LOCAL GOVERNMENT CLIMATE AND ENERGY STRATEGY SERIES
Transportation
Control Measures
An Information Document for Developing and
Implementing Emissions Reductions Programs
xvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
EPA-430-R-09-040
March 2011
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EPA's Local Government Climate and Energy
Strategy Series
The Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series provides a comprehensive, straightforward overview of green-
house gas (GHG) emissions reduction strategies that local governments can employ. Topics include energy efficiency,
transportation, community planning and design, solid waste and materials management, and renewable energy. City,
county, territorial, tribal, and regional government staff, and elected officials can use these documents to plan, implement,
and evaluate climate and energy projects.
Each document in the series provides an overview of project benefits, policy mechanisms, investments, key stakeholders,
and other implementation considerations. Examples and case studies highlighting achievable results from programs imple-
mented in communities across the United States are incorporated throughout the series.
EPA's State and Local Climate and Energy Program developed this particular document on Transportation Control
Measures (TCMs) jointly with EPA'S Office of Transportation and Air Quality (OTAQ). OTAQ serves as the Agency's
primary source for information, tools, and other resources that identify emission reduction strategies, national policies,
regulations, incentive-based programs, funding sources, calculators, and other types of assistance to help states and local
areas reduce emissions from transportation sources. More information on TCMs and other transportation and air quality
topics can be found at: http://www.epa.gov/otaq/index.htm.
While each strategy document stands on its own, the entire series contains many interrelated strategies that can be
combined to create comprehensive, cost-effective programs that generate multiple benefits. For example, efforts to improve
energy efficiency can be combined with transportation and community planning and design programs to reduce GHG
emissions, decrease the costs of energy and transportation for businesses and residents, improve air quality and public
health, and enhance quality of life.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT CLIMATE AND ENERGY STRATEGY SERIES
All documents are available at www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/resources/strategy-guides.html.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Energy Efficiency in Local Government Operations
Energy Efficiency in K-12 Schools
Energy Efficiency in Affordable Housing
1 Energy-Efficient Product Procurement
Combined Heat and Power
Energy Efficiency in Water and Wastewater Facilities
TRANSPORTATION
Transportation Control Measures
COMMUNITY PLANNING AND DESIGN
Smart Growth
Urban Heat Island Reduction
SOLID WASTE AND MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Resource Conservation and Recovery
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Green Power Procurement
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation
Landfill Gas Energy
Please note: All Web addresses in this document were working as of the time of publication, but links may break over time
as sites are reorganized and content is moved.
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgements __ii
Executive Summary iii
1. Overview __1
2. Benefits of Transportation Control Measures _2
3. Transportation Control Measures _5
4. Key Participants 11
5. Foundations for Program Development 14
6. Strategies for Effective Program Implementation 15
7. Costs and Funding Opportunities 18
Costs 18
Funding Opportunities ._ 18
8. Federal, State, and Regional Policy and Program Resources 21
9. Case Studies 23
City of Bellevue, Washington—Commute Trip Reduction 23
Program Initiation 24
Program Features ._ 24
Program Results _ 25
City of Santa Monica—Transportation Control Measures _ 26
Program Initiation __26
Program Features 27
Program Results ._ 27
10. Additional Examples and Information Resources 28
11. References 30
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) would like to acknowledge the many individuals who contributed
their time and expertise to the development and review of this guide for the Local Government Climate and Energy
Strategy Series. The following contributors provided significant assistance in bringing this document to fruition:
EPA—Leila Cook, Nicole Lents, Brian Ng, Mark Simons, Megan Susman, and Emma Zinsmeister.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development—Audrey Buehring, Michael Freedberg, Regina Gray, Richard
Santangelo, and Edwin Stromberg.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Developing and Implementing
Transportation Programs
Transportation accounts for 33 percent of U.S. carbon
dioxide emissions from the combustion of fossil fuel,
and can account for a significant portion of a local
government's or household's budget. Additionally,
transportation generates air pollution (criteria pollut-
ants and air toxics) that endangers public health.
Efforts to improve the efficiency of transportation,
reduce personal vehicle use, and encourage alternative
forms of transportation help reduce air pollution and
GHG emissions, improve energy security and indepen-
dence, and save money.
Local governments can improve the efficiency of their
own fleets by minimizing fuel consumption and emis-
sions through reducing vehicle use, purchasing clean
and efficient vehicles, and increasing their use of more
efficient alternative fuels. Local governments can also
employ strategies that reduce transportation-related
air pollution in their jurisdictions by reducing vehicle
use and encouraging more efficient use of transporta-
tion facilities. This document describes the process of
developing and implementing transportation control
measures, using real-world examples.
Transportation Control
Measures
Transportation control measures (TCMs) are strategies
that reduce transportation-related air pollution, GHG
emissions, and fuel use by reducing vehicle miles trav-
eled and improving roadway operations. Vehicle use
can be reduced through less-polluting transportation
alternatives, such as public transit, and strategies that
decrease the need for vehicle trips, such as telecom-
muting. TCMs may also focus on making travel more
efficient by carefully managing the transportation
system. This document describes how various TCMs
can reduce the demand for fuels, decrease GHG emis-
sions and local air pollutants, and reduce infrastructure
and travel costs for the community, residents, and local
businesses. It is designed to be used by city planners,
local transportation managers and agencies, mayors
and city councils, metropolitan planning organizations,
regional planning agencies, and employers.
Readers of this document should come away with an
understanding of the issues and steps involved in devel-
oping and implementing TCMs, as well as an awareness
of the challenges and opportunities presented.
This information document describes the benefits of
TCMs (Section 2); types of TCMs (Section 3); key
participants and their roles (Section 4); policy mecha-
nisms that local governments have used to support
TCMs (Section 5); implementation strategies for effec-
tive TCMs (Section 6); costs and funding opportunities
(Section 7); federal, state, and regional policy and
program resources (Section 8); and finally, two case
studies of local governments that have successfully
implemented TCMs (Section 9). Additional examples of
successful implementation are provided throughout the
document.
Background on this Document
Section 108 of the Clean Air Act, as amended in 1990,
requires EPA to prepare, and make available from time
to time, information regarding the formulation and
emission reduction potential of TCMs. In addition,
many state and local government agencies are currently
seeking information on how TCMs can support their
efforts to reduce GHG emissions and conserve energy.
This document has been developed to provide a source
of information on the development, implementa-
tion, and effects of TCMs. It is intended to provide a
comprehensive, straightforward overview of TCMs that
have been implemented for a variety of reasons, such
as reducing GHGs and criteria air pollution emissions,
conserving fuel and reducing energy costs, improving
public health, and enhancing quality of life. State, city,
county, territorial, tribal, and regional government plan-
ning staff, elected officials and other decision-makers
can use this information to learn about the experiences
with TCMs of other areas. In addition, those experi-
ences may inform decisions about the applicability and
effectiveness of these strategies.
The information in this document was collected in
2007 and 2008 (with updates and revisions to some of
the information in 2009 and 2010) based on a litera-
ture review of case studies, project reports, guidance
documents, and other transportation policy tools and
resources. Several resources came from federal sources,
including the Environmental Protection Agency and
the Department of Transportation. The document also
draws on research from non-governmental institu-
tions that specialize in transportation policy, including
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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the Victoria Transport Policy Institute, the Center
for Clean Air Policy, the Brooking Institution, and
Resources for the Future. Project-specific information
came from published case studies, project documents,
news articles and project websites. Examples cited
in the document were chosen to illustrate a range of
options available to local governments from across
the country and from jurisdictions of various sizes.
Particular attention was paid to gathering examples
for which information on concrete, quantifiable results
(e.g., reduced travel time, decreased fuel use, emissions
reductions, etc.) were reported. Project-specific infor-
mation was supplemented by quantitative information
from research studies on the effectiveness of several
types of TCMs. Information on results from individual
projects and/or TCM strategies was taken directly from
the documents reviewed; no independent verification
of results was conducted.
Relationships to Other
Documents in the Strategy
Series
Local governments can use other documents in this
series to develop robust climate and energy programs
that incorporate complementary strategies. For
example, local governments may combine transporta-
tion control measures with smart growth strategies
and energy-efficient affordable housing to develop
integrated plans for community development that
strategically utilize public transit, take advantage of
existing infrastructure, and make housing affordable
for residents with a range of incomes, all while reduc-
ing GHG emissions and air pollution. Local govern-
ments can also reduce their own transportation-related
energy use and GHG emissions by operating efficient
fleets and implementing other measures to improve
energy efficiency in local government operations.
See the box at right for more information about these
complementary strategies. Additional connections to
related strategies are highlighted in the document.
