite 230
Knoxville, TN 37921 -5602
Phone: 865-594-5609
Fax:865-594-6105
E-mail: teagle@mail.state.tn.us
TEXAS
Melvin B. Hodgkiss, Director
Surface Mining and Reclamation Division
Railroad Commission of Texas
P.O. Box 12967 Capitol Station
Austin, TX 78711-2967
Phone:512-463-6901
Fax:512-463-6709
E-mail: melvin.hodgkiss@rrc.state.tx.us
Web address:
www. rrc. state, tx. us/divisions/sm/programs/
ami/ami, htm
B-4
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX B
UTAH
Mark Mesch, AML Program Administrator
Abandoned Mine Reclamation Program
Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining
1594 West North Temple, Suite 1210
Box 145801
Salt Lake City, UT 84114-5801
Phone:801-538-5349
Fax:801-359-3940
E-mail: markmesch@utah.gov
Web address:
www.ogm.utah.gov/amr/default.htm
VIRGINIA
Roger L. Williams, AML Manager
Division of Mined Land Reclamation
Department Of Mines, Minerals, and Energy
P.O. Drawer 900
Big Stone Gap, VA 24219
Phone: 276-523-8208
Fax: 276-523-8247
E-mail: roger.williams@dmme.virginia.gov
Web address:
www. mme.state, va. us/Dmlr/default. htm
WEST VIRGINIA
Pat Park, Assistant Chief
Office of Abandoned Mine Lands and
Reclamation
601 57 Street
Charleston, WV 25304
Phone: 304-926-0499 Ext. 1479
E-mail: ppark@wvdep.org
Web address: www.wvdep.org
WYOMING
Evan Green, AML Administrator
Abandoned Mine Lands Division
Department of Environmental Quality
Herschler Building
122 West 25th Street
Cheyenne, WY 82002
Phone:307-777-6145
Fax: 307-777-6462
E-mail: egreen@state.wy.us
Web address: http://deq.state.wy.us/aml
B-5
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX C
APPENDIX C
References
Adams, L.M., J.P. Capp, and D.W. Gillmore. 1972. Coal Mine Spoil and Refuse Bank
Reclamation with Powerplant Fly Ash. In Proceedings 3rd Mineral Waste Utilization
Symposium, pp. 105-111.
Adams, L.M., J.P. Capp, and E. Eisentrout. 1971. Reclamation of Acidic Coal Mine Spoils with
Fly Ash. U.S. DOI, Bureau of Mines, Rept. of Investigations 7504, 28 pp.
Aljoe, W.W. and S. Renniger. 1999. U.S. Department of Energy Projects Involving the Use of
Coal Combustion By-Products in Mining Applications. In Mining and Reclamation for the Next
Millenium, Proceedings, 16th Annual National Meeting of the American Society of Surface Mine
Reclamation, August 13-19, 1999, Volume 1, pp. 25-37.
Brooks, R.P., D.E. Samual, and J.B. Hill (eds.). 1985. Wetlands and Water Management on
Mined Lands. Proceedings of Conference, Pennsylvania State University, October 23-24, 1985.
Brooks, R.P., J.B. Hill, F.J. Brenner, and S. Capets. 1985. Wildlife Use of Wetlands on Coal
Surface Mines in Western Pennsylvania. In Wetlands and Water Management on Mined Lands,
Proceedings of a Conference held October 23-24, 1985, The Pennsylvania State University,
State College, Pennsylvania, pp. 337-352.
Brown, S., M. Sprenger, A. Maxemchuk and H. Compton. 2005. "Ecosystem function in alluvial
tailings after biosolids and lime addition." Journal of Environmental Quality. January/February,
Vol.34/1.
Cavazza, E.E., R.L. Beam, and T.C. Malesky. 2003. The Dents Run Acid Mine Drainage and
Ecosystem Restoration Project. In Proceedings, 2003 Annual Conference of the National
Association of Abandoned Mine Land Programs, Louisville, KY., 16 p.
Comp. T. A. and M.R. Wood. 2001. Hope and Hard Work - Making a Difference in the Eastern
Coal Region. DOI Office of Surface Mining and EPA Region 3. June. Available at:
www. brownfieldstsc. org/miningsites. cfm.
