National
*f
» V.
Program Research
Compendium
2009-201
eptember 30, 2008
Office of Water
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Office of Water (4304T)
EPA822-R-08-015
September 2008
http: / 7www.epa.gov/water
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Disclaimer
This National Water Program Research Compendium document is a compilation of the research
needed by EPA's National Water Program to successfully achieve its statutory and regulatory
obligations, and its strategic targets and goals outlined in EPA's Strategic Plan and the Water
Program's National Program Guidance. As such, we hope this document provides useful
information and guidance to the public regarding those matters. To the extent the document
mentions or discusses statutory or regulatory authority, it does so for information purposes
only. The document does not substitute for those statutes or regulations, and readers should
consult the statutes or regulations themselves to learn what they require. Neither this
document, nor any part of it, is itself a rule or a regulation. Thus, it cannot change or impose
legally binding requirements on EPA, States, the public, or the regulated community. The
use of words such as "should," "could," "would," "will," "intend," "may," "might,"
"encourage," "expect," and "can," in this document means solely that something is intended,
suggested or recommended, and not that it is legally required. Any expressed intention,
suggestion or recommendation does not impose legally binding requirements on EPA,
States, the public, or the regulated community. Agency decision makers remain free to
exercise their discretion in choosing to implement the actions described in this Compendium.
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Foreword
Results and Accountability Innovation and Collaboration Best Available Science
This National Water Program Research Compendium is a compilation of the research needed by
EPA's National Water Program to successfully achieve its statutory and regulatory
obligations as well as the strategic targets and goals outlined in EPA's Strategic Plan and the
Water Program's National Program Guidance. The National Water Program Research Strategy,
which is currently under development, will provide a clearer articulation of the research
priorities for the National Water Program.
The goals of the National Water Program Research Strategy (i.e., Water Research Strategy) are: (1) to
ensure that the Office of Water's (OW's, inclusive of the Regional Water Management
Divisions) water research, science, and technology needs are identified and documented in a
comprehensive plan; (2) expand partnerships and collaborations across EPA, the federal
research family, and the broader research community to meet water research needs; and (3)
support our commitment to collaborative corporate planning, prioritization and research
management to meet the environmental goals of the National Water Program.
The Water Research Strategy (future) and this Compendium will bring a broader diversity of
relevant and appropriately vetted science to OW's and the Regions' regulatory and non-
regulatory tools and water management decisions, thereby increasing program credibility.
Expanding the science base will help expedite the production of these tools and water
quality environmental outcomes will be achieved faster and quantified better. I invite those
researchers that are conducting, or considering conducting investigations in these areas to let
us know about their work so we can improve our communications.
Michael H. Shapiro
Deputy Assistant Administrator
Office of Water
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Acknowledgements
The development of the National Water Program Research Compendium was made possible
through the collaboration and commitment of the Office of Water Research Coordination
Team. The team provided content, review, and obtained expertise and consensus across the
Water Program that ensured the document is both comprehensive and integrated. Their
names and affiliations are captured below, as are those of other major contributors.
The project described here was managed by the Office of Science and Technology, Office of
Water, USEPA under GS 10F 0105J to the Cadmus Group, Inc. The Office of Water wishes
to thank Dr. George Hallberg, Cadmus Project Manager, and key staff including: Maureen
Stone, Vanessa M. Leiby, Anne Jaffe Murray, Kristy Burt, and Mary Ellen Tuccillo for the
expertise and tirelessness they brought to this project.
Office of Water Research Coordination Team Members (and contributing former members):
Kevin Barnes: OGWDW
Robert Bastian: OWM
Heidi Bethel: OST
Valerie Blank: OGWDW - former
member
Robert Cantilli: OST
Octavia Conerly: OST
Tiffany Crawford: OST
Jill Dean: OGWDW
Diana Eignor: OST
Hiba Ernst: OGWDW/ORD - former
member
Chris Faulkner: OWOW
Kesha Forrest: OGWDW
Stephanie Fulton: Region 4
Major Contributors:
Jan Baxter: Region 9
Ron Landy: Region 3
** The primary contact regarding questions or comments to this document is:
Mary C. Reiley
Biologist
USEPA Headquarters
Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Mail Code: 4304T
Washington, DC 20460
Phone:202-566-1123
Email: reiley.mary(g),epa.gov
Laura Gabanski: OWOW former
member
Hend Galal-Gorchev: OST
Latisha Mapp: OGWDW
Rene Morris: OGWDW - former
member
Sandhya Parshionikar: OGWDW
Arleen Plunkett: OST
Santhini Ramasamy: OST
Mary Reiley: OST**
Crystal Rodgers-Jenkins: OGWDW
Roy Simon: OGWDW
Rick Stevens: OST
Lesley Vazquez-Coriano: OST
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Table of Contents
Disclaimer i
Foreword iii
Acknowledgements v
Crosswalk Research Themes and Program Activities xi
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xv
Executive Summary xix
1 A National Water Program Research Strategy 1
BACKGROUND 1
WATER RESEARCH STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT 2
WATER RESEARCH STRATEGY GOALS 4
MANAGING THE RESEARCH PORTFOLIO 5
DOCUMENT ORGANIZATION 7
ADDENDUM 8
Water Program Drivers and Program Office Goals 8
The National Water Programs 12
2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Programs 19
GROUND WATER AND DRINKING WATER PROTECTION RESEARCH NEEDS 19
Regulatory Development of Drinking Water Standards 21
Source Water Protection 31
Underground Injection Control 33
Water Security 36
REFERENCES 41
3 Science to Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality Protection
Programs 43
WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT PROGRAM RESEARCH NEEDS 44
POTW Treatment and Management 45
Decentralized Wastewater Systems 48
Residuals Management and Treatment 49
Wet Weather Flow Control 51
Water and Wastewater Infrastructure 54
REFERENCES 56
4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs 59
WATERSHED PROTECTION AND RESTORATION PROGRAM RESEARCH NEEDS 60
National Aquatic Resource Surveys 61
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Watershed Management 63
Wetlands in Water Quality Trading 70
Headwater Streams, Adjacent Wetlands, and Isolated Wetlands 73
Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia 74
Invasive Species 76
Ecological Restoration 79
Coral Reef Protection 81
REFERENCES 84
5 Science to Support Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Programs 85
AQUATIC LIFE AND HUMAN HEALTH PROTECTION PROGRAM GOALS 85
AQUATIC LIFE AND HUMAN HEALTH PROTECTION PROGRAM DRIVERS 86
AQUATIC LIFE AND HUMAN HEALTH PROTECTION RESEARCH NEEDS 88
Human Health Effects and Risk Assessments 90
Bioassessment Biocriteria Research 95
Aquatic Life Guidelines Research 97
Aquatic Habitat Research 99
Biosolids Research 103
Nutrients Criteria Research 106
Emerging Contaminants Research 109
Suspended and Bedded Sediments Research 112
Integration of Multiple Stressors Research 114
Socio-Economics Valuation 117
Recreational Waters 119
REFERENCES 122
6 Science to Support Place-Based Water Protection and Restoration Large
Aquatic Ecosystems Programs 125
CHESAPEAKE BAY 126
GREAT LAKES 127
GULF OF MEXICO 128
SOUTH FLORIDA 129
LONG ISLAND SOUND 130
LAKE CHAMPLAIN 131
COLUMBIA RIVER 131
PUGET SOUND 132
THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 133
THE US-MEXico BORDER 133
RESEARCH NEEDS FOR LARGE AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS 134
Excess Nutrients 134
Excess Sedimentation 135
Invasive Species 135
Toxic Substances 135
Climate Change 136
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REFERENCES 136
7 Science to Support Cross-Program Needs 139
SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE INITIATIVE 140
Sustainable Infrastructure Research Needs 140
WATERSHED APPROACH 141
Watershed Approach Research Needs 142
ANALYTICAL METHODS - To DETECT BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS 145
Analytical Methods Research Needs 146
EMERGING CONTAMINANTS 149
Emerging Contaminants Research Needs 150
CLIMATE CHANGE 153
Drivers for Climate Change Research 155
Climate Change Research Needs 156
Index of Topics 159
List of Exhibits
Exhibit 1.1: Office of Water Organizational Chart 13
Exhibit 1.2: EPA Regions 17
Exhibit 2.1: Draft CCL 3 Contaminants (February 2008; 73 FR 9628) 24
Exhibit 5.1: Draft CCL 3 contaminants that may require additional health effects research to
make a regulatory determination 94
Exhibit 5.2: The Biological Condition Gradient illustrates the relationship between implied
anthropogenic stressors and biological condition 96
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Crosswalk - Research Themes and Program
Activities
Program Activities
Pathogens /Recreational
Waters /BEACHES
Invasive Species
Chemical Contaminants
Human Health:
Cont./PPCPs/Nano/
DBPs/CCL/ 6-year/ etc.
Chemical Contaminants-
Aquatic Life: Emerging
Cont./PPCPs/Nano/
etc.
Residuals/ Biosolids
Monitoring and
Assessment
Large Aquatic
Ecosystems
BMP '/ 'Management
Measures and
Effectiveness
Human Health
Assessment and
Protection
21-32, 86, 89-
91, 93-95, 119-
122, 146-153
20-31, 89-94,
111, 149-153
20, 30, 41, 88-
91, 103-105,
109-111
Aquatic Life- Wildlife
Health Assessment
and Protection
97, 114, 146,
154
97, 101-103,
105, 109-111,
114, 118, 149-
153
61-62,99,115
Watershed
Management and
Restoration
106-109, 127-
133
67, 76-79, 107,
133, 135
60-80, 126,
130-135, 143-
144, 149-153
122-124, 135,
146-152
16, 59-69, 142-
144
59-83, 125-136
66-70, 143
Infrastructure and
Treatment
Effectiveness
44-56, 103-105
35, 44-55, 149-
153
49-50, 149-153
43-50, 56
45, 50-52
Analytical Methods
145-148, 149-
153
145-148, 149-
153
145-152
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Program Activities
Underground
Injection/ Carbon
Sequestration
Nutrients/ Hypoxia/
HABs
Source Water/ Surface
Water Protection
Socioeconomics/ Valuatio
n/ Trading
DWandWWOps,
Maintenance /Finance
Habitat Systems,
Wetlands/ Corals,
Headwaters 1 Coastal/ etc.
Wet Weather Floiv
Green
Infrastructure /LID
Climate Change
Biological
Assessment/ Criteria/
TALU
Water Security
Human Health
Assessment and
Protection
33-35
19, 20, 23,31-
33, 142-145
94, 151, 153
36
Aquatic Life- Wildlife
Health Assessment
and Protection
74-76, 106-108
89-90, 108-
109, 117-119
81-84, 86-87,
95, 97, 99-103,
106-108, 114-
117, 119, 125-
136, 146, 154
82, 95, 100-
102, 113-115
Watershed
Management and
Restoration
82, 106-108,
125-137
20, 23, 70-73,
79, 81, 86, 141-
142
69-73, 89-90,
108-109, 117-
119, 143-144
32, 51, 59-64,
69-75, 77-79,
81-84, 86-87,
99-102, 125-
136, 142-144,
154
44, 53, 80, 141-
142
31-34, 44, 52,
133, 136, 153-
158
87, 89, 95-97,
100-102, 108,
113,115
Infrastructure and
Treatment
Effectiveness
25-26, 30, 36-
39, 44-48, 54-
55, 103, MO-
MI
47, 51-53, 152
44, 53, 141-142
31-34, 52, 153-
158
36-40
Analytical Methods
33-35
37-40
Xll
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Program Activities
Water Quantity:
Recharge/Recover/ Storqg
e/ Surface Water
Sustainability/ Reuse/
Desalination
Human Health
Assessment and
Protection
Aquatic Life- Wildlife
Health Assessment
and Protection
Watershed
Management and
Restoration
63-66, 143,
153-154, 157
Infrastructure and
Treatment
Effectiveness
45,47,110,
141, 157
Analytical Methods
1. Note that a complete index listing of research topics covered is provided at the end of this document.
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List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
Action Plan
AIEO
ASR
AWWA
AwwaRF
BAFs
BCG
BEACH Act
Bioterrorism Act
BMPs
BOSC
CADDIS
CAFOs
CBR
CCL
CCL3
CHABs
CLAE
CNMI
CO2
CPSP
CSOs
CWA
DBPs
EcoHAB
EDCs
EMAP
EPA
ERA
ESA
FR
GAO
GI
COM
Guidelines
HABs
HS-IW
Water Security Research and Technical Support Action Plan
American Indian Environmental Office
Aquifer Storage and Recovery
American Water Works Association
American Water Works Association research foundation
Bioaccumulation Factors
Biological Condition Gradient
Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health
Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and
Response Act
Best Management Practices
Board of Scientific Counselors
Causal Analysis/Diagnosis Decision Information System
Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations
Chemical, Biological, and Radiological
Contaminant Candidate List
EPA's Third Contaminant Candidate List
Cyanobacteria
Council of Large Aquatic Ecosystems
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
Carbon Dioxide
Critical Path Science Plan for Development of New or
Revised Recreational Water Quality Criteria
Combined Sewer Overflows
Clean Water Act
Disinfection by-product
Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms
Endocrine Disrupters
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program
Environmental Protection Agency
Ecological Risk Assessment
Ethanesulfonic acid
Federal Register
Government Accountability Office
Green Infrastructure
Gulf of Mexico
Aquatic Life Guidelines
Harmful Algal Blooms
Headwater Stream, Adjacent Wetland, or Isolated Wetland
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HSPD
ICRI
LCR
LCREP
LISS
MARB
MCLGs
MOA
MPRSA
MRB
MYPs
NEP
NESCS
NHSRC
NIST
NMPs
NOAA
NPDES
NPDWRs
NRG
OA
OGWDW
O&M
OMB
ORD
OST
OW
OWM
OWOW
OW-RCT
PAMs
PART
POTW
PPCPs
PWS
qPCR
Reg Det
RMST
SAB
SABS
SBIR
SDWA
SO4
Homeland Security Presidential Directive
International Coral Reef Initiative
Lead and Copper Rule
Lower Columbia River Estuary Partnership
Long Island Sound Study
Mississippi/Atchafalaya River Basin
Maximum Contaminant Level Goals
Mechanism of Action
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
Mississippi River Basin
Multi-Year Plans
National Estuary Program
Non-market Ecosystem Services Classification System
National Homeland Security Research Center
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Nutrient Management Plans
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
National Research Council
Oxanilic acid
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water
Operation and Maintenance
Office of Budget and Management
Office of Research and Development
Office of Science and Technology
Office of Water
Office of Wastewater Management
Office of Wetlands Oceans and Watersheds
Office of Water-Research Coordination Team
Program Activity Measures
Program Assessment Rating Tool
Publicly Owned Treatment Works
Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products
Public Water System
Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
Regulatory Determination
Research Management and Status Tool
Science Advisory Board
Suspended and Bedded Sediments
Small Business Innovative Research
Safe Drinking Water Act
Sulfate
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SSOs
STAC
Stage 2 DBPR
STAR
SWP
TALU
TCR
TCRDSAC
TEVA
TMDL
UCMR
UIC
USDWs
USEPA
UVR
Water Research Strategy
WERF
WIPD
WSD
WSI
WSP
WOC
Sanitary Sewer Overflows
Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee
Stage 2 Disinfection By-Products Rule
Science to Achieve Results
Source Water Protection
Tiered Aquatic Life Use
Total Coliform Rule
Total Coliform Rule Distribution System Advisory
Committee
Threat Ensemble Vulnerability Assessment
Total Maximum Daily Load
Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation
Underground Injection Control
Underground Sources of Drinking Water
United State Environmental Protection Agency
Ultraviolet Radiation
National Water Program Research
Strategy
Water Environment Research Foundation
Water Infrastructure Protection Division
Water Security Division
Water Security Initiative
Water Security Program
Water Quality Criteria
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Executive Summary
EPA's Office of Water (OW) and Regional Water Divisions are responsible for the Agency's
water quality and water resource protection activities including development of national
programs, technical policies, and regulations relating to drinking water, water quality, ground
water, pollution source standards, and the protection of wetlands, marine, and estuarine
areas. Within OW are four main program offices: Office of Ground Water and Drinking
Water (OGWDW); Office of Wastewater Management (OWM); Office of Wetlands,
Oceans, and Watersheds (OWOW); and Office of Science and Technology (OST). OW
partners with the EPA Regions to integrate and implement the Agency's water programs.
National Water Program Goals
The National Water Program has three goals:
1. Ensure clean and safe water and drinking water to protect human health.
2. Protect and restore aquatic ecosystems and human health through watershed and
place-based programs.
3. Protect and restore water quality to ensure the health of aquatic life and aquatic
dependent wildlife.
Four principal programs within OW and the Regions are charged with achieving the
National Water Program Goals:
Drinking water, ground water, source water, and water security protection programs
Wastewater management for water quality protection programs
Watershed and place-based protection and restoration programs
Aquatic life and human health protection programs
Drinking water, ground water, source water and water security protection programs provide
comprehensive protection of drinking water sources, health-based drinking water treatment
standards, and prepare drinking water systems for large-scale contamination events, natural
disasters, terrorist attacks, and other intentional acts.
Wastewater management for water quality protection programs characterize and manage
sources of water quality degradation and provide information on the latest wastewater and
residuals treatment and reuse technologies and management practices. They also manage
potential sources of pollution, such as decentralized wastewater systems and stormwater
runoff.
Watershed and place-based protection and restoration programs provide decision-makers
with the data and tools to select the most appropriate water bodies, restoration methods, and
monitoring schemes to protect and restore the ecological, economic, and cultural services
provided by aquatic ecosystems.
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Aquatic life and human health protection programs ensure that: 1) State-adopted criteria for
pathogens and indicator organisms are current and sound; 2) the science underpinning core
water programs is current and appropriately vetted for use in State and Tribal water quality
standards, total maximum daily loads (TMDLs), permits, assessments, and drinking water
regulations; 3) health effects and human health risk assessment science is available and used
to support human health protection programs; and 4) the National Water Program is able to
address emerging water quality concerns.
The four principal Program offices and the Regions collaborate on special efforts to protect
and restore large aquatic ecosystems.
Strategy Purpose
Results and Accountability - Innovation and Collaboration - Best
Available Science
The goals of the Water Research Strategy are: (1) to ensure that the Office of Water's (OW's,
inclusive of the Regional Water Management Divisions) water research, science, and
technology needs are identified and documented in a comprehensive plan; (2) to expand
partnerships and collaborations across EPA, the federal research family, and the broader
research community to meet water research needs; and (3) support our commitment to
collaborative corporate planning, prioritization and research management to meet the
environmental goals of the National Water Program.
The Water Research Strategy will bring a broader diversity of relevant and appropriately vetted
science to OW's and the Regions' regulatory and non-regulatory tools and water
management decisions, thereby increasing program credibility. Expanding the science base
will help expedite the production of these tools and water quality environmental outcomes
will be achieved faster and quantified better.
The Water Research Strategy will emphasize:
Results and Accountability: We will design the Water Research Strategy to address the long-
term goal set out in the EPA Strategic Plan of providing "Clean and Safe Water." We will
report annually on our progress on the research portfolio and adjust it appropriately to meet
changes in objectives and priorities.
Innovation and Collaboration: Our progress toward water and public health protection
goals depends both on our ability and continued commitment to identify and use innovative
tools, approaches, and solutions to address environmental problems and engage extensively
with our partners, stakeholders, and the public.
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Best Available Science: EPA needs the best scientific information available to anticipate
potential environmental threats, evaluate risks, identify solutions, and develop protective
standards. Sound science helps us ask the right questions, assess information, and
characterize problems clearly to inform Agency decision makers.
Summary of Research Needs
Science to Support Drinking Water and Ground Water Protection
Programs
The drinking water and ground water protection program research needs are captured in
three categories.
*»* Regulatory development and implementation of drinking water standards
*»* Source water protection and underground injection control (UIC)
*»* Water security
To determine what contaminants may require regulations, information on health effects,
occurrence, and potential exposure to the contaminants is needed, as well as information on
analytical methods and treatment technologies. Science-based tools are needed to control
nonpoint source pollution and otherwise unregulated point sources of pollution at the water
resource scale, for source water protection. Minimum requirements for State UIC Programs
must be established to ensure underground injection does not endanger drinking water
sources. EPA's Water Program must provide science and tools so that water utilities can
identify site-specific vulnerabilities, invest in better system protection, and develop
emergency response protocols and methods to detect and respond to threats to drinking
water and wastewater systems.
Health Effects
What are the actual or potential human health effects of known and emerging
pathogens, chemicals, and suites of contaminants and how can the risk assessment
process be improved to best assess these effects?
What is the cumulative risk associated with combinations of contaminants that are
likely to co-occur and affect similar target organs or modes of action?
Method Development
Do analytical methods exist with enough sensitivity, specificity, accuracy and
precision to: (i) detect and quantify the contaminant, and (ii) verify remediation or
removal? For pathogens, can the methods address viability?
Are the methods robust enough to support national occurrence data collection
and/or can they be widely applied to support monitoring for regulatory compliance?
How do we assess drinking water resources and their vulnerability to contamination?
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How do we account for and address climate change impacts on water resources?
(tools to support integrated water resource planning and management at multiple
water resource scales, assessment and multi-decadal projection of water quantity and
quality, and the optimization of choices among water supply management and water
demand management alternatives) ?
What is the state of the science around injected carbon dioxide (CO2)?
What are the physical and chemical processes governing fate and transport of
injected CO2?
What methods are available for monitoring CO2 in the subsurface and for evaluating
those monitoring techniques?
What methods should be used to develop well construction, well plugging, and well
abandonment procedures appropriate for long term CO2 injection?
What technical tools and decision models should be used or built to support aquifer
storage and recovery for non-potable reuse?
What methods and tools are needed to protect water and wastewater utilities from
physical and cyber threats?
How do we evaluate potential utility and system threats and their impacts?
Are there methods and tools to evaluate and address system vulnerabilities?
What are the optimal methods for detection of contaminants and means to
determine and reduce the impact of such events?
Occurrence and Exposure
What is the national occurrence of contaminants and the resultant exposures to the
public?
How is the public exposed to these contaminants (i.e., inhalation, ingestion, dermal),
how often, and for what duration?
What data collection practices best capture the risk for both acute (where applicable)
and chronic exposure?
How do we determine aggregate exposures to the same chemical from multiple
media (e.g., water, air, food)?
Treatment Technologies Management Approaches
What treatment technologies or techniques exist to remediate the contaminant or are
new technologies needed?
Control of pollution at the water resource scale (i.e., watershed and aquifer).
Are methods available to respond to system contamination events?
Are approaches available to decontaminate systems in the event of intentional or
accidental contamination?
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Science to Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality
Protection Programs
Research needs to support wastewater management for water quality protection programs
are summarized under five topic areas:
*»* Publicly owned treatment works (POTW) treatment effectiveness and
management including fate of emerging contaminants
*»* Decentralized wastewater system performance
*»* Residuals management and treatment for wastewater treatment processes and
animal feeding operations
*»* Wet weather flow control technologies and effectiveness
*»* Aging infrastructure
Current issues of concern for wastewater management programs include: peak flow
management (including blending); nutrient control; water reuse; unit process assessment (i.e.,
a review of the functions and capabilities of a facility), evaluation, and modification. The
fate/transport and potential interference/pass through of emerging contaminants, especially
pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are also a priority. Information is
needed to improve the ability of wastewater utilities to cost-effectively assess, maintain,
operate, rehabilitate, and replace their collection and treatment systems. Research needs are
outlined below.
Health Effects
Field studies to determine if contaminants in biosolids pose a public health risk
where biosolids are applied to land.
Method Development
Determine decentralized wastewater system and residuals treatment effectiveness and
management, including fate of emerging contaminants.
Assess system failures and their impacts (including cause and effect studies); leach
field/soil treatment and water acceptance capacity; comprehensive system
management; and fate/transport of pathogens and emerging pollutants.
Accurately account for decentralized systems in TMDL models: evaluate the risk
associated with decentralized systems on a watershed scale; compare and prioritize
at-risk watersheds; the impact of both properly and poorly designed, operated, and
maintained systems; new or refined source tracking and remote sensing methods to
accomplish reliable watershed-scale assessments.
Methods for the detection and identification of pathogens in wastewater, biosolids,
and animal wastes to ensure proper disinfection and stabilization.
Refine methods for microbial source identification and tracking.
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Examine economic costs and benefits of green infrastructure (GI) and develop
methods and protocols for economic parameters.
Develop standard protocols for assessing multiple benefits from GI (e.g., energy
savings, carbon sequestration, urban heat island reduction, biodiversity, water
conservation).
Methods to compare the benefits of GI with those of grey infrastructure approaches.
New and innovative condition assessment and rehabilitation methods and
technologies for sewerage systems.
Comprehensive, integrated management approaches for sewerage systems.
Treatment Technologies Management Approaches
Approaches to reduce and control nutrients and difficult to treat chemicals and
pathogens.
Control emerging contaminants, through additional treatment, source reduction, and
product substitution.
Improve energy efficiency and decentralized power production.
Management and treatment of municipal, industrial and construction wet weather
flows "outside the fence line" of the POTW.
Reduce the volume of wastewater treatment residuals.
Ability of various soil types to provide treatment; treatment system efficiencies for
currently regulated pollutants (pathogens and nutrients), as well as emerging
pollutants of concern (endocrine disrupters, PPCPs, and difficult to treat pathogens);
performance capabilities and reliability of many currently available decentralized
treatment technologies.
Documentation of the effectiveness of current residuals disinfection and stabilization
methods.
Studies to determine the effectiveness of Nutrient Management Plans for animal
livestock operations and other land applications of residuals.
Characterize GI practices and their effectiveness at the watershed scale, taking into
consideration upstream and downstream conditions, some of which can be done
through case studies.
New sewer and treatment system design concepts.
Science to Support Watershed and Place-Based Protection and
Restoration Programs
Research needs for watershed protection and restoration programs are organized under the
foil owing areas:
*»* National aquatic resource assessments
*»* Watershed assessment, management, and incentives
*»* Wetlands in water quality trading
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*»* Headwaters, adjacent wetlands, and isolated wetlands
*»* Gulf of Mexico hypoxia
*»* Invasive species
*»* Ecological restoration
*»* Coral reef protection
Across watershed and place-based management and restoration programs the research needs
focus on being able to select candidate water bodies for restoration, select an optimal suite
of restoration methods, and monitor results of restoration efforts.
Health Effects
Assess the contribution of isolated wetlands to the integrity of navigable downstream
water bodies.
Examine how the degradation, loss, or restoration of headwater streams and isolated
wetlands affects the quality and integrity of navigable waters.
Identify appropriate indicators of aquatic health and determine suitability of new
analytical methods.
Provide projections of the consequences of future development and other
anthropogenic changes (such as climate change) and develop strategies to minimize
negative impacts on important ecosystems.
Estimate the environmental and economic impacts of invasive species affecting the
aquatic environment.
Characterize the effects of global change and anthropogenic stressors on conditions
of coral and coral reefs.
Characterize the interactive roles of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), temperature, and
water quality on coral bleaching.
Characterize the responses of coral symbionts (Symbiodinium spp.) to elevated UVR,
elevated temperature and changes in water quality.
Method Development
Provide tools for effective ecosystem monitoring.
Develop and improve integrative watershed modeling frameworks.
Methods to evaluate and describe condition, thresholds of impairment, and attribute
value to watershed goods and services.
Methods, tools, and models to determine which (and how) stressors are causing
degradation, or likely to cause degradation to enable targeted action for protection
and restoration.
Tools and knowledge to target watersheds for management and offer the greatest
opportunity for achieving positive and intended environmental results.
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Monitoring strategies to measure the effectiveness of watershed management
programs.
Methods to determine factors that motivate change in public behavior toward the
protection or restoration of water quality.
Develop technology transfer mechanisms that provide watershed managers with
resources needed to make technically-sound watershed management decisions.
Determine how to avoid unintended negative consequences associated with wetlands
managed for nutrient removal.
Identify an acceptable approach for estimating risk and uncertainty in wetland used
in water quality trading.
Determine how to manage wetlands used in water quality trading.
Classification methods, simple models, mapping techniques, and rapid assessment
field methods for headwaters, adjacent wetlands, and isolated wetlands that
incorporate and complement best professional judgment.
Better model the hypoxic zone to understand its dynamics and predict the impacts of
restoration scenarios.
Determine how the assessment of ecological conditions, the modeling of ecological
and human development futures, and the development of restoration and protection
strategies can be done effectively at differing geographic and temporal scales.
Develop an improved scientific basis for the establishment and maintenance of rapid
response and monitoring programs for non-indigenous species.
Create education and outreach opportunities to assist groups and individuals affected
by invasive species.
Occurrence and Exposure
Provide national frameworks for statistical assessments.
Identify trends in water quality and aquatic systems.
Develop scientific knowledge of potential pathways of introduction of non-
indigenous and invasive species and tools to ensure their prevention.
Treatment Technologies Management Approaches
Identify and characterize the watershed structures, features, and processes that
influence the likelihood for successful management interventions.
Determine the performance and costs of individual management measurements to
support the development of watershed management strategies.
Optimize the selection and location/placement of management measures in a
watershed.
Determine the effectiveness of best management practices (BMPs).
Identify existing data regarding wetland nutrient removal rates to be used for
modeling and assigning trading credits.
Feasibility of offsetting stream segment degradation with improvements.
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Effective management strategies to reduce nutrient and sediment ecosystem impacts
in the Mississippi Basin and in the Gulf of Mexico.
Develop tools and scientific knowledge to control invasive species that affect aquatic
ecosystems.
Science to Support Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection
Programs
The diverse range of research needed to support the Aquatic Life and Human Health
Protection Programs is outlined in two broad categories: (1) Human Health Effects and Risk
Assessments and (2) Aquatic Life and Aquatic Dependent Wildlife Effects and Risk
Assessments.
Human Health Effects and Risk Assessments
*»* Regulatory implementation
»»» Biosolids
*»* Emerging contaminants
*»* Recreational waters - assessment of human health risk
Health Effects
Use of mechanistic data in risk assessment. Understanding key events associated with
exposure and the ultimate manifestation of an adverse health effect (i.e., the toxicity
pathway or mode or mechanism of action) would help reduce the uncertainty
associated with data extrapolation from animals to humans and from high to low
doses.
Cumulative risk. Both exposure assessment information and risk assessment
methods to evaluate human health risks from exposure to chemical mixtures.
Sensitive subpopulations. Is there differential life-stage responsiveness or exposure
to environmental agents (chemical and pathogen)? Which methods and models are
appropriate for longitudinal research with children? How should genetic differences
among populations that influence their susceptibility to illness or disease from a
hazardous substance be considered in risk assessments?
Contaminant-specific health studies. Sufficient occurrence, health effects,
reproductive effects, etc. data on specific chemicals to determine if regulation is
warranted under the Safe Drinking Water Act and/or criteria recommendations
under the Clean Water Act (CWA).
Determine whether contaminants in biosolids pose a public health risk when applied
in compliance with current regulations.
For those emerging contaminants (or classes) that are candidates for regulation,
conduct the necessary supporting research.
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Methods (including predictive models) that provide more rapid and timely detections
of pathogens or indicators of the presence of pathogens that are harmful to human
health in recreational waters and drinking waters.
Understand which human illnesses are caused by swimming in waters contaminated
with human fecal matter from different sources, with non-human fecal matter, the
levels of fecal matter (human and non-human) that cause human illness, the
relationship between different levels of fecal matter (human and non-human) in
waters and human illness rates, and differences in risk to children versus adults
swimming in these waters.
Method Development
Develop improved analytical techniques for pathogens and priority toxic
contaminants in or released from biosolids.
Develop approaches to identify/categorize which emerging contaminants (or classes)
are risks to the environment or human health.
Methods (including predictive models) that provide more rapid and timely detections
of pathogens or indicators of the presence of pathogens that are harmful to human
health in recreational waters and drinking waters.
Establish a framework for prioritizing high-risk emerging contaminants for exposure
and hazard assessment and criteria development.
Indicators and methods of how well culture and molecular methods for various
indicators (singly or in combination) correlate with swimming-related illnesses.
Occurrence and Exposure
Select appropriate pathogens and indicators to properly assess sewage sludge quality.
Extrapolation of research results for developing new or revised criteria. Are
indicators, methods, and models suitable for use in different types of waters and for
different CWA programs?
Treatment Technologies Management Approaches
Determine effective measures for reducing pathogens and emerging contaminants
from sludge in environmental media.
Aquatic LJfe and Aquatic Dependent Wildlife Protection
*»* Bioassessment/Biocriteria
*»* Aquatic life guidelines
*»* Aquatic habitat
*»* Nutrients
*»* Suspended and bedded sediments (SABS)
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*»* Integration of multiple stressors
*»* Socio-economic valuation
Health Effects
Quantify the effects of exposures at, below, and above the criteria; tissue-based
criteria to assess the risks posed by compounds that bioaccumulate through diet.
Toxicity data, particularly two-generation tests with multiple relevant endpoints. A
derivation method for use when available data set does not meet minimum
Guidelines requirements.
Provide the scientific basis and load-response relationships needed to develop and
implement numeric nutrient criteria, with an emphasis on the health of estuaries and
coastal wetlands.
Evaluate the relationship between nutrient criteria and flow conditions.
Understand the relationship between harmful algal blooms and nutrient dynamics
(also useful for human health related to cyanotoxins and drinking water).
Method Development
Methods to establish Biological Condition Gradient (BCG) and Generalized Stressor
Gradient models.
Sampling and analytical methods or models to predict the recovery potential of
different water body types.
Methods for measuring biocriteria in arid systems, large and great rivers, wetlands,
estuarine areas, and marine systems (including coral reefs).
Community and population-level assessment models to replace current organism-
based criteria. Ecosystem models to integrate risk across an assemblage of species.
Dose-based toxicity models to account for multiple routes of exposure, including
diet. Bioaccumulation, tissue concentrations, and fate and transport models.
Computational toxicology to help set priorities for data requirements and chemical
risk assessments.
BAFs for methylmercury in fish tissue relative to methylmercury in the water column
across different water body types or ecological conditions to develop water column
translations of the January 2001 fish tissue-based criterion.
Tools to measure and predict the contributions of aquatic habitat protection and
restoration to the maintenance and improvement of biological integrity.
Integrative methods and approaches to incorporate habitat into BCGs for
application to tiered aquatic life use (TALU) frameworks.
Tools for measuring and predicting the economic and societal benefits of aquatic
habitat protection and restoration at local, regional, and national scales.
Incorporate nutrient stressor-response relationships into BCG and TALU
approaches.
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Tools (monitoring methods, models, guidance) to implement environmentally sound
nutrient trading approaches.
Improve technical methods used in EPA's Framework for Developing SABS Water
Quality Criteria.
Verify methods and support implementation of the SABS Framework.
New concepts for defining and classifying ecosystem services and bundles of those
services.
Improved approaches and information for describing the production of services.
Methods to quantify the values of ecosystem services and innovative ways of using
this knowledge in proactive environmental management decisions.
Methods for valuation of services provided by wetlands and by coral reefs.
Methods to project the relative and combined risks from multiple stressors to aquatic
and aquatic-dependent wildlife populations.
Conceptual and empirical approaches to predict, diagnose, prevent, and manage the
combined effects of multiple stressors in aquatic systems.
Methods to assess change in aquatic ecosystems that reflect responses to multiple
and variable stressors.
Occurrence and Exposure
Classify ecosystems, landscapes, and watersheds for efficient and scientifically sound
development and application of biocriteria.
Assess emerging water quality concerns; both biological (pathogens, invasive species)
and chemical (e.g., pharmaceuticals) and which constituents to regulate.
Science to Support Place-Based Water Protection and Restoration
Large Aquatic Ecosystems Programs
Place-Based Programs are special, geographically-focused subsets of the National Water
Program. OW has established directed efforts to protect and restore large aquatic ecosystem
because of their sheer size, varied and widespread contributing sources, and often the
crosscutting of spatial jurisdictions that need to take action. Each of these ecosystems may
need a specific application of a national research topic in order to address their unique
hydrologic and land use conditions. The place-based programs currently included in the
Large Aquatic Ecosystems initiatives are:
*»* Integration of Multiple Stressors
*»* Chesapeake Bay
*»* Great Lakes
*»* Gulf of Mexico
»»» South Florida
*»* Long Island Sound
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*»* Lake Champlain
*»* Columbia River
*»* Puget Sound
* The Pacific Islands
* The US - Mexico Border
The Large Aquatic Ecosystem Council will be preparing a portfolio of mutual research needs
in 2009. A list of anticipated needs is provided below.
Health Effects
Why is the Diporeia population in the Great Lakes declining?
What is the impact of contaminants on ecosystem function?
What is the relative importance (risk) of emerging contaminants in Puget Sound?
How does sedimentation affect coral reefs?
How will/are aquatic ecosystems affected by climate changes?
Method Development
What is the relationship between sediment deposition and anthropogenic (land use)
and natural (climate change) impacts on a system?
What is the origin, transport, and residence time of sediments in estuaries?
How do we manage ecosystems for climate change?
Occurrence and Exposure
How have native species become established?
What is the distribution of pollutants in runoff, including metals and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in Puget Sound?
How often, where, and at what concentrations do emerging contaminants occur?
Treatment Technologies Management Approaches
Management measures to control hypoxia.
What is the effectiveness of BMPs for sediment reduction?
Methods to control the introduction of invasive species in ballast water to native
waters.
How do we best manage sources of toxics as a part of remediation?
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Science to Support Cross-Program Needs
As the Water Program has matured, the improved knowledge and understanding of the
interrelationship of environmental issues has led to the identification of programmatic and
research needs that are common to multiple offices and has fostered development of many
cross-program research initiatives and approaches. These efforts are designed to enhance the
collaborative process and to find solutions to environmental issues that cut across
programmatic areas. Through recognition of the need for integration of these research
efforts, the Water Program can more efficiently use resources to address multiple
environmental issues and to support and enhance efforts across the various Offices. Many of
these topics are noted and discussed throughout this Compendium. Five areas, in particular,
cut across programs areas and are highlighted in this chapter. They are:
*»* The sustainable infrastructure initiative
*»* Watershed approach
*»* Analytical methods
*»* Emerging contaminants
*»* Climate change
The Sustainable Infrastructure Initiative
Method Development
Information on new and innovative condition assessment and rehabilitation and
replacement methods and technologies.
Comprehensive, integrated management approaches to improve the ability of water
and wastewater utilities to cost-effectively assess, maintain, operate, rehabilitate, and
replace their collection and treatment systems.
Additional data are needed to help utilities evaluate and estimate the costs of
treatment and delivery of drinking water and wastewater.
Social marketing approaches need to be explored to determine how to best educate
the public regarding the benefits and costs of providing high-quality public services.
Better define the effectiveness, costs, and benefits of water conservation and water
efficiency practices and programs.
Social marketing approaches to provide effective education and outreach campaigns
on water conservation.
Treatment Technologies Management Approaches
New sewer and treatment system design concepts.
Better understand and integrate Green Infrastructure approaches into a
comprehensive approach, as well as water reuse and reclamation approaches.
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Watershed Approach
Health Effects
Effectively account for the combined and cumulative effects of point and nonpoint
sources of pollution, habitat alteration, and other sources of impairment.
Determine how to avoid unintended negative consequences from wetland trading.
Method Development
Providing tools for effective ecosystem monitoring, identifying appropriate
indicators of aquatic health and determining suitability of new analytical methods.
Develop and improve integrative watershed modeling frameworks for describing the
impacts of changing surface water quantity on water quality.
Assess the costs associated with various management measures to allow for the
development of effective watershed strategies.
Develop strategies to optimize the selection and location/placement of management
measures in a watershed.
Monitoring strategies to measure the effectiveness of watershed management
programs.
Determine the factors that most motivate changes in public behavior with respect to
the protection or restoration of water quality.
Effective technology transfer mechanisms are needed to provide watershed
managers with resources needed to make technically-sound watershed management
decisions.
Identify an approach for estimating the risks, costs, and benefits associated with
wetland trading.
Determine how to manage and monitor wetlands used in water quality trading.
Accurately account for decentralized wastewater systems (both properly and poorly
designed, operated, and maintained systems) in watershed models and TMDL
calculations.
Up-to-date technology transfer methods regarding innovations and costs of
treatment technologies.
Occurrence and Exposure
Chemical, physical, and biological information that will allow them to understand the
status and functioning of aquatic ecosystems and to evaluate the success of
watershed protection and restoration measures over time.
Determine the geographic scale on which trading might occur.
Treatment Technologies Management Approaches
Identify existing data regarding wetland nutrient removal rates for modeling and
assigning trading credits.
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Evaluate treatments that will improve system performance such as the abilities of the
various soil types to provide treatment.
Evaluate treatment system efficiencies for currently regulated pollutants (pathogens
and nutrients) and emerging pollutants of concern (see Emerging Contaminants
discussion later in this chapter).
Evaluate performance capabilities and reliability of many currently available on-
site/decentralized treatment technologies.
Develop science-based tools that better enable the assessment of drinking water
resources and their vulnerability to contamination.
Develop science-based tools that better control nonpoint source and otherwise
unregulated point source pollution at the water resource scale (i.e., watershed and
aquifer).
^AnalyticalMethods To Detect Biological and Chemical Contaminants
The National Water Program requires sensitive, specific, accurate, and precise analytical
methods that can detect and quantify the occurrence of contaminants in water and other
media. Methods are needed to measure water quality to assess the status and health of waters
and to develop standards, measure compliance, and/or the verification of their remediation
or removal. Of growing concern across the National Water Program is the ability to identify
emerging contaminants, both biological (pathogens, invasive species) and chemical
(pharmaceuticals, pesticides) not only in water but in land-applied biosolids, septage, and
manure. Continued research is needed to develop techniques that are accurate, precise, and
suitable for these different environmental matrices. In particular, the development of more
reliable and faster methods for identifying pathogens and pathogen indicators is a research
priority because of the acute health effects of pathogens.
Health Effects Methods
Select appropriate pathogens and indicators to properly assess sewage sludge quality.
Assess how well culture and molecular methods for pathogens (singly or in
combination) may perform (new molecular methods must consider the specificity
and sensitivity of the methods and how they can address viability and infectivity of
the pathogens.
Whether or not qPCR for Enterococd is applicable to other settings or appropriate for
use across the range of CWA programs.
Develop improved analytical techniques for pathogens and priority contaminants in
residuals/biosolids.
Methods to assess emerging pathogens (from viruses to prions, for example).
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Occurrence and Exposure Methods
Analytical methods to gather occurrence data for unregulated and emerging
contaminants for future UCMR data collection efforts and the CCL Regulatory
Determination process.
New methods or refine existing analytical methods for the detection and
quantification of regulated contaminants to improve existing drinking water
standards.
More robust methods for measuring pathogens and emerging DBFs and DBF
mixtures in drinking water and distribution systems.
Developing detectors, analytical methods, sample preparation techniques, and
models and tools to detect, in real-time when possible, contaminants introduced into
the water and wastewater systems.
Improve the accuracy of CANARY, a tool that analyzes water quality data streams
and identifies anomalous conditions in distribution systems that require further
investigation.
Methods (including predictive models) that provide more rapid and timely detections
of pathogens or indicators of the presence of pathogens that are harmful to human
health in recreational waters and drinking waters.
Understand how well the various indicators and methods perform in other settings
(e.g., marine versus fresh water; human versus non-human sources of fecal
contamination), and how they relate to one another.
Emerging Contaminants
Emerging contaminants refer broadly to those synthetic or naturally occurring chemicals, or
to any microbiological organisms, that are new to the environment or that have not
previously been monitored for or recognized in the environment, but are of concern because
of their known or suspected adverse ecological or human health effects. These
contaminants, by definition, are insufficiently understood to determine their need for control
and regulation.
Two key groups of emerging contaminants of concern, discussed in this Compendium, are the
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) and the Pharmaceutical and Personal Care
Products (PPCPs). Others emerging contaminants include nanomaterials, fluorinated
compounds, and pathogens various protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and prions.
Health Effects
Evaluate whether or not the existing toxicological methods can adequately account
for and address emerging contaminants.
Define appropriate toxicological data and health endpoints to evaluate emerging
contaminants, such as pharmaceuticals.
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Method Development
Testing procedures or models for evaluating emerging contaminants fate and effects.
Assess the quality and utility of data, tools, and methods used for risk assessments
for new and unique contaminants, such as prions and nanomaterials.
Occurrence and Exposure
New or improved analytical methods are needed to gather occurrence data on
emerging contaminants.
Appearance of nanochemicals/particles in products produced from land-applied
biosolids.
Information about the pollutants in various types of wet weather flows, including
pathogens and emerging contaminants.
Treatment Technologies Management Approaches
Effectiveness of both conventional and innovative treatment technologies for
minimizing the risk from emerging contaminants.
How antimicrobial resistance in wastewater streams may impact the treatment
process.
Determine performance capabilities and reliability of many currently available
decentralized/on-site treatment technologies for emerging pollutants of concern.
Identify appropriate new or existing treatment techniques and BMPs for removing or
inactivating emerging contaminants in runoff from various sources, activities and
materials.
Effects of nanomaterials on POTWs, the abilities of nanomaterials to survive the
treatment process.
Climate Change
Climate change will challenge EPA to coordinate across water programs and with cross-
media programs to find programmatic solutions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
increase energy and water efficiency, protect in-stream water quantity and quality, and
continue to provide the public with safe and efficient water and wastewater services. Climate
change will have numerous and diverse impacts, including impacts on human health, natural
systems, and manmade structures.
Health Effects
The full effects and consequences of alternative energy production (e.g., biofuels) and
carbon sequestration for water quality.
Interaction of climate change with land use/land cover change and other global
change stressors to exacerbate or ameliorate impacts on water quality and aquatic
ecosystems; and the types and levels of human pathogens that can enter, be
sustained, and thrive in waters of the U.S.
