United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response (51 02G)
EPA 542-F-l 0-008
August 2010
Green Remediation Best Management Practices:
Clean Fuel & Emission Technologies for Site Cleanup
Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation
Quick Reference Fact Sheet
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Principles
for Greener Cleanups outlines the Agency's policy for
evaluating and minimizing the environmental "footprint" of
activities undertaken when cleaning up a contaminated
site.1 Use of the best management practices (BMPs)
recommended in EPA's series of green remediation fact
sheets can help project managers and other stakeholders
apply the principles on a routine basis, while maintaining
the cleanup objectives, ensuring protectiveness of a
remedy, and improving its environmental outcome.2
Overview
Cleanup of hazardous waste sites can involve significant
consumption of gasoline, diesel, or other fuels by mobile
and stationary sources. Minimizing emission of air
pollutants such as greenhouse gases (GHGs) and
particulate matter (PM) resulting from cleanup activities,
including those needing fossil or alternative fuel, is a core
element of green remediation strategies. Efforts to reduce
these emissions during site
investigation, remedial or
corrective actions, and
long-term operation and
maintenance (O&M) must
meet Clean Air Act (CM)
Materials
& Waste
Energy
Land&
Ecosystems
Water
'here
requirements and state air
quality standards as well as
requirements of federal and
state cleanup programs.
Deployment of green remediation BMPs can help reduce
negative impacts of cleanup activities on public health and
the environment. The CAA currently specifies nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), ozone, lead, carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), and PM as the nation's criteria air
pollutants. EPA's air quality criteria and national ambient
air quality standards (NAAQS) for criteria pollutants must
be met in all state implementation plans.
The Agency has studied impacts of six key GHGs in the
atmosphere: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, nitrous oxide
(N2O), hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur
hexafluoride. Studies found that emissions of these GHGs
from new motor vehicles and new motor vehicle engines
contribute to GHG pollution threatening public health and
welfare.3
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and
EPA have identified numerous risks posed by the direct
inhalation of toxic air particles and by wet or dry
deposition of acidic pollutants (smog) released during
fossil fuel burning.4
Health Effects
Respiratory problems such as coughs or breathing difficulty
Decreased lung function and increased susceptibility to
respiratory infection
Aggravated asthma and chronic bronchitis
Arrhythmia and heart attack
Environmental Effects
Increased smog (and reduced visibility) primarily due to
increased ground-level ozone that oxidizes other pollutant
gases such as SO2
Acidification of lakes and streams
Nutrient imbalance in coastal waters and river basins
Nutrient depletion in soil and toxic deposition on soil
Damage to sensitive forests and farm crops
Decreased populations and diversity of fish and other
aquatic animals and plants
Corrosion of stone (and man-made materials or structures)
Opportunities for reducing emission of air pollutants from
internal combustion engines in vehicles and stationary
sources used during remedy construction and
implementation include maximizing use of:
Effective operations and maintenance to assure efficiency
of vehicles and field equipment [page 1]
Advanced diesel technologies [page 4]
Alternative fuels and fuel additives [page 6], and
Fuel efficient and alternative vehicles [page 8].
Operations and Maintenance
Strategies for reducing unneeded engine use and fuel
consumption (and associated air emissions) on a routine
basis can be incorporated into site management plans,
transportation plans, procurement documents for cleanup
services or products, and internal training programs. The
strategies focus on engine idle reduction, preventive
maintenance to ensure peak operating efficiency, changes
in daily routines, and effective fleet management.
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NO-IDLING
TURN OFF
VOUR ENGINE
CLEAN AIR ZONE
Idle Reduction
Long duration idling consumes over one billion gallons of
fuel annually in the United States, at a cost of over $2.5
billion. Idling of trucks, alone, is estimated to emit 1 1
million tons of CO2, 180,000 tons of nitrogen oxides
(NOx), and 5,000 tons of fine PM each year. A single hour
of truck engine idling consumes approximately one gallon
of fuel and emits approximately 20 pounds of CO2. Idling
also:
Shortens engine service life
Poses health and safety risks to vehicle and cab
occupants in the event of emission leaks, and
Increases pollution and noise in nearby communities.
Idling often occurs during site cleanup
when loading or unloading materials,
operating auxiliary equipment, and
cooling or heating the interior of a
vehicle or cab. A "no idling" policy can
be implemented through corporate
policy and onsite signage that displays
idling time requirements meeting or
exceeding those of state or local agencies.
EPA recommends idle reduction plans that include use of
mobile on-board technologies such as:
Automatic shut-down devices programmed to cut an
engine after a predetermined time limit such as three
minutes, unless engine operation is needed for
intermittent activities such as well drilling
Direct-fired heaters consuming only small amounts of a
vehicle's diesel supply, which will eliminate the need for
idling to warm the engine or cab interior
Auxiliary power units or generators to provide power for
certain activities, and
Battery or alternative powered units to provide heating or
air conditioning of cabs.
Other onboard technologies include commercial micro-
solar units, which can be tailored to operate equipment
traditionally relying on engine idling that provides battery
power. An inexpensive 5-watt photovoltaic panel, for
example, can be installed below the rear window of a
passenger car and connected directly to a vehicle's battery
to power local communications or radios.
So/ar-powered
telecommunications and
video display systems
can be installed in cab
bulkheads, for easy
access to site maps
without a need for
engine idle.
Use of off-board technologies for engine idle reduction can
help reduce offsite as well as onsite footprints of a cleanup
project. Long-distance haulers of outgoing waste or
incoming supplies, for example, can periodically recharge
various types of equipment at electrified parking spaces
connected to a stationary electrical grid.