Crumbling, D.M. 2004. Summary of the Triad Approach. White Paper for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology
Innovation. Mail Code 5102G. March 25.
Doolan, M. 2005. Personal communication (e-mail) between Mark Doolan (EPA, Region 7) and
Mike Adams (EPA) on September 9, 2005.
C-1
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX C
Earthworks. 2005. Cleaning Up Abandoned Mines.
http://www.earthworksaction.org/ewa/aml.cfm. Downloaded March 1, 2005.
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2005a. Mine-Scarred Lands Revitalization -
Models through Partnerships. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA 560-R-05-
003. www.epa.gov/brownfields. August 2005.
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2005b. Cost and Performance Summary Report.
In Situ Biosolids and Lime Addition at the California Gulch Superfund Site, OU 11, Leadville,
Colorado, http://www.frtr.gov/costperf.htm. February 2005. Available at:
www. brownfieldstsc. org/miningsites. cfm.
EPA. 2005c. Resource Conservation Challenge webpage, August 4, 2005.
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/osw/conserve/priorities/bene-use.htm.
EPA 2005d. Clean Water Act Section 319 webpage, April 5, 2005.
http://www.epa.qov/owow/nps/cwact.html.
EPA. 2005e. "Meeting Community Needs, Protecting Human Health and the Environmental,
Active and Passive Recreational Opportunities at Abandoned Mine Lands." Online Address:
http://www.epa. gov/superfund/programs/recycle/pdfs/rec_mining.pdf.
EPA. 2004a. Brownfields Mine-Scarred Lands Initiative - Federal Agencies Collaborate with
Communities. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA 560-F-04-252.
www.epa.gov/brownfields. September. Available at: www.brownfieldstsc.org/miningsites.cfm.
EPA. 2004b. Proposal Guidelines for Brownfields Assessment, Revolving Loan Fund, and
Cleanup Grants. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA 560-F-04-253.
September 2004. www.epa.gov/brownfields.
EPA. 2004c. Cleaning Up the Nation's Waste Sites: Markets and Technology Trends, 2004
Edition. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Report EPA 542-R-04-015,
September 2004. http://clu-in.org/marketstudy.
EPA. 2004d. Reference Notebook. Abandoned Mine Lands Team. September 2004.
EPA. 2004e. About the Eagle Mine Site. U.S. EPA Region 8 webpage. December 2004.
http://www.epa.gov/region8/superfund/sites/co/eaglmine.html.
EPA. 2003. Using the Triad Approach To Streamline Brownfields Site Assessment and
Cleanup. Brownfields Technology Primer Series. EPA 542-B-03-002. June.
EPA. 2000a. Abandoned Mine Site Characterization and Cleanup Handbook. EPA Regions 8
and 9. EPA 910-B-00-001. August 2000. Available at: www.brownfieldstsc.org/miningsites.cfm.
C-2
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX C
EPA. 2000b. "Manual, Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters."
EPA/625/R-99/010.
Herricks, E.E., A.J. Krzysik, R.E. Szafoni, and D.J. Tazik. 1982. Best Current Practices for Fish
and Wildlife on Surface-Mined Lands in the Eastern Interior Coal Region. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, FWS/OBS-80/86, May 1982.
Holmes, M., EPA Region 8. 2005. Comments Provided on Draft Case Study. August 2005.
Illinois Department of Mines and Minerals, Land Reclamation Division. 1985. Citizen's Guide to
Coal Mining and Reclamation in Illinois.
ITRC (Interstate Technology Regulatory Council). 2003. Technical and Regulatory Guidance
Document for Constructed Treatment Wetlands. December 2003.
Klimstra, W.D. and J.R. Nawrot. 1985. Wetlands as a Byproduct of Surface Mining: Midwest
Perspective. In Wetlands and Water Management on Mined Lands, Proceedings of a
Conference held October 23-24, 1985, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA,
pp. 107-119.
Klimstra, W.D., and J.R. Nawrot. 1985. Wetlands as a Byproduct of Surface Mining: Midwest
Perspective. In Wetlands and Water Management on Mined Lands, Proceedings of a
Conference held October 23-24, 1985, The Pennsylvania State University, State College,
Pennsylvania, pp. 107-119.