RELATED STRATEGIES IN THIS SERIES
1 Community Planning and Design: Smart Growth
Smart growth involves development that serves the
economy, the community, the environment, and public
health. Smart growth principles favor the strategic loca-
tion of transit services in residential or commercial areas,
complementing efforts to use TCMs to reduce a commu-
nity's vehicle miles traveled, transportation-related
energy use, and GHG emissions.
1 Energy Efficiency: Energy Efficiency in Affordable
Housing
Energy costs can contribute substantially to the overall
financial burden of housing, and can make housing
unaffordable for many families. Lower home energy use,
combined with TCMs that reduce the need for personal
vehicle use, can lead to substantial reductions in the total
energy-cost burden of low-income residents.
1 Energy Efficiency: Energy Efficiency in Local
Government Operations
Local governments can implement energy-saving
measures in existing local government facilities, new
and green buildings, and day-to-day operations. Many
local governments are improving the energy efficiency of
traffic operations by replacing conventional traffic signals
with energy-efficient, light-emitting diode traffic signals,
which complements the use of TCMs by further reducing
transportation-related energy use and GHG emissions.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
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Transportation
Control Measures
1. OVERVIEW
NOTE: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) believes that there is great value in sharing this
survey of information. However, many of the actions
described here have not been determined to be best prac-
tices for all communities and situations. The multiplicity
of actions discussed in this document may have different
benefits that depend on a jurisdiction's transportation
infrastructure, commuting and other transportation
patterns, funding availability, and other contextual
factors.
Many local governments are adopting Transporta-
tion Control Measures (TCMs) to address a variety
of social, economic, and environmental issues. When
properly implemented, TCMs can reduce demand for
fuels, decrease GHG emissions, local and regional air
pollutants, and reduce infrastructure and travel costs
for the community, residents, and local businesses.
TCMs can also influence behavior and lead to changes
in transportation choices. These changes can both
increase the quality of life and reduce costs for indi-
viduals and employers.
For the purpose of this document, a TCM is denned
broadly as a strategy that reduces transportation-
related air pollution by reducing vehicle use and
encouraging more efficient use of transportation
facilities.1 Vehicle use can be reduced through strate-
gies that decrease the need for vehicle trips, such as
1 EPA notes that this document may include more strategies than are defined
as TCMs for State Implementation Plans and other purposes. First, Clean Air
Act section 108(f) identifies 16 types of TCMs, which are focused on improv-
ing traffic flow; reducing single occupancy vehicle travel, cold start emissions,
and vehicle idling; increasing use of ridesharing, transit, and non-motorized
modes; encouraging flexible work schedules; and encouraging early retire-
ment of pre-1980 vehicles. Additional types of strategies can also be TCMs
as determined by the Administrator in consultation with the Secretary of
Transportation. This statutory provision can be viewed at: http://www.law.
cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode42/iisc_sec_42_00007408—OOO-.html.
Second, transportation agencies also need to ensure timely implementation of
approved SIP TCMs, as defined in the transportation conformity regulation
(40 CFR 93.101 and 93.113). The transportation conformity regulations defi-
nition of TCMs applies only to those measures that are in an approved SIP, are
eligible for funding under title 23 U.S.C. or the Federal Transit Laws, and are
not vehicle technology-based, fuel-based, and maintenance-based measures
that control the emissions from vehicles under fixed traffic conditions. For
more information on including TCMs in State Implementation Plans, please
see the discussion in Section 8, Federal, State, and Regional Policy and
Program Resources.
TRANSPORTATION CONTROL MEASURES
Transportation control measures (TCMs) are a variety
of strategies that reduce vehicle miles traveled
(VMT) and improve roadway operations to reduce air
pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and fuel use from
transportation, including:
• Public transportation improvements
• Congestion relief projects
• Incentives to encourage bicycling and walking
• Expanded commuter choices
• Workplace flexibility to reduce commuting
• Value pricing
The most appropriate and effective TCMs will vary from
community to community depending on a number
of factors, such as local capacity and the existing
infrastructure. However, developing a comprehensive
plan that includes a range of complementary TCMs will
help to maximize the benefits that are realized.
telecommuting, and strategies that provide viable
and less-polluting transportation alternatives (e.g.,
public transit, walking, and bicycling) when trips are
necessary. TCMs that focus on reducing congestion
reduce emissions by making travel more efficient.
For example, reducing congestion lowers emissions
by avoiding unnecessary vehicle idling. TCMs often
target routine transportation needs, such as commut-
ing to work, where 75 percent of all trips are made
by single occupancy vehicles (SOVs) [U.S. DOT,
Undated (a)].
This information document provides informa-
tion on how local governments have planned and
adopted TCMs. It includes an overview of measures,
benefits, costs, sources of funding, and examples and
case studies. Additional examples and information
resources are provided at the end of this document
in Section 10, Additional Examples and Information
Resources. Please note that the benefits resulting from
TCMs will vary from location to location based on
site-specific factors, such as existing development
patterns, fleet mix, and average vehicle miles traveled
(VMT). Implementing the same TCMs in two differ-
ent communities may yield very different results,
thus the examples presented in this document are
meant to be illustrative of what particular communi-
ties have achieved given their local conditions.
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
1. OVERVIEW
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Local governments can combine TCMs with other
strategies covered in the Local Government Climate
and Energy Strategy Series to develop comprehensive,
robust programs that provide integrated social and
environmental benefits. For example, local govern-
ments can integrate TCMs, smart growth strategies,
and energy-efficient affordable housing to put develop-
ment in locations that are well-connected to the region
by public transit, take advantage of existing infrastruc-
ture, and are affordable for residents with a range of
incomes. The cost of living in these locations is lower
because they offer more transportation options and
are closer to housing, jobs, and services. Development
in these locations allows people to drive less, which
reduces GHG emissions and air pollution. Please see
the strategy documents on smart growth and energy
efficiency in affordable housing for more information
on these complementary strategies.
2. BENEFITS OF
TRANSPORTATION
CONTROL MEASURES
TCMs can produce significant environmental,
economic, and social benefits by helping local
governments:
Reduce GHG emissions and improve air quality.
Through strategies such as reducing the number of
miles traveled by SOVs, TCM policies can reduce emis-
sions from vehicles (Johnston, 2006; Litman 2007).
The specific amount of emission reductions varies by
the type of TCM policy, how broadly it is applied, the
type of pollutant, and the time period. Some resources
are available to help cities estimate reductions in emis-
sions from TCM strategies and/or reductions in VMT
(CCAP, 2008; Litman 2007; ICLEI, Undated). These
types of tools, along with the results of modeling stud-
ies and retrospective evaluations of TCM programs,
illustrate some of the emissions benefits from TCM
strategies:
>• In 2004, Resources for the Future evaluated five
pilot city "ecommute" telework projects in Denver;
Washington, DC; Houston; Los Angeles; and
Philadelphia, and concluded that between 3,600
and 5,300 teleworkers (spending 35 percent of
their days teleworking) could collectively reduce
25 tons of volatile organic compound (VOC) emis-
sions annually (Walls and Nelson, 2004). Another
study of telecommuting programs in California
found that individual telecommuters reduced
emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) by 69 percent
and particulate matter (PM) by 78 percent (Walls
and Safirova, 2004).
>• A modeling study by the Puget Sound Regional
Council examined the impact of tolling on major
highways and arterials in the region and concluded
that such tolls would reduce congestion and travel
time and lead to a region-wide 10 percent reduc-
tion in CO2 emissions, a 5 percent reduction in
NOx, an 8 percent reduction in PM, and an 11.5
percent reduction in VOCs (PSRC, 2009).
A 2008 study by the Brookings Institution conclud-
ed that nationwide pay-as-you-drive auto insur-
ance—which provides a financial incentive to drive
fewer miles—would have the same effect as a $1.00
per gallon gas tax and could reduce nationwide
CO2 emissions by 2 percent and oil consumption
by 4 percent (Bordoff, 2008a).
A tool developed by the Center for Clean Air
Policy to estimate the benefits of TCM measures
estimates that public transit service improvements
that lead to a 10 percent increase in transit rider-
ship in a municipality that sees 5 million trips per
day could result in annual CO2, NOx, PM10, and
PM25 reductions equivalent to the annual emis-
sions of nearly 3,000 passenger vehicles (U.S. EPA
2009).