Equipment Maintenance
Green remediation strategies rely on maximizing
equipment efficiencies of many site activities. Often
overlooked efficiencies in fuel conservation can be gained
through proper use and maintenance of all vehicles and
equipment.
Transporters and field workers should ensure proper
inflation and maintenance of tires at all times. Rolling
resistance, an indicator of a tire's fuel efficiency, differs
from tire to tire. Under-inflated tires increase the rolling
resistance of vehicles and, correspondingly, decrease their
fuel economy. Tire pressure monitoring systems on new
vehicles are not a substitute for proper tire maintenance.
Decisions regarding tire purchases are expected to soon
become more informed. In March 2010, the U.S.
Department of Transportation (DOT) established test
procedures to be used by tire manufacturers in a new
consumer information program that generates comparative
performance information for tire replacement. When fully
implemented, the program will provide point-of-sale and
online information (including a rating system) on fuel
efficiency, safety, and durability of passenger car tires.
EPA recommends instituting vehicle and equipment
maintenance plans that assure:
Engine tune-ups in accordance with manufacturer
recommendations, including optimal frequency
Absence of dirt or insects in the fuel tank or line
Tight connections and well lubricated moving parts
Periodic replacement of filters in air and fuel systems
Use of the manufacturer's recommended grade of motor
oil, which can impact fuel economy up to 2%, and
Effective operation of equipment ballast to keep wheels
from slipping.
Project managers also need to plan periodic
"housekeeping" of onsite fuel storage tanks to assure:
Minimal contact between the fuel and water; every tank
should be emptied periodically to remove any water from
the tank bottom
Sampling and testing of any standing water in tanks to
determine existence of microbial populations; microbial
organisms can degrade fuel (particularly biodiesel) and
cause plugging in dispensers and vehicle fuel filters, and
Addition of biocides for both conventional and biodiesel
fuels wherever biological growth in the fuel has been a
problem; biocides used with diesel fuels work equally
well with biodiesel.
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Stationary sources (or point sources) of air pollutants
caused by fuel use during cleanup primarily involve the
onsite facilities that operate ex situ groundwater, soil, or
sediment treatment systems and the onsite equipment used
to generate power. Components of many treatment systems
may be powered by fuel such as diesel, gasoline, and
propane or by electricity generated onsite from fossil fuels.
Facilities typically are required to install state-of-the-art
pollution controls to prevent degradation of ambient air
quality in areas that have achieved the NAAQS or to install
the most protective pollution controls to help an area meet
the NAAQS. Particularly in non-attainment areas,
hazardous waste site cleanups should minimize negative
impacts on minority populations, low-income populations,
and sensitive subpopulations.
Pending the issuance of regulations and guidance on
stationary diesel engines, EPA encourages project
managers to take steps to reduce emissions from non-
mobile diesel equipment.5 Significant fuel and air emission
reductions during site cleanup can be gained by properly
maintaining and retrofitting diesel-fueled compression
engines in equipment such as pumps, blowers, and air
compressors or diesel-powered electricity generators. The
California Air Resources Board (CARB) list of verified diesel
emission control strategies includes control devices
applicable to small stationary engines.6
Additional opportunities for reducing air emissions from
stationary sources include:
Replacing gasoline engines with ones powered by diesel,
which is more powerful and 30-35% more fuel efficient
Using solar or wind energy resources instead of diesel to
generate electricity for operating small equipment such
as groundwater circulation pumps, and
Considering hydrogen and fuel cell generators in
Cleanup equipment should be reassessed on a frequent
basis to determine when to replace equipment as a result
of age or availability of advanced technologies.
Public/private grants or incentives may be available to
offset these engine repower (replacement) costs. Frequent
reassessment also helps identify opportunities for
equipment downsizing to reduce fuel use as site conditions
change. Green remediation BMPs specific to remedies
involving pump and treat technology, bioremediation, soil
vapor extraction or air sparging, and other commonly used
cleanup technologies are described in companion fact
sheets available from EPA's Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response (OSWER).7
Daily Routines
Transportation plans developed during remedial action
planning should evaluate anticipated fuel use and specify
strategies to minimize fuel consumption through efficient
transportation routes, transfer of only full loads, and
selection of appropriately sized vehicles for the task at
hand. Using an undersized excavator for contaminated soil
removal, for example, may extend cleanup duration and
ultimately use more fuel, increase air emissions, and
increase project costs. Similarly, use of an oversized truck
to transport a small amount of hazardous waste to an
offsite disposal facility would result in wasted fuel.
Site management plans should include BMPs to protect
land surfaces and manage or minimize waste during
cleanup, such as:
Selecting high-quality equipment lubricants made of
biodegradable ingredients such as food-grade grease
and canola-based hydraulic fluid; associated purchasing
costs are typically higher than petroleum-based oil but
lower than synthetic products
emergencies; fuel cell power generators relying on newly
developed dry fuel cartridges also can be used in long-
term support systems such as telecommunications.
Diesel Consumption in an Illustrative
Excavation and Soil Amendment Project
Adding retrofitting devices such as a lean NOx catalyst and
a diesel particulate filter could reduce these emissions by
as much as 25% for NOx and 90% for PM.