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Impact of climate and other global change stressors on the watershed and ocean
processes that influence the structure, functioning, and services of freshwater and
coastal ecosystems.
Method Development
The influence of climate change on EPA water quality and ecosystem protection and
restoration programs.
The influence of the interacting effects of changes in climate, land use, and economic
development on human demand for water.
Occurrence
Information, capabilities, and tools to increase their capacity for assessing and
responding to global change given uncertainty about the type and magnitude of
future change.
Identify impaired surface waters and establish causal linkages between climate and
other stressors and endpoints of concern.
The regional differences in vulnerability of water quantity, water quality, ecosystems,
water infrastructure, and human health to global change.
Impact of climate and other global change stressors on the design, operation, and
performance of water infrastructure (e.g., drinking water treatment, was tewater
treatment, urban drainage) and the built environment.
Treatment Technologies
How to increase the resilience of watersheds, water infrastructure, and aquatic
ecosystems to global change stressors.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
1 A National Water Program Research
Strategy
Background
The Environmental Protection Agency's
(EPA) Office of Water (OW) and Regional
Water Divisions are responsible for the
Agency's water quality, water resource, and
public health protection activities. These
include development of national programs,
technical policies, and regulations relating to
drinking water, water quality, ground water,
pollution source standards, and the
protection and restoration of wetlands,
marine, and estuarine areas. OW is
organized into four main program offices:
Office of Ground Water and
Drinking Water (OGWDW)
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and
Watersheds (OWOW)
Office of Wastewater
Management (OWM)
Office of Science and
Technology (OST)
OW and the four program offices partner
with the EPA Regional Offices to develop
and implement the Agency's National Water
Program. The Regions implement water programs with State and local partners to provide
public and ecosystem health protection. With respect to the title of this document, the
Regions are specifically included as part and parcel to the National Water Program (the
Water Program).
The Clean Water Act (CWA)1 and the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) provide the
foundation for the statutory authority for the National Water Program. Coupled with other
statutes, court actions, and initiatives of EPA and other agencies, these form the drivers for
the Water Program's goals and in turn, the drivers to define the Water Program's Research
1 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 is commonly referred to as the Clean Water Act.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Needs. These drivers and the Program Offices are further described in the Addendum at the
end of this Chapter. The Water Program's goals are described in EPA's strategic plan and
OWs program guidance, as summarized below.
The EPA Strategic Plan for 2006 2011 defines goals for the Agency to meet to protect
human health and the environment (the 2009-2014 Agency Draft Strategic Plan proposed
complimentary goals and objectives). The Water Program's overarching goal is to provide
"Clean and Safe Water", which includes improving compliance with drinking water
standards, maintaining safe water quality at public beaches, restoring more than 2,000
polluted water bodies, and improving the health of coastal waters. The Water Program
develops the National Water Program Guidance which outlines the work that must be
accomplished to reach these goals. These public health and environmental goals are
organized into ten "sub-objectives" as follows:
1) Provide Water that is Safe to Drink
2) Provide Fish and Shellfish that are Safe to Eat
3) Attain Water that is Safe for Swimming
4) Restore and Improve Water Quality on a Watershed Basis
5) Protect Coastal Waters and Estuaries
6) Protect Wetlands
7) Protect Mexico Border Water Quality
8) Protect the Great Lakes
9) Protect the Chesapeake Bay
10) Protect the Gulf of Mexico
The National Water Program Research Strategy (hereafter referred to as the Water Research Strategy)
is an effort to work towards more completely defining the Water Program's research needs
and organizing them around these "sub-objectives." The development, goals, and
organization of this document are described in more detail below.
Water Research Strategy Development
"A course of action marked by the creation and maintenance of a
coordinated, comprehensive, and balanced national water resources
research agenda, combined with a regular assessment of the water
resources research activities represents the nation's best chance
for dealing effectively with the many water crises sure to mark the 21st
century."
Confronting the Nation's Water Problems The Role of Research
The National Academies - National Research Council, 2004
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
EPA received recommendations from the National Academy of Sciences, EPA Science
Advisory Board (SAB), and the Board of Scientific Counselors (BOSC) regarding the need
for a documented and transparent water research portfolio linked to environmental
outcomes. In 2001 and 2005, the SAB suggested that the Office of Research and
Development (ORD) and the Water Program should strengthen their collaborations and
those with external parties and work together to define the strategic links among long-term
goals, desired outcomes, and research. These efforts would help both the Water Program
and its stakeholders to meet regulatory obligations and to link ORD's multi-year plans
(MYPs) to Water Program needs (e.g., linkage between ambient water quality research and
drinking water quality).
The BOSC (2005 and 2006) added to these recommendations and emphasized the need for
transparency in prioritizing research, a system to evaluate and report progress jointly with
ORD, and "anticipatory" research to address future/emerging needs.
ORD is responsible for a significant portion of the research and development needs of
EPA's operating programs and the conduct of an integrated research and development
program for the Agency. ORD's research efforts are defined in 15 MYPs, which provide a
framework for defining and integrating research across ORD's laboratories and centers.
Fourteen of these MYPs contain research that informs Water Program decisions. The
principal MYPs pertaining to the Water Program are: Drinking Water, Water Quality,
Ecosystems, Human Health, Endocrine Disrupters and Emerging Contaminants, and
Climate Change. The Water Research Strategy will provide ORD with the necessary
information to prepare highly program-relevant MYPs.
The Water Program has research needs beyond what ORD can provide, and some research
is more appropriately done by other agencies or institutions. Individual Water Program
project leads have been very successful in leveraging the expertise and investigations of
researchers outside of EPA. In the past, the Water Program has relied on the entrepreneurial
spirit of individuals on its staff to drive the inclusion of non-EPA investigators in
programmatic research. But often this is not a comprehensive approach and can result in
serious gaps in the research portfolio. Through the development of the Water Research
Strategy, the Water Program intends to address its research needs in a more complete and
comprehensive manner.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Water Research Strategy Goals
Through the Water Research Strategy, the National Water Program strives to achieve the
following goals:
Identify and document research needed to achieve Water Program strategic
goals, program targets and measures, and statutory, court-ordered, or other
obligations;
Provide a more coordinated description of research needed across the entire
Water Program, including the Regions, and a more comprehensive description
that may go beyond the MYPs (with ORD);
Provide a marketing tool to promote research partnerships across EPA, with
other federal agencies, and with the broader research community to meet Water
Program research needs;
Coupled with the Water Research Management and Status Tool (RMST), provide
for improved management of the Water Program's research portfolio; and
Provide a baseline for ongoing research planning and assessment of research
needs.
The Water Research Strategy (future), this Compendium, and RMST (future) will also help to
stimulate the evaluation and communication of research results to decision makers and users
in a form that leads to environmental outcomes.
Consistent with the EPA Strategic Plan and the National Water Program Guidance, this
Compendium, and the Water Research Strategy (under development) emphasize:
Results and Accountability: We have designed this approach to address the
long-term goals set out in the EPA Strategic Plan and the National Water Program
Guidance. We will annually evaluate the number and percentage of research needs
being addressed on a timely basis to meet Water Program objectives and use the
evaluation to adjust directions and priorities.
Innovation and Collaboration: Our progress toward water and public health
protection goals depends both on our ability and continued commitment to
identify and use innovative tools, approaches, and solutions to address
environmental problems and engage extensively with our partners, stakeholders,
and the public.
Best Available Science: EPA needs the best scientific information available to
anticipate potential environmental threats, evaluate risks, identify solutions, and
develop protective standards. Sound science helps us ask the right questions,
assess information, and characterize problems clearly to inform Agency decision
makers.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Research is best conceived and most appropriately vetted when it has been identified
through purposeful evaluation of the current, near-future, and potential far-future
environmental protection and restoration needs. In addition, specific research needs and
products for the Water Program will be captured in the RMST. The management and status
reports that will be available from the RMST will enable Water Program senior managers to
evaluate the relevance and timeliness of research intended to help them achieve strategic
goals and specific deadlines. It will also make it possible to assess which specific needs are
not being met, evaluate proposed and ongoing research against programmatic needs, and
find opportunities for collaboration.
The Water Program will target research efforts to provide data needed to: reach decisions
regarding drinking water contaminants that should be regulated, new and revised drinking
water regulations, new drinking water treatment strategies, compliance monitoring methods,
and tools for source water protection. Research efforts will also help in assessing human and
aquatic life exposure to contaminants; identifying contaminant mode-of-action and dose-
response; determining treatment, performance, and cost parameters; and evaluating the
effects of distribution systems on drinking water quality.
The Water Program will also target research efforts in the following areas to facilitate
regulatory and voluntary program decisions for the protection of surface waters: diagnostic
and forecasting tools and additional protective criteria for designated uses of aquatic systems;
conservation, restoration, and protection of aquatic ecosystems; sustainable watershed
technologies; and sustainable management of wastewater infrastructure. Water quality
research will help the Agency promulgate protective standards, identify pollutants and how
they contribute to impaired waters, and use tools for restoring and protecting the nation's
waters. Such tools will consider point and nonpoint sources of pollution and the treatment
and beneficial use of biosolids.
Managing the Research Portfolio
OW and the Regional Water Divisions have developed a cross-office research planning
infrastructure designed to achieve the goals of the Water Research Strategy. The structure
includes two principal organizational units: an OW Executive Research Committee and, an
OW-Research Coordination Team (OW-RCI).
The Executive Committee (the Deputy Assistant Administrator, the four Office Directors,
the Water Division Director from the lead Region for Water, and select staff) is responsible
for promoting coordinated and collaborative research activities and planning within the
Water Program and between the Program and its research partners. The Executive
Committee is also responsible for evaluating:
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
The progress of research activities against Program research needs;
Emerging issues for research;
The relevance of proposed research to Program objectives;
Adjustments to research portfolios due to changes in budget or priorities; and,
The need for new research management tools or the effectiveness of existing
ones.
The OW-RCT (a group with leads and members from each Water Office and the lead
Region) presents needs and priorities for each of OWs program offices and the Regional
Water Division to ORD and other research partners. Engaged participation by all ensures a
thorough, robust, and balanced discussion of needs and opportunities. Each will continue to
maintain and pursue these activities and relationships and to actively participate in OW-RCT.
The OW-RCT Team Leader is charged with:
Leading and coordinating the activities of the OW-RCT;
Responding to research management needs and inquiries of the Executive
Committee and OW-RCT; and,
Representing the Executive Committee to potential research partners and
stakeholders.
The OW-RCT is charged with:
Determining the relevance of Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) and
Science to Achieve Results (STAR) Grants, as well as ORD Fellowship proposals
to needed OW research;
Responding to research management needs and inquiries from the Executive
Committee;
Maintaining the Research Management and Status Tool;
Coordinating participation in the SAB, BOSC, and Office of Management and
Budget (OMB) program review of ORD research programs;
Organizing OW-ORD management and other meetings;
Leading OW participation in ORD MYP development and implementation; and,
Promoting OW research needs to external partners.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Document Organization
The remainder of this Compendium is organized into the following chapters
Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Programs:
Describes the key program goals responsible for the safety and security of
drinking water; and the research needs and goals pertaining to the development
and revisions of drinking water standards, implementation of these standards,
human health protection, source water protection, water security, and emerging
areas.
Chapter 3 Science to Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality Protection
Programs: Discusses the program goals and drivers that help define research
needs; and those research needs and goals related to publicly-owned treatment
works management and treatment effectiveness, decentralized wastewater
systems, residuals management and treatment, wet weather flow control
technologies and effectiveness, and aging infrastructure.
Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs: Provides
background on key research drivers and research and goals pertaining to
watershed assessment, management measures, incentive programs, and coastal
and ocean programs.
Chapter 5 Science to Support Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Programs:
Discusses key research drivers and the research needs and goals related to human
health effects, risk assessments, water quality integrity (biological, chemical, and
physical), and valuing ecosystem resources.
Chapter 6 Science to Support Place-leased Water Protection and Restoration Large
AquaticEcosystems Programs: Discusses the geographically focused Large Aquatic
Ecosystems programs, the major designated water bodies, such as Chesapeake
Bay and South Florida. While all of the Water Programs and research needs
discussed in the other chapters are pertinent to these place-based implementation
programs, their unique drivers and key research needs are also discussed.
Chapter 7 Science to Support Cross-Program Needs: Describes those initiatives that
cut across the Water Program and covers key research drivers. Presents research
needs and goals that pertain to the various cross-cutting initiatives (sustainable
infrastructure initiative, watershed approach, emerging contaminants, climate
change, and analytical methods).
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Addendum
Water Program Drivers and Program Office Goals
The Clean Water Act
The CWA establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the
waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters. Under the
CWA, EPA has implemented pollution control programs such as setting wastewater
standards for industry. The primary goal of the CWA is to "restore and protect the chemical,
physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters." Key sections and activities under
the CWA implemented by EPA to achieve this goal include the following:
Section 106: "States are required to establish appropriate monitoring methods and
procedures (including biological monitoring) necessary to compile and analyze
data on the quality of waters of the United States and, to the extent practicable,
ground-waters." EPA provides guidance and oversight to States in implementing
monitoring programs.
303(d): Each State is required to adopt water quality standards (WQS) for
all waters. WQS serve the dual purposes of establishing the water quality goals
for a specific waterbody and serving as the regulatory basis for the establishment
of water quality-based treatment controls and strategies. States, Territories, and
authorized Tribes also must develop a list of impaired water bodies and develop
Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDL) to improve water quality. States also use
WQS to keep waters safe for swimming in their beach monitoring and
notification programs.
304(a): Water quality criteria must be developed, published, and
periodically revised by EPA so that they accurately reflect the latest scientific
knowledge. 304(a) criteria are guidance to States for use in State Water Quality
Standards under section 303(d), above.
Section 305 (b): Every two years, States report on the condition of surface waters
based on State monitoring programs. States are also required to include available
information on ground water. EPA compiles a national report to Congress that
characterizes the states of water quality, identifies water quality problems, and
reviews programs to restore and protect the nation's waters.
Section 319: This program provides grant money to States, Territories, and Indian
Tribes to support technical assistance, financial assistance, education, training,
technology transfer, demonstration projects, and monitoring to assess the
success of specific nonpoint source implementation projects.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Section 401: This section requires interstate activities that may result in any
discharge into navigable waters to be licensed or permitted to protect against
pollution including invasive species.
Section 402: Section 402 regulates the direct discharge of pollutants into navigable
waterways. National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits
to point source dischargers (i.e., single identifiable sources of pollution, such as
factories or treatment plants) contain technology-based and/or water quality-
based effluent limits as well as monitoring and reporting requirements.
Section 404: This section establishes a program to regulate the discharge of
dredged or fill material into waters of the United States, including wetlands.
405 (d) and Part 503: These statutory and regulatory obligations require the
protection of human health through standards for the use or disposal of sewage
sludge. EPA determines which contaminants in sewage sludge require standards,
establish those standards, and resolve Part 503 implementation challenges.
One of the Water Program's missions is to help meet the nation's clean water goals by
ensuring that appropriate regulatory standards, voluntary management approaches,
information, financial resources, and technical assistance are provided to States,
communities, and regulated entities. Compliance with the requirements of the CWA through
effective and responsible water use, wastewater treatment, disposal and management, and
encouragement of the protection and restoration of watersheds are facilitated by the
OGWDW, OST, OWM and OWOW.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
The Safe Drinking Water Act
The SDWA and amendments authorizes EPA to set and review national health-based
standards for drinking water to protect against both naturally-occurring and man-made
contaminations that may be found in drinking water. SDWA is the national law that protects
public health by safeguarding America's tap water. SDWA requires EPA to develop and
maintain a comprehensive process to assess contaminants in drinking water and to develop
standards for contaminants posing the greatest risk. The 1996 SDWA Amendments require
EPA to evaluate human exposure and risks of adverse health effects in the general
population and sensitive subpopulations when setting drinking water standards. The SDWA
also created the Source Water Protection Program and the UIC Program to protect both
surface and underground sources of drinking water. The EPA OGWDW along with the
OST, Regional drinking water programs, States, Tribes, water utilities, and its many partners,
implement the SDWA.
Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act
The Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act (Bioterrorism
Act) of 2002, which amended the SDWA, created the Water Security Program (WSP). The
WSP ensures that drinking water treatment plants are prepared for natural disasters, terrorist
attacks, and other intentional acts.
The 2002 Bioterrorism Act amendments require drinking water systems serving greater than
3,300 persons to conduct a vulnerability assessment and prepare emergency response plans
based on the results. The Bioterrorism Act also required EPA to conduct research in
prevention, detection, and response to intentional introduction of contaminants into water
systems and their source waters. In addition, it required research on methods and means by
which terrorists could disrupt the supply of safe drinking water or act against drinking water
infrastructure and alternative supplies of drinking water. EPA's research work in water
security is also governed by a series of Homeland Security Presidential Directives (HSPDs).
In particular, HSPD-7 established EPA as the sector-specific lead for drinking water and
wastewater infrastructure protection, and HSPD-9 directed EPA to develop a robust
surveillance program to provide early warning in the event of a terrorist attack.
National Environmental Policy Act
National Environmental Policy Act's (NEPA) basic policy is to assure that all branches of
government give proper consideration to the environment prior to undertaking any major
federal action that significantly affects the environment. The Council on Environmental
Quality implementing regulations for NEPA provides authority for explicit valuation and
consideration of ecosystem services when Federal agencies prepare environmental impact
statements.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Endangered Species Act
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) provides a program for the conservation of threatened
and endangered plants and animals and the habitats in which they are found. The law
requires federal agencies, in consultation with the US Fish and Wildlife Service and/or the
US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Service, to ensure that
actions they authorize, fund, or carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence
of any listed species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of designated critical
habitat of such species. This Act requires EPA to evaluate the current methods and revise
them to ensure water quality criteria provide protection of threatened and endangered
species. EPA must also ensure that regulatory actions do not jeopardize listed species.
The Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health
The Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health (BEACH Act) amends the
CWA and protects recreational waters by directing EPA to conduct studies associated with
pathogens and human health research by October 2003 and to issue new or revised 304(a)
criteria based on those studies by October 2005. The National Resources Defense Council
sued EPA in 2007 [Correct?], charging that the Agency did not meet the BEACH Act
Amendment to the CWA and that new or revised criteria must be established. EPA's goal is
to complete these studies and to develop new or revised CWA §304(a) recreational water
quality criteria based on these studies by 2012.
Executive Order 12866: Regulatory Planning and Review
OW continues to be driven by Executive Orders and legislation put in place by Congress.
One significant Executive Order is 12866: Regulatory Planning and Review which requires
the examination of the environmental cost and benefits of EPA's regulatory actions. This
Executive Order continues to challenge EPA because of the inability to account for the
value of ecosystem service and costs associated with service losses.
The Strategic Plan and Program Performance
The Water Program's objectives, related to EPA's Strategic Plan and the National Water
Program Guidance, were described in the introduction to this Chapter. As noted, the
development of the Water Research Strategy is part of the OW effort to more completely
define the Water Program's research needs to meet these objectives.
In addition, while EPA sets goals for its programs, the OMB measures the effectiveness of
the Water programs through the Program Assessment Rating Tool (PART). EPA Strategic
Planning and the PART review process focus on assessing the performance and progress of
water resource protection. The PART identifies a program's strengths and weaknesses to
inform management decisions to make programs more effective and that may point to areas
of needed research.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Other Drivers
Other key drivers for the OW include Climate Change, the environmental indicator
initiative, managing wet weather with green infrastructure, and sustainable water
infrastructure.
Climate Change
OW has set out actions in five key areas for Climate change in the Office of Water Climate
Change Strategy. The five key areas are reducing emissions of green house gases, adapting
water programs to the impacts of climate change, working with stakeholders to educate the
public and industry on impacts of climate change, research, and national program
management to achieve goals. These activities require coordination between all of the Water
Programs because advances in one program will benefit another.
Environmental Indicator Initiative
EPA created the Environmental Indicator Initiative to address the need for technical
approaches to help States and Tribes manage their programs to achieve specific results by
measuring environmental outcomes.
Managing wet weather with green infrastructure
As wet weather events continue to raise concerns about water quality the Managing Wet
Weather with Green Infrastructure Action Strategy endeavors to promote the use of green
infrastructure by cities and utilities as a means of reducing stormwater pollution and sewer
overflows.
Sustainable water infrastructure
As the strain on resources continues to plague drinking and wastewater systems EPA
continues to define the Agency's role as an advocate for sustainable water infrastructure and
specifies the four pillars to achieve this goal: better management, water efficiency, full cost
pricing, and the watershed approach.
The National Water Programs
EPA's OW and Regional Water Divisions are responsible for the Agency's water quality,
water resource, and public health protection activities. These include development of
national programs, technical policies, and regulations relating to drinking water, water
quality, ground water, pollution source standards, and the protection and restoration of
wetlands, marine, and estuarine areas.
The Water Program offices are also responsible for overseeing and developing their national
research programs. The Regions work with the program offices to define research needs and
to develop their Region-specific research agendas. Because of their unique role and
geographic focus, the Regions have a unique and often critical perspective on research needs
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
to address their specific concerns. Meeting nationally defined research needs often requires
the integration of Region-specific projects to address the diversity of unique hydrogeologic
conditions across the nation. Also, many critical needs are often defined recognized at the
local level before their importance can be recognized at the national level.
The OW has several programs established by the CWA and the SDWA. To accomplish each
program's goals the OW is divided into several offices. While one office may lead an effort,
accomplishing the program goals requires collective implementation of the programs. (See
Exhibit 1.1.)
Exhibit 1.1: Office of Water Organizational Chart
10 Regional
Offices
Office of Water
-Assistant Administrator
American Indian
Environmental
Office
Office of Ground
Water and
Drinking Water
Office of Science
and Technology
Office of
Wastewater
Management
Office of Wetlands,
Oceans, and
Watersheds
Source: httb: 11 www.eba.fovl water I on chart I
The Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (OGWDW), together with States,
Tribes, and its many partners, protects public health by ensuring safe drinking water and
protecting ground water. OGWDW, along with EPA's ten Regional drinking water
programs, oversees implementation of the Safe Drinking Water Act, which is the national
law safeguarding tap water in America.
OGWDW provides comprehensive protection of our drinking water by protecting drinking
water sources, providing health-based drinking water and treatment standards, and preparing
drinking water systems to protect against and respond to possible contamination events.
OGWDW and States support the efforts of individual water systems by providing a national
framework comprised of core programs that are critical to ensuring safe drinking water.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Collectively, these core programs constitute a multiple-barrier approach to protecting public
health. They include:
Identification of priority contaminants for information collection and regulatory
decision-making;
Unregulated contaminant monitoring;
Methods development;
Development or revision of drinking water standards;
Technical assistance and partnerships to enhance optimization of drinking water
treatment;
Implementation of drinking water standards and technical assistance to water
systems to strengthen their technical, managerial, and financial capacity;
Community water system financing;
Water security;
Source water protection;
Underground injection control; and
Integration of programs to protect surface water that is a source of drinking
water.
Further discussion of OGWDW's research needs can be found in Chapter 2 Science to
Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Programs.
The Office of Wastewater Management (OWM) regulates discharges into surface waters
such as wetlands, lakes, rivers, estuaries, bays and oceans. Specifically, OWM focuses on
control of water that is collected in discrete conveyances (also called point sources),
including pipes, ditches, and sanitary or storm sewers. OWM is also home to the Clean
Water State Revolving Fund, the largest water quality funding source, focused on funding
wastewater treatment systems, nonpoint source projects and estuary protection.
The OWM Program promotes effective and responsible water use, treatment, disposal and
management by encouraging the protection and restoration of watersheds. The program
focuses on control of water that is collected in discrete conveyances (also called point
sources), including pipes, ditches, and sanitary or storm sewers. The program provides
national program direction to the NPDES permit, pretreatment, and sewage sludge
management programs under sections 401, 402, and 405 of the Clean Water Act. OWM and
OST develop national standards for point source controls, indirect dischargers, and sludge
use and disposal which are implemented through the NPDES, pretreatment and sludge
management programs. Technical support and training to Regions and States for all aspects
of the NPDES permit, pretreatment, and sludge management programs is also provided.
Additional detail on OWM and its research needs are included in Chapter 3 Science to
Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality Protection Programs.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
The Office of Science and Technology (OST) is responsible for developing sound,
scientifically defensible standards, criteria, advisories, guidelines and limitations under the
Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act. OST works with partners and
stakeholders to develop the scientific and technological foundations to achieve clean water.
OST identifies and defines water research that assists other EPA Water Programs to
implement their statutory and other obligations. OST research also helps the States, Tribes,
and Territories to protect their drinking water supplies and minimize the effects of
contaminants on fish, wildlife, and the aquatic environment. Federal, State, tribal, and local
governments use this information to set limits on pollutants that may occur in drinking
water or that may be discharged into all types of waters rivers, lakes, and streams. Every
year under the authorities of the CWA, the SDWA, other acts, and executive orders, OST
helps produce regulations, guidelines, methods, models, standards, science-based criteria,
and studies that are critical components of national programs that protect human health and
the aquatic environment. OST sponsors the development of laboratory and field analytical
methods to support Water Programs. These methods are the basis of national regulations.
OST also manages Agency programs to limit human exposure to toxics and pathogens from
swimming and consumption of non-commercial fish.
OST conducts risk assessments and develops criteria for surface and drinking water to
ensure they are safe for human use and consumption and aquatic life. It also uses risk
assessments to determine appropriate uses and disposal of biosolids and to develop
appropriate regulations that protect human health and the environment.
In support of the CWA, OST endeavors to improve water quality to protect and restore
waters to their designated uses, thereby protecting the health of humans, aquatic life, and
wildlife. Actions taken to improve water quality will also increase the number of water
bodies that can be enjoyed for recreational purposes and from which fish and shellfish can
be safely consumed. OST will do this by ensuring that: 1) State-adopted criteria for
pathogens and indicator organisms in waters designated for recreational use are current and
scientifically sound; 2) the science underpinning the core water programs is current and
appropriately vetted for implementation in State and tribal water quality standards, TMDLs,
permits, assessments, etc.; and 3) OST is able to address emerging water quality concerns.
Other measures to protect aquatic life include the development and publication of: nutrient
criteria that protect waters from nutrient over-enrichment; biological criteria designed to
describe and maintain the biological condition of aquatic communities; criteria to define the
chemical concentrations below which aquatic life is protected; and clean sediment criteria
that protect aquatic life from excessive non-contaminated sediment.
More detail on OST and OST research needs is included in Chapter 5 Science to Support
Aquatic'Ufe and Human Health Protection Programs.
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
The Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds (OWOW) promotes wetlands
protection, oceans and coastal protection, and watershed assessment and protection through
a diverse range of programs to manage, protect, and restore the water resources and aquatic
ecosystems of US marine and fresh waters. This strategy is based on the premise that water
quality and ecosystem problems are best solved at the watershed level and that local citizens
play an integral role in achieving clean water goals. OWOW and the Regional Water
Divisions implement the programs by providing technical and financial assistance and
developing regulations and guidance for various regulatory and cooperative programs.
Within the broad goal of protecting and restoring water resources, OWOW applies the
Watershed Approach to organize its efforts. This approach provides a comprehensive and
efficient framework through which it can pursue the goal of addressing water quality
problems and restoring the ecological, economic, and cultural services provided by aquatic
ecosystems. Some of the more prominent objectives are to: 1) understand and mitigate
serious environmental problems being faced by a number of significant and sensitive
ecosystems, 2) promote the integrated monitoring and assessment efforts needed for
ecosystem protection, 3) promote management and restoration of water bodies and
ecosystems, 4) provide the information needed to execute TMDL programs; 5) assess 100
percent of rivers, lakes, and streams in the lower 48 States using statistically valid surveys by
2010; and 6) improve the effectiveness of ecological restoration efforts by providing
decision-makers with data and tools that will allow them to select the most appropriate water
bodies, restoration methods for restoration, and monitoring schemes.
Under Section 404 of the CWA, the OWOW and the US Army Corps of Engineers
implement the permit program to regulate discharges of dredged or fill material into US
waters, including wetlands. The Program also works with States, Tribes, and local
governments to conserve and restore wetlands. The assessment and watershed protection
programs include water quality monitoring, nonpoint source control, and TMDL programs.
National guidance is developed by the OWOW on water quality assessment and reporting,
biological monitoring, water quality criteria, volunteer monitoring methods, and quality
assurance. States, Territories, and Tribes receive grants from the OWOW to administer their
nonpoint source programs, as well as guidance for improving best management practices to
control runoff. In addition, the OWOW oversees the National Estuary Program (NEP),
which was established to identify, restore, and protect nationally significant U.S. estuaries.
Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs contains additional
information about the OWOW and its research needs.
The American Indian Environmental Office (AIEO) coordinates the Agency-wide effort
to strengthen public health and environmental protection in Indian country, with a special
emphasis on helping Tribes administer their own environmental programs. While AIEO
does not lead the implement of any one Water program they do ensure that the unique needs
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
of the Tribes are addressed by the other program Offices. The research needs to support the
goals of this office are included throughout this document.
EPA Regions
EPA's ten Regional Offices are responsible for the execution of EPA's Water programs. The
Regions are the interface with the States, Territories, and Tribes that bring the EPA's
environmental programs to the implementation level. The Regions work with and oversee
State, Territory, or Tribe implementation, or, for those without primary enforcement
authority, the Regions implement programs directly. The Regions also provide technical and
compliance assistance, manage grants provided for the States to implement programs, and if
needed, take enforcement actions.
Exhibit 1.2: EPA Regions
.
© D£
,w ,
Region 1 Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont
Region 2 - New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands
Region 3 - Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West, and the District of Columbia
Region 4 Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina,
and Tennessee
Region 5 Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin
Region 6 Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas
Region 7 - Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska
Region 8 - Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming
Region 9 Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, and the territories of Guam and American
Samoa
Region 10 Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington
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Chapter 1 A National Water Program Research Strategy
Each EPA Region is responsible for working with specific States, Territories, and Tribes.
Variations across States, Territories, and Tribes in geology, hydrology, types and number of
water bodies, climate, and the types of commerce that support their economy each influence
the environmental challenges that Regions face in effectively implementing the various water
programs. The research needs for the Regions cover the full spectrum of programs
described in this Compendium. Specific or unique Regional research needs are noted in the
various chapters. A map illustrating the States in each Region is provided above in Exhibit
1.2.
Place-Based Water Protection and Restoration Programs
The core programs of the CWA and SDWA are essential for the protection of the Nation's
drinking water and fresh waters, coastal waters, and wetlands. At the same time, additional,
intergovernmental efforts are sometimes needed to protect and restore large aquatic
ecosystems around the country. For many years, EPA has worked with others to implement
supplemental programs, such as the NEP and place-based geographic programs, to restore
and protect the Great Lakes, the Chesapeake Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and waters along the
Mexico Border. More recently, OWhas formed the Council of Large Aquatic Ecosystems to
support and promote EPA's implementation of Large Aquatic Ecosystem programs and
encourage collaboration within EPA programs and with EPA's external partners. This effort
is now incorporating other initiatives addressing: the Long Island Sound; Lake Champlain;
the Columbia River; the Puget Sound; and waters in Southern Florida and the Pacific
Islands. Chapter 6 describes these large aquatic ecosystems and some of their particular
research needs.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
2 Science to Support Ground Water and
Drinking Water Protection Programs
Guided by the Safe Drinking Water Act
(SDWA), the Ground Water and Drinking
Water Protection Program strives to
provide safe drinking water and to protect
sources of drinking water. The Office of
Ground Water and Drinking Water
(OGWDW), together with States, Tribes,
and its many partners, protect public health
by ensuring safe drinking water and
protecting ground water. See the Addendum
to Chapter 1 for more information on
OGWDW responsibilities. More specific
objectives are set out in EPA's 2006-2011
Strategic Plan, in which the Water Program
has set a goal to improve the percentage of
the population served by community water
systems that receives drinking water meeting
all applicable health-based standards. This
will be accomplished through approaches
that include effective treatment and source
water protection.
The Ground Water and Drinking Water
Protection Program receives input from a variety of outside organizations and formal
committees including the National Academy of Sciences, the EPA Science Advisory Board,
the National Drinking Water Advisory Council, and the Source Water Collaborative, among
others. Many of the Program's objectives will require additional research on the part of EPA
and its partners.
Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Research
Needs
The goal of the drinking water research program is to develop leading edge research
products that can be used to implement the SDWA and its amendments. The research
program directly supports:
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
Evaluating unregulated contaminants;
Assessing public health risk from contaminants;
Developing or revising standards for contaminants;
Identifying and developing methods to detect and monitor contaminants;
Effectively implementing standards;
Protecting both surface and underground water sources from unintentional and
intentional introduction of contaminants to drinking water supplies.
In sum, the research provides methods, data, tools, models, and technologies to characterize
and manage health and security risks associated with treatment and distribution of drinking
water, and supports the promotion of sustainable water resources and water infrastructure.
These drinking water research needs focus on the science necessary to implement the
SDWA's requirements for the Contaminant Candidate List (CCL), to assess and manage the
safety of drinking water quality in distribution systems, including developing tools to manage
the nation's aging drinking water infrastructure. Research needs also relate to other program
areas including the protection of surface and underground sources of drinking water and the
Six-Year Review of National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs).
For the purposes of this Compendium, Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection
Program research needs are organized under three program areas:
Regulatory Development and Implementation of Drinking Water Standards;
Source Water Protection (SWP)/Underground Injection Control (UIC), and
Water Security.
Background information and research needs are presented below for each of these areas. In
addition, a detailed listing of specific research projects for each research area will be found in
the Water Research Management and Status Tool when it is available. Research needs that
pertain to drinking water cut across and intertwine with research needs sponsored by other
Office of Water (OW) programs that are identified in other chapters, particularly related, for
example, to health effects, watershed management, sustainable infrastructure, or treatment
residuals. Also, while EPA's Office of Research and Development (ORD) is responsible for
a significant portion of research to support the Water Program, there are a number of
governmental and non-governmental partner organizations and research foundations that
conduct research and studies to support EPA's efforts. They include the Association of State
Drinking Water Administrators American Water Works Association (AWWA) and the
AWWA research foundation (AwwaRF), the National Rural Water Association and Water
Environment Research Foundation (WERF), among others. The Department of Agriculture
and the United States Geological Survey also work in partnership with EPA to improve the
quality of America's drinking water and to conduct supporting research.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
Regulatory Development of Drinking Water Standards
Under the SDWA, EPA is charged with evaluating unregulated contaminants and developing
and revising drinking water standards. The Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection
Program sets national standards for drinking water that either limit a particular contaminant
in drinking water, require treatment to remove (e.g., filtration) or inactivate (e.g., chemical
disinfection, UV, etc.) a contaminant. When setting and reviewing these standards, sound
data and peer-reviewed science are used to focus on the contaminants that present the
greatest public health risk and are likely found in drinking water. To determine which
contaminants may require regulations, EPA needs information on the health effects,
occurrence, and potential exposure to the contaminants as well as information on analytical
methods and treatment technologies.
The SDWA mandated several programs that help EPA identify contaminants that need new
or revised standards. These programs include the CCL, Unregulated Contaminant
Monitoring Regulation (UCMR), and the Six-Year Review of existing regulations. EPA is
also engaging in research to develop program measures of public health protection resulting
from implementation of drinking water programs.
Regulatory Development and Implementation of Drinking Water Standards
Research Needs
In developing and revising drinking water standards, EPA evaluates threats to public health
from microbial and chemical contaminants. To support these efforts EPA addresses
research questions in key categories Health Effects, Method Development, Occurrence,
and Treatment. The outline below notes typical research questions to be addressed for
particular contaminants identified in the regulatory development process (see the CCL and
Regulatory Determination discussion, for example) and also summarizes some identified
research needs. (Further details are provided in the sections of the report that follow.)
Health Effects
- What are the actual or potential human health effects of pathogens,
chemicals, and suites of contaminants and how can the risk assessment
process be improved to best assess these effects?
- What is the cumulative risk associated with mixtures of contaminants that are
likely to co-occur (e.g., disinfection by-products (DBPs), pesticides and their
degradates) and exhibit similar target organs or modes of action?
- What are the relationships among chemical and microbial contaminants and
adverse health effects on sensitive subpopulations?
- What are the health effects of short-term exposure to lead?
- What is the mode of action and health risk related to low level arsenic
exposure?
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
Method Development
- Do analytical methods exist with enough sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and
precision to: (i) detect and quantify the contaminant, and (ii) verify
remediation or removal?
- Are the methods robust enough to support national occurrence data
collection and/or can they be widely applied to support monitoring for
regulatory compliance? (See the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule
(UCMR) discussion, for example.)
Occurrence
- What are the national occurrence of contaminants and the resultant
exposures to the public?
- How is the public exposed to these contaminants (i.e., inhalation, ingestion,
dermal), how often, and for what duration?
- What data collection practices best capture the risk for both acute (where
applicable) and chronic exposure?
- How do we determine aggregate exposures to the same chemical from
multiple media (e.g., water, air, food)?
- What is the pathogen occurrence, and proportion of total waterborne
pathogen risk, related to ground water versus surface water sources,
distribution systems, storage facilities, and such features as cross connections,
backflow, and other intrusion event (pressure fluctuations, main construction
and repairs)?
- What are the best indicators of pathogen or chemical occurrence and
contamination?
Treatment Technologies
- What treatment technologies or techniques exist to remediate the
contaminant or are new technologies needed?
- What is efficacy of different disinfection and residual levels with various
water matrices to achieve efficient pathogen inactivation and to control
health risks?
What are the implications of simultaneous compliance for drinking water
treatment plant operations?
- What are the impacts of treatment changes, optimal corrosion control, and
disinfection practices on lead at the tap?
- What are appropriate performance measures for membranes?
The CCL, Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation (UCMR), and Regulatory
Determination, are inter-related and with the Six-Year Review form a continuum of
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
programs that identify research needs as part of their process. They are discussed in brief
below. Also discussed below is the current effort to review the Total Coliform Rule (TCR),
Distribution System concerns, the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR), and the development of
performance measures for the drinking water program.
In addition, several of the research questions stated above cut across the other processes and
programs described in this document. For example, research questions related to disinfection
by-products (DBPs) may
involve new DBPs a CCL
issue or regulated DBPs
considered under the Six-Year
Review. Further information
might be needed to assess how
to approach a Distribution
System rule or improve a
performance measure.
Similarly, there are many
research topics related to
microbiological contaminants
that cut across programs and
relate to implementation.
Some of these interwoven
research and implementation issues that pertain to human health, analytical methods and
occurrence, and treatment technologies are also discussed below under Cross-Cutting
Research Needs and apply to topics in the SWP/UIC (e.g., carbon sequestration) and Water
Security discussions that follow.
Contaminant Candidate List and Regulatory Determinations
EPA conducts extensive data gathering and analysis to establish a CCL. The CCL is the first
step to focus the regulatory determination process and to set priorities for research. The
CCL is comprised of unregulated contaminants that are known or anticipated to occur in
Public Water Systems (PWSs). These contaminants may have adverse human health effects
and may require regulation under the SDWA. EPA also develops drinking water guidance
and health advisories for CCL contaminants when appropriate. The first CCL was published
in March 1998 (USEPA, March 1998: 63 FR 10273), and the second CCL was published in
February 2005 (USEPA, February 2005:70 FR 9071). The draft third CCL was published in
February 2008 (USEPA, February 2008:73 FR 9628). When EPA's third Contaminant List
(CCL 3) is final OW will identify various chemical and microbial contaminants that will
require research and assessment.
Once contaminants are listed on the CCL (see Exhibit 2-1 below for the draft CCL 3
Contaminant List), EPA must determine if a regulation is needed or not for five or more of
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
these contaminants. EPA must decide whether enough information exists to make a
regulatory determination (Reg Det) for any of the contaminants or if more research is
needed. The CCL and CCL Reg Det is an ongoing process through which EPA will define
research needs for these drinking water contaminants. These contaminants may require
additional health effects data (e.g., reproductive studies) to conduct a risk assessment,
occurrence studies to estimate exposure to a contaminant, the development of analytical
methods for monitoring the contaminants, and evaluations of treatment technologies to
remove them from drinking water or in some instances to control their formation (e.g.,
DBPs). As the research needs for various contaminants are established EPA will add this
assessment to the OW research plans and enter these findings into the Water RMST. (Refer
to Human Health Effects and Risk Assessments in Chapter 5 for more information regarding the
health effects and risk assessment research needs.)
Exhibit 2.1: Draft CCL 3 Contaminants (February 2008; 73 FR 9628)
alpha-Hexachlorocyclohexane
1,1,1 ,2-Tetrachloroethane
1 , 1 -Dichloroethane
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
1,3-Butadiene
1,3-Dinitrobenzene
1,4-Dioxane
1-Butanol
2-Methoxyethanol
2-Propen-l-ol
3-Hydroxycarbofuran
4,4'-Methylenedianiline
Acephate
Acetaldehyde
Acetamide
Acetochlor
Acetochlor ethanesulfomc
acid (ESA)
Acetochlor oxanilic acid (OA)
Acrolein
Alachlor ESA
Dicrotophos
Dimethipin
Dimethoate
Disulfoton
Diuron
Ethion
Ethoprop
Ethylene glycol
Ethylene oxide
Ethylene thiourea
Fenamiphos
Formaldehyde
Germanium
HCFC-22
Hexane
Hydrazine
Methamidophos
Methanol
Methyl bromide
(Bromomethane)
Methyl tert-butyl ether
N-nitroso-di-n-
propylamine
N-Nitros odiphenylamine
N-nitrosopyrrolidine
n-Propylbenzene
o-Toluidine
Oxirane, methyl-
Oxydemeton-methyl
Oxyfluorfen
Perchlorate
Permethrin
perfluorooctanoic acid
Profenofos
Quinoline
Hexahydro-l,3,5-trinitro-
1,3,5-triazine
sec-Butylbenzene
Strontium
Tebuconazole
Tebufenozide
Tellurium
Terbufos
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Exhibit 2.1: Draft CCL 3 Contaminants (February 2008; 73 FR 9628)
Alachlor OA
Aniline
Bensulide
Benzyl chloride
Butylated hydroxyanisole
Captan
Chloromethane (Methyl
chloride)
Clethodim
Cobalt
Cumene hydroperoxide
Cyanotoxins (3)
Metolachlor
Metolachlor ESA
Metolachlor OA
Molinate
Molybdenum
Nitrobenzene
Nitrofen
Nitroglycerin
N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone
N-nitro s o diethylamine
N-nitrosodimethylamine
Terbufos sulfone
Thiodicarb
Thiophanate-methyl
Toluene diisocyanate
Tribufos
Triethylamine
Triphenyltin hydroxide
Urethane
Vanadium
Vinclozolin
Ziram
Microbial Contaminants
Caliciviruses
Campylobacterjejuni
Entamoeba histoljtica
Escherichia coli (0157)
Helicobacter pylori
Hepatitis A virus
Eegionella pneumophila
Naegleriafoifleri
Salmonella enterica
Shigella sonnei
Vibrio choleras
Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation
The SDWA, as amended in 1996, required EPA to establish criteria for a program to
monitor unregulated contaminants and in 1999, EPA promulgated the UCMR for Public
Water Systems (USEPA, September 1999: 64 FR 50555). The occurrence data collected
through the UCMR support analyses related to contaminant occurrence, and EPA's
determination of whether or not to regulate a contaminant in the interest of protecting
public health. Because of the timing of the CCL and UCMR cycles, monitoring under the
UCMR may provide needed occurrence data for contaminants listed in the CCL process and
data for emerging contaminants to support a future CCL selection process. The second cycle
of the UCMR program was promulgated in January 2007 (USEPA, 2007; 72 FR 368). To
support future UCMR data collection efforts, research is needed on analytical methods to
gather occurrence data for unregulated contaminants and on approaches and methods to
effectively sample for unique contaminants, and potentially on health effects for new and
emerging contaminants.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
Six-Year
Under the Six-Year Review process, EPA reviews existing NPDWRs at least every six years
to determine whether revisions are needed. As discussed above, as part of the Six-Year
Review process, new data on health effects, analytical methods, occurrence, and treatment
efficacy are reviewed to determine if any revisions to the existing regulation are needed. The
Six-Year process may also identify needed research in these areas.
Total Coliform Ru/e and Distribution System Rule
EPA is conducting research to support possible revisions of the existing TCR and the
possible development of a separate distribution system rule. As previously discussed, the
Total Coliform Rule Distribution System Advisory Committee (TCRDSAC) has a dual
function. In addition to providing EPA with advice and recommendations regarding TCR
revisions, the Committee is also considering what information about distribution systems is
needed to better understand the public health impact from the degradation of drinking water
quality in distribution systems. EPA and members of the TCRDSAC need information on
the occurrence of non-coliform indicators and the co-occurrence of coliform indicators in
distribution systems. This information will help determine what indicators provide evidence
of pathogen or chemical occurrence and contamination. Improved methods to detect
chemical and microbial contamination are needed as well as information on intrusion events,
pressure fluctuations, and the fate, transport, and occurrence of microbial contaminants in
distribution systems. Research on treatment efficacy should involve disinfectant studies to
determine effective residual levels, and the effectiveness of various management approaches
to control and prevent health risks. Studies are needed to better characterize the current
profile of disinfection system infrastructure and characteristics in the US.