2. BENEFITS
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Reduce energy and travel costs. TCMs can save indi-
viduals, employers, and local governments money on
energy and other transportation costs. Employers who
reduce employee parking demand can realize savings
through reduced parking infrastructure costs. One
study estimates that employers could save $360-$2,000
per parking space annually, depending on the land,
construction, and operations costs for their location
(suburban or urban) and type of parking (surface,
structured, or underground) (U.S. EPA, 2005a). One
way employers can reduce parking demand is by help-
ing employees form carpools and vanpools through
efforts such as rideshare matching. In the San Francis-
co Bay Area, employees using vanpools have reported
saving up to $3,000 or more a year per person on gas,
car maintenance, and wear and tear (U.S. EPA, 2005e).
For lower-income workers, the savings in transporta-
tion costs can be significant and may allow them to
rent or buy homes in more convenient locations, such
as those with access to public transit (see EPAs Local
Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series: Energy
Efficiency in Affordable Housing for more information).
TCMs can also reduce congestion and total VMT,
which can lead to significant fuel savings. For example,
the Bureau of Transportation Statistics estimates that
42.5 million gallons of fuel were wasted in 2005 due to
congestion in Denver, Colorado [U.S. DOT, Undated
(b)]. Eliminating this waste would reduce CO2 emis-
sions by nearly 374,000 metric tons [U.S. EPA, Undated
(c)], which would equate to 8.5 percent of the trans-
portation-related GHG emissions reported for 2005 in
Denver's GHG inventory and 13.5 percent of emissions
associated with cars, light trucks, and SUVs in the city
(Ramaswami et al., 2007). Although there is no "silver
bullet" for alleviating congestion, a variety of TCMs
can be implemented to improve traffic operations and
promote alternative forms of transportation, resulting
in reduced fuel consumption, emissions reductions,
and energy savings for drivers and fleet owners.
Demonstrate leadership. Public agencies can lead by
example by adopting TCM programs for their own
operations that they hope to see adopted by the private
sector, such as telecommuting, flextime, compressed
workweeks, staggered work hours, and incentives for
public transportation and ridesharing.
In 2006, the City of Bellevue, Washington,
made a choice to lead by example and
strengthen the incentives for city employees
to rideshare and use transit by offering free Flexcar
(now Zipcar) services to employees who left their
cars at home. Shared cars were made available for
errands and unexpected meetings in response to
employees' concerns that leaving their cars at
home might leave them stranded during the day.
By partnering with Flexcar, the city helped
increase the number of shared cars stationed at
central parking locations and, as a result, a
number of private businesses also signed up to use
Flexcar services to promote ridesharing among
their employees. The free use of shared cars for city
employees was part of a larger Commute Trip
Reduction (CTR) Plan designed to reduce the
number of SOV trips and VMT in Bellevue (Auto
Channel, 2006). (More detailed information on
Bellevue's comprehensive CTR Plan and the results
it has achieved can be found in Section 9, Case
Studies.)
Increase community choices and reduce traffic
congestion. TCMs can reduce traffic congestion by
reducing the number of SOVs on the road and making
travel more efficient. Compressed workweeks, flextime,
park-and-ride services, ridesharing, and telecommuni-
cating are all effective TCM strategies—especially for
commuters.
In 1992, the Chattanooga Area Regional
Transportation Authority created a free
downtown shuttle system with 11 zero-emis-
sions electric buses to help reduce traffic and
improve air quality in downtown Chattanooga,
Tennessee. The system allows people to park at
either the north or south end of downtown and
take the shuttle to their destinations rather than
drive through the core of the city (Travel Matters,
2002). As of 2007, this service has recorded more
than 11 million passenger trips and run nearly 2
million miles, avoiding an estimated 65 tons of
pollutants (Chattanooga Area Regional Transpor-
tation Authority, 2009).
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
2. BENEFITS
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While these kinds of efforts can avoid emissions from
the vehicles of drivers who choose to travel by other
means (or not at all), consideration must be given
to "induced demand" when estimating the benefits.
Induced demand occurs when improvement in travel
conditions makes it more attractive for drivers to use
roadways, offsetting some of the initial congestion
and air quality benefits of TCMs (see the text box
Accounting for Indirect Effects of Reducing Congestion
on page 4). The evaluation of strategies that change the
actual or perceived generalized cost of travel should
explicitly consider how households and businesses will
likely respond to these changes over time.
ACCOUNTING FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS OF REDUCING
CONGESTION
Benefits from policies that reduce highway congestion
may be partially offset by additional driving that occurs
in response to the improved travel conditions. This
additional travel is known as "induced demand" and can
be an important consideration in estimating the travel
and emissions impact of TCMs and other transportation
system improvements. Because reductions in congestion
brought about by these strategies can be partially offset
by additional travel from drivers who are attracted to the
less congested roads, careful analysis of the direct and
indirect travel activity effects of a project is warranted.
The induced travel is likely to come partly from changes
in travel patterns (new trips and longer trips), and partly
from shifts of travelers from other times of day, routes,
and modes (such as transit). Accurate project evaluation
must consider the impact of induced demand; otherwise
the benefits may be overestimated.
Once properly accounted for, minimizing induced
travel often depends on the quality of alternatives and
complementary strategies for implementation. If the
alternatives to traveling in congested conditions are
inferior, a high time savings or price benefit is needed
to change traveler behavior. In contrast, if alternatives
are attractive, they are more likely to be successful,
resulting in less induced demand and lower congestion.
A comprehensive TCM program that includes a
combination of disincentives to peak-period driving and
improvements to alternative modes is the best method
for minimizing induced demand for travel and sustaining
congestion relief over a longer timeframe.
Improve public health and quality of life. Setting
aside the car keys and choosing walking, bicycling, or
public transit provides health and other benefits for
community residents. Research suggests that metro-
politan counties in which a greater number of people
commute to work by foot, bike, or public transporta-
tion (which typically involves at least a few blocks of
walking or biking at the beginning and end of the trip)
have lower rates of obesity than those where active
transportation is less common (Tiemann et al., 2008).
Apart from the direct health benefits of increased
exercise for those who walk or bike, reductions in
transportation-related air pollution lead to lower
health risks throughout the community—especially to
vulnerable, lower-income populations that tend to be
disproportionately affected by pollution. Participants in
alternative commuting programs also tend to experi-
ence decreased stress and increased productivity (U.S.
EPA, 2005d; U.S. DOE, Undated).
An organization in Atlanta, Georgia, called
the Commuter Club was established by the
Cumberland Community Improvement
District to help provide transportation alternatives
for the Cumberland Galleria office market. One of
the key benefits of bicycling, walking, and other
transportation alternatives that the Club describes
for employers and employees is improved produc-
tivity and a working environment that allows busi-
nesses to more easily recruit and keep the right
people (Commuter Club, Undated).
2. BENEFITS
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
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3. TRANSPORTATION
CONTROL MEASURES
Local governments can implement a range of TCMs
that reduce pollution, traffic congestion, and fuel use
by providing alternatives to using personal vehicles
or supporting more efficient use of vehicles. These
measures include:
Make public transportation available and encourage
its use. Making public transportation—such as buses,
subways, and trains—faster, affordable, convenient,
and reliable is one of the most important ways that
municipalities can encourage people to reduce the use
of their cars. Investing in infrastructure upgrades (e.g.,
dedicated bus lanes, new park-and-ride facilities, and
transit lines), improvements in service delivery, incen-
tive programs, and communication and outreach are
all ways in which municipalities can encourage use of
public transportation. The Center for Clean Air Policy
uses a rule of thumb that a 1 percent increase in public
transit service levels (e.g., extended operating hours
or increased public transit coverage) increases average
ridership by 0.5 percent (CCAP, 2008).
New York City has long recognized the bene-
fits of public transit, and fully one-fourth of
daily travel in the city is by public transport
compared with 2 percent for the nation as a whole.
In the late 1990s, the New York City Transit
(NYCT) System saw increases in transit use by 52
percent for buses and 26 percent for subways. An
analysis conducted in 2002 found that, in addition
to economic factors (e.g., a booming economy and
increasing gas prices), a number of transit
program activities drove the increase in use,
including the introduction of discounted Metro-
Card fare cards for frequent users, free transfers
between bus and subway, service expansion, and
renovation of transit stations. NYCT estimates that
the changes in fare policies led to an average 22
percent reduction in fares (Pucher, 2002).
Although the reduction in fares meant less reve-
nue per person for NYCT, this was offset by the
increase in ridership.
Another effective way for municipalities to increase
the use of public transportation is to encourage
development around transit, fostering a convenient
and affordable lifestyle where housing, jobs, stores,
restaurants, and entertainment are all in close proxim-
ity to one another and transit. This practice, commonly
referred to as transit-oriented development, supports
neighborhood-scale, compact, mixed-use develop-
ment within walking distance of public transporta-
tion (Federal Transit Administration, Undated), and
exemplifies many of the principles of smart growth. For
more information on these principles and strategies for
achieving the benefits of smart growth, see EPAs Smart
Growth strategy document in the Local Government
Climate and Energy Strategy Series.
