* *
United States • Canada
Air Quality Agreement
PROGRESS REPORT [)
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THE INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION REQUESTS YOUR
COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT
The International Joint Commission (IJC) is very interested in your views on the important
work being carried out under the Air Quality Agreement. What do you think about the ongoing
efforts of our two countries to address transboundary air quality; what issues do you think
should have the highest priority; and what do you think about the information provided in
this report?
Under the Air Quality Agreement, the IJC invites public comment and provides a synthesis
of comments to the Governments of Canada and the United States to assist them with
implementing the Agreement. The IJC intends to hold a series of public meetings in the
summer of 2011 to invite comment on this report. More information including a schedule
of the public meetings, will be provided online atwww.ijc.org.
The IJC invites you to send written comments on this report until September 9, 2011, at
either address below:
Secretary, United States Section
International Joint Commission
2000 L Street, NW
Suite 615
Washington, DC 20440
Email: commission@washington.ijc.org
Secretary, Canadian Section
International Joint Commission
234 Laurier Avenue West
22nd Floor
Ottawa, Ontario K1P6K6
Email: commission@ottawa.ijc.org
Canadian spelling is used throughout this report.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
SECTION 1: Commitments 4
Acid Rain Annex 4
Overview 4
Key Commitments and Progress: Sulphur Dioxide Emission Reductions 4
Key Commitments and Progress: Nitrogen Oxides Emission Reductions 6
Emissions/Compliance Monitoring 8
Acid Deposition Monitoring, Modelling, Maps and Trends 9
Preventing Air Quality Deterioration and Protecting Visibility 11
Consultation and Notification Concerning Significant Transboundary Air Pollution 14
Ozone Annex 16
Overview 16
Key Commitments and Progress 16
Anticipated Additional Control Measures and Indicative Reductions 26
Reporting PEMA Emissions 28
Reporting Air Quality for All Relevant Monitors within 500 km of the Border
between Canada and the United States 33
New Actions on Acid Rain, Ozone and Particulate Matter 38
SECTION 2: Related Air Quality Efforts 42
New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers 42
SECTION 3: Scientific and Technical Cooperation and Research 44
Emission Inventories and Trends 44
Air Quality Reporting and Mapping 48
Health Effects 53
Canadian Health and Exposure Research 53
Canadian Health and Exposure Tools to Support Risk Management 55
U.S. Report on Health Effects of Ozone and PM 56
U.S. Report on Health Effects of N02 57
U.S. Report on Health Effects of S02 58
Review of U.S. Ozone, Particulate Matter, N02 and S02 Air Quality Standards 58
U.S. National Environmental Public Health Tracking 59
U.S. Health and Exposure Research 60
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Ecological Effects 61
Aquatic Effects and Monitoring 61
Critical Loads and Exceedances 66
Other Related Canadian and U.S. Atmospheric Research 71
Ammonia Emissions 71
Impacts of Climate Change on Air Quality 73
International Collaboration 74
International Transport of Air Pollution 74
Air Quality Model Evaluation International Initiative 75
CONCLUSION 76
APPENDIX A: U.S.-Canada Air Quality Committee 77
APPENDIX B: List of Acronyms 79
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
FIGURES
Figure 1. Total Canadian Emissions of S02, 1980-2008 5
Figure 2. U.S. S02 Emissions from Acid Rain Program Electric Generating Units, 1990-2009 6
Figure 3. U.S. Title IV Utility Unit NOX Emissions from All ARP Sources, 1990-2009 7
Figure 4. 1990 Annual Wet Sulphate Deposition 9
Figure 5. 2000 Annual Wet Sulphate Deposition 9
Figure 6. 2007 Annual Wet Sulphate Deposition 9
Figure 7. 1990 Annual Wet Nitrate Deposition 10
Figure 8. 2000 Annual Wet Nitrate Deposition 10
Figure 9. 2007 Annual Wet Nitrate Deposition 10
Figure 10. Annual Average Standard Visual Range in the Contiguous United States, 2004-2008 14
Figure 11. Ozone Season NOX Emissions from NOX Budget Trading Program Sources 21
Figure 12. PEMA Region and the Transition from the NBP to CAIR 22
Figure 13. Affected Units in CAIR NOX Annual and CAIR NOX Ozone Season Programs 23
Figure 14. Ozone Season Emissions from CAIR NOX Ozone Season Sources 23
Figure 15. Canadian Transportation N0xand VOC PEMA Emissions Projections, 1990-2020 26
Figure 16. Canadian NOX and VOC PEMA Emissions and Projections 27
Figure 17. U.S. NOX and VOC PEMA Emissions and Projections 28
Figure 18. U.S. NOX Emission Trends in PEMA States, 1990-2008 31
Figure 19. U.S. VOC Emission Trends in PEMA States, 1990-2008 31
Figure 20. Canada NOX Emission Trends in the PEMA Region, 1990-2008 32
Figure 21. Canada VOC Emission Trends in the PEMA Region, 1990-2008 32
Figure 22. Ozone Concentrations along the Canada-U.S. Border
(Three-Year Average of the Fourth-highest Daily Maximum 8-hour Average), 2006-2008 34
Figure 23. Annual Average Fourth-highest Maximum 8-hour Ozone Concentration
for Sites within 500 km of the Canada-U.S. Border, 1995-2008 35
Figure 24. Average Ozone Season 1-hour NOX Concentration for Sites within 500 km
of the Canada-U.S. Border, 1995-2008 35
Figure 25. Average Ozone Season 24-hour VOC Concentration for Sites within 500 km
of the Canada-U.S. Border, 1997-2008 36
Figure 26. Network of Monitoring Sites Used To Create Graphs of Ambient Ozone,
NO and VOC Levels . ..37
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Figure 27. U.S. and Canadian National Emissions by Sector for Selected Pollutants, 2008 45
Figure 28. National S02 Emissions in the United States and Canada from All Sources, 1990-2008 46
Figure 29. National NOX Emissions in the United States and Canada from All Sources, 1990-2008 46
Figure 30. National VOC Emissions in the United States and Canada from All Sources, 1990-2008 47
Figure 31. AIRNow Map Illustrating the AQI for 8-hour Ozone 48
Figure 32. A Conceptual Diagram of the CDC's Environmental Public Health Tracking Program 59
Figure 33. Distribution of Lake Water Calcium Concentrations in Six Regions of Ontario
between the 1980s and 2000s 62
Figure 34. Trends in Lake and Stream Water Chemistry at LTM Sites, 1990-2007 -
Sulphate Ion Concentrations 65
Figure 35. Trends in Lake and Stream Water Chemistry at LTM Sites, 1990-2007 -
Nitrate Ion Concentrations 65
Figure 36. Trends in Lake and Stream Water Chemistry at LTM Sites, 1990-2007 -
ANC Levels 65
Figure 37. Manitoba and Saskatchewan Aquatic Critical Loads for Acidity (Sulphur + Nitrogen) 67
Figure 38. Current Manitoba and Saskatchewan Aquatic Critical Load Exceedances 68
Figure 39. Estimated Sulphur + Nitrogen Critical Loads for Lakes in the Northeast and Streams
in the Central Appalachian Mountains, United States 70
Figure 40. Lake and Stream Exceedances of Estimated Critical Loads (Sulphur + Nitrogen)
for Total Nitrogen and Sulphur Deposition, 1989-1991 71
Figure 41. Lake and Stream Exceedances of Estimated Critical Loads (Sulphur + Nitrogen)
for Total Nitrogen and Sulphur Deposition, 2006-2008 71
Figure 42. Canadian National NH3 Emissions by Sector, 2007 72
Figure 43. National NH3 Emissions in Canada, 1985-2007 72
Figure 44. Ammonia Monitoring Network 73
Figure 45. Radiative Impact of Short-lived Climate Forcers 74
Figure 46. Major Atmospheric Transport Pathways Affecting North America 75
TABLES
Table 1. Units and S02 Emissions Covered by Monitoring Method for the Acid Rain Program, 2009 8
Table 2. PEMA Emissions, 2008 30
Table 3. U.S. Air Quality Monitoring Networks 50
Table 4. Regional Trends in Sulphate, Nitrate and ANC at Long-term Monitoring Sites, 1990-2007 64
IV
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Introduction
Both Canada and the United States committed to reduce the
impact of transboundary air pollution through the 1991 Canada-
United States Air Quality Agreement (AQA). The Acid Rain Annex,
negotiated with the original 1991 agreement, committed both
Canada and the United States to reducing acid rain-causing
emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOJ.
Since this time, there have been large reductions in SO2 and NOX
emissions on both sides of the border with subsequent reductions
in acidification and improvements in air quality. For example, as
of 2008, Canada's total SO2 emissions have decreased by 47%
from 1990 emission levels while the United States has reduced
total SO2 emissions from covered sources by 51 % from their 1990
levels. The Ozone Annex, added to the Agreement in 2000,
committed both countries to reducing emissions of NOX and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), the precursors to ground-
level ozone, a key component of smog. Between 2000 and
2008, the United States has reduced NOX emissions by 33% in
the transboundary ozone region while Canada's total NOX
emissions decreased by 32% in the region.
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The 2010 Progress Report, prepared by the bilateral Air Quality
Committee, is the tenth biennial report completed under the
1991 Canada-United States Air Quality Agreement. The report
summarizes key actions undertaken by Canada and the United
States in the last two years to address transboundary air pollution
within the context of the Agreement. The report presents progress
made toward meeting the commitments established in the
Acid Rain and Ozone Annexes of the Agreement, and in
implementing the underlying Agreement.
To prepare this report, the Air Quality Committee took into
consideration the public comments received through the
International Joint Commission (IJC) regarding the 2008 Progress
Report. A synthesis of comments can be found at the IJC website
at http://www.ijc.org/php/publications/pdf/ID1634.pdf. The
comments received expressed support for the Agreement
and its success in fostering cooperation on transboundary air
pollution control and satisfaction with the progress made by both
countries in reducing emissions of pollutants that cause acid rain
and contribute to smog formation. This Agreement continues
to provide important opportunities for collaboration between
Canada and the United States on air pollution and related issues.
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1 /
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Commitments
Acid Rain Annex
Overview
The Acid Rain Annex to the 1991 Air Quality Agreement established commitments
for both countries to reduce the emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides,
the primary precursors to acid rain. The commitments include prevention of air
quality deterioration, visibility protection, and continuous emissions monitoring. Both
countries have been successful in reducing the impact of acid rain on each side of
the border. However, despite these achievements, studies in each country indicate
that although some damaged ecosystems are showing signs of recovery, further
efforts are necessary to restore these ecosystems to their pre-acidified conditions.
Key Commitments and Progress: Sulphur Dioxide Emission Reductions
^^ For more than a decade, Canada has
fe^^^^gr steadily reduced sulphur dioxide (S02)
emissions, through the implementation
of the Canada-Wide Acid Rain Strategy
04NK^ for Post-2000. The strategy serves as
the framework for addressing the remaining acid rain
problem in eastern Canada and ensuring that new
acid rain problems do not occur elsewhere in Canada.
In 2008, Canada's total S02 emissions were 1.7 million
tonnes, or about 47% below the national cap of
3.2 million tonnes1. This represents more than a 63%
reduction from Canada's total S02 emissions in 1980
and a 46% decrease from the 1990 emission level
(see Figure 1). This overall reduction in national S02
emission levels can be attributed to the S02 emission
reductions undertaken by the four eastern provinces
(New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Ontario)
targeted by the Acid Rain Strategy.
One tonne is equal to 1.1 short tons.
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Figure 1. Total Canadian Emissions of S02,1980-2008
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
1980 1984 1988
Source: Environment Canada 2010
1992
The largest source of S02 emissions in Canada
continues to be the non-ferrous smelting and refining
sector, which accounted for 39% of national S02
emissions in 2008, despite an almost 60% decrease
in S02 emissions from this sector since 1990. Other
key industrial sources contributing to Canadian S02
emissions include electric power generation and
the upstream petroleum industry, which accounted
for 30% and 20%, respectively, of national S02
emissions in 2008.
While Canada has been successful in reducing
emissions of acidifying pollutants, many areas
across Canada have a low capacity to withstand acid
1996
2000
2004
2006
2008
deposition and continue to receive levels of acid
deposition in excess of critical loads. A critical load
is the maximum amount of acidifying deposition an
ecosystem can tolerate in the long term without
being damaged.
Despite Canadian emission reduction efforts, the
control of acidifying emissions has not occurred to
the extent necessary to reduce acid deposition below
critical loads and ensure the recovery of aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems.
*The United States succeeded in
meeting its commitment to reduce
annual S02 emissions by 10 million tons
^7> x
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the total allowances allocated each year must not
exceed the national cap. Every year, each individual
source must hold enough allowances to cover its
annual emissions. Unused allowances can be sold
(traded) or banked (saved) for future use. The
banking of allowances gives sources the flexibility
to determine how they will comply with program
requirements over time.
In 2009, the ARP's S02 program affected 3,572
electric generating units (EGUs). The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) allocated approximately
9.5 million S02 allowances under the ARP. Actual
emissions from affected sources were 5.7 million
tons of S02 (see Figure 2), down from 7.6 million
tons in 2008 and well below the 2010 cap of 8.95
million tons. Part of this reduction was due to a lower
demand for power in 2009 as well as new add-on
pollution control technology to meet recent federal and
state regulations, primarily in the eastern half of the
country. Additionally in 2009, the number of banked
allowances grew, from about 8.5 million available
for 2008 compliance to approximately 12.3 million
available for 2010 and future years.
In addition to the electric power generation sector,
emission reductions from other sources not affected
by the ARP, including industrial and commercial
boilers and the metals and refining industries, and
the use of cleaner fuels in residential and commercial
burners have contributed to an overall reduction in
annual S02 emissions. National S02 emissions from
all sources have fallen from nearly 26 million tons
in 1980 to less than 11.4 million tons in 2008
(see www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends).
Figure 2. U.S. S02 Emissions from Acid Rain Program
Electric Generating Units, 1990-2009
18
16
15.7
12
10
10.2
5.7
1990
Source: US EPA 2010
2000
2005
2008
2009
Key Commitments and Progress: Nitrogen Oxides Emission Reductions
Canada has met its commitment to
|f reduce NOX emissions from power
plants, major combustion sources
and metal smelting operations by
100,000 tonnes below the forecasted
level of 970,000 tonnes. This commitment is based
on a 1985 forecast of 2005 NOX emissions; in 2008,
industrial emissions of NOX totaled 664,755 tonnes.
Transportation sources contribute the majority of
NOX emissions, accounting for nearly 53% of total
Canadian emissions, with the remainder generated
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by power plants and other sources (see Figure 27:
U.S. and Canadian National Emissions by Sector
for Selected Pollutants, 2008 on page 45).
Additional information on Canadian emissions
can be found at http://www.ec.gc.ca/inrp-npri/
default.asp?lang=En&n=OEC58C98-l. Canada is
continuing to develop programs to further reduce
NOY emissions nationwide.
x "* .0
The United States has achieved and
exceeded its goal under the Acid Rain
Annex to reduce total annual NOX
emissions by 2 million tons below
projected annual emission levels for
2000 without the ARP (8.1 million tons).
Title IV of the Clean Air Act requires NOX emission
reductions from certain coal-fired EGUs. Unlike the
market-based S02 program, the NOX program under
the ARP uses rate-based-emission limits based on
boiler type to achieve reductions.
In 2009, 960 coal-fired units were affected by
the NOX program. All 960 met their NOX emission
requirements under the ARP. Emissions of NOX from
all NOX program-affected units were 1.8 million tons,
and total NOX emissions from all sources covered by
the ARP were 2.0 million tons (Figure 3). This level is
more than 5 million tons less than the projected NOX
levels for 2000 without the ARP, or more than double
the NOX emission reduction commitment under the
Acid Rain Annex.
While the ARP is responsible for a large portion of
these annual NOX reductions, other programs—such
as the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) NOX ozone
season and annual programs, and state NOX emission
control programs—also contributed significantly to
the NOX reductions that sources achieved in 2009.
(Note that a court decision in 2008 remanded the
CAIR rule to EPA and a replacement was proposed
on August 2, 2010. CAIR remains in effect temporarily
until the proposed rule is finalized.)
Figure 3. U.S. Title IV Utility Unit NOX Emissions from All ARP Sources, 1990-2009
7 ~ 6.7
2.0
1990
2000
2005
2008
2009
Source: US EPA 2010
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Emissions/Compliance Monitoring
Canada has met its commitments to
estimate emissions of NOX and S02
from new electric utility units and
existing electricity units greater than
CWA^ 25 megawatts (MW) using a method
comparable in effectiveness to continuous emission
monitoring systems (GEMS) and to investigate the
feasibility of using GEMS by 1995. Continuous
emissions monitoring installation in Canada's electric
utility sector has been widespread since the late
1990s. In 2010, almost all new and existing base-
loaded fossil steam plants with high emission rates
have operating GEMS. Coal-fired facilities, which
are the largest source of emissions from the sector,
have S02 and NOX GEMS installed at more than
94% of their total capacity. Under Canada's
National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI)
mandatory reporting program, electric power
generating facilities are required to report their
air pollutant emissions annually.
*The ARP requires affected units to
measure, record and report S02 and
carbon dioxide (C02) mass emissions
and NOX emission rates using GEMS or
an approved alternative measurement
method. The vast majority of emissions are monitored
with GEMS, while the alternatives provide a cost-
effective means of monitoring mass emissions for
smaller and/or cleaner units. Table 1 shows the
amount of S02 emissions monitoring using GEMS.
Affected sources are required to meet stringent quality
assurance and control requirements and report hourly
emission data in quarterly electronic reports to the
EPA. In 2009, the average percent of monitoring data
available (a measure of monitoring systems' reliability)
was 98.4% for coal-fired units. This number is based
on reported monitor data availability for S02 monitors
(98%), NOX monitors (99%), and flow monitors (98.1%).
Using automated software audits, the EPA rigorously
checks the completeness, quality, and integrity of
monitoring data. The Agency promptly sends results
from the audits to the source and requires correction
of critical errors. In addition to electronic audits, the
EPA conducts targeted field audits on sources that
report suspect data. In 2009, source compliance with
ARP emission monitoring requirements was 100%
for the 3,572 covered units. All emission data are
available to the public within two months of being
reported to EPA. Data can be accessed on the Data and
Maps website maintained by the EPA's Clean Air Markets
Division at http://camddataandmaps.epa.gov/gdm/.
Table 1. Units and S02 Emissions Covered by Monitoring Method
for the Acid Rain Program, 2009
Number of Units Percentage of Units „ .. . .
6 S02 Emissions
Coal
Gas
Oil
Other
GEMS
GEMS
Non-CEMS
GEMS
Non-CEMS
GEMS
Non-CEMS
1042
16
2277
43
158
13
1
29.35
0.45
64.14
1.21
4.45
0.37
0.03
98.80
0.04
0.06
0.16
0.80
0.15
<0.01
Note: "Other" fuel units include units that in 2009 combusted primarily wood, waste or other non-fossil fuel. The total number of units in the table excludes 17 affected units
that did not operate in 2009.
Source: US EPA 2010
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Acid Deposition Monitoring, Modelling, Maps and Trends
Airborne pollutants are deposited on the Earth's
surface by three processes: (1) wet deposition (rain
and snow), (2) dry deposition (particles and gases),
and (3) deposition by cloud water and fog. Wet
deposition is comparatively easy to measure using
precipitation monitors, and the concentration of
sulphate and nitrate in precipitation is regularly used
to assess the changing atmosphere as it responds
Figure 4.1990 Annual Wet
Sulphate Deposition
Source: National Atmospheric Chemistry (NAtChem) Database
(www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/natchem/index_e.html) and the National
Atmospheric Deposition Program
Figure 5. 2000 Annual Wet
Sulphate Deposition
to decreasing or increasing sulphur and nitrogen
emissions. In Canada, to facilitate this comparison,
measurements of wet sulphate deposition are typically
corrected to omit the contribution of sea salt sulphate
at near-ocean sites (less than 62 miles, or 100 kilometres
[km], from the coast).
Figures 4 through 6 show the U.S.-Canada spatial
patterns of wet sulphate (sea salt-corrected)
deposition for 1990, 2000 and 2007 (the most recent
data year). Figures 7 through 9 show the patterns
of wet nitrate deposition for the same three years.
Deposition contours are not shown in western Canada
because Canadian scientists judged that the locations
of the contour lines were unacceptably uncertain
due to the paucity of measurement sites in all of the
western provinces. To compensate for the lack of
contours, wet deposition values in western Canada
are shown as coloured circles at the locations of the
federal/provincial/territorial measurement sites.
The three maps indicate that wet sulphate deposition
is consistently highest in eastern North America
around the lower Great Lakes, with a gradient following
a southwest-to-northeast axis running from the
confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers through
the lower Great Lakes. The patterns for 1990, 2000
and 2007 illustrate that significant reductions occurred
Figure 6. 2007 Annual Wet
Sulphate Deposition
Source: National Atmospheric Chemistry (NAtChem) Database
(www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/natchem/index_e.html) and the National
Atmospheric Deposition Program
Source: National Atmospheric Chemistry (NAtChem) Database
(www.msc-smc.ee.gc.ca/natchem/index_e.html) and the National
Atmospheric Deposition Program
9
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in wet sulphate deposition in both the eastern United
States and much of eastern Canada. By 2000, the
region receiving greater than 28 kg/ha/yr (kilograms
per hectare per year) of sulphate wet deposition had
decreased to a small area near the southern shore
of Lake Erie, and had disappeared completely in
2007. The regions receiving more than 20 kg/ha/yr of
sulphate wet deposition in 1990 had also decreased
markedly by 2007 to several small areas mainly in the
states of Pennsylvania, New York and Indiana. The
wet sulphate deposition reductions are considered
to be directly related to decreases in S02 emissions
in both Canada and the United States. The emission
reductions are outlined in the Key Commitments and
Progress: Sulphur Dioxide Emission Reductions section
beginning on page 4 of this report. The patterns of
wet nitrate deposition (Figures 7 through 9) show a
similar southwest-to-northeast axis, but the area of
highest nitrate deposition is north of the region with
the highest sulphate deposition.