Removing contaminated soil through use of an earth mover with a 1990
200-hp engine operating for 1 00 days
Hauling 35,000 yd of excavated soil to an offsite waste disposal facility
300 miles away, by way of 60-yd3, 425-hp tractor trailers'15'
Importing wood milling and agricultural waste from sources 50 miles
away, by way of a 60-yd3, 300-hp truck'b)
Applying 2,000 tons of soil amendments over 20 acres, using a 1 990
290-hp, 60-yd3 dump truck and 1 990 1 70-hp grader
Using two medium-duty pickup trucks for site preparation and remedy
construction over six months'b)
Total diesel consumption and air emissions
'ฐ' Diesel Emissions Quantifier; http://cfpub.epa.gov/quantifier/view/welcome.cfm
' ' including use of ultra low-sulfur diesel, as required for on-road applications
Diesel
Consumption
(gallons)
6,400
77,000
2,400
260
380
86,440
gallons
PM
Emission
(pounds)'0'
100
770
100
8
7
985
pounds
NOx
Emission
(pounds)'0'
1,100
10,970
1400
1
170
13,641
pounds
C02
Emission
(tons)'0'
70
850
30
3
4
957
tons
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Cleaning up any spilled fuels immediately to avoid
damage to vehicles or engine bodies, inadvertent
removal of safety decals, and seepage to soil or water
Handling all materials used to absorb fuel spills in
accordance with health and safety requirements and
storing the material in noncombustible containers, and
Properly disposing or recycling spent materials or liquid
waste such as tires, transmission or brake fluids, used oil
and filters, wash-rack waste, coolant, and spent solvent.
Efficiencies can be gained through better planning and
combining of onsite or offsite trips to reduce overall
mileage traveled and by avoiding "cold starts" that use
more fuel. Simple changes in driving techniques can also
improve fuel economy:
Avoid rapid acceleration, braking, and excessive speeds,
which can lower gas mileage as much as 30% on
highways
Learn the speed limit for optimal economy of specific
vehicles; each 5-mph speed increment above 60-mph
highway travel can be equivalent to paying an additional
$0.24 at the gasoline pump
Remove unneeded items in a vehicle; each 100 pounds
of extra weight can reduce gas mileage up to 2%, and
Use overdrive gearing to reduce an engine's speed,
which in turn reduces engine wear.
Vehicle Fleets
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
requires federal agencies to achieve a 20% reduction in
fleet consumption of petroleum and 10% annual increase
in fleet consumption of alternative fuel by 2015, as
compared to a 2005 baseline. These goals can be
achieved through measures such as substitution of cars for
light trucks, an increase in vehicle load factors, a decrease
in vehicle miles traveled, and a decrease in fleet size. Some
states require reductions in fossil fuel use and GHG
generation that exceed these federal targets.
Executive Order (E.G.) 13514 of October 2009 requires
federal agencies to develop and implement innovative
policies and practices for reducing GHG emissions,
including GHG planning, reporting, and accounting
procedures. EPA recommends that plans for operating
vehicle fleets used for site cleanup emulate the fuel
conservation strategies of E.O. 13514, which focus on:
Using low GHG-emitting vehicles such as alternative fuel
vehicles
Optimizing the number of vehicles in a fleet, and
Reducing the total consumption of petroleum products by
fleets (of greater than 20 vehicles) by a minimum of 2%
annually through 2020, relative to a 2005 baseline.
E.O. 13514 prohibits federal fleets from acquiring vehicles
that are not low GHG-emitting vehicles and uses GHG
reduction strategies such as:
Incorporating incentives to reduce GHG emissions
through changes in utility or delivery services, modes of
transportation, or other supply chain activities
Implementing strategies and accommodations for transit,
travel, training, and conferencing that actively support
lower-carbon commuting and travel by workers, and
Working with vendors and service contractors to obtain
information for tracking and reducing "scope 3" GHG
emissions, which apply to sources not owned or directly
controlled by an agency but relating to agency activities.
Influential factors affecting GHG emission include hours of
equipment use, load factor, fuel consumption, density
conversion, emission factors, and engine horsepower/tier
level. Tracking and reporting of GHG and criteria
pollutants during site cleanup can be simplified by new
commercial or government-sponsored software as well as
services offered by equipment rental organizations. EPA
offers several planning tools, including the:
Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator (MOVES) to predict
gram-per-mile emissions of hydrocarbons (HC), CO,
NOx, CO2, PM, and air toxics under various conditions,
and
NONROAD Model, for estimating air pollution
inventories of nonroad engines, equipment, and
vehicles.8
Requirements for emission reduction and tracking can be
integrated into contracts for cleanup services and products,
including those applying to long-term O&M. Examples of
contracting language currently used in EPA regions are
available in EPA's Green Response and Remedial Action
Contracting and Administrative Toolkit.9 The Northeast
Diesel Collaborative and some state or local government
agencies also have developed model contract language to
control diesel emissions from construction projects.10
Advanced Diesel Technologies
EPA has set specific limits on the amount of air pollutants
that can be released into the environment from various
engine types. These standards are structured in a four-
tiered progression, with each tier being phased in (based
on horsepower rating) over several years. The first federal
standards (Tier 1) for new nonroad diesel engines were
issued in 1994 for engines over 50 hp and phase-in from
1996 to 2000. In 1998, EPA issued Tier 1 standards for
vehicles under 50 hp and more stringent standards (Tier 2
and Tier 3) for all equipment with phase-in from 2000 to
2008. Tier 3 standards only apply to engine sizes of 50 to
750 hp.
In 2004, EPA introduced Tier 4 standards to be phased in
from 2008 through 2015. These standards require 90%
reductions in emissions of PM and NOx. The reductions
can be achieved through integration of advanced diesel
technologies for engines and exhaust systems, such as
oxidation catalysts and particulate filters.