Atlantic Station, in the heart of midtown Atlan-
ta, Georgia, is a $2 billion smart growth project
on a 138-acre brownfield site [U.S. EPA, Undat-
ed (c)]. The multi-use development is designed to
give residents and workers a variety of transportation
benefits, including short trips and the option of walk-
ing, biking, or taking public transit. EPA's pre-devel-
opnient analysis estimated that Atlantic Station
would reduce VMT by 50 percent compared with
similar developments in suburban greenfield sites
(U.S. EPA, 1999). Surveys of actual use suggest even
more dramatic reductions, particularly on the resi-
dential side. The average Atlantic Station resident
travels 8.6 miles per day, compared with the regional
average of 32.4 miles per day. Nineteen percent of
trips made from Atlantic Station are by public transit,
and 80 percent of trips that stay within the 130-acre
site are made by foot (Atlanta Regional Commission,
2008).
COMPLETE STREETS ORDINANCES
More than 25 jurisdictions across the country have
adopted Complete Streets ordinances that encourage
walking and bicycling through measures such as street
and sidewalk lighting, pedestrian and bicycle safety
improvements, street trees, public transit facilities, and
other measures. The ordinances were developed by
the National Complete Streets Coalition, a nonprofit
organization. The Complete Streets Act of 2009
(S. 584/H.R. 1443) was introduced in Congress to begin
the legislative process that would lead to adoption of
these nine measures by states and MPOs.
Source: Complete Streets, Undated.
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3. TRANSPORTATION CONTROL MEASURES
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Encourage bicycling and walking. Particularly for
short trips, bicycling and walking can be viable alterna-
tives to vehicle use, with additional benefits of improv-
ing health and making neighborhoods more vibrant.
To support walking and bicycling, municipalities can
provide bicycle racks, shower and/or locker facilities,
and bicycle or walking maps. Many cities use street
marking to define bike lanes, and some cities provide
dedicated bicycling and walking trail systems. In addi-
tion, municipalities encourage biking and walking by
improving safety features, such as crosswalks, side-
walks, and streetlights. Another option is to convert
abandoned railways into multi-use trails, commonly
referred to as rails-to-trails. Many of these trails—such
as the Minuteman Bikeway in eastern Massachusetts,
which connects directly to Boston's mass transit
system—are used heavily by commuters and can
reduce VMT (Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, 2007).
Boulder, Colorado, is designated as a Plati-
num Bike Friendly Community by the
League of American Bicyclists. The city has
instituted a Safe Routes to School program; one
school reported that 75 percent of its students now
walk or bike to school—a 620 percent increase
from before the program started. More than 4,000
people participate in Boulder's annual Bike to
Work Day. The city employs a Complete Streets
approach when considering major transportation
facility enhancements, and at least 95 percent of
arterials in Boulder have bike lanes or trails on
them. The city recently completed two major
underpasses for bikes, and offers online bike
mapping. A total of $3.1 million, 15 percent of
Boulder's 2004 transportation budget, was dedi-
cated to support bicycle mode operations/mainte-
nance and enhancement activities. In 2003, biking
accounted for 21 percent of commute trips and 14
percent of all trips in the community—up from
10.6 percent and 9.1 percent, respectively, in 1990.
Bike use and other non-automotive modes have
limited the growth in VMT in Boulder to about 1
percent annually since 1990 (League of American
Bicyclists, 2008).
Expand commuter choices. Regular commuting
accounts for a significant percentage of VMT in many
municipalities, and a range of measures can help
encourage people to ride together or reduce their need
to commute. Local governments can lead by example
and promote commuter choice programs by providing
incentives for private companies (e.g., tax incentives)
and developing the necessary supporting infrastruc-
ture, such as park-and-ride lots. It is important to note
that commuter choice programs require willingness
and flexibility on the part of management, personnel
departments, and information technology depart-
ments. The benefits of such programs are worker satis-
faction and retention and long-term cost savings. Chal-
lenges can include paying the upfront costs to establish
programs, and potential employee fraud (e.g., using
free carpool parking space for non-carpool vehicles)
(U.S. EPA 2005a). Commuter choice measures include
the following approaches:
Rideshare matching. Many regional rideshare
programs offer free services to employers and
employees to help match up people interested in
carpooling and vanpooling. These services have
been greatly advanced by online offerings, such
as electronic lists of rideshares and their locations
(U.S. EPA, 2005d; 2005e).
MetroPool, in the mid and lower Hudson
Valley region of New York State, offers
two types of matching services for its
commuters. Its traditional ride-matching
service informs people about less expensive
and environmentally friendly commuting
alternatives. MetroPool also participates in the
first incentive-based ride-matching program
in the United States, NuRide, which allows
commuters to track their "green trips"
(carpooling, vanpooling, riding public trans-
portation, walking, biking, and telecommut-
ing) and earn rewards, including coupons for
restaurants and retail companies. MetroPool's
contribution has added more than 3,200
NuRiders in the last three years. Between
Earth Day 2007 and Earth Day 2008, Metro-
Pool helped eliminate more than 5 million
VMT by 10,000 employees who shared 138,800
rides, avoiding 1,800 metric tons of CO2 equiv-
alent emissions (MetroPool, 2009).
3. TRANSPORTATION CONTROL MEASURES
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Vanpool service. Similar to carpooling, but for a
larger number of passengers per vehicle, vanpool
programs use vans to take an established group
of employees to and from work. Vanpools are
especially well-suited for longer commutes (e.g.,
20 miles or more per round trip). Depending on
the municipality, vehicles and services are often
provided by employers or third-party companies.
Vanpool operating costs are typically divided
among vanpool members, who find that the
savings they gain from avoided costs for gasoline,
maintenance, and parking for personal vehicles
more than cover their vanpool costs. Some local
transit companies provide vans for vanpool
programs as a complement to transit services.
Employers can provide vanpool services directly to
employees or encourage employees to participate
in vanpools by providing information on local
vanpool programs, providing reduced or free
parking for vanpool vehicles, or through reward
programs (U.S. EPA, 2005e).
At an annual operating cost of $5.6
million, King County Metro Transit in
the Seattle, Washington area provides
vans for public commuter vanpools and pays
for van maintenance, insurance, fuel, and tires.
It also provides services to connect potential
vanpool users (U.S. EPA, 2005e). King County
Metro owns and operates this service with
more than 840 vans, making nearly 2.3 million
trips per year. More than 6,000 people use the
vans every day, reducing area road traffic by at
least 5,000 vehicles (King County Metro Tran-
sit, 2007).
Emergency ride home services. To address a key
barrier to carpooling, vanpooling, and transit
promotion programs, some local and regional
governments have established emergency ride
home programs. These programs help alleviate the
concerns of potential carpoolers and vanpoolers
by offering rides on an emergency basis to employ-
ees who participate in commuter alternatives
programs and could be stranded at work in case of
emergencies.
Commuter Connections in the Washing-
ton, DC metro area offers guaranteed
rides home to its residents in participat-
ing counties in the event of an unexpected
personal emergency or unscheduled overtime.
From July 2005 to June 2008, the program
provided more than 25,000 rides, equaling a
reduction in more than 8,600 daily trips and
more than 227,000 VMT (Commuter Connec-
tions, 2009).
Workplace flexibility programs. Flexibility
programs can reduce commuting trips and expand
commuting choices. These approaches include
telecommuting and flexible scheduling to avoid
heavy commute times. Municipalities can consider
providing incentives (e.g., tax credits and subsi-
dies) to encourage these programs. For example,
municipalities can develop financial incentives
for businesses that offer or encourage transporta-
tion alternatives and/or workplace flexibility (e.g.,
telecommuting, flexible work hours). Tax credits,
matching funds, subsidies, and assistance with
outreach and marketing are all ways to encour-
age the private sector to adopt telecommuting
programs and promote transportation alternatives
by other means.
Since August 2008, through the Working
4 Utah initiative, the State of Utah has
changed its standard workweek to extend
state government services for 10 hours a day,
but only 4 days a week. The purpose of this
initiative is to make a positive impact in the
state government's energy consumption,
customer services, employee recruitment and
retention, and environmental impact. As of
February 2009, the State of Utah estimated
that it would save more than $200,000 in
custodial service costs during the year and
documented a 10-20 percent reduction in
energy use within half of its facilities. The state
also has reported reduced absenteeism among
its employees and reduced use of leave time.