Lawrence, J.S., W.D. Klimstra, W.G. O'Leary, and G.A. Perkins. 1985. Contribution of
Surface-Mined Wetlands to Selected Avifauna. In Wetlands and Water Management on Mined
Lands, Proceedings of a Conference held October 23-24, 1985, The Pennsylvania State
University, State College, PA, pp. 317-325.
Leedy, D.L. and T.M. Franklin. 1981. Coal Surface Mining Reclamation and Fish and Wildlife
Relationships in the Eastern United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-80/24 and
FWS/OBS-80/25.
Master, W.A. and J.D. Taylor. 1979. Grundy County Reclamation Demonstration Project, Phase
II, Progress Report for 1977-1978. Argonne National Laboratory, Report ANL/LRP-TM-16.
McConnell, D.L. and D.E. Samual. 1985. Small Mammal and Avian Populations Utilizing
Cattail Marshes on Reclaimed Surface Mines in West Virginia. In Wetlands and Water
Management on Mined Lands, Proceedings of a Conference held October 23-24, 1985, The
Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, pp. 329-336.
C-3
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX C
Milavec, P.J. 2005a. Abandoned Mine Drainage Abatement Projects: Successes, Problems,
and Lessons Learned. Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of
Abandondoned Mine Reclamation.
http://www.dep. state.pa.us/dep/deputate/minres/bamr/amd/amd_abatement_projects. htm.
Milavec, P.J. 2005b. Personal communication (e-mail) between Pamela Milavec (PaDEP) and
Carolyn Perroni (Environmental Management Support, Inc.) on September 23, 2005.
Miorin, A.F., R.S. Klingensmith, R.E. Heizer, and J.R. Saliunas. 1979. Tioga River Mine
Drainage Abatement Project. EPA-600/7-79-035, February 1979.
Mitsch, W.J., M.A. Cardamone, J.R. Taylor, and P.L Hill. 1985. Wetlands and Water Quality
Management in the Eastern Interior Coal Basin. In Wetlands and Water Management on Mined
Lands, Proceedings of a Conference held October 23-24, 1985, The Pennsylvania State
University, State College, PA, pp. 121-137.
OSM (U.S. Office of Surface Mining). 2003. People Potentially at Risk From Priority 1 & 2 AML
Hazards. White Paper. Revised May 28, 2003.
OSM (U.S. Office of Surface Mining). 2002. Acid Mine Drainage prevention and mitigation
techniques webpage. March 5, 2002 http://www.osmre.gov/amdpvm.htm.
PaDEP (Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection). 2005a. The Science of Acid
Mine Drainage and Passive Treatment
http://www.dep. state.pa.us/dep/deputate/minres/bamr/amd/science_of_AMD. htm.
PaDEP. 2005b. Welcome to the Growing Greener Program! Webpage.
http://www. dep. state, pa. us/growgreen/.
PaDEP. 2004a. The Use of Dredged Materials in Abandoned Mine Reclamation; Final
Report on the Bark Camp Demonstration Project.
PaDEP. 2004b. Mine Drainage Abatement Plan for the Bennett Branch of
Sinnemahoning Creek, Interim Project Report, Clearfield, Elk and Cameron Counties,
PA, September 21, 2004.
PaDEP. 1999. A Model Plan for Watershed Restoration. Developed with other state and federal
agencies, January 1999.
http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/minres/bamr/documents/modelplan.html.
PaDEP. 1998. Pennsylvania's Comprehensive Plan for Abandoned Mine Reclamation. Issued
June 1997, Revised June 1998
http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/minres/bamr/complan1.htm.
C-4
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX C
Peterson, J.R., R.I. Pietz, and C. Lue-Hing. 1979. Water, Soil, and Crop Quality of Illinois Coal
Mine Spoils Amended with Sewage Sludge. In Utilization of Municipal Effluent and Sludge on
Forest and Disturbed Land (W.E. Sopper and S.N. Kerr, eds.), Penn State University Press,
University Park, PA., pp. 359-368.
Pietz, R.I., T.C. Granato, J.C.R. Carlson, J. Gschwind, D.R. Zenz, and C. Lue-Hing. 1992.
Reclamation of the St. David Illinois Coal Refuse Pile With Sewage Sludge and Other
Amendments. In New Trends - Utilization of Recycled Materials and Waste Products in Mine
Reclamation. Conference Proceedings, 14th Annual Abandoned Mined Land Conference,
August 23-27, Chicago, IL, pp. 304-355.