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Clean diesel technologies applied to on-road and nonroad
vehicles can significantly reduce diesel pollution created
during site investigation and remediation. EPA recommends
using three primary strategies to reduce diesel emissions:
Rebuild engines to meet a cleaner emission standard
Replace (repower) aged engines or entire vehicles with
cleaner burning ones, or
Retrofit vehicles and equipment with technologies to
reduce harmful impacts of diesel exhaust, preferably
using technologies verified through EPA's National Clean
Diesel Campaign11 or CARB; many EPA regions now
recommend or require machinery and equipment to be
retrofit with advanced diesel technologies, as part of
regional "green cleanup" policies.12
Diesel engines tend to last longer than gasoline engines
and are commonly retrofit with a form of advanced exhaust
aftertreatment to reduce emissions. One form of advanced
technology is the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC), which is
a flow-through device that oxidizes CO, gaseous
hydrocarbons, and some particulate matter. A DOC can:
Be installed on almost any new or used engine
Be used with conventional diesel fuel, biodiesel, and
other alternative fuels
Reduce emission of PM by 20-40%, HC by 40-75%, and
CO up to 60%, and
Cost $1,00042,000 for a base metal catalyst.
A diesel particulate matter filter (DPF) is a device usually
made of ceramic that collects particulate matter in an
exhaust stream. High temperatures of the exhaust or an
added heat source enable particles collected in the filter to
oxidize into less harmful components. Passive DPFs rely on
exhaust heat to oxidize trapped particles, while active DPFs
employ heating devices powered by electricity or fuel
burning. A DPF:
Can be installed on engines with sufficient exhaust
temperatures, such as 250-300ฐC for passive systems or
lower temperatures for active systems
Typically reduces emission of PM by 95%, hydrocarbons
by 90%, and CO by 90%
Requires use of ultra low-sulfur diesel (ULSD)
May need periodic cleaning to remove accumulated ash
or soot, and
Typically costs more than $8,000, depending on vehicle
types, engine sizes, and installation requirements.
A partial diesel particulate
filter (pDPF) combines
beneficial features of a
DOC and DPF. One
example of a pDPF
frequently used in the
cleanup industry is the
diesel multi-stage filter
(DMF). As a flow-through
device, a pDPF experiences
less pressure drop than a
DPF, while its particle oxidation technology often achieves
higher removal efficiency than a DOC. Vehicles retrofit with
pDPFs must meet minimum exhaust temperatures for the
filters to be effective. A pDPF can:
Be used on most four-stroke engines in on-road
applications if minimum temperature criteria are met
Reduce emissions by amounts generally ranging between
those of a DOC and a DPF
Need less frequent cleaning or replacement
Eliminate the need for routine cleaning of ash from
exhaust systems, and
Range in cost from $4,000 to $8,000.
Retrofitting of this
emergency response
vehicle with a DMF was
completed in 2008 as
part of EPA Reg/on I O's
ongoing clean emission
initiative.
DOC, DPF, and pDPF equipment often is combined with
closed crankcase ventilation technology, which reduces HC
and PM emission from an engine crankcase or oil pan.
Another option for advanced retrofitting is selective
catalytic reduction (SCR), an emerging NOx emission
reduction technology that can be combined with filter and
catalyst technologies to reduce emissions of other criteria
pollutants. SCR involves injection (into an engine exhaust
stream) of urea or other chemicals that will react over a
catalyst to form ammonia; the ammonia subsequently
reacts with NOx to form N2 and water. SCR technology
requires use of ULSD and periodic refilling of the chemical
reservoir. Several applications undergoing verification in
the Clean Diesel Emerging Technologies Program suggest
that SCR technology could reduce NOx by 65%. SCR
systems range in cost from $12,000 to $20,000.
Project managers may be able to take advantage of
government funding sources to help cover the costs of
retrofit installations and downtime. For example, the
California Carl Moyer Memorial Air Quality Standards
Attainment Program and the Texas Emissions Reduction
Plan offer grants for clean diesel programs.13
Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC)*
Diesel particulate matter filter (DPF)*
Partial diesel particulate filter (pDPF)
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
Emission Reductions and Costs of
Diesel Retrofit Technologies14'15
PM HC CO
20-40% 40-75% <60%
95% 90% 90%
50% 75% 75%
NOx Cost Range
$1,00042,000
>$8,000
$4,00048,000
65% $12,000420,000
*DOC and DPF technologies can be combined in modular configurations for higher performance, at a cost of $8,000-
$10,000
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Alternative Fuels and Fuel Additives
Transportation fuel can be used in engines of mobile or
stationary equipment and machinery needed for cleanup as
well as the on-road or nonroad vehicles used for a project.
EPA recommends selecting the most suitable type of fuel(s)
for site cleanup based on evaluation of the tradeoffs
associated with each fuel's: (1) primary energy source, (2)
particular production process and inputs, and (3)
availability and transport. In general, substitution of
conventional gasoline with diesel can reduce GHG
emissions up to 30% due to the higher combustion
efficiency of diesel.
Ultra Low-Sulfur Diesel
ULSD is a refined, cleaner diesel fuel with a sulfur content
of 15 ppm or less that can be used in any diesel engine.
Although only new on-road diesel engines are currently
required under federal regulations to use ULSD, after
December 1, 2010, ULSD also will be required for
nonroad engines (when sourced from large refiners and
importers) and in all highway sales of diesel fuel. By 201 2,
it will be required for marine and locomotive engines.16
Similar requirements have become or are becoming
effective in some states prior to the federal requirements.
All diesel imported to or produced in California since
2006, for example, has been ULSD. States also may
require ULSD use in particular programs. The Minnesota
Pollution Control Agency uses this approach for leaking
underground storage tank projects funded by the American
Recovery and Reinvestment Act;17 all off-road diesel-
powered vehicles and equipment (both mobile and
stationary) with engine ratings of 50 hp or more must use
ULSD and be equipped with retrofit emission control
devices verified by EPA or CARB.