Reductions in wet nitrate deposition have generally
been more modest than for wet sulphate deposition,
except during the period from 2000 to 2007, when
large NOX emissions reductions occurred in the United
States and, to a lesser degree, in Canada. As a result,
Figure?. 1990 Annual Wet
Nitrate Deposition
Source: National Atmospheric Chemistry (NAtChem) Database
(www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/natchem/index_e.html) and the National
Atmospheric Deposition Program
Figure 8. 2000 Annual Wet
Nitrate Deposition
Source: National Atmospheric Chemistry (NAtChem) Database
(www.msc-smc.ee.gc.ca/natchem/index_e.html) and the National
Atmospheric Deposition Program
Figure 9. 2007 Annual Wet
Nitrate Deposition
Source: National Atmospheric Chemistry (NAtChem) Database
(www.msc-smc.ee.gc.ca/natchem/index_e.html) and the National
Atmospheric Deposition Program
10
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by 2007 the regions receiving greater than 15 kg/ha/yr
of nitrate wet deposition had all but disappeared in
the two countries, with the exception of small areas
of Pennsylvania, New York and Ontario.
Wet deposition measurements in Canada are
made by the federal Canadian Air and Precipitation
Monitoring Network (CAPMoN) and networks
in a number of provinces/territories, including
Alberta, the Northwest Territories, Quebec,
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Dry deposition
estimates are made at a subset of CAPMoN sites
using combined air concentration measurements
and modeled dry deposition velocities—the so-
called inferential technique. In the United States,
wet deposition measurements are made by two
coordinated networks: the National Atmospheric
Deposition Program/National Trends Network
(NADP/NTN), which is a collaboration of federal,
state and nongovernmental organizations
(http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/), and the NADP/
Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring
Network (AIRMoN), which is a sub-network of NADP
funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/AIRMoN/).
Dry deposition estimates in the United States are
made using the inferential technique based on
modeled dry deposition velocities and ambient air
concentration data collected by EPA, the National
Park Service (NPS), and the Clean Air Status and
Trends Network (CASTNET) (www.epa.gov/castnet).
Wet deposition measurements in the United States
and Canada are comparable, and the data are
available from the websites of the individual
networks and from a binational database accessible
to the public at www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/natchem/
index_e.html.
However, contrary to wet deposition estimates, the
comparability of dry deposition velocities calculated
by the Canadian and U.S. models is poor, although
comparability between the measured air concentration
values is reasonable. Studies show that dry deposition
can be an important contributor to total deposition;
thus ongoing efforts are in place to study the sources
of the differences between the modelled dry deposition
values. At the Borden research station in Ontario,
instruments have been co-located for a number of
years as part of an ongoing bilateral inter-comparison
study on modelling dry deposition. Recent studies
attempt to quantify the sensitivity of both the CAPMoN
and CASTNET dry deposition models to a variety
of factors that influence the dry deposition velocity,
with the goal of refining model parameters for better
comparability in future measurements, and reconciling
past measurements.
Preventing Air Quality Deterioration and Protecting Visibility
Canada is addressing the commitment
|f to prevent air quality deterioration and
ensure visibility protection by implementing
the Canadian Environmental Assessment
°4NF\^ Act, the Canadian Environmental
Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA 1999), and the
continuous improvement (CD and keeping clean
areas clean (KCAC) principles that are part of the
Canada-wide Standards for Particulate Matter (PM)
and Ozone.
Federal and provincial environmental assessment
regulation requires that air quality be considered
for all major new point sources or modifications to
existing sources to ensure that Canadian objectives to
protect the environment and human health are met.
Mandatory provincial reporting processes require new
and existing sources to file notifications, which are
reviewed to determine the scale of the environmental
assessment appropriate to each case. CEPA 1999
prefers to use pollution prevention in its approach
to environmental protection. Implementing similar
principles—pollution prevention, Cl and KCAC—is
also part of the Canada-wide Standards (CWS).
There are numerous locations across Canada where
ambient levels of PM and ozone are below the CWS.
Actions are required to ensure that levels in these
areas do not rise to the CWS, but rather, are reduced
over time, and that clean areas are maintained. For
example, although Metro Vancouver experiences good
regional air quality relative to most other Canadian
urban areas, the region adopted an Air Quality
Management Plan (AQMP) in 2005 to maintain and
11
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improve air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley airshed.
The AQMP aims to minimize the risk to human health
from air pollution, improve visibility, and reduce Metro
Vancouver's contribution to global climate change.
The CWS for PM25 (particulate matter less than or
equal to 2.5 microns) is being met throughout the
Lower Fraser Valley and the eastern part of the Valley
is just below the CWS for ozone after having met or
exceeded the standard during the past five years.
The AQMP therefore supports the CI/KCAC provisions
of the CWS. Also, visibility degradation in the Lower
Fraser Valley occurs at concentration levels of PM25
well below the CWS. The AQMP's emission reduction
actions aim to reduce direct emissions of PM and
ozone, as well as PM precursors.
The province of British Columbia continues to make
progress toward establishing a visibility management
framework, through the efforts of the British Columbia
Visibility Coordinating Committee (BCVCC), an
interagency committee consisting of representatives
from different levels of government involved in air
quality management in the province. Although the
BCVCC has been in existence since 2007, it was
formalized in 2009 with the development of official
terms of reference.
The BCVCC has established science, visibility index,
business case, reporting and pilot project working
groups to carry out projects related to visibility
management. Science studies include visibility
monitoring, the analysis of visibility trends, and
understanding the linkage between air pollutant
emissions and visibility impairment. Communications
efforts have been directed toward developing a
communications strategy on visibility and the creation
of a website (www.airhealthbc.ca/ca/default.htm) as
a means to promote visibility and educate the public
on this issue. Policy work involves the establishment
of a visibility goal for B.C. and the Lower Fraser Valley,
as well as the development of a metric to determine
progress toward meeting the goal. These products
will be evaluated and tested through a pilot project in
the Lower Fraser Valley to determine if they are viable
components of a visibility management framework.
Furthermore, a workshop was held in April 2010 to
provide direction on bringing a visibility framework
to reality in B.C.
In addition to the visibility protection work underway
in B.C., work is underway in other parts of Canada.
In 2010-2011, a visibility monitoring pilot site will be
established in the Rocky Mountains. The site meets
the U.S. Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual
Environments (IMPROVE) network's siting requirements,
and an agreement is being reached with the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to
have an IMPROVE speciation monitor on-site and to
carry out laboratory speciation data analysis. This allows
for the integration of data from this new site into the
IMPROVE database and the extension of the IMPROVE
visual range map into Canada. Other locations being
considered for future visibility monitoring are on the
Atlantic coast of Canada. Ongoing work involves the
inter-comparison of IMPROVE data with the CAPMoN
speciation samplers at Egbert, Ontario, to ensure
data comparability.
12
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*The United States has various
programs to ensure that air quality is
not significantly degraded by the
%,. x<.
Figure 10 shows the annual average standard
visual range within the United States for the period
2004-2008. "Standard visual range" is defined as
the farthest distance a large dark object can be seen
during daylight hours. This distance is calculated
using fine and coarse particle data from the IMPROVE
network. Increased particle pollution reduces the
visual range. The visual range under naturally
occurring conditions without human-caused pollution
in the United States is typically 45 to 90 miles (75 to
150 km) in the east and 120 to 180 miles (200 to
300 km) in the west. Additional information on the
IMPROVE program and visibility in U.S. national
parks can be found at http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/
improve/.
13
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Figure 10. Annual Average Standard Visual Range
in the Contiguous United States, 2004-2008
Source: US National Park Service 2010 (data from IMPROVE website: http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/improve/)
Consultation and Notification Concerning Significant Transboundary
Air Pollution
Canada and the United States are
'^(••r continuing notification procedures,
initiated in 1994, to identify potential
%> ^ new sources and modifications to
/ EFfO" existing sources of transboundary
air pollution within 100 kilometres (62 miles) of the
Canada-U.S. border. Additionally, the governments
can provide notifications for new or existing sources
outside of the 100 km (62 mile) region if they believe
there is potential for transboundary air pollution. Since
the publication of the last Progress Report in 2008,
Canada has notified the United States of four additional
sources, for a total of 55 Canadian notifications. The
United States has notified Canada of five additional
sources for a total of 61 U.S. notifications.
Transboundary notification information is available on
the government websites of each country at:
CANADA
http://www.ec.gc.ca/Air/
default.asp?lang=En&n=162474D9-l
UNITED STATES
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/gei/uscadata.html
14
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Following guidelines approved by the Air Quality
Committee in 1998 for a consultation request by a
Party on transboundary pollution concerns, Canada
and the United States report ongoing progress on
joint discussions concerning Essar Steel Algoma, Inc.
(ESAI) in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
Essar Steel Algoma, Inc.
The ESAI is an integrated primary steel producer
located on the St. Mary's River in Sault Ste. Marie,
Ontario, approximately one mile from the Canada-
U.S. border.
The Canada-U.S. Algoma informal consultation group
was formed in 1998 to address concerns regarding
local cross-border pollution. Representatives from the
United States and Canada hold regular discussions
to coordinate monitoring programs in the Sault
Ste. Marie area and to address progress in abating
potential transboundary air pollution from the ESAI
facility in Ontario. Air quality monitoring on the
Canadian side has been ongoing since the 1960s, and
the monitoring on the U.S. side was initiated by the
Intertribal Council of Michigan in 2001. Sampling of
fine PM and toxic air contaminants continues on both
sides of the border.
Canadian and U.S. representatives have continued to
meet to discuss progress toward reducing emissions
from ESAI and to share results of air monitoring
studies. To date, the air measurements recorded at
the Michigan sites do not violate U.S. ambient air
quality standards, nor do they exceed air toxics levels
of concern for long-term exposure. However, several
pollutants, including total suspended particulates and
coarse particulate matter (i.e. particulate matter less
than or equal to 10 microns, or PM10), exceed Ontario
air quality criteria in the west end of Sault Ste. Marie,
Ontario. The U.S. 24-hour NAAQS standard for PM25
was significantly reduced in 2006, thus it is possible
that Michigan sites could potentially be in exceedance
of the new standard.
In 2007, the Inter-tribal Council of Michigan installed
a camera, facing toward Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario,
as part of the Midwest Hazecam Network (see
www.mwhazecam.net). The Inter-tribal Council
provided the Ontario Ministry of the Environment
(MOE) with photographs documenting red and black
particle plumes emanating from ESAI on multiple
dates from 2007 to 2009. Ontario MOE staff have
documented these emissions events in their reporting
system and contacted ESAI regarding previously
unreported incidents.
In November 2009, the MOE confirmed that ESAI
completed installation of a permanent baghouse for
the #7 blast furnace in February 2009. Due to the
economic downturn, plans to restart the #6 blast
furnace and install permanent controls have been
delayed. The furnace is presently idle and ESAI does
not have any plans to start the #6 blast furnace in the
near future. When it does restart the #6 blast furnace
ESAI will have 10 months to have the permanent
baghouse operating. During the permanent bag house
installation a portable baghouse will be operating.
ESAI is currently acquiring all of the mechanical
components of the baghouse to ensure it can meet
the agreed upon timeline. ESAI initiated the operation
of its cogeneration facility earlier this year. The
cogeneration facility is fully operational.
Also, ESAI has been ordered to conduct a modelling
and monitoring study of the coke ovens, which
will result in a determination of the best available
technology to reduce fugitive emissions. ESAI has
chosen to install individual oven pressure controls
on the #9 battery. This retrofit is to be installed and
operational by October 31, 2011. The #7 battery will
be retrofitted with a mechanized door and jam cleaner,
which is to be operational by October 31, 2011, as well.
The ESAI bilateral consultation group will continue to
monitor and report on this facility.
15
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Ozone Annex
Overview
The Ozone Annex was added to the AQA in
2000 to address transboundary ground-level
ozone. The annex commits both Canada
and the United States to reducing emissions
of NOX and VOCs, the precursors to ground-
level ozone. The commitments apply to a
defined region in both countries known as
the Pollutant Emission Management Area
(PEMA), which includes central and southern
Ontario, southern Quebec, 18 U.S. states2 and
the District of Columbia. The states and provinces within the PEMA are the areas
where emission reductions are most critical for reducing transboundary ozone.
Key Commitments and Progress
Vehicles, Engines, and Fuels
New stringent NOX and VOC emission standards
for vehicles, including cars, vans, light-duty trucks,
off-road vehicles, small engines and diesel engines,
as well as fuels.
Emissions from vehicles, off-road
equipment, and fuels account for more
than 65% of the NOX emissions and
more than 30% of the VOC emissions in
the Canadian PEMA region. Consistent
with its Ozone Annex obligations, Canada has
implemented a series of regulations to align Canadian
emission standards for vehicles and engines with
corresponding standards in the United States.
The On-Road Vehicle and Engine Emission Regulations
were in effect as of January 1, 2004, and introduced
more stringent national emission standards, aligned
with U.S. federal standards, for new 2004 and later
model year light-duty vehicles and trucks, heavy-duty
vehicles and motorcycles. These regulations were
amended in 2006 to introduce new requirements for
2006 and later model year on-road motorcycles. The
changes ensure that Canadian emission standards
for on-road motorcycles remain aligned with more
stringent standards adopted by the EPA. In addition,
Canada plans to amend the On-Road Vehicle and
Engine Emission Regulations to require on-board
diagnostic (OBD) systems for on-road heavy-duty
engines such as trucks and buses.
The Off-Road Small Spark-Ignition Engine Emission
Regulations were in effect as of January 1, 2005,
and established emission standards, aligned with
U.S. federal standards, for 2005 and later model
year engines found in lawn and garden machines,
light-duty industrial machines, and light-duty logging
machines. New regulations are planned to introduce
standards to reduce air pollutant emissions from large,
off-road spark-ignition (SI) engines, such as forklifts.
2 Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia and Wisconsin.
16
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The Off-Road Compression-Ignition Engine Emission
Regulations were in effect as of January 1, 2006,
and introduced emission standards aligned with
U.S. federal standards (Tier 2 and 3), for new 2006
and later model year diesel engines, such as those
typically found in agricultural, construction and
forestry machines. Environment Canada plans to
amend these regulations to incorporate the more
stringent U.S. Tier 4 standards.
The proposed Marine Spark-Ignition Engine and
Off-Road Recreational Vehicle Emission Regulations
were published in the Canada Gazette, Part I, on
December 30, 2006. The proposed regulations will
introduce new emission standards, aligned with U.S.
federal standards, for new outboard engines, personal
watercraft, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), snowmobiles,
and off-road motorcycles to apply to 2011 and later
model year vehicles and engines
Regulatory initiatives for fuels include the Sulphur in
Gasoline Regulations, which limit the level of sulphur
in gasoline to 30 milligrams (mg)/kg (equivalent to
30 parts per million [ppm]) as of January 1, 2005;
and the Sulphur in Diesel Fuel Regulations, which
reduce the level of sulphur in diesel fuel used in
on-road vehicles to 15 mg/kg (15 ppm) as of June 1,
2006 and the level of sulphur in diesel fuel used
in off-road, rail and marine engines to 500 mg/kg
(500 ppm) as of 2007. Levels have been further
limited to 15 mg/kg (15 ppm) beginning in 2010 for
off-road and 2012 for rail and marine engines.
Canada and the United States have agreed to work
together under the Canada-United States Air Quality
Agreement to reduce transportation emissions by:
• harmonizing national vehicle and engine standards
for emissions of smog-forming pollutants;
• optimizing vehicle and engine emissions testing
activities, taking advantage of unique testing
capabilities, and sharing emissions test data where
appropriate to facilitate regulatory administration
activities in both countries; and
• sharing information and discussing strategies and
approaches on greenhouse gas emissions standards
for motor vehicles.
Stationary Sources of NOX
Annual caps by 2007 of 39 kilotonnes (kt) of NOX
(as nitrogen dioxide [N02]) emissions from fossil
fuel power plants in the PEMA in central and
southern Ontario, and 5 kt of NOX in the PEMA
in southern Quebec.
In the Canadian portion of the PEMA, the largest
source of NOX emissions from industry is the
fossil fuel-fired power sector. Canada has met its
commitment to cap NOX emissions from large fossil
fuel-fired power plants in the Ontario and Quebec
portions of the PEMA at 39 kt and 5 kt, respectively,
by 2007. Emissions from power plants in the Ontario
portion of the PEMA were approximately 78 kt in
1990. In 2009, NOX emissions from Ontario fossil fuel-
fired power plants are estimated to be 16.2 kt, or 58%
below the cap. Annual NOX emissions for 2008 from
Quebec fossil fuel-fired power plants in the PEMA are
estimated to be 0.109 kt, considerably below the cap.
Ontario's Cessation of Coal Use Regulation -
Atikokan, Lambton, Nanticoke and Thunder Bay
Generating Stations (0. Reg. 496/07) came into
effect in August 2007 and ensures that coal is not
to be used to generate electricity at Atikokan,
Lambton, Nanticoke and Thunder Bay Generating
Stations after December 31, 2014. Ontario is planning
to phase-out four more coal fired units by the end
of October 2010 - two at Nanticoke and two at
Lambton - with the remaining units to be phased
out by the end of 2014. Lakeview Generating Station
was closed in April 2005 (0. Reg. 396/01), eliminating
annual emissions of approximately 5,000 tonnes
of NOX and 15,900 tonnes of S02, upwind of the
Greater Toronto Area.
Ontario has been engaged in a number of clean
energy projects to offset coal-fired electricity generation.
Since October 2003, Ontario has secured contracts
representing more than 5,000 MW of new renewable
energy supply from large- and small-scale projects
across Ontario. More than 1,400 MW of these projects
have reached commercial operation and are generating
electricity from wind, water, sun and bio-based resources.
17
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To ensure that the 5 kt cap is met for the Quebec
portion of the PEMA, Quebec's Draft Air Quality
Regulation is introducing a specific cap of 2100
tonnes per year for the Sorel-Tracy plant. This plant is
used mainly during peak periods, and it easily met the
cap in 2008, with 109 tonnes of NOX emissions.
Proposed National Guideline on
Renewable Low-impact Electricity
Control and reduce NOX emissions in accordance
with a proposed national Guideline on Renewable
Low-impact Electricity.
A notice of a draft Guideline on Renewable Low-impact
Electricity (Green Power Guideline) was published in
the Canada Gazette, Part I, in 2001. This guideline
was developed to provide national guidance on
environmentally preferable electricity products and
their generation in Canada, and to establish criteria
for environmental labelling of qualifying electricity
products under the EcoLogoM Program. Certification
criteria derived from the draft guideline are being used
to certify qualifying electricity products. Most Canadian
provinces have developed their own specifications
and requirements for renewable low-impact electricity.
Notably, British Columbia and New Brunswick require
their facilities to meet the certification criteria for
renewable low-impact electricity, as defined by
the EcoLogoM Program. The EcoLogoM certification
criteria for Renewable Low-Impact Electricity are
being reviewed and updated to promote continuous
improvement in the environmental performance of
this industry. Issuance of updated criteria is planned
for 2011.
Measures to Reduce VOCs
Reduce VOC emissions by developing two
regulations—one on dry cleaning and another
on solvent degreasing—and using VOC emission
limits for new stationary sources.
The final provision of the Tetrachloroethylene
(Use in Dry Cleaning and Reporting Requirements)
Regulations came into effect in August 2005.
The environmental objective of the Regulations is
to reduce the ambient tetrachloroethylene (PERC)
concentration in the air to below 0.3 ug/m3
(micrograms per cubic metre). The risk management
goal of the Regulations is to reduce tetrachloroethylene
use in dry cleaning in Canada to less than 1,600 tonnes
per year. In June 2009, Environment Canada completed
a use pattern study and a statistical analysis of the 2006
ambient air concentrations of tetrachloroethylene across
Canada, indicating that both the regulatory objective
and goal have been achieved.
The Solvent Degreasing Regulations, which took
effect in July 2003, froze the consumption of
trichloroethylene (TCE) and PERC in affected cold
and vapour-solvent degreasing facilities for three
years (2004 to 2006) at then-current levels based
on historical use. Beginning in 2007, the annual
consumption levels were reduced by 65% for
affected facilities.
Measures for NOX and VOC Emissions
to Attain the CWS for Ozone
If required to achieve the CWS for ozone in the
PEMA by 2010, measures will be in place to reduce
NOX emissions by 2005 and implemented between
2005 and 2010 for key industrial sectors and
measures to reduce VOC emissions from solvents,
paints, and consumer products.
The CWS committed provincial jurisdictions to
developing implementation plans outlining the
comprehensive actions being taken within each
jurisdiction to achieve the standards. As the province
of Quebec is not a signatory to the CWS, it is not
required to develop an implementation plan. However,
the following sections describe the measures that
Quebec and Ontario have put in place to reduce
emissions of NOX and VOCs.
Ontario's implementation plan for reducing smog-
causing emissions includes the Industry Emissions—
Nitrogen Oxides and Sulphur Dioxide Regulation
(0. Reg. 194/05) which will lead to incremental
reductions of NOX and S02 from facilities in seven
industrial sectors. Since 2006, NOX and S02
emissions from facilities regulated under Regulation
194/05 have shown a downward trend due to a
number of factors including lower economic activity
and some facility improvements. More significant
reductions are expected in 2010, as 0. Reg. 194/05
requires a stricter cap. Further details on Ontario's
implementation plan can be found at www.ene.gov.on.ca/
programs/4708e.htm. More information on Ontario's
18
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Regulation 194/05 (Industry Emissions—Nitrogen
Oxides and Sulphur Dioxide) can be found at
www.ene.gov.on.ca/envision/AIR/regulations/industry.htm.