Lead and Copper Rule
EPA promulgated Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs) and NPDWRs for lead
and copper. The goal of the LCR is to provide maximum human health protection by
reducing lead and copper levels at consumers' taps to as close to the MCLGs as possible. To
accomplish this goal, the LCR establishes requirements for community water systems and
non-transient non-community water systems to optimize corrosion control in their
distribution systems and conduct periodic monitoring. In 2004, EPA undertook a national
review of the implementation of the LCR, and workshops were held on specific topics
(simultaneous compliance, monitoring protocols, public education, lead service line
replacement, and plumbing fittings and fixtures) . As a result of this national review, EPA
identified seven targeted rule changes, which were finalized on October 10, 2007, to
strengthen the implementation of the LCR in the areas of monitoring, treatment processes,
public education, customer awareness, and lead service line replacement. The national review
also helped EPA to identify longer-term research topics such as optimal corrosion control
treatment, improved monitoring frameworks, and lead service line replacement. The Regions
have noted that research on the efficacy of remote, in-situ lead sensors for assessment of
lead levels in drinking water distribution system and at point-of-use locations is needed in
several affected Regions.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
Arsenic
The Regions have noted that additional research related to arsenic treatment and regulation
is needed in several affected Regions. Region 1 specifically identified the need for additional
data and demonstration projects in New England and more information exchange on arsenic
strategies, such as an arsenic workshop.
Health Outcome Performance Measures - Program Effectiveness
The Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program is working to develop a health
outcome-based performance measure(s) in response to the Office of Budget and
Management's (OMB) recommendations provided during the FY2006 Program Assessment
Rating Tool process. The Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program submitted
a Waterborne Disease Measure Development and Implementation Plan to OMB in
September 2004. Since that time, the Agency has been working on several efforts to develop
better estimates of national waterborne illness. In 2006, the Agency released an article that
outlined an approach for developing a national estimate of waterborne disease and an
estimate using the model and available data. (Messner et al., 2006).
The Agency is also working with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (and
EPA's ORD to develop a number of projects that range from epidemiological studies to
making changes to the forms used for outbreak reporting. As a result of the work done by
the National Drinking Water Advisory Council, the Ground Water and Drinking Water
Protection Program has expanded its measure to consider both regulated pathogens and
chemical contaminants. The measure's goal is to relate the drinking water program's
activities to waterborne disease incidence. The measure will look at how the drinking water
program reduces the frequency of waterborne disease incidences. EPA is working to develop
the measure to be included in future Agency Strategic Plans.
The Regions have identified research needs to help protect the public from water-borne
illness. In order to meet the Ground Water Rule, water systems in many Regions need
information and guidance to help prevent unintended consequences resulting from
disinfection (e.g., simultaneous compliance issues). In addition, data on less expensive and
less sophisticated technologies are needed for small water systems to help them meet the
requirements of this rule.
The Regions have also noted research needs related to the Enhanced Surface Water
Treatment Rule, the Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, the Long Term 1
Enhanced Surface Water treatment Rule, and the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water
Treatment Rule. To support the implementation of these regulations, research is needed to
identify the appropriate ambient water quality criteria for Cryptosporidium and E. colt to help to
avoid additional treatment at existing surface water treatment plants.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
Research is needed to help the Regions
meet the new Stage 2 Disinfection By-
Products Rule (Stage 2 DBPR). These
needs are focused on decentralized
treatment approaches. The Stage 2 DBPR
may require utilities to address "hot
spots" in their distribution, thus driving
the need for research to better understand
how to treat water on a local basis within
a distribution system. A research need
specific to Region 2 is the identification of
appropriate ambient water quality criteria
for organic material and turbidity in source waters. This will help water systems reduce DBP
development, avoid possible violations, and avoid increased treatment costs.
Regulatory Development Cross-Cutting Research Needs Health Effects
As discussed above, through the CCL, Reg Det, and Six-Year Review processes, EPA may
determine that additional health effects data are needed (e.g., reproductive studies) for
specific drinking water contaminants to determine if a new or revised drinking water
regulation is warranted. Health effects and risk assessment process and research needs are
further discussed in Chapter 5. Beyond toxicological and health effects assessments of
particular contaminants, there are particular needs, to identify the relationships among
chemical and microbial contaminants and populations that are especially susceptible to
adverse health effects from exposure. These groups, or sensitive subpopulations, may
include children, the elderly, pregnant women, and people that are immune compromised.
Tools must be developed to better incorporate these populations into EPA risk assessment
models.
Identifying and regulating microbial pathogens is particularly challenging. In recent years,
much research has been done, but more remains to be accomplished to fully understand the
endemic health effects of pathogens. The additional data will support more comprehensive
risk assessments for pathogens. For example, research is needed to determine:
What portion of pathogen risk is attributable to drinking water;
What portion of the total waterborne risk is attributable to source, treatment, or
distribution systems; and
What portion of the total waterborne risk is attributable to surface water versus
ground water sources.
Another major needed research area is to determine the health effects from chemical
mixtures. For example, ongoing research is needed to compare toxicity and health risk
information from DBP mixtures in drinking water to determine if controlling the two classes
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
of regulated DBPs (the sum of four trihalomethanes and the sum of five haloacetic acids) is
sufficiently protective of public health.
Additional health effects research should focus on both regulated DBPs and
emerging/unregulated DBPs, parent pesticides and their degradates, and manufactured
chemicals that are chemically transformed to other compounds when released into the
environment. Reproductive and developmental effects are one area of particular importance.
Of related interest is the development of risk communication approaches, particularly for
reproductive and developmental effects of DBPs. The reader may also refer to the
discussion of cumulative risk under Human Health Effects and Risk Assessment Research
Needs in Chapter 5.
TLseulatory Development Cross-Cutting Research Needs -.Analytical Method Development and
Occurrence Studies
Central to EPA's determination of whether to regulate a contaminant or revise an existing
regulation is the ability to detect and quantify the contaminant and to determine its
occurrence in drinking water. Continued improvement of new technologies and analytical
methods for the detection and quantification of pathogens is a research priority. These are
needed to provide more effective monitoring and occurrence assessment for microbes. For
example, EPA needs to better understand the fate and transport of microbial pathogens in
distribution systems, including the role of biofilms in pathogen fate and transport. Such
studies can affect considerations of pathogens in CCL or regulated programs (see the TCR
discussion) and can influence sampling and monitoring designs for the UCMR. Research is
also needed to explore the relationship among water quality parameters, pathogen
occurrence, exposure, and infection to illness. In addition, EPA needs to understand the
factors that contribute to nitrification of biofilms in the distribution system and resulting
public health implications.
Studies are also needed to characterize and determine contamination occurrence associated
with cross connections, backflow, storage facilities, and main construction and repairs.
Needed research includes a national characterization of common waterborne pathogens that
have been found at finished storage facilities, water main repair, or new construction, as well
as a risk modeling feasibility study to determine the potential occurrence of contaminants at
these locations.
DBP rules are reviewed simultaneously with the microbial rules to continue to ensure that
controlling DBPs does not jeopardize microbial protection. Research is needed to verify the
suite of microbial and chemical contaminants found in ground water and surface water.
Additional occurrence studies should assess the environmental prevalence of E. coli'm source
water and distribution systems as an indicator of potential contamination. In addition,
research should include developing more robust methods to measure emerging DBPs in
drinking water distribution systems and gathering occurrence data. Occurrence data are
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
needed on DBP precursors (e.g., iodine) as well as DBP mixtures and concentrations in
drinking water in water systems across a broad geographical range.
TLseulatory Development Other Cross-Cutting Research Needs
Effective treatment technologies are essential to the provision of safe drinking water and
protection of drinking water sources. In particular, research is needed to improve EPA's
understanding of simultaneous compliance issues, drinking water treatment residuals, and
the control of microbes and DBPs. Each of these areas is described in more detail.
As more contaminants are regulated, the ability to obtain and maintain compliance becomes
more complex because of the various treatment and monitoring requirements. Simultaneous
compliance with drinking water regulations can be difficult because treatment options for
one contaminant may result in complications when complying with standards for other
contaminants. Conflicts can occur when rules designed to ensure chemical stability compete
with rules designed to protect against DBP risk. For example, certain actions that may be
necessary for water system compliance with the DBP rules (e.g., enhanced coagulation) can
upset the established operating chemistry in a system by lowering the pH. This may cause
lead and/or copper to leach into the water from distribution system pipes or the plumbing in
the customer's service lines or in-home pipes and faucets. Research is needed to optimize
and better understand the implications of simultaneous compliance for drinking water
treatment plants. Also related to compliance research is needed on strategies for consecutive
water systems to maintain compliance since they are not in control of primary treatment.
Drinking water treatment results in concentrated residuals (the material removed) that can be
hazardous. Research is needed on production and disposal, and the fate and transport of
residuals, particularly radionuclides (radium and uranium). Drinking water treatment
residuals is also discussed below under the UIC Program. This research is also relevant to
wastewater programs, and dovetails with research on biosolids for wastewater treatment
plants that may receive drinking water residuals (refer to Chapter 3, Science to Support
Wastewater Management for Water Quality Protection Programs.)
Research on microbial treatment should focus on performance measures for membranes as
well as disinfection studies to evaluate pathogen inactivation achieved in different water
matrices. Studies are also needed to evaluate the impact of treatment and disinfection
changes on DBP formation, removal, and control.
Research is also needed on water conservation and water efficiency practices and programs
to define their effectiveness, costs, and benefits (e.g., conservation programs, water efficient
appliance rebates, leak detection). Social marketing approaches need to be explored.
Decision makers need to know how to provide effective education and outreach campaigns
not just on water conservation, but on the real benefits and costs of high-quality public
water supplies. Additional data are also needed to estimate the full cost of drinking water
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
systems; data are needed to help characterize the true cost of water and cost pricing issues.
Issues related to sustainable infrastructure are also discussed in Chapter 3.
Source Water Protection
The SDWA requires the conduct of source water assessments for the protection and benefit
of PWSs. States were also required to adopt a program to protect wellhead areas within their
jurisdiction from contaminants that may have any adverse effect on public health. The
delineation of source water and wellhead protection areas is determined by the State.
The core value of source water protection is as the first barrier of a multi-barrier approach to
protect against water borne diseases and illnesses from microbial and chemical contaminants.
This preventive barrier also limits human exposure to a myriad of emerging potential
contaminants for which the human health risk and drinking water occurrence have not been
fully assessed.
Source water protection entails complementary approaches (a) leveraging other federal and
State regulatory programs (e.g., Clean Water Act (CWA), to focus on source water
protection) and (b) using State and local authority to prevent source water contamination
(e.g, through land use siting restrictions and business licensing prerequisites) where the
federal and State regulatory programs lack jurisdiction. States typically have the authority to
enact such regulatory controls, or to delegate them to local jurisdictions, to protect public
sources of drinking water. The challenges lie in efficiently designing and maintaining
comprehensive vulnerability assessments and in designing and implementing measures to
prevent source water contamination based on the water resource scale circumstances.
Climate change will add to these challenges. Warmer water will foster the growth of
microbial pathogens. Reduced stream flows and ground water levels will concentrate
contamination. Increasingly severe storms will increase soil erosion, which increases
turbidity, which can fowl micro-filtration treatment facilities more quickly causing higher
maintenance costs. Related, water availability is becoming a prominent issue through out the
country and this will also be affected by climate change. In fact, research is needed to
understand how the amount of water available for drinking can be maintained and increased
through protection activities. Additional discussion of climate change can be found in
Chapter 7 (Science to Support Cross-Program Needs).
Source Water Protection Research Needs
In general, there is a need to develop science-based tools that are easy for technicians and
water managers to learn and efficient for them to use. Such tools should enable the control
of non-point source pollution and otherwise unregulated point sources of pollution at the
water resource scale. These tools must produce usable outputs for local and State decision-
makers that can withstand court challenges.
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It is critical that tools be developed that better enable: (1) the assessment of drinking water
resources and their vulnerability to contamination; and (2) the control of pollution at the
water resource scale (i.e., watershed and aquifer). There is a need to account for climate
change impacts on water resources by developing tools to support integrated water resource
planning and management at multiple water resource scales including the assessment and
multi-decadal projection of water availability (quantity and quality) and the optimization of
choices among water supply management and water demand management alternatives (e.g.,
Best Management Practices (BMPs)).
Research efforts need to better match science-based tools with the needs of source water
management practitioners. The effective use of these tools requires that they: (1) reliably
reproduce and characterize the uncertainty of the same results under the same
circumstances; (2) be adapted to a variety of circumstances; and (3) incorporate current
scientific knowledge of relevant issues.
From the perspective of the Regions, additional assessment is needed to determine how to
best integrate designated use and source water protection. For example, States need more
information on how to set appropriate water quality criteria for a stream or portion of a
stream that has a "drinking water designated use." There are also continuing needs related to
contaminant source tracking, including molecular microbial source tracking.
Within EPA, the OGWDW leads the source water protection efforts, and other program
offices conduct work that supports the Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection
Program, including the Office of Wastewater Management; Office of Science and
Technology; and Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds. These are reported on
throughout this Compendium. These efforts support the integration of the Clean Water Act
(CWA) and the SDWA.
Needed SWP Tools: Tools are needed to: (a) delineate the hydrogeologic boundaries of
(and prioritize) the land and water areas to be protected including the preferential flow
paths[2] and the 'age' range(s) of water in the underlying aquifers;[3] (b) estimate the recharge
of and discharge from aquifers, particularly to assess the relative contribution of ground
water to surface water base flows, under varying hydrologic conditions; (c) catalogue and
map the potential sources of contamination and link contaminants found to specific sources
or species (e.g., genotyping sources of sanitary waste); (d) compare the accuracy, precision,
and unit cost of available lab methods to detect, measure, or genotype emerging
contaminants in ambient water; (e) rank the likelihood and potential severity of
contamination and monitor the health of ground water dependent ecosystems which can
serve to pre-treat source water for domestic use; (f) allow the use of drinking water
2 Homogeneous and isotropic conditions in aquifers are rare or non-existent and ground water flow is mainly controlled by
the presence, magnitude, and orientation of preferential flow paths all of which means that getting preferential flow paths
right is a prerequisite to getting the source water protection area delineations right, which itself is a prerequisite to getting
the source water protection plans and investments right.
3 The presence of 20 million year old water in an aquifer does not mean there is not also 20 day old water there.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
monitoring data (of either finished or raw water) in CWA §305(b) assessments; (g) assess the
relative effectiveness and cost profiles of alternative point source and non-point source
mitigation measures (e.g., from decentralized wastewater disposal); and (h) implement actions
with a high probability of preventing or mitigating contamination of surface water and
ground water resources from industrial, commercial, and agricultural operations (e.g., BMPs).
Climate Change - Water Availability, Variability and Sustainability: It is critical to
account for climate change impacts on water resources by: (1) compiling water availability
and water use data, and water planning and management methods, for domestic, industrial,
agricultural, and other significant needs at multiple jurisdictional and water resource scales
(e.g., by community and State, and by hydrologic unit); and (2) developing tools that meet the
criteria described under Source Water Protection Program Research Needs (discussed above) to
support integrated water resource planning and management. Tools are needed for State and
utility water managers to: (a) assess the availability of the water resources currently in use,
particularly ground water, as well as the availability of water resources to which they may
have future access; (b) project water availability over many decades based on alternative
precipitation and demand scenarios; (c) assess the geo-chemical and geo-physical parameters
of storing water underground (e.g., aquifer storage and recovery); (d) optimize the choices
among water supply alternatives and demand management alternatives based on the water
resource scale and local demographic conditions; and (e) prepare for and respond to the
water impacts of drought, severe storms, earlier snow melt, and other water related facets of
climate change. (A more detailed discussion of EPA's climate change program and research
needs is provided in Chapter 7, Science to Support Cross-Program Needs.)
Underground Injection Control
The SDWA, Section 1421, provides that underground injection shall "not endanger drinking
water sources." EPA must promulgate regulations that set minimum requirements for State
underground injection programs to "prevent underground injection which endangers
drinking water sources." Under §1421 (d) (2), "Underground injection endangers drinking
water sources if such injection may result in the presence in underground water which
supplies or can reasonably be expected to supply any public water system of any
contaminant, and if the presence of such contaminant may result in such system's not
complying with any national primary drinking water regulation or may otherwise adversely
affect the health of persons."
Atmospheric scientists have identified carbon dioxide (CO^ from anthropogenic sources
(i.e., those derived from human activity) as the primary contributor to global warming. Major
stationary sources of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere include electric generating facilities,
petrochemical processing complexes, and other industrial facilities. These industries are
considering the underground injection of CO2 that is captured from their industrial
processes as a means of preventing its emission to the atmosphere (or geologic carbon
sequestration). Geologic sequestration activities may help control climate change but the
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
injection of CO2 must also not impair underground sources of drinking water (USDWs).
Research is needed to determine how to safely inject CO2 and if the CO2 will stay
underground once injected. EPA is responsible under the SDWA to regulate such injection
and will propose a rule by the end of 2008.
In addition, the risk of climate change-induced droughts is driving increasing numbers of
water management authorities to consider or employ aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) as
one of their water storage options. ASR has the benefits of protecting stored water from
evaporation and requiring relatively low capital investments compared to surface storage but
ASR has the drawback of risking
the mobilization of geologic
contaminants (e.g., arsenic,
radionuclides), or the injection of
contaminants into an USDW. In
the many cases where ASR would
be for non-potable reuse (e.g.,
irrigation or industrial cooling),
determining where and how ASR
can be accomplished without
endangering USDWs is also a
challenge the Agency needs to
address.
Within EPA, the Wastewater Management Program works with the Ground Water and
Drinking Water protection Program to develop policy and research projects dealing with
stormwater management and septic systems related to UIC. EPA is working with the
Department of Energy to coordinate efforts of geologic sequestration because of potential
benefits of storing CO2 underground. The UIC Program also works with the Ground Water
Protection Council, the Ground Water Protection Research Foundation, the Lawrence
Berkley National Laboratory, and the US Army Corp of Engineers to conduct research and
support State implementation of the UIC Program.
Underground Injection Control and Related Research Needs
EPA's research needs include: (a) critical reviews of existing knowledge and research; (b)
understanding the physical and chemical processes governing injected CO2fate and transport
underground; (c) identifying methods for monitoring CO2 in the subsurface and evaluating
monitoring techniques; (d) developing well construction, well plugging, and well
abandonment procedures appropriate for long term CO2 injection; and (e) developing
technical tools and decision models to support ASR for non-potable reuse.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
Carbon Sequestration
There are a many research needs related to the sequestration of carbon. They include:
Syntheses - Synthesize reports of experience from international geologic
sequestration projects in Europe, North Africa, and Australia, as well as pilot
projects in the United States as data becomes available.
Models and Risk Assessment - Develop, evaluate, and verify subsurface CO2
transport models. Models can also be used to predict the impact of injection
activities on the quality and water availability of USDWs.
Human Health Risk Assessment - Review the potential health impacts of CO2
co-contaminants, such as Sulfate (SO4), and the implications of those health
impacts for managing geologic sequestration.
Monitoring - Identify and evaluate effective direct and indirect monitoring
technologies for CO2, injected co-contaminants such as SO4, and displaced
brines.
Construction - Predict the durability of well construction materials and the
reliability of construction methods considering the corrosive nature of CO2 and
the duration of its storage.
Well Plugging - Evaluate current well plugging material and procedures, and well
abandonment procedures, considering the corrosive nature of CO2.
Aquifer Storage and TLecovery /Aquifer Recharpe
Aquifer modeling tools are needed to assess the geochemical and hydrogeological parameters
of storing water underground particularly for future reuse and, more specifically, to predict
with a specified degree of certainty the potential for an ASR or aquifer recharge (AR)
candidate well to endanger USDWs arising from:
The release of trace metals caused by interactions between the injectate and the
surrounding geologic matrix (e.g., low pH injectate leaching arsenic);
In situ DBP formation in injectate (e.g., from organic material in chlorinated
injectates);
Untreated injectate (e.g., when storing stormwater or sanitary wastewater for non-
potable re-use); and
The attenuation, if any, of the forms of contamination described above from
either long term storage or from repetitive recycling of stored water.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
Water Security
As the water sector-specific federal lead for protecting the nation's drinking water and
wastewater infrastructure, EPA plays a critical role in homeland security. The OGWDW's
Water Security Division (WSD) takes the lead in working with EPA's National Homeland
Security Research Center (NHSRC), part of EPA's ORD in Cincinnati, OH to identify and
conduct research focused on ways to better secure the nation's drinking water and
wastewater systems against threats and attacks. These initiatives focus on the Nation's
drinking water and wastewater supply, infrastructure, treatment, and distribution systems.
The Water Security Program has supported drinking water and wastewater utilities by
preparing vulnerability assessment and emergency response tools and training, providing
technical and financial assistance, and developing information exchange mechanisms. Water
Security Program is also charged with supporting best security practices, providing security
enhancement guidance, and incorporating security into the day-to-day operations of drinking
water and wastewater utilities.
The NHSRC's Water Infrastructure Protection Division (WIPD) conducts research and
develops tools to increase the understanding of public health and environmental impacts
from various kinds of water infrastructure attacks. This understanding, when integrated into
water security practices, leads to improved awareness, preparedness, prevention, response,
and recovery from intentional acts against water and wastewater systems. WIPD is
producing analytical tools and procedures, technology evaluations, models and
methodologies, decontamination techniques, technical resource guides and protocols, and
risk assessment methods (http://www.epa.gov/nhsrc/pubs.htm). All of these products are
for use by EPA's key water infrastructure customers water utility operators, public health
officials, and emergency and follow-up responders.
Water Security Research Needs
In 2002, EPA and the NHSRC collaborated to identify research needs to better protect the
Nation's water and wastewater systems. The Water Security Research and Technical Support
Action Plan (Action Plan) (USEPA, September 2005) was developed with the help of
stakeholders and other federal and State agencies to ensure that research conducted by
NHSRC is responsive to the needs of the water industry. The National Academy of Sciences
reviewed the Action Plan prior to publication and conducted a separate follow-up study
published in 2007 to advise WIPD regarding future research opportunities. NHSRC, WSD,
and the Water Environment Federation jointly conducted a series of stakeholder meetings
during 2005 to further inform strategic planning and supplement the Action Plan. The
completion of this Action Plan marked a major step towards developing a comprehensive
research strategy to protect the Nation's water infrastructure.
In the NHSRC's first four years, research conducted by WIPD was intended to address as
many of these gaps as quickly as possible. The research program was very fast paced and
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
primarily designed to support EPA's Water Program and water utilities as they identified
site-specific vulnerabilities, invested in better system protection, and developed emergency
response protocols and methods to detect and respond to contaminants that may be
introduced into the system.
Current security research needs focus on investigating ways and methods to:
Protect water and wastewater utilities from physical and cyber threats;
Evaluate potential threats and their impacts;
Evaluate and address system vulnerabilities;
Optimize detection of contaminants and develop means to determine and reduce
the impact of such events;
Develop methods to respond to contamination events; and
Develop approaches to decontaminate systems in the event of an intentional or
accidental contamination.
These needs are divided into four critical areas of research:
Prevention;
Detection;
Containment/mitigation; and
Decontamination/treatment and Disposal.
These needs are described in general terms below under each of these four research areas.
More specific project details can be found in the Water RMST.
Prevention
EPA is responsible for developing tools and methods to protect drinking water and
wastewater systems from physical and cyber attacks (Bioterrorism Act 2002, Homeland
Security Presidential Directive (HSPD) 7 and 9). The priority research in this area is to
identify and prioritize physical and cyber security threats; understand the consequences of
this type of attack; and design counter-measures for preventing and mitigating the effects of
physical and cyber attacks. The principal focus of research in this area is the work being
done under EPA's Water Security Initiative (WSI), a program to address the risk of
intentional contamination of drinking water distribution systems. The WSI's contaminant
warning system involves the deployment of multiple monitoring and surveillance
components including on-line water quality monitoring, public health surveillance, sampling
and analysis, enhanced security monitoring, and consumer complaint surveillance. A critical
aspect of WSI is the development of a consequence management plan to help utilities
respond, communicate with stakeholders and the public, and recover from contamination
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
events. The WSI has been developed and is being implemented in one pilot city. Future
research efforts will be needed to address the "lessons learned" and to expand this program
to additional cities, and to develop guidance and outreach materials to promote voluntary
national adoption of effective and sustainable drinking water contamination warning
systems.
While physical threats to water and wastewater systems are a significant concern, more
research is needed in the area of chemical and microbial contamination threats. Methods
must be developed to quantitatively estimate the public health and economic impacts of
contamination incidents (e.g., what is the extent of contamination in distribution systems and
the likely concentration/doses that might be received through consuming contaminated
water). Exposure, dose-response, disease transmission, and economic models are also
needed.
Contingency planning is a critical element following an accidental or intentional disruption to
normal utility operations. Research and guidance is needed on the deployment of alternative
water supplies following delivery interruption as well as conducting an assessment of the
deployment of portable treatment facilities to provide safe drinking water.
Effective risk communication is essential for mitigating the impacts of a crisis. Risk
communication research is needed to determine how to best support utilities' efforts to
communicate with the media and public following a crisis incident, which includes
identifying the types of information of most use to the public.
EPA also needs to develop outcome-based measures of success for implementation of risk
reduction activities.
Detection
Methods to detect and identify chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) contaminants in
drinking water are critical to safeguarding drinking water supplies, the treatment processes,
and distribution systems. EPA's detection research program focuses on developing
detectors, analytical methods, sample preparation techniques, and models and tools to
detect, in real-time when possible, contaminants introduced into the water and the
wastewater. The research is being done to meet the goals of Homeland Security Presidential
Directive's (HSPD) 7 and 9 and will provide information to help plan for water systems'
monitoring strategies, analytical techniques, and treatment information for contamination
events.
A critical research area for OW is the development of the Water Laboratory Alliance, which
is intended to provide the drinking water sector with an integrated nationwide network of
laboratories with the analytical capabilities and capacity to support monitoring and
surveillance, response, and remediation to events involving CBR contaminants. EPA is
currently developing and testing regional laboratory response preparedness plans, refining
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
various analytical methods, and developing partnerships to enhance environmental
laboratory capabilities. As part of this effort, research is being conducted to expand the list
of contaminants maintained in the Water Contaminant Information Tool and to assess ways
to assist utilities in preparedness planning, incident response, response training, and
decontamination.
Detection research will include testing and
evaluation of newer, innovative sensor
technologies to address the need to detect, in
real-time, any contamination introduced to a
water system. The development of a cost-
effective total organic carbon on-line detector
is in progress. Future studies are planned on
the development or refinement of economical
on-line detectors for total organic nitrogen,
sulfur, and/or phosphorous. Additionally,
research is underway to develop an alpha-beta
radiation detector that can provide on-line
affordable, accurate, and automatic detection
of these radiological parameters in water.
In threatened and actual attacks with microbial
pathogens, detection of an unknown pathogen
is of paramount importance. One of the
challenges of detecting these pathogens in
water is the dilution effect upon the introduction of the contaminant into the water. An
ultrafiltration technique was developed to concentrate bacterial spores and protozoan
oocycts from large volumes of water. The technique was tested under different protocols
and at different concentrations for a number of pathogens. Future research is needed to
refine and test this approach for use in the field. Work will also be initiated to allow for
automatic water sampling when triggered by a monitoring system.
Many of the automated detection methods currently available will not identify which
contaminant is present in the water. Under Water Security Program's Threat Ensemble
Vulnerability Assessment (TEVA) Program, event detection systems consisting of data
analysis tools have been developed to analyze water quality data streams to rapidly and
accurately identify anomalous conditions in distribution systems that require further
investigation. As part of this effort, the Water Security Program collaborated with Sandia
National Laboratory to develop a tool called CANARY, which reads data in real time, and
returns a normal or alarm signal to a utility computer system. Research continues on how to
improve the accuracy of this approach while reducing the false alarm rate. Methods are
needed to generate simulated contamination incident data to provide better performance
data for CANARY and other algorithms. This research is critical to the contamination
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
warning systems under the WSI and is a high priority for the Water Program to respond to
HSPD 9 requirements. In response to water utility needs to optimize the placement of
sensors in distribution systems, the Water Security Program developed the TEVA Sensor
Placement Optimization Tool. Continuing research is needed to make these methods faster
and allow utilities to develop sensor designs that meet both security and operational goals.
Containment'/Mitigation
To provide accurate and specific information to water utilities in near real-time, the Water
Security Program is performing research to develop a real-time version of the EPANET
modeling software. EPANET is publicly-available software tool that models dynamic flow in
water distribution system pipes. A real-time extension to EPANET would incorporate
sensor data on water quality, tank levels, pressures, and flows to update the model
characteristics. The model is needed to estimate conditions in the distribution system at
locations that lack real-time data. EPA also needs software tools to be developed that would
utilize the real-time extension and enable a utility to manage a contamination incident in real-
time. Such tools include a back-tracking tool to identify the source of a contamination
incident given a positive sensor reading downstream, a sampling tool to identify points
where samples could be taken to confirm the presence of a contaminant, and a population at
risk tool to identify the people who may need to receive medical treatment following
exposure to a contaminant.
Additional software tools are needed to optimize flushing and isolation programs that would
be used following contamination incidents. Following detection of a contamination incident,
utilities may decide to flush the contaminant from the system and/or isolate the contaminant
in place until a later decision is made to treat or remove the water. Optimization models in
conjunction with EPANET flow models can be used to identify the best locations for
flushing or isolation, and the optimal duration of the flushing program.
Decontamination /Treatment and Disposal
With assistance from a NHSRC-wide Water Sector Decontamination Team, the Water
Security Program is currently developing a decontamination white paper recommending a
five-year research and development agenda. The Team will recommend new research
projects under five major areas including: (1) comparative efficacies of various
decontamination and treatment protocols and technologies, (2) target agent fate and
transport research and modeling, (3) persistence of contaminants in pipes and infrastructure
including transformation by-products, (4) appropriate cleanup levels and verification
methodologies, and (5) decontamination procedures for contaminated water and
infrastructures. The recommendations in the strategy will recognize and build upon
identified existing or planned work performed by NHSRC, other government agencies,
AwwaRF, the WERF, and others. Needs and priorities identified by the Water Security
Program through the Department of Homeland Security Critical Infrastructure Partnership
Advisory Council will also be incorporated into this Compendium.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
Understanding the persistence of microbial contaminants in distribution systems is
important in planning for decontamination approaches. Bench and pilot scale studies
examining spore adhesion to pipe materials are needed to provide information for
decontamination of these pipes. Similarly sloughing of biofilms and corroded material from
the pipes change the disinfection efficacy and impacts the fate and transport of these
organisms through the distribution system and to the consumer's tap. The Water Security
Program is planning to continue its research that is being done in partnership with the
National Institute of Standards and Technology to examine more contaminants and real-
world pipes, plumbing material, and actual biofilms. Additionally, as persistence and
decontamination of microbial contaminants is better understood, work will begin on
studying the association of radiological contaminants with various pipe surfaces and
methods of removing adhered agents. As with microbial contaminants, work will begin with
a bench scale study to determine whether radiological agents persist in pipe materials, and
proceed to the pilot study. Understanding persistence and decontamination of radiological
agents is necessary due to the general dearth of information on this topic in the technical
literature that could inform water utilities or first responders following a contamination
incident.
The Water Security Program is also working on research to develop technology to
appropriately handle the large volumes of water that may be generated when responding to
an incident (e.g., from activities such as firehosing). The developed technologies or systems
may focus on application during early incident response, to enhance
decon/treatment/disposal options, and reduce the amount of waste residuals (e.g. of
radiologically controlled material following a nuclear detention or other radiological
incident). The ultimate product from this research will be the development of a
water/was tewater disposal tool similar to the Response Protocol Tool.
References
Messner et. al. 2006. Estimating Disease Risks Associated With Drinking Water Microbial
Exposures. Journal of Water and Health. Vol 04, No 2 supplement. July/August
2006.
USEPA. 1998. Announcement of the Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List; Notice,
Federal Register. Vol. 63, No. 40. p. 10273, March 2, 1998.
USEPA. February 2005. Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List 2; Final Notice, Federal
Register. Vol. 70, No. 36. p. 9071, February 24, 2005.
USEPA. 2008. Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List 3-Draft, Federal Register. Vol. 73,
No. 35. p. 9628, February 21, 2008.
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Chapter 2 Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
USEPA. 1999. Revisions to the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation for Public
Water Systems; Final Rule, Federal Register. Vol. 64, No. 180. p. 50555, September 17,
1999.
USEPA. 2007. Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation (UCMR) for Public Water
Systems Revisions, Final rule. Federal Register. Vol. 72, No. 2. p. 368, January 4, 2007.
USEPA. September 2005. The Water Security Research and Technical Support Action Plan
- Progress Report; EPA 600-R-05-104. September 2005. Available on the internet at:
http: / 7www.epa.gov/nhsrc /pubs /reportWIPDprogress092905.pdf.
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Chapter 3 Science to Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality Protection
Programs
3 Science to Support Wastewater
Management for Water Quality Protection
Programs
Wastewater management plays a key role in
protecting water resources by promoting
conservation and efficient water use,
supporting effective decentralized
wastewater treatment programs, evaluating
point source abatement and control
programs, and other functions. The Office
of Wastewater Management (OWM) takes
the lead in carrying out these activities as an
important part of promoting compliance
with the requirements of the Clean Water
Act (CWA). See the Addendum to Chapter
1 for more information on OWM
responsibilities. OWM works in partnership with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Regions, States and Tribes to regulate discharges into surface waters such as wetlands, lakes,
rivers, estuaries, bays and oceans.
The primary goals of the Water Program research agenda in this area are to characterize and
develop methods to manage point sources of water quality degradation, to provide
information on the latest wastewater and residuals treatment technologies and management
practices, and to validate innovative practices for protecting water quality on a watershed
basis. Professionals responsible for the management of wastewater and industrial process
water need appropriate resources and information to make decisions regarding treatment
and reuse or disposal of wastewater and residuals. They also need to manage potential
sources of pollution, such as decentralized wastewater systems and stormwater runoff.
Wastewater management decisions should be based on sound science and engineering. The
Water Program research goals aim to facilitate such management decisions by serving as a
technical resource and informing policy and regulatory actions. Much of the pollutant-
specific research needed to support wastewater management programs is described in other
chapters (e.g., Chapters 5 for water quality criteria and standards; Chapter 4 for watershed
management). Particular research needs for programs led by the wastewater program is
described in this section.
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Chapter 3 Science to Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality Protection
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Wastewater Management Program Research Needs
Emerging contaminants found in publicly owned treatment works (POTW) and
decentralized system waste streams are an increasingly important part of wastewater and
residuals characterization and management. Compounds such as endocrine disrupters
(EDCs), pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), and pathogens need to be
detected and managed. In addition, as new industries emerge and grow, EPA must stay
abreast of new threats to water quality and identify ways to prevent their introduction to
waters, and where necessary, to treat them.
Research is needed to support the Water Program goal of providing information on
treatment and management of wastewater and residuals from municipal wastewater,
industrial wastewater, stormwater, combined sewer overflows (CSOs), concentrated animal
feeding operations (CAFOs), and decentralized systems, including beneficial use of residuals
and re-use of treated wastewater. In particular, as wastewater technology changes, research is
needed to assess both conventional and emerging technologies for their efficacy and cost-
effectiveness.
Much of the water quality degradation seen today is from nutrients, pathogens and sediment.
Much is still to be learned about how to prevent contamination of waters by these
pollutants, as well as how to treat them once they are part of the wastewater stream.
Specific types of wet weather impacts need to be characterized and managed. These include
Sanitary Sewer Overflows (SSOs) and CSOs, industrial, municipal and construction
stormwater runoff, as well as discharges from concentrated animal feeding operations.
Information is needed for selecting optimal means of preventing discharges, as well as
treatment for the various discharge types. In particular, research is needed to support
implementation of Green Infrastructure methods for controlling stormwater and improving
ecosystem health.
Aging infrastructure and associated system failures have the potential to create public health
risks. Infrastructure issues are part of the larger EPA Sustainable Water Infrastructure
Initiative involving both water and wastewater infrastructure, and incorporating Green
Infrastructure (GI) as a management practice. Research is needed on improved condition
assessment and rehabilitation methods and technologies; new conveyance and treatment
system design concepts; and integrated management approaches to improve utilities' ability
to cost-effectively maintain, operate, rehabilitate and replace aging systems.
A new challenge has emerged in the water and wastewater arena climate change. The need
to consider climate change cuts across the entire National Water Program, including its
impacts on point source management, For example, by altering the hydrologic cycle, climate
change will affect the volumes of CSOs, SSOs, and other forms of wet weather flow in some
parts of the country, with the potential for accompanying changes in water quality. Climate
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Chapter 3 Science to Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality Protection
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change effects should be integrated into all research that is conducted, including on POTW
and industrial treatment options, implications for National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permitting, water quality and watershed protection, protecting the
sustainability and integrity of infrastructure, emergency response, and other related topics.
As mentioned, many of these research needs are described in other Chapters. Water
Program research needs for management of wastewater, not included elsewhere, are
described in the following categories:
POTW treatment effectiveness and management, including fate of emerging
contaminants, treatment of nutrients and pathogens, control of peak wet weather
flows, and improving energy efficiency;
Decentralized wastewater system treatment effectiveness and management,
including fate of emerging contaminants; improving the reliability of
decentralized systems; and characterizing the impacts of improperly managed
decentralized systems on watersheds;
Residuals treatment and management, including reducing volumes; beneficial
reuse and disposal; and improved Best Management Practices (BMPs) for
managing residuals from CAFOs;
Wet weather flow control technologies and effectiveness, including
characterizing and treating pollutants, effects from climate change, and
demonstrating costs and benefits of GI;
Aging infrastructure, including support for the Sustainable Infrastructure
Initiative, on condition assessment and rehabilitation methods as well as
integrated management approaches; and
Climate change impacts on wastewater infrastructure and water quality;
methods for infrastructure adaptation; improving energy efficiency of treatment
plants and co-generating energy; and implications for CWA programs.
Background and research needs are presented below for each of these areas. In addition, a
detailed listing of specific research projects for each research area will be found in the Water
Research Management and Status Tool when it is available.
POTW Treatment and Management
POTW Treatment and Management address the treatment of municipal wastewater and
residuals within the physical boundaries ("inside the fence line") of the treatment plant.
Current issues of concern include: peak flow management; nutrient control; water reuse; unit
process assessment (i.e., a review of the functions and capabilities of a facility), evaluation
and modification; and the fate/transport and potential interference/pass through of
emerging contaminants, especially PPCPs.
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Chapter 3 Science to Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality Protection
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There are a number of POTW Treatment and Management initiatives underway. EPA has
been addressing operational and compliance problems at POTWs during peak wet weather
flow conditions, including difficulties such as wet weather bypasses of various unit
operations, decreased treatment efficiency during and after peak flow conditions, and
operational practices, such as blending of wastewaters from different treatment trains during
wet weather conditions. These concerns are exacerbated by the nationwide need for
infrastructure rehabilitation and replacement over the next several decades. POTW
treatment and management is an integral part of EPA's Sustainable Water Infrastructure
Initiative, which aims to identify best practices to help many of the nation's utilities address
various management challenges. Total maximum daily load (TMDL) requirements and
NPDES permits to meet and State water quality objectives also provide incentives for
achieving greater nutrient removal.
POTW Research Needs
EPA seeks to assess exposures and reduce the risks to ecosystems and human health from
POTW discharges and reclaimed waters. Research related to "within-plant" treatment and
management practices is needed to improve understanding of human health and ecological
risks from discharging effluents while ensuring sustainable management of wastewater
treatment infrastructure. In addition, communities are recognizing that "wastewater" is a
valuable commodity. Research is needed to support communities as they turn to integrated
water management strategies that include reuse of treated water.
Effective technologies and management practices. Information is needed on the effectiveness of both
conventional and innovative technologies for minimizing risk. As emerging contaminants
come under increased scrutiny, information will be needed on the abilities of conventional
treatment methods to remove them. Conventional wastewater treatment processes have
provided a relatively solid barrier between humans, the environment, and the many
contaminants in domestic and industrial wastewaters. However, new innovative technologies
still need to be identified and evaluated. Desired capabilities of new treatment technologies
and management practices include:
The prevention of excess wet weather flows, identification of best practices to
enable handling of larger flows, and technologies to maximize treatment
potential to reduce human health and ecological risks from discharging peak flow
effluents; including the extent to which different types of pathogens are
inactivated during the disinfection of wet weather flows;
The reduction of nutrients and difficult to treat chemicals and pathogens;
The ability to control emerging contaminants, including through additional
treatment and product substitution;
Improved energy efficiency and decentralized power production; and
Reduction of the volume of wastewater treatment residuals.
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Many recently developed technologies designed to meet such demands are already in use by
communities, often without sufficient data to support their application. Specific new
technologies, such as membrane bioreactors, should be evaluated and compared to
conventional technologies (e.g., activated sludge, rotating biological contactors, and
sequencing batch reactors) for their abilities to treat effluents and sewage sludge. They need
to be assessed for their removal of contaminants of greatest concern, flexibility in handling
hydrologic changes associated with changing land use and climate, energy use, and operation
and maintenance (O&M) costs. Strategies should be developed for combining unit processes
to maximize treatment effectiveness, minimize greenhouse gas emissions, and reduce overall
treatment costs.
Water reuse. As water shortages in the US increase in severity, communities must increasingly
rely on reclaimed/reused water to meet consumer demands. The use of reclaimed water,
including the nature and extent of exposure to possible contaminants, will determine the
level of risk to human health. Evaluations are needed of the abilities of conventional and
new wastewater treatment technologies to produce high quality effluents and to minimize
the risk of exposure to specific contaminants due to reuse.
The identification of new applications for the reuse of treated wastewater effluents will
require new information regarding which engineering practices and disposal technologies are
available and best suited for disposal of the large quantity of brines and rejects produced at a
water reuse treatment plant. The minimum water quality (nutrients, chemical and biological
contaminants, temperature, etc.) required in POTW design and operation for specific water
reuse applications needs to be defined.
Needs of the Regions. Research results must be readily available to those who need to manage
POTWs. Regions have expressed a need for a handbook that lists innovative commercially-
available technological solutions for reducing nutrient loading and managing stormwater
overflow (see also Wet Weather Flow Control, below). To support the Regions during
permit appeals, additional research is needed to identify efficient and cost-effective
phosphorus treatment technologies. Similar data are also needed on nitrogen removal
technologies. Tight limits are included in permits, but questions remain regarding the
strategies by which limits may be met. Beyond a handbook, a database is needed to track the
latest technologies, validation of success, O&M costs, and other related information.
Region 5 has specified the need for more research on CSOs treatment, particularly
measurement of the impacts of High Rate Treatment and disinfection for a full range of
pollutants. The measurement should address both influent and effluent characteristics during
various wet-weather events. This research would assist the Regions in developing and
implementing long-term control plans for CSOs and bypassing.
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Chapter 3 Science to Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality Protection
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Decentralized Wastewater Systems
Proper management of decentralized wastewater systems is a critical aspect of source control
management. Sometimes referred to as decentralized wastewater treatment, these systems
are used by approximately 25 percent of all US homes and about 33 percent of new housing
and commercial development. An estimated 10 percent to 20 percent of these systems
malfunction each year, causing pollution problems and public health threats. Decentralized
wastewater system issues include: performance of new technologies; assessment of system
failures and their impacts (including cause and effect studies); leach field/soil treatment and
water acceptance capacity; comprehensive system management; and fate/transport of
pathogens and emerging pollutants.
EPA concluded that decentralized systems can protect public health and the environment.
Decentralized systems typically offer lower capital and maintenance costs for rural
communities. They are appropriate for varying site conditions and are suitable for
ecologically sensitive areas when adequately managed. However, several major barriers to the
improved performance of these systems were identified, including:
Lack of awareness about system maintenance requirements;
Public misconception regarding system performance and capability;
Regulatory and legal constraints;
Lack of management;
Fear of liability; and
Financial constraints and disincentives for engineering consultants.
r Barring significant progress in eliminating
these barriers, it is likely that decentralized
systems will continue to cause health and
environmental problems and will not be
recognized as a key component of the
nation's long-term wastewater
infrastructure. Over the past decade,
numerous efforts have been made to
address these barriers, including
developing partnerships, State program
commitments, updated technical
materials, and program guidance documents (USEPA, 1997; USEPA, February 2002;
USEPA, 2003; USEPA, January 19, 2005; USEPA, December 2005; USEPA, January 2005).
Decentralized Wastewater System Research Needs
Current knowledge gaps for decentralized wastewater systems can be grouped into two
general categories: system performance to improve the capabilities and reliability of
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decentralized treatment technologies, and characterizing the extent of watershed-scale effects
of improperly managed systems.
Up-to-date technology transfer methods must be an important component of the research
strategy for decentralized systems, because many practitioners of decentralized systems do
not normally interact with EPA. These practitioners (e.g., designers, installers, management
entities, community leaders, and regulators) must be well informed about innovations and
costs to make sound decisions. Addressing system performance and watershed-scale effects
along with an emphasis on effectively transferring knowledge to practitioners will help to
address the barriers of local regulation, lack of management, liability, and financing.
System performance. The first two research goals focus on performance of decentralized
systems, that is, infrastructure (e.g., septic tanks, aeration units, filters) and the role of soils in
the treatment process. Initial efforts have been made to obtain data and develop an asset
management approach for decentralized systems, but additional work remains, particularly
related to the abilities of the various soil types to provide treatment. Research is also needed
on treatment system efficiencies for currently regulated pollutants (pathogens and nutrients),
as well as emerging pollutants of concern (EDCs, PPCPs, and difficult to treat pathogens).
Although dependable treatment data exist for some technologies, more work is needed to
address the performance capabilities and reliability of many currently available decentralized
treatment technologies. In addition, research is needed to characterize the extent of
greenhouse gases emitted from decentralized systems, and to identify opportunities for
biological carbon sequestration at these sites.
Watershed-scale efforts. The topic of watershed-scale effects has several research gaps. Most
watershed models and TMDL calculations do not accurately account for decentralized
systems and either ignore them or assume some standard value. Limited work has been done
on how to evaluate the risk associated with decentralized systems on a watershed scale, or
how to compare and prioritize at-risk watersheds. More research is needed regarding the
impact of both properly and poorly designed, operated, and maintained systems. New or
refined source tracking and remote sensing methods will be required to accomplish reliable
watershed-scale assessments.