Advantages of ULSD include:
Capability for storage in the same tanks as conventional
diesel and use of the same fueling systems
A 5-9% reduction in PM (without any filters), depending
on baseline sulfur levels, and up to a 95% reduction in
sulfur dioxide levels
Compatibility to deploy advanced emission control
technologies (DOC, DPF, and SCR) on new and
retrofitted diesel engines, resulting in additional emission
reductions, and
Reduced engine wear and tear and potential increase in
time between manufacturer-specified oil changes, and
generally lower maintenance costs.
Project managers can anticipate that remaining transition
from conventional diesel to ULSD may slightly increase fuel
costs (+$0.05/gallon) but save more than $0.03/gallon in
maintenance costs for heavy equipment and vehicles.
All heavy machinery
deployed for removal
of petroleum HC-
contaminated soil at
the Terminal 4
portion of the
Portland Harbor
Superfund Site in
Oregon has used
ULSD in advance of
federal requirements.
Biofuel
Increased use of biomass-based renewable fuel can be
another opportunity for reducing air polluting emissions.
The quantity of fossil fuel in a transportation fuel can be
replaced or reduced by including renewable fuel produced
from one or more biomass sources. While conventional
biofuel is derived from corn starch, advanced biofuel is
produced from other renewable biomass such as:
Cellulose, hemicellulose, or lignin
Sugar or non-corn starch
Waste material such as agricultural crop residue
Planted trees and tree residue
Animal waste material and animal byproducts
Slash and pre-commercial thinning of vegetation
Algae, or
Separated food waste such as recycled cooking grease.
Renewable fuel also can be derived from degradation of
biomass at landfills or sewage waste treatment facilities.
This biogas consists mainly of methane rather than ethanol.
Biodiesel blends contain biodiesel mixed with petroleum-
based diesel fuel. Blends of 80% petroleum diesel with
20% biodiesel (B20) can be used in unmodified diesel
engines. Procedures for converting to use of blends
containing higher percentages of biodiesel typically involve
cleaning the tanks that were previously used to store
conventional diesel.
Preventive maintenance for equipment rigs using higher
blends includes more frequent replacement of the fuel
filters. Carrying extra filters "on rig" can significantly avoid
work disruption and additional field demobilization and
remobilization otherwise needed for filter replacement.
Some biodiesel blends also could clog a pDPF;
manufacturer confirmation for a particular filter's
compatibility with a particular blend is recommended.
Using pure biodiesel (B100) may require engine
modifications to avoid maintenance and performance
problems. Handling and storage precautions also may be
needed for B100 and some biodiesel blends, depending
on site-specific climates as well as a fuel's petroleum and
biomass constituents.18 Any biodiesel used for blending
should meetASTM D6751 standards.
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Substitution of conventional diesel with B100 can:
Reduce tail pipe emissions up to 47% percent for PM,
67% for unburned HC, and 48% for CO, but increase
NOx emissions up to 1 0%
Reduce emission of sulfates up to 100% and HC
precursors of ozone by 50%
Help protect sensitive environments in the event of spills,
due to their reduced toxicity (less toxic than table salt)
and biodegradable nature (faster than sugar), and
Improve lubricity of some engines, consequently reducing
engine wear and tear.
Depending on the selected blend of biodiesel and site-
specific conditions, biodiesel use may be impacted by:
Slight differences in power, torque, and fuel economy
Freezing points higher than petroleum diesel, which can
cause fuel to gel and related pouring difficulty, and
Potential need for a stability additive when stored for
extended periods.
The price of biodiesel may be slightly higher (an average of
+ $0.08 per gallon) than regular diesel in some regions,
depending on the production processes and availability.
The National Biodiesel Board maintains maps of biodiesel
retailer locations across the United States.19
In addition to considering GHG generation during fuel
burning, selection of biofuel should account for a fuel's full
lifecycle emission impacts. The impacts include both direct
and indirect emissions from factors such as land use
changes that result from increased biofuel demand. Project
managers can learn more about biofuel production,
distribution, and use in analytical reports and other
materials compiled by EPA's Renewable Fuel Standard
Program, including the Agency's annual renewable fuel
standards.20 The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office
of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy (EERE) also offers
online information about selecting biofuels based on
constituent biomass.21
Availability and selection of renewable biofuels at a site
undergoing cleanup may also be driven by state standards.
In early 2010, for example, CARB adopted a Low Carbon
Fuel Standard to reduce use of carbon-intensive
transportation fuels. Regulations supporting implementation
of the standard may include fuel specifications for gasoline
with 85% ethanol (E85) and biodiesel/renewable diesel
produced or sold within the state.
Cleanup project managers can investigate other renewable
biofuel options at sites in close proximity to innovative fuel
producers. Sites in or near San Francisco, CA, King
County, WA, or Philadelphia, PA, for example, can now
purchase commercial-grade biodiesel made from recycled
cooking grease or other types of "brown grease." Similarly,
algae-produced biodiesel may soon be available from
government or commercial test facilities in some U.S.
regions. Advantages of algae-based fuel are expected to
include:
Avoidance of competition with agricultural land,
products, or fresh water use
A higher yield per acre (over 100 times more) than
biodiesel produced from plants or vegetable oils, and
Potential use of microalgae strains capable of thriving on
seawater or treatment plant wastewater.22
Gasoline blends with up to 85% ethanol can be used in all
flexible fuel vehicles (flex-fuel vehicles, or FFVs). FFVs
typically experience no performance loss but operate 20-
30% fewer miles per gallon (mpg) when fueled with E85.