The federal government has worked in collaboration
with provinces, territories and stakeholders to create
a comprehensive air management system that will
effectively reduce ozone-causing emissions. As part
of this approach the federal government is considering
new national emissions standards for key industrial
sectors. In addition further actions on all sources of
NOX and VOCs could be taken by provinces in areas
where air quality is under pressure. Further details
can be found in the New Actions on Acid Rain, Ozone
and Particulate Matter section of the report.
VOC emissions from manufacturing and using
consumer and commercial products, such as
cleaning products, personal care products and
paints, contribute significantly to the formation of
smog. The federal government is therefore taking
action to reduce VOC emissions from consumer and
commercial products.
Two regulations controlling VOCs in products were
finalized in 2009. The Volatile Organic Compound
(VOC) Concentration Limits for Automotive
Refinishing Products Regulations and the Volatile
Organic Compound (VOC) Concentration Limits for
Architectural Coatings Regulations were finalized
and published in Canada Gazette, Part II on July 8
and September 30, 2009, respectively. A third
regulation controlling VOCs in certain consumer
products is expected to be finalized in 2010. The
VOC concentration limits align with a number of
current and upcoming regulations in California and
other U.S. jurisdictions. The Canadian regulations are
predicted to result in an average annual reduction in
VOC emissions by 28-40% in the covered sectors.
Environment Canada is currently examining other
product categories to identify additional opportunities
for the reduction of VOC emissions.
Actions by the Province
of Quebec
Quebec has made progress in meeting its Ozone
Annex commitments by way of several regulatory
actions. The Draft Air Quality Regulation, which is an
overhaul of Quebec's current Regulation Respecting
the Quality of the Atmosphere, contains stricter
standards aimed at reducing NOX emissions from
new and modified industrial and commercial boilers,
in accordance with Canadian Council of Ministers
of the Environment (CCME) guidelines. In addition,
when burners on existing units must be replaced, the
replacements must be Iow-N0x burners. The version
of the Draft Air Quality Regulation that was published
in November 2005 for consultations with interested
stakeholders is being revised.
With respect to VOC emissions, proposed standards
included in the Draft Air Quality Regulation aim
to reduce emissions from the manufacture and
application of surface coatings, commercial and
industrial printing, dry cleaning, above-ground storage
tanks, petroleum refineries, and petrochemical plants.
Quebec's Regulation Respecting Mandatory Reporting
of Certain Emissions of Contaminants into the
Atmosphere, which came into force in 2007, requires
Quebec enterprises to report atmospheric releases
of certain contaminants. It determines the reporting
thresholds, the information that these enterprises will
have to provide, and the parameters applicable to the
calculation of the quantities of these contaminants.
The Regulation allows for improved information on
emission sources of air contaminants across the
province, including emissions of VOCs and NOX.
Quebec enterprises whose annual VOC emissions
exceed 10 tonnes and annual NOX emissions exceed
20 tonnes are required to report their emissions.
Pursuant to its Regulation Respecting Petroleum
Products and Equipment, Quebec is currently
applying provisions aimed at reducing gasoline
volatility during the summer months in the city of
Montreal and the Gatineau to Montreal section of
the Windsor-Quebec City corridor. Quebec is also
evaluating the possibility of introducing amendments
to the above regulation to address vapour recovery
initiatives, including gasoline storage, transfer depots,
and service stations, regardless of whether they are
new or existing facilities, in the Quebec portion of the
Windsor-Quebec City corridor. The city of Montreal is
currently enforcing regulatory provisions concerning
gasoline vapour recovery in its territory.
19
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Actions by the Province
of Ontario
Ontario has met its commitments under the Ozone
Annex to reduce emissions of NOX and VOCs in the
Ontario portion of the PEMA. Ontario has implemented
the following programs, regulations, and guidelines:
• The Emissions Trading regulation (0. Reg. 397/01),
which establishes caps for NOX and S02 emissions
from the electricity sector.
• The Ontario Drive Clean Program (established under
0. Reg. 361/98, as amended by 0. Reg. 578/05),
which is a mandatory inspection and maintenance
program for motor vehicles that identifies vehicles
that do not meet provincial emission standards and
requires them to be repaired. The Vehicle Emissions
Enforcement Unit (Smog Patrol) complements
the Drive Clean Program by conducting roadside
inspections of heavy-duty and light-duty vehicles.
• The Recovery of Gasoline Vapour in Bulk Transfers
regulation (0. Reg. 455/94), which requires gasoline
facility operators to install, maintain and operate
gasoline vapour recovery systems.
• The Gasoline Volatility regulation (0. Reg. 271/91,
as amended by 0. Reg. 45/97), which sets limits
for gasoline vapour pressure during the summer.
• The Dry Cleaners regulation (0. Reg. 323/94),
which requires mandatory environmental training
every five years for at least one full-time employee
of all dry cleaning establishments in Ontario.
• Guideline A-5: New and Modified Combustions
Turbines (1994), which sets limits for NOX and
S02 emissions from new and modified stationary
combustion turbines.
• Guideline A-9: New Commercial/Industrial Boilers
and Heaters (2001), which imposes a NOX emission
limit on new or modified large boilers and heaters
in industrial installations.
• The Airborne Contaminant Discharge Monitoring
and Reporting regulation (0. Reg. 127/01),
amended by 0. Reg. 37/06 in February 2006, which
harmonizes Ontario's air emission reporting system
with Environment Canada's NPRI.
Beyond the Ozone Annex, Ontario has finalized the
Industry Emissions—Nitrogen Oxides and Sulphur
Dioxide regulation (0. Reg. 194/05) which sets limits
on emissions of NOX and S02 from seven industrial
sectors in Ontario. The province also amended the
Air Pollution - Local Air Quality regulation (0. Reg.
419/05) in 2007 and 2009; this regulation introduced
over 50 new and/or updated air quality standards,
several of which apply to VOCs. The regulation
also requires advanced air dispersion modelling
assessments to provide more accurate predictions
of impacts from industrial air emission sources.
X
*
NOX and VOC Program Updates
• From 2003 to 2008, implementing
the NOX transport emission
reduction program, known as the
NOX SIP Call, in the PEMA states
that are subject to the rule.
• Starting in 2009, implementing the Clean Air
Interstate Rule NOX ozone season program in the
PEMA states subject to the program.
Implementing existing U.S. vehicle, non-road
engine, and fuel quality rules in the PEMA to
achieve both VOC and NOX reductions.
Implementing existing U.S. rules in the PEMA for
the control of emissions from stationary sources
of hazardous air pollutants and of VOCs from
consumer and commercial products, architectural
coatings and automobile repair coatings.
Implementing 36 existing U.S. NSPS to achieve
VOC and NO, reductions from new sources.
20
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The NOX Budget Trading Program (NBP) was a
market-based cap and trade program created to
reduce the regional transport of emissions of NOX
from power plants and other large combustion sources
that contribute to ozone nonattainment in the eastern
United States. The NBP was designed to reduce NOX
emissions during the warm summer months, referred
to as the ozone season, when ground-level ozone
concentrations are highest.
The NBP was established through the NOX State
Implementation Plan (SIP) Call, promulgated in 1998.
All 20 affected states and the District of Columbia
chose to meet mandatory NOX SIP Call reductions
primarily through participation in the NBP. From the
beginning of program implementation in 2003 to
2008, the NBP dramatically reduced NOX emissions
from power plants and industrial sources during
the summer months, contributing significantly to
improvements in ozone air quality in the eastern
United States. In 2009, the NBP was replaced by the
Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) NOX ozone season
trading program, which required emissions reductions
from affected sources in an expanded geographic area
and went into effect May 1, 2009.
Emissions Reductions: In the 2008 ozone season,
NBP sources emitted 481,420 tons of NOX. This is an
overall decrease of almost 25,000 tons from 2007.
Figure 11 shows total ozone season NOX emissions
from all NBP sources. These data include ozone
season emissions prior to the start date of the NBP
for some states. For example, the totals in this section
include the 2003-2007 ozone season emissions for
affected units in Missouri, even though those sources
were not subject to the NBP emission reduction
requirements until 2007.
Compliance: Under the NBP, affected sources must
hold sufficient allowances to cover their ozone season
NOX emissions each year. In 2008, 2,568 units were
affected under the NBP. Of those units, only two
did not hold sufficient allowances to cover 2008
emissions. Overall, affected sources achieved over
99.9% compliance in 2008.
For more information on the NBP, please visit the
program's website at www.epa.gov/airmarkets/
progsregs/nox/sip.html. Detailed emissions results
and other facility and allowance data are also publicly
available on the EPA's Data and Maps website at
www.camddataandmaps.epa.gov/gdm. To view
emissions and other facility information in an
interactive file format using Google Earth or a similar
three-dimensional platform, gotowww.epa.gov/
airmarkets/progress/interactivemapping.html.
Figure 11. Ozone Season NOX Emissions from NOX Budget Trading Program Sources
2500
2000
1500
1,924
NBP Units Covered by CAIR
NBP Units Not Covered by CAIR
NBP Future CAIR Units
1,256
1000
500
609 c.q
22 508 506 481
16 13 8
I I I I I
351*
1990
2000
2003
2004
2005
2006 2007
2008
2009
Notes: NBP units not covered by CAIR are those units that were included in the NBP but not covered under the 2009 CAIR I
*The 2009 total includes only former NBP units now covered by CAIR.
Source: US EPA 2010
ozone season program.
21
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Current CAIR Implementation in
NBP States (transition from NBP to
CAIR NOX Ozone Season Program)
All former NBP states except Rhode Island are in
the CAIR NOX ozone season program, which also
includes six additional eastern states (Arkansas,
Florida, Iowa, Louisiana, Mississippi and Wisconsin)
and full state coverage in Alabama, Michigan and
Missouri. The CAIR NOX annual and CAIR S02
programs, which address PM25, apply in all of the
CAIR NOX ozone season states except Connecticut,
Massachusetts and Arkansas, and also include Texas
and Georgia. These areas are shown in Figure 12.
In a November 2009 rule, the EPA stayed the
effectiveness of CAIR for Minnesota, which had
previously been identified as significantly contributing
to nonattainment of PM25 ambient air quality
standards in downwind states. Therefore, the EPA
is excluding Minnesota sources and emissions from
compliance requirements.
The 2009 CAIR NOX ozone season emissions cap
for EGUs was at least as stringent as the NBP, and in
some states was tighter. The trading budget for any
NBP state that includes its industrial units under
CAIR remains the same for those units as it was
in the NBP. CAIR also allows sources to bank and
use pre-2009 NBP allowances for CAIR NOX ozone
season program compliance on a 1:1 basis, thereby
giving sources in those states the incentive to reduce
emissions sooner.
Furthermore, sources outside of the NBP region can
buy and use pre-2009 NBP allowances in the CAIR
NOX ozone season trading program. Finally, in order
to be in compliance, NBP sources that did not have
enough allowances in their accounts at the end of the
reconciliation period to cover their 2008 ozone season
emissions surrendered 2009 CAIR allowances at a
3:1 ratio.
In 2009, there were about 3,321 affected units in
the CAIR NOX annual program and 3,279 in the CAIR
NOX ozone season program (Figure 13). This covers
a range of unit types including units that operate
everyday or nearly everyday to provide baseload power
to the electrical grid as well as units that provide
power on peak demand days only and may not
operate at all some years.
Figure 12. PEMA Region and the Transition from the NBP to CAIR
Note: In a November 2009 rule, the EPA stayed the effectiveness of CAIR for Minnesota, which had previously been among the states controlled for fine particles.
Source: US EPA 2010
22
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Figure 13. Affected Units in CAIR NOX Annual
and CAIR NOX Ozone Season Programs
.0
E
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
13
CAIR N0x Annual Program CAIR N0x Ozone Season Program
Industrial Units
Other Fuel EGUs
Oil EGUs
Gas EGUs
Coal EGUsR
Unclassified EGUs
Note: "Other" fuel refers to units that burn fuels such as waste,
wood, petroleum coke, or tire-derived fuel.
Source: US EPA 2010
Emissions Reductions: Between 2008, the CAIR
transition year, and 2009, when compliance became
mandatory, ozone season NOX emissions fell in every
state participating in the CAIR NOX ozone season
program. Units in the seasonal program reduced
their overall NOX emissions from 689,000 tons to
495,000 tons (Figure 14). An 11% drop in heat input
and a 22% improvement in NOX rate accounted for
this reduction in total summer NOV emissions.
Figure 14. Ozone Season Emissions from
CAIR NOV Ozone Season Sources
800,000"
700,000"
600,000"
500,000"
400,000"
300,000"
200,000"
100,000"
2008
• New CAIR Units
Source: EPA, 2010
2009
Legacy NBP Units
Annual NOX Reductions
From 2008 to 2009, NOX emissions from units in the
CAIR NOX annual program region fell from 2.3 million
tons to 1.3 million tons, reflecting a 10% drop in
energy demand (as measured by heat input) and a
36% improvement in the rate of NOX emissions.
In 2009, the total emissions from sources in the
annual NOX region were about 350,000 tons (21%)
below the regional budget. All states participating
in the program reduced emissions from 2008
levels. Eighteen states and the District of Columbia
had emissions below their allowance budgets,
collectively by about 191,000 tons. Another six states
(Delaware, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi and
Pennsylvania) exceeded their 2009 budgets by a total
of about 37,000 tons.
23
-------
The introduction of the CAIR NOX annual program
reduced year-round regional emissions in 2009 as
program participants operated NOX control devices on
EGUs outside the summer months. These emission
reduction efforts had a dramatic impact: annual NOX
emissions from EGUs fell 43%, while power demand
(as measured by heat input) from those sources only
dropped 10%.
Compliance: In 2009, the EPA moved from unit-
level compliance under the NBP to facility-level
compliance with CAIR. Only one CAIR facility did not
hold enough allowances to cover its emissions for both
the ozone season and NOX annual programs. That
facility automatically surrendered a 3-for-l penalty
deduction from the next year's allowance allocation
for each program. (Note that a court decision in
2008 remanded the CAIR rule to the EPA and a
replacement rule was proposed on August 2, 2010.
CAIR remains in effect temporarily until the proposed
rule is finalized.)
New Source Performance Standards: All of the
36 categories of NSPS identified in the Ozone Annex
for major new NOX and VOC sources are promulgated
and in effect. In addition, the EPA finalized the NSPS
for Stationary Compression-Ignition Internal Combustion
Engines in July 2006, which is helping these sources
achieve significant reductions in NOX and VOC
emissions. Furthermore, in December 2007, the EPA
finalized an additional nationally applicable emission
standard—an NSPS for NO carbon monoxide (CO),
and VOC emissions from new stationary spark-ignited
internal combustion engines (for more information on
the Spark Ignited Internal Combustion Engine rule,
see www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/nsps/sinsps/sinspspg.html).
In February 2006, the EPA promulgated the NSPS
for utility and industrial boilers and combustion
turbines. The updated standards for NOX, S02, and
direct filterable PM are based on the performance of
recently constructed boilers and turbines. The EPA is
currently reviewing the NSPS for petroleum refineries
and for equipment leaks at chemical plants and
petroleum refineries. The equipment leak standards
were completed in October 2007, and the petroleum
refineries standard was completed in April 2008.
VOC Controls on Smaller Sources: In 1998, the
EPA promulgated national rules for automobile
repair coatings, consumer products, and
architectural coatings. The compliance dates for
these rules were January 1999, December 1998,
and September 1999, respectively. From a 1990
baseline, the consumer products and architectural
coatings rules are each estimated to achieve a
20% reduction in VOC emissions, and the automobile
repair coatings rule is estimated to achieve a
33% reduction in VOC emissions. Currently, the
EPA is developing amendments to the consumer
products rule and the architectural coatings rule
based on the Ozone Transport Commission model
rules for these categories. Both amended rules will
have a compliance date of 2012.
24
-------
In addition, the EPA had previously scheduled for
regulation 15 other categories of consumer and
commercial products under section 183(e) of the
Clean Air Act. To date, EPA has regulated or issued
guidance on all 15 categories, including flexible
packaging printing materials; lithographic printing
materials; letterpress printing materials; industrial
cleaning solvents; flatwood panelling coatings; aerosol
spray paints; paper, film, and foil coatings; metal
furniture coatings; large appliance coatings; portable
fuel containers; miscellaneous and plastic parts
coatings; auto and light-duty truck assembly coatings;
miscellaneous industrial adhesives; and fibreglass
boat manufacturing materials.
Motor Vehicle Control Program: To address motor
vehicle emissions, the United States committed to
implementing regulations for reformulated gasoline;
reducing air toxics from fuels and vehicles; and
implementing controls and prohibitions on gasoline
and diesel fuel quality, emissions from motorcycles,
light-duty vehicles, light-duty trucks, highway heavy-
duty gasoline engines, and highway heavy-duty
diesel engines.
On the fuel side, the EPA fully phased in requirements
for reformulated gasoline in nonattainment areas in
1995 and implemented low-sulphur requirements for
gasoline in 2005 and on-road diesel fuel in fall 2006
(30 ppm and 15 ppm sulphur levels, respectively).
The EPA implemented much tighter PM emission
standards for highway heavy-duty engines in 2007
and correspondingly tighter NOX standards in 2010.
The EPA implemented Tier 2 exhaust and evaporative
standards for light-duty cars and trucks from 2004
to 2009. The EPA has also implemented on-board
refueling standards and onboard diagnostic systems
(OBD II) requirements for these vehicles. In 2004, the
EPA published new motorcycle emission standards,
which took effect in 2006 and 2010.
Non-road Engine Control Program: The EPA has
applied engine standards in all five non-road engine
categories identified in the Ozone Annex: aircraft,
compression-ignition engines, spark-ignition engines,
locomotives and marine engines. Non-road diesel fuel
was aligned with on-highway diesel fuel at 15 ppm
sulphur in 2010. Locomotive and marine diesel fuel
has been limited to 500 ppm sulphur since 2007 and
will align with on-highway and non-road diesel fuel at
15 ppm in 2012.
The EPA began regulating non-road spark-ignition
(SI) engines in 1997 with its small SI engine rule,
which applies to lawn and garden engines under
25 horsepower (hp) (19 kilowatts [kW]). Marine
outboard engines and personal watercraft engines
were first regulated in 1998 and 1999, respectively.
Since then, the EPA has implemented tighter
standards covering a wider range of SI engines. The
EPA published regulations for recreational vehicles
and large SI engines in November 2002. These
regulations cover snowmobiles, ATVs, off-highway
motorcycles, and non-road equipment with engines
larger than 25 hp (19 kW). Phase-in of the emission
reductions began with the 2004 model year, and full
emission reductions will be achieved by the 2012
model year. The EPA's Phase 3 standards for small
spark-ignition engines including marine inboard and
sterndrive engines began phase-in in 2010.
In addition, the EPA began regulating non-road
compression-ignition engines (diesels) with the 1996
model year and has now promulgated more stringent
(Tier 4) standards for non-road compression-ignition
engines. The Tier 4 standards for non-road diesels will
phase in through 2014. New locomotive and marine
engine standards (for engines less than 30 litres/
cylinder) were finalized in March 2008 and took effect
in 2008 for remanufactured locomotive and marine
engines. Stringent Tier 3 standards began in 2009 for
newly manufactured engines. Even more stringent
Tier 4 standards requiring catalytic aftertreatment will
phase in for most newly manufactured locomotive and
marine engines beginning in 2014.
25
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Anticipated Additional Control Measures and Indicative Reductions
National Reductions
^^ In addition to measures to regulate
|f emissions from vehicles, off-road
equipment and fuels, the federal
government developed an ecoTransport
^NAv) Strategy to further reduce environmental
impacts of transportation. The ecoTransport Strategy
involves a series of initiatives designed to reduce the
amount of fuel consumed, improve transportation
efficiency and introduce cleaner transportation
technologies. Launched as part of the Government's
Clean Air Agenda, this strategy features the following
four programs: (1) the ecoMobility Program; which
aims to reduce urban passenger transportation
emissions by encouraging commuters to use public
transit and other sustainable transportation options
such as car pooling and biking; (2) the ecoTechnology
for Vehicles Program; which involves purchasing and
testing a range of advanced technologies, including
hydrogen, fuel cell and plug-in electric hybrid vehicles
to ensure that the latest clean vehicle technologies
are available quickly in Canada; (3) the ecoEnergy for
Personal Vehicles Program, which provides decision-
making tools to encourage consumers to purchase
fuel-efficient vehicles and tips for motorists on
maintaining their vehicles to reduce fuel consumption
and air pollution and (4) the ecoFreight program,
which works with the freight transportation industry
towards greater acceptance of technologies and
practices that reduce fuel consumption and air
pollution (see http://www.ecoaction.gc.ca/ecotransport/
index-eng.cfm).
Canada implemented a national vehicle scrappage
program in January 2009. By August 2010, 86,000
high-polluting vehicles of model year 1995 and earlier
were retired, resulting in a total reduction of 3,900
tonnes of NOX and VOC emissions. Canadians in every
province are offered a selection of incentives as rewards
for retiring their older vehicles that include $300 per
vehicle, free transit passes, rebates on bicycles or
replacement vehicles, memberships in car-sharing
programs, etc.
Since the federal government published the Regulatory
Framework for Air Emissions in 2007, the government
has worked with provinces, territories and stakeholders
to refine the approach for managing air pollutants. The
current proposal includes the establishment of national
standards to reduce ozone precursor emissions from
industry and other key sources.