Residuals Management and Treatment
Wastewater treatment processes are designed to reduce/remove contaminants and generate
residuals (e.g., sewage sludge, liquid side streams, septage, etc.). Animal feeding operations
also generate large quantities of residual manure and contaminated stormwater runoff. These
waste streams may be either beneficially used or disposed of. All require some form of
characterization, treatment, and management. Pressing issues associated with the use or
disposal of residuals include identification and control of pathogens, emerging contaminants,
and nutrients.
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Currently about 55 percent of the sewage sludge produced in the US is beneficially used (e.g.,
land application) after treatment, and the remaining 45 percent is disposed of in Municipal
Solid Waster landfills, monofills, surface disposal units, or incinerated. Pathogens are of
special concern in the land application of biosolids. In 2002, the National Research Council
(NRC) published a report titled "Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and
Practices". The NRC noted that there is "persistent uncertainty on possible adverse health
effects" from sewage sludge.
Emerging contaminants (e.g., endocrine disrupting compounds, PPCP, nanoparticles, and
prions) are another area of concern. They have come under increasing scrutiny over the last
decade, and there are growing concerns over the fate of these emerging contaminants in
land-applied biosolids, septage, and manure. Pathogens and nutrients in residuals also require
management. Excessive discharges of nutrients to water bodies result in eutrophication, with
associated degradation of water quality.
Management options for residuals include various treatment and disinfection processes as
well as BMPs; these management techniques require continued evaluation and improvement.
Decision makers need up-to-date information on how to evaluate residuals and decide if
they should be beneficially used or disposed of.
Residuals Management and Treatment Research Needs
Information from research is needed to assist managers who deal with residuals. Decision
makers need to know the types and amounts of residuals produced by different treatment
processes and how to characterize them. They need to know the best options for beneficially
using or properly disposing of residuals. With selection of a beneficial use or disposal option,
they need to know what is required to properly prepare the residuals. The research should
ultimately be synthesized to provide guidance to those actively involved in such decisions.
Biosolids from POTWs. Almost 11,000 POTWs apply biosolids to the land. The effectiveness
of current disinfection and stabilization methods used by these operations needs better
documentation. Changes in process should be developed and studied where current
processes are found to be inadequate.
Field studies should be conducted where biosolids are applied to land to determine if
contaminants in biosolids pose a public health risk. For example, studies are needed to better
understand the sudden spike of fecal coliforms that occurs following high-speed
centrifugation of anaerobic biosolids at some facilities.
Manure from animalfeedlots. Studies are needed to determine the effectiveness of Nutrient
Management Plans (NMPs) for animal livestock operations and land application of residuals.
NMPs include BMPs and procedures designed to ensure appropriate agricultural utilization
of nutrients from animal manure while minimizing nitrogen and phosphorous transport to
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water bodies. Nutrient-related water quality problems continue even in areas that have
implemented NMPs. Flaws in NMPs performance need to be identified, and new, emerging
techniques and BMPs need to be investigated.
With recent advances in understanding and awareness of emerging contaminants, research is
needed to identify appropriate new or existing treatment techniques and BMPs.
Methods are needed for the detection and identification of pathogens in animal wastes to
ensure proper manure disinfection and stabilization. Methods for microbial source
identification and tracking need to be refined. A related issue - reduction of microbial loads
delivered to the environment - needs to be addressed at multiple scales, from farm to
watershed. Please see Chapters 2 and 5 for discussion of microbial contaminants.
Wet Weather Flow Control
Wet weather flow control includes the management and treatment of municipal, industrial
and construction wet weather flows "outside the fence line" of the POTW. These include
discharges from municipal separate stormwater sewers, municipal wastewater overflows
(CSOs/SSOs), industrial facilities, and construction sites during and after rainfall and snow
melt. A number of management methods currently exist. These include BMPs, both
structural (e.g., wet ponds) and non-structural (e.g., street sweeping), and collection system
management (e.g., real time control) to manipulate system flows. Models are also available to
help manage wet weather flows. Part of the research strategy will involve continued efforts
to understand and improve these management options.
In addition to the traditional "gray infrastructure" for controlling stormwater, EPA is giving
increasing attention to a new green infrastructure (GI) approach. GI refers to an array of
stormwater management practices that utilize soils and vegetation to capture, cleanse, and
reuse stormwater runoff. At the largest scale, the preservation and restoration of natural
landscape features (such as forests, floodplains and wetlands) are critical components of
green stormwater infrastructure. By protecting these ecologically sensitive areas,
communities can improve water quality while providing wildlife habitat and opportunities
for outdoor recreation. On a smaller scale, GI also includes site-specific stormwater
management practices (such as rain gardens, porous pavements, and green roofs) that are
designed to maintain natural hydrologic functions by capturing and infiltrating precipitation
where it falls.
New challenges to the wet weather program are expected as a result of climate change,
which is projected to cause increased intensity of wet weather events in some areas, while
increasing intensity of drought in other areas. In many cases both "wetter wet and drier dry"
periods are expected in the same Region. The Regions have expressed a need for new tools
to assess and predict risks related to a changing hydrologic framework. Such shifts in
hydrology may have significant effects on design criteria and planning.
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Wet Weather Flow Control Research Needs
Research is needed to characterize and treat pollutants from wet weather flows.
Development of BMPs for managing and reducing volumes of wet weather flow is needed,
including preventing the occurrence of SSOs and CSOs. GI practices are increasingly being
recognized as effective means of controlling both flow and pollutants, and improved
practices and documenting results will expand their adoption. Research in all these areas will
be used to populate BMP databases accessible to practitioners for selecting appropriate
stormwater management practices and restoration technologies.
Climate change is very likely to affect wet weather flows in different Regions of the country.
Research is needed to assess the impact of climate change on the frequency of overflows, the
performance of BMPs, and design considerations for CSOs and stormwater BMPs. Research
should also assess the effectiveness of GI in helping communities adapt to climate change.
Characterising and treatingpollutants in wet weather flows. Information is needed about the
pollutants in various types of wet weather flows, including pathogens, toxics and emerging
pollutants.
With improved understanding of pollutants in wet weather flows, methods are then needed
to control pollutants in runoff from various sources, activities and materials. Major
contributing sources of toxics, for example, include construction and transportation (e.g.,
roads, bridges, and vehicles). Examples of reduction methods include non-toxic product
substitution and innovative stormwater treatment at hot spots. Similar studies are needed for
the reduction of pathogens in wet weather flows, and attention is needed to evaluate
emerging pollutants.
Managing wet weather flows. Methods are also needed to reduce the rate and volume of
stormwater runoff in developed (i.e., urban and suburban) areas to pre-development
hydrologic conditions. Research is needed on the beneficial use of stormwater for non-
potable (e.g., gray water irrigation, fire protection, cooling water, aesthetics) and possibly
potable purposes.
The design and operation of stormwater BMPs is an area of ongoing development.
Improved information is needed on their costs and effectiveness. To make choices about
which BMPs to implement and how to design them, stormwater managers need information
on their comparative effectiveness. The Regions have in fact expressed a need to quantify
the abilities of BMPs to reduce pollutants and to identify the most effective BMPs for
reducing impacts related to TMDLs. However, researchers are not using standardized
parameters to conduct studies, making comparison of BMPs difficult. A standardized list of
pollutants and other parameters (e.g., volume, temperature, etc.) that are measured in any
given research project is needed.
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Innovative approaches to reduce collection system infiltration and inflow and other causes
of SSOs, CSOs, and treatment system bypass are needed For CSOs, work is needed to
compare the effectiveness of different approaches used in long-term control plans. This
includes maximized use of collection systems, and maximized performance of treatment
systems (e.g., real-time control and alternative in-plant processes for treating storm flow).
Green Infrastructure. Additional information on GI management practices is needed to add to
our knowledge of its effectiveness in controlling and managing wet weather flow. The GI
Action Strategy's research focus seeks to ensure that potential adopters of GI practices have
the information they need. In January 2008, the GI Partnership identified several priority
areas for research:
Characterize GI practices and their effectiveness at the watershed scale, taking
into consideration upstream and downstream conditions, some of which can be
done through case studies;
Examine economic costs and benefits of GI and develop methods and protocols
for economic parameters;
Develop standard protocols for assessing multiple benefits from GI (e.g., energy
savings, carbon sequestration, urban heat island reduction, biodiversity, water
conservation);
Compare the benefits of GI with those of grey infrastructure approaches; and
Develop methods for improved GI site operations, including performance
assessment and O&M. Models should consider sensitive parameters for optimal
design of GI approaches and tie in with multimedia linkages and should
incorporate factors for climate change.
The Regions are particularly interested in research on GI and have cited additional research,
data collection, and analysis needs to verify and quantify the performance of various GI
practices. Some unanswered questions include:
How does gray infrastructure improve the overall GI?
How should improvements be selected to provide the most benefit?
What are the long-term costs of not protecting high integrity components of the
GI network from degradation, or restoring degraded areas within or adjacent to
the network?
What are the optimal scales at which GI should be assessed and managed for the
various resources/services (i.e., is there an optimum scale for assessing ecosystem
services that will vary by the particular service)?
How can the ecosystem services provided by a GI network be quickly and simply
identified and described?
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This information is needed to help communities revise their zoning and regulations to
incorporate environmentally sound practices.
information accessible. EPA, in partnership with Water Environment Research
Foundation and the American Society of Civil Engineers, developed the International
Stormwater BMP Database to provide information on the effectiveness of different
stormwater controls (USEPA, April 2002). Currently, the database is largely populated with
conventional technologies. The BMP Database would benefit from a concerted effort to
populate it with information on GI and other innovative stormwater controls.
Water and Wastewater Infrastructure
Aging water and wastewater infrastructure is a national challenge that has been identified as a
major Agency priority. Central to the challenge are issues related to: a) improving the ability
of utilities to conduct cost effective condition assessment and system rehabilitation of
collection and treatment systems; b) implementing new and innovative technologies; c)
applying new conveyance and treatment system design concepts; and d) using
comprehensive, integrated management approaches to move the nation's infrastructure
closer to sustainability.
One of the Agency's major programs for addressing this national challenge is the Sustainable
Water Infrastructure Initiative. This initiative aims to change how the Nation views, values,
manages, and invests in its water infrastructure. It promotes the use of effective and
innovative approaches and technologies, encourages a commitment to long-term
stewardship of water infrastructure, and forms collaborations with key stakeholders. Led by
the Office of Water and supported by many other Program Offices, including the Office of
Research and Development, the Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assistance, the
Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation, the Office of Air and Radiation, and the
Regions, the Agency is actively promoting sustainable infrastructure, including the provision
of research, tools, techniques, and incentives, where appropriate. EPA's four pillars of
sustainable water infrastructure are:
Better Management Better management contributes to infrastructure
sustainability by institutionalizing management systems and adopting innovative
technologies and methods which lead to reduced infrastructure costs and
improved performance across a full range of utility operations.
Water Efficiency Improved water efficiency can reduce the strain on aging
water and wastewater utilities and can sometimes delay or even eliminate the
need for costly new construction to expand system capacity.
Full Cost Pricing Drinking water and wastewater utilities need to recognize the
full cost of providing their services over the long-term and implement a pricing
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structure that recovers cost and promotes economically efficient and
environmentally sound water use decisions by customers.
Watershed Approach Utilities and other decision makers need to evaluate a
broad array of watershed based approaches as they make infrastructure decisions,
to target those investments that have the greatest benefit for the watershed as a
whole. Approaches such as source water protection, water quality trading, and
embracing GI alternatives, can all contribute to sustainable solutions while
achieving water quality and human health protection goals in the watershed.
Water and Wastewater Infrastructure Research Needs
EPA's research initiatives related to aging infrastructure will provide information on new and
innovative condition assessment and rehabilitation methods and technologies; new
conveyance and treatment system design concepts; and comprehensive, integrated
management approaches to improve the ability of water utilities to cost-effectively assess,
maintain, operate, rehabilitate, and replace their collection and treatment systems. For aging
(wastewater) infrastructure, major research needs and activities include:
Improved inspection, condition assessment, and cost estimation tools for
existing conveyance systems to enable optimal rehabilitation;
Effective methods to determine performance and cost of innovative
rehabilitation for drinking water and wastewater conveyance systems to enhance
the ability of utilities to select efficient rehabilitation approaches for deteriorating
infrastructure;
Advanced design concepts such as real-time control options, integrated drainage
concepts (e.g., upland flow attenuation before sewer system entry), and steeper
sewer slopes for wastewater collection systems to fully utilize the conveyance and
storage capacity of existing systems, reduce construction costs, and improve wet-
weather flow pollution control;
Advanced design concepts for existing treatment systems to better utilize
capacity and capability. Improved design, utilizing advanced technologies for
energy-saving and capacity enhancement and higher capacity treatment for wet-
weather flow are needed to reduce construction costs, improve treatment
efficiency, and reduce overflows;
Techniques to improve performance and extend service life of existing systems
to effectively address conveyance system capacity, backup, and overflow
problems caused by sediments and debris; fats, oils, and grease; pH; corrosion,
etc.; and
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Methods and support tools for evaluating how climate change will impact
infrastructure sustainability to use when locating, designing and upgrading
systems to adapt to likely impacts.
To aid in the replacement of aging infrastructure, the Regions need an easy, inexpensive way
to locate buried pipes and other infrastructure prior to conducting a condition assessment or
inventorying assets for an asset management plan. By utilizing information technology such
as GIS to maintain data, O&M schedules, replacement dates, and other data, communities
can retain critical infrastructure information. In addition, this information can be useful for
identifying the institutional structures that have resulted in successful asset management
programs.
Regions also need a more quantitative understanding of the relationship between energy use
and water treatment and distribution technology. This will help guide drinking water and
wastewater operations toward better environmental and energy efficiency, both in general
and when working to optimize and/or upgrade infrastructure.
References
National Research Council. 2002. Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and
Practices. Available on the Internet at:
http: / /www.epa.gov/waterscience /biosolids /nas /complete.pdf
USEPA. January 2005. Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems: A Program Strategy.
EPA 832-R-05-002. January 2005. Available on the internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/owm/septic/pubs/septic program strategy.pdf.
USEPA. December 2005. Handbook for Managing On-site and Clustered (Decentralized)
Wastewater Treatment Systems. EPA 832-B-05-001. December 2005. Available on
the internet at: http://cfpub.epa.gov/owm/septic/septic.cfmppage id=289.
USEPA. January 12, 2005. Memorandum of Understanding Regarding Cooperation in
Decentralized Wastewater Management Programs between the US Environmental
Protection Agency and Signatory Organizations. January 12, 2005. Available on the
internet at: http://www.epa.gov/owm/septic/pubs/septic mou.pdf.
USEPA. 2002a. On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual. EPA-625-R-00-008.
February 2002. Available at on the internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/owm/septic/pubs/septic 2002 osdm all.pdf.
USEPA. 1997. Response to Congress on Use of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment
Systems. EPA 832-R-97-001b. 1997. Available on the internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/owm/septic/pubs/septic rtc all.pdf.
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USEPA. April 2002. Urban Stormwater BMP Performance Monitoring: A Guidance Manual
for Meeting the National Stormwater BMP Database Requirements. EPA-821-B-02-
001. April 2002. Available on the internet at:
http: / /www.bmpdatabase.org/MonitoringEval.htm#MonitoringGui dance.
USEPA. 2003. Voluntary National Guidelines for Management of On-site and Clustered
(Decentralized) Wastewater Treatment Systems. EPA 832-B-03-001. 2003. Available
on the internet at: http://www.epa.gov/owm/septic/pubs/septic guidelines.pdf.
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4 Science to Support Watershed Protection
and Restoration Programs
In pursuing the goals of the Clean Water Act
(CWA), programs and research geared towards
watershed health play a unique and holistic role.
EPA's Water Program promotes wetlands
protection, oceans and coastal protection, and
watershed assessment and protection through a
diverse range of programs to manage, protect, and
restore the water resources and aquatic
ecosystems of US marine and fresh waters. These
efforts are headed by the Office of Wetlands
Oceans and Watersheds (OWOW), working in
collaboration with the Office of Science and
Technology (OST), the Office of Ground Water
and Drinking Water, and the Regional Water
Divisions to implement the Program. Together,
the Office of Water (OW) and the EPA Regions
provide technical and financial assistance, and
develop regulations and guidance for myriad
regulatory and cooperative programs. See the
Addendum to Chapter 1 for more information on
OWOW responsibilities.
The Watershed Protection and Restoration
Program has a broad mission to protect and
restore the health of a diversity of water resources and aquatic ecosystems. These efforts are
organized using the Watershed Approach, integrating multiple facets of an ecosystem's
health and functioning.
Greater focus is provided in the EPA 2006-2011 Strategic Plan, which lays out the Agency's
goals for achieving measurable environmental results in five areas, including "Clean and Safe
Water" and "Healthy Communities and Ecosystems". Salient sub-objectives include: 1)
facilitate the ecosystem-scale restoration of Estuaries of National Significance (with strategic
targets to protect or restore habitat under the National Estuary Program), 2) improve water
quality on a watershed basis, 3) improve coastal and ocean water, 4) restore and protect the
South Florida Ecosystem (including the Everglades and coral reefs); and 5) decrease the size
of the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico by reducing nutrient inputs from the Mississippi
River Basin. The Water Program's research efforts provide scientific and technical
knowledge for the attainment of these goals and objectives.
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Watershed Protection and Restoration Program
Research Needs
To support the program goals, technical information is needed in a number of areas.
Ongoing work is needed to optimize monitoring and assessment programs. The need for
reliable and well-conceived monitoring and assessment cuts across several research areas and
supports multiple goals. Information on the status of a waterbody or watershed enables a
determination of its condition and whether the services it provides (ecological, economic,
and cultural) have been diminished. This information can also be used to establish total
maximum daily loads (TMDLs). Watershed managers then need to be able to translate such
assessments into plans for management or restoration. Further monitoring can indicate
recovery and whether a system is able to once again provide the desired services.
Although any waterbody can be subject to degradation, certain water bodies are especially
vulnerable and have experienced serious environmental assaults. Research is needed to
evaluate the roles of various stressors in causing the severe decline that coral reefs are
experiencing. Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) has emerged as a major concern in a
region that provides the nation with tremendous economic, ecological, and cultural benefits.
Research is urgently needed to refine our understanding of this phenomenon and to combat
it. Headwater streams and isolated wetlands fall into an ambiguous area jurisdictionally. In
order to protect them, their relationship to navigable waters needs to be investigated.
Another critical research need involves monitoring for and managing invasive species. Non-
indigenous plants and aquatic organisms pose a threat to native species and are undermining
the stability of various ecosystems. Research is needed to understand their modes of
introduction and how to monitor and respond to them.
Research needs are organized under a number of areas as follows:
National Aquatic Resource Surveys
Watershed Management
Wetlands in Water Quality Trading
Headwaters, Adjacent Wetlands, and Isolated Wetlands
GOM Hypoxia
Invasive Species
Ecological Restoration
Coral Reef Protection
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Background and research needs are presented below for each of these areas. In addition, a
detailed listing of specific research projects for each research area will be found in the Water
Research Management and Status Tool when it is available.
National Aquatic Resource Surveys
Land use in the United States is changing rapidly, with great potential for water quality
deterioration. Designing and conducting surveys to assess the condition of the Nation's
waters and evaluate trends over time is a high priority for EPA. Policy makers and watershed
managers need reliable chemical, physical, and biological information that is collected in a
scientifically-defensible manner. In addition to understanding the status and functioning of
aquatic ecosystems, monitoring also permits evaluation of the success of watershed
protection and restoration measures.
Much of the monitoring and assessment activities are performed by States and Tribes, and
EPA provides funding, training, design advice, and oversight. The Water Program in
particular provides guidance to States on conducting monitoring programs. EPA's National
Environmental Monitoring Initiative provides funds to States and Tribes to conduct aquatic
surveys.
At a national level, EPA's National Environmental Monitoring Initiative involves
collaboration between organizations performing assessments and monitoring. It includes
contributions from such diverse government entities as the US Geological Survey and the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. This program links survey results with
ecological process research. Assessment activities can also be used in the broader context of
developing inventories of the services provided by various ecosystems. ORD's Ecological
Research Program multi-year plan addresses ecological monitoring, mapping, and modeling
as means to assess conditions and changes in ecological services (USEPA, February 2008).
In addition, maintenance of ocean, coastal, and lake sampling capabilities (e.g., research
vessels like BOLD and The Lake Guardian) is essential to obtaining the data needed to
support these programs.
National Aquatic Assessment Research Needs
EPA has identified the following National Aquatic Survey research needs to further its
understanding of the condition of the nation's waters:
Provide tools for effective ecosystem monitoring;
Identify trends in water quality and aquatic systems;
Provide national frameworks for statistical assessments;
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Identify appropriate indicators of aquatic health and determine suitability of new
analytical methods; and
Develop and improve integrative watershed modeling frameworks.
Each of these research areas is described in greater detail below.
Provide tools for effective ecosystem monitoring
The Office of Research and Development's (ORD) Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program (EMAP) was a major research initiative that provided the tools needed
for effective ecosystem monitoring. It investigated designs that addressed the acquisition,
aggregation, and analysis of multiscale and multi-tier data. EMAP focused on transferring
science and technology through partnerships with States and Tribes to enable them to
complete their assessments. Continued support of EMAP, or similar effort outside of EPA,
is a Water Program research priority, particularly in the areas of indicator development and
interpretation of complex ecosystem stressor-response relationships at multiple scales.
Identify trends in water quality and aquatic systems
The National Estuary Program also provides assessment data, which are incorporated into
the National Coastal Condition Report. A ten-year research plan has been proposed by the
National Exposure Research Laboratory's Landscape Science Program. This program will
examine the consequences of landscape changes for aquatic resources, including streams and
estuaries. Collectively, these initiatives provide much-needed data for tracking and
understanding trends in water quality and
aquatic ecosystems.
Provide national monitoringframeworks for
statistical assessments of the nation's lakes, rivers,
streams, estuaries, and wetlands
Aquatic monitoring research can
maximize the resources allocated for
assessment and monitoring by devising
scientifically rigorous sampling protocols
that are also time and cost effective.
Those responsible for implementing
monitoring programs need information to help select optimal spatial and temporal sampling
resolutions. Another ongoing goal of monitoring research is consistency in protocols across
the country. Continued research by programs such as EMAP will ultimately result in a more
reliable picture of the nation's water quality by refining sampling protocols and encouraging
uniformity.
Identify appropriate indicators of aquatic health and determine suitability of new analytical methods
Ongoing research is also needed on choices of appropriate indicators of aquatic health. As
new analytical methods become available, some suited to field use, their potential
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incorporation into sampling schemes must be researched. From the Regions' perspective,
indicators used for monitoring are often not directly related to pollutants and cannot
distinguish among multiple causes of impairment. Resources are too limited to elucidate
causes and sources in many cases. Research is needed to better identify inexpensive and
standard techniques for identifying causal pollutants.
Develop and improve inteorative watershed modelin^frameworks for describing the impacts of chanting
surface water quantity on water quality at multiple scales
Research is also needed to provide an integrative modeling framework/approach for
assessing how future urbanization and water resources development and management
activities can alter water availability and demand. Such changes can ultimately affect the
services provided by an ecosystem. An assessment is needed of available models and their
strengths and limitations, and decisions need to be made regarding which endpoints should
be modeled and at what spatial and temporal resolutions.
Watershed Management
Watershed Management encompasses assessment of water quality impairments,
development of TMDLs, targeting of priority watersheds, watershed management
implementation and tracking, and implementation of incentive programs. The following
summary of Watershed Management research needs is organized under three areas:
Watershed Assessment;
Management Measures; and
Incentives.
Watershed Assessment
Successful watershed management requires a fundamental understanding of hydrological and
ecological processes within watersheds and how those processes are influenced by human
actions. Management without adequate scientific knowledge is likely to achieve inadequate or
unintended results, or even result in environmental harm. Thus, watershed assessments and
monitoring activities are fundamental to the watershed approach. Watershed assessments
can focus on a single watershed or may assess a group of watersheds comparatively. CWA-
related watershed assessments may involve characterizing basic traits of waters, their
watersheds, and their human community context. Assessments may also evaluate condition
and functionality, giving an indication of the ecological, economic, and cultural services the
watershed is able to provide. They may assess threats, identify causes of problems, and set
priorities for specific remedial actions. Other assessments that are important for
understanding watersheds include: establishing appropriate reference conditions and refined
uses; developing chemical, physical, and biological criteria for identifying impairments and
high quality waters; and, tracking interim (small scale) improvements or declines.
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Watershed Assessment Research Needs
Watershed managers need watershed assessments that will encompass the combined and
cumulative effects of point and nonpoint sources of pollution, habitat alteration, and other
sources of impairment. To accomplish this, EPA needs research to address the following
areas:
Provide better characterization of watershed structures, features, and processes
that underlie all watershed assessments and influence the likelihood for
successful management interventions.
Provide sound designs and methods to evaluate and describe condition,
thresholds of impairment (including establishment of appropriate reference
conditions), and attribute value to watershed goods and services.
Develop an improved scientific basis and/or tools and models to determine
which (and how) stressors are causing degradation, or likely to cause degradation
to enable targeted action for protection and restoration.
Provide improved scientific knowledge and tools that will help target watersheds
for management that offer the greatest opportunity for achieving positive and
intended environmental results.
Each of these research needs is described in more detail below.
Provide better characterization of the watershed structures, features, and processes
that underlie all watershed assessments and influence the likelihood for successful
management interventions.
Work is needed to provide broad access to baseline characterization of watersheds. Baseline
characterization involves understanding the ecological functionality, stressors, and socio-
economic elements of a watershed. It underlies all aspects of watershed management. Such a
fundamental level of information is needed to produce integrated 305(b)/303(d)
assessments, and the information must be widely accessible. In making such data available,
attention must be paid to database design, national consistency, and quality of base data sets,
and classification that can be challenging enough to prompt research investigations. In
recent years, it would be particularly valuable to reevaluate whether EPA has access to the
full array of base data commonly needed to support watershed management. Such data
include analyses of waters and watersheds, stressors, ecosystem goods and services, and
primary natural processes.
Provide sound methods to evaluate and describe condition, thresholds of
impairment, and attribute value to watershed goods and services.
Research is needed to develop an improved scientific basis and/or tools to evaluate
watershed and waterbody condition. This builds upon information acquired in baseline
characterization by applying value judgments (e.g., whether the waterbody is impaired or fully
functional; what to consider "reference" conditions; how water bodies provide goods and
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Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs
services dependent upon their condition). To assess condition, researchers need to develop
condition gradients, thresholds of impairment, methods to characterize functionality, and
reference conditions. Continued effort is needed to improve our ability to compare
conditions across eco-regions and water body types, such as the Biological Condition
Gradient, and associated use of Tiered Aquatic Life Uses. Information is also needed
regarding changes in ecological goods and services, waterbody support of designated uses, or
other concepts reflecting worth. Such information is essential for reporting on the
conditions of watersheds, for planning and tracking TMDLs and other actions, and for
developing and implementing watershed restoration measures.
The Regions have noted that knowing critical values for landscape measures, such as the
extent of riparian forest or the degree of forest fragmentation, would be useful in measuring
the effectiveness of ecosystem protection in maintaining and improving water quality. For
example, it would be useful to know the critical values for impervious surface and other
critical ecosystem values beyond which ecosystems are impaired or imperiled. Another
research need identified by Regions is for a better understanding of the mitigating factors
that lead to differences in studies (and ultimately to field application) of critical values.
Develop an improved scientific basis and/or tools and models to determine which
(and how) stressors are causing degradation, or likely to cause degradation to enable
targeted action for protection and restoration.
Ongoing research is also needed in causal assessment, which establishes a link between the
presence of a threat, the mode of action, and response to exposure. Stressor Identification is
a generic approach to causal assessment co-developed by ORD and OW for use by the
States; ongoing work is needed on this approach. TMDL modeling also clarifies and
quantifies the causal links between sources, stressors, and effects. Continued research in
these areas will refine our understanding of the relationship between pollutants and
deleterious effects on biota. Progress is also needed in identifying unknown causes of water
quality impairment. Over 38,000 waters in the US have been listed by the States as impaired
or threatened. The responsible pollutant is unknown for over 11,000 of these waters,
seriously hampering the processes of TMDL development and restoration. Also, issues of
scale are important for many environmental problems. Our understanding of the effects of
stressors on watersheds will be aided by an improved ability to scale processes regulating
water quantity and quality at the sub-basin scale to larger basin scales.
Some Regions have concerns about degradation from specific stressors. For example,
Region 1 is concerned about runoff from back roads and needs field performance data on
practices to control sediment and phosphorus. Region 6 is experiencing deterioration in
water quality and aquatic ecosystem integrity from stream bank erosion, exacerbated by rapid
urbanization. In particular, they are interested in guidance on development of reference
hydrographs for streams to allow them to link hydrograph maintenance to land use and best
management practices (BMPs). The information could be used to reduce impairments as
urbanization and development progress.
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Provide improved scientific knowledge and tools that will help target watersheds for
management that offer the greatest opportunity for achieving positive and intended
environmental results.
Nationwide, thousands of water bodies have been identified as impaired and needing
restoration. Many more are currently in good condition and in need of efforts to ensure that
impairment does not occur. However, limited resources prevent immediate action on all
water bodies simultaneously. Some sort of logical prioritization procedure is needed. Water
programs urgently need information on the ecological, stressor-related, and socio-economic
factors that influence recovery, both for individual watersheds and for comparison across
large numbers of waters. Watersheds can then be targeted and prioritized with greater
chance for restoration success and better return on monetary investment. Correct
prioritizing will also help to demonstrate improvement and meet the stated numeric
restoration goals in upcoming strategic plan targets. The Regions have echoed this need to
be able to predict, target and prioritize impairment.
In addition, information on restoration priorities needs to be coupled with understanding of
the threats to healthy waters and the socio-economic costs associated with allowing those
waters to degrade (e.g., loss of societal values, cost to restore, etc). Some of the same factors
that are important for targeting watersheds for restoration (e.g., community interest) are
important for selecting which watersheds to protect. In addition, there is a need to identify
"at risk" watersheds where significant development may occur.
Management Measures
A watershed approach is being promoted as an efficient and often more cost-effective way
of implementing restoration and protection activities including integration of TMDLs,
permit requirements, and other water quality protection and improvement practices. To
meet the water quality targets in a given watershed, there are often several management
"strategies" from which to choose, each consisting of one or more management measures.
To decide what practices and approaches to implement, managers need to be able to
compare costs and benefits of various strategies through models that predict the watershed-
wide impacts of one or multiple management measures. After a strategy has been selected
and implemented, progress towards meeting the targets must be tracked, requiring effective
monitoring approaches.
Management Measures Research Needs
A key hypothesis regarding management measures is that their strategic placement in a
watershed will reduce the number and cost of measures required to attain water quality
standards compared to separately selecting management measures for incremental parts of
the watershed. After putting measures in place to test this hypothesis, progress towards
meeting the targets must be tracked. This will require improved monitoring strategies, and
prioritization of watersheds. Research is needed to:
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Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs
Determine the performance and costs of individual management measurements
to support the development of watershed management strategies;
Develop strategies to optimize the selection and location/placement of
management measures in a watershed; and
Develop monitoring strategies to measure the effectiveness of watershed
management programs.
Each of these research areas is discussed below.
Determine the performance and the costs of individual management measures to
support the development of watershed management strategies.
Information is needed on the performance, construction, maintenance, and monitoring costs
of individual management measures. Often, the placement and implementation of
management measure(s) are done with limited guidance as to design, cost, or maintenance
steps that could optimize performance. This lack of information hinders effective use of
resources. In many cases, the costs to be incurred are for construction and maintenance, but
there may be other issues to consider. There may be costs from unintended consequences of
rn I a management measure, such as a
wetland serving as a breeding ground
^t* -f **^i O O O
for invasive species. Measuring
performance may also generate
unavoidable costs if required, for
example, as part of a water quality
trading program.
The Regions need improvements in
analytical capabilities, indicators, and
monitoring approaches to better survey
a watershed for contaminants. Research
is particularly needed on measures to
treat and manage phosphorus, especially
methods for phosphorous removal.
Cost effective technology is also needed
to turn manure into fuel. The use of manure as a more complete resource (e.g., nutrients and
biofuel) may help to reduce the amount of phosphorous pollution from agricultural runoff.
Develop strategies to optimize the selection and location/placement of management
measures in a watershed.
In a watershed approach, management measures will most likely be used in combination,
and there may be several potential options for a given watershed. Work is needed to help
watershed managers select appropriate combinations of water pollution controls and
management measures to meet water quality objectives. The basic approach to optimizing
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Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs
measures within a watershed would consist of using integrated modeling systems that can
account for watershed processes and stressor transport and fate. This would be coupled to:
a) the performance and cost of individual measures; b) phenomena that naturally attenuate
water quality stressors; and, c) information that relates stressor reduction to achieving
designated uses, such as aquatic ecosystem stressor-response information. Such systems
would also allow the user to compare different management measure scenarios to determine
which is most cost effective. Such modeling systems must allow for point and nonpoint
sources and management measures. They should also be applicable to varying scales,
ecological settings, and stressor combinations.
Develop monitoring strategies to measure the effectiveness of watershed
management programs.
Watershed managers need information to help them develop monitoring strategies to
measure the results of management actions. Federal and State governments have similar
questions about the performance of their programs, be they regulatory, incentive-based, or
of another type. Measuring results can also document whether CWA-related goals are being
achieved. Information is needed on which metrics should be used in monitoring strategies.
The possibilities are many and include: environmental and stressor parameters, ecological
services, monetary and non-monetary valuations, management plans developed, and
incentives adopted.
The Regions have noted that community planners need methods to demonstrate progress
from management actions across a HUG 12 watershed. The methods should examine both
aquatic ecosystem response indicators and the performance of management measures. These
methods should include simulation tools and predictive models, remote sensing, and
ambient monitoring.
To help synthesize information, make management choices, and monitor them, the Regions
need a state-of-the-science report describing: 1) integrated watershed modeling system
availability, 2) model capabilities to simulate management measures and strategies for
optimal selection and placement at the HUG 12 watershed level, and 3) model ability to
simulate short- and long-term effects of management measures and ecosystem response to
implemented measures
Incentives
Much water quality impairment results from nonpoint sources. Because nonpoint sources
are not regulated, economic and other incentives need to be developed to control them as
part of watershed-based water quality improvement programs. For example, nonpoint
source pollution can be mitigated through the implementation of BMPs. To encourage such
implementation, various incentive programs have been developed in scattered watersheds
throughout the country. Also, where point source pollution reduction would result in water
quality improvements, point/nonpoint source trading may achieve the desired reductions in
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Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs
an economically efficient manner by reducing nonpoint pollution. (Because of its importance
and promise as a pollution reduction incentive, wetlands in water quality trading has been
discussed above in a separate section.) Socio-cultural factors such as behavioral changes
associated with watershed protection and restoration also need to be investigated.
Furthermore, because watershed planning and implementation is a complex process,
technical support to watershed managers on the overall process will reduce the barriers to
what in many cases is a voluntary activity.
Incentives Research Needs
Research is needed to provide environmental managers with the tools they need to improve
watershed management programs. In particular, research is needed to:
Determine factors that motivate change in public behavior toward the protection
or restoration of water quality;
Refine our understanding of the effectiveness of BMPs in order to support BMP
implementation programs; and
Develop technology transfer mechanisms that provide watershed managers with
resources needed to make technically-sound watershed management decisions.
Each of these research areas is discussed in more detail below.
Determine the factors that most motivate changes in public behavior with respect to
the protection or restoration of water quality to incorporate into watershed
management program strategies.
People have ingrained cultural values and attitudes associated with environmental protection.
Incentives are sometimes needed to change behavior to implement management plans.
These incentives may include education on the benefits and costs of management measures
(e.g., stakeholder participation in a watershed rain garden program). Examples of successful
programs include placement of cisterns and rain barrels on private property in Seattle and
Portland. Other incentives include creation of conservation easement programs to pass
along green spaces or protected areas to future generations. Increased information on how
successful initiatives are executed would help to facilitate their adoption in other potentially
receptive communities.
Refine our understanding of the effectiveness of BMPs in order to support BMP
implementation programs.
It is believed that BMPs limit nonpoint source pollution, although data on the extent to
which this occurs indicate a wide range of performance. More information on their
effectiveness is needed to establish the pollution reductions achievable by the various types
of BMPs. Clear documentation of the benefits provided by BMPs will support the economic
programs aimed at their installation and implementation and help them to become widely
accepted by watershed managers, decision makers, and stakeholders.
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Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs
Develop technology transfer mechanisms that provide watershed managers with
resources needed to make technically-sound watershed management decisions.
Data and tools for watershed management may be highly specific. Furthermore, these
materials are widely distributed across government, Web sites, and academic institutions.
Work is needed to simplify access to watershed management science and information. To
this end, EPA is proposing to organize this information for watershed managers in a central
location in a framework that permits easy access. EPA's OW, ORE), and the Office of
Environmental Information are developing new concepts for integrating information and
decision support tools to make water quality management more effective at the State and
local level. The concept is called "Watershed Central." It would provide a central access
point for watershed information on the EPA Web site. In the future, it may link key tools
and resources from various parts of EPA to particular steps in the watershed management
process. EPA is now discussing the format of such a web site with potential users. To design
and implement this web site, scientists need to determine which processes should be
included. It is important to research which watershed model data analysis tools are
appropriate and which computer applications are best for management measure
optimization. Also, uncertainties in watershed decision and support tool development need
to be addressed. Given a well-conceived source of relevant information, incentive programs
can be more easily put into place.
Wetlands in Water Quality Trading
Wetlands are unique ecosystems that provide critical habitat for thousands of species of
aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals. As transitional zones between land and water,
wetlands naturally help to absorb and slow floodwaters, and help to absorb excess nutrients,
sediment, and other pollutants before they reach rivers, lakes, and other water bodies.
Human activities are causing wetland degradation and loss by changing water quality,
quantity, and flow rates; increasing pollutant inputs beyond the capacity of wetlands to
absorb; and changing species composition as a result of disturbance and the introduction of
non-native species.
The Water Program is evaluating the feasibility of using wetlands in a water quality trading as
one approach for facilitating the restoration, creation, and enhancement of healthy wetlands
that contribute to water quality within a watershed, as well as further downstream. Water
quality trading is a voluntary exchange of pollutant reduction credits through which, in a
given watershed, a facility with higher pollutant control costs can buy pollutant reduction
credits from a facility with lower control costs, thus reducing their cost of compliance. Such
trading programs can allow a given watershed to meet water quality targets (e.g., TMDLs) at
lower overall costs, and can provide ancillary benefits such as flood retention, riparian
improvement, and habitat (USEPA, July 2007).
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Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs
The concept of "wetland credits" for restoration, creation, or enhancement is not new. In
1995, for example EPA issued guidance allowing States and others to use "wetland
mitigation banks" to offset unavoidable wetland losses permitted under CWA Section 404.
Mitigation banks allow a Section 404 permittee to purchase wetland credits to compensate
for wetland losses that will occur at another location. Though mitigation banks can provide
ancillary water quality improvements, they have not yet been incorporated into water quality
trading programs. More widespread implementation of watershed-scale trading could create
opportunities to restore and/or construct wetlands as a means to generate pollutant
reduction credits. Strategically located and designed wetlands serve multiple functions and
can improve water quality, generating credits that could be used by permitted dischargers to
comply with national pollutant discharge elimination system (NPDES) permit limits. This
strategy could attain the Agency goal to restore, improve, and protect millions of acres of
wetlands in a cost-efficient manner.
Wetlands in Water Quality Trading Research Needs
Before wetlands can be reliably incorporated into water quality trading programs, research is
needed to:
Identify existing data regarding wetland nutrient removal rates to be used for
modeling and assigning trading credits;
Determine how to avoid unintended negative consequences associated with
wetlands managed for nutrient removal;
Determine the feasibility of offsetting stream segment degradation with
improvements;
Identify an acceptable approach for estimating risk and uncertainty; and
Determine how to manage wetlands used in water quality trading.
Each of these research areas are explained in more detail below.
Identify existing data regarding wetland nutrient removal rates to be used for modeling and assigning trading
credits
One need is to identify existing data regarding wetland nutrient removal rates. This
information can be used for modeling and assigning trading credits with respect to wetland
type (e.g., native, engineered, restored, riverine, floodplain, etc.); geomorphology; hydraulic
loading rate; age, state, and ecological trajectory; and relative landscape position. Studies are
needed to clarify the relationship among abundance, distribution, and condition of wetlands
and the delivery of ecosystem services.
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Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs
Determine how to avoid uiihitvidtd 'iK-afivi..»//.»'(.nances associated wiib ni-l lands manaeed for nutrient
For wetlands managed for nutrient removal, research is needed to determine how to avoid
unintended negative consequences, such as invasion of non-native species; excess nutrients
entering waterways; increased risks from greenhouse gases; or contaminated wetlands
becoming an "attractive nuisance" for wildlife.
Determine the feasibility of offsetting stream segment degradation with improvements
Research is also needed to determine the feasibility of offsetting stream segment degradation
with improvements elsewhere in a watershed and the geographic scale on which trading
might occur.
Identify an acceptable approach for estimating risk and
Methods are needed to evaluate the risks, costs, and
benefits of generating water quality credits for
wetlands restoration, re-establishment, or
enhancement. Planned ecological research will
provide assessments of the economic, ecological,
and cultural services provided by wetlands. This
input will assist in placing value on the protection
and restoration of wetlands. Methods are also
needed to monitor, assess, and verify performance.
The trading approach can then be weighed against
other management strategies. Research may also
indicate whether water quality credits for wetlands
restoration, enhancement, or re-establishment could
be incorporated into NPDES permits as one way to
comply with water quality-based effluent limits.
Determine how to manage wetlands used in water quality
trading
Wetlands trading may prove to be a viable option for meeting TMDL requirements, but
clarification is needed in several areas. An approach is needed for estimating risk and
uncertainty, and an acceptable level of risk must be determined if there is a chance that
trading will not meet performance expectations. Research is needed to evaluate what trading
ratios (or other mechanisms) would help to overcome or reduce risks. Research is also
needed to determine how to manage wetlands used in water quality trading and how to
monitor for and prevent damage or diminishing quality. Ecological research is planned to
develop interactive mapping tools that will provide decision-makers with information on
wetland ecosystem services and value and the effects of local and landscape manipulations
(e.g., protection, restoration, and degradation) on wetland ecosystem services. Such tools
should be considered for integration into a wetlands trading approach.
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Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs
Headwater Streams, Adjacent Wetlands, and Isolated Wetlands
The CWA applies only to the surface waters of the United States. However, not all surface
waters are legally "waters of the United States." The exact dividing line between waters
meeting this definition and those that do not can be hard to determine, and has changed
with new court rulings, new regulations, or amendments to the Act itself.
In the January 9, 2001 case of Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. US Army
Corps of Engineers, the Court determined that isolated wetlands must have some
"significant nexus" to navigable waters if they are to be regulated under the CWA. On June
19, 2006, the Court issued decisions on two additional cases (Rapanos v. United States and
Carabell v. US Army Corps of Engineers) that dealt with the jurisdictional status of wetlands
that border, are contiguous to, or neighbor a navigable water, a tributary to a navigable
water, and certain other waters (i.e., adjacent wetlands), as well as non-navigable tributaries.
The opinions resulted in two separate jurisdictional criteria for adjacent wetlands and
tributaries. The plurality opinion, argued that adjacent wetlands and tributaries must have
continuous surface connection or relatively permanent flow. The second opinion stated that
a wetland meets the significant nexus criteria if it "either alone or in combination with
similarly situated lands in the region, significantly affect the chemical, physical, and biological
integrity of other covered waters more readily understood as 'navigable.' "
Headwater Streams, Adjacent Wetlands, and Isolated Wetlands Research
Needs
Given the scientific uncertainty highlighted by these recent Court cases, EPA regulatory and
enforcement staff need a standardized way to determine if a headwater stream, adjacent
wetland, or isolated wetland (HS-IW) significantly affects the integrity of a navigable water
(hereafter referred to as the nexus question) or has relatively permanent flow/connections.
This issue is especially relevant in the southwestern US, where intermittent or ephemeral
streams constitute over 80 percent of the total stream length. Regions 4 and 6 need to
establish a defensible basis for CWA jurisdiction in arid environments. However,
standardized tools for making these determinations do not exist, and fundamental
information that would be required to develop such tools is also lacking. Before these tools
can be developed, basic research is needed that can establish and quantify the contributions
of HS-IWs to the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of navigable waters.
Also, a great deal of ecological restoration is underway and planned to address the
environmental damage from the destruction of HS-IW (e.g., from mining). But the benefits
of many of these restoration approaches are not clear, nor do they seem to be based on
adequate science. Mitigation techniques to restore flow and function of streams warrant
scientific inquiry.
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Provide research and develop tools for assessing significant nexus and permanence of hydrologic connections in
headwaters streams, adjacent wetlands, and isolated wetlands
Research is needed to assess the contribution of isolated wetlands to the integrity of
navigable downstream water bodies. Studies should focus on which factors (e.g.,
physiography, land use, spatial location, hydrology, configuration, and ecological processes)
control the permanence of hydrologic connections. Influences on the chemical, physical, and
biological integrity of downstream navigable waters also need to be understood. It may then
be possible to determine which categories of HS-IWs have continuous hydrologic
connections and/or significant influences on the downstream navigable waters. In addition
to focusing on how HS-IWs contribute to navigable waters, the research needs to examine
how the degradation, loss, or restoration of HS-IWs affects navigable waters. To that end,
there is a need for further efforts to identify and measure the anthropogenic and natural
stressors to headwater stream systems. Work is also needed to validate wetlands as a
management practice in decreasing pollutant loadings. The appropriate types of wetlands,
optimal number of acres, and approaches to determine how the wetlands are functioning all
need research before the full potential of wetlands in mitigating pollutant loadings can be
realized.