Information about modifying vehicles to operate on alcohol
blends and other alternative fuels is available online from
EPA's Office of Transportation and Air Quality (OTAQ).23
Profile: Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton
San Diego County, CA
* Used clean diesel technology to excavate 120,000yd of
soil contaminated by metals, dioxins/furans, and pesticides
* Selected biodiesel blends (primarily B20) to power all field
equipment used for excavation
* Retrofitted two equipment pieces with DPFs, which reduced
particulates by more than 85%
* Selected six equipment pieces classified as Tier 3
technology, which reduced PM10 emissions by 63% when
compared to Tier I technology
Transported 30,380 tons of excavated soil by way of train
rather than trucks, an equivalency of removing 1,215 trucks
(of 25-ton capacity) off southern California highways
Potentially integrating cleanup activities into Camp
Pendleton's shift to clean fuel technology, which includes
use of 320 electric vehicles routinely charged at an onsite
8-station charging facility powered by solar resources.
Fuel Additives
Project planning can also take advantage of many fuel
additives available from specialty fuel retailers. Additives
can enhance fuel performance and often result in improved
fuel economy and lower air emissions. Although many
gasoline, diesel, biodiesel, and detergent additives are
available, as registered with EPA,24 certain categories can
achieve significant reductions in targeted compound
emissions.
Emulsified diesel is a blended mixture of diesel fuel, water,
and emulsifying and stabilizing additives that can reduce
emissions of PM up to 60% and NOx up to 20%. One
example is PuriNOx, a water emulsion alternative fuel
verified by EPA in reducing emission of PM by 1 6-58% and
NOx by 9-20% in heavy-duty 2- and 4-cycle engines when
used at temperatures higher than 20ฐF."
Other EPA-verified fuel additives to consider include cetane
enhancers, which can reduce NOx emission up to 5%, and
platinum-based fuel additives undergoing additional EPA
research. Fuel-borne catalysts verified under EPA's
Environmental Technologies Verification Program provide
another option.25 More information on verified alternative
fuels and additives is available from EPA26 and CARB.27
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It's Only One SUV I A 15-mpg passenger vehicle used
during site preparation, remedy construction, and five years of
remedy operation, traveling a weekly average of 100 miles for
onsite and local activities, would consume more than 1,700
gallons of gasoline . . . emitting the equivalent of 15.1 metric
tons of CO2.
Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator:
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/calculator.html
Fuel Efficient and Alternative Vehicles
From 1990 through 2006, transportation accounted for
47% of the net increase in total U.S. emissions of GHG. In
2006 alone, mobile sources caused an estimated 28% of
the U.S. GHG emission. Mobile sources used during site
cleanup typically include:
Light-duty vehicles, which constitute a category of
vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) below
8,500 pounds, such as passenger cars, sport-utility
vehicles (SUVs), light-duty trucks, and medium-duty
passenger vehicles
Heavy-duty commercial vehicles such as cargo vans or
light trucks rated above 8,500 pounds GVWR; a truck of
this weight class is commonly used during site cleanup as
a base platform for equipment such as hollow-stem
auger drill rigs, and
Nonroad mobile sources powered by internal
combustion engines but not used for transportation (and
subject to other CAA regulations), including construction
machinery such as bulldozers, excavators, and forklifts.28
Replacement of aged vehicles
with newer ones operated by
more fuel-efficient engines or
relying on alternative fuel can
significantly reduce fossil fuel
consumption and associated
air emissions. Deploying vehicles with higher fuel efficiency
for both onsite and offsite activities should also lead to
lower fuel costs for site cleanup. Additional savings can be
gained by non-government fleet owners when purchasing
alternative vehicles qualified for federal or state tax credits.
Each gallon of gasoline
consumed during site
cleanup results in a 20-
pound emission of CO2.
Alternative vehicles include those using electric, hybrid
gasoline/electric, or compressed natural gas fuel systems.
When purchasing alternative vehicles, project managers
and fleet owners can use life cycle analysis to evaluate the
options and optimize decisions. Environmental benefits of
converting to electric vehicles (EVs), for example, can be
greatly enhanced if the needed electricity is produced from
onsite or "upstream" renewable resources.
Decisions on whether, and when, to replace aged vehicles
with new models may be affected by upcoming changes in
the automotive market. For example, standards proposed
by EPA and DOT's National Highway Safety Administration
in September 2009, would require all 2012-2016 model
light-duty vehicles (which are responsible for nearly 60% of
all transportation-related GHG) to meet specific criteria for
GHG emissions and fleet average gas mileage.29
Electric Vehicles
Increased substitution of conventional vehicles with EVs is
one option for integrating alternative vehicles during site
cleanups. An EV employs an electric motor powered by an
onboard, rechargeable storage battery that is periodically
recharged by an external source of electricity. Vehicles
powered by electricity offer the advantages of:
Cleaner operation than conventionally powered vehicles,
due to the absence of polluting byproducts generated by
internal combustion engines
A "tank-to-wheels" efficiency about three times higher
than the typical 20% conversion efficiency of an internal
combustion engine vehicle (due to
engine friction, air pumping, and
wasted heat)
Potential incentives offered by
government agencies, which can
offset higher capital costs
Quieter operation, and
Fewer moving parts, with no oil
changes.