Samual, D.E., J.R. Stauffer, C.H. Hocutt, and W.T. Mason (eds.). 1978. Surface Mining and
Fish/Wildlife Needs in the Eastern United States. Proceedings of a Symposium, Morgantown,
WV, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program FWS/OBS-78/81, December
1978.
Scott, R.L. and R.M. Hays. 1975. Inactive and Abandoned Underground Mines - Water
Pollution Prevention and Control. EPA-440/9-75-007.
Surbrugg, E. 2005. Personal Communication from Ed Surbrugg, Tetra Tech EMI. July 11, 2005.
Triad Resource Center Website. 2004. http://www.triadcentral.org/index.cfm. Accessed
November 2004.
USGS (U.S. Geological Survey). 2000. The Human Factor in Mining Reclamation. U.S.
Geological Survey Circular 1191. Available at: www.brownfieldstsc.org/miningsites.cfm.
USAGE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). 1969. The Incidence and Formation of Mine Drainage
Pollution. Appendix C of Acid Mine Drainage in Appalachia. Appalachian Regional Commission.
June 1969.
Varner, John. 2005. Personal communication (phone call) between John Varner, PaDEP, and
Mike Adams (EPA) on September 27, 2005.
Younger, P.L., S.A. Banwart, and R.S. Hedin. 2002. Mine Water: Hydrology, Pollution,
Remediation. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Zipper, C.E. and S. Winter. 1997. Powell River Project: Stabilizing Reclaimed Mines to Support
Buildings and Development. Virginia Cooperative Extension Publication 460-130.
Additional Resources
ARC (Appalachian Regional Commission). 1969. Acid Mine Drainage in Appalachia. Report to
the President of the United States and Congress, June 30, 1969.
C-5
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX C
Brown, S. and C. Henry. Not dated. Using Biosolids for Reclamation/Remediation of Disturbed
Soils. White Paper. University of Washington.
Burger, J.A., and C. Zipper. 1998. How to Restore Forests on Surf ace-Mined Land. Virginia
Cooperative Extension Service Publication No. 460-123, September 1998.
http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/mines/460-123/460-123.html.
Burger, J.A., D.L. Kelting, and C. Zipper. 1998. Maximizing the Value of Forests on Reclaimed
Mined Land. Virginia Cooperative Extension Service Publication No. 460-138, September 1998
[http://www. ext. vt. edu/pubs/mines/460-138/460- 138.html].
Costello, C. NNEMS Fellow. 2003. Acid Mine Drainage: Innovative Treatment Technologies.
Prepared for EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. October. Available at:
www. brownfieldstsc. org/miningsites. cfm.
EPA. 2005. A Breath of Fresh Air for America's Abandoned Mine Lands: Alternative Energy
Provides a Second Wind. Available aV.http://
permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/epagov/www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/aml/revital.
EPA. 2005. Meeting Community Needs, Protecting Human Health and the Environmental:
Active and Passive Recreational Opportunities at Abandoned Mine Lands. Available at.http://
permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/epagov/www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/aml/revital.
EPA. 2004. Land Conservation and Former Mine Lands: Preserving Natural Land Resources,
Planning for the Future. Fact sheet. July 2004. Available a\\http://
permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/epagov/www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/aml/revital.
EPA. 1999. Characterization of Mine Leachates and the Development of a Ground-Water
Monitoring Strategy for Mine Sites. EPA 600-R-99-007. February 1999. Available at:
www. brownfieldstsc. org/miningsites. cfm.
EPA. 1997. A Citizen's Handbook to Address Contaminated Coal Mine Drainage. EPA Region
3. EPA 903-K-97-003. September. Available at: www.brownfieldstsc.org/miningsites.cfm.
EPA. 1995. EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project - Profile of the Metal Mining
Industry. Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. EPA/310-R-95-008. September.
Available at: www.brownfieldstsc.org/miningsites.cfm.
Jones, D.W., M.J. McElligott, and R.H. Mannz. 1985. Biological, Chemical and Morphological
Characterization of 33 Surface Mine Lakes in Illinois and Missouri. Peabody Coal Company.