Figure 15. Canadian Transportation NOX and VOC PEMA Emissions Projections, 1990-2020
800,000
700,000
600,000
C/)
I 500,000
£=
O
c 400,000
C/)
I 300,000
c/)
E
^ 200,000
100,000
Off-Road - N0x
On-Road - NO
Off-Road-VOC
On-Road-VOC
Total On & Off-Road VOC
Total On & Off-Road NO
1990 1995 2000
Source: Environment Canada 2010
2005
2006
2007
2008
2010
2015
2020
26
-------
The proposed reductions in air pollutant emissions
and improvements to air quality would occur
across the country, including in regions currently in
attainment of the CWS for ozone and in the PEMA,
as well as where ozone levels still exceed the CWS.
Quantitative Estimates
In the Ozone Annex, parties provided 2010 NOX and
VOC emission reduction estimates associated with
applying the control measures identified under Part
III of the Annex. The parties further agreed to update
these reduction forecasts to demonstrate that the
obligations are being implemented and to ensure that
quantitative estimates reflect any emission estimation
methodology improvements. The largest source of
NOX and VOC emissions in the Canadian PEMA region
is transportation. Figure 15 shows that NOX and VOC
emissions from transportation sources in the PEMA
are expected to decrease by 55% and by nearly 63%,
respectively, by 2015 from 1990 levels.
Using national emission data and an improved
methodology for emission projections, the specific
NOX and VOC emission reduction obligations in the
Annex are estimated to reduce annual NOX emissions
in the PEMA by 34% and annual VOC emissions in
the PEMA by 29% by 2010, from 1990 levels
(see Figure 16). Canada is currently in the process
of developing new emission projections based on the
2008 emissions data that will take into consideration
the impact of the recent economic slowdown and the
latest economic projections. These projections will
be available later in 2010. The information shown in
Figure 16 is the same as that presented in the 2008
progress report.
Figure 16. Canadian NOX and VOC PEMA
Emissions and Projections
1,600,000 1
1,200,000
-5 800,000
400,000
VOC
1990
2010
Note: Numbers for 2010 reflect all emission categories including
those committed in the specific obligations in Part III of Annex 3
Specific Objective Concerning Ground-Level Ozone Precursors.
Source: Environment Canada 2006
National Reductions
*ln 2010, the EPA finalized light duty
greenhouse gas standards in a joint
rulemaking with the U.S. Department of
%/j. X 30 litres
per cylinder) in 2009. These standards, which phase
in through 2016 are linked to the joint establishment
of Emission Control Areas (EGAs) around the U.S.
and Canadian coasts and internal waters such as the
Great Lakes. These standards will impose stringent
NOX standards for ships operating in the EGA and will
greatly reduce PM by reducing the sulphur allowed
in fuel used in the EGA. NOX emissions are expected
to be reduced by 80%, SOX by 95% and PM by 85%
when the requirements are fully implemented.
Area-Specific Reductions
The EPA is implementing NOX and VOC control
measures in specific areas, as required by applicable
provisions of the Clean Air Act. The measures include
NOX and VOC reasonably available control technology,
marine vessel loading, treatment storage and disposal
facilities, municipal solid waste landfills, onboard
27
-------
refueling, residential wood combustion, vehicle
inspection and maintenance, reformulated gasoline,
cement kilns, internal combustion engines, large
non-utility boilers and gas turbines, fossil fuel-fired
utility boilers, and additional measures needed to
attain the NAAQS.
Quantitative NOX and VOC
Emission Reductions
In the Ozone Annex, the United States provided NOX
and VOC emission reduction estimates associated
with the application of the control strategies identified
under Part III B and Part IV of the Annex. The EPA
has updated these estimates using national data sets
that were completed in late 2007.
The specific emission reduction obligations
(see Figure 17) are now estimated to reduce annual
NOX emissions in the PEMA by 53% (versus the
predicted overall emission reduction rate of 43%)
and annual VOC emissions in the PEMA by 41%
(versus the predicted overall emission reduction rate
of 36%) by 2010, from 1990 levels. Note that the U.S.
emissions projections are based on implementation
of the Clean Air Interstate Rule. A CAIR replacement
rule has not been finalized, thus revised emissions
projections that reflect this new regulation are not
currently available. Since CAIR remains temporarily
in effect until it is replaced, the U.S. anticipates that
the 2010 projected emissions reductions will be
comparable to those shown in Figure 17.
Figure 17. U.S. NOX and VOC PEMA
Emissions and Projections
12 ~
10"
• 1990 Base • 2010 Base
Source: US EPA 2008
Reporting PEMA Emissions
Provide information on all
^^ anthropogenic NOx and all
anthropogenic and biogenic
VOC emissions within the PEMA
Ol\/IM\^ from a year that is not more than
two years prior to the year of the biennial progress
report, including:
• annual ozone season (May 1 to September 30)
estimates for VOC and NOX emissions by the
sectors outlined in Part V, Section A, of the
Ozone Annex; and
• NOX and VOC five-year emission trends for the
sectors listed above, as well as total emissions.
Canada and the United States have complied with
emission reporting requirements in the Ozone Annex.
Canada's National Pollutant Release Inventory
(NPRI) provides a comprehensive emissions
inventory for pollutants such as NOX, VOCs, S02,
total PM, PM10, PM25, and CO that contribute to
acid rain, ground-level ozone and components of
smog. This comprehensive inventory is based on
two components:
• mandatory annual reporting of emissions by more
than 8,700 facilities; and
• emission estimates compiled for various sources
such as motor vehicles, residential heating, forest
fires and agricultural activities.
The information reported by facilities is publicly
available on the Environment Canada website
at .
28
-------
The compilation of the comprehensive 2008 air
pollutant emissions summaries were completed in
early 2010, and the emission data have been included
in this 2010 Progress Report. The historical trends
(1985-2007) were also updated to reflect the latest
emission estimation methods and statistics for various
sectors such as on-road and non-road transportation
vehicles, and the wood products industry. The
Canadian emission summaries are available on
Environment Canada's website at http://www.ec.gc.ca/
inrp-npri/default.asp?lang=En&n=FFE5DABE-l.
New emissions inventory modelling files for the
calendar years 2006 and 2008 are now available and
include updated information on the temporal and the
spatial allocation of the emissions for various sources
and pollutants.
In the United States, the EPA developed the National
Emissions Inventory (NED as a comprehensive
inventory covering emissions in all U.S. states for point
sources, nonpoint sources, on-road mobile sources,
non-road mobile sources and natural sources. The
NEI includes both criteria pollutants and hazardous
air pollutants. The emissions data in this 2010
Progress Report include 2008 projections based on
extrapolations of 2005 NEI data and also represent
monitored, source-reported emissions under the U.S.
ARP and NBP through 2009. The U.S. regulations
require that states report emissions from large point
sources every year and for all sources once every
three years. The next comprehensive U.S. emissions
inventory will be for 2008 and will be issued in
early 2011.
Table 2 shows preliminary Canadian and U.S.
emissions in the PEMA for 2008 for NOX and
VOCs. Note that U.S. ozone season biogenic VOC
emissions are not currently available. However, most
of the estimated annual biogenic VOC emissions
occur during the ozone season. Figures 18 and
19 show U.S. emission trends in these areas for
1990 through 2008. The trend in the PEMA states
is similar to the U.S. national trend. For NOX, most
of the emission reductions come from on-road and
non-road mobile sources and electric utilities. Over
this same period, the reductions in VOC emissions
are primarily from on-road mobile sources and
solvent utilization. VOC emissions from non-industrial
fuel combustion increased after 1998 and then
returned to a downward trend by 2000, but saw a
significant spike upward in 2001. The general rise in
VOC emissions from 2001 to 2002 is in part due to
improved characterization methods for non-industrial
fuel combustion (e.g. commercial and institutional
sources such as office buildings, schools, hospitals),
petroleum refining, solvent utilization, non-road mobile
sources, residential wood combustion, and wildfires.
Also, there are changes to VOC emissions around
2005 when compared to the 2008 Report due to
a correction for VOC emission rates for residential
wood combustion and a more complete exclusion
of wildfire data.
29
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Table 2. PEMA Emissions, 2008
2008 Annual
2008 Ozone Season
Emissions Category
1000
Tonnes
1000
Tonnes
1000
Tonnes
Canadian PEMA Region: Annual and Ozone Season Emissions
1000
Tonnes
Industrial Sources
Non-industrial Fuel
Combustion
Electric Power
Generation
On-road Transportation
Non-road Transportation
Solvent Utilization
Other Anthropogenic
Sources
Forest Fires
Biogenic Emissions
TOTALS
TOTALS
without Forest Fires
and Biogenics
91
48
39
196
245
0
6
0
-
624
624
83
43
36
178
222
0
5
0
-
568
568
87
102
0
98
165
263
139
0
-
854
854
79
93
0
89
150
239
126
0
-
777
777
39
12
16
77
131
0
3
0
-
353
353
36
11
15
70
120
0
2
0
-
321
321
37
17
0
42
84
112
83
0
-
342
342
34
15
0
38
76
102
75
0
-
311
311
U.S. PEMA States: Annual and Ozone Season Emissions
Industrial Sources
Non-industrial Fuel
Combustion
Electric Power
Generation
On-road Transportation
Non-road Transportation
Solvent Utilization
Other Anthropogenic
Sources
Forest Fires*
Biogenic Emissions*
TOTALS
TOTALS
without Forest Fires
and Biogenics
608
382
1,236
1,747
1,254
1
64
1
149
5,443
5,292
552
346
1,122
1,585
1,138
0
58
1
139
4,938
4,801
261
655
17
1,179
995
1,728
552
14
4,445
9,846
5,387
236
594
16
1,070
903
1,568
501
12
4,038
8,932
4,887
253
159
515
728
523
0
27
-
-
2,205
2,205
230
144
467
660
474
0
24
-
-
2,000
2,000
109
273
7
491
415
720
230
-
-
2,245
2,245
99
248
6
446
376
653
209
-
-
2,036
2,036
*Data are for 2005.
Note: Tons and tonnes are rounded to the nearest thousand. Totals in final rows may not equal the sum of the individual columns.
Source: Environment Canada and US EPA 2010
30
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Figure 18. U.S. NOX Emission Trends in PEMA States, 1990-2008
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
( indicates data are not available)
Industrial sources ^^— Non-industrial fuel combustion
- On-road transportation ^^^— Non-road transportation
^^— Other anthropogenic sources ^^— Electric power generation
Note: The scales in Figures 18-19 and 20-21 are significantly different.
Source: US EPA 2010
Figure 19. U.S. VOC Emission Trends in PEMA States, 1990-2008
4,000 ~
3,500"
3,000"
2,500 ~*
2,000
1,500
1,000
J
500
•
0^
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
(........ indicates data are not available)
Industrial sources ^^^— Non-industrial fuel combustion
On-road transportation ^^— Non-road transportation
^^^ Other anthropogenic sources ^^^— Solvent utilization
Note: The scales in Figures 18-19 and 20-21 are significantly different.
Source: US EPA 2010
2008
31
-------
Figure 20. Canada NOX Emission Trends in the PEMA Region, 1990-2008
600
500"*
400
300
200
100"
300
250
100
50
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
^^— Industrial sources
On-road transportation
^^— Non-road transportation
Note: The scales in Figures 18-19 and 20-21 are significantly different.
Source: Environment Canada 2010
Non-industrial fuel combustion
Electric power generation
Other anthropogenic sources
Figure 21. Canada VOC Emission Trends in the PEMA Region, 1990-2008
400 "0
350"
300"*
250"
200 "•
150 "»
100 "•
50"
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
^^— Industrial sources
^^^ Non-road transportation
^^— Solvent utilization
Note: The scales in Figures 18-19 and 20-21 are significantly different.
Source: Environment Canada 2010
On-road transportation
Other anthropogenic sources
Non-industrial fuel combustion
32
-------
Figures 20 and 21 show Canadian NOX and VOC
PEMA emission trends for 1990 through 2008. For
NOX, most of the reductions come from on-road
mobile sources and electric power generation, with
increases in non-industrial fuel combustion and
other anthropogenic sources. Similar reductions and
increases were observed for VOC emissions. VOC
emission reductions were primarily from on-road
mobile sources, electric power generation, industrial
sources and solvent utilization, with a slight increase
in non-industrial fuel combustion.
Reporting Air Quality for All Relevant Monitors within 500 km
of the Border between Canada and the United States
Both the United States and
Canada have extensive networks
to monitor ground-level ozone and
its precursors. Both governments
prepare routine reports summarizing
measurement levels and trends. The latest quality-
assured complete data set from both countries is
for 2008.
Ambient Levels of Ozone in the
Border Region
Figure 22 illustrates ozone conditions in the border
region in the metrics of national standards. The
reference period is 2006 through 2008. Only data
from sites within 500 km (310 miles) of the Canada-
U.S. border that met data completeness requirements
were used to develop this map. Figure 22 shows that
higher ozone levels occur in the Great Lakes and
Ohio Valley regions and along the U.S. east coast.
Lowest values are generally found in the West and in
Atlantic Canada. Levels are generally higher downwind
of urban areas, as can be seen in the western
portions of Lower Michigan, though the full detail
of urban variation is not shown. For ozone, the data
completeness requirement was that a site's annual
fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour concentration
(parts per billion [ppb] by volume) be based on 75%
or more of all possible daily values during the EPA-
designated ozone monitoring seasons.
33
-------
Figure 22. Ozone Concentrations along the Canada-U.S. Border
(Three-Year Average of the Fourth-highest Daily Maximum 8-hour Average),
2006-2008
hour Ozone for 2006 - 2008 in ppb
\ I ~-—T__
Note: Data contoured are the 2006-2008 averages of annual fourth-highest daily values, where the daily value is the highest running 8-hour average for the day. Sites used
had at least 75% of possible daily values for the period.
Sources: Environment Canada National Air Pollution Surveillance (NAPS) Network Canada-wide Database, 2008 (http://www.ec.gc.ca/rnspa-naps/Default.
asp?lang=En&n=5COD33CF-l)); EPAAerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) Database (www.epa.gov/air/data/index.html)
Ambient Concentrations of Ozone,
NOX, and VOCs
Annual ozone levels over the 1995-2008 time period
are presented in Figure 23, based on information from
longer-term eastern monitoring sites within 500 km
(310 miles) of the Canada-U.S. border. Ozone levels
have decreased over the period with a notable decline
in ozone levels since 2002. The lower ozone levels
shown for 2004 were due, in part, to the cool, rainy
summer in eastern North America. There is also a
complex regional pattern in ozone level variations,
which is not evident from the graph shown in
Figure 23. Figures 24 and 25 depict the average
ozone season levels of ozone precursors NOX and
VOCs in the eastern United States and Canada. These
measurements represent information from a more
limited network of monitoring sites than is available
for ozone. Figure 26 shows the network of monitoring
sites actually used to create the trend graphs in
Figures 23 through 25.
34
-------
o
o
Figure 23. Annual Average Fourth-highest Maximum 8-hour Ozone Concentration
for Sites within 500 km of the Canada-U.S. Border, 1995-2008
50
40
30
20
10
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
• Canada • United States
Source: US EPA and Environment Canada 2010
Figure 24. Average Ozone Season 1-hour NOX Concentration for Sites
within 500 km of the Canada-U.S. Border, 1995-2008
20
15
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
• Canada • United States
Source: US EPA and Environment Canada 2010
35
-------
o
_Q
Q.
O
O
o
o
Figure 25. Average Ozone Season 24-hour VOC Concentration for Sites
within 500 km of the Canada-U.S. Border, 1997-2008
90
10
0
1997 1998 1999 2000
Canada
2001
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
2008
60
50
£ 40
£ 30
o
o
o 20
10
1997 1998 1999 2000
• United States
Source: US EPA and Environment Canada 2010
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
36
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Figure 26. Network of Monitoring Sites Used to Create Graphs
of Ambient Ozone, NOX and VOC Levels
. • .; *
-- . •• -*.\:
Site Data Used in Graphs
* OIOIM & VOC
* NO* «. VOC
• Ozom. NOx S VOC
Source: US EPA and Environment Canada 2010
The data in Figures 24 and 25 represent measurements
for the ozone season (i.e. May through September).
Although NOX and VOC concentrations have fluctuated
over recent years, because VOC concentrations are
influenced by temperature, these fluctuations are
most likely due to varying meteorological conditions.
Overall, the data indicate a downward trend in the
ambient levels of both NOX and VOCs. The limited
correspondence between composite ozone and
precursor trends could reflect the regional complexity
of the problem as well as network limitations.
Recently in the United States, there has been much
investigation into the relationship between NOX
emissions reductions under the NOV SIP Call and
observed concentrations of ambient ozone in the
states participating in the NBP. Generally, a strong
association exists between areas with the greatest
NOX emission reductions and downwind monitoring
sites measuring the greatest improvements in ozone.
This suggests that, as a result of the NBP, transported
NOX emissions have been reduced in the East,
contributing to ozone reductions that have occurred
after implementation of the NBP. More information on
the relationship between NOX emissions and ambient
ozone concentrations in the eastern United States
is available in the NOX Budget Trading Program
2008 Environmental Results report available at
http://www.epa.gOV/airmarkets/progress/N BP_3.html.
37
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New Actions on Acid Rain, Ozone and Particulate Matter
For the past two years the federal
government has worked with provinces,
territories and other stakeholders
to develop a comprehensive air
4A/A£>^ management system (CAMS) framework
that could reduce air pollutant emissions from major
sources in Canada. The federal Minister of the
Environment and his provincial counterparts
are currently reviewing the framework and will
discuss next steps in the fall of 2010. The proposed
CAMS framework includes three key elements:
Canadian Ambient Air Quality Standards
(CAAQS)
New ambient air quality standards for particulate
matter (PM) and ground-level ozone would be
established under CEPA 1999 and considered as new
national standards to replace the existing Canada-
wide Standards. There is a recommendation to
subsequently develop additional CAAQS for nitrogen
oxides (NOX) and sulphur dioxide (S02) as our current
objectives were last updated in the mid eighties.
Air Zone Management/Regional Airsheds
The framework recommends the establishment of
trigger levels set relative to the CAAQS to ensure
proactive measures are taken to protect air quality if
it is deteriorating. If pollution levels rise within local
air zones (delineated and managed by the provinces),
increasingly stringent action would be taken to ensure
the CAAQS are not exceeded and do not become
"pollute up to" levels. Four air quality trigger levels
will drive a range of management actions in an
escalating sequence. Airsheds will provide a
framework for inter-jurisdictional collaboration and
coordination of overall system reporting. Six regional
airsheds will be established to understand and
coordinate action on transboundary emissions.
Base-level industrial emissions requirements
(BLIERs)
BLIERs would be quantitative or qualitative emissions
requirements (emissions-intensity like) proposed
at a national level for new and existing facilities in
major industrial sectors and three equipment types.
These requirements are based on what leading
jurisdictions inside or outside Canada are requiring of
industry in "attainment areas," adjusted for Canadian
circumstances. The framework already proposes
preliminary BLIERs for some air pollutants in nine
sectors and one cross-sectoral equipment type.
Additional BLIERs would need to be developed and
all the proposed levels would still require validation
including cost-benefit analysis.
In addition to this new framework and as mentioned
previously, several new regulations have been
announced which will have coincidental benefits for
ground-level ozone, particulate matter and acid rain
forming pollutants.
The Government of Canada has proposed greenhouse
gas regulations that will apply a stringent performance
standard to new coal-fired electricity generation
units and those that have reached the end of their
economic life. The overall goal of the regulations is
to transition from high-emitting coal-fired electricity
generation to low- or non-emitting generation such
as renewable energy, high-efficiency natural gas, or
thermal power with carbon capture and storage. Draft
regulations are expected to be published in Canada
Gazette early in 2011, final regulations are expected
be published later that year, with the regulations
scheduled to come into effect by July 1st, 2015.
The proposed regulations are expected to have
important co-benefits in reducing air emissions and
improving local air quality. Coal-fired generation in
2007 was a major contributor of total particulate matter
38
-------
(86% of electric utility emissions), sulphur dioxide
(95% of electric utility emissions), nitrogen oxide (75%
of electricity emissions) and mercury (96% of electric
utility emissions). Compared with business-as-usual
projections, the following approximate reductions
are anticipated:
• Sulphur dioxide emissions from electricity
generation are projected to be some 39% lower
relative to business-as-usual by 2030.
• Nitrogen oxide emissions from electricity
generation are projected to be some 9% lower
relative to business-as-usual by 2030. This is
some 35% below 2005 levels.
• Mercury emissions from electricity generation
are projected to be some 29% lower relative
to business-as-usual by 2030. This is some
65% below 2005 levels.
*
Ozone Standards
and Implementation
In March 2008, the EPA revised the
national ambient air quality standards
(NAAQS) for ground-level ozone, setting
them at a level of 0.075 ppm, based
on an 8-hour averaging time. Both the
primary standard for the protection of health and the
secondary standard for the protection of sensitive
vegetation and ecosystems were set at this level.
While this action strengthened the standards from the
previous 1997 standards level of 0.084 ppm, the new
standard reflected a level above the range of 0.060
to 0.070 ppm that was recommended by the EPA's
Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee (CASAC).
In response to petitions for reconsideration of the
new standards, the EPA Administrator decided to
reconsider the ozone standards. The reconsideration
was based on the existing scientific and technical
record used in the March 2008 review, which
included more than 1,700 new scientific studies.
In January 2010, the EPA proposed to further strengthen
the primary and secondary ozone standards. Final action
on this review of the ozone standards is scheduled for fall
2010. For additional information on the proposed ozone
standards and other implementation issues please visit
www.epa.gov/air/ozonepollution/actions.html.