The initiative is expected to reduce GHG emis-
sions by nearly 12,700 metric tons of CO2
equivalent per year, equivalent to the annual
emissions of 2,300 personal vehicles (Working
4 Utah, 2009).
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Employee financial incentives. Employee financial
incentives are strategies that encourage alternative
commute modes to reduce SOV use in employee
travel. Some common methods include providing
monetary incentives to use non-SOV methods of
commuting, including subsidies for transit use or
cash allowances in lieu of parking benefits (i.e.,
parking cash- outs); offering discounted transit
and rideshare benefits; and eliminating or reduc-
ing corporate subsidies for SOV use, such as for
employee parking or SOV-based corporate travel.
These strategies can increase the affordability of
alternative commute options for employees and
lead to greater employee satisfaction through
improved commutes. Employers can also realize
savings through reduced parking facility costs
(Litman, 2008).
Develop transportation management improvements.
Even when people do not choose alternatives to driv-
ing their cars, transportation system management can
reduce driving time, VMT, and emissions through
more efficient vehicle flow. While these improvements
can generate induced demand (described in the text
box Accounting for Indirect Effects of Reducing Conges-
tion on page 4), where smooth-flowing traffic attracts
new drivers to the roadways, not all of them produce
this type of effect. For example, transponders installed
on public transit vehicles can control traffic signals and
allow a transit vehicle to travel through many intersec-
tions without stopping. This efficiency improvement
can encourage use of transit without increasing the
number of drivers on the road. Examples of transporta-
tion systems management include:
Improve traffic signalization. Local public works
departments can implement improvements in
traffic signals to reduce congestion and reduce fuel
consumption. Improvements include updating
signals to support more sophisticated flow strate-
gies, timing and coordinating signals to reduce
idling, and removing signals at intersections that
no longer need them.
The City of Los Angeles' Department of
Transportation developed its own Adap-
tive Traffic Control System (ATCS) to
adjust traffic signal timing to respond to real-
time traffic demands. The system allows for
greater intersection operational capacities by
reducing time spent idling. The ATCS reduced
travel time by nearly 13 percent, reduced aver-
age stops by about 30 percent, and decreased
average delays by about 20 percent (U.S. DOT,
2007; RITA, 2001).2
Improve transportation infrastructure and reduce
congestion. Reducing congestion may require
building broader roadways to accommodate high
occupancy vehicle (HOV) or high occupancy/
toll (HOT) lanes, facilities for collecting tolls,
roundabouts at intersections, and a range of other
infrastructure investments. Other strategies that
reduce congestion through roadway improvements
include converting two-way streets to one-way
streets, restricting left turns on two-way streets,
and separating turning vehicles with median-strip
turn lanes. In some cases, these changes require
altering signage and lane markings; in other cases,
such as widening roads, they may require more
substantial infrastructure changes (U.S. EPA,
1998b).
An example of a substantial investment
in infrastructure is the multi-modal
Transportation Expansion (T-REX) Proj-
ect in Denver, Colorado, which is upgrading
travel on the 1-25 corridor [U.S. DOT,
Undated(c)]. The project will increase mobility
on the highway itself by expanding lanes,
replacing bridges, and reconstructing eight
interchanges. It will enhance the region's light
rail system by adding 19 miles of double-track
light rail, building 13 stations with 6,000 park-
ing spaces, and adding 34 light rail vehicles to
its fleet (FHWA, 2006). The project, which has
now been completed, has encouraged similar
investments. Additional light rail lines and
stations are currently under construction,
while others are being planned.
2 These improvements are based on a study performed shortly after
implementation of the ATCS; longer-term effects were not estimated.
3. TRANSPORTATION CONTROL MEASURES
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Enhance incident management systems. Incident
management systems focus on quickly clearing
roadways of accidents and stalled vehicles. These
systems typically include roving tow or service
vehicles, motorist aid call boxes, contingency
planning, and other means for quickly responding
to incidents (U.S. EPA, 1998b). Traffic incidents
account for about one-quarter of all congestion
on U.S. roadways, and for every minute that a
freeway travel lane is blocked during a peak travel
period, four minutes of travel delay results after
the incident is cleared (National Traffic Incident
Management Coalition, Undated). Since traffic
incident management helps to minimize and
prevent congestion, these systems can reduce fuel
consumption by more than 1 percent annually and
save 2,600-7,700 gallons of gasoline per incident,
thereby reducing associated vehicle emissions [U.S.
DOT.Undated(d)].
S\. The Chicago Incident Management
Program was an early example of a
program to reduce congestion due to
incidents such as traffic accidents and stalled
vehicles. When the Kennedy Expressway began
to reach near-capacity volumes during peak
periods in the early 1960s, the Illinois Depart-
ment of Transportation assigned 20 people in
pickup trucks to patrol it and keep travel lanes
open by clearing them of disabled vehicles. By
the 1990s, the program had an annual operat-
ing budget of $3.5 million funded from state
motor fuel taxes and employed 60 people,
covering 80 miles of expressway system 24
hours a day (U.S. EPA, 1998b). The program
saves motorists an estimated 9.5 million vehi-
cle-hours of delay at a value of $95 million per
year (U.S. EPA, 1992).
Design intelligent transportation systems (ITS).
Intelligent transportation systems use technologies
for traffic surveillance and monitoring, communi-
cations, and control systems to manage traffic flows
by responding to changes in volume, congestion,
and other signals. Examples include traffic signal
controls that adjust to traffic conditions, traveler
information systems that disseminate real-time
information on traffic conditions on transit and
roadways, and electronic toll collection systems
(U.S. EPA, 1998a; Puentes, 2001). Social network-
ing and mobile computing technologies are emerg-
ing tools through which local governments can
communicate timely information on traffic condi-
tions and commuting options to further promote
transportation efficiency.
The New Mexico State Highway and
Transportation Department (NMSHTD)
I—I incorporated ITS into its redevelopment
of the "Big I" interchange in Albuquerque. For
this project, NMSHTD employed ITS in the
form of a mobile traffic monitoring and
management system to help move large
numbers of vehicles through an extensive
construction area. Mobile traffic monitoring
and management systems use electronics and
communications equipment to monitor traffic
flow and provide delay and routing informa-
tion to drivers and agency personnel (U.S.
DOT, 2004). The project included the
construction of 45 new bridges and 111 miles
of road reconstruction over the two-year dura-
tion of the project, at a total cost of around
$293 million (Road Traffic Technology, Undat-
ed). Benefits of the ITS included reduced
effects of construction on traffic mobility and
safety, accurate emergency vehicle assessment,
reduced response and clear rate for incidents,
and public satisfaction about traffic informa-
tion during construction (ADDCO SMART
Work Zone, Undated; Road Traffic Technol-
ogy, Undated).
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ITS technologies have also been used effectively
in providing real-time information to users of
public transportation and in enhancing transit
system operations, by integrating technologies for
fare collection, intramodal and intermodal trans-
fers, automatic vehicle location and scheduling,
headway control (i.e., maintaining a safe distance
between vehicles), and use of bus fleets. By using
ITS for more efficient transit fleet management,
the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority
reported a 23 percent improvement in schedule
adherence, allowing the authority to reduce the
fleet size by 2 percent and reassign vehicles to
service other transit routes (U.S. DOT, 2000). The
Chicago Transit Authority found that using ITS
for fare collection through the use of stored-value
cards and fare integration for inter-modal transfers
increased transit ridership by 2 to 5 percent (U.S.
DOT, 2000).
Use value pricing to encourage drivers to factor
the full cost of transportation into their decisions.
Municipalities can work cooperatively with their
state governments and private insurance providers
to promote transportation alternatives by ensuring
that drivers incorporate cost considerations into their
transportation decisions. Setting appropriate road
fees and downtown parking taxes, and offering pay-
as-you-drive auto insurance are all ways for drivers to
"pay as they go" and experience more realistic costs of
their choices about individual vehicle trips and miles
traveled.
Note that while most TCMs raise concerns about
possible impacts on social equity, pricing measures
are often perceived to have the greatest potential for
inequities. However, the actual impacts on lower-
income motorists depend on many factors, such as
how revenues are used, how prices are structured, the
quality of travel alternatives available, and the extent
to which those individuals use toll roads or downtown
parking. Equity concerns can be integrated into road
pricing programs by including discounts or free passes
for lower-income households.
Value pricing approaches include:
Roadway and congestion pricing. These programs
charge drivers directly for their use of roadways,
particularly during times of high volume traffic.
They also raise revenue that can be used for related
programs, such as alternative modes of transporta-
tion, and for improved infrastructure.