Nelson, R.W., J.F. Osborn, and W.J. Logan. 1982. Planning and Management of Mine-Cut
Lakes at Surface Coal Mines. U.S. Office of Surface Mining, Report OSM/TR-82/1.
Toffey, W.E. Not Dated. Philadelphia Water Department. Twenty-Five Years of Mine
Reclamation with Biosolids in Pennsylvania.
C-6
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX C
Torbert, J.L., J.A. Burger, and J.E. Johnson. 1996. Commercial Forestry as a Post-Mining Land
Use. Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. Publication No. 460-136. June. Available at:
http://www.extvt.edu/pubs/mines/460-136/460-136.html.
Torbert, J.L., J.A. Burger, T.J. Nichols, and J.E. Johnson. 1997. Growing Christmas Trees on
Reclaimed Surface-Mined Land. Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. Publication No. 460-
116. March. Online Address: http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/mines/460-116/460-116.html.
NOTE: Additional reference materials related to redevelopment of mine sites are
available at www.brownfieldstsc.org/miningsites.cfm.
C-7
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX D
APPENDIX D
Acronyms
AMD acid mine drainage
AML abandoned mine lands
BTSC Brownfields and Land Revitalization Technology Support Center
BBWA Bennetts Branch Watershed Association
CSM conceptual site model
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ITRC Interstate Technology Regulatory Council
MSL mine-scarred land
NPL National Priorities List
OSM U.S. Office of Surface Mining
PaDEP Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls
PM paniculate matter
SMCRA Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
Glossary
PLEASE NOTE: Use of these terms does not constitute a regulatory determination under
either RCRA or CERCLA. This glossary may only be used to assist the user and should not
be used for regulatory purposes.
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): Water with a pH generally less than 4 that drains from mine
workings and mine wastes. The low pH is due to the formation of acids resulting from the
oxidation of sulfide minerals (e.g., pyrite) in the host rock when exposed to air and water.
Due to its acidity, AMD tends to contain elevated levels of metals leached from the ore and
host rock.
Acid Rock Drainage (ARD): see acid mine drainage.
Adit: A nearly horizontal passage from the surface by which a mine is entered and drained.
Alkaline: Of or relating to the capacity of water to accept protons (acidity). Substances with
a pH greater than 7 are said to be alkaline.
Alluvial mining: The use of dredges or hydraulic water to extract ore from placer deposits.
Anoxic limestone drain: A type of passive treatment system consisting of a trench of
buried limestone into which acid water is diverted. Dissolution of limestone increases pH
and alkalinity.
D-1
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX D
Beneficiation: Physical treatment of crude ore to improve its quality for some specific
purpose. Also called mineral processing. RCRA defines beneficiation as: restricted to the
following activities: Crushing; grinding; washing; dissolution; crystallization; filtration; sorting;
sizing; drying; sintering; pelletizing; briquetting; calcining to remove water and/or carbon
dioxide; roasting, autoclaving, and/or chlorination in preparation for leaching; gravity
concentration; magnetic separation; electrostatic separation; flotation; ion exchange; solvent
extraction; electrowinning; precipitation; amalgamation; and heap, dump, vat, tank, and in-
situ leaching. See 40 CFR 261.4 (b)7 for more information.
Bioavailability: The degree of ability of the contaminant to be absorbed by an organism
and interact with its metabolism.
Cut and Fill Stoping: If it is undesirable to leave broken ore in the slope during mining
operations (as in shrinkage sloping), the lower portion of Ihe slope can be filled wilh wasle
rock and/or mill lailings. In Ihis case, ore is removed as soon as il has been broken from
overhead, and Ihe slope filled wilh wasle lo wilhin a few feel of Ihe mining surface. This
melhod eliminales or reduces Ihe wasle disposal problem associated wilh mining as well as
prevenling collapse of Ihe ground al Ihe surface.
Brownfields: Abandoned, idled, or under used induslrial and commercial facililies/siles
where expansion or redevelopmenl is complicated by real or perceived environmenlal
conlaminalion. They can be in urban, suburban, or rural areas.
Coal Refuse: The wasle coal and crushed rock lhal resulls from coal processing.
Drift: A horizonlal mining passage underground. A drifl usually follows Ihe ore vein, as
dislinguished from a crosscul, which inlersecls it.