Regarding ongoing implementation of the 1997 ozone
standards (established at a level of 0.084 ppm with
an 8-hour averaging time), more than 75% of the
126 areas designated as nonattainment in 2005
now attain the standards. A number of national
and regional measures—such as the NOX SIP
Call for electric utilities and other large sources,
more stringent requirements for car and truck engines
and fuels, and issuance of new standards to reduce
emissions from a wide range of sources of toxic air
pollutants (and VOCs)—have helped these areas
attain the standards. The EPA continues to work with
the remaining areas to further reduce emissions and
reach attainment.
39
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Particulate Matter Standards and
Implementation
The EPA established the original NAAQS for PM25
in 1997 to provide protection from the adverse
health effects of fine particles. The primary annual
PM25 standard was set at a level of 15 micrograms per
cubic meter (ug/im3) averaged over three years, and
the 24-hour standard was set at a level of 65 ug/m3
(average of 98th percentile value for three consecutive
years). The secondary standards for PM25, for protection
against urban visibility impairment, materials damage,
and other environmental effects, were set at levels
identical to those for the primary standards.
In April 2005, the EPA designated 39 areas as
nonattainment areas for the 1997 PM25 standards.
Thirty-six of these areas are in the eastern United States
(including Chicago, Detroit and Cleveland, located on
the Great Lakes); two are located in California; and
one area is located in the northwestern United States.
States were required to submit state implementation
plans to the EPA in 2008. Each plan is to include
strategies and regulations for reducing emissions of
PM25 and its precursors, and demonstrate how the
area would attain the standards "as expeditiously
as practicable," presumptively within five years of
designation. The EPA can grant extended attainment
dates up to ten years from the date of designation for
areas with more severe air quality situations. The 2007
Clean Air Fine Particle Implementation Rule provided
guidance to the states in developing their plans and
can be found at www.epa.gov/pm/actions.html.
A number of federal and regional programs have
been established to reduce emissions of fine particles
and important precursor pollutants from key sources
such as on-road and non-road vehicle engines and
power plants. Examples include the 2000 heavy-
duty highway diesel engine rule, the 2004 Clean Air
Nonroad Diesel Rule, the 2008 Locomotive and
Marine Diesel Engine Rule, and voluntary diesel
retrofit programs in many states. Despite legal
challenges to the Clean Air Interstate Rule, by 2009
U.S. power plants reduced S02 emissions by 4.5 million
tons since 2005. Voluntary programs to change out
residential wood stoves and reduce wood smoke
40
-------
emissions have also been successful in a number of
cities. Together, these programs have led to important
reductions in particle pollution in the United States.
Through 2009, 35 of the 39 designated nonattainment
areas have air quality concentrations attaining the
1997 PM25 standards.
In October 2006, the EPA completed another review
of the PM standards, reflecting findings from scientific
studies published since the last review. The level
of the annual PM25 standard remained unchanged
at 15 ug/m3. However, the EPA established a more
protective 24-hour standard at 35 ug/m3 (average of
98th percentile values for 3 years). The secondary
standards were set at levels identical to those for
the primary standards. The existing 24-hour PM1C
standard of 150 ug/m3 was retained. However, due
to a lack of evidence linking health problems to
long-term exposure to coarse particle pollution, the
EPA revoked the annual PM10 standard. The revised
standards and related information can be found at
www.epa.gov/pm/standards.html.
Following the issuance of the 2006 standards, a
number of parties challenged the EPA's decision not
to strengthen the annual standard as recommended
by the CASAC. In February 2009, a federal appellate
court remanded the 2006 annual standard back to the
EPA. The EPA intends to address the remand of the
annual standard in the context of the ongoing review
of the PM standards, scheduled for completion in late
2011. More information on the current PM NAAQS
review can be found at www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/
standards/pm/s_pm_index.html.
Following the revision of the 24-hour PM25 standards in
2006, the EPA designated 31 areas as nonattainment
areas for the new standard in November 2009. Sixteen
of these areas had been designated nonattainment
for PM25 in 2005; 15 areas were new PM2E
nonattainment areas. In contrast to the previous round
of nonattainment designations in 2005, a number of
the new areas have high concentrations primarily
in the cold weather months, with key contributions
from wood smoke emissions. State attainment
plans for these 31 nonattainment areas are due in
December 2012. Additional information on the 2009
area designations can be found at www.epa.gov/
pmdesignations/2006standards/.
41
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Related Air Quality Efforts
New England Governors and
Eastern Canadian Premiers
The Conference of New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers
(NEG/ECP) is a unique international relationship of six New England state
governors (from Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode
Island and Vermont) and five eastern Canadian premiers (from New Brunswick,
Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Quebec).
The conference was created in 1973 and addresses many topics, including
the environment, economic development, tourism, energy, fisheries, trade
and agriculture.
At the June 2009 meeting of the NEG/ECP, governors
and premiers of the Acid Rain and Air Quality Steering
Committee reported that they have met all of the key
action items that were set out in the Acid Rain Action
Plan of 1998. These included the following:
• coordinated data collection and management
• development of regional surface water quality and
fine particulate matter monitoring programs
• the implementation of a regional forest mapping
research project
• increased public awareness and education
• the establishment of appropriate emission reduction
targets: a regional 50% reduction of S02 emissions
by 2010 and a 20-30% reduction in NOX emissions
by 2007
The Acid Rain and Air Quality Steering Committee
is looking to refocus its activities to address current
environmental concerns. It will assess current federal
standards and processes for airborne pollutants in
order to determine whether there is a need to update
regional emissions beyond 2010. The committee is also
considering initiatives related to wood combustion and
expanding public access to information on air quality.
42
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The Transportation and Air Quality Committee,
established in 2007 by the governors and premiers,
drafted a regional Transportation and Air Quality
Action Plan in 2008 that includes recommendations
to assist jurisdictions in coordinating efforts toward
greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction. The
Transportation and Air Quality Committee continues to
work in the following areas:
• supporting development of environmentally
friendly biofuels by assessing new technologies
and local feedstocks
• promoting fuel efficiency in all modes
of transportation
• expanding alternative transportation and
commuter services
• aligning infrastructure funding with energy and
climate goals
• seeking new opportunities to enhance regional
interconnectivity and efficiency of regional
freight networks
• seeking to adopt carbon dioxide and air quality
standards, such as the California standards,
for cars throughout the region
Further information on the work of NEG/ECP can
be found at www.cap-cpma.ca/ and www.negc.org
premiers.html.
-------
Scientific and Technical
Cooperation and Research
Emission Inventories and Trends
J^ *
%$&&
The United States and Canada have
updated and improved their emission
inventories and projections on PM10,
PM25, VOCs, NOX, and S02 to reflect
the latest information available.
These emissions inventories were also processed
for U.S. and Canadian air quality models to support
the technical assessment of air quality problems
and for the development of air quality management
strategies. In the United States, the most recent
complete emission inventory data are for the year 2005.
The 2008 emission data in this 2010 Progress Report
were developed as an interpolation between the 2005
NEI and a 2009 projection inventory. The inventories
and projections are available at www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/
eiinformation.html. The 2009 projection inventory
was originally prepared for possible inclusion with the
emissions processing and air quality modelling in support
of future EPA regulatory analyses (see CAP 2002-Based
Platform Version 3, available atwww.epa.gov/ttn/chief/
emch). For Canada, the 2008 emissions inventory
was developed using the latest emission estimation
methods and statistics, and includes the pollutant
emissions information reported by more than
8700 facilities to the NPRI for 2008. The Canadian
inventories and projections are available at .
Emission data for both countries for 2008 are
presented in Figures 27, 28, 29 and 30. Figure 27
shows the distribution of emissions by source category
grouping for S02, NOX and VOC. The following
observations can be made from this figure:
• S02 emissions in the United States stem primarily from
coal-fired combustion in the electric power sector.
• Canadian S02 emissions come mostly from the non-
ferrous smelting and refining industry, the upstream
petroleum industry and electric power generation
utilities. The contribution from electric power
generation utilities is lower in Canada due to the
large hydroelectric and nuclear capacity in place.
• The distribution of NOX emissions in the two
countries is similar, with non-road and on-road
vehicles accounting for the greatest portion of
NOY emissions.
44
-------
VOC emissions are the most diverse of the emission
profiles in each country. The most significant
difference is that most VOCs (31%) in Canada
come from the industrial sector. This is the result
of the proportionately higher contribution of oil and
gas production in Canada. In the United States,
solvents contribute the highest percentage (28%) of
VOCs and on-road vehicles also contribute a sizable
percentage (22%).
Figure 27. U.S. and Canadian National Emissions
by Sector for Selected Pollutants, 2008
U.S. S02 Emissions-2008
Total: 11.5 million tons/year
(10.4 million tonnes/year)
On-road transportation
Non-road transportation
4%
Other anthropogenic sources
Electric
generating units
66%
Industrial sources
23%
. Non-industrial
fuel combustion
5%
Canadian Emissions-2008
Sulphur Dioxide
Total: 1.7 million tonnes/year
(1.9 million tons/year)
Non-road transportation
5%-j t Solvent utilization
On-road transportation,
-Other anthropogenic
Electric . I sources
generating units
25%
Non-industrial
fuel combustion
3%
Industrial sources
67%
U.S. NO, Emissions-2008
Total: 16.2 million tons/year
(14.7 million tonnes/year)
Other anthropogenic sources
2
Non-road
transportation
26%
On-road
transportation
32%
Industrial sources
17%
Non-industrial fuel
combustion
4%
Electric generating units
19%
Canadian Emissions-2008
Nitrogen Oxides
Total: 2.2 million tonnes/year
(2.4 million tons/year)
Solvent utilization Other anthropogenic sources
<1 /o
Non-road
transportation
33%
On-road
transportation
21%
Industrial sources
31%
Non-industrial fuel
combustion
4%
Electric generating units
11%
U.S. VOC Emissions-2008
Total: 15.4 million tons/year
(14 million tonnes/year)
Non-industrial fuel combustion
Industrial sources
9%
Other
anthropogenic
sources
16%
Non-i
transportation
17%
Solvent utilization
28%
Electric generating units
Canadian Emissions - 2008
Volatile Organic Compounds
Total: 2.4 million tonnes/year
(2.6 million tons/year)
Other anthropogenic sources
19%
On-road
transportation
22%
Solvent utilization _
18%
Non-road
transportation
14%
Industrial sources
31%
Non-industrial fuel
combustion
Electric generating units
On-road transportation
11%
Source: US EPA and Environment Canada 2010
45
-------
The emission trends reflected in Figures 28, 29,
and 30 for S02, NOX and VOCs, respectively, show
emissions from 1990 through 2008. Both countries
have seen major reductions in S02 emissions. In
Canada, the reductions in S02 emissions came from
the non-ferrous smelting and refining industry and
the electric power generation utilities. For NOX, the
reductions were from on-road mobile sources, electric
power generation utilities, and the mining and rock
quarrying industry. For VOCs, the reductions came
from on-road mobile sources and the downstream
petroleum industry, with additional reductions from
various industrial sectors such as chemical, pulp and
paper, wood products, and iron and steel industries.
Figure 28. National S02 Emissions in the United States and Canada
from All Sources, 1990-2008
15
10
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
• Canada • United States
Source: US EPA and Environment Canada 2010
Figure 29. National NOX Emissions in the United States and Canada
from All Sources, 1990-2008
30
25
20
15
10
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
• Canada • United States
Source: US EPA and Environment Canada 2010
46
-------
In the United States, there is an overall trend
of emissions reduction though an increase in
NOX and S02 emissions is shown for year 2005.
The most recent version of the 2005 inventory is
more comprehensive and includes some method
improvements compared with the previous version
reported. Some inconsistencies with the projected
year data also influence the extrapolations done to
develop the trends data series and should be improved
when new projected inventory data are available.
In the United States, the major reductions in S02
emissions came from electric power generation sources
as well as industrial and commercial fuel combustion
sources. For NOX, the reductions came from on-road
mobile sources, electric power generation sources
and other fuel combustion sources. For VOCs, the
reductions were from on-road mobile sources, chemical
products manufacturing and use, and waste disposal
including burning and wastewater treatment. (As noted
earlier, the uptick in VOC emissions in 2002 is due
to new and improved characterization methods.)
Figure 30.
National VOC Emissions in the United States and Canada from All Sources, 1990-2008
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
• Canada
10
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
• United States
Source: US EPA and Environment Canada 2010
47
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Air Quality Reporting and Mapping
Canada and the U.S. collaborate
closely on real-time air quality
reporting and mapping through the
AIRNow program (www.airnow.gov),
which was initiated by the U.S. EPA
more than a decade ago. The AIRNow program
provides current and forecasted air quality information
for monitoring sites throughout the U.S. and Canada.
Each country is responsible for ensuring instrument
calibration and comparability of ambient measurements
of ozone and PM25. In 2004, the AIRNow program
was expanded to provide information on PM25 and
ozone measurements on a continental scale year-
round. Figure 31 is an example of the kind of maps
available on the AIRNow website which display
pollutant concentration data expressed in terms of
the color-coded Air Quality Index (AQI).
Note: The AQI for ozone reflects 8-hour average ozone
concentrations. Areas shaded orange (USG) indicate
values that are "unhealthy for sensitive groups." More
information on the AQI is available at www.airnow.gov.
Figure 31. AIRNow Map Illustrating the AQI for 8-hour Ozone
me A
Friday, June 26, 2009
Note: This map is an illustration of the highest ozone concentrations reached throughout the region on a given day. It does not represent a snapshot at a particular time of
the day, but is more like the daily high temperature portion of a weather forecast. The AQI shown in the legend is based on 8-hour average ozone. More information on the
AQI is available at www.airnow.gov.
Source: US EPA 2010
Environment Canada continues to
'tj^^m^t expand and refurbish federal and
provincial/territorial networks of
monitoring stations across the country.
"<4NAu^ Canada maintains two national ambient
air quality monitoring networks—the National Air
Pollution Surveillance (NAPS) Network, co-managed
by federal, provincial, territorial and some municipal
governments, and the Canadian Air and Precipitation
Monitoring Network (CAPMoN), operated by
Environment Canada. Information about these
networks can be found at http://www.ec.gc.ca/
rnspa-naps/Default.asp?lang=En&n=5COD33CF-l
and http://www.ec.gc.ca/rs-mn/
default.asp?lang=En&n=752CE271-l.
48
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As of 2008, over 300 NAPS air monitoring stations
existed, each measuring one or more of the following:
ozone, PM25, PM10, chemical composition of PM,
S02, CO, NOX and VOCs. Similarly, 29 CAPMoN sites
existed measuring one or more of ozone, PM25, PM10,
chemical composition of PM, S02, HN03, NO/NCy
N0y, total gaseous mercury and wet deposition of
major ions and mercury. Of the 29 CAPMoN sites,
16 measured ozone and 13 of the 16 were located
within 500 km (310 miles) of the Canada-U.S. border
to characterize regionally representative air quality.
The ozone monitors at the CAPMoN ozone sites also
continue to gather data in real time, in support of the
Air Quality Prediction Program, and for distribution
to the EPA-led AIRNow program.
Between 2005 and 2009, the federal government
invested $12 million dollars for establishing new
monitoring stations and upgrading and replacing
monitoring equipment at existing sites. There also
were significant investments in the associated
laboratories that carry out detailed chemical analysis
such as VOC and PM25 speciation. As of 2008,
there were 200 ozone monitors (60 at rural sites),
140 N02 monitors and 45 VOC sampling locations
(14 at rural sites). There were also 210 continuous
PM25 monitors reporting to the Canada-wide Air
Quality Database.
For the NAPS network, substantial resources
were expended in 2008-2009 to convert existing
continuous PM25 instruments to U.S. Class III
Federal Equivalent Method (FEM) instruments.
It is planned that the entire network will be converted
to FEM instruments by 2011. In addition, there
are 41 filter-based samplers reporting PM25 on
a one-in-three-day basis. Environment Canada
has developed a chemical speciation network to
characterize PM25. Fourteen sites are now operating
across Canada. The speciation network sites report
fine (PM25) and coarse (PM10_25) mass, major
ions, organic and elemental carbon (IMPROVE
method), and metals by using ion-coupled plasma-
mass spectroscopy (ICPMS) and x-ray fluorescence
instrumentation (XRF) and gas-phase species including
ammonia and nitric acid. In 2009, levoglucosan
(a marker for biomass burning) measurements were
added to the PM25 speciation program.
For the CAPMoN network, a comprehensive inter-
comparison study of commercially available PM
instruments was initiated in late 2008. This study
was undertaken to assess the best PM monitoring
technology to be used at remote locations in harsh
Canadian weather conditions—ensuring accurate data,
robustness of operation and reliable data telemetry.
*The majority of air quality monitoring
performed in the United States is
carried out by state, local and tribal
agencies in four major networks of
monitoring stations: State and Local Air
Monitoring Stations (SLAMS), Photochemical
Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS), PM2C
Chemical Speciation Network (CSN), and air toxics
monitoring stations. In addition, ambient air monitoring
is performed by the federal government (EPA, NPS,
NOAA, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture), tribes and industry.
Air quality monitoring in the United States supports
several air quality management objectives:
• NAAQS attainment/nonattainment determination
• human exposure assessment for health
research studies
• public air quality reporting and forecasting
(AQI/AIRNow)
• accountability of control strategies (ARP, NOX SIP
Call, NBP, andCAIR)
• model evaluation
• determination of source receptor relationships
• characterization of regional air masses, transport
• ecological exposure assessments (acidity;
nutrients; ozone; mercury; and other persistent,
bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals)
• assessments for toxic air pollutants: trends,
hotspots, human health exposure, research
A summary of monitoring networks is provided in
Table3.
49
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Table 3. U.S. Air Quality Monitoring Networks
MAJOR ROUTINE OPERATING AIR MONITORING NETWORKS:
State / Local / Tribal / Federal Networks
Network1
Initiated
Measurement
Parameters
Source of Information and/or Data
Urban/Human-Health Monitoring
NCore - National Core
Monitoring Network
SLAMS -State and Local
Ambient Monitoring
Stations
CSN - PM25 Chemical
Speciation Network
PAMS - Photochemical
Assessment Monitoring
Network
-80
planned
-3000
-200
currently
active
75
2011
1978
1999
1994
03, N0/N0y, S02, CO,
PM25/PM10_25, PM25
speciation, surface
meteorology
03, N0/N02, S02,
PM25/PM10, CO, Pb
PM25 mass, PM25
speciation, major ions,
Metals
03, N0/N0y, CO,
speciated VOCs,
carbonyls, surface
meteorology, upper air
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/ncore/
index.html
http://www.epa.gov/airexplorer/
http://www.epa.gov/airexplorer/
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/
pamsmain.html
Rural/Regional Monitoring
IM PROVE -Interagency
Monitoring of Protected
Visual Environments
CASTNET- Clean Air
Status and Trends
Network
GPMP- Gaseous
Pollutant Monitoring
Program
110
plus 67
protocol
sites
80+
33
1988
1987
1987
PM25/PM10, major
ions, metals, light
extinction, scattering
coefficient
03, weekly
concentrations of
S02, HN03, S042-,
N03-, Ch, NH4+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, Na+, K+ for dry
and total deposition,
surface meteorology
03, N0/N0/N02,
S02, CO, surface
meteorology,
enhanced monitoring
of CO, NO, NOX, N0y
and S02, canister
samples for VOC at
three sites
http://vista.cira.colostate.edu/
IMPROVE/
www.epa.gov/castnet/
www.nature.nps.gov/ air/
Monitoring/
network. htm#data
50
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Table 3 (continued)
MAJOR ROUTINE OPERATING AIR MONITORING NETWORKS:
State / Local / Tribal / Federal Networks
Network1 Sites Initiated _. . Source of Information and/or Data
Parameters
NADP/NTN - National
Atmospheric Deposition
Program / National
Trends Network
NADP/MDN - National
Atmospheric Deposition
Program / Mercury
Deposition Network
IADN - Integrated
Atmospheric Deposition
Network
250+
100+
20
1978
1996
1990
Precipitation chemistry
and wet deposition
for major ions (S042~,
N03-, NH4+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, Na+, K+, H+
aspH)
Mercury measured in
precipitation and wet
deposition
PAHs, PCBs, and
organochlorine
compounds are
measured in air and
precipitation
http://nadp.sws.uiuc
http://nadp.sws.uiuc
mdn/
edu/
edu/
www. e pa . gov/g 1 n po/
monitoring/air/
Air Toxics Monitoring
NATTS - National Air
Toxics Trends Stations
State/Local Air Toxics
Monitoring
NDAMN - National
Dioxin Air Monitoring
Network
27
250+
34
2005
1987
1998-
2005
VOCs, carbonyls,
PM10 metals2, Hg
VOCs, carbonyls,
PM10 metals2, Hg
CDDs, CDFs,
dioxin-like PCBs
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/
natts.html
http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/
recordisplay.htm?deid=22423
Notes:
1. Some networks listed separately may also serve as subcomponents of other larger listed networks; as a result, some double counting of the number of individual monitors
is likely. This list of networks is not meant to be totally inclusive of all routine monitoring in the United States.
2. PM10 metals may include arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, nickel, and others.
The EPA has developed a National Ambient Air
Monitoring Strategy for state, local, and tribal agencies
and introduced a new multi-pollutant monitoring
network referred to as NCore. Monitors at NCore
sites will measure particles (PM25, speciated PM25,
PM10_25, speciated PM10_25), ozone, S02, CO, NO,
N0y and basic meteorology. It is possible that
ammonia and nitric acid measurements will also
be added after further methods development.