An example of roadway pricing is the use
air of High Occupancy/Toll (HOT) lanes in
I—I the Houston, Texas area. Drivers with
only one passenger in the car pay a $2.00 toll
and a $2.50 monthly fee to use High Occupan-
cy Vehicle lanes—normally restricted to cars
with one driver and two passengers. Users of
this service essentially pay for faster, more reli-
able travel (Burris and Stockton, Undated).
A variant on roadway pricing is congestion pricing,
which increases costs at times of high road use or
in congested locations (Litman, 2006) to better
distribute traffic demand and encourage a shift
to modes other than the automobile. Congestion
pricing that is applicable throughout a denned
zone or area (e.g., in downtown areas), such that
all travelers entering and driving within the zone
are charged a fee, is categorized as "area-wide
pricing." Similar in concept is "cordon pricing,"
whereby travelers crossing predetermined points
in the road network (cordons) are required to pay
a charge upon entry or exit. The charge may vary
by time of day or vehicle characteristics, and may
be in effect all day, during peak hours only, or may
vary dynamically with the level of congestion. An
all-day area-wide congestion-pricing program in
London, England, has reduced congestion there by
25 percent (London, UK, Undated). A recent study
concluded that the adoption of a congestion pric-
ing approach in Washington, DC, could "result in
less road congestion and provide a much-needed
local revenue source" (Safirova, et al., 2006).
Value pricing through parking and other taxes.
Parking fees, gas taxes, and other taxes are ways to
ensure that drivers more accurately realize the cost
of the infrastructure they use. When faced with
these costs, some drivers seek alternative modes of
transportation. Revenue from these taxes can be
used for infrastructure upgrades or other comple-
mentary municipal activities.
10
3. TRANSPORTATION CONTROL MEASURES
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"Pay-as-you-drive" vehicle insurance adjusts
rates based on how much people drive, so that
those who drive less pay less, thus providing a
financial incentive to reduce vehicle use. One
study estimates that a nationwide pay-as-you-drive
system would cause driving to decline by 8 percent,
netting society the equivalent of $50 billion to $60
billion per year by reducing accidents, congestion,
GHG emissions, and local pollution. Specifically,
it could reduce CO2 emissions by as much as 2
percent and oil consumption by about 4 percent
(Bordoff, 2008b).
Auto insurance agencies must have their insurance
policies and rate plans approved by state regula-
tors. However, current regulations in several states
either explicitly prohibit pricing insurance per mile
or require legislative reforms to make it possible.
States and municipalities can work collaboratively
with private auto insurance companies to test and
demonstrate the benefits of these insurance plans
by implementing pilot programs using funds avail-
able from the federal Value Pricing Pilot Program
(under SAFETEA-LU) and other government or
private sources.
A coalition of local government agencies
llDf and local nonprofit groups recently
I—I sponsored (and partially funded) an
effort in the Seattle area to pilot a pay-as-you-
drive insurance program with an insurance
company (Sightline Institute, 2007). For this
pilot program, King County, Washington, was
awarded $1.9 million in Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) discretionary funds
in March 2007, which was supplemented by
$1.2 million in state and local funds. As of late
2009, the state of Washington did not permit
pay-as-you-drive insurance, but a bill to
reform existing legislation was recently intro-
duced in the State Senate (Bordoff, 2008b;
Washington Senate Democratic Caucus,
Undated).
4. KEY PARTICIPANTS
A number of institutions and individuals are instru-
mental in influencing and making choices about
TCMs. These key participants include:
Mayors or city councils. Local political leadership can
provide the policy direction and funding to implement
programs that encourage transportation alternatives.
In 2007, the mayor of Los Angeles launched
the 30/30 left turn arrow initiative with Los
Angeles City Council members and the
general manager of the Los Angeles Department
of Transportation (LADOT). The purpose of the
program was to help reduce traffic congestion by
installing 30 left turn arrows at city intersections
in 30 business days. Designed to improve the flow
of traffic and improve safety on city streets, the
30/30 plan is expected to cut excessive wait times
at left turn pockets, decrease traffic collisions by
up to 66 percent, and reduce commute times for
LA drivers. Since the mayor took office in July
2005, LADOT has installed a total of 189, or 41
percent, of the city's 460 left turn arrows. The
30/30 initiative was just one of a number of
programs envisioned by the mayor to help address
congestion in the city, such as banning rush hour
road construction, synchronizing traffic lights, and
towing illegally parked cars on major streets (City
of Los Angeles, 2007).
Regional, state, and federal agencies and legislators.
Because local transportation systems are linked to
regional, state, and federal transportation networks,
entities beyond municipalities are often involved. At
the same time, large-scale local transportation infra-
structure (e.g., bridges, tunnels, etc.) often requires
large infusions of state and federal funding. For
example, the American Recovery and Reinvestment
Act of 2009 allocated several billion dollars to exist-
ing federal transportation repair and improvement
programs as part of an effort to help stimulate the
U.S. economy. Some of these additional funds can be
used by state and local governments to support TCMs
(U.S. Government, 2009). (For more information on
transportation related funding, see Section 7, Cost and
Funding Opportunities.)
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4. KEY PARTICIPANTS
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The City of Sacramento used financial and
technical assistance provided through the
state-level California Fuel Efficient Traffic
Signal Management Program to improve its
signalized traffic control systems. This work
involved changing signals in outlying areas from
pre-timed signals to traffic-actuated signals (U.S.
EPA, 1998a).
Studies supported by state or federal funding can also
help other levels of government become involved in
local transportation projects. The FHWA's Value Pric-
ing Program, for example, funded a variable tolling
feasibility study that led to the decision to implement
variable tolls for trucks on the northeastern Illinois
Tollway System. Under this system, rates for trucks
increased from $1.25 to $4.00 at most toll plazas, but
trucks traveling at off-peak hours (between 10:00 p.m.
and 6:00 a.m.) paid only $3.00 (FHWA, 2009).
Local transportation agencies. Local transportation
agencies play a key role in the quality of public transit,
transportation system management (e.g., traffic signals,
traffic circles), and the "rules of the road" for vehicles.
Many specific mechanisms for implementing TCMs
are in the hands of local transportation agencies.
Ventura County Transportation Commission
(VCTC) in California encourages public
transit ridership within its Ride Share
program. In addition to providing assistance with
carpooling opportunities and identifying park-
and-ride lots, VCTC registers participants for the
free county-wide Guaranteed Ride Home
program. This program overcomes concerns that
commuters may not be able to rely on public trans-
portation for all their needs. Offering rideshare
assistance also provides commuters a greater range
of commuting options; for example, commuting
by transit one way. The VCTC also offers employer
discounts for mass transit, ride matching, and
RideGuide commuter planners for vanpools and
carpools based on where commuters live and work
(VCTC, Undated).
Local and regional planning organizations. Metro-
politan planning organizations (MPOs), regional
planning agencies (RPAs), and others play a key role as
transportation planning agencies for cities or regions.
They conduct the planning required under federal law
for cities to receive federal transportation funds, and
run near-term capital improvement programs. They
often work with state and local air quality agencies to
coordinate transportation and air quality planning to
assure compliance with air quality improvement goals.
These organizations and agencies are often instrumen-
tal in pursuing smart growth policies that reduce trans-
portation emissions, such as changing development
rules and zoning regulations. However, not all MPOs
and RPAs have authority over development rules and
zoning regulations. (EPAs Smart Growth strategy
document in the Local Government Climate and Energy
Strategy Series describes a number of examples of how
planning agencies are involved in promoting TCMs.)
MPOs and RPAs also often provide services to help
employers start, implement, and maintain commuter
choice and telework programs. Other municipal insti-
tutions involved in these programs are city and county
transportation agencies, transportation management
associations (TMAs), and transportation management
organizations (TMOs). These organizations provide
information, support, and in some cases, resources,
such as rideshare matching.
Ann Arbor, Michigan's TMA, known as
getDowntown, offers a complete menu of
TCM services to the Ann Arbor community.
In 2008, this TMA engaged in extensive outreach
to downtown employers and started a bimonthly
"Commute Chat Lunch" program, which invites
employers to network and learn more about
commuting options. To improve awareness of its
program, getDowntown provides a blog, Web site,
e-newsletter, and contests. Some of getDowntown's
newest programs include initiating Zipcar services
for downtown employees, a NightRide service,
customized commuter counseling, a new Express
Commuter Bus and rideshare program, and pref-
erential parking for carpools and vanpoools.
Other ongoing programs include bike locker
service, a bike fest, a green commute campaign, a
commuter challenge, bus pass marketing and
vending, and outreach to the University of Michi-
gan (getDowntown, 2008).