Using this more sophisticated understanding of HS-IWs, tools can be formulated to allow
regulatory and enforcement staff to apply jurisdictional tests in the field, especially during
critical times when staff cannot make repeated visits to observe permanence of
flow/connections. These tools could include classification methods, simple models, mapping
techniques, and rapid assessment field methods that incorporate and complement best
professional judgment.
Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia
A large area of low oxygen or hypoxia continues to form in the GOM during periods in the
summer off the coasts of Louisiana and Texas. GOM hypoxia is an increasing threat to the
ecological integrity of the Gulf, where approximately 40 percent of the United States
fisheries are located. In 2002, the hypoxic zone was estimated at 22,000 square kilometers,
the largest measured extent since measurement of the zone began in 1985 (MRGOM
Watershed Nutrient Task Force, 2004).
The increase in the size of the hypoxic zone is coincident with an increase in Mississippi
River Basin nutrient loading. This is consistent with our scientific understanding of
eutrophication and the effects of excess nutrients on coastal ecosystems; excessive nutrients
cause increased production of micro-algae that subsequently die, sink to the bottom, and
decompose. Microbial decomposition depletes the bottom water of dissolved oxygen. Low
dissolved oxygen causes severe physiological stress on marine organisms, often resulting in
death and avoidance in bottom-dwelling fish and other organisms. The continental shelf of
the northern GOM along Louisiana and Texas is particularly susceptible to hypoxia owing to
the large volume of freshwater discharged by the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River system.
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Freshwater discharge causes stratification of the water column, which isolates the bottom
water from the surface, preventing oxygen exchange with the atmosphere.
The Mississippi River Basin (MRB) is the largest river basin in North America, draining
about 41 percent of the continental United States. Thirty-one States and two Canadian
provinces are located within the basin. Over the last century, the MRB has experienced
widespread changes in landscape, agriculture practices, demographic patterns, and river
draining/channelization patterns that contribute to water quality problems within in the
Basin and in the Gulf. Reducing nutrients and sediments is complicated due to the diversity
of climates, geologies, and human activities in such a large basin. In addition, each State has
its own set of water quality standards, which increases the difficulty of setting Basin-wide
goals for decreased loadings. The Mississippi River/GOM Watershed Nutrient Task Force
works towards a unified effort to improve GOM hypoxia. Comprising representatives from
both State and federal agencies, the Task Force developed the 2008 Action Plan, which
outlines steps to reach three goals: 1) By 2015, reduce the 5-year running average areal extent
of the GOM hypoxic zone to less than 5,000 square kilometers; 2) Restore and protect the
waters of the 31 States and Tribal lands within the Mississippi/Atchafalaya River Basin
(MARB) through implementation of nutrient and sediment reduction actions; and 3)
Improve the communities and economic conditions across the MARB. The Task Force's
work is authorized by the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Amendments Act of 2004,
reauthorizing the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act of 1998.
Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia Research Needs
States, Tribes, and federal agencies are working together to take action to reduce the size of
the hypoxic zone while protecting and restoring the human and natural resources of the
Mississippi Basin. Improved monitoring and modeling approaches are needed to identify and
quantify key processes regulating the development and size of hypoxic bottom waters. Such
knowledge will help in reducing uncertainty in the nutrient load reduction estimates required
to achieve the goals of the multi-agency Hypoxia Action Plan (USEPA, June 2008). Better
understanding of physical processes and biogeochemical cycles in coastal waters will result in
tools that assist federal, Regional, and State-based efforts to reduce watershed nutrient
loadings, reduce the areal extent of hypoxic waters, and restore/protect aquatic habitats and
species.
Research will be designed to address the following areas:
Identify effective management strategies to reduce nutrient and sediment ecosystem impacts in the Basin and in
the GOM
State-wide nutrient reduction strategies must be developed, and the planners need an
understanding of effective management strategies and agricultural BMPs that will protect
and improve water quality in the Basin. Identifying the relationship between nutrient and
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sediment loading in Basins and formation of the GOM hypoxic zone will assist in directing
the timing and distribution of fertilizer application and other agricultural practices.
Better Understand the Processes Regulating the Hypoxic Zone in Order to Improve Predictive Models of the
Zone and the Impacts of Restoration Scenarios
Continued monitoring is needed in the northern GOM on a seasonal basis to track the
extent and duration of hypoxia. Research is also needed to 1) better understand how
biogeochemical processing of riverine nutrients leads to formation of hypoxic bottom
waters; 2) quantify the magnitude and uncertainty in nutrient load reductions required to
reduce the extent and duration of hypoxic waters; and 3) develop models to forecast the
effects of nutrient management on the extent and severity of hypoxia in the northern GOM.
The development of empirical and integrated numerical modeling capabilities will provide
improved tools for evaluating nutrient management options and for federal, Regional, and
State-based efforts to reduce watershed nutrient loads, improve Mississippi River Basin
water quality, and reduce the areal extent of hypoxic waters.
Provide projections of the consequences of future development and other anthropogenic changes (such as climate
change) and develop strategies to minimise negative impacts on important ecosystems
Urban nonpoint sources represent permanent changes in the landscape and are large
nitrogen and phosphorous sources. Hypoxia and other eutrophication-related impacts on
water quality are centered on major population concentrations or closely associated with
developed watersheds that export large quantities of nutrients and organic matter.
Agricultural practices, such as those associated with biofuels and energy independence, as
well as climate-induced alternations in weather and precipitation patterns, will also likely alter
the sources, transport, and fate of nutrients. Research is needed to better understand the
impacts of these future conditions in the GOM to develop predictive models and to plan
management strategies.
Determine how the assessment of ecological conditions, the modeling of ecological and human development
futures, and the development of restoration and protection strategies can be done effectively at differing
geographic and temporal scales within the Basin
Protecting and restoring water quality throughout the Mississippi River Basin is a multi-step
process. While the big picture strategies are developed and implemented, local work at the
small watershed scale will improve local water quality. The streams assessments and surveys
provide a rich dataset to allow these models to be better refined, and the data must continue
to be collected and analyzed throughout the Basin to continue understanding the local water
quality impacts and issues.
Invasive Species
Invasive (and nonindigenous) species are one of the largest threats to our terrestrial, coastal,
and freshwater ecosystems, representing the second leading cause of species extinction and
loss of biodiversity in aquatic environments worldwide. These species can affect aquatic
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Chapter 4 Science to Support Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs
ecosystems not only by entering the water directly but also by affecting the land in ways that
can harm aquatic ecosystems. Deleterious effects from invasive species include decreased
native populations, modified water tables, changes in run-off dynamics, and an increase in
fire frequency. These impacts cost the public and private sectors billions of dollars in
prevention, management, control, and research costs.
The public and Congressional legislators are increasingly aware of threats posed by aquatic
invasive species and have introduced legislation. The 1996 National Invasive Species Act
addresses aquatic nuisance species that are unintentionally introduced into water bodies. This
Act authorized funding for research on aquatic nuisance species prevention and control in
areas such as the Chesapeake Bay, the GOM, the Pacific Coast, the Atlantic Coast, and the
San Francisco Bay-Delta Estuary. This Act also requires a ballast water management
program to demonstrate technologies and practices to prevent non-indigenous species from
being introduced. Ballast water released from ships is a tremendous source of foreign
organisms introduced into the nation's aquatic ecosystems.
Executive Order 13112 on invasive species was signed on Feb 3, 1999, mandating the
creation of a Council of Departments dealing with invasive species. The National Invasive
Species Council was formed and comprises 13 Departments and Agencies including EPA.
This Council helps to coordinate and ensure complementary, cost-efficient, and effective
Federal activities regarding invasive species.
Invasive Species Research Needs
To protect aquatic ecosystems (along with the recreational and commercial activities that
depend on these environments), it is essential for those who use the ecosystems to
understand how to prevent and control the spread of invasive species. Questions also arise
on how do invasive and/or nonindigenous species affect the ability of some water bodies to
attain designated uses. If NPDES permit controls are considered (Chapter 3), research must
address compliance monitoring needs, as well. Research is needed to:
Develop tools and scientific knowledge of potential pathways of introduction
that will ensure the prevention of invasions of non-indigenous species;
Develop an improved scientific basis for the establishment and maintenance of
rapid response and monitoring programs;
Develop tools and scientific knowledge to control invasive species that affect
aquatic ecosystems;
Create education and outreach opportunities to assist groups and individuals
affected by invasive species; and
Estimate the economic impacts of invasive species affecting the aquatic
environment.
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Each of these research areas is
discussed in more detail
below.
Develop tools and scientific
knowledge of potential pathways of
introduction that will ensure the
prevention of invasions of non-
indigenous species
Research is needed to
understand the pathways by
which invasive species become
introduced to a new
environment. Examples of
such pathways include ballast
water, aquaculture escapes, intentional introduction, and vehicular transportation.
Globalization has greatly increased long-distance travel and commerce, altering waterways in
extreme ways. These changes have increased the frequency with which non-native plants,
animals, and pathogens are introduced into new areas, often with costly results. Once
invasive species are introduced, they may be difficult to control. Therefore, preventing their
introduction could be an essential part of lessening the negative effects that non-indigenous
species can have on aquatic ecosystems.
Develop an improved scientific basis for the establishment and maintenance of rapid response and monitoring
programs
Work is also needed to increase our ability to monitor for invasive species in all coastal
regions and to identify new invasions over time. In particular, information is needed on
diagnostic assays for rapid testing of ballast samples for high priority invasive species. If
NPDES compliance approaches are considered, sampling and testing methods may need to
address viability and quantification as well as specificity. Additionally, understanding the
statutory, regulatory, and policy barriers to rapid response can help to determine why
controlling invasive species may be difficult. The negative effects of invasive species can be
better dealt with both before and after introduction if aquatic ecosystems are continuously
monitored and if watershed managers have tools for responding quickly when invasions are
discovered.
Develop tools and scientific knowledge to control invasive species that affect aquatic ecosystems
Greater understanding is needed of the biological, chemical, and mechanical methods for
control of invasive species. Potential control methods include physical removal of aquatic
plants and animals, the use of herbicides and algaecides, and the introduction of other
species, such as fungi, to control invasive species. Because invasive species lack natural
controls in their new habitat, they can grow rapidly. They can often cause disease in, prey
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upon, or compete with native species. Understanding the various options for controlling
invasive species can benefit all that depend on affected aquatic ecosystems.
Create education and outreach opportunities to assist groups and individuals affected by invasive species
Invasive species are often introduced unintentionally through recreational activities (boat
hulls, fishing boots, diving gear, etc.), the release of unwanted pets from aquaria, the disposal
of solid waste or wastewater, the release of fishing bait, and a number of other pathways.
Education and outreach work is needed to increase public awareness of the potential threats
of invasive species.
Estimate the economic impacts of invasive species affecting the aquatic environment
Estimates are needed of the economic impacts of aquatic invasive species on industries,
recreational activities, and public health. This can help groups and individuals who interact
with aquatic ecosystems understand the importance of invasive species control. Identifying
the ecological services provided by aquatic ecosystems and the loss of services due to
invasive species can provide further incentives for developing prevention, monitoring, rapid
response, and control programs. The establishment of conceptual frameworks and
bioeconomic tools are needed as practical ways to assess the market and non-market
economic impacts of aquatic invasive species.
Ecological Restoration
Ecological restoration is integral to the recovery of impaired aquatic ecosystems. The issue
of restoration cuts across numerous areas of the Water Program (e.g., TMDLs, watersheds,
source water protection, wetlands, and estuaries) and is an important component of
watershed management. Ecological restoration can be defined as the return of a waterbody
to its pre-disturbance level of functioning. The ability of a given system to recover will
depend on the severity of damage and on the degree to which environmental stressors are
controllable. Selection of appropriate and effective restoration techniques for a given setting
is also important. Although not all water bodies will be able to be fully restored, correct
application of active onsite restoration techniques can bring about substantial improvement,
and meeting research needs will improve the potential for successful restoration efforts.
EPA's Ecosystem Restoration Research Program has conducted basic and applied field
research to evaluate the abilities of restoration and management activities to achieve
environmental conditions that support and maintain water flows and water quality. Research
has focused on the watershed response to stressors and the effectiveness of restoration
techniques for reinstating important ecosystem functions (e.g., flood damage, erosion control,
water quality improvement). The program is implemented through in-house research linked
to collaborative efforts with other government agencies, non-profit agencies, and the
academic community. Such teamwork permits a holistic approach to restoration of rivers,
streams, wetlands and associated ecosystem services through the evaluation and assessment
of restoration and management practices and strategies.
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Ecological Restoration Research Needs
This research will focus on the development of decision support tools to provide clients
with the ability to make better management decisions for protecting our land and aquatic
resources. In particular, ecological research is needed to provide data and tools to:
Select candidate water bodies for restoration;
Select an optimal suite of restoration methods; and
Monitor results of restoration efforts.
Each of these research needs is discussed below.
Provide data and tools needed to select candidate water bodies for restoration to help target limited resources
The results of any restoration effort will hinge on the capacity of the ecosystem to regain
healthy function. A science-based evaluation of the natural processes involved in recovery is
needed. Some issues to be explored include the quantity, quality, and spatial distribution of
waterbody types that are needed to support aquatic life in a watershed. Linked to this is the
need to document the biological change that occurs as human-induced stressors increase for
these water body types and within appropriate eco-regions. Enhanced understanding,
combined with an assessment of the setting, ongoing stressors, and economic factors will
help in evaluating the degree to which a given waterbody can be restored. The size of the
restoration effort and temporal framework should also be considered. A multifaceted
approach to assessing the recovery potential of a given waterbody will allow watershed
managers to prioritize and target water bodies that will reap the greatest benefit from
restoration measures.
Provide data and tools needed to select an optimal suite of restoration methods
Restoration is an emerging discipline, and our understanding of the effectiveness of
interventions is still limited. Guidance is needed on how to select the optimal techniques for
specific sites because active onsite restoration techniques are not universally applicable. To
begin to make such choices, it is critical to know the degree of success of as many
restoration-related practices as possible. Numerous BMP and restoration techniques are
available, but there are insufficient data on their effectiveness in reducing pollutant loads,
and current data show highly variable efficiencies. Research is needed to provide information
on the ranges of effectiveness, uncertainties, time frames, costs, life expectancies, and
geographic and water body type applicability.
Many restoration techniques involve physical alterations to a system. A study of the linkage
between physical restoration techniques (e.g., stream bank restoration, buffer strips) and
resulting water quality improvements is needed. Data are also needed to link low impact
development practices to water quality improvements and to reductions in runoff.
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Ensuring proper nutrient and sediment management is especially important in managing a
system for desired ecosystem services. Excess anthropogenic nitrogen, phosphorus, and
sediments have been implicated for decades as the major cause of unbalance in aquatic
ecosystems. An understanding of how these nutrients and sediments are processed,
sequestered and apportioned at the micro- and process-level scale will help design and select
efficient management and restoration techniques.
Provide data and tools needed to monitor results of restoration efforts
Once restoration has been initiated, recovery must be monitored and evaluated. Improved
post-implementation and TMDL effectiveness monitoring tools are needed. Such evaluation
protocols should quantify individual pollutant loads, biological measures, and pollutant
sources. Monitoring approaches should also include evaluation of the appropriate spatial and
temporal scales for evaluating effectiveness since little is currently known about how to
predict the time frame for recovery. EPA also needs to determine how many waters that
have undergone restoration were 303(d) listed, unlisted, or are only recently developing
impairments. Developing this inventory and comparing it to project outcomes will provide
additional information on how best to meet clean water objectives.
Coral Reef Protection
Coral reefs are among the world's richest ecosystems, second only to tropical rain forests in
plant and animal diversity. They play a major role in the environment and economies of
Florida, Hawaii, and most US Territories in the Caribbean and Pacific. They provide fishing,
tourism, biodiversity, and aesthetics. However, coral reefs are extremely sensitive and have
special temperature, salinity, light, oxygen, and nutrient requirements. If environmental
conditions fall outside acceptable ranges, the health and dynamics of a coral reef community
can be severely disrupted and the services they provide will be diminished. Corals respond to
alterations within the entire coastal watershed, such as changes in freshwater flows and
nutrient inputs, as well as pollution. Exposure to such stressors over long periods of time
can result in growth retardation, bleaching (loss of photosynthetic dinoflagellates), lowered
capacity to shed sediments and resist disease, invasion by non-reef building species, habitat
loss, and reef death.
Coral communities in South Florida and other areas have changed dramatically over the past
few decades. For example, up to 28 percent of the coral in the Florida Keys have died since
1996, altering communities and resulting in the loss of several key coral species; the corals do
not appear to be recovering. In addition, relatively synchronous disease and bleaching events
have occurred world-wide, even in the relative absence of human populations and influence,
indicating involvement of large-scale processes.
There have been government efforts to address the plight of the coral reefs. The
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) was formed in 1994 by EPA, the State
Department, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Department of
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the Interior to coordinate information and bring higher visibility to the need for coral reef
ecosystem preservation. ICRI has more than 90 member countries. On June 11, 1998,
President Clinton signed Executive Order 13089 on Coral Reef Protection, which directs all
federal agencies to protect coral reef ecosystems to the extent feasible. It also instructs
particular agencies to develop coordinated, science-based plans to restore damaged reefs and
mitigate current and future impacts on reefs, both in the United States and worldwide. This
Executive Order also established the US Coral Reef Task Force of which EPA is an active
participant. The Task Force is charged to work with the scientific community to develop and
implement a research program to identify the major causes and consequences of degradation
of coral reef ecosystems. The President's Ocean Action Plan, signed in 2004, provides that
EPA will develop coral reef bioassessment procedures and biological criteria to use in
evaluating the health of coral reefs and associated water quality. Also, the Marine Protection,
Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA), provides some protection for coral reefs by
authorizing the establishment of sanctuaries and allowing for the promulgation of
regulations for the conservation of these special ecosystems.
Coral Reef Protection Research Needs
In order to protect coral reefs, research is needed to better understand how climatic and
anthropogenic stressors impact coral reefs (e.g., disease, bleaching) and how anthropogenic
sources can be distinguished from climate change effects and natural variation. Research is
needed to understand how quantitative thresholds can be established for reference
conditions, biological criteria and sustainable reef ecosystems, and how monitoring programs
should be implemented to provide consistent, low-cost, scientifically-defensible data on coral
reef condition. More specific research needs are discussed below.
Characterise the effects of global change stressors on conditions of coral and coral reefs
Global change is characterized by increasing tropospheric temperatures, increasing
penetration of solar radiation (particularly ultraviolet wavelengths, UVR), increasing
acidification of the ocean from high atmospheric carbon dioxide, and altered land use
patterns that increase the types and amounts of sediment, nutrient, contaminants, and
microorganisms exported to coastal waters. As a result of these multiple, interactive
stressors, corals and coral reefs are in a critical decline. Research is specifically needed on the
potential effects of interacting stressors on the health of coral reefs. Results of such research
can help to direct appropriate mitigative and adaptive actions toward protection of coral
reefs.
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Characterise changes in the condition of coral reefs in South
Florida and define potential effects of anthropogenic and
cRmatic stressors
Anthropogenic and climatic stressors appear to be
substantial contributors to disease and bleaching.
These stressors include physical (elevated
temperatures, sedimentation, and UVR), chemical
(pesticides, herbicides, nutrients, oil spills, industrial
pollutants), and biological (disease, bleaching, and
algal competition) factors. Research is needed to
document the cause(s) of coral decline in South
Florida, an area that has been particularly hard hit.
Surveys of coral condition are needed to determine
changes and to establish patterns and associations
with potential stressors. In particular, understanding
the effects of dumping on reef health will help to
fulfill statutory responsibilities under the MPRSA.
Development and validation of measures to
characterize coral reef condition can ultimately lead
to an integrated biological indicator for coral habitats. Ideally, research will be able to
quantitatively relate human stressors to declines in reef health and loss of services, pointing
the way to management alternatives that can improve delivery of services.
Characterise the interactive roles of UVR, temperature, and water quality on coral bleaching
Coral "bleaching" is defined as the loss of symbiotic zooxanthellae. Bleaching in
Scleractinian (hard) corals has increased over the last several decades worldwide, threatening
the condition of corals and entire reef ecosystems. Potential causes include natural and
anthropogenic factors in the reef environment, such as high and low temperatures, elevated
UVR, abrupt salinity changes, eutrophication, and disease. Cause(s) of coral bleaching and
decline must be documented before effective control and protective measures can be
defined and implemented. Research efforts are needed that examine corals in both field and
laboratory experiments. It is important to determine, for example, if temperature and UVR
are significant coral bleaching causal agents and, if so, establish validated exposure-response
scenarios.
Characterise the responses of coral sytnbionts (Symbiodinium spp.) to elevated UVR, elevated temperature
and changes in water quality
Corals are dependent upon symbiotic algae, usually Symbiodinium spp., for energy transferred
in the form of carbon compounds. Anticipated effects of temperature, UV, and water quality
on corals usually stem from effects on the physiology of these algal symbionts. Therefore,
research on the impact of these stressors on Sjmbiodinium spp. is necessary to understand
their effects on coral and for the development of control/management strategies to protect
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coral ecosystems and the services they provide. A useful secondary benefit of this research is
the potential for using Sjmbiodinium as a screening agent for determining exposure-response
relationships for various stressors and coral health.
References
MRGOM Watershed Nutrient Task Force. 2004. A Science Strategy to Support
Management Decisions Related to Hypoxia in the Northern Gulf of Mexico and
Excess Nutrients in the Mississippi River Basin. Prepared by the Monitoring,
Modeling, and Research Workgroup, Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed
Nutrient Task Force. Available on the Internet at:
http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2004/1270/pdf/circl270.pdf.
USEPA. July 2007. Office of Research and Development. Wetlands and Water Quality
Trading: Review of Current Science and Economic Practices with Selected Case
Studies. EPA-600-R-06-155. Available on the Internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/ada/download/reports/600R06155/600R06155.pdf.
USEPA. February 2008. Office of Research and Development. Ecological Research
Program Research Multi-Year Plan (2008-2014). February 2008 Review Draft.
Available on the Internet at: http://epa.gov/ord/npd/pdfs/ERP-MYP-complete-
draft-v5.pdf
USEPA. June 2008. Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force.
2008. Gulf Hypoxia Action Plan 2008 for Reducing, Mitigating, and Controlling
Hypoxia in the Northern Gulf of Mexico and Improving Water Quality in the
Mississippi River Basin. Available on the internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/msbasin/taskforce/actionplan08.htm.
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Chapter 5 Science to Support Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Programs
5 Science to Support Aquatic Life and
Human Health Protection Programs
The Office of Science and Technology
(OST) is the lead office for the Human
Health Protection Program. See the
Addendum to Chapter 1 for more
information on OWM responsibilities. The
Human Health Protection Program
identifies and defines water research that
assists the Water Programs to implement
their statutory and other obligations. The
research also helps the States, Tribes, and
Territories to protect their drinking water
supplies and minimize the effects of
contaminants on fish, wildlife, and the
aquatic environment. Federal, State, Tribal,
and local governments use this information
to set limits on pollutants that may occur in
drinking water or that may be discharged
into all types of waters rivers, lakes, and
streams. Every year under the authorities of
the Clean Water Act (CWA), the Safe
Drinking Water Act (SDWA), and other
acts and executive orders, the Human
Health Protection Program helps produce regulations, guidelines, methods, models,
standards, science-based criteria, and studies that are critical components of national
programs that protect human health and the aquatic environment.
Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Program
Goals
The Water Program conducts risk assessments and develops criteria for surface and drinking
water to ensure they are safe for human use and consumption and aquatic life. It also uses
risk assessments to determine appropriate uses and disposal of biosolids and to develop
appropriate regulations that protect human health and the environment. (More information
can be found in Chapter 1.)
In support of the CWA, the Water Program endeavors to improve water quality to protect
and restore waters to their designated uses, thereby protecting the health of humans, aquatic
life, and wildlife. Actions taken to improve water quality will also increase the number of
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Chapter 5 Science to Support Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Programs
water bodies that can be enjoyed for recreational purposes and from which fish and shellfish
can be safely consumed.
Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Program
Drivers
There are several internal and external drivers that help direct the research that will be
conducted to support Water Programs. Some of the major drivers are mentioned below and
discussed in further detail in Chapter 1.
Important drivers include the CWA Section 303 (d), 304 (a), 305 (b), 404, 405, and Part 503.
The CWA is the nation's most significant piece of legislation regarding surface water
protection and the primary driver for water quality research. The BEACH Act amends the
CWA and protects recreational waters by directing EPA to conduct studies associated with
pathogens and human health research also driving the water quality research. The SDWA
Amendments require EPA to evaluate human exposure and risks of adverse health effects in
the general population and sensitive subpopulations when setting drinking water standards.
(Refer to Chapter 2 for information on the regulatory development and review of drinking
water standards). Other important legislation includes the Endangered Species Act and the
National Environmental Policy Act. The Water Programs research needs are also shaped by
Executive Order 12866 which is also discussed in Chapter 1.
As part of implementing EPA's Strategic Plan, the Office of Water establishes Program
Activity Measures (PAMs) to achieve specific programmatic and water quality goals in its
National Water Program Guidance. (Refer also to Chapter 2 for discussion of PAMs related
to drinking water program goals.) These PAMs reveal information gaps that in turn identify
needed research efforts. Some of the PAMs relevant to Aquatic Life and Human Health
Protection research are:
Issue new or revised criteria documents that assist States and Tribes to better
control water pollution.
Develop TMDLs for impaired waters.
Increase attainment of water quality standards.
Reduce the loadings of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment to water bodies.
Improve ratings on National Coastal Condition Report for Benthic Quality.
Protect and restore additional acres of habitat within National Estuary Program
(NEP).
Environmental Indicator Initiative: In 2001, EPA created the Environmental Indicator
Initiative to address the need for technical approaches to help States and Tribes manage their
programs to achieve specific results by measuring environmental outcomes. As an outcome
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Chapter 5 Science to Support Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Programs
of this initiative, EPA published the EPA's 2007 Report on the Environment: Science Report (ROE
SR) (USEPA, August 2007.) which identifies indicators and trends in environmental health,
including water.
EPA Association of National Estuary Programs Workshop: In the fall of 2005, EPA
held a joint workshop with the Association of National Estuary Programs. The findings
from the workshop noted: 1) States need tools for ecosystem-based management to protect
and restore their estuaries; 2) the National Estuary Programs needs tools to communicate
condition and inform management; and 3) the tiered aquatic life use (TALU) framework was
identified as a promising approach and is currently being piloted.
Strategy for Water Quality Standards and Criteria (USEPA, August 2003): In 2003,
EPA developed a strategy to assist State and Tribes in developing tools for water quality
standards and criteria. The research needs that were outlined in this document included
developing tools for: 1) determining highest attainable water body uses; 2) tiering uses; 3) use
attainability analyses; 4) describing reference conditions; 5) developing biological criteria for
different water body types (e.g., rivers, coral reefs, Great Lakes estuaries, wetlands); and 6)
integrating tiered aquatic life uses and the different types of water quality criteria including
nutrients and suspended/embedded sediments.
Government Accountability Office Review of EPA's Water Quality Standards
Program: In 2003, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) reviewed EPA's Water
Quality Standards (WQS) Program (GAO, January 2003). One of the GAO's suggestions
was that the EPA Administrator take actions to improve States' abilities to adopt,
implement, and modify water quality criteria. To help ensure that States' criteria are a valid
basis for impairment decisions, GAO recommended that the Administrator direct OST to
develop guidance and a training strategy to help EPA Regional staff determine the scientific
defensibility of State-proposed criteria modifications.
National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council Report on TMDL Program: In
2001, the National Academy of Sciences National Research Council (NRC) published a
report on EPA's TMDL program that identified a number of research needs including: 1)
better, more specific and refined, designated uses to protect watersheds; 2) designated uses
for aquatic life that are as specific as possible; 3) tiered aquatic life uses; and 4) biological
criteria that can be used in conjunction with physical and chemical criteria to determine if a
water body is meeting its designated use.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ecosystem service categories. The Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, produced for the United Nations in 2005 by more than 1,300
scientists from around the world, is one of the most comprehensive reports to date on
ecosystem services. Many of the document's suggestions and concepts have been
incorporated into EPA's Ecological Research Program's new research strategy, including its
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depiction of the complex relationship that exists between ecosystem services and human
well-being.
National Academies report: Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and
Practices (National Research Council, July 2002). The recommendations and findings in
this report helped identify research needs of the Biosolids Program. These recommendations
included: 1) Use improved risk-assessment methods to better establish standards for
chemicals and pathogens; 2) Conduct a new national survey of chemicals and pathogens in
sewage sludge; and 3) Establish a framework for an approach to implement human health
investigations.
Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Research
Needs
The SDWA requires EPA to set national drinking
water standards to ensure the safety of water
consumed by the millions of people in the US who
receive their water from public water systems. Under
the 1996 Amendments to SDWA, EPA is directed to
use a risk-based standard-setting process and sound
science in fulfilling the requirements of the Act. The
Amendments contain specific requirements for
research on waterborne pathogens (e.g., Cryptosporidium
and Norwalk virus), disinfection byproducts (DBPs),
arsenic, and other harmful substances in drinking
water. EPA is also directed to conduct studies to
identify and characterize groups that may be at greater
risk than the general population following exposure to
contaminants in drinking water (i.e., sensitive
subpopulations). Health effects and risk assessment
research is needed that will allow risk assessors and
risk managers to reduce their reliance on default
assumptions in human health risk assessment.
Section 304(a)(l) of the CWA requires EPA to develop criteria for water quality that
accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge. These criteria are developed for the
protection of aquatic life and human health and are based on data and scientific judgments
regarding pollutant concentrations and environmental or human health effects. Water quality
criteria are used by States, Territories, and Tribes to develop their WQS. These WQS serve
the dual purposes of establishing the water quality goals for a specific water body and serving
as the regulatory basis for the establishment of water quality-based treatment controls and
strategies.
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Water quality criteria are crucial for monitoring the condition of water bodies and for
planning, implementing, and tracking restoration measures. Ongoing research is needed to
develop and revise water quality criteria. As the collective understanding of aquatic systems
advances, new knowledge must be incorporated into water quality criteria and standards.
Ongoing research is needed to develop and utilize new approaches to managing aquatic
systems, such as the TALU framework currently being piloted by States and Tribes. These
new paradigms are needed to address simplifications and limitations in older approaches. As
research progresses, assessments will become more refined and will take into account the
combined effects of multiple stressors in an ecosystem (chemical, physical, biological).
Research efforts must support the goal of addressing emerging water quality concerns.
Emerging contaminants, both biological (i.e., pathogens, invasive species) and chemical
(pharmaceuticals, pesticides), are a topic of growing national interest. Sound science is
needed to support decisions on which constituents may require regulation. Continued
research is needed to develop techniques that are accurate, precise, and suitable for
environmental matrices (e.g., water, soil), especially with respect to emerging contaminants.
Research evaluating pathogens and pathogen indicators cuts across several priority areas for
the Water Program. Pathogens are of concern as emerging pollutants, as multiple stressors,
and in the land application of biosolids. Ongoing research is needed to protect human health
when using recreational waters, consuming fish, or drinking water. All assessment activities
need reliable and up-to-date analytical methods.
As part of its obligations and mandates, EPA must understand the cumulative impacts of
multiple stressors on human health and healthy aquatic ecosystems and must determine how
to best convert that knowledge into criteria and effective management tools. In addition,
EPA needs to provide information and tools (such as those for ecosystem valuation) that
decision makers can use in making proactive policy and management decisions that ensure
ecological and human well-being.
Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection research needs are organized under a number of
areas as follows:
Human Health Effects and Risk Assessments.
Bioassessment/Biocriteria.
Aquatic Life Guidelines.
Aquatic Habitat.
Biosolids.
Nutrients.
Emerging Contaminants.
Suspended and Bedded Sediments (SABS).
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Multiple Stressors.
Socio-economic Valuation.
Recreational Waters.
Background and research needs are presented below for each of these areas. In addition, a
detailed listing of specific research projects for each research area will be found in the Water
Research Management and Status Tool when it is available.
Human Health Effects and Risk Assessments
The SDWA requires EPA to evaluate human exposure and risks of adverse health effects in
the general population and sensitive subpopulations, such as infants and young children, the
elderly, and those with weakened immune systems, when setting drinking water standards.
Risk assessments are the process by which the Agency determines whether exposure to an
environmental stressor may have adverse consequences for humans. Risk assessment is
essential in determining whether regulatory action is warranted, what actions should be
implemented, and whether such actions are effective. Risk assessment integrates scientific
data on exposure and associated adverse human health outcomes and provides scientific
guidance to Water Program decision makers, who must set water quality standards.
The risk assessment process is divided into four steps: hazard identification, dose-response
assessment, exposure assessment, and risk characterization. There are many uncertainties
associated with the risk assessment process, including unknown levels of environmental
concentrations of contaminants; human exposures to these contaminants; and relationships
among human exposure, affected tissue, dose, and response. This uncertainty is further
compounded by the need to extrapolate observed health effects from one set of
circumstances (e.g., cancer incidence in rats subjected to high, chronic exposures in
controlled laboratory experiments) to an entirely different set of circumstances (e.g.,
individual excess cancer risks in humans experiencing intermittent, low-level exposures).
Human Health Effects and Risk Assessment Research Needs
EPA's risk assessment research will reduce uncertainties in the extrapolations necessary for
the risk assessment process by providing a greater understanding of the fundamental
determinants of exposure and dose and the basic biological changes that follow exposure to
environmental toxicants. In particular, research is needed in the following areas:
Use of mechanistic data in risk assessment;
Cumulative risk;
Nationally representative data on chemical and microbial exposure;
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Sensitive subpopulations; and
Contaminant-specific health studies.
Each of these needs is discussed in more detail. Additional research needs in this chapter
that pertain to human health are also included under the following three sections: Biosolids,
Emerging Contaminants, and Recreational Waters.
Use of Mechanistic Data in Risk Assessment
The pathway between exposure to an environmental agent and the resulting health effect
cannot be fully characterized for every possible exposure scenario. In addition, much data on
response to environmental agents must be gathered from laboratory animals under entirely
different sets of exposure conditions than humans may experience. Extrapolation from
laboratory animal data to estimate human risks from high to low doses involves a variety of
assumptions and the application of default assumptions and uncertainty factors in the risk
assessment process.
A more thorough understanding of key events associated with exposure and the ultimate
manifestation of an adverse health effect (i.e., the toxicity pathway or mode or mechanism of
action (MOA)) would help reduce the uncertainty associated with data extrapolation.
Knowledge of the MOA allows for the overall process of extrapolation to be broken up into
its biological elements.
Research on the use of mechanistic data in risk assessment will focus on addressing the
following questions:
What methods and models are needed to identify modes or mechanisms of
action that can be used for risk assessment?
How can knowledge of toxicity pathways inform the development of
pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic models for risk assessment?
How can knowledge of toxicity pathways (or mode of action) be used to reduce
uncertainty in extrapolation in risk assessment, including: extrapolation from
high to low dose; extrapolation from laboratory animals to humans; extrapolation
from in vitro data to in vivo exposures; and harmonization of cancer and non-
cancer risk assessments?
What methods are most appropriate for determining uncertainty factors based
on intraspecies and interspecies experimental data and on duration of exposure.
Cumulative Risk
Cumulative risk assessment is broadly defined as "the combined risks from aggregate
exposures to multiple agents or stressors." Agency risk assessors need both exposure
assessment information and risk assessment methods to evaluate human health risks from
exposure to mixtures of chemicals. In response to the 1996 SDWA Amendments, EPA
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needs to conduct research to understand new approaches for assessing the adverse effects of
contaminant mixtures in drinking water. For example, the Water Program is concerned with
contaminant mixtures such as DBPs and other contaminants that co-occur in drinking water.
Frequently, it is not possible to directly measure all of the forms of chemicals in the
environment that may contribute to cumulative risk. In such cases, it is important to identify
potential surrogates (i.e., biomarkers) that could be used to estimate exposure and dose.
Depending on the level of biological information that is known, such biomarkers could also
be characterized as biomarkers of effect or even susceptibility. Information concerning
MOA or the basis for biological susceptibility will be crucial. Sensitive biomarkers can
provide the basis for assessing the cumulative exposure from specific classes of
environmental pollutants or from complex mixtures to estimate risk and to determine the
efficacy of various remediation efforts.
Key questions to be addressed include:
How can biomarkers be used in cumulative risk assessment?
- What tools are needed to identify biomarkers for cumulative risk assessment?
- How can those biomarkers be applied for cumulative risk assessment?
What source-to-dose models are needed for cumulative risk?
- What methods and models are available for assessing cumulative risk?
How can tools be used to conduct cumulative risk assessments on stable
chemical mixtures and those that undergo chemical changes during their contact
with the environment?
How can cumulative risk at the community level be evaluated?
- What tools are necessary for community-based risk assessments?
- How can those tools be applied for community-based risk assessments?
Nationally representative data on chemical exposure
There is a void in nationally representative biological data on chemical exposure. Monitoring
for some pesticides and nutrients is conducted, but many other agents of concern are lacking
data. Further refinement of the exposure assessment process requires more environmental
monitoring data and biomonitoring data. Access to additional information will make more
probabilistic and detailed assessments possible.
Key research items include:
Research to aide in monitoring human exposure to chemicals of concern, such as
those proposed on the Contaminant Candidate List.
Approaches to quantifying chronic human exposure to chemicals with limited
water data.
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Further research and monitoring on exposure based on nationally representative
dietary information on water consumption (including, but not limited to, tap
water, water in food recipes, and bottled water).
Susceptible Subpopulations
Human variability in exposure and response to environmental agents is a key uncertainty in
health risk assessment (NRG, 1993, 1994). The SDWA Amendments of 1996 mandate that
the Agency consider risks to groups within the general population that are identified as being
at greater risk of adverse health effects, including children and the elderly. Key research
questions related to susceptible subpopulations are:
Is there differential life-stage responsiveness or exposure to environmental
agents?
- What are the long-term effects of developmental exposure to chemicals
including their role in increased infection and/or disease susceptibility to
microbial pathogens?
- How does aging affect responsiveness to environmental chemicals and
microbial pathogens?
- How can we model exposure and effects to protect susceptible
subpopulations?
Which methods and models are appropriate for understanding and projecting
health effects that accrue with age and development in infants and children?
How should genetic differences among populations that influence their
susceptibility to a hazardous substance be considered in risk assessments?
In addition, Region 10 points to the need for research focusing on children's health in
Alaska. This research will help the Region meet its tribal trust responsibilities, address
research gaps, and add further information to results of the National Children's Study. The
Region would like to work with researchers to jointly develop communications, outreach,
and other activities that convey research results to those in Alaska who need this
information.
Contaminant-Specific Health Studies
As detailed in Chapter 2, Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection
Programs, EPA is required under the SDWA 1996 Amendments to establish a chemical
candidate list (CCL) every five years. This list includes unregulated contaminants that are
known or anticipated to occur in public water systems, which may adversely affect human
health and may require future regulation under SDWA. EPA also must evaluate whether
sufficient information exists to make a determination whether or not a contaminant warrants
regulation for any of the CCL contaminants or if more research is needed. EPA may also
develop drinking water guidance and health advisories for contaminants on the CCL when
appropriate.
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EPA published the draft third CCL (i.e., CCL 3) in February 2008. As noted in Chapter 2,
the CCL and Regulatory Determination is an ongoing process that will determine research
needs over time. These needs will be defined and cataloged in the Water RMST. As an
example, Exhibit 5.1 includes select draft CCL 3 contaminants with potentially sufficient
occurrence data to make a determination, but that may need refined health effects data.
These contaminants may be appropriate for a risk assessment in the Regulatory
Determination (RegDet) process, but require additional health effects research data. For
example, research studies are needed to determine the impact of 1,2,3-trichloropropane on
developmental and reproductive processes.
Exhibit 5.1: Draft CCL 3 contaminants that may require additional health
effects research to make a regulatory determination
Common Name - Registry Name
1 , 1 -Dichloroethane
1 ,2,3-Trichloropropane
Acetochlor
Acetochlor ethanesulfonic acid
Acetochlor oxanilic acid
Chloromethane (Methyl chloride)
Diuron
Methyl bromide (Bromomethane)
Methyl tert-butyl ether
Metolachlor
Metolachlor ethanesulfonic acid
Metolachlor oxanilic acid )
Molybdenum
N-nitros odimethylamine
Vanadium
Also, as discussed in Chapter 2, the CCL, RegDet, and unregulated contaminant monitoring
regulation, are inter-related and with the Six-Year Review form a continuum of programs
that define research needs as part of their process. The Six-Year Review evaluates available
information for contaminants already regulated by a National Primary Drinking Water
Regulation. As part of this process, new health effects data are reviewed to assess if changes
may be warranted in the regulations or whether new health effects research and risk
assessments may be warranted to improve the protection of public health. EPA Regions also
point to the need for research to determine if there is an association between methylmercury
exposure and coronary heart disease.
Studies of both regulated and emerging microbial pathogens are needed to determine the
impacts of climate change on human pathogens. In particular, these studies examine how
climate change will affect the types and levels of human pathogens that can enter, be
sustained, and thrive in waters of the US (refer to Chapter 7 for more research on Climate
Change). Another needed area of research is the development of animal models to replace
human feeding trials to establish dose response relationships for enteric human pathogens.
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Bioassessment Biocriteria Research
The CWA requires States and Tribes to adopt in their water quality standards, where
attainable, designated uses that include the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and
wildlife. In 2001, the NRG published its report on Assessing the TMDL Approach to Water
Quality Management (NRC 2001). In the report, the NRC recommended tiering designated
uses as an essential step in setting water quality standards and improving decision-making.
The NRC, finding that the CWA's goals (i.e., "fishable," "swimmable") are too broad to
serve as operational statements of designated use, recommended greater specificity in
defining such uses. For example, rather than stating that a water body needs to be "fishable,"
the designated use would ideally describe the expected fish assemblage or population (e.g.,
cold water fishery, warm water fishery, or salmon, trout, bass, etc.) as well as the other
biological assemblages necessary to support that fish population. In particular, NRC
recommended the use of biological information to help determine more appropriate aquatic
life uses and to couple the narrative use statements with quantitative methods.
Biologically-based tiered aquatic life uses paired with numeric biological criteria provide a
direct measure of the aquatic resource that is being protected. The condition of the biota
reflects the cumulative response of the aquatic community to individual or multiple sources
of stress. Biological criteria (biocriteria) are regulatory standards that can be used to measure
attainment of water quality goals. They are qualitative or numeric indices that describe the
biological/ecological conditions associated with a desired level of water quality. By
comparing bioassessments with biocriteria, impaired waters can be identified, and regulatory
efforts can be appropriately directed. Improvements due to pollution controls may also be
documented. A primary strength of biocriteria is the detection of water quality problems that
other standards may miss or underestimate. Using these measures, impairment can be
detected and evaluated without knowing the exact cause(s) of the impairment (i.e.,
impairment from one chemical or an integration of many effects), and without trying to
sample and measure all possible contaminants and stressors. In addition, biological measures
often provide evidence about the source of the impairment.
Biological assessments (bioassessments) study such factors as the presence, condition and
numbers of types offish, insects, algae, plants, and other organisms as away of evaluating
the health of a body of water. They can identify impairments from contamination of the
water column and sediments from unknown or unregulated chemicals, non-chemical
impacts, and altered physical habitat. This information can be used to set water quality goals.
Bioassessment Biocriteria Research Needs
The Water Program's Bioassessment/Biocriteria research initiatives will help Regions, States,
Tribes, and Territories refine aquatic life uses and biocriteria in their WQSs. They include:
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Biological condition gradient and generalized stressor gradient model
development;
TALU development; and
Bio criteria measurement in varying environments.
These research needs overlap with those for Aquatic Life Guidelines Revisions (discussed in
this chapter); Watershed Protection and Restoration Programs (refer to Chapter 4); and with
the Water Program's Climate Change research (refer to Chapter 7).
Develop technically sound methods for establishing Biological Condition Gradient and Generalised Stressor
Gradient models
The biological condition gradient (BCG) in particular is a highly useful concept. It describes
biological response to increasing levels of stressors (i.e., physical, chemical or biological
factors that induce an adverse response from aquatic biota). BCG does not represent the
laboratory response of a single species to a specified dose of a known chemical, but rather
the in situ response of the biota to the sum of stresses to which it is exposed. The BCG is
divided into six tiers of biological condition along the stressor-response curve (see Exhibit
5.2), ranging from observable biological conditions found at no or low levels of stress to
those found at high levels of stressors. The model provides a common framework for
interpreting biological information regardless of methodology or geography. When calibrated
to a Regional or State scale, States and Tribes can use this model to more precisely evaluate
the current and potential biological condition of their waters and use that information to
make decisions on aquatic life designations, as well as more clearly and consistently
communicate these decisions to the public.
Exhibit 5.2: The Biological Condition Gradient illustrates the relationship between
implied anthropogenic stressors and biological condition.
o
V-f
=5
o
o
75
o
I
o
Natural structure & function of biotic community maintained
Minimal changes in structure & function
Evident changes in structure and
minimal changes in function
^Moderate changes in structure &
minimal changes in function
Major changes in structure
moderate changes in function
Severe changes in structure & function
^^^^^^^^^^
Low
Level of Stressors
High
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Develop technically sound methods for establishing tolerance values and evaluating minimum monitoring data
needs for TALU development
TALU is a scientific model for predicting biological response to anthropogenic stress (i.e.,
those caused by human activity) that is based on the concept of the BGC. It offers an
effective way to incorporate science into the management of water bodies. It determines
how human factors impact water resource features such as habitat structure, flow regime,
water quality and toxicity, energy source, and biotic interaction that ultimately results in a
biological response. For example, human activity could allow invasive species to thrive,
resulting in a loss of native species. Research to support TALU development must include
identifying sampling and analytical methods or models that are useful for predicting the
recovery potential of different water body types.