Sites are placed in broadly representative urban
(about 60 sites) and rural (about 20 sites) locations
throughout the country. The EPA collaborates on
site selection with individual state and local agencies
and multistate organizations. Where possible, states
locate urban NCore sites next to existing monitoring
operations, including PAMS or National Air Toxic Trends
Stations (NATTS) sites, to leverage existing resources.
Similarly, the EPA coordinates with states and other
existing monitoring network programs (i.e. IMPROVE,
CASTNET) to establish rural-based NCore sites.
The objective of this network is to gather additional
information needed to support emissions and air quality
model development, air quality program accountability,
and future health studies. On October 17, 2006, the
EPA finalized revisions to the ambient air monitoring
regulations that included requirements to reflect
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the NCore network, which is scheduled to be fully
operational by January 1, 2011. General information
on the NCore network is available at www.epa.gov/
ttn/amtic/ncore/index.html. More specific information
on each candidate NCore site can be viewed or
downloaded from http://ncore.sonomatechdata.com/.
The EPA has completed transitioning of the carbon
measurement at CSN-speciated PM25 stations to the
IMPROVE protocol to support better comparability
between the CSN and IMPROVE networks. This effort
was initiated in 2007.
The EPA finalized revisions to monitoring requirements
for lead (Pb) in 2008 to support the tightening of
the lead NAAQS from 1.5 ug/m3 (quarterly average)
to 0.15 ug/m3 (rolling three-month average). New
monitoring requirements included the establishment
of source-oriented lead monitoring sites around lead
sources emitting 1.0 tons per year of lead or greater
by January 1, 2010, and the establishment of non-
source oriented sites in urban areas with populations
of 500,000 or more. Information on changes to the
lead NAAQS and associated monitoring requirements
is available at: http://www.epa.gov/air/lead/actions.html.
New ambient monitoring requirements have been
established for the recently revised N02 and S02
NAAQS. All new N02 and S02 monitors must begin
operating no later than January 1, 2013. EPA
also proposed changes to the ozone monitoring
requirements to support the 2008 revisions to the
ozone primary and secondary NAAQS. Additional
details on the N02 and S02 monitoring requirements
'
and the proposed changes to ozone monitoring
requirements are available at: www.epa.gov/air/
airpollutants.html.
The NADP, with support from the EPA is operating a
new network designed to measure ambient mercury
concentrations. The Ambient Mercury Network
(AMNet) measures ambient concentrations of
speciated mercury at 20 sites throughout the U.S. and
Canada. The data from this network will provide status
and trends of ambient mercury concentrations, as
well as information for model development including
validation and source apportionment.
The EPA is also providing support to the proposed
NADP Ammonia Monitoring Network (AMoN),
which uses passive devices to measure gaseous
ammonia concentrations. Currently there are 20 sites
collecting two-week samples of ambient ammonia
concentrations. These measurements are needed to
enhance atmospheric and deposition models, validate
emission inventories, and understand the chemistry
driving PM25 formation. Both efforts aim to utilize the
NADP committee structure as a platform for initiation
and continued growth. The NADP website contains
data, maps, and program information (http://nadp.
sws.uiuc.edu).
Recent activities related to CASTNET include
transitioning its ozone monitoring operations to fully
meet the regulatory quality requirements applicable to
SLAMS air monitoring data, and real-time reporting of
hourly ozone and meteorological data to the AIRNow
system for use in forecasting and mapping current air
quality conditions. In addition, CASTNET is evaluating
monitoring methods that provide highly time-
resolved (i.e. hourly) measurements of both gaseous
(S02, nitric acid, ammonia) and aerosol (sulphate,
ammonium, nitrate, chloride and other base cations)
components. The EPA is investigating several
ammonia measurement methods including adding
a fourth filter to the current three-stage filter pack,
a denuder-filterpack system, and passive ammonia
samplers for routine monitoring at CASTNET sites. The
website for CASTNET includes program information,
data and maps, annual network reports, and quality
assurance information (seewww.epa.gov/castnet).
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Health Effects
Health Canada is conducting research
and developing tools that will support
regulatory and non-regulatory actions
for improving air quality and
human health.
Studies include investigations of the health risks
associated with exposure to air pollutants emitted
from industrial and transportation sources;
mortality risk associated with long term exposure
to air pollutants; and characterization of the spatial
variability of ambient air pollutants.
Health Canada is also continuing to develop an
air health indicator for tracking changes in health
outcomes attributable to changes in air quality. In
addition, the development phase of the multi-pollutant
Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) is now completed
and the index is currently implemented in select
communities across Canada. By providing daily and
forecasted air pollution information, the AQHI helps
Canadians make decisions to protect their health by
limiting short-term exposure to air pollution.
Health Canada and Environment Canada are working
to finalize a comprehensive Canadian Smog Science
Assessment, which will inform future policy actions
including a review of the Canada-wide Standards.
Canadian Health and Exposure
Research
Seniors' Health Study
This study examined the association between
exposure to particulate air pollution and changes in
cardiovascular function among non-smoking seniors
in Windsor, Ontario. Daily indoor and outdoor black
carbon and particulate matter <2.5 urn (PM25)
samples were collected along with personal samples
for PM25. Findings from this study suggest that
increased exposure to black carbon and PM25 can
increase blood pressure, heart rate, and several
other cardiovascular measures. In general, findings
from this study are consistent with previous evidence
suggesting that daily exposure to particulate pollution
can have an adverse impact on cardiovascular
function in seniors.
Canadian Census Cohort -
Mortality and Air Pollution Study
(CCC-MAPS)
In 2009, Health Canada launched a Canadian Census
Cohort study in collaboration with Statistics Canada.
This study will examine the mortality risk of long-term
exposure to air pollution in the Canadian population.
Long-form census data on 2.7 million Canadians are
currently being linked to vital status information up
to 2007. Long-term exposure to PM25 and ozone will
be estimated using remote sensing methods, land
use regression models and ambient data, as well as
an atmospheric exposure model. The relationship
between air pollution exposure and cancer incidence
and cause-specific mortality will be examined. Results
from this study will be used to inform risk management
strategies, and will further our knowledge on the
chronic effects of long-term exposure to air pollution
in specific regions of the country.
Industrial Emissions and the
Exacerbation of Adverse Health
Effects in Asthmatic Children
In 2009, Health Canada initiated a study to examine
the impact of industrial emissions on respiratory and
cardiovascular health in asthmatic children. This
study, to be completed in 2010, is being conducted in
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collaboration with the McGill University Health Centre,
the Hopital Maisonneuve-Rosemont, the Institut
national de sante publique, the Agence de la sante et
des services sociaux de Montreal, and the Centre de
la sante et des services sociaux de la Point-de-lsle.
The objective is to examine the relationship between
industrial emissions and respiratory and cardiovascular
outcomes among a panel of asthmatic children who
live in close proximity to an industrial area in Montreal.
A panel of approximately 80 asthmatic children is
undergoing daily tests to examine pulmonary function,
lung inflammation, blood pressure, and heart rate.
Personal and outdoor air monitoring are carried out
to assess children's exposure to PM, N02, S02,
VOCs and polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs).
Results from this study will provide much needed
information regarding the impact of industrial air
pollution on vulnerable populations and will facilitate
the development of effective regulatory and non-
regulatory strategies to improve air quality.
Human Health Effects of
Exposure to Air Pollutants
in an Outdoor Setting:
A Randomized Controlled
Cross-over Study
Health Canada is conducting an epidemiological
study entitled "Human Health Effects of Exposure to
Air Pollutants in an Outdoor Setting: A Randomized
Controlled Cross-over Study" in Sault Ste. Marie,
Ontario. This study is designed to investigate the
acute cardiovascular and respiratory effects of
industrial air pollution in the vicinity of Sault Ste. Marie.
Approximately 60 volunteers are participating in this
study and each will participate for three weeks under
different exposure conditions. One week will be spent
at a background site away from industrial emissions,
one week will be spent at a site close to industrial
emissions, and one week will be spent close to
industrial emissions while wearing a helmet designed
to filter out criteria air contaminants. Participants
will undergo clinical tests to examine the impact of
industrial air pollution on measures of cardiovascular
health and pulmonary function.
Personal and outdoor exposure to S02, N02, PM,
VOCs and PAHs will be assessed and potential
relationships between air pollutants and health
outcomes will be analyzed. This is a novel study
design that is expected to provide much needed
information on potential acute health effects of steel
industry emissions. Results are expected in 2011.
Montreal Congestive
Heart Failure Study
Health Canada is currently conducting a study in
collaboration with McGill University and the Montreal
Heart Institute to examine the impact of indoor and
outdoor air pollution on patients with congestive hearth
failure. Subjects in this study represent a vulnerable
population that may be particularly susceptible to
the effects of air pollution. Therefore, it is important
that this population is considered when developing
regulatory and non-regulatory strategies to address air
pollution. Specifically, the study investigates whether
daily changes in respiratory and cardiovascular health
are associated with changes in exposure to indoor
and outdoor air pollution. Results from this study are
expected in 2011.
Spatial Air Pollution
Monitoring Studies
A number of outdoor monitoring studies have been
conducted in urban areas to characterize the spatial
variability of ambient air pollutants including N02,
S02, ozone (03), VOCs, PAHs and PM. In particular,
these studies have examined the effect of land use
(e.g. roadways, industry) on ambient air pollution
levels and models have been developed to predict air
pollution levels in a given region based on land use
characteristics. These models will also be used in
health studies designed to support the development
of strategies to address air pollution, and may also
inform land use planning. To date, Health Canada
has conducted spatial monitoring studies in Ottawa,
London, Windsor, Winnipeg, Hamilton and Toronto
with plans to complete studies in Halifax, Vancouver,
Calgary and Montreal.
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Canadian Health and Exposure Tools to Support Risk Management
Canadian Air Quality
Health Index (AQHI)
The Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) is a public
information tool that helps Canadians protect their
health on a daily basis from the negative effects of air
pollution. The AQHI is based on epidemiological data
and relates air pollution exposures to acute health
outcomes. This index employs a linear, non-threshold
concentration-response relationship of short-term
health risks of the smog mixture using three pollutants
(N02, ground-level ozone and PM25) as a surrogate
measure of the more complex mixture in the urban
atmosphere. The index is expressed on a 1 to 10+
scale, where higher values represent a greater
health risk.
In addition to the scale, corresponding health
messages have been developed for general and
"at risk" populations. The current (hourly) and
forecasted (today and tomorrow) AQHI values and
their associated health messages are publicly available
at www.airhealth.ca and on the Weather Network
broadcasts and website in locations where the AQHI
is available. This information will allow Canadians to
make informed choices to protect themselves and
those in their care from the short-term health impacts
of exposure to air pollution.
The AQHI is now available in 40 communities in
9 provinces, with additional communities to be added
as the AQHI is implemented across the country.
Air Quality Benefits
Assessment Tool (AQBAT)
The Air Quality Benefits Assessment Tool (AQBAT) is
a computer simulation program developed by Health
Canada to estimate the human health costs and/
or benefits associated with changes in ambient air
quality. AQBAT was made publicly available in 2006
and has been applied to federal government policy
proposals on air quality as well as by a number of
municipal governments and consultants in specific
policy contexts. An updated version of AQBAT will
be released in 2011. The revised version will include
a number of improvements, including updated
population, air pollution and baseline incidence
data of hospital admissions and mortality; revised
concentration-response functions and valuation
parameters for selected outcomes; and a mapping
capability. Additional outcomes for consideration in
this version include life expectancy, quality-of-life
impacts in relation to chronic morbidity, and adverse
pregnancy outcomes.
Air Health Indicator (AHI)
The Air Health Indicator (AHI) is defined as the
percentage of daily deaths attributable to a specific
pollutant exposure. The AHI was developed by
analyzing daily air pollution and mortality data
for Canada's 24 largest cities between 1984 and
2004. While Health Canada continues to refine the
methodology used by the AHI, it can currently be used
to measure trends in air quality management since
1981 as well potential health risks associated with
air pollution over this time. The AHI was included
in the 2008 Canadian Environmental Sustainability
Indicators Annual Report in an assessment of
ozone-related mortality from 1990 to 2005 in
several Canadian cities. The report can be found
at http://www.ec.gc.ca/indicateurs-indicators/
default.asp?lang=En&n=2102636F-l.
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U.S. Report on Health Effects of
Ozone and PM
The health and welfare effects of
~^H ^^ ozone are documented and critically
assessed in the EPA Ozone Criteria
Document and EPA Ozone Staff Paper,
finalized and released to the public in
February 2006 and July 2007, respectively. These
documents can be found at http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/
cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=149923 and http://epa.
gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/ozone/s_o3_cr_sp.html.
The purpose of the revised EPA Ozone Criteria
Document, titled Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and
Other Photochemical Oxidants, was to critically
evaluate and assess the latest scientific information
published since the last review of the ozone criteria
document in 1996. The 2006 review focused on
useful new information that emerged in the last
decade, and is pertinent in evaluating health and
environmental effects data associated with ambient
air ozone exposures. The EPA Ozone Staff Paper
is based on key findings and conclusions from this
document, together with other analyses, and presents
options for the EPA Administrator's consideration
regarding review, and possible revision, of the
ozone NAAQS.
The new research published in the staff paper
suggested additional health effects beyond those that
had been known when the 8-hour ozone standard
was set in 1997. Since 1997, more than 1,700 new
health and welfare studies related to ozone have
been published in peer-reviewed journals. Many of
these studies have investigated the impact of ozone
exposure on health effects such as changes in lung
structure and biochemistry, lung inflammation, asthma
exacerbation and causation, respiratory illness-related
school absence, hospital and emergency room visits
for asthma and other respiratory disorders, and
premature mortality.
Aggravation of existing asthma resulting from
short-term ambient ozone exposure was reported
prior to setting the 1997 ozone standard and has
been observed in studies published subsequently.
In addition, a relationship between long-term ambient
ozone concentrations and the incidence of recent-
onset asthma in adult males (but not females)
was reported. An additional study suggested that
incidence of new diagnoses of asthma in children is
associated with heavy exercise in southern California
communities with high ozone concentrations. A
study in Toronto reported a significant relationship
between 1-hour maximum ozone concentrations and
respiratory hospital admissions in children under the
age of two. Given the relative vulnerability of children
in this age category, there is particular concern about
these findings. Increased rates of illness-related
school absenteeism have been associated with
1-hour daily maximum and 8-hour average ozone
concentrations in studies conducted in Nevada. These
studies suggest that higher ambient ozone levels
might result in increased school absenteeism.
The air pollutant most clearly associated with
premature mortality is PM. Repeated ozone
exposure, however, is a possible contributing factor
for premature mortality, causing an inflammatory
response in the lungs that could predispose elderly
and other sensitive individuals to become more
susceptible to other stressors, such as PM. The
findings of other recent analyses provide evidence that
ozone exposure is associated with increased mortality.
Most recently, new analyses of the 95 cities in the
National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study
data sets showed associations between daily mortality
and the previous week's ozone concentrations, which
were robust against adjustment for PM, weather,
seasonality and long-term trends. Other recent
epidemiological studies have reported associations
between acute ozone exposure and mortality, as
summarized in the Ozone Criteria Document.
Exposure to PM has been associated with premature
mortality as well as indices of morbidity, including
respiratory hospital admissions and emergency
department visits, school absences, lost work days,
restricted activity days, effects on lung function and
symptoms, morphological changes, and altered host
defense mechanisms. Recent epidemiological studies
have continued to report associations between
short-term exposures to fine particles and effects
56
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V
such as premature mortality, hospital admissions or
emergency department visits for cardiopulmonary
diseases, increased respiratory symptoms, decreased
lung function, and physiological changes or biomarkers
for cardiac changes. Long-term exposure to fine
particles has also been associated with mortality
from cardiopulmonary diseases and lung cancer and
effects on the respiratory system, such as decreased
lung function and chronic respiratory disease.
There are several sensitive or vulnerable subpopulations
that appear to be at greater risk to PM-related effects.
These include individuals with preexisting heart and
lung disease, older adults and children.
U.S. Report on Health Effects
of NO,
The health effects of N02 have been documented
and critically assessed in the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's Integrated Science Assessment
for Oxides of Nitrogen—Health Criteria (ISA). N02-
associated exposures and health risks have been
assessed in the Risk and Exposure Assessment to
Support the Review of the N02 Primary National
Ambient Air Quality Standard (REA).3 The purpose
of the ISA was to critically evaluate and assess
available scientific information to inform the review
of the N02 NAAQS, while the REA presents analyses
of N02-associated exposures and health risks as
well as an assessment of potential policy options for
consideration with regard to the N02 primary NAAQS.
The ISA has concluded that the findings of
epidemiological, controlled human exposure, and
animal toxicological studies provide evidence that is
sufficient to infer a likely causal relationship between
respiratory effects and short-term (1-24 hours)
N02 exposure. The strongest evidence for such a
relationship comes from epidemiological studies of
respiratory effects including symptoms, emergency
department visits and hospital admissions. A number
of these studies, most of which were published after
the previous review of the N02 NAAQS (completed
in 1996), have reported associations between short-
term ambient N02 concentrations and respiratory
morbidity in locations with N02 concentrations below
those allowed by the then-current N02 NAAQS.
Epidemiological studies are supported by evidence
from experimental studies, including controlled
human exposure studies that evaluate airway hyper-
responsiveness in asthmatic individuals. Enhanced
airway responsiveness could have important clinical
implications for asthmatics since transient increases
in airway responsiveness following N02 exposure
have the potential to increase symptoms and worsen
asthma control. Overall, the ISA concluded that the
epidemiological and experimental data sets form a
plausible, consistent and coherent description of a
relationship between N02 exposures and an array of
adverse health effects that range from the onset of
respiratory symptoms to hospital admission.
The final ISA and REA can be accessed at http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=194645 and
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/nox/data/20081121_N02_REA_final.pdf, respectively.
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U.S. Report on Health Effects
ofS02
The health effects of S02 have been documented
and critically assessed in the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's Integrated Science Assessment
for Oxides of Sulfur—Health Criteria (ISA). S02-
associated exposures and health risks have been
assessed in the Risk and Exposure Assessment to
Support the Review of the S02 Primary National
Ambient Air Quality Standard (REA).4 The purpose
of the ISA was to critically evaluate and assess
available scientific information to inform the review
of the S02 NAAQS, while the REA presents analyses
of S02-associated exposures and health risks as
well as an assessment of potential policy options for
consideration with regard to the S02 primary NAAQS.
The ISA has concluded that findings from controlled
human exposure and epidemiological studies
provide evidence that is sufficient to infer a causal
relationship between respiratory morbidity and short-
term (5 minutes to 24 hours) S02 exposure. The
strongest evidence for such a relationship comes
from controlled human exposure studies that found
that a significant percentage of exercising asthmatics
exposed to 5-10 minute peak concentrations of S02,
experienced bronchoconstriction and/or respiratory
symptoms. In addition, epidemiological studies
reported associations between 1-hour daily maximum
or 24-hour average S02 concentrations and respiratory
symptoms, emergency department visits and hospital
admissions. A number of these epidemiological studies,
most of which were published after the previous
review of the S02 NAAQS (completed in 1996),
have reported associations between short-term
ambient S02 concentrations and respiratory morbidity
in locations with S02 concentrations below those
allowed by the current S02 NAAQS. Overall, the ISA
concluded that the controlled human exposure and
epidemiological data form a plausible, consistent
and coherent description of a relationship between
S02 exposures and an array of adverse health effects
that range from bronchoconstriction and respiratory
symptoms to hospital admissions for all respiratory
causes and asthma.
Review of U.S. Ozone, Particulate
Matter, N02 and S02 Air Quality
Standards
On March 12, 2008, the EPA promulgated tighter
primary and secondary NAAQS for ozone of 0.075 ppm,
with an 8-hour average (see "New Actions on Acid Rain,
Ozone, and Particulate Matter"). In September 2009,
the EPA initiated reconsideration of the 2008 ozone
NAAQS final decision. This action is scheduled to be
completed in the fall of 2010. For more information
on the revised ozone standards and reconsideration
of the 2008 ozone NAAQS final decision, please visit
www.epa.gov/air/ozonepollution/actions.html.
In 2007, the EPA initiated the next review of the
current PM NAAQS, which is scheduled to be
completed in 2011. Additional information, including
supporting documents, can be found at www.epa.gov/
ttn/naaqs/standards/pm/s_pm_index.html.
Based on the results of N02 health effects research as
assessed in the ISA and estimates of N02-associated
exposures and health risks, the EPA revised the N02
primary NAAQS on January 22, 2010, and established
new requirements for the N02 monitoring network.
Specifically, the EPA promulgated a new 1-hour
N02 NAAQS with a level of 100 ppb, retained the
existing annual standard with a level of 53 ppb, and
established a requirement that a substantial number
of N02 monitors be sited within 50 metres of major
roads and in other locations where maximum N02
concentrations are expected to occur. Additional
information, including supporting documents,
can be found at: www.epa.gov/air/nitrogenoxides.
Based on the results of S02 health effects research
as assessed in the ISA, and on estimates of S02-
associated exposures and health risks in the REA,
on June 2, 2010, the EPA strengthened the primary
NAAQS for S02. The revised standard will improve
public health protection, especially for children, the
elderly, and people with asthma. These groups are
susceptible to the health problems associated with
breathing S02. The EPA revised the primary S02
standard by establishing a new 1-hour standard at a
level of 75 ppb. The EPA's evaluation of the scientific
The final ISA and REA can be accessed at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/so2/s_so2_cr_isa.html and http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/
standards/so2/s_so2_cr_rea.html respectively.