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4. KEY PARTICIPANTS
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Other local agencies. Many municipalities choose to
lead by example by making sure that local agencies are
implementing transportation control measures that can
then lead to broader adoption throughout the commu-
nity. For example, police departments can encourage
bicycling by putting officers on bikes, or local agencies
can encourage telecommuting and subsidize employee
public transportation costs. Agency motor pools can
encourage the use of "flex car" programs rather than
having a city fleet.
The city of Pleasanton, California, offers $2
per day to city employees who leave their car
at home and use a commute alternative. This
program has prevented more than 20,000 trips per
year, which translates into a savings of over 12,000
gallons of fuel, or more than 109 metric tons of
CO2 emissions (U.S. EPA, 2005c).
Employers. Employers play an important role in
influencing the commuting habits of their employees.
Employers can choose to invest their own resources
in encouraging alternatives such as public transit,
carpooling, and telecommuting, or can take advantage
of public programs that subsidize employees' use of
transportation alternatives. For example, a company
can provide cash incentives to employees who
commute to work via carpools or vanpools.
California state law requires certain employ-
ers that provide subsidized parking for their
employees to offer cash allowances in lieu of
parking spaces to incentivize alternative commute
modes. A 1997 review of eight case studies of
employers in southern California offering these
cash-out programs revealed that solo driving to
work fell by 17 percent, carpooling increased by 64
percent, transit ridership increased by 50 percent,
walking and bicycling increased by 33 percent, and
commuter parking demand fell by 11 percent.
These mode shifts reduced total VMT for commut-
ing by 12 percent, with a range from 5 to 24
percent for the eight firms (Shoup, 1997).
Nonprofit organizations. In many cities, nonprofit
organizations are dedicated to influencing transporta-
tion demand in order to improve the environment,
health, and livability of communities.
Seattle's bicycle promotion program, for
example, benefits from the active support
and engagement of nonprofit stakeholder
groups, including the Cascade Bicycle Club, a
strong and active advocacy group that campaigns
for local legislation supporting bicycle infrastruc-
ture, and several strong, independent neighbor-
hood and citizen groups that lobby for bicycle
programs [U.S. EPA, Undated(a)].
Private sector. Some TCMs rely on companies in
specific sectors to offer incentives. For example, insur-
ance companies can offer customers pay-as-you-drive
car insurance (described in Section 3, Transportation
Control Measures) that ties the cost of insurance
directly to the number of miles driven, thus lower-
ing costs for those who drive less. In the examples of
pay-as-you-drive auto insurance cited previously, the
willingness of the insurance companies to offer this
kind of insurance was critical to implementing this
TCM strategy.
Drivers. Ultimately, the effectiveness of TCMs comes
down to the behavior of drivers and their choices about
whether and how to use their personal vehicles. Incen-
tives can encourage drivers to reduce their vehicle use
or seek alternatives; such measures can be strength-
ened with disincentives for personal vehicle use, such
as increasing fuel taxes and parking fees.
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4. KEY PARTICIPANTS
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From August 2008 to May 2009, King Coun-
ty, Washington, partnered with the Washing-
ton State Department of Transportation, the
Cascade Bicycle Club, and REI (an outdoor outfit-
ter) and instituted a "green bikes" program to
provide an incentive to get drivers out of their
cars. The goals of the program were to introduce
new riders to bicycling as a safe and reliable form
of transportation to work, thereby reducing drive-
alone trips and the associated pollution, increasing
health and fitness, and providing a sense of work-
place community and camaraderie. The program
purchased 200 bicycles and worked with more
than 20 companies in the county to provide them
to employees who pledged to reduce their drive-
alone commuting by 60 percent through bicycling
to work. Employees meeting their pledges by the
end of the program earned sole ownership of their
bicycles. More than 120 people met their targets
and earned their bikes. Together, all new riders
biked more than 111,000 miles and made more
than 9,000 bike trips. The program was considered
so successful that a second phase was planned for
spring 2010 (Green Bike Project, Undated; King
County, 2009).
5. FOUNDATIONS FOR
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
A variety of mechanisms can be employed to imple-
ment transportation control measures, including:
Mayor or executive initiatives. With the ability to
direct the executive branch of city government and the
public visibility of their office, mayors have a unique
role to play in promoting TCMs. This can include
directing city departments to lead by example, direct-
ing funds to key projects, and influencing action more
broadly through communication and outreach.
Local government resolutions. Local entities that pass
resolutions, such as city councils, can influence the
operations of city government through their oversight
and budget functions, and can promote TCMs that set
the "rules of the road" for city residents. City councils
in large cities with significant transportation challenges
can also influence state and federal transportation
programs that provide a great deal of transportation
funding.
In August 2008, the Chicago City Council
passed the "Resolution to Support 21st
Century Transportation For America," which
notes the council's support for "investment for
transportation that contributes to dynamic and
accessible communities where more residents can
walk, bike, or take transit" and calls on the federal
government and the Illinois State Legislature to
support a transportation infrastructure invest-
ment plan that "expands clean, efficient transpor-
tation choices for Americans" (Chicago City
Council, 2008).
Local ordinances. Local ordinances passed by city
councils or citizens can provide funding or mandates
to study or implement TCMs.
/\ In Alameda County, California, a voter-
1 ffl f aPProved ordinance required the development
IHl] and operation of new value-priced HOV lanes
for the "Sunol Grade" portion of Interstate 680. As a
result, the Metropolitan Transportation Commis-
sion, Alameda County's Congestion Management
Agency, Caltrans, and the FHWA initiated a four-
year demonstration project (SACOG, 2005).
"Blue Ribbon" panels. Blue Ribbon panels of experts
and prominent citizens can provide a high-profile way
to advance TCM policies and draw on the ideas and
experience of leading thinkers in academia, govern-
ment, the private sector, and nonprofit organizations.
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6. STRATEGIES FOR
EFFECTIVE PROGRAM
IMPLEMENTATION
Municipalities may face barriers in implementing
TCMs. These barriers include a lack of local capac-
ity and funding, especially for large infrastructure
projects. They also include people's reluctance to alter
their transportation choices, especially if it involves
perceived direct cost increases, uncertainties, or
risks. Finally, barriers can include a lack of public,
agency, and company understanding of what TCMs
are intended to accomplish compared with traditional
transportation strategies such as capacity expansion.
As municipalities seek to deploy TCMs, they can use a
number of individual and coordinated strategies that
address these barriers to implementation and enhance
the effectiveness of these measures. These strategies
include:
Pursue complementary programs. Many TCMs work
better if combined with other TCMs. For example,
carpooling programs complement parking cash-out
programs by giving employees ready opportunities
(and cash) to change commuting habits. Similarly,
emergency ride home programs are often a neces-
sary complement for commuter alternative programs
because they address commuters' concerns that they
will be left stranded in an emergency. Municipalities
can also combine transportation measures with their
smart growth programs. For more information see
EPA's Smart Growth strategy document in the Local
Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series.
COMPLEMENTARY PROGRAMS AT SOUTH FLORIDA
COMMUTER SERVICES
Commuter programs often bundle services and programs
to provide commuters with multiple options and
services that work together to encourage transportation
alternatives. For example. South Florida Commuter
Services (SFCS) provides an emergency ride home
program to any commuter who carpools, vanpools, rides
transit, bicycles, or walks to work at least three times a
week. This service strengthens SFCS's other programs that
help link commuters to carpools and vanpools, find park-
and-ride lots, and otherwise encourage transportation
alternatives.
Source: South Florida Commuter Services, 2008.
Implement TCMs that provide revenue sources.
TCMs often involve new costs for local governments,
whether for infrastructure, increased enforcement, or
for new services, such as emergency ride home servic-
es. However, certain TCMs—such as roadway pricing
or parking taxes—can be revenue sources used to offset
costs elsewhere. These TCMs can actually save costs
for individuals and companies. For example, increasing
downtown parking taxes is one strategy that can reduce
congestion in a city's core while providing revenue for
the local government.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, passed a parking
tax increase in 2008 with the prospect that it
would generate $6 million in new income for
the city. The revenue raised was committed to
environmental and transportation priorities for
the city, such as park improvements and street
repaving (Weyrich, 2008).
Select TCMs that are appropriate to the local trans-
portation context. Certain TCMs are more appropri-
ate for highly dense urban areas, while others are more
suitable for rural areas with long commute times.
For example, vanpools are most appropriate in areas
with long commute distances and limited availability
of public transit (U.S. EPA, 2005e), while parking
cash-out programs are most appealing to employers
who lease their parking spaces and can save money by
releasing unused spaces (U.S. EPA, 2005c).