Develop methods for measuring biocriteria in varying environments
Methods need to be developed for measuring biocriteria in arid systems, large and great
rivers, wetlands, estuarine areas, and marine systems (including coral reefs). Research is also
needed to clarify the optimal ways to classify ecosystems, landscapes, and watersheds to
enable efficient and scientifically sound development and application of biocriteria.
Aquatic Life Guidelines Research
Under Section 304(a) of the CWA, EPA must develop and publish ambient water quality
criteria (WQC). Such criteria are levels of individual pollutants, water quality characteristics,
or descriptions of water body conditions that, if met, should protect the environment and
human health. Ambient water quality criteria are recommended guidance that States and
Tribes may use as part of their water quality standards. The existing Aquatic Life Guidelines
(Guidelines) were published in 1985 (USEPA, 1985), and the majority of EPA's current
aquatic life criteria are based on the relationships between pollutant concentrations and
effects on aquatic life. Procedures for deriving aquatic life WQC are useful for managing
toxic chemical inputs to water. However, these procedures are based on assumptions and a
narrow, outdated framework that may limit their use in fully assessing impacts from certain
types of toxic chemicals.
Since 1985, considerable advancements have been made in aquatic sciences, aquatic and
wildlife toxicology, population modeling, and ecological risk assessment (ERA) that are
relevant to deriving aquatic life criteria. Also, EPA is facing the possibility of having to
regulate new classes or types of pollutants (e.g., endocrine disrupters, pharmaceuticals,
nanoparticles, etc.) that the Guidelines currently address only on a case-by-case basis. The
Guidelines must be revised to more explicitly and consistently incorporate new and
emerging science.
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Aquatic Life Guidelines Research Needs
Revised ERA tools are needed to revise the Aquatic Life Guidelines. The work will enable
EPA to update the WQC methodologies to better reflect current scientific knowledge about
aquatic life and aquatic-dependent wildlife. Research in the following areas will also allow the
Water Program to address limitations in the current criteria methodology:
Revised methods for water-based and tissue-based criteria,
Community and population-level assessment models,
Laboratory and computational toxicology research,
Chemical toxicology studies, and
Refined mercury bioaccumulation factors.
Develop revised methods for water-based and tissue-based criteria
The current approach for formulating water-based criteria does not adequately quantify the
expected effects of exposures at, below, and above the criteria. Revised tissue-based criteria
are needed to assess the risks posed by compounds that bioaccumulate through diet.
Development of revised criteria methods will aim to address these weaknesses.
Region 2 also points to the need for these efforts to re-visit some of the older traditional
criteria for conventional pollutants, such a freshwater dissolved oxygen, temperature and
pH, to determine if there is a need to revise these criteria to better reflect the latest scientific
information.
Develop community and population-level assessment models
Current methods for criteria development have a number of limitations that need to be
addressed. Community and population-level assessment models should be developed to
replace the current organism-based criteria. Multiple pathways of exposure should be
accounted for, providing a more comprehensive prospective risk characterization for aquatic
and aquatic-dependent life. Persistent bioaccumulative toxicants should also be incorporated.
Other issues to be considered include extrapolation of toxicological data from the laboratory
to the field, combined effects of multiple chemicals, spatial sampling issues, seasonal effects,
how to assess risk with limited exposure and effects data, and uncertainty analysis.
Addressing these issues will result in more scientifically rigorous guidelines that more
effectively protect ecosystems.
Criteria development is a prospective ERA approach in which an acceptable level of risk to
aquatic communities is defined. Media concentrations are then back-calculated, depending
on the chemical and its exposure routes. In traditional criteria development, effects are
predicted for water exposure. Alternative methods address chemical/exposure
route/receptor combinations where tissue burdens or dietary exposure are used to estimate
risks. A more comprehensive approach is needed that includes all of these approaches.
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Conduct laboratory and computational toxicology research
These efforts should be focused toward developing a number of models. Ecosystem models
are needed to integrate risk across an assemblage of species. Dose-based toxicity models will
be able to account for multiple routes of exposure, including diet. Other models should
address issues such as bioaccumulation, tissue concentrations, and fate and transport.
Computational toxicology integrates modern computing and information technologies with
molecular biology and chemistry to help set priorities for data requirements and chemical
risk assessments.
Such models could help to address the need for improved understanding in areas affected by
mining. Regions 3 and 4 have specified the need for research into the mechanisms of
impairment from alkaline mine drainage associated with coal mining. Specific parameters
that cause the impairment or the mechanism of impairment remain unknown. Parameters of
interest include total dissolved solids and conductivity, with related questions including:
Does elevated conductivity have an acute or chronic toxic effect on the resident aquatic life,
and what is the mechanism; and, does the elevated conductivity interfere with osmo-
regulation in aquatic insects, or is there some other physiological endpoint.
Conduct chemical toxicity studies
The derivation of chemical criteria for the protection of aquatic life, whether they be for
existing, known, or emerging contaminants, is dependent on the availability of toxicity test
data. Data for most chemicals for which criteria should be derived are sparse to non-
existent. A significant research need is the derivation of toxicity data, particularly 2-
generation tests with multiple relevant endpoints. Research is also needed to design a
derivation methodology for use when the available data set does not meet the minimum
requirements of the Guidelines.
Develop refined mercury bioaccumulation factors
Research is needed to develop bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) that are more refined than
those included in EPA's January 2001 Methylmercury Water Quality Criterion (USEPA,
January 2001). BAFs for methylmercury in fish tissue relative to methylmercury in the water
column across different water body types or ecological conditions would be a useful and
cost-effective way for States to develop water column translations of the January 2001 fish
tissue-based criterion. Developing such BAFs is not yet a routine implementation function.
Many important research issues would need to be addressed, including accounting for
different rates of methylation in different aquatic ecosystems.
Aquatic Habitat Research
The biological integrity of our nation's coastal and estuarine environments has been and
continues to be substantially impacted by a suite of biological, chemical, and physical
stressors. Specific stressors include habitat alteration, nutrients, SABS, pathogens, and toxic
chemicals. Overharvesting offish and shellfish populations and habitat alterations, in
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particular, have drastically altered the biological communities in these systems (Jackson et al.,
2001). Some of these impacts occurred generations ago, while others have occurred more
recently (Lotze et al., 2006, Jackson et al., 2001, Kirby 2004). Identifying the historical
biological integrity of these systems is important because it represents the baseline against
which to measure the success of any management efforts.
Aquatic habitat research is interwoven with several other research areas. Research and
implementation of ecological restoration measures will certainly benefit from advances in
our understanding of habitats (refer to Chapter 4 for a more detailed discussion of EPA's
Ecological Restoration Research Program). As efforts to develop aquatic life guidelines
proceed (see previous section), understanding what constitutes a healthy aquatic habitat and
what effects pollutants have on them will be crucial. Aquatic habitat research is also linked to
bioassessment/biocriteria research through use of the BCG/TALU approach.
In the BCG/ TALU approach, EPA has created a universal framework to characterize a
variety of aquatic systems and associated landscapes. As previously discussed, the
BCG/TALU model assumes that different types of biological attributes respond to
increasing ecosystem degradation in a predictable manner, and that these responses offer a
scientifically robust, quantifiable method for assessing condition, evaluating restoration
potential, setting attainable restoration goals, and tracking and communicating progress.
Originally developed for and applied to hard-bottom streams, its application in estuaries has
proven to be difficult because these systems are highly vulnerable, dynamic, and exposed to
a broad range of stressors. Most uniquely, they are comprised of a mosaic of multiple sub-
systems.
Aquatic Habitat Research Needs
EPA needs to improve decision-making by enhancing its ability to identify, quantify, and
value the ecological benefits of its policies. With aquatic habitats, it generally has not been
possible to evaluate the trade-offs between: a) habitat alterations at local scales for the
purposes of development, infrastructure, shoreline protection, flood control, etc.; and b)
long-term, large-scale, cumulative ecological effects that such alterations may have. A
successful application of the BCG in complex estuarine systems would demonstrate its value
as a universal management tool by proving its ability to incorporate specialized local
characteristics within a conceptually rigorous common framework.
To accomplish this, three primary research needs have been identified:
Develop reliable tools to measure and predict the contributions of aquatic habitat
protection and restoration to the maintenance and improvement of biological
integrity.
Develop integrative methods and approaches incorporating habitat into
development of BCGs for application to TALU frameworks.
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Develop reliable tools for measuring and predicting the economic and societal
benefits of aquatic habitat protection and restoration at local, Regional, and
national scales.
In addition, some EPA Regions have identified geographically specific aquatic habitat
research needs.
Achieving these research needs will require integration of efforts within the Water Program
and across EPA. For example, the Water Program is actively interested in the application of
BCGs to coasts and estuaries at appropriate scales under the TALU framework. Application
of integrated tools to NEP management plans is area of interest for the Water Program in
collaboration with other EPA program offices. Input from aquatic life guidelines research
will complement aquatic habitat work; as contaminant criteria (e.g., toxics, nutrients) are
refined, they can be incorporated into efforts for habitat protection and restoration (refer to
Chapter 4 for more information on ecological restoration).
Develop reliable tools to measure and predict the contributions of aquatic habitat protection and restoration to
the maintenance and improvement of biological integrity
Initial research efforts will focus on developing historical baselines for the biological integrity
of ecosystems and habitat distribution. In stream environments (Davies and Jackson, 2006)
indices of biological integrity have been the primary tool for determining the current state of
biological integrity. Various indices of condition (e.g., health of organisms, biodiversity) have
been developed for estuarine systems, though few if any have been evaluated for their utility
to describe the BCG. Once appropriate indices are developed, it will be important to
integrate them into routine water quality monitoring activities. This will require development
of indices of biological integrity for application to BCGs in estuarine and coastal systems,
with an emphasis on spatial scale and distribution of habitat types.
Restoration of biological integrity will draw upon the practice of ecological restoration and
the science of restoration ecology, both relatively new disciplines and potentially highly
integrative. Setting restoration goals for a system could serve to integrate water quality and
watershed management by focusing both on the same set of goals. Ecological restoration
could also provide a focus for integrating multiple scientific disciplines. To date, the success
of ecological restoration activities has been mixed (Zedler 2005). The mixed success
indicates the need to conduct research to improve our understanding of how systems
respond to restoration actions. Ecological restoration actions require a substantial
commitment; determining restoration goals in conjunction with partners and stakeholders,
and designing adaptive restoration strategy(ies) for one or more systems will be a critical final
aspect of this research.
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Develop integrative methods and approaches incorporating habitat into development of BCGs for application
to TALJJframeworks
Research is needed to develop a
framework to construct coastal
and estuarine BCGs that
incorporate the critical importance
of habitat in order to allow
application at several scales. For
example, BCGs might be
developed and applied at the scale
of a single identified habitat (e.g.,
soft sediments, salt marshes) or at
the scale of an entire estuary (e.g.,
considering the entire mosaic of
habitats that constitute an estuary).
These BCGs will provide a basis
for bioassessment under the TALU approach, and will link to ecological service analyses (to
be developed under the next research need below). This approach is designed to maximi2e
applicability of these BCGs to TALU approaches in environmental assessment, monitoring,
protection, restoration, and communication.
Develop reliable tools for measuring and predicting the economic and societal benefits of aquatic habitat
protection and restoration at local. Regional, and national scales
Research is needed that will build upon pre-existing models relating habitat extent and health
to the sustainability of communities of aquatic organisms. Economic analysis should be
applied to resource uses (e.g., fisheries and recreation) to predict the long term values that
can be achieved through habitat protection and restoration. Non-use benefits (e.g.,
biodiversity, aesthetics) must also be quantified. Collaboration among ecologists, economists,
and social scientists will permit such interdisciplinary valuations to be achieved.
There is a strong connection between aquatic habitat work and the TALU approach.
Research initiatives need to provide the Water Program, Regions, States, Tribes, and
Territories with habitat-based tools for bioassessment of coasts and estuaries for application
to the TALU framework. The research should also provide information for estimation and
prediction of the economic and societal values of protecting and restoring habitats for the
benefit of aquatic life. Integrated habitat-based BCG tools can help bring the benefits of
TALU to coasts and estuaries. Such tools can also improve protection of essential habitats
from the cumulative effects of alteration over a range of geographic scales. Improved criteria
and standards will also preserve the benefits of fisheries and aquatic life by protecting their
habitats.
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Biosolids Research
Sewage sludge is the solid, semi-solid, or liquid product that comes from municipal
wastewater treatment. Biosolids are created by the treatment and processing of sewage
sludge. Rich in nutrients and organic matter, biosolids are applied to land as fertilizer or for
soil amendments. Municipal waste potentially contains a variety of contaminants, both biotic
and abiotic, that may remain with the solids during wastewater treatment.
Detecting chemicals and biological pollutants in and released from sewage sludge raises
concerns about potential risks to human health and the environment from land application.
These concerns highlight the need for continued research. The priority goal for the Biosolids
Program is to ensure that Part 503, the Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge, is
protective of human health and the environment.
The standards for the use and disposal of sewage sludge cover land application, surface
disposal, and incineration. The standards for use or disposal of biosolids consist of pollutant
limits for metals, operational standards for pathogens, management practices, monitoring,
recordkeeping, and reporting requirements.
Biosolids Research Needs
Biosolids research needs are interwoven with other aspects of Water Quality Integrity
research, such as nutrients, SABS, and emerging contaminants. Biosolids management issues
are also related to Wastewater Management (refer to Chapter 3) and Watershed Protection
and Restoration needs (refer to Chapter 4).
To ensure public health and environmental safety of land application of biosolids, EPA
needs to proactively fill the information and scientific gaps, keep abreast of the latest issues,
and expand its tools. Key gaps in our knowledge include the occurrence of and risk posed by
pathogens and other pollutants in biosolids. For example, do we understand all the risks and
have all the needed risk assessment tools? There is evidence of pathogen reactivation or
sudden increase in indicator organisms following anaerobic digestion and dewatering at
some treatment facilities. There is also limited knowledge of what may be in biosolids, due in
part to a lack of analytical methods and the large universe of chemicals and pathogens that
could be in or released from biosolids. We also need a better understanding regarding a
growing concern about antimicrobial resistance and horizontal gene transfer, treatment
effectiveness, and whether operation standards (e.g., harvesting and grazing restrictions)
work.
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In setting the priorities for the Biosolids Program, the Water Program considered such
questions as:
Would the action provide an important link for detecting and quantifying
pollutants in biosolids?
Would the action assess/ensure the protectiveness of Part 503 standards to
human and environmental health?
Would the action address the increasing scientific and policy complexities posed
by the land application of biosolids?
The Water Program needs to conduct research and provide other Part 503 support in three
general areas as follows:
Selecting appropriate pathogens and indicators to properly assess sewage sludge
quality and determine effective measures for reducing pathogens in
environmental media.
Developing improved analytical techniques for pathogens and priority toxic
contaminants in or released from biosolids.
Determining whether contaminants in biosolids pose a public health risk when
applied in compliance with current regulations.
Each of these research needs is discussed in more detail below. Carrying out needed research
will require joint efforts among EPA and its partners and will also entail creativity and new
approaches. Partners will have key roles in developing products and implementing the work
outlined in the Compendium.
Selecting appropriate pathogens and indicators to properly assess sewage sludge quality and determine effective
measures for reducing pathogens in environmental media
Research is needed to determine if the best indicator organisms are being used and if
treatment facilities can inactivate and remove pathogens to protect public health. Research is
also needed to compare the agents causing disease outbreaks with those routinely found in
treated sewage sludge.
There are concerns about the abilities of existing treatment technologies to remove emerging
chemical and microbial contaminants. Research on innovative or alternative sludge
disinfection processes that can significantly reduce both existing and emerging pathogens is
needed. More information is needed on the best criteria to evaluate unproven treatment
technologies. Research is also needed to determine the best standardized and validated
analytical methods to quantify fecal coliform, Salmonella spp., enteric viruses, Kn&A.scaris spp.
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Develop improved analytical techniques for pathogens and priority toxic contaminants in or released from
biosolids
Continued development of analytical methods is needed for priority contaminants in
complex heterogeneous mixtures (i.e., biosolids). Priority contaminants include viruses,
bacteria (e.g., E. coli, E. «?//0157:H7, enterococci), protozoa (e.g., Giardiaznd Cryptosporidium),
pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), and endocrine disrupting compounds.
To assist in this area, EPA plans to develop standardized methods to measure emerging
contaminants in biosolids and bioaerosols.
Determine whether contaminants in biosolids pose a public health risk when applied in compliance with
current regulations
Methods are needed for contaminant (biotic and abiotic) risk assessments and to develop
models to address pathogen risk from land application. Single and multiple stressor
exposure, similar modes of action, chemistry, or other attributes should be investigated.
EPA's research will also address the fate of emerging contaminants (chemical and
microbiological) during sludge processing. In addition, EPA will look at some of the
innovative, more cost-effective techniques available for reducing volumes and pollutant
concentrations in land-applied biosolids.
Ongoing work is needed to determine the effectiveness of existing treatment technologies in
removing or inactivating current and emerging contaminants. Of particular importance is
whether storage or attenuation after publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) treatment
results in pathogen die-off. Continued research is also needed to assess the quality and utility
of data, tools, and methodologies used for pathogen risk assessments including those needed
to evaluate other emerging contaminants (e.g., prions and nanomaterials). Another treatment-
related research question involves antimicrobial resistance in wastewater streams and how
they impact the treatment process. The effects of nanomaterials on POTWs needs to be
assessed, as well as the abilities of nanomaterials to survive the treatment process and appear
in products produced from land-applied biosolids.
Field studies are needed to test for natural attenuation to reduce pathogens after land
application of biosolids. The factors (e.g., pH, nutrient availability, etc.) controlling natural
attenuation should also be investigated. To control odors and nuisance conditions,
appropriate measures of biosolids stability, disinfection, and vector attraction are needed.
EPA is also investigating whether there is a link to biosolids exposure and health effects.
Additional field research will investigate how to characterize releases to the air and soil
during application of Class B biosolids (i.e., those biosolids that have undergone treatment
that has reduced but not eliminated pathogens). Human exposure measurements are needed
to determine contaminant transport. Research is also needed on the fate of contaminants
(microbial and chemical) in biosolids after their use or disposal.
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Nutrients Criteria Research
According to the CWA 303(d) lists, nutrient over-enrichment (eutrophication) is among the
top five causes of surface water impairment in the US In particular, harmful algal blooms
(HABs), which are an excessive growth of algae caused by nutrient enrichment, and the
resulting hypoxia can have a devastating effect on aquatic ecosystems. This is exemplified by
the well-known Gulf of Mexico hypoxia problems. There is a clear need for scientifically up-
to-date nutrient criteria to protect vulnerable ecosystems such as estuaries and wetlands from
excess nutrients.
A number of efforts have been directed towards nutrient management. EPA has developed
methods for deriving nutrient criteria, default criteria for the variety of waters and eco-
Regions found in the US, and a strategy for implementing the criteria (USEPA 2000, 2001,
2002). In December 2004, the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Amendments Act of 2004
was signed into law (Public Law 108-456), reauthorizing the Harmful Algal Bloom and
Hypoxia Research and Control Act of 1998. The new bill requires a one-time assessment of
freshwater HABs, for which the Water Program has the lead. Additionally, the Act requires
the development of a research plan for incorporating freshwater HAB research into the
Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (EcoHAB) Interagency Grant
Program. Scientific guidance has been provided by a 2002 workshop in Woods Hole,
Massachusetts, in which academic and government agency scientists drafted a framework for
a report on the "priority research needed to protect against nutrient pollution and to
rehabilitate degraded coastal waters of the United States" (Howarth et al., 2003).
Nutrient management is an active research area, and much remains to be done to help States
and Tribes implement nutrient criteria and address their nutrient stressed waters. The needed
research will rely upon collaborations within EPA and National Estuary Programs or other
local partners through existing workgroups and other avenues. Other federal agency
partnerships have also been developed. Through the EcoHAB Interagency Grant Program,
collaborations have been fostered with other federal agency partners, including the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Science Foundation, Office of
Naval Research, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. These joint
funding efforts have enhanced interagency communication and allowed for the effective use
of federal resources. The monitoring efforts of the US Geological Survey also provide
valuable data on nutrients in the Nation's waters.
Nutrients Criteria Research Needs
Ongoing nutrients research will provide information needed to improve management of
coastal aquatic resources and resolve impaired waters listings. Research results will provide
scientific support for TMDL development, nutrient trading, National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System permitting, and integration with other water quality programs, including
TALU and biological criteria. There is also a need for improved, scientifically defensible
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approaches for developing numeric nutrient criteria. Research will also help to identify the
best methods for implementing standards in a cost-effective manner. Specific needs are to:
Provide additional scientific basis and technical guidance for nutrient load-
response relationships to develop and implement numeric nutrient criteria, with
an emphasis on estuaries and coastal wetlands.
Evaluate the relationship between nutrient criteria and flow conditions.
Incorporate nutrient stressor-response relationships into BCG and TALU
approaches.
Understand the relationship between HABs and nutrient dynamics.
Provide the tools (monitoring methods, models, guidance) needed to implement
environmentally sound nutrient trading approaches.
Provide scientific basis and load-response relationships required to develop and implement numeric nutrient
Under the first goal, research will initially focus on extension of work done under EPA's
National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory's Aquatic Stressors
Research Program for coastal systems. Products that were originally developed for specific
Regions need to be expanded to be nationally applicable. By working with NOAA, and other
partners, models can be developed that are applicable to different classes of estuaries. This
will enable States and Tribes to connect nutrient loads to biological responses and will make
it possible to establish numerical nutrient criteria.
A specific example of the use for this research is in Region 2, where there is a need for
nitrogen indicator(s) for estuarine systems because nitrogen has eutrophic effects on coastal
ecosystems throughout that Region. Nitrogen inputs, including CAFOs, agricultural
activities, stormwater, and nonpoint sources affect the ecological health of the estuarine
systems, causing reductions in shellfisheries and the degradation of submerged aquatic
vegetation. The appearance of invasive species, such as brown tides and sea nettles (stinging
jellyfish), adds to the evidence of serious adverse ecological conditions in these estuaries.
Evaluate the relationship between nutrient criteria and flow conditions
The relationship between nutrient criteria and flow conditions needs to be studied. Research
is needed on how frequently waters (both fresh and marine) should be monitored for
impacts to assess nutrient criteria exceedances. Understanding the connections between
criteria, flow, and monitoring will enable the development of models that set appropriate
benchmarks for TMDLs and will enable listed waters to regain designated uses.
Region 5 points to the specific need for its States to better understand how daily fluctuations
in dissolved oxygen levels can explain the effects of nutrient enrichment in streams,
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especially in light of confounding factors such as turbulence, light, turbidity, temperature,
and/or the amount of algae present.
Incorporate nutrient stmsor-response relationships into BCG and TALU approaches
Through the use of TALU, stressor-response relationships can be brought to bear on
creating management plans, setting restoration goals, assessing water bodies, diagnosing
impairments, and evaluating effectiveness of management actions. Because nutrients are a
significant anthropogenic stressor, nutrient stressor-response relationships need to be
incorporated into BCG and TALU approaches. Research in this area will be directly
applicable to nonpoint source and point source management for critical waters.
Understand the relationship between HABs and nutrient dynamics
EPA will continue its participation in the Interagency EcoHAB Program to better
understand the relationships among nutrient loading (eutrophication), HABs, and food web
dynamics. Coastal Eutrophication Models are needed to understand the impacts of nutrient
loadings into coastal ecosystems and the impacts of boundary conditions. HABs have been
increasingly observed in both fresh and marine waters in Region 9. Such research will also
support the need to better understand the generation of cyanotoxins that affect drinking
water sources.
In addition, the Water Program and ORD will sponsor a specific new initiative on
freshwater HABs, particularly those caused by cyanobacteria (CHABs), under the EcoHAB
Program. Research is needed on how nutrient supply rates interact with a number of other
environmental factors (e.g., light, turbulence, pH, etc.). Important questions include: 1)
whether a specific water body is susceptible to CHAB formation; 2) the extent to which
CHABs may dominate planktonic and or benthic habitats; and 3) whether management will
reduce CHABs in a water body. A number of environmental factors (light, temperature,
organic matter, etc.) and human activities (toxic discharges, climate change, etc.) may
influence CHAB formation and characteristics. It is crucial to develop an understanding of
how to predict, prevent, and control these unwanted occurrences.
Provide the tools (monitoring methods, models and guidance) needed to implement environmentally sound
trading approaches
Improved modeling tools and monitoring protocols are needed to support the
implementation of effective nutrient water quality trading programs. The research must
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address both point and nonpoint sources and the effectiveness of agricultural best
management practices in reducing nutrient loading to streams. EPA's research program in
support of nutrient trading will allow stakeholders to determine the feasibility of proposed
water quality trading initiatives. Additionally, this research program will provide monitoring
protocols to evaluate the effectiveness of nutrient trading initiatives after implementation.
Emerging Contaminants Research
EPA's Water Quality Program has established water quality criteria, numeric standards, or
operational standards to address many of the significant pollutants known to cause water
quality impairments and adverse environmental or health effects. EPA's Drinking Water
Program takes measures to protect the nation's drinking water sources. However, many new
or existing constituents are reported to appear in sewage sludge, surface waters, and ground
water. Chemical and biological contaminants in the environment that are either new, are
existing but represent novel forms, or are just coming into focus are referred to as emerging
contaminants.
The universe of emerging contaminants includes many (i.e., hundreds to thousands) biotic
and abiotic constituents for which EPA needs to determine pollutant status. Determining
whether an emerging contaminant will be classified as a pollutant will depend on having
adequate data to conduct an exposure and hazard assessment in appropriate environmental
media. The list of emerging contaminants is long. It includes, among others, endocrine
disrupting compounds, nanomaterials, fluorinated compounds, pharmaceutical and personal
care products (PPCPs), viruses, prions, bacteria (e.g., E. coli, E. coli 0157:H7, enterococci), and
protozoa (e.g., Giardiaznd Cryptosporidium).
Emerging pollutants have been documented in surface and receiving waters associated with
wastewater treatment plant outfalls in numerous areas (Lazorchak and Smith 2004;
Hemming et al., 2004). The literature also documents emerging contaminants in sewage
sludge associated with wastewater treatment (Heidler et al., 2006; Kinney et al., 2006; Song et
al., 2006; and Xia et al., 2005). The literature documents endocrine-disrupting properties of
some emerging contaminants in fish (Flick et al., 2004; Lattier et al., 2002). Many emerging
contaminants are known to have effects at the individual, community, and population levels
(Gordon et al., 2006), yet many specifics remain unknown. Research is needed to fill data
gaps and evaluate pollutants for potential regulation. Collaboration with other organizations
(e.g, Water Environment Federation, Water Environment Research Foundation, Water
Reuse Foundation, American Water Works Association, and the American Water Works
Association Research Foundation) will also be critical. Also, other federal agencies have
important programs underway to monitor for new contaminants of concern where
coordination will inform specific research needs (e.g., the US Geological Survey).
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Emerging Contaminants Research Needs
The Water Program is tasked with assessing levels of emerging contaminants in various
environmental media and determining whether the pollutant levels may cause human or
environmental harm. Research concerning emerging contaminants is aimed at providing the
data and tools for EPA, States, Territories, and Tribes to monitor, evaluate, contain, treat,
remediate, or, if need be, regulate these potential pollutants.
The Water Program has three primary research needs that are directly linked to the research
needs of human health criteria, aquatic life guidelines, and aquatic life criteria:
Develop approaches for identifying/categorizing which emerging contaminants
(or classes) are risks to the environment or human health.
Establish a framework for prioritizing high-risk emerging contaminants for
exposure and hazard assessment and criteria development.
For those contaminants (or classes) that are candidates for regulation, conduct
the necessary supporting research.
Develop approaches for identifying! categorising which emerging contaminants are risks to human health or
the environment
A number of approaches will be needed to identify emerging contaminants. A
bioinformatics approach (i.e., one that integrates computers, software tools, and databases to
address biological questions) may be needed to make logical decisions from the data that are
accumulating from high-throughput biological and chemical experiments. Available literature
should also be utilized, and a list of priority compounds will need to be formulated. Field
screening will need to be done for concentrations of the prioritized compounds in sewage
sludge, sediment, water, and tissues in areas near wastewater treatment plants. Backwash
water at water treatment plants should also be examined for soluble unregulated and non-
monitored treatment chemicals (e.g., acrylamide and epichlorohydrin). This research would
help inform decisions regarding the reuse of backwash water.
There are many new developments in analytical methods. Traditional toxicological
approaches may be replaced with newer assays using standardized gene arrays. Research
should determine which biological pathways are affected by previously unrecognized
chemicals. Analytical and genomic methods should be developed for assessing the
occurrence of prescribed pharmaceuticals in POTWs and receiving waters. Newly developed
technologies must then be communicated to Regional laboratories through technology
transfer.
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Establish a framework for prioritising high-risk emerging contaminants for exposure and hazard assessment
and criteria development
As emerging contaminants are identified, EPA must differentiate between those of "high"
and "low" priority. Prioritization may be done on the basis of bioavailability, toxicity,
mobility, or frequency of occurrence. Certain contaminants may be chosen for further
research based on data availability, similarity of structure, health or environmental effects, or
other attributes. Class-specific case studies may be helpful for determining the parameters
for prioritizing within class and matrix. Case studies may also be useful for determining
effects and endpoints for compounds.
Studies need to be done to document environmental concentrations and spatial and
temporal occurrences. Persistence or pseudo-persistence (i.e., contaminants that degrade but
are continually introduced into the environment) should be accounted for, and
bioaccumulation potential should be determined. Special attention should be paid to
compounds that are demonstrated or suspected carcinogens or genotoxics. Unusual
mechanisms and modes of action should also be noted. Finally, the effects on aquatic and
human populations and aquatic communities should be modeled or demonstrated. Similar
lines of evidence need to be developed for emerging pathogens. These data could be used to
help inform the aquatic life and human health chemical selection processes (e.g., the drinking
water CCL) to determine the risks posed by the contaminant. With risks evaluated, emerging
contaminants can then be prioritized for criteria development.
For those contaminants (or classes) that are candidates for regulation, conduct the necessary supporting
research for the appropriate water regulatory program
Where unavailable, analytical methods must be developed for emerging contaminants in
relevant media (e.g., drinking water, wastewater, biosolids). The methods must be validated in
several labs, and the detection and quantitation limits must be determined. Methods must be
able to analyze emerging contaminants in complex matrices, such as sewage sludge.
Research is also needed to evaluate whether or not the existing aquatic life guidelines and
human health methods can adequately account for and address emerging contaminants.
Tools are needed to diagnose biological impacts from emerging contaminants and connect
the causal agents to sources.
Research is also needed (and planned) to develop testing procedures or models for
evaluating the fate and effects of emerging contaminants. Examples of particular interest is
exploring the extent antimicrobial compounds may contribute to antimicrobial resistance via
wastewater and how to evaluate the estrogenicity potency in rivers and streams that receive
wastewater treatment plant discharges.
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Suspended and Bedded Sediments Research
SABS occur naturally in all types of water bodies. They are particulate organic and inorganic
matter that suspend in or are carried by the water, and/or accumulate in a loose,
unconsolidated form on the bottom of natural water bodies. In appropriate amounts, they
are essential to aquatic ecosystems. However, imbalanced sediment supplies have repeatedly
ranked high as a major cause of water body impairment throughout the US The quantity and
characteristics of SABS (such as nitrogen and phosphorous content) may affect the physical,
chemical, and biological integrity of streams, lakes, rivers, estuaries, wetlands, and coastal
waters. Excessive SABS (or in some cases, insufficient SABS) can impair water body
designated uses for aquatic life, navigation, recreation, and filterable sources of drinking
water.
SABS Research Needs
In response to evidence that imbalanced sediment supplies have negatively affected water
resources throughout the US, EPA has developed a Framework for Developing Suspended
and Bedded Sediments (SABS) Water Quality Criteria (USEPA, May 2006). The intent of the
framework is to provide the tools to support the States, Tribes, and Territories in their
efforts to establish SABS criteria in water quality standards. Such measures are an important
component of efforts to protect the ecological integrity and beneficial uses of water
resources.
There are two primary SABS research needs:
Improve technical methods used in EPA's Framework for Developing SABS
Water Quality Criteria.
Verify methods and support implementation of the Framework.
In addition, EPA Regions have pointed to the need for sediment quality guidelines to
address potential food chain effects of bioaccumulative sediment pollutants.
These needs are discussed in more detail below. The anticipated management research
products will assist with SABS standards implementation and will facilitate scientifically
sound and effective management decisions Expected outcomes include improved water
quality and attainment of a variety of programmatic activity measures (e.g., removing waters
from 303(d) list, reducing sediment loadings, improving water clarity and benthic quality, and
increasing habitat acreage in the NEP).
Improve technical methods used in EPA's framework for Developing SABS Water Quality Criteria
The process for developing SABS water quality criteria includes gathering information,
synthesizing the state of the knowledge, analyzing available data, and selecting criteria values.
Several technical methods need to be improved and validated using real world data.
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Scientists and watershed managers need to be able to evaluate the effects of SABS on aquatic
communities, biotic assemblages, or key aquatic species and guilds (i.e., groups of species
using the same kinds of resources). Methods are needed for diagnosing causes of biological
impairment (i.e., dose-response information). Hypotheses should be tested regarding
sediment-limiting organisms, and natural sediment conditions should be measured. Also,
natural or unimpaired water bodies should be compared to altered water bodies.
EPA Regions need additional information and guidance on SABS criteria. Critical questions
include:
Should these criteria be based on empirical relationships with bioassessment
endpoints (what levels cause impairment) rather than classical toxicity testing?
Should they be based on total dissolved solids and SABS levels at reference sites
without reference to
biological impairment
thresholds?
Would some combination
be best?
Verify methods and support
implementation of the framework
Some of the methods in the
Framework for developing SABS
criteria have been useful for
ecological risk assessment and eco-
epidemiological studies. However, the Framework needs to be verified as to its effectiveness
for selecting SABS criteria. Using data from case studies that have been conducted in a
variety of geographic regions, EPA can evaluate the stepwise process for gathering and
analyzing available information, synthesizing the state of knowledge, gathering more data if
needed, and selecting criteria values outlined in the Framework. These case studies will also
provide an opportunity to compare different analytical methods.
Additional research needs identified by EPA Regional staff include projects that address:
sensitivity of different taxa and assemblages to SABS exposure; sublethal impacts from
SABS; and protection of endangered species (e.g., salmonids). A basic understanding is
needed of dynamic systems and sediment loads and what constitutes a natural disturbance.
Research should also be conducted on which water body uses need to be protected, what
level of protection is needed, and which measures/criteria are needed to enable protection.
Technical training/workshops will then be needed to help watershed managers address
uncertainties related to SABS management.
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Improved sediment quality guidelines
Recent research to develop sediment quality guidelines (including those based on equilibrium
partitioning) have been incorporated into guidance on how to use multiple lines of chemical
and biological evidence to assess sediment contamination. Though useful, these guidelines
have been developed for the protection of benthic organisms from direct toxicity. They
generally have not addressed potential food chain effects of bioaccumulative sediment
pollutants (e.g., DDT and PCBs). Research needs identified by the Regions include:
Development of guidance on how to interpret ecological sediment toxicity studies
(lab or in situ caged studies) and how to interpret the significance of the results in
relation to site populations and communities;
Development of additional tools to characterize ecological risk. These include
practicable guidance for considering community or population level response in
setting permissible limits on mortality; reviews of available sublethal bioassay
protocols; identification of recommended protocols; development of guidance for
evaluating test results (as above); development of guidance for modeling additive
effects of contaminants; and development of residue (or dose) based species
sensitivity distributions for assessing field and laboratory accumulated residues and
interpretation; and
Development of methods to characterize exposure to individual stressors and in
particular, development of guidance on assigning (dis)equilibrium conditions for
uptake and trophic transfer modeling and guidance for probabilistic consideration of
exposures (e.g., single, pulse exposure).
Integration of Multiple Stressors Research
Steadily increasing population has given rise to increased pressures on the landscape and
waters, as well as greater demand for economic benefits. The result is the widespread
occurrence of multiple stressors on natural resources. Most urbanized aquatic systems have
contaminated sediments, excess nutrients, degraded marine habitats, industrial usage, risk of
invasive species, and changing land-use in their watersheds. Legacy practices in forested and
agricultural lands have also resulted in multiple stressors in watersheds, water bodies, and
associated ecological systems. Research is needed to identify causes of specific impairments
when many co-exist. The sensitivity of waters and populations to various stressors must be
assessed, and alternative scenarios must be envisioned in order to make sound decisions.
Attempts to refine designated use through the TALU process represent one response to the
need to manage multiple stressors. Often, the cumulative effects of degraded habitat (for
which criteria are often lacking) and chemical criteria (for which criteria are available) must
be considered. In these cases, States need to understand the effect of habitat quality
constraints on the expression of other chemical stressors.
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Most water quality research has focused on the effects of one stressor alone, and sometimes
a combined effect of two stressors, on specific endpoints. Further research is needed to
evaluate the combined effects of multiple chemical, biological, and physical stressor impacts
on specific endpoints (e.g., wildlife populations) and water quality. Research on multiple
stressors will need to be integrated with EPA research in several other areas (e.g., Gulf of
Mexico Hypoxia, nutrients, toxic, wetlands, ecological assessment, etc.). Multiple-stressor
research and tools can define ecological response under various combinations of stressor
presence and intensity, which is needed for both setting criteria and for evaluating ecological
benefits.
Integration of Multiple Stressors Research Needs
To meet its obligations and mandates, EPA must understand the cumulative impacts of
multiple stressors on healthy aquatic ecosystems and must determine how to best convert
that knowledge into criteria and effective management tools. EPA has identified the three
research areas:
Develop and test methods for projecting the relative and combined risks from
multiple stressors to aquatic and aquatic-dependent wildlife populations.
Develop conceptual and empirical approaches (including models) to predict,
diagnose, prevent, and manage the combined effects of multiple stressors in
aquatic systems.
Develop methods to assess change in aquatic ecosystems that reflect responses
to multiple and variable stressors.
Each of these research needs is discussed in more detail.
Develop and test methods for projecting the relative and combined risks from multiple stressors to aquatic and
aquatic-dependent wildlife populations
Research is needed to develop scientifically valid approaches for protecting aquatic and
aquatic-dependent wildlife populations from multiple aquatic stressors. Research is needed
to combine the effects of stressors in isolation into quantitative projections of cumulative
effects. To do so, research on multiple stressors must be integrated with other EPA research
related to impacts of toxics on water quality. Specifically, proposed research continuing the
development and refinement of methods to assess population-level risk will be coordinated
with activities to incorporate population-level effects into the development of regulatory
criteria for wildlife (see Bioassessment and Biocriteria, and Aquatic Habitat discussions). In
addition, specific data produced through this research will document population-level effects
of chemicals of emerging concern and for which data are currently lacking (see Emerging
Pollutants discussion).
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EPA Regions and many State programs are using the Causal Analysis/Diagnosis Decision
Information System (CADDIS) to help identify probable stressors. Most have not fully
integrated the use of biological metrics, which will allow more detail in stressor identification
and ultimately establish stressor specific tolerance values based on indicator taxa. Some
Regions have used CADDIS to identify problems, and the Regions support further
development of CADDIS.
Develop and both conceptual and empirical approaches (including models) to predict, diagnose, prevent, and
manage the combined effects of multiple stressors in aquatic systems
Research is needed in several areas including indicator development and testing; use of
classification (by region, trophic status, habitat type) to partition variability in response
related to distribution of modifying factors and processes; development of empirical analyses
to allocate causality among multiple stressors that may be operating in an additive fashion;
and modeling approaches to evaluate and predict stressor interactions and indirect effects.
Both diagnostic and integrative indicators of multiple stressors are needed. Diagnostic
indicator development will focus on defining groups of organisms with unique sensitivity to
different stressors or modes of action. Integrative indicators of multiple stressors will be
identified either by: 1) identifying a common mode of action and using this to combine
stressor units or responses, 2) identifying a common measurement for expressing stressor
magnitude (e.g., landscape development index), or 3) evaluating effective concentrations of
stressors after modification by other stressors or factors.
Empirical analysis approaches are needed to evaluate various statistical techniques (e.g.,
quantile regression, graphical analysis, multivariate statistics) to partition effects among
stressors. Mechanistic modeling will be needed to evaluate non-additive, interactive, or
indirect effects of multiple stressors with disparate modes of action. Classification will be an
important component of both empirical analyses (to partition variability in modifying
factors) and in mechanistic modeling (to evaluate the potential for extrapolating results).
Develop methods to assess change in services provided by aquatic ecosystems in response to multiple and
variable stressors
Research is needed to evaluate the best methods for assessing the cumulative impacts of
multiple stressors on the services provided by aquatic ecosystems. Such methods must be
demonstrated so that they provide support for improved water quality, better regulation,
better management, and an informed public.
Research on multiple stressors, when combined with the research in other offices across
EPA, will enhance the ability of watershed managers to attain water quality goals, maintain
ecosystem services provided by rivers, lakes, and other aquatic ecosystems, and protect
wildlife populations.
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Socio-Economics Valuation
In making decisions involving our ecological resources, the needs and interests of a variety
of stakeholders must be addressed. The information provided to decision makers, and to
society as a whole, must be in forms most useful for establishing policy and evaluating the
tradeoffs among decision alternatives. In many cases, considering the values that society
places on the services provided by ecosystems can be an essential part of making decisions
that affect ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems provide a wide range of services, including
drinking water, food, and recreation. Ecosystem services are produced by the structures and
processes of ecosystems, as influenced by human activity. Therefore, determining the values
of these services that healthy aquatic ecosystems provide can help to encourage policymakers
and general citizens to protect these ecosystems from critical impairment.
Although a number of regulatory authorities exist that call for the use of these values in
decision-making (including Executive Order 12866 and the National Environmental Policy
Act), there remain ecological benefits for which value estimates are not currently available,
along with a lack of information about ecosystem services and their production. In addition,
approaches and methodologies to value ecosystem services are not coordinated across all
elements. As a result, the development and refinement of consistent, standardized, and
transferable valuation methods for aquatic ecosystems is an important research endeavor for
effective decision support.
Socio-Economics Valuation Research Needs
Knowledge gaps currently exist in accurately defining and classifying the services that can be
attributed to aquatic ecosystems and in how these values can be transferred in forms that are
useful and understandable to decision makers and the public. Additionally, there are critical
voids in valuation expertise due to a lack of strategic alliances within and external to EPA.
The refinement of current methods and the development of new approaches for valuation
of aquatic ecosystem services will help to address these information gaps. Research is needed
in the following areas:
New concepts for defining and classifying ecosystem services and bundles of
those services.
Improved approaches and information for describing the production of services.
Enhanced and supplemental methods for quantifying the values of ecosystem
services and innovative ways of using this knowledge in proactive environmental
management decisions.
New and refined potential methods for valuation of the services provided by
wetlands and by the structural and functional attributes of coral reefs (including
shoreline protection, fishing, tourism and non-use aspects (biodiversity,
aesthetics)).
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Each of these research areas are discussed in more detail.
Provide a system for defining and classifying aquatic ecosystem services
Individual services not currently traded in markets often lack standard definitions and units
of measurement. EPA will conduct research needed to develop a Non-market Ecosystem
Services Classification System (NESCS). The NESCS will be based on the principles of the
US Census Bureau's North American Industrial Classification System. It will aggregate
ecosystem services in a hierarchical classification system based on similarities in their
production and substitutes or complements in their consumption.
Develop improved approaches and information for describing the production of services
Ecosystem services are produced by the structures and processes of ecosystems, as
influenced by human activity. The economic value to society of an ecosystem service refers
to its contribution to human welfare. Economic value is measured as society's willingness-to-
pay to preserve the ecosystem service, which is influenced by the quality and reliability of the
service, its scarcity and degree of substitutability by other services, and the availability of
complementary servicesthe economic production function. Once the physical effects of
ecosystem services (and changes therein) on human health and well-being have been
quantified, economic methods can be used to estimate the value of these changes. Thus,
defining and quantifying the various components of the services produced by ecosystems are
necessary ingredients to understanding value.
In association with construction of the NESCS, EPA will develop broad guidance for
characterizing ecosystem service production functions. The science of ecosystem services,
and its role in decision making, will benefit from guidance communicating: 1) general issues
to consider when describing ecosystem service production functions, 2) critical ecological,
economic, and human health elements to include, and 3) important requirements to consider
in support of the decision-support process.
Enhance and supplement methods for quantifying the values of aquatic ecosystem services
EPA is pursuing economic methods as the primary approach to valuation of ecosystem
services, in part to support customary (and often mandated) decision processes based on
benefit-cost analysis, and in part because money is an easily understood common
denominator. EPA aims to build upon the foundation laid by the Science Advisory Board
Committee on Valuing the Protection of Ecological Systems and Services on valuation
methods for environmental decision-making. Needs are to: 1) determine the efficacy of
certain valuation methods in specific situations, 2) develop approaches for economic
valuation of bundles of services, 3) improve valuation methods and the understanding of
ecosystem services in general, 4) encourage the academic community explore novel
economic methods through the STAR Grant Program, and 5) pursue development of
donor-based and other methods of valuation to supplement economic approaches.
Conversely, Region 3 would like to consider the question: what are the "costs" to society in a
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broad sense - economically, public health, quality of life, long term sustainability - of not
protecting and restoring ecological integrity?
Develop new and refined potential methods for valuation of the services provided by wetlands and by the
structural and functional attributes of coral reefs
Wetlands and coral reefs are unique aquatic ecosystems, and each provides a unique and
valuable set of services for human well-being. Therefore, providing a scientifically defensible
research approach to support policy and management actions that protect, enhance and
restore these ecosystems and their goods and services would have far reaching effects on
human well-being.