58
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information and the risks posed by breathing S02
indicate that this new 1-hour standard will protect
public health by reducing people's exposure to high
short-term (5 minutes to 24 hours) concentrations
of S02. The EPA revoked the two existing primary
standards of 140 ppb evaluated over 24 hours, and
30 ppb evaluated over an entire year because they
will not add additional public health protection given
a 1-hour standard at 75 ppb. Also, there is little
health evidence to suggest an association between
long-term exposure to S02 and health effects. The
EPA did not revise the secondary S02 NAAQS, set
to protect public welfare (including effects on soil,
water, visibility, wildlife, crops, vegetation, national
monuments and buildings). The EPA is assessing the
need for changes to the secondary standard under
a separate review. Additional information, including
supporting documents, can be found at: www.epa.gov/
air/sulfurdioxide.
U.S. National Environmental
Public Health Tracking
In July 2009, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control
(CDC) launched a Web-based National Environmental
Public Health Tracking tool (http://ephtracking.cdc.gov)
as part of the National Environmental Public Health
Tracking Program (http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/tracking/).
The National Environmental Public Health Tracking
Network is a system of integrated health, exposure
and hazard information and data from a variety of
national, state and city sources (see Figure 32). The
Web-based application that was released in 2009 is a
surveillance tool that scientists, health professionals
and the public can use to track environmental
exposures and chronic health conditions. The tool
unites vital environmental information from across
the country, including air and water pollutants and
information for some health conditions such as
asthma, cancer, childhood lead poisoning, birth
defects and other reproductive and birth outcomes,
heart disease, and carbon monoxide poisoning into
one resource. The U.S. EPA is collaborating with the
CDC to provide air quality data for use in the National
Environmental Public Health Tracking Network. Both
monitored and modelled data are now available on
the Tracking Network to assess possible population
exposure to ozone and PM25, estimate health impacts,
guide public health actions, and link to health
outcomes in analytic studies.
Figure 32. A Conceptual Diagram of the CDC's
Environmental Public Health Tracking Program
ENVIRONMENTAL PUBLIC HEALTH TRACKING
m '•&
Of HEALTH AMD HUNAN fiCB
« Biir*.»r CIWFMU. *NI-> P-»r . I-KT
CDC
Source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/tracking/
59
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U.S. Health and
Exposure Research
The U.S. EPA's Clean Air Research Program (www.
epa.gov/airscience) provides the critical science to
develop and implement outdoor air regulations under
the Clean Air Act, while also providing leadership to
the research community in the areas of exposure and
health effects of air pollution. The current research
program applies integrated, multidisciplinary research
approaches to investigate how sources of air pollution
impact air quality concentrations. It also examines
the resulting human and ecological exposures and
health effects. The Clean Air Research Program is
transitioning from a pollutant-by-pollutant to a multi-
pollutant research approach, which recognizes that
people are exposed to and experience health effects
from a mixture of air pollutants. As an initial step
demonstrating and implementing a multidisciplinary
and multi-pollutant research program, the Clean
Air Research Program is investigating near-roadway
exposures and health effects. The near-roadway
research program includes a 2010/2011 exposure
and health study that will be conducted in Detroit,
Michigan, in collaboration with the University of
Michigan. This study will examine potential health
effects of air pollution on asthmatic children living
near busy highways in Detroit and will enable further
investigation into the types of pollutants common near
roadways, how people are exposed to them, the extent
II
and types of exposures, and the severity of certain
health effects. More specifically, researchers will
evaluate the likelihood of traffic-associated pollution
being the cause of severe asthma attacks and
respiratory viral infections in children, ages 6 to 14.
Other ongoing research in the EPA's Clean Air
Research Program includes the evaluation of
alternative exposure metrics, such as air monitoring
data alone or in combination with air quality and/or
exposure models, for use in epidemiological studies
and the investigation of human health impacts
related to exposures to specific particulate matter
components and size fractions and low concentrations
(0.06 ppm) of ozone. Finally, in 2010, the EPA's
Clean Air Research Program anticipates awarding
grants to fund up to four integrated, multidisciplinary
Clean Air Research Centers, which would address
priority research areas such as explaining regional
and temporal differences in air pollution risk;
determining the origins and transformations of multi-
pollutant atmospheres and their constituents; defining
exposure/concentration-response relationships;
assessing susceptibility; understanding PM effects
in a multi-pollutant context; and developing greater
understanding of PM and ozone health effects.
The U.S. EPA also sponsors exposure and health
research conducted by the Health Effects Institute
(HEI), which is a nonprofit, independent research
organization that provides science on the health
effects of air pollution. The HEI is supported jointly
by EPA and industry, and periodically by other
domestic and international partners. The HEI's
research program includes research activities that
are consistent with and complementary to the EPA's
Clean Air Research Program. The HEI's National
Particle Components Toxicity (NPACT) Initiative is
a multi-pollutant research program that integrates
results from epidemiological and toxicological health
studies to provide insights into the relative toxicity
of particulate matter components from a variety of
sources. In addition, the HEI also recently released its
strategic plan for 2010-2015 which includes four core
programs: multi-pollutant exposure, epidemiology and
toxicology; emerging fuels and technologies; health
impacts of air quality actions (accountability); and an
international perspective (http://www.healtheffects.org/).
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Ecological Effects
Aquatic Effects and Monitoring
Declining Calcium Levels in
Canadian Fresh Waters
^^ In many Canadian Shield lakes, water
concentrations of calcium have been
declining to levels that are problematic
for some biological populations.5 The
reduction in surface water calcium is an
artifact of the long-term (multiple decades) occurrence
of acidic deposition. While acid deposition increases
calcium leaching from watershed soils and initially
increases surface water calcium concentrations, the
leaching usually occurs at a rate greater than the
replenishment rate by mineral weathering. This results
in a gradual reduction in the pool of exchangeable
calcium in catchment soils and eventually leads to
reduced calcium concentrations in runoff, particularly
when the acidity level of deposition that promotes soil
leaching also declines. A clear shift in the distribution
of lake water calcium to lower concentrations has
been recorded for six regional data sets from Ontario
between the 1980s and 2000s (Figure 33). Declining
trends in lake calcium have also been observed in other
soft water regions of Europe and North America that
receive acidic deposition.
Jeziorski A, Yan ND, Paterson AM, DeSellas AM, Turner MA, Jeffries DS, Keller B, Weeber RC, McNicol DK, Palmer ME, et al. 2008.
The widespread threat of calcium decline in fresh waters. Science 322:1374-1377.
61
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Figure 33. Distribution of Lake Water Calcium Concentrations
in Six Regions of Ontario between the 1980s and 2000s
Algoma
n=228
Sudbury
n=143
Muskoka
n=195
Sudbury
n=63
1980s
2000s
Note: Graphs illustrate cumulative frequency distributions of lake water calcium concentrations in six regions of Ontario split between data collected in the 1980s and
the 2000s. The vertical dashed line represents an important threshold concentration for daphniid reproduction. (Data adapted from Jeziorski et al.5). ELA refers to the
Experimental Lakes Area in southern Ontario.
62
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Reduction in surface water calcium concentrations
has several ecological implications, although many
impacts are not well quantified yet. Populations of
calcium-rich zooplankton (e.g. Daphnia species)
occur in many Canadian Shield lakes. In the Muskoka
region of Ontario, the mean calcium concentration
of 36 lakes declined 13% between 1985 and 2005.
Contemporaneous evaluation of the relative abundance
of calcium-rich daphniids in 43 Muskoka lakes showed
that they have declined in 60% of the lakes having a
present-day calcium concentration less than 1.5 mg L1
(the level at which reproduction is delayed), and in
67% of the lakes having present-day calcium between
1.5 and 2.0 mg L1. Because calcium-rich daphniids
are often the most abundant zooplankton in the lake
environment, the population decline may affect the
entire food web. Hence, declining calcium levels are
expected to affect fish and other aquatic species as
well, and the effects may even extend outside of the
aquatic environment to the birds and animals that
depend on the lakes for food. Studies indicate that
even after recovery of lake pH, continued low levels of
calcium could prevent full population recovery of the
daphniids to pre-impact levels.
Recovery of Acidified Lakes
and Streams
Acid rain, resulting from S02 and NOX
emissions, is one of many large-scale
anthropogenic effects that negatively
affect the health of lakes and streams
in the United States and Canada.
Surface water chemistry provides direct indicators of
the potential effects of acidic deposition on the overall
health of aquatic ecosystems.
Three indicators of acidity in surface waters provide
information regarding both sensitivity to surface water
acidification and the level of acidification that has
occurred today and in the past. These indicators are
sulphate ions (S042~), nitrate ions and acid-neutralizing
capacity (ANC). Sulphate and nitrate are negatively
charged ions with the potential to acidify drainage
waters and leach acidic aluminum cations from
watershed soils. Aluminium cations are known to be
toxic to aquatic life. Assessments of acidic deposition
effects dating from the 1970s to the present have
shown sulphate to be the primary negatively charged
ion in most acid-sensitive waters.
Long-term monitoring networks, such as the U.S.
EPA's Long-Term Monitoring (LTM) program, provide
information on the chemistry of lakes and streams,
which allow us to look at how water bodies respond
to changing emissions. The LTM program monitors a
total of 170 lakes and streams, representing the major
acid-sensitive regions of the northern and eastern
Sulphate ion concentrations in surface waters
provide important information on the extent
of base cation (i.e. calcium, magnesium,
potassium and sodium) leaching in soils and
offer insight on how sulphate concentrations
relate to the levels of ambient atmospheric
sulphur and atmospheric deposition.
Nitrogen is an important nutrient for plant
growth and, therefore, most nitrogen inputs
by deposition are quickly incorporated
into biomass during the growing season as
organic nitrogen, with little leaching of nitrate
into surface waters during the growing season.
As atmospheric nitrogen deposition increases,
there is greater potential for increased leaching
of nitrate into surface waters.
ANC is a measure of the acid-buffering
capacity of water and an important
indicator of the sensitivity and the degree of
surface water acidification or recovery that
occurs over time. Acidification results in a
diminishing ability of water in the lake or
stream to neutralize strong acids that enter
aquatic ecosystems.
United States (New England, Adirondack Mountains,
northern Appalachian Plateau, and Ridge/Blue Ridge
provinces of Virginia).
63
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Monitoring trends in these indicators make it possible
to determine whether conditions in acid-sensitive
lakes and streams are improving and heading towards
recovery or whether conditions are degrading.
Movement toward recovery of an aquatic ecosystem
is indicated by increases in ANC levels and decreases
in sulphate and nitrate concentrations. Table 4 presents
the sulphate, nitrate, and ANC trends (ueq/L/yr)
represented by the long-term monitoring sites sampled
in lakes and streams from 1990 to 2007 for four
acid-sensitive regions of the eastern United States.
These regional trends were calculated using data
from all the sites that were located within the region
and had a complete data record for the time period
considered. Trends are statistically significant at the
95 percent confidence interval (p<0.05).
U.S. and Canadian S02 emissions reductions included
in the AQA commitments have resulted in obvious,
significant, and substantial declining S042~ trends in
the surface waters of all regions except the southern
Appalachian region. As seen in Figure 34, improving
trends in sulphate concentrations from 1990 to
2007 are found in nearly all monitoring sites in New
England and the Adirondacks. Results are mixed for
the Northern Appalachian Plateau streams, but most
streams show some improvement. The regions with
declining S042~ trends have soils that absorb little of
the atmospherically deposited S042~; much of the S042~
input is released to nearby lakes or streams, leading
to acidification of surface waters. In these regions
there is a direct relationship between the declining
atmospheric deposition of S042~ and the decrease in
S042~ concentration in surface waters.
However, in the Blue Ridge (Central Appalachians),
sulphate concentrations in many individual streams
monitored by the LTM program demonstrate
degrading trends; improving trends were noted at only
11% of sites. The Southern Blue Ridge region has
highly weathered soils that can store large amounts of
deposited sulphate. As long-term sulphate deposition
exhausts the soil's ability to store additional sulfate,
a decreasing proportion of the deposited sulphate
is retained in the soil and an increasing proportion
is exported to surface waters. Thus, sulphate
concentrations in streams are increasing despite
reduced levels of S02 emissions and, therefore,
reduced levels of sulphate deposition.
Trends in surface water nitrate concentrations are
mixed. Trends at several individual LTM sites in
lakes and streams indicate flat or slightly degrading
nitrate trends (Figure 35). Improving trends for nitrate
concentrations were noted at only 24% of sites in New
England and the Adirondacks, 52% of sites in the
Northern Appalachian Plateau, and 24% of sites in
the Blue Ridge. These trends do not appear to reflect
changes in emissions or deposition in these areas and
are likely a result of ecosystem factors.
Table 4. Regional Trends in Sulphate, Nitrate and ANC
at Long-term Monitoring Sites, 1990-2007
Region „ . Sulphate Trend3 Nitrate Trend3 ANC Trend
6 Covered K
Adirondack Mountains
Catskills/Northern
Appalachian Plateau
New England
Ridge / Blue Ridge provinces
Lakes in NY
Streams in NY,
PA
Lakes in ME, VT
Streams in VA
Mostb improving
Mostb improving
Mostb improving
Fewb improving
Fewb improving
Someb improving
Someb improving
Fewb improving
Manyb Improving
Someb improving
Fewb improving
Fewb improving
" Trends determined by multivariate Mann-Kendall statistical test.
'"Most", "many", "some", "few" improving indicate greater than 75%, from 50 to 75%, from 25 to 50%, and less than 25%, respectively, of lakes or streams with
statistically significant trend at the 95% confidence level.
Source: US EPA 2010
64
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Declines in sulphate deposition levels are the likely
result for many of the improving trends in ANC, but
ANC levels still lag declining sulphate concentrations
in many of the monitoring sites. From 1990 to 2007,
monitoring sites that showed increasing ANC levels
(statistically significant improving trend) were in the
Adirondacks and Catskills (50% of sites). Only a few
sites (12% of sites) in New England had statistically
significant increasing trends in ANC. Streams in the
Appalachian Plateau and Blue Ridge showed few
statistically significant trends in ANC (Figure 36).
Figure 34. Trends in Lake and Stream Water
Chemistry at LTM Sites, 1990-2007 -
Sulphate Ion Concentrations
* Increasing trend
Increasing n on "Significant wend
No Change
Decreasing nan-signlfcanMrend
Figure 35. Trends in Lake and Stream Water
Chemistry at LTM Sites, 1990-2007 -
Nitrate Ion Concentrations
Increasing Ifend
Mo Change
Decreasing non^aignlteanl Irend
Decreasing Irecd
Source: US EPA 2010
Source: US EPA 2010
Figure 36. Trends in Lake and Stream Water
Chemistry at LTM Sites, 1990-2007 -
ANC Levels
Source: US EPA 2010
65
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Critical Loads and Exceedances
^^ A region's critical load is the amount of
<*^^^^g acid deposition it can tolerate without
being adversely affected according to
present knowledge. When first utilized in
Canada,6 the critical load was expressed
in terms of sulphate deposition only and reported as
kg/ha/yr. In order to simultaneously account for both
sulphur (S) and nitrogen (N) acidifying inputs (S and
N have different atomic weights), the critical load is
currently expressed in terms of charge equivalents as
eq/ha/yr. The 20 kg/ha/yr wet sulphate target load that
was used to guide implementation of a S02 emission
reduction program in eastern Canada during the 1980s
equals 416 eq/ha/yr.
In the 1980s and 1990s, management of the emissions
that produce acid deposition in Canada focused on the
east where sensitive terrain was coincident with high
levels of deposition. Limited survey and monitoring
data supported an assumption that acid deposition was
not a problem in western Canada. This was in keeping
with the fact that western sources were generally
distant from sensitive terrain. However, expansion of
existing and development of new emission sources
in western Canada required that this assumption be
re-evaluated. Recent regional surveys of lakes located
on the Canadian Shield conducted by federal and
provincial authorities7 have allowed determination of
representative aquatic critical loads for northern parts
of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Steady-state critical
loads were calculated on a lake-by-lake basis using
the Steady-State Water Chemistry (SSWC) model and
an acid neutralizing capacity threshold (ANCNrr]it) that
considered the influence of the high level of dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) which is prevalent throughout
the region. The critical load for a regional data set was
estimated by the 5th percentile value so as to protect
95% of the lake ecosystems. Regional aquatic critical
loads ranged from 1.9 to 52.7 eq/ha/yr indicating that
very acid-sensitive lakes exist throughout northern
Manitoba and Saskatchewan. The lowest regional
critical loads occurred in that part of west-central
Saskatchewan that is downwind of the rapidly-
expanding oil sand industry (as illustrated in Figure 37).
Regional critical load exceedances ranged from
54.5 to 909 eq/ha/yr, with the largest (positive) values
occurring close to base metal smelters in Manitoba
or downwind of the oil sands operations in western
Alberta (Figure 38). The exceedances were almost
entirely due to sulphate deposition. Nitrogen inputs
to the lakes, while significant, were virtually entirely
Canada-United.States. 1983. Memorandum of intent on transboundary air pollution. Report of the Impact Assessment Working Group I,
Section 3-Aquatic Effects. 259 p.
Jeffries, DS, Semkin, RG, Gibson, JJ, Wong, I. 2010. Recently surveyed lakes in northern Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Canada:
characteristics and critical loads of acidity. J Limnol 69(Suppl. l):45-55.
66
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retained within their catchments (lake water nitrate
levels were below analytical detection in most cases),
meaning that at present, nitrogen deposition is not an
acidifying factor.
Lakes having critical loads as low as those observed
in northern Manitoba and Saskatchewan will be
threatened by long-term acid inputs. However, they
do not presently exhibit obvious symptoms of chemical
damage from anthropogenic acidic deposition (i.e. low
pH and/or reduced alkalinity). Hence there is still time
to protect them from the acidification effects observed
in many eastern Canadian lakes.
Figure 37. Manitoba and Saskatchewan Aquatic Critical Loads
for Acidity (Sulphur + Nitrogen)
Manitoba and Saskatchewan Aquatic
Critical Loads (SSWC model only)
eq/ha/yr
Bkd to
100 to
200 to
300 to
400 to
100
200
300
400
700
700 to 1000
>= 1000
Ontario
Note: Aquatic critical loads (wet and dry deposition in eq/ha/yr for acidity (sulphur and nitrogen) calculated using the SSWC model. "Bkd" in the legend implies background
deposition which is-40-60 eq/ha/yr. The critical load value for a given grid square is the 5th percentile value for all lakes located within the square.
Source: Environment Canada 2010
67
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Figure 38. Current Manitoba and Saskatchewan Aquatic Critical Load Exceedances
Manitoba and Saskatchewan N-ieachmg
Exceedanees Far Lakes
(SSWC model only)
•qflutfyr
B <-600
-600 to -300
-300 to
-100 to
0 to
100 to
300 to
-100
0
100
300
600
600
Ontario
l**»io ,^,
r-
.rt. _ r
Note: Current aquatic critical load exceedances (eq/ha/yr) calculated as a grid square's estimated S deposition plus nitrate export (to quantify the N-based component)
minus its critical load. Positive exceedance values indicate that 5% (or more) of the lakes in the square are receiving acidic deposition (over the long term) in excess of
their neutralizing ability.
Source: Environment Canada 2010
In the United States, the critical load
approach is not an officially accepted
approach to ecosystem protection.
For example, language specifically
requiring a critical load approach
does not exist in the Clean Air Act. Nevertheless,
the critical load approach is being explored as an
ecosystem assessment tool with great potential to
simplify complex scientific information and effectively
communicate with the policy community and the public.
Between 2002 and 2006, federal agencies and the
scientific research community convened workshops
and conferences to develop critical load science and
modeling efforts and explore the use of a critical
load approach in air pollution control policy in the
United States. As a result of these developments,
agencies such as the NPS and the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service developed
specific recommendations for using the critical loads
approach as a tool to assist in managing federal
lands. Several federal agencies are now employing
critical loads approaches to protect and manage
sensitive ecosystems. For example, in Rocky Mountain
National Park in Colorado, the NPS has entered
into a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with
the Colorado Department of Public Health and
68
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Environment (CDPHE) and the EPA to address
harmful impacts to air quality and other natural
resources occurring in the park, and to reverse a
trend of increasing nitrogen deposition. The MOU
requires the NPS to develop a resource management
goal to protect park resources and requires the
CDPHE to develop an air management strategy that
will help to meet park goals.
This approach also provides a useful lens through
which to assess the results of current policies and
programs and to evaluate the potential ecosystem
protection value of proposed policy options. Since
2008, the U.S. EPA has employed the critical load
approach to assess the ecological benefits of current
air pollution programs, such as Title IV emissions
reductions, and to review whether the secondary
national ambient air quality standards for oxides
of nitrogen and sulphur protect surface waters
from acidification.
In addition to activities within federal and state
agencies, the scientific research community has
recently published many peer-reviewed scientific
articles that advance the tools for calculating critical
loads in the United States. Figure 39 illustrates critical
loads for sulphur plus nitrogen in acid-sensitive lakes
in the northeastern Appalachian Mountains and
streams in the central Appalachian Mountains. These
estimates are based on the recent peer-reviewed
work by DuPont et al. (2005)8 and Sullivan et al.
(2007)9. Critical load estimates illustrated in Figure
39 include data collected in lakes and streams by
EPA-administered surface water monitoring programs,
such as the National Surface Water Survey (NSWS),
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program
(EMAP), the Temporally Integrated Monitoring of
Ecosystems (TIME) program, and the LTM program.
The lakes and streams associated with these programs
consist of a subset of lakes and streams that are located
in areas most impacted by acid deposition, and many
sites provide long term records of surface acidification.
For example, the LTM lake and stream sites are
monitored 3 to 15 times per year, with some site records
dating back to the early 1980s. In New England, the
LTM project collects quarterly data from lakes in Maine,
Vermont and the Adirondack region of New York.