Electric Vehicle
Parking Only
Project managers can consider use of low-speed
neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) for local trips or
onsite activities such as maintaining field equipment or
collecting field data. Full recharge of a NEV can be
completed in 2-3 hours when using a 220-volt outlet or in
6-8 hours with a standard 1 10-volt outlet. Larger all-
electric vehicles expected to enter the U.S. market in 2010-
2012 are predicted to travel 100-200 miles before
needing a recharge.
Hybrid Vehicles
Another option is to substitute conventional vehicles with
hybrid vehicles. A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct
sources of power. The most common is a hybrid electric
vehicle that employs an internal combustion engine and
one or more electric motors. Hybrid vehicles offer the
advantages of:
Regenerative braking that activates drivetrain resistance,
causing the wheels to slow down; in return, energy from
the wheels turns the motor (which functions as a
generator) to convert energy normally wasted during
coasting and braking into electricity, which is stored in a
battery until needed by the electric motor
Electric motor drive/assist that provides additional power
for engine acceleration, allowing a smaller, more
efficient engine to be used, and
Automatic start/shutoff systems programmed to cut an
engine when a vehicle comes to a stop and restart it
when the accelerator is pressed; this feature prevents
wasted energy from idling.
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Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) expected to become
available by 2012 will rely on battery-supplied electricity to
travel longer distances (10-40 miles) before activation of
the gas engine. Full recharging of a PHEV battery will take
approximately 6 hours when using a 220-volt circuit.
Another innovative technology is used in hydraulic hybrid
vehicle (HHVs), which integrate new designs for
regenerative braking, optimum engine control, and engine
shut-off during "stop and go" operation. HHV
demonstration has shown that HHV technology can
improve fuel efficiency of light-duty trucks and SUVs up to
70% and reduce their CO2 emissions by 40%.30
EERE's Alternative Fueling Station Locator provides online
mapping of refueling stations for hiodiesel, compressed
natural gas, electric, ethanol, and hydrogen fuel.33
EPA Clean A'r Excellence Awards merited in 2009 for clean air
technology included the:
* Caterpillar D7E track-type tractor, which uses an electric
drive system to decrease fuel consumption by 10-30% and
increase dozing efficiency by 25%, while using fewer
mechanical parts and fluids
* Kenworth natural gas powered vehicle, which uses a small
injection of diesel to more effectively ignite natural gas
serving as the primary fuel source (reducing NOx emissions
by 27%, PM by 40%, and CO2 by 24% when compared to
diesel fueling)
Information on other award-winning technologies applicable
to vehicles used for cleanup is available at:
http://www.epa.gov/air/caaac/recipients.html.
Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is one alternative fuel
targeted under the Energy Policy Act. Natural gas vehicles
(NGVs) are fueled exclusively with CNG or are capable of
natural gas and gasoline fueling (bi-fueling). Many light-
duty vehicles can be retrofit to use CNG engines, and
natural gas engines and fueling systems are available for
heavy-duty vehicles such as waste hauling trucks.
Advantages of NGVs include:
Combustion resulting in lower amounts of harmful
emissions such as GHG, NOx, PM, and other pollutants,
when compared to gasoline or diesel
Ready availability of CNG in the fuel distribution market
(although retail fueling stations are sparse), and
Demonstrated success in many industrial or government
fleets.
Fuel economy of an NGV is comparable to vehicles
powered by conventional gasoline.
EERE offers more information on performance, energy
efficient technologies, and comparisons of alternative
vehicles.31 In partnership with EPA, EERE also offers
information about fuel economies of the various alternative
vehicles.32
Key Resources
Federal or state programs offer tools and information
resources to help implement vehicle- and fuel-related BMPs
for green cleanups.
ป EPA's National Clean Diesel Campaign provides
information and incentive funding for cost-effective,
verified technology to reduce harmful diesel emissions.34
ป EPA's SmarfWayฎ collaborates with the freight industry to
reduce air emissions and improve fuel efficiency by
selecting certified vehicles, tractors, and trailers.35
ป The EPA Environmental Technology Verification program
provides information on verified technologies for
products such as mobile source devices, emulsified fuels,
and baghouse filtration systems.36
ป The California Air Resource Board offers information on
diesel or alternative fuels and verifies diesel emission
control products.37
* Regional Clean Diesel Collaboratives, which are public-
private partnerships, aimed at improving air quality
through projects using innovations in diesel engines,
alternative fuels, and renewable energy technologies.