Although much is known, conceptually or qualitatively, about the links among wetland
condition, function, and services, research is needed to quantify those links at multiple scales
and to demonstrate the impact of alternative futures on the ability of wetlands to provide
services. Landscape models of wetlands and interactive mapping tools for decision makers
will be developed to further this goal.
Coral reefs provide a variety of services, most notably shoreline protection, tourism, fish
production, and non-use aspects (biodiversity, aesthetics). Although methods to valuate coral
reef services have matured over the last two decades, the mechanisms through which a
number of these ecosystem services are produced are complex, and most reef services have
not been quantitatively linked to the reef attributes that provide them.
For both wetlands and coral reefs, EPA will explore how surveys of condition can be used
to estimate the delivery of ecosystem services and characterize the relationships between
ecological function and delivery of services. EPA research will focus on an 1) inventory and
characterization of the services provided by wetlands and coral reefs (ecosystem assessment),
2) the influences of natural and anthropogenic activities on those services (quantifying agents
of change, both adverse and beneficial), and 3) the outlook for sustained services under
alternative future scenarios (forecasting service sustainability). Refer to Chapter 4 for other
coral reef research needs.
Recreational Waters
Swimming in some recreational waters can pose an increased risk of illness as a result of
exposure to microbial pathogens. In some cases, these pathogens can be traced to sewage
treatment plants, malfunctioning septic systems, and discharges from stormwater systems
and animal feeding operations.
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To protect recreational waters, the BEACH Act, was signed into law on October 10, 2000,
amending the CWA. Two major provisions of the BEACH Act are CWA sections 104(v)
and 304(a)(9). Section 104(v) requires EPA to conduct studies in cooperation with federal,
State, Tribal, and local
governments to provide
additional information for use in
developing: 1) an assessment of
potential human health risks
resulting from exposure to
pathogens in coastal recreation
waters, including non-
gastrointestinal effects; 2)
indicators for improving
detection in a timely manner in
coastal recreation waters of the
presence of pathogens that are
harmful to human health; 3)
methods (including predictive
models) for detecting in a timely manner in coastal recreation waters the presence of
pathogens that are harmful to human health; and 4) guidance to help States develop water
quality criteria for pathogens and pathogen indicators.
Since EPA last published recreational water quality criteria in 1986, significant advances have
been made, particularly in the areas of molecular biology, microbiology, and analytical
chemistry. EPA believes that that these new scientific and technological advances need to be
considered and evaluated for feasibility and applicability to the development of new or
revised criteria for pathogens and pathogen indicators. To this end, EPA has conducted a
significant amount of research including developing new methods for measuring
microbiological organisms in water and conducting epidemiologic studies to provide the
scientific foundation for new or revised criteria. EPA's review of existing research and
science raised a number of questions that must be answered in order for EPA to move
forward with criteria development.
To help address these questions, EPA held a scientific workshop in March 2007, which 43
international and US experts attended. The purpose of the workshop was for EPA to obtain
input from members of the broad scientific and technical community on the "critical path"
research and related science needs for developing scientifically-defensible new or revised
recreational water quality criteria. Based on their input, EPA developed The Critical Path
Science Plan for Development of New or Revised Recreational Water Quality Criteria
(CPSP). The CPSP describes the research and science that EPA will conduct between 2007
and 2010 to establish water quality criteria by 2012.
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Recreational Waters Research Needs
The research needed to properly develop water quality criteria for recreational waters mirrors
the requirements of section 104(v) and can be divided into three broad categories: 1)
assessment of human health risk; 2) development of indicators and methods; 3)
extrapolation of research results for developing new or revised criteria. Each is discussed in
more detail below.
Assessment of Human Health Risk
Epidemiologic studies and quantitative microbial risk assessment are needed to understand
the risk to human health (including non-gastrointestinal effects) from swimming in water
contaminated with human fecal matter as compared to swimming in water contaminated
with non-human fecal matter. Specific uncertainties to address include:
Understanding which human illnesses are caused by swimming in waters
contaminated with non-human fecal matter, the levels of non-human fecal
matter in these waters that cause human illness, and the relationship between
different levels of non-human fecal matter in waters and human illness rates.
Understanding any differences in risk to children swimming in waters
contaminated with fecal matter versus adults swimming in these waters.
Development of Indicators and Methods
EPA studies have demonstrated the utility of a new indicator and method (i.e., quantitative
polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for Enterococd) as a predictor of swimming-related illness
in the Great Lakes. EPA's current CWA 304(a) recommended criteria for bacteria are based
on methods that require 18 to 24 hours to culture and enumerate E. colt and Enterococd as
indicators of fecal contamination. Whether qPCR for Enterococd is applicable to other
settings or appropriate for use across the range of CWA Programs is not fully understood.
Data gaps include understanding how well the various indicators and methods perform in
other settings (e.g., marine versus freshwater; human versus non-human sources of fecal
contamination), and how they relate to one another.
Research is needed to identify appropriate indicators of fecal contamination to allow for a
reliable correlation between indicator concentrations and health effects. Studies are also
needed to evaluate temporal and spatial variability in indicator concentrations to
appropriately characterize water quality and improve recreational water quality management
decisions. Appropriate methods for measuring fecal contamination indicators must be
developed, evaluated, and validated to allow for a reliable correlation between indicator
concentrations and health effects. Through these efforts, EPA hopes to answer the question
of how well culture and molecular methods for various indicators (singly or in combination)
correlate with swimming-related illnesses.
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'Extrapolation of Research Results for Developing Neu> or Revised Criteria
Environmental factors, such as meteorology or the physical and chemical characteristics of
freshwater and marine environments vary geographically and may influence the presence and
viability of indicators and pathogens. Consequently, they may also influence any observed
indicator-illness relationship. Therefore, studies are needed to assess the influence of
variability in geographic and aquatic conditions on indicator and method performance, and
to assess the suitability of indicators and methods for various CWA purposes (e.g., beach
monitoring, assessments, TMDLs, and permitting). EPA also needs to develop, evaluate, and
validate predictive models and tools to understand the extent to which data from
epidemiologic study sites can be extrapolated to other geographic locations and aquatic
conditions. Researchers must examine the role of models as a tool in predicting water quality
problems to assist in new or revised criteria implementation. Through these research
activities, EPA hopes to address whether the indicators, methods, and models are suitable
for use in different types of waters and for different CWA programs.
References
Davies, S.P, and Jackson S.K. 2006. The biological condition gradient: a descriptive model
for interpreting change in aquatic ecosystems. Ecological Applications 16(4):1251-
1266.
Flick, R., Lazorchak, J.M., and Smith, M.E. 2004. Vitellogenin Gene Expression in Fathead
Minnows and Pearl Dace from Control (Non-Dosed) and Lakes Dosed With Ee2 in
the Canadian Experimental Lakes Area. EPA 600-R-04-173 (NTIS PB2006-114611).
December 2004.
GAO. January 2003. Water Quality: Improved EPA Guidance and Support Can Help States
Develop Standards That Better Target Cleanup Efforts. GAO-03-308. January 30,
2003. Available on the internet at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03308.pdf.
Gordon, D.A., Toth, G.P., Graham, D.W., Lazorchak, J.M., Reddy, T.V., Knapp, C.W.,
Denoyelles, F.J., Campbell, S., and Lattier, D.L. 2006. Effects of eutrophication on
vitellogenin gene expression in male fathead minnows (Pimephales Promelas)
exposed to 17a-ethynylestradiol in field mesocosms. Environmental Pollution.
142:559-566.
Heidler, J., Sapkota, A., and Halden, R.U. 2006. Partitioning, persistence, and accumulation
in digested sludge of the topical antiseptic triclorcarban during wastewater treatment.
Environmental Science and Technology. 40(ll):3634-3639.
Hemming, J.M., Allen, H.J., Thuesen, K.A., Turner, P.K., Waller, W.T., Lazorchak, J.M.,
Lattier, D.L., Chow, M., Denslow, N., and Venables, B. March. 2004. Temporal and
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Chapter 5 Science to Support Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Programs
spatial variability in the estrogenicity of a municipal wastewater effluent.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 57(3):303-310.
Howarth, R.W. Marino, R., and Scavia, D. 2003. Nutrient Pollution in Coastal Waters:
Priority Topics for an Integrated National Research Program for the United States.
National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Ocean Service, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Springs, MD. Available on the
internet at: http://www.eutro.org/documents/nutrientpollution.pdf.
Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M.X., Berger, W.H., Bjorndal, K.A., Botsford, L.W., Bourque, B.J.,
Bradbury, R.H., Cooke, R., Erlandson, J., Estes, J.A., Hughes, T.P, Kidwell, S.,
Lange, C.B., Lenihan, H.S., Pandolfi, J.M., Peterson, C.H., Steneck, R.S., Tegner,
M.J., Warner, R.R. 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal
systems. Science. 293:629-638.
Kinney, C.A., Furlong, E.T., Zaugg, S.D., Burkhardt, M.R., Werner, S.L., Cahill, J.D., and
Jorgensen, G.R. 2006. Survey of organic wastewater contaminants in biosolids
destined for land application. Environmental Science and Technology. 40 (23):7207-
7215.
Kirby, M.X. 2004. Fishing down the coast: historical expansion and collapse of oyster
fisheries along continental margins. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. 101(35):13096-13099.
Lattier, D.L., Reddy, T.V., Gordon, D.A., Lazorchak, J.M., Smith, M.E., Williams, D.E.,
Wiechman, B.E., Flick, R., Miracle, A.L., and Toth, G.P. 2002. 17a-Ethynylestradiol-
induced vitellogenin gene transcription quantified in livers of adult males, larvae, and
gills of fathead minnow (Pimephales Promelas). Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry. 21(ll):2385-2393.
Lazorchak, J. M., and Smith, M. E. National Survey of EDCs in Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Effluents. EPA 600-R-04-171. December 2004.
Lotze, H.K., Lenihan, H.S., Bourque, B.J., Bradbury, R.H., Cooke, R.G., Kay, M.C., Kidwell,
S.M., Kirby, M.X., Peterson, C.H. Jackson, J.B.C. 2006. Depletion, degradation, and
recovery potential of estuaries and coastal seas. Science. 312:1806-1809.
National Research Council. 2002. Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and
Practices. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press.
NCR. 2001. Assessing the TMDL Approach to Water Quality Management. Available on the
internet at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog.phpprecord id=10146#toc.
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Chapter 5 Science to Support Aquatic Life and Human Health Protection Programs
Song, M., Shaogang, C., Letcher, R.J., and Seth, R., Fate R. 2006. Partitioning, and mass
loading of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) during the treatment
processing of municipal sewage. Environmental Science and Technology. 40(20):
6241-6246.
USEPA. 2002. Aquatic Stressors: Framework and Implementation Plan for Effects
Research. EPA 600-R-02-074. September 2002. Available on the Internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/nheerl/publications/files/aqstrsfinal 121302.pdf.
USEPA. May 2006. Framework for Developing Suspended and Bedded Sediments (SABs)
Water Quality Criteria. EPA 822-R-06-001. May 2006.
USEPA. 1985. Guidelines for Deriving Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic
Life and its Uses. EPA 822-R85-100. January 1985.
USEPA. January 2001. Methylmercury Fish Tissue Criterion. EPA-823-R-01-001 Water
Quality Criterion. EPA-823-R-01-001. January 2001. Available on the internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/methylmercury/document.html
USEPA. 2001. Nutrient Criteria Development; Notice of Ecoregional Nutrient Criteria,
Federal Register. Vol. 66, No. 6. p. 1671-1674 January 9, 2001.
USEPA, 2000. Nutrient Criteria Technical Guidance Manual: Rivers and Streams. EPA-822-
B-00-002. July 2000. Available on the Internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/nutrient/guidance/rivers/rivers-streams-
full.odf.
USEPA. August 2003. Office of Science and Technology Strategy for Water Quality
Standards and Criteria. EPA 823-R-03-010. August 2003. Available on the Internet
at: http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/standards/strategy/final.pdf.
USEPA. May 2007. Report on the Environment: Science Report (ROE SR). EPA 600-R-07-
045. May 2007.
Xia, K., Bhandari, A., Das, K., and Pillar, G. 2005. Occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals
and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) in biosolids. Journal of Environmental Quality.
34:91-104.
Zedler, J.B. 2005. Ecological restoration: Guidance from theory. San Francisco Estuary and
Watershed Science. 3(2):1-31.
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6 Science to Support Place-Based Water
Protection and Restoration - Large Aquatic
Ecosystems Programs
Place-Based Programs are special, geographically-focused subsets of the national Water
Program (States are the more typical jurisdictional, spatial focus). The Office of Water (OW)
has established these supplemental implementation efforts to protect and restore large
aquatic ecosystems that have been identified as having significant water pollution problems.
Because of their sheer size, their varied and widespread contributing sources, and often the
crosscutting of spatial jurisdictions that need to take action, these special water bodies
require well-coordinated supplemental attention. All OW programs (e.g., watersheds,
wastewater, drinking water) described throughout this Compendium are pertinent to the
protection of water and public health in these specific aquatic ecosystems. Moreover,
essentially all the research needs described throughout this Compendium have some
applicability to these areas. However, each of these ecosystems may need a specific
application of a national research topic related to their unique hydrogeologic and land use
conditions.
OWs Large Aquatic Ecosystems Program has evolved over the past two decades. After
initial implementation of the core OW programs, evidence emerged in the 1980s of serious
and complex water quality problems in specific, large aquatic ecosystems. In response to this,
new programs were developed focusing on the unique needs of these regions. The first large
aquatic ecosystem protection programs were developed to protect the Chesapeake Bay, the
Great Lakes, and the Gulf of Mexico (also discussed in earlier chapters). Each of these three
major "place-based" clean water programs has different elements, but there are several key
features in common:
EPA plays a leadership role in cooperation with other Federal agencies and States;
There is a significant financial investment in research and program support; and
The programs give significant attention to aspects of aquatic ecosystem health not
addressed directly in the Clean Water Act (e.g., sediment remediation in the Great
Lakes, wetlands restoration in the Chesapeake Bay).
In addition, EPA has worked with State and local governments and non-governmental
organizations since 1987 to improve water quality and habitat in 28 coastal estuaries. These
watersheds are designated as nationally significant estuaries through the National Estuaries
Program (NEP). A number of these NEP programs have grown to include major,
intergovernmental efforts to protect large aquatic ecosystems (i.e., Long Island Sound, Puget
Sound, Columbia River, and San Francisco Bay).
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Several major national organizations have recently released reports endorsing the concept of
programs to protect critical large aquatic ecosystems and recommending the expansion of
this effort. For example, a report by the National Academy of Public Administration calls for
"making large aquatic ecosystem restoration a national priority" and "identifying the specific
actors, tools, and funding necessary to achieve pollution reduction targets in each area".
To address ways to improve coordination and programmatic efforts to protect these vital
water resources, EPA has formed the Council of Large ^Aquatic Ecosystems (CLAE) (USEPA,
April 2008). The CLAE will support and promote EPA's implementation of Large Aquatic
Ecosystem programs and encourage collaboration within EPA programs and with EPA's
external partners, especially the States. The CLAE will also review needed research to
support these efforts.
In the following sections of this chapter, basic information is presented about the individual
large aquatic ecosystems considered under the CLAE. This information helps to identify
their unique needs. A few general unifying themes in the research needs for these important
ecosystems are discussed at the end of the chapter.
Chesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in the United States, holds great ecological, cultural, and
economic significance for the States that border it (Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and
Washington, DC). The Chesapeake Bay watershed is roughly 64,000 square miles and also
includes parts of New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. According to the Northeast
Midwest Institute, the bay
supports more than 3,600 species
of plants, fish and animals. Given
the substantial population living in
the watershed (about 16 million
people), however, the bay is
vulnerable to the effects of
development, including point and
nonpoint source pollution and
overfishing. Some of the impacts
include decreased dissolved
oxygen and water clarity, loss of
submerged aquatic vegetation,
oyster fishery depletion, reduced blue crab harvests, and loss of forest cover. The most
serious ongoing environmental stressors include excess nutrients and sediment (see
discussions on nutrients and sediments in Chapter 5).
Because of the large size of the watershed and the number of States involved, activities to
manage the health of the bay must involve collaborations among a number of entities. EPA's
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Chesapeake Bay Program has operated since 1983, with the goals of preventing water
pollution and protecting aquatic systems. Members of the Chesapeake Bay Program include
Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay
Commission, the EPA, and citizen advisory groups.
Throughout the years, there have been a number of restoration initiatives and activities.
Currently, restoration activities are guided by the Chesapeake 2000 Agreement, which lays
out objectives through 2010. In April, 2003, as part of the agreement, EPA Region 3 issued
the "Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen, Water Clarity, and Chlorophyll a
for the Chesapeake Bay and its Tidal Tributaries" (USEPA, April 2003). These criteria
provide an indication of the effects of excess nutrients and sediment on the bay's
ecosystems. In 2003, the "Technical Support Document for the Identification of Chesapeake
Bay Designated Uses and Attainability" (USEPA, August 2003) was issued. This document
outlines the spatial extent of the designated use and the applicable water quality criteria for
the areas. Successes of the Chesapeake Bay Program include the new water quality standards,
the adoption of nutrient and sediment allocations throughout the watershed, strategies for
pollutant reductions in the tributaries, and improvements in National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System permitting (see also Chapters 4, 5, and 6).
Great Lakes
The Great Lakes - Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario- constitute the largest
system of fresh surface water on Earth, containing roughly 20 percent of the world's fresh
water supply. In addition to their natural beauty, the Great Lakes serve as a source of
drinking water for more than 30 million people, support the culture and life ways of native
communities, form the backbone for billions of dollars in shipping, trade, and fishing, and
provide food and recreational opportunities for millions of American and Canadian citizens.
(See also the recreational waters discussions in Chapter 5.)
The Great Lakes are highly stressed ecosystems. Invasive species continually change the
food web and all processes associated with it, with ballast water from commercial ships
being a primary route of entry. Nearshore conditions have worsened within the past decade,
with Cladophora (green algae) mats fouling beaches, hazardous algal blooms and waterfowl
die-offs associated with botulism type e. Also, nonpoint source runoff and industrial and
municipal discharges have introduced contaminants into the lakes' waters and sediments;
persistent organic contaminants remain a serious problem. Native fish and wildlife have
suffered from the pressures of over-fishing and habitat loss. These are areas of ongoing
research and monitoring. (Invasive species research is discussed in Chapter 4 and later in this
chapter.)
Individual watersheds contribute to a greater or lesser extent to Great Lakes environmental
problems. The tributary input to the nearshore regions of the lakes accounts for most of the
nutrient load entering the lakes (e.g., Warren and Kreis, 2005). Recent evidence (Richards,
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2008) points to a large increase in the soluble, reactive fraction of the total phosphorus
entering the nearshore as a concern and potential cause of nearshore algal problems. The
change in type of phosphorus entering the lakes may indicate watershed changes in farming
practices, urban surfaces/land management, weather or climate related changes to
precipitation, or atmospheric deposition.
As with other large aquatic ecosystems, multiple States have a stake in the health of the
Great Lakes. The Great Lakes also have the distinction of straddling the USCanadian
border. Therefore, a number of collaborative initiatives operate to protect and restore the
Great Lakes. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1987 established international
efforts with Canada. EPA work is done through the Great Lakes National Program Office,
which brings together federal, State, local, Tribal, and industry partners. The Great Lakes
Interagency Task Force was formed in 2004. It fosters regional collaboration with the
Council of Great Lakes Governors and the Great Lakes Cities Initiative. The Great Lakes
Regional Collaboration includes the Task Force, the Great Lakes States, local communities,
Tribes, non-governmental organizations, and other interests. Their strategy was released in
2005 and continues to serve as a guide for restoration of the Great Lakes Ecosystem.
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico is the ninth largest water body in the world. Its coastline in the United
States is 1,630 miles long. It is bordered by Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas
in the United States, five Mexican States (Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche,
Yucatan), and Cuba to the southeast. Its watershed is enormous, draining 31 States in the US
(including the entire Mississippi River drainage) and a similar area in Mexico. The Gulf of
Mexico is renowned for its fisheries, producing an estimated $689 billion in 2006. The area is
especially prolific with respect to shrimp and oysters. Sport fishing is also popular in this
region. The Gulf figures prominently in US gas and oil production, providing a quarter of
the US domestic natural gas and one eighth of its oil. Ecologically, the gulf region contains
coastal wetlands, submerged vegetation, upland areas, and marine/offshore areas. It includes
about half of the US wetlands, and provides habitat for migratory birds, sea birds, and
wading birds. The Gulf region also has a thriving tourism business, as well as containing vital
shipping areas, including the Port of South Louisiana and the Port of Houston.
As of 1995, the population in the US coastal areas surrounding the Gulf of Mexico was 44.2
million, and growth in the region is rapid. With such a large population, environmental
pressures in the region are large. Restoration of water quality in the Gulf of Mexico is a
major priority in the efforts to improve the health of the Gulf ecosystem. A major concern
in the area is a large area of low oxygen (hypoxia) that develops during the summer of the
coasts of Louisiana and Texas. The size of the hypoxic zone has been increasing due to
excess nutrient inputs into the Gulf and poses a serious threat to the integrity of Gulf
ecosystems. Gulf of Mexico hypoxia has been the subject of research in both the
government and academic sectors (see additional discussion in Chapter 4). Another, related
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problem, harmful algal blooms (HABs) can cause human health problems and affect
commercial fishing (see Chapter 5 for additional discussion of HABS). Also, wetland losses
in the Gulf area have been severe (about fifty percent).
In 1988, the EPA founded the Gulf of Mexico Program to address major environmental
issues in the Gulf of Mexico using an ecosystem-based framework. The program is intended
to be collaborative in nature and includes participation from State and local governments,
the private sector, and universities. Because of the urgency of the hypoxia problem, the EPA
has developed the Action Plan for Reducing, Mitigating, and Controlling Hypoxia in the
Northern Gulf of Mexico (USEPA, 2008). Further information on the efforts and research
needs surrounding Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia are provided later in this document. Efforts
initiated by the States and supported by federal agencies (including the EPA) include the
Gulf of Mexico Alliance, a partnership of the five Gulf States that works to implement the
Gulf of Mexico Governors' Action Plan (March 2006).
South Florida
South Florida is home to a diversity of ecosystems, including the Everglades and the Florida
Keys coral reef systems. This area includes the largest wilderness east of the Mississippi
River and the United States' only living coral reefs. It is home to large commercial and sports
fisheries and includes important habitat for wading birds, crocodiles, manatees, panthers,
and other animals. The coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves in particular make the Keys
a unique and precious natural resource. The Region contains three national parks (including
the Everglades National
Park), ten national wildlife
refuges, and a national
marine sanctuary.
As with other significant
aquatic ecosystems, South
Florida is under pressure
from an expanding
population. About eight
million people currently live
in South Florida, and
substantial growth is
anticipated in the next 10 to
20 years. As a result of suburban development and agriculture, fifty percent of South
Florida's wetlands have been lost. Changes in nutrient dynamics and habitats have also taken
place. Furthermore, the region is susceptible to climate change. The coral reefs require
optimal environmental conditions and may experience coral bleaching due to increased
temperatures, disease, excess shade, increased ultraviolet radiation, sedimentation, pollution,
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and salinity changes (see Chapter 4). Mangrove communities may also be harmed by climate
change and are also vulnerable to invasive plants and agricultural runoff.
The EPA's South Florida Geographic Initiative implements programs to protect and restore
South Florida's ecosystem. It operates from Region 4's South Florida Office, located in West
Palm Beach. In 1993, EPA's Everglades Ecosystem Assessment Program was initiated to
provide long-term research, monitoring, and assessments. This program has been able to
document the effectiveness of measures to control mercury and phosphorous. It provides
information on how effective restoration measures have been, and it is able to provide an
indication of the effects of multiple stressors on the ecosystem. In 2002, the US Coral Reef
Task Force passed a resolution that prompted the formation of Local Action Strategies.
Goals of this program include reef ecosystem characterization and identification of pollution
sources, research on the effects of pollution on coral reefs, and efforts to reduce the impacts
from pollution. (Research support for South Florida and coral reefs are further discussed in
Chapter 5.)
Long Island Sound
Long Island Sound is bounded by New York and Connecticut and is 110 miles long and 21
miles across at its widest. It is an integral part of the landscape for both States, encompassing
the entire coastline of Connecticut. Designated in 1987 as a national estuary, the Long Island
Sound ecosystem supports more than 170 species offish and 1,200 invertebrate species. Its
watershed is home to more than eight million people. The Sound provides $5.5 billion per
year in economic benefits to the region from boating, commercial and sport fishing,
swimming, and beaches.
The Long Island and Connecticut shorelines are heavily developed, and the Sound faces a
number of environmental challenges. Excess nutrient loads from sewage treatment plants
and polluted runoff have led to hypoxia. In fact, more than one billion gallons per day of
treated effluent enter the Sound from 106 treatment plants; reducing nutrient loads is a top
management priority for the Sound. Other environmental challenges include floatable debris,
toxic pollutants, the impacts of dredged materials, and the impact of water quality
degradation on marine resources. In addition to reducing nutrient loads, top priorities for
restoration and management of the Sound include habitat restoration, disposal of dredged
materials, and public education and involvement.
The Long Island Sound Study (LISS) was formed in 1985 with the goal of restoring the
Sound. It is a bi-State partnership of federal and State agencies and other organizations. It is
now supported by EPA's Long Island Sound Office, which was established in 1992 by
congressional legislation. The Long Island Sound Comprehensive Conservation and
Management Plan (CCMP) (LISS, March 1994) was approved in 1994 and represents a
partnership between EPA's Regions 1 and 2 and the States of New York and Connecticut.
The long term goals for the Sound include meeting Connecticut and New York water quality
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standards for dissolved oxygen by 2014 and restoring 2000 acres of tidal wetlands and other
coastal habitats and 100 river miles of migratory fish habitat by 2008.
Lake Champlain
Lake Champlain is the sixth largest inland water body in the United States and is of great
historical and cultural significance to upstate New York, Vermont, and Quebec. It is 435
square miles in size and has more than 50 islands. More than 600,000 people live within its
8,234 square mile drainage basin, and it supplies drinking water to an estimated 200,000
people. The lake provides fishing opportunities for a wide variety of freshwater fish, as well
as boating and winter ice fishing. With canals linking it to the St. Lawrence and Hudson
rivers, it also serves as a commercial harbor. Industrial activities include paper mills.
Water quality in Lake Champlain is threatened by seven industrial and 66 sewage treatment
plants. High levels of phosphorous lead to algal blooms in parts of the lake. Toxic
substances are found near urban areas such as Burlington, VT, and Plattsburgh and
Ticonderoga, NY, and fish advisories have been issued for PCBs and mercury. There are
also 34 hazardous waste sites and 95 landfills in the Lake Champlain drainage basin.
Additional problems include toxic cyanobacteria in the northern parts of the lake, which
have lead to beach closings and pose a risk to drinking water.
The Lake Champlain Special Designation Act (1990) designated Lake Champlain as a
resource of national significance. The Act created a coalition of organizations to create a
plan for pollution prevention, control, and restoration, titled Opportunities for Action: A_n
Evolving Plan for the Lake Champlain Basin (Lake Champlain Steering Committee, April 2003J.
This plan is in the implementation phase, and it guides the efforts of the Lake Champlain
Basin Program, a federal, State, provincial, and local initiative to restore and protect Lake
Champlain and its surrounding watershed. USEPA Region 2 is part of this program.
Columbia River
The Columbia River Basin includes parts of seven States (Oregon, Washington, Idaho,
Montana, Nevada, Wyoming, and Utah) and British Columbia. It is more than 260,000
square miles in size. The river itself is 1,200 miles long, and its largest tributary is the Snake
River. Ecosystems within the basin range from temperate rain forest to semi-arid plateaus.
The Columbia and Snake rivers provide valuable economic services to the region by serving
as a shipping route to and from the Pacific Ocean. From a cultural standpoint, the Columbia
River is the site of historic salmon and steelhead runs. It provides recreational value in sport
fishing for salmon and steelhead, sailing, swimming, water skiing, canoeing, and rafting. The
river is extensively used for hydroelectricity. Also, approximately one percent of the system's
annual flow is used for irrigation.
Fish populations in the Columbia River have suffered heavy impacts. Overharvesting,
habitat destruction, and pollution all harm wild salmon. There has been a 90 percent decline
in salmon populations and a 55 percent loss of salmon and steelhead habitat. Together with
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observed accumulations of toxic pollutants in fish tissues, the environmental conditions are
severely detrimental to the fish populations. Habitat loss and other environmental stressors
have also taken their toll on birds; several species of birds in the Columbia River Basin are
listed as threatened or endangered. In the lower Columbia River, the last 100 years have
brought habitat loss in the estuary.
The Lower Columbia River Estuary Partnership (LCREP) (part of EPA's National Estuary
Program) works on managing toxic substances and restoration of wetlands in the estuary. It
was formed in 1996. It developed a management plan in 1999, which has provided guidance
for estuary restoration activities. The LCREP provides information on toxics and on habitat
and implements the Lower Columbia River's Comprehensive Conservation and
Management Plan (Jerrick, June 1999). Goals for 2011 include protection and/or restoration
of wetland and upland habitat in the Lower Columbia River Watershed, cleanup of
contaminated sediments, and reduction of contaminants of concern in water and fish tissues.
Region 10 has identified a variety of research needs related to the Columbia River Basin. The
Region expressed a need for research assistance to support monitoring and assessment of
toxics in fish, water, and sediment in the mainstream river and tributaries, which could
include case study work. Another area of research needs in Region 10 is support for seven
indicator species that have been identified in the Columbia River Basin as a part of the State
of the River characterization to fill data gaps and better understand short-term and long-
term trends.
Puget Sound
The only fjord system in the United States, Puget Sound has a shoreline of more than 2,000
miles. It is part of the National Estuary Program, and its watershed includes more than
16,000 square miles of land and water and has more than 10,000 rivers and streams. It is
extremely diverse ecologically; according to the Puget Sound Partnership, it is home to 220
species offish, 26 types of marine mammals, 100 species of sea birds, and many marine
invertebrates and plants. In addition to its biologically diversity, the Puget Sound area
provides many cultural, social, and economic services. It provides salmon fisheries, sport
fishing, shellfish, and tourism. The area also hosts international ports and defense
installations.
The Puget Sound Georgia Basin watershed is home to over six million people, with a high
rate of growth expected. This large and increasing population will continue to stress the
Puget Sound ecosystem. A number of environmental problems are already prominent. Since
1980, 30,000 acres of shellfish beds have been closed. As with many other aquatic
ecosystems, excess nutrients have given rise to hypoxic zones. Each year, about one million
pounds of toxic substances are released into the water and five million pounds are released
into the air. As a result, marine species have high levels of toxic compounds in their tissues.
The Puget Sound Georgia Basin Ecosystem Indicators can be used to monitor the health of
the ecosystem. For example, the water quality index includes pH, dissolved oxygen,
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phosphorous, and suspended sediments. The indicators for 2003 showed that 50 percent of
Puget Sound's permanent monitoring stations had fair water quality. These areas were
generally close to urban centers.
As part of the National Estuary Program, Puget Sound restoration efforts receive federal
support. Other Puget Sound initiatives include the Puget Sound Action Team and the Puget
Sound Council. The Action Team includes representatives from State and federal agencies,
Tribes, and local governments and handles amendments to the Puget Sound Management
Plan. The Council consists of various stakeholders (shellfish growers, business, agriculture,
cities, the environmental community, etc.) and works with the Action Team to implement
management efforts.
The Pacific Islands
The unincorporated US Pacific Island Territories of Guam, American Samoa, and the
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) are volcanic islands with
rainforests and coral reef systems. Such ecosystems have great biological diversity, with large
numbers offish species noted in the marine systems. These islands are remote and their
populations are relatively small; Guam has the largest population at 173,000. Tourism is a
principal industry for both Guam and CNMI, and American Samoa has important tuna
fisheries.
Island ecosystems are especially vulnerable to climate change. Immersion from rising sea
levels poses a threat to coral reefs and mangroves. Increased sea temperatures also present a
danger to corals. (See Chapter 4 for discussion of coral reefs and Chapter 7 for discussion of
climate change.) Although population densities are low compared to the heavily urbanized
areas of the United States, delicate ecosystems are sensitive to population growth in these
Territories. Pollution (including pesticides), overfishing, and invasive species are other
prominent environmental issues. The Territories face additional problems as they struggle
with aging infrastructure and the resulting deficiencies. Drinking water and sanitation are top
priorities; poor wastewater handling systems can result in contamination of surface and
subsurface water drinking water supplies. Beach closings due to pollution are frequent.
Efforts in recent years have yielded successes. Guam now has safer water, with fewer sewage
spills, and new marine preserves have been established. But much work remains to be done
with respect to ensuring safe beaches, drinking water, and treated wastewater. EPA's Region
9 works with the Pacific Island Territories through its Pacific Islands Office, which provides
funding and technical assistance to the Territories' environmental protection agencies.
The US-Mexico Border
More than nine million people live along the border of the United States and Mexico. The
border is 2,000 miles long and includes parts of California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas.
The population in the region has grown rapidly, with an accompanying increase in
industrialization. Pressures exerted by such expansion have led to problems both with
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drinking water supply and wastewater treatment. The Rio Grande often receives untreated
and industrial sewage. Water supply and waste problems are especially serious in the
unincorporated "colonias" on the US side of the border, where there is a lack of safe
drinking water and wastewater and waste disposal infrastructure. Region 6 has noted that
there are more than 1,220 colonias in Texas and New Mexico. Conditions in these
settlements leave the residents vulnerable to health problems from waterborne illnesses.
Increased industrial waste also creates toxic pollutants.
Cooperative efforts have been established to address environmental needs in the border
region. EPA has provided funds through the Tribal Border Infrastructure program to
provide basic sanitation and access to safe drinking water. The Border 2012 program has
several goals: 1) improve water quality in the region; 2) improve the availability of low sulfur
diesel fuel on the border; 3) stabilize abandoned hazardous waste sites; 4) remove used tire
piles along the border; 5) define baseline and alternative scenarios for air emissions
reductions along the border region; and, 6) bi-national emergency preparedness drills and
exercises at border sister cities. Also, North Atlanta Free Trade Agreement has created the
Border Environment Cooperation Commission and the North American Development
Bank for infrastructure development. EPA participates in these programs.
Research Needs for Large Aquatic Ecosystems
Despite having their own unique cultural, ecological, and economic features, the large
aquatic ecosystems share several common environmental concerns. These arise largely
related to continued, intensifying human activities, both along shorelines and in the
watersheds. Both urban and agricultural land uses can alter landscapes and provide
undesirable inputs into these water bodies and into the streams and rivers that feed them.
This section briefly mentions some of these prominent concerns. Greater detail on these
various research needs is provided in other chapters of this document.
Excess Nutrients
Input of nutrients results from runoff from agricultural lands, suburban runoff, discharges
from sewage treatment plants, and air deposition from various sources. By promoting
excessive plant growth and decay, high nutrient inputs can ultimately lead to oxygen
depletion, fish kills, and a decline in water quality. The dynamics of nutrient cycling and ways
to mitigate nutrient inputs are common threads for the various large aquatic ecosystems. In
Long Island Sound, for example, research is needed on the response of the Sound
(biologically, geochemically, or physically) to local nitrogen reductions and to ocean
climate/variability. Research is needed on the processes that control hypoxia in the sound
(e.g., phytoplankton dynamics, mixing, sedimentary geochemistry). In the Great Lakes,
collaborative research between EPA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
will focus on monitoring the dead zone in Lake Erie and will update models of Lake Erie's
response to nutrients. Also, in all affected water bodies, there is an ongoing need for
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improved management measures to control hypoxia. (See also the discussion of Gulf of
Mexico and Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia earlier in this chapter and in Chapter 4. A more
extensive discussion of nutrients research is presented in Chapter 5. Management of
nutrients associated with residuals is discussed in Chapter 3).
Excess Sedimentation
Changes in land use permit erosion and promote the transport of excess sediments to water
bodies. The excess sediment degrades aquatic habitats and harms coral reefs. The Scientific
and Technical Advisory Committee (STAC) for the Chesapeake Bay Program has presented
detailed research needs for sediments in the Chesapeake Bay. Among other issues, scientists
in the STAC have noted that research is needed on the relationships between sediment
deposition and various anthropogenic (land use change) and natural (e.g., climate variability)
factors. Research is also needed on the origins, transport, and residence times of sediments
in the estuary. Another important topic is how much nutrients and other pollutants are
associated with sediments. The effectiveness of best management practices needs ongoing
research. The types of research questions framed for the Chesapeake Bay are applicable to
many ecosystems, although some have unique needs. For example, research regarding
sediments in South Florida must focus on the special needs of the coral reefs and how
sediment affects them. Additional discussion regarding sediments is provided in Chapter 5.
Invasive Species
By displacing native terrestrial and aquatic species, invasive species cause great harm to
ecosystems. In the Great Lakes, research is needed on the causes of the decline of Diporeia
population in the Great Lakes (possibly due to invasive species). In the Great Lakes, zebra
mussels clog water intake pipes and encrust boat hulls and engines. Puget sound is beset by
various invasive species (e.g., Chinese mitten crabs, European green crabs, knotweed, and
nutria). Because prevention is preferable to control, EPA is studying how native species have
become established in aquatic ecosystems with the goal of preventing future invasions. In
particular, methods to control the introduction of invasive species in ballast water are
needed. For additional discussion, see Chapter 4.
Toxic Substances
Contaminated sediments are a common environmental concern in all of the large aquatic
ecosystems, especially those with inputs from industrial areas. Aside from their immediate
impacts on the water column, inputs of toxic substances can have long term ramifications
when associated with sediments. In Puget Sound, for example, studies are needed to
understand the distribution of pollutants in runoff, including metals, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons. Studies are needed on the occurrence of emerging contaminants in the Sound
and their relative importance. In the northeast, the LISS has presented a detailed summary of
research needs. Sources and inventories of conventional and emerging toxic contaminants
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are needed. Research is also needed on the impacts of contaminants on ecosystem function.
New technologies are needed for management of sources and for remediation. Similar needs
are echoed for the other aquatic ecosystems. (See also the discussion on emerging
contaminants in Chapter 5.)
Climate Change
With rising waters and rising temperatures, the large aquatic ecosystems will be vulnerable to
the effects of climate change. South Florida, for example, will be exposed to inundation,
degradation of the Everglades, coral reef bleaching, and potential contamination of drinking
water supplies. American Samoa would also face damage to coral reefs. Northern aquatic
ecosystems may see changes in their hydrologic cycles as precipitation patterns change and
ice formation is delayed or reduced. Increases in runoff and combined sewer overflows, with
their accompanying loads of nutrients and toxic substances may occur. With shifts in
environmental conditions, many ecosystems may see the disappearance of some species, or
the ranges of some species shift. Understanding how aquatic ecosystems will be affected by
these changes is needed, as is research on options for management and mitigation. Chapter 7
provides further climate change discussion.
References
Gulf of Mexico Alliance Governor's Action Plan For Healthy and Resilient Coasts. March
2006. Available on the internet at:
http: / /www.gulfofmexicoalliance.org/pdfs /gap final2.pdf.
Jerrick, Nancy. June 1999. Lower Columbia River's Comprehensive Conservation and
Management Plan. June 1999. Available on the internet at:
http://www.lcrep.org/mgmt complete plan.htm.
Lake Champlain Steering Committee. April 2003. Opportunities for Action: An Evolving
Plan for the Lake Champlain Basin. April 2003. Available on the internet at:
http://www.lcbp.org/OFA-APRIL2003/Index-April2003.htm.
LISS. March 1994. The Long Island Sound Comprehensive Conservation and Management
Plan. March 1994. Available on the internet at:
http: / /www.longislandsoundstudy.net/mgmtplan.htm.
USEPA. April 2003. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen, Water Clarity,
and Chlorophyll a for the Chesapeake Bay and its Tidal Tributaries. EPA 903-R-03-
002. April 2003. Available on the internet at:
http: / /www.epa.gov/Region3 /Chesapeake /baycriteria.htm.
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USEPA. April 2008. Charter for the Council of Large Aquatic Ecosystems. April 2008.
Available on the internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/pdf/large aquatic ecosystems charter.pdf.
USEPA. 2008. Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force. 2008.
Gulf Hypoxia Action Plan 2008 for Reducing, Mitigating, and Controlling Hypoxia
in the Northern Gulf of Mexico and Improving Water Quality in the Mississippi
River Basin. Available on the internet at:
http://www.epa.gov/msbasin/taskforce/actionplan08.htm.
USEPA. August 2003. Technical Support Document for the Identification of Chesapeake
Bay Designated Uses and Attainability. EPA-903-R-03-004. August 2003. Available
on the internet at: http://www.epa.gov/Region3/chesapeake/uaasupport.htm.
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7 Science to Support Cross-Program Needs
The implementation of the
National Water Programs, and
development of its related
research plans, have historically
been developed to address
specific statutory (e.g., SDWA,
CWA) or regulatory
responsibilities. As described in
Chapter 1, to meet its statutory
obligations, the OW Offices are
organized, in part around these
programmatic responsibilities.
As the Water Program has
matured, the improved knowledge and understanding of the interrelationship of
environmental issues has led to the identification of programmatic and research needs that
are common to multiple offices and has fostered development of many cross-program
research initiatives and approaches. These efforts are designed to enhance the collaborative
process and to find solutions to environmental issues that cut across programmatic areas.
Through recognition of the need for integration of these research efforts, the Water
Program can more efficiently use resources to address multiple environmental issues and to
support and enhance efforts across the various Offices. Many of these topics are noted and
discussed throughout this Compendium. Five areas, in particular, cut across programs areas
and are highlighted in this chapter. They are:
The Sustainable Infrastructure Initiative
Watershed Approach
Analytical Methods To Detect Biological and Chemical Contaminants
Emerging Contaminants
Climate Change
Each of these areas is discussed in earlier chapters. This chapter will summarize the cross-
program needs briefly, for most of these areas, and will direct the reader to the appropriate
chapters for more detail. The major discussion of the climate change initiative is presented in
this chapter, including the drivers for research. This is presented here because OW is
developing a strategy to respond to climate change and climate change issues clearly will
impact each of the OW Programs.
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Sustainable Infrastructure Initiative
Drinking water and wastewater treatment plants, sewer lines, drinking water distribution
lines, and storage facilities ensure protection of public health and the environment. (See
Chapters 2 and 3 for an in-depth discussion of the Drinking Water program and Wastewater
program, respectively.) As a nation, we have built this extensive network of infrastructure to
provide the public with access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation. Much of the
drinking water and wastewater infrastructure in the United States was built more than 50
years ago, following World War II, mirroring the increase in the urbanizing population and
some is far older, particularly in the eastern U.S. The useful design life of much of this
infrastructure is nearing its end. The arriving wave of needed infrastructure rehabilitation
and replacement over the next several decades will be unprecedented. Infrastructure needs
are estimated at over $240 billion over the next 20 years well in excess of the funds
estimated to be available to meet the Nation's infrastructure needs.
Through the Sustainable Infrastructure Initiative, EPA is committed to promoting
sustainable practices that will help to reduce the potential gap between funding needed and
spending at the local and national level. The Sustainable Infrastructure Initiative will guide
efforts in changing how the nation views, values, manages, and invests in its water
infrastructure. EPA is working with the water industry to identify best practices that have
helped many of the nation's utilities address a variety of management challenges and extend
the use of these practices to a greater number of utilities. EPA is collaborating with a
coalition of water industry leaders to build a roadmap for the future promotion of
sustainable infrastructure through a "Four Pillars" approach based on 1) better management
of water and wastewater utilities; 2) rates that reflect the full cost pricing of services; 3)
efficient water use; and 4) watershed approaches to protection.
Sustainable Infrastructure Research Needs
The Water Program has identified research needs to promote each of the four pillars of
sustainable infrastructure. Those that pertain to Improved Management, Full Cost Pricing,
and Efficient Water Use are discussed in this section. Because of the breadth of the
Watershed Approach, it is also a Cross-Program area and it is discussed in its own section
that follows.
Improved Management
Water infrastructure is expensive as are the monetary and social costs incurred when
infrastructure fails. If a system is well maintained, it can operate safely over a long time
period. A new system that is not properly operated can threaten public health more than an
older system that is properly operated. Water and wastewater utilities need to carry out an
ongoing process of oversight, evaluation, maintenance, and replacement of their assets as
needed to maximize the useful life of infrastructure.
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Research is needed to provide utilities with tools that will allow them to better manage the
nation's aging drinking water and wastewater infrastructures. EPA's research initiatives
related to aging infrastructure will focus on providing information on new and innovative
condition assessment and rehabilitation and replacement methods and technologies; new
sewer and treatment system design concepts; and comprehensive, integrated management
approaches to improve the ability of water and wastewater utilities to cost-effectively assess,
maintain, operate, rehabilitate, and replace their collection and treatment systems. Further,
research is needed to better understand and integrate Green Infrastructure approaches into a
comprehensive approach, as well as water reuse and reclamation approaches. (See Chapters 2
and 3 for further details.)
Full Cost Pricing
When measured as a percentage of household income, the U.S. pays less for
water/wastewater bills than other developed countries. Because of this, the public has been
led to believe that water is readily available and cheap. Pricing that recovers the costs of
building, operating, and maintaining a system is essential to achieving sustainability. Drinking
water and wastewater utilities must be able to price water to reflect the full costs of
treatment and delivery, and additional data are needed to help utilities evaluate and estimate
these costs. In addition, social marketing approaches need to be explored to determine how
to best educate the public regarding the benefits and costs of providing high-quality public
services.
Efficient Water Use
EPA is focused on developing a water efficiency program that takes a broad approach by
setting water efficiency levels for products, in conjunction with manufacturers, utilities and
other stakeholders; building partnerships with manufacturers, distributors, utilities and
others to promote water efficient products; and promoting an ethic of water efficiency
through promotional activities. EPA is developing a market enhancement program for water
efficient products and services in the residential and commercial sectors.