The NSWS, EMAP and TIME programs employ
probability sampling; each monitoring site was chosen
statistically from a predefined target population. In
New England and the central Appalachian Mountains,
the target populations include lakes and streams likely
to be responsive to changes in acidic deposition. TIME
lakes in Maine, Vermont and the Adirondack region of
New York and TIME streams in Pennsylvania, Virginia
and West Virginia are monitored annually.
Drawing on the peer-reviewed scientific literature
(e.g. Dupont et al. 2005 and Sullivan et al. 2007),
critical load estimates for about 1,100 lakes and
streams were calculated using a modified SSWC
model. The critical load in this study represents the
combined deposition load of sulphur and nitrogen
to which a lake or stream could be subjected and
still have an ANC of 50 ueq/L or higher. This ANC
level tends to protect most fish and other aquatic
organisms, although some sensitive species may
be lost. Critical loads of combined total sulphur
and nitrogen are expressed in terms of ionic charge
balance as milliequivalent per square metre per
year (meq/m2/yr). When actual measured deposition
of nitrogen and sulphur is greater than the critical
load, the critical load is "exceeded," meaning that
combined sulphur and nitrogen deposition was greater
than a lake or stream could sustain and still maintain
the ANC level of 50 ueq/L or above.
3 Source: US EPA, 2008 and DuPont J, Clair TA, Gagnon C, Jeffries DS, Kahl JS, Nelson SJ, Peckenham JM. 2005. Enviro Monit Assess
109:275-291.
9 Sullivan T.J., Cosby BJ, Webb JR, Dennis RL, Bulger AJ, Deviney, FA Jr. 2007. Streamwater acid-base chemistry and critical loads of atmos-
pheric sulfur deposition in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. Enviro Monit and Assess 137:85-99.
69
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This study compares the amount of deposition lakes
and streams can receive—the critical load—to
measured deposition for the 1989-1991 (Figure 40)
and 2006-2008 periods (Figure 41). Deposition
estimates for both periods are based on wet deposition
measured values from the NADP network combined
with modelled dry deposition values based on the
Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model.
Comparing Figures 40 and 41 provides insight into
the improvements resulting from implementing the
S02 and NOX emission reduction commitments in the
Canada-U.S. AQA.
Approximately 36% of the lakes and streams for
which critical load estimates were calculated in the
eastern United States currently receive acid deposition
greater than their estimated critical load. This is an
improvement when compared to the 1989-1991
period, during which 56% of modelled lakes and
streams received acid deposition greater than their
estimated critical load. Areas with the greatest
concentration of lakes where acid deposition currently
is greater than—or exceeds—estimated critical loads
include the Adirondack mountain region in New York,
southern New Hampshire and Vermont, northern
Massachusetts, northeast Pennsylvania and the
central Appalachian Mountains of Virginia and
West Virginia (Figure 41).
Reductions in acidic deposition have occurred over
the past decade, as demonstrated by the deposition
maps in Figures 4 through 9 on pages 9-10. However,
this comparison of past and current total deposition
estimates with critical loads estimates from the
scientific literature indicates that acid-sensitive
ecosystems in the northeastern United States are
still at risk of acidification at current deposition levels.
As a result, additional reductions in acidic deposition
from current levels might be necessary to protect these
ecosystems, a conclusion supported by other recent
analyses, such as Risk and Exposure Assessment for
Review of the Secondary National Ambient Air Quality
Standards for Oxides of Nitrogen and Oxides of Sulfur10
and the Integrated Science Assessment for Oxides of
Nitrogen and Sulfur Review11.
Figure 39. Estimated Sulphur + Nitrogen
Critical Loads for Lakes in the Northeast
and Streams in the Central Appalachian
Mountains, United States
Source: US EPA 2010
10 [U.S. EPA) (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2009. Risk and Exposure Assessment for Review of the Secondary National
Ambient Air Quality Standards for Oxides of Nitrogen and Oxides of Sulfur. EPA-452/R-09-008a. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Health and Environmental Impacts Division, Research Triangle Park (NC).
11 [U.S. EPA] (United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2008a. Integrated Science Assessment for Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur
Review. EPA/600/R-08/082F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Center for Environmental Assessment-RTP Division, Office of
Research and Development, Research Triangle Park (NC).
70
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Figure 40. Lake and Stream
Exceedances of Estimated Critical Loads
(Sulphur + Nitrogen) for Total Nitrogen
and Sulphur Deposition, 1989-1991
Figure 41. Lake and Stream
Exceedances of Estimated Critical Loads
(Sulphur + Nitrogen) for Total Nitrogen
and Sulphur Deposition, 2006-2008
Source: US EPA 2010
Source: US EPA 2010
Other Related Canadian and
U.S. Atmospheric Research
Ammonia Emissions
Ammonia (NH3) is listed by the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Protocol to
Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level
Ozone (Gothenburg Protocol) as a chemical whose
emissions have a more severe environmental or health
impact. NH3 is a precursor chemical in the formation
of fine particulate matter (PM25), a component of the
mixture known as smog. As NH3 emissions worldwide
are expected to increase in response to agricultural
intensification (with agricultural activity accounting
for 90% of Canadian NH3 emissions in 2007 in
the form of livestock and fertilizer application: see
Figure 42), the role of ammonia in PM25 formation
may proportionally become more important as
emissions of other precursor gases level off or
decrease due to emissions control policies.
71
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Figure 42. Canadian National NH3
Emissions by Sector, 2007
Industrial Sources
4% "
Waste
1%
Natural Sources
1%
Agriculture
(Animals)
67%
Source: Environment Canada 2010
Fertilizer
Application
23%
_ Mobile Sources
4%
Figure 43. National NH3 Emissions
in Canada, 1985-2007
600,000
500,000
400,000
f. 300,000
200,000
100,000
1985 1990 1995
• Canada
Source: Environment Canada 2010
2000
2005
Figure 43 depicts the Canadian NH3 emissions trend
from 1985 to 2007, where emissions increased
approximately 23% in that period.
Similar to Canada, the bulk of the U.S. NH3 emissions
are from agricultural sources, accounting for almost
90% of all emissions in 2007.
To address the need for understanding sources, fate
and deposition of NH3, both Canada and the U.S.
have undertaken initiatives to further the scientific
understanding of NH3. In the United States, routine
monitoring was identified as a necessary measure in
understanding spatial and temporal distribution of
ammonia concentrations. To address the monitoring
need, the U.S. EPA and NADP have developed the
Ammonia Monitoring Network (AMoN), where passive
samplers were installed at 20 NADP sites across the
U.S., in regions of high NH3 emissions. Figure 44
shows the locations of the NH3 monitoring sites
across the country.
In Canada, an assessment on the role of atmospheric
agricultural ammonia in the formation of PM25 was
prepared as part of the National Agri-Environmental
Standards Initiative (NAESI). The 2008 Canadian
Atmospheric Assessment of Agricultural Ammonia
describes the state of the science as well as identifies
key knowledge gaps. Atmospheric ammonia research
activity is ongoing to address some of the research
needs identified by the assessment. One initiative is
the launch of a measurement method inter-comparison
campaign at the Egbert CAPMoN site in Ontario, with
a variety of measurement techniques used in both
Canadian and U.S. networks. Additional measurement
and modelling work will focus on the Canada-U.S.
transboundary region, with a special emphasis on
modelling flux and transport across the border, and
the impact of NH3 emissions on PM formation in the
source and receptor regions in both countries.
72
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Figure 44. Ammonia Monitoring Network
AMoN Site Map and Modeled NH Emissions
Modeled NH, Emissions (kg/ha)
^•<1
1-3
3-5
5-7
7-10
•110-15
15-20
>20
Source: US EPA 2010
Active Sites
Inactive Sites
Source: US EPA and NAOP
Impacts of Climate Change on Air Quality
Climate change plays an important role in regional air
quality, as the latter is dependent on meteorological
conditions, which are sensitive to changes in climate.
Both Canada and the U.S. are studying the impacts
of different climate change scenarios based on the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) via the coupling
of air quality and climate change models. Much of
the current work is studying the impacts of a future
warmer climate on 03 formation, as the effects on
PM formation are more complicated and less clear.
Studies show that an increase in temperature alone
has the potential to increase 03, especially in already-
impacted areas, such as urban centres.
In the U.S., the modelling work has focused on
the impacts of climate change on ambient 03 and
PM25 levels, as well as the combined effects of a
changing climate, along with anticipated precursor
emissions decreases. Modelling results show that a
climate change-only scenario will result in increases
in both mean summer 8-hour and 95th percentile
summer 8-hour maximum concentrations for 03, with
the increases mainly in the eastern portions of the
country. A climate change and emissions reduction
scenario results in overall decreases in both the
mean and 95th percentile 8-hour maximum 03 levels,
again with the greatest decreases concentrated in
73
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the eastern parts of the country.12 These results are
reported along with results from other modelling
studies in a synthesis report that was developed by
the U.S. EPA Global Change Research Program.13
In Canada, modelling scenarios are underway to
evaluate a regional climate and air quality modelling
system against air quality observations for ozone and
PM25 for current climate conditions. Further scenarios
planned for 2010-2011 will examine "climate change
(2050) with current emissions, and climate change
(2050) with projected future emissions." All scenarios
are for summer months (June, July and August) over
a ten-year period.
A growing area of research involves air pollutants
(such as black carbon) that not only have adverse
health impacts, but along with other gases such as 03,
have a climate impact. These compounds are termed
collectively as short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs), as
their atmospheric lifetime is short in comparison to
other greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (C02).
A climate forcer affects the Earth's energy balance by
either absorbing or reflecting radiation. Some of the
shorter-lived forcers can have significant impacts on
regional air quality, and their regulation can lead to
nearer-term, measurable benefits for air quality and
hence public health, as well as climate benefits.
Figure 45 illustrates the radiative impact of SLCFs.
Figure 45. Radiative Impact
of Short-lived Climate Forcers
Temperature increase, X
Global aver age
1/1-
•"'I: II. ..---. l.l.|
bl -i k i .• 't ..i i
V,Tl,, „.
Oron*
o.oi-
CO
Short-lived climate forcers such as black
carbon, methane and ozone may have
warming effects similar in magnitude to the
long-lived greenhouse gases such as C02.
Estimates of the warming due to SLCFs
are still very uncertain and need to be
further refined.
Source: [AMAP] Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme. 2009. Update on
Selected Climate Issues of Concern: Observations, short-lived climate forcers,
Arctic carbon cycle, and predictive capability Oslo (NO). 23 p.
International Collaboration
International Transport of Air Pollution
In 2009, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS)
completed a study funded by the U.S. EPA, the NOAA,
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), and the National Science Foundation
(NSF), about the significance of the international
transport of air pollutants for air quality, deposition
and radiative forcing. This study, entitled "Global
Sources of Local Pollution," included the overarching
recommendation to develop and implement an
"integrated pollution source attribution" system. Such
a system would focus on improving capabilities within,
and integration among, emissions measurements and
estimates, atmospheric chemical and meteorological
modelling, and observations, including long-term
ground-based observations, satellite remote sensing
and process-focused field studies. Figure 46 from the
NAS study shows the major atmospheric transport
pathways affecting North America.
Nolle, C G, Gilliland AB, Hogrefe C, Mickley LJ (2008), Linking global to regional models to assess future climate impacts on surface ozone
levels in the United States, J Geophys Res 113, D14307, doi:10.1029/2007JD008497.
[U.S. EPA] United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Assessment of the Impacts of Global Change on Regional U.S. Air Quality:
A Synthesis of Climate Change Impacts on Ground-Level Ozone (An Interim Report of the U.S. EPA Global Change Research Program).
Washington (DC): Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/600/R-07/094F, 2009.
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Figure 46. Major Atmospheric Transport Pathways Affecting North America
The general timescales of transport estimated by the committee from trajectory studies and other sources are: (A) Midlatitudes -Arctic exchange: 1-4 weeks;
(B) Midlatitudes - Tropics exchange: 1-2 months; (C) Northern Hemisphere - Southern Hemisphere exchange: - 1 year; (D) North America to Western Europe: 3-13 days;
(E) Northern Africa to North America: 1-2 weeks; (F) Eastern Europe to Asia: 1-2 weeks; (G) Eastern Asia to North America: 4-17 days.
Source: Global Sources of Local Pollution. NAS Report. 2009
The NAS study will also contribute to a 2010 assessment,
co-led by the U.S. EPA, of intercontinental transport
in the northern hemisphere by the international Task
Force on Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution under
the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution (LRTAP). The assessment is scheduled for
release in late 2010.
Air Quality Model Evaluation International Initiative
Scientists from the U.S. and Canada are participating
in an international effort called the Air Quality Model
Evaluation International Initiative (AQMEII). The
objectives of AQMEII are to promote the international
exchange of expert knowledge in regional air quality
modelling; identify knowledge gaps in the science;
test and develop innovative model evaluation
methodologies to improve knowledge about relevant
processes and to increase confidence in model
performance for better support of policy development;
and coordinate research projects on model evaluation
and model inter-comparisons.
AQMEII is coordinated by two chairs, one for North
America and the other for Europe and is supported by
the Joint Research Centre/Institute for Environment
and Sustainability, Environment Canada and the U.S.
EPA which act as regional focal points. The first AQMEII
workshop was held in Stresa, Italy, in April 2009. A major
outcome from the workshop was a plan for a near-term
(2010) North American/European (two-continent) air
quality model inter-comparison study, using modelling
platforms from both continents, that simulates European
and North American air quality for all of 2006. A second
AQMEII workshop was held in September 2010 in
Turin, Italy, to review initial model results and discuss
next steps in the inter-comparison activity. Scientific
results from this inter-comparison will be published
in a February 2011 special issue of the journal
Atmospheric Environment.
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Conclusion
The United States and Canada continue to successfully fulfill the commitments set forth
in the Air Quality Agreement. While the initial focus of the Agreement was on reducing
emissions of S02 and NOX, the major contributors to acid rain, the two countries expanded
their efforts to cooperatively address transboundary air issues, such as ground-level ozone
and particulate matter, over the past decade. The Ozone Annex, added to the Agreement
in 2000, committed both countries to reducing emissions of NOX and VOCs, the precursors
to ground-level ozone, a key component of smog. Considerable progress has been made
to address transboundary ozone pollution in the eastern border regions of each country.
Efforts to address particulate matter levels in the air are important in the United States
and Canada. Both countries recognize the significant human health and ecosystem effects
(including acid rain and regional haze) associated with PM25 and its precursors. Canada
and the United States anticipate negotiating the addition of a Particulate Matter Annex
(PM Annex) to the Air Quality Agreement once each country has refined its domestic
policy approach for managing emissions of PM and its precursors.
The Air Quality Agreement established a formal and flexible method for addressing
cross-border pollution and continues to pave the way for cooperation on a variety of
air quality issues going forward.
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U.S.-Canada Air Quality Committee
W United States Members
United States Co-Chair:
Daniel Reifsnyder
Deputy Assistant Secretary for the Environment
U.S. Department of State
Members:
Richard S. Artz
Air Resources Laboratory
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA)
Mitchell Baer
Office of Policy and International Affairs
U.S. Department of Energy
John Bunyak
Air Resources Division
National Park Service
G. Vinson Hellwig
Air Quality Division
Michigan Department of Environmental Quality
Brian J. McLean
Office of Atmospheric Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Margo T. Oge
Office of Transportation and Air Quality
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Steve Page
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
David Shaw
Division of Air Resources
New York State Department of
Environmental Conservation
Subcommittee on
Program Monitoring
and Reporting Co-Chair:
Brian J. McLean
Director, Office of Atmospheric Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Subcommittee on
Scientific Cooperation
Co-Chair:
Timothy H. Watkins
Deputy Director, Human Exposure and
Atmospheric Sciences
Division, Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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Canadian Members
Canada Co-Chair:
Mike Beale
Associate Assistant Deputy Minister
Environmental Stewardship Branch
Environment Canada
Members:
Daniel Charrette
Environmental Industries Directorate
Service Industries and Consumer Products Branch
Industry Canada
Lawrence Cheng
Air Policy Development
Air, Land and Strategic Policy Branch
Alberta Environment
Paul Glover
Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch
Health Canada
Michel Goulet
Direction des politiques de la qualite de I'atmosphere
Ministere du Developpement durable,
de I'Environnement et des Pares du Quebec
Jeffrey Heynen
U.S. Transboundary Affairs Division
Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada
Marie-Helene Levesque
Environmental Policy
Transport Canada
Kimberly MacNeil
Environmental Science and Program Management
Nova Scotia Department of Environment
Louise Metivier
Strategic Priorities Directorate
Environmental Stewardship Branch
Environment Canada
Glen Okrainetz
Health Protection Branch
British Columbia Ministry of Healthy Living and Sport
Jason Randall
Environment Policy Division
Energy Policy Branch
Natural Resources Canada
Adam Redish
Air Policy and Climate Change Branch
Ontario Ministry of the Environment
Subcommittee on
Program Monitoring
and Reporting Co-Chair:
Louise Metivier
A/Director General, Strategic Priorities Directorate
Environmental Stewardship Branch
Environment Canada
Subcommittee on
Scientific Cooperation
Co-Chair:
Dr. Veronique Bouchet
Manager, Modelling and Integration Research Section
Science and Technology Branch
Environment Canada
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List of Acronyms
AMI Air Health Indicator
AIRMoN Atmospheric Integrated Research
Monitoring Network
AMNet Ambient Mercury Network
AMoN Ammonia Monitoring Network
ANC acid-neutralizing capacity
ARP Acid Rain Program
AQA Air Quality Agreement
AQBAT Air Quality Benefits Assessment Tool
AQHI Air Quality Health Index
AQI Air Quality Index
AQMEII Air Quality Model Evaluation
International Initiative
AQMP Air Quality Management Plan
ATV all-terrain vehicle
BACT best available control technology
BART best available retrofit technology
BCVCC British Columbia Visibility Coordinating
Committee
CAIR Clean Air Interstate Rule
CAPMoN Canadian Air and Precipitation
Monitoring Network
CARA Clean Air Regulatory Agenda
CASAC Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee
CASTNET Clean Air Status and Trends Network
CDC Centers for Disease Control
CCME Canadian Council of Ministers of the
Environment
CDPHE Colorado Department of Public Health
and Environment
CEMS continuous emission monitoring systems
CEPA 1999 Canadian Environmental Protection Act,
1999
Cl continuous improvement
CMAQ Community Multiscale Air Quality Model
CO carbon monoxide
C02 carbon dioxide
CSN PM25 Chemical Speciation Network
CWS Canada-wide Standards
DOC dissolved organic carbon
EGA Emission Control Area
EGU electric generating unit
EMAP Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program
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EPA Environmental Protection Agency
ESAI Essar Steel Algoma Inc.
FEM Federal Equivalent Method
GHG greenhouse gas
GPMP Gaseous Pollutant Monitoring Program
ha hectare
HEI Health Effects Institute
hp horsepower
IADN Integrated Atmospheric Deposition
Network
ICPMS ion-coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy
IJC International Joint Commission
IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected
Visual Environments
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change
ISA Integrated Science Assessment
KCAC Keeping Clean Areas Clean
kg kilogram
km kilometre
kt kilotonne
kW kilowatt
LAER lowest achievable emission rate
LRTAP Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution
LTM Long-Term Monitoring
MDN Mercury Deposition Network
mg milligram
MOE Ministry of the Environment (Ontario)
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
|jg/m3 micrograms per cubic meter
MW megawatt
N nitrogen
NAA nonattainment areas
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NAESI National Agri-Environmental Standards
Initiative
NATTS National Air Toxic Trends Stations
NADP National Atmospheric Deposition
Program
NAPS National Air Pollution Surveillance
(Network)
NARSTO North American Research Strategy
for Tropospheric Ozone
MAS National Academy of Sciences
NASA National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
NAtChem National Atmospheric Chemistry
Database
NBP NOX Budget Trading Program
NCore National Core Monitoring Network
NDAMN National Dioxin Air Monitoring Network
NEG/ECP New England Governors and Eastern
Canadian Premiers
NEI National Emissions Inventory
NH3 ammonia
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
N02 nitrogen dioxide
NOX nitrogen oxides
NPACT National Particle Components Toxicity
NPRI National Pollutant Release Inventory
NPS National Park Service
NSF National Science Foundation
NSPS New Source Performance Standards
NSR New Source Review
NSWS National Surface Water Survey
NTN National Trends Network
OBD onboard diagnostic
03 ground-level ozone
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PAMS Photochemical Assessment
Monitoring Stations
Pb lead
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PCB polychlorinated biphenyl
PEMA Pollutant Emission Management Area
PERC tetrachloroethylene
PM particulate matter
PM2 5 particulate matter less than or equal to
2.5 microns
PM
10
particulate matter less than or equal to
10 microns
ppb parts per billion
ppm parts per million
PSD Prevention of Significant Deterioration
REA Risk and Exposure Assessment
S sulphur
SI spark-ignition
SIP State Implementation Plan
SLAMS State and Local Air Monitoring Stations
SLCF short-lived climate forcer
S02 sulphur dioxide
S042- sulphate
SSWC Steady-State Water Chemistry model
TCE trichloroethylene
TIME Temporally Integrated Monitoring of
Ecosystems
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
VOC volatile organic compound
XRF x-ray fluorescence instrumentation
81
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Notes
82
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Notes
83
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Notes
84
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To obtain additional information, please contact:
In United States:
Clean Air Markets Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
In Canada:
Air Emissions Priorities
Environment Canada
351 St. Joseph Blvd.
12th Floor, Place Vincent Massey
Gatineau, Quebec K1A OH3
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's website:
www.epa.gov/airmarkets/progsregs/usca/index.htm
Environment Canada's website:
www.ee.gc.ca/Air/default.asp?lang=En&n=83930AC3-l
Cover Photo Credits: © Photos.com, 2010
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