Members of the (now seven) collaboratives work together
to leverage funding, share technology, and professional
expertise.38
A Sampling of Success Measures for
Clean Fuel & Emissions
Lower rates of fuel consumption as a result of using more
efficient vehicles, machinery, and equipment
Increased substitution of fossil fuel with fuel produced from
renewable resources
Lower emission of GHG, PM, and other air toxics and
associated global warming
Reduced air emissions and fugitive dust impacting local
communities
Lower cleanup costs due to reduced fuel consumption and
equipment repairs
Beneficial use of industrial or agricultural waste as fuel
feedstock
Increased energy independence of sites undergoing
cleanup
Reduced loads on fuel production and transport
infrastructures
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Clean Fuel & Emissions:
Recommended Checklist
Operations and Maintenance
Implement an idle reduction plan
Assure proper tune-ups of vehicles and equipment
and maintenance of fuel storage tanks
Establish routines for daily activities such as using
biodegradable lubricants, closely managing
petroleum-product waste materials, driving efficiently,
and inflating tires properly
Track fuel consumption and associated emission of
GHG and air toxics and set reduction goals
Advanced Diesel Technologies
Rebuild engines to meet cleaner emission standards
Repower vehicles with new engines or replace aged
vehicles with new vehicles
Retrofit existing equipment with aftertreatment devices
Alternative Fuels and Fuel Additives
Retrofit all existing nonroad equipment to use ULSD
Use biodiesel produced from waste or agricultural
products with reduced lifecyle GHG emissions
Select fuel with additives that can further reduce air
emissions
Alternative Vehicles
Replace conventional vehicles with electric fuel,
hybrid, or compressed natural gas vehicles
References [Web accessed: July 2010]
U.S. EPA; Principles for Greener Cleanups; August 27, 2009;
http://www.epa.gov/oswer/greencleanups/principles.html
U.S. EPA; Green Remediation: Incorporating Sustainable Environmental
Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites; EPA 542-R-08-002,
April 2008; http://www.cluin.org/greenremediation
U.S. EPA; Climate Change - Regulatory Initiatives: Endangerment and
Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under the Clean
Air Act. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/endangerment.html
U.S. EPA; Particulate Matter: Health and Environment;
http://www.epa.gov/oar/particlepollution/health.html
U.S. EPA; Proposed Rule; January 24, 2008; Emission Standards for
Stationary Diesel Engines; http://www.epa.gov/EPA-
AIR/2008/January/Day-24/al 1 18.htm
California Air Resources Board; Diesel Certifications, Verifications, and
Related Links; http://www.arb.ca.gov/diesel/cv.htm
U.S. EPA OS WE R; Green Remediation Best Management Practices:
a Pump and Treat Technologies; EPA 542-F-09-005, December 2009
b Bioremediation; EPA 542-F-l 0-006, March 2010
cSo// Vapor Extraction & Air Sparging; EPA 542-F-l 0-007, March 2010
U.S. EPA; Modeling and Inventories;
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/models.htm
U.S. EPA; Green Response and Remedial Action Contracting and
Administrative Toolkit; http://www.clu-
in.org/greenremediation/docs/Green_RR_Action_Contract_Admn_Tool
kit_July2009.pdf
Northeast Diesel Collaborative; Diesel Emission Controls in
Construction Projects: Model Contract Specification;
http://www.northeastdiesel.org/construction.html
U.S. EPA; Diesel Retrofit Technology Verification;
http://www.epa.gov/oms/retrofit/verif-list.htm
U.S. EPA; CLU-IN: Green Remediation Focus;
http://www.cluin.org/greenremediation/regions/index.cfm
U.S. EPA; National Clean Diesel Campaign;
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/diesel/slt/funding.htm7fnational
U.S. EPA; Diesel Retrofit Technology Verification: Technical Summary;
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/retrofit/tech-summary.htm
U.S. EPA; National Clean Diesel Campaign: Emerging Technology List;
http://www.epa.gov/cleandiesel/prgemerglist.htm
U.S. EPA; Direct Final Rule and Notice of Proposed Rulemaking for
Amendments to the Nonroad and Highway Diesel Fuel Regulations;
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/regs/fuels/diesel/420f06033.htm
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency;
http://www. pea .state, mn. us/recovery
U.S. DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory; Biodiesel Handling
and Use Guide; fourth edition, January 2009;
http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/43672.pdf
National Biodiesel Board; Biodiesel Retail Locations;
http://www.biodiesel.org/buyingbiodiesel/retailfuelingsites/
U.S. EPA; Renewable Fuels: Regulations & Standards;
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/fuels/renewablefuels/regulations.htm
U.S. DOE EERE; Biomass Program;
http://wwwl .eere.energy.gov/biomass/
U.S. DOE EERE; Algal Biofuels;
http://wwwl .eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/algalbiofuels.pdf
U.S. EPA; Alternatieve Fuel Conversion;
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/consumer/fuels/altfuels/altfuels.htm
U.S. EPA; List of Registered Fuels and Fuel Additives;
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/additive.htmTflistcertain
U.S. EPA; Environmental Technology Verification Program: Air Pollution
Control Technology Center Verified Technologies;
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/std/etv/vt-apc.html7fmsf
U.S. EPA; Fuels and Fuel Additives; http://www.epa.gov/otaq/fuels.htm
California Air Resources Board; http://www.arb.ca.gov/fuels/fuels.htm
U.S. EPA; Clean Air Nonroad Diesel Rule;
http://www.epa.gov/nonroad-diesel/2004fr/420f04032.htm
29 U.S. EPA OTAQ; Regulations and Standards;
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/climate/regulations/420f09047.htm
30 U.S. EPA; Clean Automotive Technology: Modeling, Testing, and
Research; http://www.epa.gov/oms/technology/420f06043.htm
31 U.S. DOE EERE; Alternative & Advanced Vehicles Data Center;
Vehicles; http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/index.html
32 fueleconomy.gov; http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hybrid_sbs.shtml
33 U.S. DOE EERE; Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center;
Fuels; http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/stations/
34 U.S. EPA; National Clean Diesel Campaign;
http://www.epa.gov/diesel/
35 U.S. EPA; SmartWay; http://www.epa.gov/smartway/
36 U.S. EPA; Environmental Technology Verification Program;
http://www.epa.gov/etv/verifiedtechnologies.html
37 California Air Resources Board; Diesel Programs and Activities;
http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/programs.htm
38 U.S. EPA; National Clean Diesel Campaign; Regional Clean Diesel
Collaboratives;
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/diesel/whereyoulive.htm7fcol I
EPA is publishing this fact sheet as a means of disseminating information
regarding the BMPs of green remediation; mention of specific products or
vendors does not constitute EPA endorsement.
Visit Green Remediation Focus online:
http://cluin.org/greenremediation
For more information, contact:
Carlos Pachon, OSWER/OSRTI (pachon.carlos@epa.gov)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
10
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