Research needs to build on these efforts to allow decision makers to better define the
effectiveness, costs, and benefits of water conservation and water efficiency practices and
programs. Additional efforts should focus on social marketing approaches to provide
effective education and outreach campaigns on water conservation.
Watershed Approach
The Water Program's Watershed Approach is a coordinating framework for environmental
management that helps to integrate and focus public and private sector efforts to address the
water protection and restoration implementation efforts within hydrologically-defmed
geographic areas. The approach considers both ground water and surface water flow and the
multidisciplinary and multijurisdictional partnerships that must come into play for effective
and efficient water management. Such comprehensive approaches promote recognition of
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the priority needs of local water resources and will result in significant protection,
restoration, and maintenance of water resources in the United States.
Watershed Approach Research Needs
The Watershed Approach cuts across all OW program offices and requires the integration of
CWA and SWDA authorities. As such, all the programmatic and research needs discussed
throughout this Compendium are pertinent for implementation to "the watershed." As
described in detail in Chapter 4, key objectives of the Watershed program are: to promote
integrated monitoring and assessment for water body and ecosystem protection; assess 100
percent of water bodies in the lower 48 States; promote management and restoration off
water bodies and ecosystems; provide the information needed to execute TMDL programs;
and improve the effectiveness of ecological restoration. Current implementation of the
Watershed Approach is focusing on four main areas including 1) watershed management
training; 2) Statewide watershed approach facilitation; 3) watershed program scoping; and 4)
technical analysis assistance. As noted these help to define the research needed. But in the
broader sense of a cross-program topic, the Watershed Approach (Chapter 4) recognizes the
need to integrate OW Programs to provide cost-effective and efficient protection of
ecological and human health. (See also the Addendum to Chapter 1.)
This integration involves recognizing the linkages among the National Water Program
initiatives that include, for example:
Assessment of water quality and ecosystem impairment (e.g., Chapters 4 and 5);
Developing water body use designations;
Developing and setting water quality standard (WQS) (Chapter 5);
NPDES permitting (Chapter 3);
TMDL development (Chapter 4);
Implementing point and non point source control and management, including wet
weather management (Chapters 3 and 4);
Promoting "Smart Growth" and Green Infrastructure practices in communities
(Chapter 3);
Improving decentralized wastewater management (Chapter 3);
Protecting and restoring wetlands (Chapter 4); and
Water quality trading (Chapter 4).
Improvements in each of these areas contribute to meeting WQS, which in turn will protect
aquatic ecosystems and provide source water protection for drinking water (see Chapter 2).
There are research needs to improve and effectively target each of these efforts discussed
throughout this Compendium. Some examples of research needs are highlighted for these
initiatives, and summarized below for:
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Watershed/Aquatic Resource Assessments (also refer to Chapters 4 and 5)
Implementation Program Needs (also refer to Chapters 3 and 4)
Management Measures
- Incentives
- Wetlands and Water Quality Trading
- Decentralized Water Systems
Source Water Protection (also refer to Chapter 2)
Watershed/Aquatic Resource Assessments
Watershed assessments can focus on a single watershed or a group of watersheds
comparatively. CWA-related watershed assessments may involve characterizing basic traits of
waters, their watersheds, and their human community context. Assessments may also
evaluate condition and functionality, giving an indication of the ecological, economic, and
cultural services the watershed is able to provide. They may assess threats, identify causes of
problems, and set priorities for specific remedial actions. Research is needed to allow these
assessments to effectively account for the combined and cumulative effects of point and non
point sources of pollution, habitat alteration, and other sources of impairment.
Policy makers and watershed managers also need reliable chemical, physical, and biological
information that will allow them to understand the status and functioning of aquatic
ecosystems and to evaluate the success of watershed protection and restoration measures
over time. To accomplish this, research must focus on providing tools for effective
ecosystem monitoring, identifying appropriate indicators of aquatic health and determining
suitability of new analytical methods; and develop and improving integrative watershed
modeling frameworks for describing the impacts of changing surface water quantity on water
quality.
Implementation Program Needs
A few components are summarized to illustrate the breadth of Implementation Program
issues: Management Measures, Incentives, Wetlands and Water Quality Trading,
Decentralized Wastewater Systems.
Management Measures. To meet the water quality targets in a given watershed, managers may
have several management "strategies" from which to choose, each consisting of one or more
management measures. Strategic placement of specific management measures in a watershed
should reduce the number and cost of measures required to attain WQS compared to
separately selecting management measures for incremental parts of the watershed.
Research is needed to assess the costs associated with various management measures to
allow for the development of effective watershed strategies, to develop strategies to optimize
the selection and location/placement of management measures in a watershed, and to
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develop monitoring strategies to measure the effectiveness of watershed management
programs.
Incentives. Non point sources account for much of the water quality impairment to our
nation's waters. Because these sources are not regulated, economic and other incentives need
to be developed to control them as part of watershed-based water quality improvement
programs. In addition, people have ingrained cultural values and attitudes associated with
environmental protection. Thus, incentives may be needed to change behavior to implement
management plans.
Research is needed to determine the factors that most motivate changes in public behavior
with respect to the protection or restoration of water quality. In addition, effective
technology transfer mechanisms are needed to provide watershed managers with resources
needed to make technically-sound watershed management decisions (e.g., establishing a
central access point for watershed information on the EPA Web site). Another important
and promising pollution reduction incentive is wetlands in water quality trading, which is
discussed in more detail below.
Wetlands in Water Quality Trading. OW is evaluating the use of wetlands in a water quality
trading program as one approach for achieving water quality goals more efficiently. The
program operates at the watershed level in which a facility with higher pollutant control
costs can buy pollutant reduction credits from a facility with lower control costs in the same
watershed, thus reducing their cost of compliance. Such trading programs can allow a given
watershed to meet water quality targets (e.g., TMDLs at lower overall costs), and can provide
ancillary benefits such as flood retention, riparian improvement, and habitat.
Before wetlands can be reliably incorporated into water quality trading programs, research is
needed to: identify existing data regarding wetland nutrient removal rates for modeling and
assigning trading credits; determine how to avoid unintended negative consequences;
determine the geographic scale on which trading might occur; identify an approach for
estimating the risks, costs, and benefits associated with wetland trading; and determine how
to manage and monitor wetlands used in water quality trading.
Decentralized Wastewater Systems. Decentralized wastewater systems consist of septic systems
that treat and disperse relatively small volumes of wastewater from individual or small
numbers of homes and commercial buildings. EPA research is needed to evaluate treatments
that will improve system performance such as the abilities of the various soil types to
provide treatment; treatment system efficiencies for currently regulated pollutants
(pathogens and nutrients) and emerging pollutants of concern (see Emerging Contaminants
discussion later in this chapter); and performance capabilities and reliability of many
currently available decentralized treatment technologies.
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Research is also needed to accurately account for decentralized systems (both properly and
poorly designed, operated, and maintained systems) in watershed models and TMDL
calculations. In addition, up-to-date technology transfer methods regarding innovations and
costs must be an important component of this research Compendium because many
practitioners of decentralized systems do not normally interact with EPA.
Source Water Protection. Source Water Protection protecting waters that will become public
drinking water supplies can be successful in providing public health protection and
reducing the treatment challenge for public water suppliers. The many threats to watersheds,
water bodies, and ecosystems discussed, point and nonpoint sources of impairment, are in
turn threats to source water quality. The 1996 SDWA Amendments required the conduct of
source water assessments for the protection and benefit of public water systems. States were
also required to adopt a program to protect wellhead areas within their jurisdiction from
contaminants that may have any adverse effect on public health. As noted, effective source
water protection requires the integration of CWA and SDWA programs. Implementation of
watershed protection and water quality restoration programs, in turn affect source water
improvement and protection.
Research is needed to develop science-based tools that better enable the assessment of
drinking water resources and their vulnerability to contamination, and the control of non
point source and otherwise unregulated point source pollution at the water resource scale
(i.e., watershed and aquifer). In addition, EPA must account for climate change impacts on
water resources and how this may affect drinking water supplies by developing tools that
allow integrated water resource planning and management at multiple water resource scales
across multiple decades. (Note: Climate change and related research needs are discussed in
greater detail later in this chapter.)
Analytical Methods To Detect Biological and
Chemical Contaminants
The National Water Program requires sensitive, specific, accurate, and precise analytical
methods that can detect and quantify the occurrence of contaminants in water and other
media. Methods are needed to measure water quality to assess the status and health of waters
and to develop standards, measure compliance, and/or the verification of their remediation
or removal. For example, from across the programs, the availability of such methods is
needed to:
Develop, implement, or revise drinking water standards for existing or
unregulated contaminants (refer to Chapter 2);
Protect and provide water security for our drinking water sources (also refer to
Chapter 2);
Develop, implement, or revise water quality criteria and water quality standards
for ambient waters, to support water quality goals, aquatic life guidelines,
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TMDLs, as well as wastewater guidelines and the NPDES process (also refer to
Chapters 3, 4, and 5);
Assess and promote the safety of recreational waters (also refer to Chapter 5);
Conduct watershed assessments, including source tracking, to help target
programs for water quality improvement (also refer to Chapters 4 and 5);
Manage residuals and biosolids from drinking water and wastewater treatment
processes (also refer to Chapters 3 and 5);
Identify invasive species that threaten our waters (also refer to Chapter 4); and
Assess the occurrence of new or emerging contaminants (Chapter 7).
Analytical Methods Research Needs
As noted, there are analytical methods needs across the National Water Program. Cross-
cutting needs that have been highlighted in the earlier chapters, are summarized below. Of
growing concern across the National Water Program is the ability to identify emerging
contaminants, both biological (pathogens, invasive species) and chemical (pharmaceuticals,
pesticides) not only in water but in land-applied biosolids, septage, and manure. Continued
research is needed to develop techniques that are accurate, precise, and suitable for these
different environmental matrices. In particular, the development of more reliable and faster
methods for identifying pathogens and pathogen indicators is a research priority because of
the acute health effects of pathogens. After some specific program needs are reviewed this
section provides a brief overview of methods needs related to pathogens and then chemicals.
(Emerging Contaminants and associated research are further discussed later in this chapter.)
Develop, Implement, or Revise Drinking Water Standards (See Chapter 2)
Under SDWA, EPA is charged with evaluating unregulated contaminants and developing
and revising drinking water standards. EPA sets national standards for drinking water that
either limit a particular contaminant in drinking water, or require treatment to remove or
inactivate a contaminant. The SDWA mandated several programs that help EPA identify
contaminants that require new or revised standards. These programs include the
Contaminant Candidate List (CCL), the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation
(UCMR), and the Six-Year Review of existing regulations (see Chapters 2 and 5). In
developing and revising drinking water standards, EPA evaluates threats to public health
from microbial and chemical contaminants. These evaluations cannot be made, nor
standards set, without adequate analytical methods to support national occurrence data
collection and monitoring for regulatory compliance.
In particular research is needed to develop:
Analytical methods to gather occurrence data for unregulated and emerging
contaminants for future UCMR data collection efforts and the CCL Regulatory
Determination process.
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New methods or refine existing analytical methods for the detection and
quantification of regulated contaminants to improve existing drinking water
standards.
More robust methods for measuring pathogens and emerging DBFs and DBF
mixtures in drinking water and distribution systems.
Protect and Provide Water Security (See Chapter 2)
To safeguard our drinking water supplies, the treatment processes, and distribution systems
from natural disasters and physical attacks, methods to detect and identify chemical,
biological, and radiological (CBR) contaminants in drinking water are critical. EPA's
detection research program focuses on developing detectors, analytical methods, sample
preparation techniques, and models and tools to detect, in real-time when possible,
contaminants introduced into the water and wastewater systems (see Chapter 2). Additional
research is required to improve the accuracy of CANARY, a tool that analyzes water quality
data streams and identifies anomalous conditions in distribution systems that require further
investigation.
Recreational Waters (see Chapter 5)
As noted in Chapter 5, under section 104(v) of the Beach Act, EPA is working toward
improving assessments of potential human health risks resulting from exposure to pathogens
in recreation waters (including non-gastrointestinal effects). EPA needs methods (including
predictive models) that provide more rapid and timely detections of pathogens or indicators
of the presence of pathogens that are harmful to human health in recreational waters.
For example, EPA studies have demonstrated the utility of a new indicator and method (i.e.,
quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for Enterococd) as a predictor of swimming-
related illness in the Great Lakes. However, whether or not qPCR for Enterococd is applicable
to other settings or appropriate for use across the range of CWA programs is not fully
understood. Data gaps include understanding how well the various indicators and methods
perform in other settings (e.g., marine versus fresh water; human versus non-human sources
of fecal contamination), and how they relate to one another.
Residuals and Biosolids Management (see Chapters 3 and 5)
Wastewater treatment processes are designed to reduce/remove contaminants and generate
residuals (e.g., sewage sludge or biosolids, liquid side streams, septage, etc.). Drinking water
treatment also results in concentrated residuals that can be hazardous (e.g., radionuclides),
and may be included in the influents of wastewater treatment plants. In addition, animal
feeding operations generate large quantities of residual manure and stormwater runoff.
To ensure public health and environmental safety associated with the use or disposal of
residuals, EPA must be able to identify and control pathogens, emerging contaminants, and
nutrients. Research is needed to select appropriate pathogens and indicators to properly
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assess sewage sludge quality and to develop improved analytical techniques for pathogens
and priority contaminants in residuals/bios olids.
Pathogens
There are various needs for improved pathogen indicators and detection methods that cut
across programs and environmental media ambient water, fresh and coastal marine
recreational waters, wastewater, drinking water, ground water, and biosolids, for example.
While each media may require some special considerations (e.g., pretreatment, filtering, etc.),
knowing that methods are needed across these program areas may afford efficiencies in
method development research.
For example, to protect public health, there is a need for the development of faster, reliable
methods for identifying pathogens and/or pathogen indicators in both drinking water and
recreational water because of the acute health effects of pathogens. Such tests could provide
for more rapid and timely notification to the public. New tests and new indicators need to be
compared and calibrated with standard methods and must provide for a reliable correlation
between indicator concentrations and health effects. Studies are also needed to evaluate
temporal and spatial variability in fecal indicator concentrations to appropriately characterize
water quality and improve management decisions. Related to watershed management,
indicators that can be used for tracking sources of fecal contamination are also essential.
Such methods may not have the same requirements as those needed for public health
management determinations, but the must be effective to guide source reduction
approaches.
All OW programs have expressed the need for new and improved methods to be able to
more specifically identify pathogens in drinking water, including distribution systems and
biofilms, in ambient and recreational waters, wastewaters and biosolids that are land applied
and may contribute agents into the environment. Research is needed to assess how well
culture and molecular methods (singly or in combination) may perform. Especially with new
molecular methods this work must consider the specificity and sensitivity of the methods
and how they can address viability (and infectivity) of the pathogens. Similarly, methods
must be developed to begin to assess emerging pathogens (from viruses to prions, for
example).
Chemicals
Consideration of any new or revised drinking water or water quality standard may identify
the need for new or improved methods for particular chemicals. This is a routine part of
those programs. For example, to move from the CCL Regulatory Determination process to
promulgating a new drinking water standard, it is necessary to have a method that can be
used for national compliance monitoring.
A key research area for the National Water Program is the development of analytical
methods that can be used to identify and assess the occurrence of emerging contaminants.
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Many of the new contaminants of concern for the Water Program, such as pharmaceuticals,
and many now termed "personal care products" and endocrine disrupters, need assessment
of their entry in to the environment through wastewater and in land-applied biosolids,
septage, and manure. The most apparent effects of some of these compounds may be on
aquatic life, and methods are needed for ambient waters. Methods may be useful that can
address multiple chemicals, with common modes of action, as well, to begin to assess the
cumulative effect of low dose chemicals. Methods are also needed to assess their occurrence
in drinking water, through the UCMR program, and in support of the CCL process.
Emerging Contaminants are a cross-program theme that is further discussed in the next
section of this chapter.
Emerging Contaminants
A common need noted throughout this Compendium is the ability to better identify,
understand, and manage the threat to human health and the aquatic environment from
emerging contaminants. Emerging contaminants refer broadly to those synthetic or naturally
occurring chemicals, or to any microbiological organisms, that are new to the environment
or that have not previously been monitored for or recognized in the environment, but are of
concern because of their known or suspected adverse ecological or human health effects.
These contaminants, by definition, are insufficiently understood to determine their need for
control and regulation.
These contaminants can fall into a wide range of groups, often currently defined by their
effects, uses, or by their key chemical or microbiological characteristics. Two key groups of
emerging contaminants of concern, discussed in this Compendium, are the Endocrine
Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) and the Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs).
Others emerging contaminants include nanomaterials, fluorinated compounds, and
pathogens various protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and prions.
Recent studies show that many of the contaminants of concern, such as PPCPs, are related
to human use and waste, entering the environment through the wastewater stream. Various
pharmaceuticals and animal care products are discharged into the environment through
animal waste from livestock production, as well. Emerging contaminants have been found in
wastewater effluents and sewage sludge, runoff from livestock areas, surface waters, ground
water, fish tissue, and sediment, and drinking waters. While concentrations are typically very
low, below therapeutic doses, many questions and concerns need to be answered. Adverse
health impacts in aquatic life have been attributed to PPCPs and EDCs in surface waters, yet
many specifics remain unknown. Research is needed to fill data gaps and evaluate these
contaminants to protect human and aquatic life.
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Emerging Contaminants Research Needs
The Water Program is tasked with identifying emerging contaminants, assessing their
occurrence levels in various environmental media and determining whether they may cause
human or environmental harm. Research is aimed at providing the data and tools for EPA
and its partners to assess, monitor, evaluate, and, if need be, regulate, contain, treat, and
remediate these contaminants. Collaboration with other offices within EPA and with other
federal agencies, and concerned organizations (e.g., Water Environment Research
Foundation, Water Reuse Foundation, and the AWWA Research Foundation) will also be
critical, given the scope of these issues. In addition, other federal agencies have important
programs underway to monitor for new contaminants of concern where coordination will
help inform specific research needs (e.g., the U.S. Geological Survey).
The National Water Program has various research questions that cut across program areas
that directly pertain to human health criteria and standards for drinking water, recreational
exposure, and shellfish consumption, and aquatic life guidelines, and aquatic life criteria.
These research needs are:
Develop approaches for identifying/categorizing which emerging contaminants
(or classes) are risks to the environment or human health.
Develop analytical methods to detect and quantify emerging contaminants in
various media from ambient water, drinking water, to wastewater and biosolids.
Establish a framework for prioritizing high-risk emerging contaminants for
exposure and hazard assessment and criteria/standard development.
Determine the routes of discharge and release into the environment, fate and
transport, and avenues of exposure to humans and aquatic life.
Develop approaches to assess the toxicological significance of long-term
exposure to mixtures of these chemicals at low doses.
For those contaminants (or classes) that are candidates for regulation, conduct
the necessary supporting research for the appropriate water regulatory program.
Determine improved methods of risk communication to the public related to
these emerging contaminants.
Amidst these broad needs another key question to address is whether pharmaceuticals,
antibiotics in particular, discharged into the environment in low doses can contribute to
antibiotic resistance in microbes and humans?
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This emerging contaminant research will support programs that:
Assess risk to human and ecological health protection;
Provide for effective treatment and management of wastewater and residuals;
and
Develop drinking water standards for unregulated contaminants
Human and Ecological Health Protection
The need for assessing risk to human health and aquatic life cuts across OW programs. As
discussed in more detail in Chapter 5, both pathogens and chemicals are of concern as
emerging contaminants individually and as multiple stressors, through water and the land
application of biosolids. Research is needed to evaluate whether or not the existing
toxicological methods can adequately account for and address emerging contaminants.
Research is needed to develop testing procedures or models for evaluating their fate and
effects. Continued research is also needed to assess the quality and utility of data, tools, and
methods used for risk assessments for new and unique contaminants, such as prions and
nanomaterials. This research must support the development of standards for human health
protection (e.g., drinking water) as well as aquatic life guidelines.
Unique to pathogens, studies are also needed to determine the impacts of climate change on
human pathogens. In particular, these studies should examine how climate change will affect
the types and levels of human pathogens that can enter, be sustained, and thrive in waters of
the U.S. (See also Climate Change discussion later in this chapter.)
Management and Treatment of Wastewater and Residuals
Emerging contaminants found in publicly-owned treatment works (POTWs) and
decentralized system waste streams are an increasingly important part of wastewater and
residuals characterization and management. Compounds such as PPCPs and pathogens need
to be detected and managed. In addition, as new industries emerge and grow, EPA must stay
abreast of new threats to water quality and identify ways to prevent their introduction to
waters, and where necessary, to treat them.
Research is needed to support the Water Program goal of providing information on
treatment and management of wastewater and residuals from municipal wastewater,
industrial wastewater, stormwater, combined sewer overflows (CSOs), concentrated animal
feeding operations (CAFOs), and decentralized systems, including beneficial use of residuals
and re-use of treated wastewater. In particular, as wastewater technology changes, research is
needed to assess both conventional and emerging technologies for their efficacy and cost-
effectiveness.
Refer to Chapter 3, Science to Support Wastewater Management for Water Quality
Protection Programs, for a more in-depth discussion of these programs and research needs.
The Biosolids Research Program is detailed in Chapter 5.
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Additional examples of research needs related to emerging contaminants in the Wastewater
Management are discussed below.
POTW Treatment and Management. An area of concern includes the fate/transport and
potential interference/pass through of emerging contaminants, especially PPCPs, through
the POTW treatment process. Information is needed on the effectiveness of both
conventional and innovative treatment technologies for minimizing the risk from emerging
contaminants. Another treatment-related research question involves antimicrobial resistance
in wastewater streams and how this may impact the treatment process.
Decentralized Wastewater Systems. Research is needed to determine performance capabilities and
reliability of many currently available decentralized treatment technologies for emerging
pollutants of concern (EDCs, PPCPs, and difficult to treat pathogens).
Biosolids and Other Residuals. Wastewater treatment processes are designed to reduce/remove
contaminants and generate residuals (e.g., sewage sludge/biosolids, liquid side streams,
septage, etc.). Animal feeding operations also generate large quantities of residual manure
and stormwater (wet weather flows) runoff that may be contaminated with PPCPs and
pathogens. There are growing concerns over the fate of these emerging contaminants in
land-applied biosolids, septage, and manure. Research is needed to identify appropriate new
or existing treatment techniques and BMPs for removing or inactivating emerging
contaminants. The effects of nanomaterials on POTWs needs to be assessed, as well as the
abilities of nanomaterials to survive the treatment process and appear in products produced
from land-applied biosolids.
Wet Weather Flou> Control Research. Wet weather flow control includes the management and
treatment of municipal, industrial and construction wet weather flows "outside the fence
line" of the POTW. Information is needed about the pollutants in various types of wet
weather flows, including pathogens and emerging contaminants. With improved
understanding of pollutants in wet weather flows, methods are then needed to control
pollutants in runoff from various sources, activities and materials. Examples of reduction
methods include various source reduction and pollution prevention programs, as well as
innovative stormwater treatment at hot spots.
Develop Drinking Water Standards
As discussed in Chapter 2, the Ground Water and Drinking Water Protection Program
(under the Safe Drinking Water Act) sets national standards for drinking water that either
limit a particular contaminant in drinking water or require treatment to remove or inactivate
it. Two SDWA-mandated programs, the Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) and
Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation (UCMR), help EPA identify emerging
contaminants and which emerging contaminants may require regulations to protect public
health. EPA conducts extensive data gathering and analysis of existing data on health effects
and occurrence to establish a CCL. Once contaminants are listed on the CCL, EPA must
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determine if a regulation is needed or not for a select number of these contaminants (see
Chapter 2). Through the UCMR program, EPA collects monitoring data from public water
systems to assess the occurrence of unregulated, emerging contaminants of interest.
OW has done considerable work to institute a process to develop the third CCL (CCL 3) to
identify new and emerging contaminants of concern for drinking water and public health, as
well as a framework for prioritizing these contaminants. The process has also helped to
identify information and research needs, such as what are the appropriate toxicological data
and health endpoints to evaluate emerging contaminants, such as pharmaceuticals? (See the
Human Health research needs, discussed above, as well as Chapters 2 and 5.)
To support the future CCL selection and the CCL Regulatory Determination process and
UCMR data collection efforts, emerging contaminant research is needed in several other
areas. New or improved analytical methods are needed to gather occurrence data (also refer
to the "Analytical Methods" section in this chapter). These data are used to assess potential
population exposure to a given contaminant.
For a more detailed discussion of the drinking water regulatory process and associated
research needs, refer to Chapter 2, Science to Support Ground Water and Drinking Water
Protection Programs, and Chapter 5 for further Human Health research discussion.
Climate Change
Climate change will challenge EPA to coordinate across water programs and with cross-
media programs to find programmatic solutions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
increase energy and water efficiency, protect in-stream water quantity and quality, and
continue to provide the public with safe and efficient water and wastewater services. Climate
change will have numerous and diverse impacts, including impacts on human health, natural
systems, and manmade structures. Some of these water-related impacts of climate change
include:
Increases in Water Pollution Problems: Warmer air temperatures will result in
warmer water. Warmer waters are able to hold less dissolved oxygen, and
instances of low oxygen levels and "hypoxia," (i.e., when dissolved oxygen
declines to the point where aquatic species can no longer survive) are more likely.
Warmer waters also foster harmful algal blooms, and some pollutants (e.g.,
ammonia) become more toxic at higher temperatures. The number of waters
recognized as "impaired" is likely to increase, even if pollution levels are stable.
Increased Health Risks from Microbiological Contaminants in Water: Warmer
waters will support higher levels of microorganisms and pathogens in drinking
waters and in recreational waters at beaches and other locations and pose
increased risks to human health.
More Extreme Water Related Events: More intense and frequent coastal and
inland storms and more intense downpours will increase the risks of flooding,
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expand floodplains, increase the variability of streamflows (i.e., higher high flows
and lower low flows), and increase the velocity of water during high flow periods
causing increased erosion. These changes have adverse effects on water quality
and aquatic system health.
Reduced Availability of Drinking Water Supplies: In some parts of the country,
changing patterns of precipitation and snowmelt and increased water loss due to
evaporation as a result of warmer air temperatures will result in reduced
availability of water for drinking. In other Regions, sea level rise and saltwater
intrusion will have similar effects.
Water Body Boundary Movement and Disappearance: Rising sea levels will move
ocean and estuarine shorelines. Changing water flow to lakes and streams,
increased evaporation, along with reduction in freshwater recharge from
underground supplies, will shrink the size of wetlands and lakes, including the
Great Lakes. This will result in the disappearance of some wetlands and
ephemeral streams.
Increasing Demand for Water: Warmer air temperatures will result in increased
human demand for water while the water needs for agriculture, industry, and
energy production are likely to increase. Underground water supplies, already low
in some areas, will recharge more slowly and be less able to replace limited
surface water supplies.
Changing Aquatic Biology: As waters become warmer, the aquatic life they now
support will be replaced by other species better adapted to the warmer water.
This process, however, will be at an uneven pace, disrupting aquatic system
health and allowing non-indigenous and/or invasive species to become
established. In the long-term (i.e., 50 years), warmer water and changing flows
will result in aquatic ecosystem collapse in some cases.
Collective Impacts on Coastal Areas: Coastal waters are at risk from multiple
impacts of climate change including sea level rise, increases in storms, increased
storm intensity and storm surges, loss of drinking water supplies, and increasing
temperature and acidification of the oceans.
Secondary Impacts on Water Resources: Some climate change impacts on
terrestrial systems will also impact water resources. Lower levels of soil moisture
will increase demand for irrigation. Increased incidence of wildfires will make
soils more prone to erosion. This evolution of the terrestrial ecosystem will
reduce water retention and limit aquifer recharge, increasing risk of flooding and
scouring of aquatic systems.
Cultural Dislocation that Undermines Community Response Capacity: As
familiar water bodies and fisheries change in the future, the communities that
value and rely on these resources will be stressed in economic and other ways.
Communities in Alaska and the Arctic are most vulnerable to these stresses, but
other communities (e.g., subsistence Tribal fishers, Chesapeake Bay crabbers,
Gulf coast shrimpers) are also at risk. These threats to economic livelihoods and
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ways-of-life will make finding consensus responses to these problems more
challenging.
Drivers for Climate Change Research
The climate research and assessment activities planned for 2008 2013 were developed with
a strong emphasis on the National Water Program and its needs. In particular, most were
developed based on information in The Office of Water's National Water Program Strategy
for Responding to Climate Change (draft March 2008). Research and assessment activities
thus address questions of basic science as well as questions specific to particular Water
Program activities.
To continue making progress in meeting safe drinking water and clean water goals, Water
Program managers defined the following five major goals for responding to climate change:
Water Program Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases: use water programs to
contribute to greenhouse gas mitigation;
Water Program Adaptation to Climate Change: adapt implementation of core
water programs to maintain and improve program effectiveness in the context of
a changing climate;
Climate Change Research Related to Water: strengthen the link between EPA
water programs and climate change research;
Water Program Education on Climate Change: educate water program
professionals and stakeholders on climate change impacts on water resources and
programs; and
Water Program Management of Climate Change: establish the management
capability within the National Water Program to engage climate change
challenges on a sustained basis.
Other drivers for climate change research are discussed below (see also the Addendum to
Chapter 1).
SDWA: SDWA provides for a comprehensive
process to assess public drinking waters for
contaminants and to develop drinking water
standards for contaminants posing the greatest
risk. Because climate change could impact
weather patterns and result in increased rain
events, the runoff from these events will likely
increase the occurrence of regulated and
unregulated contaminants in public drinking
water sources and supplies (also refer to
Chapter 2).
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The Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program under SDWA regulates injection of
fluids, including solids, semi-solids, liquids, and gases - including CO2 - to protect
underground sources of drinking water. Underground injection wells figure prominently in
some climate mitigation strategies.
CWA: Under CWA, EPA establishes standards that define when surface water is clean
enough to support uses such as drinking, fishing, and recreation. EPA also sets standards
that must be met for all dischargers in a common type of industry (e.g., paper mills) called
"effluent guidelines." Each of these standards will be affected by climate change.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): IPCC is an interagency panel that
was established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1988. IPCC's role is to assess the "technical and socio-
economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-
induced climate change, and its potential impacts and options for adaptation and
mitigation." EPA scientists and grantees make a significant contribution to the IPCC as
authors, and through research cited by the IPCC. The IPCC completed its Fourth Climate
Change Assessment and is publishing a series of reports summarizing worldwide research on
climate change. Much of this research relates to water resource impacts and a significant
portion addresses water issues in North America. More information on the IPCC is available
at www.ipcc.ch.
U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP): This program provides coordination and
integration of scientific research on global change and climate change, including research
related to water, sponsored by 13 participating departments and agencies of the U.S.
Government. The planning and implementation of EPA's Global Change Research Program
is integrated by the CCSP with other participating Federal departments and agencies to
reduce overlaps, identify and fill programmatic gaps, and add integrative value to products
and deliverables produced under the CCSP's auspices.
A major activity called for in the 2003 CCSP Strategic Plan is the production of 21 Synthesis
and Assessment Products (SAPs) that respond to the CCSP highest priority research,
observation, and decision support needs.
Climate Change Research Needs
To help define the type of research that will be needed, EPA has identified a number of
questions that capture the set of research and assessment issues, both technical and
operational, where activities should focus. These include:
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How will climate and other global change stressors affect the watershed and
ocean processes that influence the structure, functioning, and services of
freshwater and coastal ecosystems?
How will climate change interact with land use/land cover change and other
global change stressors to exacerbate or ameliorate impacts on water quality and
aquatic ecosystems?
How will climate and other global change stressors affect the design, operation,
and performance of water infrastructure (e.g., drinking water treatment,
wastewater treatment, urban drainage) and the built environment?
How will the human demand for water be influenced by the interacting effects of
changes in climate, land use, and economic development?
How will climate change influence EPA water quality and ecosystem protection
and restoration programs mandated under the CWA, SDWA, and other relevant
statutes?
What are the regional differences in vulnerability of water quantity, water quality,
ecosystems, water infrastructure, and human health to global change?
What influence will climate change have on the ability of States and Tribes to
identify impaired surface waters and establish causal linkages between climate
and other stressors and endpoints of concern?
What information, capabilities, and tools can be provided to managers, decision
makers, and the scientific community to increase their capacity for assessing and
responding to global change given uncertainty about the type and magnitude of
future change?
What opportunities exist for water resources and ecosystem managers to increase
the resilience of watersheds, water infrastructure, and aquatic ecosystems to
global change stressors?
What are the full effects and consequences of alternative energy production (e.g.,
biofuels) and carbon sequestration for water quality?
To address these questions, OW has identified three areas for focused research:
Research and assessments of key aquatic ecosystems and associated
watersheds will result in information that managers can use in their decision-
making about how to adapt to the effects of global change
The impacts of global change will vary among different ecosystem types and across different
geographic regions in the U.S. Managing these impacts will require strategies for increasing
resilience and decreasing vulnerability to global change stressors at the watershed scale.
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Research and assessments of the potential vulnerabilities of water
infrastructure to climate change and analyses of adaptation opportunities will
be used by resource managers to increase their capacity to respond to global
change
Global change can impact water resources and infrastructure engineering and management
in many aspects such as design, operation, maintenance, and performance of water
infrastructure and the built environment. Future infrastructure needs can also be affected.
Managing these impacts will require strategies for decreasing the vulnerability of existing
infrastructure, assessing future needs, and developing and adopting new engineering and
management concepts and methods to assure compliance with CWA, SDWA and its
amendments, and other related congressional mandates.
Decision support tools and information from EPA's research and assessment
program will enhance the ability of decision makers in the States and EPA
Regional, program, and Tribal offices to protect water quality and aquatic
ecosystems by adapting to global change
A critical aspect of EPA's research program is to build the capacity of State, Regional, and
Tribal resource managers to respond effectively to global change. Research and assessments
are needed to provide decision-relevant information. Decision support tools that provide
stakeholders with the capability to assess system vulnerabilities and opportunities for
adaptation are a complementary way to build capacity.
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Index of Topics
Aquatic Ecology/Ecosystems xix, xx, xxv-xxxvii, 1, 5, 7, 10, 11, 16, 18,
44, 53, 59, 61-65, 68, 71, 72, 75, 77-82, 87, 89, 99, 100, 106, 112, 115-119, 122, 125, 126,
128, 129, 130, 132, 134-137, 142, 143, 154, 157, 158
Aquatic Life Guidelines 89, 96-101, 110, 111, 145, 150, 151
Aquifer Storage and Recovery/Aquifer Recharge xxii, 33-35, 154
B
BEACH Monitoring xxvm, xxxv, 2, 8, 11, 86, 89-91, 119-122, 127, 130, 131, 133,
146-148, 153
Best Management Practices xxvi, xxxi, xxxvi, 16, 32, 33, 45, 50-52, 54, 57, 65, 68,
69, 75, 80, 109, 135, 152
Biological Assessment xxvm, 82, 89, 95, 100, 102, 113, 115
Biological criteria/Tiered Aquatic Life Use xxviii-xxx, 15, 63, 65, 82, 87, 89, 95-97,
100-102,106-108,114,115
Biosolids/Residuals/Sewage Sludge xix, xxiii, xxiv, xxvii-xxxvi, 5, 7, 9, 14, 15,
20, 30, 41, 43-47, 49, 50, 56, 85, 88, 89, 91, 103-105, 109-111, 122-124, 135, 146-152
C
Carbon Sequestration xxiv, xxxvi, 23, 33-35, 49, 53, 157
Chemical Contaminants xxxiv, xxxv, 20-31, 93, 94, 111, 139, 145, 146,
148, 149, 152, 153
Chesapeake Bay xxx, 2, 7, 18, 77, 125-127, 135-137, 154
Climate Change xxii, xxv, xxxi, xxxvi, xxxvii, 3, 7, 12, 31-34, 44, 45, 51-53, 56, 76,
82, 94, 96, 108, 129, 133, 136, 139, 145, 151, 153-158, 161
Coastal and Ocean Waters/Habitat xix, 1, 2, 14, 16, 18, 32, 43, 59, 75, 81, 82,
106, 112, 123, 131, 137, 154
Columbia River xxxi, 18, 125, 131, 132, 136
Contaminant Candidate List xxxv, 20-25, 28, 29, 41, 92-94, 111, 146, 148, 149, 152, 153
Coral Reef Protection xxv, xxix-xxxi, 59, 60, 81-83, 87, 97, 117, 119,
129, 130, 133, 135, 136
D
Decentralized Wastewater Systems xix, xxiii, xxxiii, 7, 43, 48, 143, 144, 152
Disinfection By-Products xxxv, 21, 23, 24, 28-30, 35, 88, 92, 147
Distribution Systems xxxv, 5, 20, 22, 23, 26, 28-30, 36-41, 147, 148
Drinking Water xix-xxi, xxvii-xxix, xxxii, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvii,
DRAFT - Compendium 159
-------
1-3, 5, 7, 10, 12, 13-15, 18-24, 26-34, 36-38, 41, 55, 56, 59, 85, 86, 88-90, 92-94, 108, 109,
111, 112, 117, 125, 127, 131, 133, 134, 136, 140-142, 145-157
Drinking Water Standards/Guidelines xxi, xxxv, 2, 7, 10, 14, 20, 21, 86, 88, 90,
145-148, 151, 152, 155
Drinking Water System Maintenance 48
E
Ecological Effects 100
Ecological Resources 75, 114, 117, 129
Ecosystem Restoration xix, xxiv-xxvi, xxix, xxx, xxxiii, xxxvii, 1, 5, 7, 9, 12,
14, 16, 18, 51, 52, 59-61, 64-66, 69-74, 76, 79-81, 89, 96, 100-103, 108, 124-128, 130-133,
141-145, 157
Ecosystems xxv, xxvii, xxix-xxxiii, xxxvii, 1, 3, 7, 10, 11, 16, 18, 32, 44, 46, 53,
59-65, 68, 70-72, 74-84, 87, 89, 97-101, 106-108, 116-119, 125-137, 142, 143, 145, 154, 157
Emerging Contaminants xix, xxiii-xxix, xxxi, xxxiv-xxxvii,
3, 7, 16, 25, 32, 38, 44-46, 49-51, 53, 60, 63, 64, 66, 68, 69, 72, 75, 77, 79, 80, 89-91, 99,
101-103, 105, 109-111, 114, 118, 124, 126, 130-132, 134, 135, 139, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149-
154, 156, 157
Endocrine Disrupting Compounds xxiv, xxxv, 3, 44, 49, 50, 97, 105, 109, 123, 149, 152
EPA Regions xix, 1, 17, 18, 59, 87, 94, 101, 112, 113, 116, 127, 158
Ephemeral Streams 73, 154
Estuaries xxix, xxxi, 2, 14, 16, 43, 59, 62, 77, 79, 86, 87, 100-102, 106, 107,
112, 123, 124-126, 130, 132, 133, 135
F
Fate and Transport Models xxii, xxix, 29, 30, 34, 40, 41, 99, 150
G
Great Lakes xxx, xxxi, 2, 18, 87, 121, 125, 127, 128, 134, 135, 147, 154
Green Infrastructure xxiv, xxxii, 12, 44, 53, 80, 141, 142
Ground Water xix, xxi, 1, 7, 8, 12-14, 19-22, 27-29, 31-34, 59, 93, 109,
141, 148, 149, 152, 153
Gulf of Mexico xxv, xxvii, xxx, 2, 18, 59, 60, 74, 75, 84, 106, 115, 125, 128, 129, 135-137
H
Habitat Systems xxvm, xxix, xxxiii, 11, 51, 59, 64, 70, 78, 81, 86, 89, 95, 97, 99,
100-102, 112, 114-116, 125, 127-132, 143, 144
Harmful Algal Blooms xxix, 74, 75, 83, 95, 106-108, 127, 129, 131, 153
Headwaters xxv, xxvi, 60, 73, 74
Health Effects and Toxicology Research xx, xxi, xxiii, xxv, xxvii, xxix, xxxi, xxxiii-xxxvi,
7, 10, 20, 21, 23-26, 28, 29, 50, 86, 88-91, 93, 94, 97-99, 105, 109, 111, 113, 114, 121, 123,
146, 148, 149, 152
Hypoxia/Eutrophication xxv, xxxi, 50, 60, 74-76, 83, 84, 98, 106-108, 115, 122,
126-132, 135-137, 153
160 DRAFT - Compendium
-------
Incentives xxiv, 7, 46, 54, 63, 68-70, 79, 143, 144
Invasive Species xxv-xxvii, xxx, xxxi, xxxiv, 9, 60, 67, 76-79, 89, 97, 107, 114, 133,
135, 146, 154
L
Lake Champ lain xxxi, 18, 131, 136
Long Island Sound xxx, 18, 125, 130, 134, 136
Low Impact Development xxiv, 12, 80
M
Management Measures xxvi, xxxiii, 7, 63, 66-69, 70, 135, 143
Monitoring Methods xxx, 5, 8, 16, 107, 108
Multiple Stressors xxv, xxix, xxx, xxxvi, xxxvii, 60, 64, 65, 68, 74, 79-83, 89-91,
95, 96, 99, 100, 107, 114-116, 124, 126, 130, 132, 151, 157
TV
Nanoparticles xxxv, xxxvi, 50, 97, 105, 109, 149, 151, 152
National Estuary Program 16, 18, 59, 62, 86, 87, 101, 106, 112, 125, 132, 133
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 9, 14, 45, 46, 71, 72, 77, 78,
127, 142, 146
Non-point Source Pollution Control xxi, 31, 68, 69, 126
Nutrients xxiii, xxiv, xxvi-xxx, xxxiii, xxxiv, 15, 44-47, 49, 50, 59, 67,
70-72, 74-76, 81-84, 87, 89, 92, 99, 101, 103, 105-108, 114, 115, 123, 124, 126-130, 132,
134-137, 144, 147
O
Occurrence Studies/Monitoring 24, 29
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water xix, 1, 9, 10, 13, 14, 19, 32, 36, 59
Office of Science and Technology xix, 1, 9, 10, 14, 15, 32, 59, 85, 87, 114, 124
Office of Wastewater Management xix, 1, 9, 14, 32, 43, 56, 57, 85
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds xix, 1, 9, 16, 32, 59, 137
P
Pacific Islands xxxi, 18, 133
Pathogens/Microbes xx, xxi, xxiii, xxiv, xxviii, xxx, xxxiv-xxxvi, 11, 12, 15, 21,
25, 27-31, 39, 44-52, 62, 74, 78, 82, 83, 86, 88, 89, 93-95, 99, 103-109, 111, 116, 119-122,
127, 131, 132, 144, 146-153
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products xxiii, xxiv, xxx, xxxiv, xxxv,
44, 45, 49, 50, 89, 97, 105, 109, 110, 124, 146, 149-153
Public Water Systems 23, 25, 31, 33, 42, 88, 93, 145, 153
Puget Sound xxxi, 18, 125, 132, 133, 135
R
Recreational Waters xxviii, xxxv, 2, 11, 86, 89-91, 119-121, 127, 130, 133, 146-148, 153
DRAFT - Compendium 161
-------
s
Socio-economic Valuation xxix, xxx, 10, 89, 90, 117-119
Source Water Protection xxi, 5, 7, 10, 19, 20, 23, 31-33, 55, 79, 142-145
South Florida xxx, 7, 18, 59, 81, 83, 129, 130, 135, 136
Surface Water Protection 86
Suspended and Bedded Sediments xxvm, xxx, 89, 99, 103, 112, 113, 124
T
Technology Transfer xxvi, xxxm, 8, 49, 69, 70, 110, 144, 145
Total Coliform Rule 23,26,29
Total Maximum Daily Loads xx, xxiii, xxxiii, 8, 15, 16, 46, 49,
52, 60, 63, 65, 66, 70, 72, 79, 81, 86, 87, 95, 106, 107, 122, 123, 142, 144-146
Toxicological Effects Research xxix, 97-99, 123
Treatment Effectiveness xxiii, 7, 45, 47, 103
U
Underground Injection Control xxi, 10, 20, 23, 30, 33, 34, 156
Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation xxxv, 21, 22, 25, 29, 42, 94,
146, 149, 152, 153
US-Mexico Border xxxi, 2, 18, 133
V
Voluntary Programs 5
W
Wastewater Treatment/Management xix, xxiii, xxiv, xxxvii, 1, 7, 9, 14,
30, 32, 34, 43-57, 103, 109-111, 122, 123, 134, 140, 142, 146, 147, 151, 152, 157
Wastewater/Publicly Owned Treatment Works xix, xxi-xxiv, xxxii, xxxv-xxxvii,
1, 5, 7-10, 12, 14, 30, 32-38, 41, 43-57, 79, 103, 105, 109-111, 122, 123, 125, 133, 134,
140-153, 157
Water Quality Monitoring 16, 37, 101
Water Quality Trading xxiv, xxvi, xxxiii, 55, 60, 67, 69-72, 84, 108, 143, 144
Water Quantity xxii, xxxiii, xxxvi, xxxvii, 63, 65, 143, 153, 157
Water Reuse xxm, xxxii, 45, 47, 109, 141, 150
Water Security xix, 7, 10, 20, 23, 36, 37, 39-42, 145, 147
Water Storage 34
Water Treatment Residuals 30
Watershed Assessment 7, 16, 59, 63, 64, 143, 146
Watershed Management and Restoration xxvi, xxxiii, 20, 43, 60, 63-70, 79, 101,
142, 144, 148
Wet Weather Flow Control 7,47,51-53,152
Wetlands xix, xxiv-xxvi, xxix, xxx, xxxiii, 1, 2, 9, 12, 14, 16, 18, 32,
43, 51, 59, 60, 62, 67, 69-74, 79, 84, 87, 97, 106, 107, 112, 115, 117, 119, 125, 128-132,
142-144, 154
162 DRAFT - Compendium
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