Dump Leach: A process for dissolving and recovering minerals from subore-grade
materials from a mine wasle dump. The dump is irrigated wilh water, somelimes acidified,
which percolates inlo and Ihrough Ihe dump, and runoff from Ihe bollom of Ihe dump is
collected and mineral in solulion is recovered by a chemical reaclion.
Extraction: The process of removing ore from Ihe ground.
Gangue: The fraclion of ore rejected as lailing in a separaling process. II is usually Ihe
valueless portion, bul may have some secondary commercial use.
Heap Leach: A process in which crushed ore is laid on a slighlly sloping, impervious pad
and uniformly leached by Ihe percolalion of Ihe leach liquor Irickling Ihrough Ihe beds by
gravily lo ponds. The melals are recovered by convenlional melhods from Ihe solulion.
Highwall: The unexcavaled faces of overburden and coal in a surface mine.
D-2
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX D
Lime: Calcium oxide, CaO
Limestone: A sedimentary rock formed by chemical precipitation from sea water or fresh
water that is composed primarily of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate).
Mine: An opening or excavation in the earth for the purpose of extracting minerals.
Mine-Scarred Lands: Lands, associated waters, and surrounding watersheds where
extraction, beneficiation, or processing of ores and minerals (including coal) has occurred.
Mineral: A naturally occurring, solid, inorganic element or compound, with a definite
composition or range of compositions, usually possessing a regular internal crystalline
structure.
Ore: A natural deposit in which a valuable metallic element occurs in high enough
concentration to make mining economically feasible.
Orebody: A continuous, well-defined mass of material of sufficient ore content to make
extraction economically feasible.
Overburden: Material of any nature, consolidated or unconsolidated, that overlies a deposit
of ore that is to be mined.
Oxyhydroxides: Chemical compounds that contain one or more cations bonded to both
oxygen and hydroxide (OH) anions.
Passive treatment systems: Systems that do not require periodic or continual
maintenance or upkeep to maintain system effectiveness. Examples include aerobic or
anaerobic wetlands, anoxic limestone drains, open limestone channels, alkalinity producing
systems, and limestone ponds.
pH: The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration, in which pH = -log [H+].
Neutral solutions have pH values of 7, acidic solutions have pH values less than 7, and
alkaline solutions have pH values greater than 7.
Placer: A sedimentary deposit of unconsolidated material (usually gravel in river beds or
sand dunes) containing high concentrations of a valuable mineral or native metal, usually
segregated because of its greater density.
Pyrite: A brass-colored mineral, FeS2, occurring widely and used as an iron ore and in
producing sulfur dioxide for sulfuric acid; sparks readily if struck by steel; occurs in
sedimentary rocks including coal seams.
D-3
-------
BROWNFIELDS TECHNOLOGY PRIMER:
MINE SITE CLEANUP FOR BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT: APPENDIX D
Roasting: The oxidation of ore or concentrate (usually of sulfide concentrates) at an
elevated temperature to obtain metal oxides. The material is not melted. Roasting is usually
used to change metallic compounds into forms more easily treated by subsequent
processing.
Shaft: An excavation of limited area compared with its depth, made for finding or mining ore
or coal, raising ore, rock or water, hoisting and lowering men and materials, or ventilating
underground workings.
Slag: A mixture of oxides (sometimes halides) of metals or nonmetals formed in the liquid
state at high temperatures. A flux is usually added to encourage slag production, where the
slag represents the undesirable (waste) constituents from smelting and refining an ore or
concentrate.
Smelting: Obtaining a metal from an ore or concentrate by melting the material at high
temperatures. Fluxes are added that, in the presence of high temperatures, reduce the metal
oxide to metal resulting in a molten layer containing the heavy metal values and form a slag
layer containing impurities. Smelting is usually performed in blast furnaces.
Spoil: Debris or waste rock from a mine. Also called waste rock, overburden, or gob (coal
mining).
Subsidence: A slow sinking or collapsing of the ground surface into underground mine
openings below.
Tailings: Rock discarded from the mining process.
Watershed: The land area that drains into a stream; the watershed for a major river may
encompass a number of smaller watersheds that ultimately combine at a common point.
Wetlands: A lowland area such as a marsh or swamp that is saturated with moisture. They can
be natural features of an environment or engineered impoundments.
D-4
------- |