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6. STRATEGIES
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In response to the 1998 Voluntary Ozone
Action Program, which encouraged state
agencies and major corporations to reduce
vehicle miles traveled by 20 percent, and a consoli-
dation of two downtown facilities that created
employee parking shortages, the Georgia Power
Company in Atlanta decided to expand its employ-
ee transportation programs. The company built on
its existing downtown transit subsidy program to
develop a regional commute options program that
could accommodate the diverse commuting needs
of its employees, while helping to reduce Atlanta's
worsening traffic congestion and air pollution. The
new program included vanpools, fleet vehicles,
free transit passes, telecommuting, and a range of
other alternatives. By 2003, just five years into the
program, the company was supporting more than
50 vanpools to downtown and regional offices. The
longest documented vanpool trip was 160 miles
round-trip. The company reports that more than
1.2 million VMT are avoided each month. Partici-
pation in the programs has remained steady, with
13 percent of employees carpooling or vanpooling
(ACT, 2004).
1 Encourage behavioral responses. Many TCMs
encourage desired behaviors—such as choosing public
transit or bicycling as a commuting strategy instead
of driving a SOV—rather than mandating behaviors.
Consequently, their success depends on the ease with
which people can alter their behavior. Municipalities
can help by making change as easy as possible; for
example by providing resources for ride matching to
encourage carpooling or introducing people to innova-
tive commuting alternatives (U.S. EPA, 2005a).
>\ SmartTrips is a comprehensive approach to
reduce drive-alone trips and increase biking,
walking, and public transit in targeted
geographic areas of Portland, Oregon. It incorpo-
rates the innovative and highly effective "individu-
alized marketing" methodology, which hand-
delivers packets of information to residents who
wish to learn more about public transportation.
The program is based on the assumption that
people will change their travel behavior if provid-
ed with information about the full range of trans-
portation options. Key components feature biking
and walking maps and organized activities, which
encourage people to discover how many trips they
can easily, conveniently, and safely make without
using a car. SmartTrips has been implemented
successfully in four neighborhoods of approxi-
mately 20,000 residents each. Each project has
yielded a reduction of 9 to 13 percent in drive-
alone car trips by all area residents, with a corre-
sponding increase in walking, bicycling, and tran-
sit mode shares in the SmartTrips areas
(Walkinglnfo.org, Undated). The annual CO2
reduction is approximately 21,300 metric tons per
neighborhood, equivalent to the annual emissions
of approximately 3,905 passenger vehicles. The
program costs $550,000 per neighborhood promo-
tion (C40 Cities, Undated).
Enhance workplace flexibility to reduce commuting-
related travel. Similar to employer-sponsored
programs to provide commuter choices, workplace
flexibility programs can also reduce commuting trips.
These approaches include telecommuting and flexible
scheduling to avoid heavy commute times. Municipali-
ties can lead by example by providing workplace flex-
ibility for their employees.
Consider multiple funding options. Competing
transportation funding priorities and lack of municipal
control over funding allocations force local govern-
ments to locate multiple funding opportunities. Infra-
structure to support TCMs—such as park-and-ride
lots or signal control systems—often have to compete
for scarce state and federal funding against other trans-
portation priorities. For more information, see Section
7, Costs and Funding Opportunities. One strategy that
municipalities can employ is to use local funding to
leverage state and federal funds for transit and other
transportation projects.
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San Diego, California, used such a strategy in
2004, when voters approved a 40-year exten-
sion of TransNet, which is a half-cent sales
tax to fund transportation projects. San Diego uses
funds generated by the tax to attract matching
state and federal transportation funding for high-
way and street improvements and public transit
(SANDAG, Undated).
Allow sufficient time for development and imple-
mentation. Although many TCMs do not require
large new infrastructure, they often still take time and
tax the capacity and expertise at the local level. For
example, it can take five to 10 years from planning
to completion to implement highway information
management systems, such as ramp metering (U.S.
EPA, 1998b).
Conduct communications and outreach. Commu-
nications and outreach is a key strategy to influence
the behavior of drivers. "How to" guides for public
transit can encourage its use. "Bike to work" and "bike
to school" days can encourage alternative modes of
transportation that ideally last beyond a single day.
Advertising the availability of carpool and vanpool
opportunities can increase use. Municipalities can also
conduct outreach to their employees in order to lead by
example.
As part of its communications and outreach
strategy to encourage bicycling as a transpor-
tation alternative, the Seattle Department of
Transportation provides residents with a free bicy-
cling map that shows bike lanes, shared use paths,
and streets commonly used by bicyclists through-
out the metropolitan area. The maps also contain
advice and regulations related to safe bicycling
(Seattle Department of Transportation, Undated).
Incorporate TCMs into transportation and land use
plans. Transportation and land use planning have a
large impact over time on both the amount and type
of demand for transportation. For more information,
see EPAs Smart Growth strategy document in the Local
Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series.
An example of a city with a long history of
growth management plans that emphasize
the development of light rail, transit, walk-
ing, and bicycling is Portland, Oregon. Portland's
urban growth boundary, codified in state law and
local/regional planning, has resulted in more
compact development and reduced transportation
impacts. Although Metro Portland's popula-
tion (1.58 million) has grown by 50 percent since
1973, its land area has grown by only 2 percent
(Tammemagi, 2008.) Portland now has the lowest
total VMT of any comparable city in the United
States, and has seen dramatic improvements in air
quality during the last 30 years (Anderson, 2000).
Metro (the regional government covering Clacka-
mas, Multnomah, and Washington counties, and
the 25 cities in the Portland region) includes the
following policy provisions in its regional plan:
urban form, regional and local street design,
regional motor vehicle system, regional public
transportation system, regional bicycle system
connectivity, pedestrian system connectivity,
transportation supply management, and transpor-
tation demand management (Metro, 2004).
Lead by example. Public agencies can lead by example
by adopting TCMs that municipalities hope to see
adopted by the private sector. TCMs that local govern-
ments have included as part of their own operations
include telecommuting, flex time, compressed work-
weeks, staggered work hours, and incentives for public
transportation.
In 2000, Hennepin County in Minnesota
decided to lead by example by updating its
20-year-old employee transit incentives
program. The county replaced payroll deductions
for a discounted bus pass with a pre-tax employee
transportation program to cover bus and parking
costs. The county also offered a 40 percent
discount on transit pass purchases. These changes
led to 1,900 additional employee transit pass
purchases in three years (the county employs
approximately 13,000 people). The pre-tax benefits
saved the county money that it used to help pay for
the discounted bus passes (ACT, 2004).
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6. STRATEGIES
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7 COSTS AND FUNDING
OPPORTUNITIES
This section provides information on the costs of
TCMs and describes funding opportunities for
addressing these costs.
Costs
TCM costs vary widely by measure, from relatively
low-cost information campaigns to large infrastructure
investments in park-and-ride lots, HOV lanes, and
traffic signal upgrades. Even for similar projects, costs
can vary depending on scope, location, and other
project-specific variables. In 1999, EPA published a
study that examined the costs of a number of TCM
projects funded by the Congestion Mitigation and
Air Quality Implementation Program (see the Fund-
ing Opportunities subsection for information on this
program), which illustrates the variability of costs (U.S.
EPA, 1999). Results included:
Shared ride projects. Costs ranged from $16,000 for a
park-and-ride facility in Maryland to $1.7 million for a
regional vanpool program in Texas.
Bicycle and pedestrian projects. Costs ranged from
$27,000 for a bike rack incentive program in Illinois to
$298,000 for a bicycle network plan for Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.
Transportation system management projects. Costs
ranged from $7,000 for a signal systemization project
in Maryland to $1.4 million to extend HOV lanes on
Interstate 84 in Hartford, Connecticut.
Costs also vary according to who pays. While many
TCMs are paid by local, state, or federal funds, costs
of some TCMs are paid by drivers or employers. For
example, congestion pricing or parking taxes are paid
by drivers. Parking cash-outs, commuter transit passes,
and the costs of telecommuting infrastructure are
typically paid for by employers (although potentially
with offsetting costs savings and tax benefits). For
example, the per-employee average investment to
establish an employee as a telecommuter ranges from
$1,000-$5,000 (U.S. EPA, 2005d).
Funding Opportunities
Federal funding for TCMs is available from U.S.
Department of Transportation (DOT) programs, and
the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) provides an
online resource on innovative financing for construct-
ing, operating, and maintaining public transportation
systems, which can be accessed at http://www.fta.dot.
gov/funding/grants_finanting_173.html.
Note that many of the DOT programs listed below
received additional monies through the American
Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009; see the text
box American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
on page 21 for more information. All of these DOT
programs are authorized in law under the 2005 Safe
Accountable Flexible Transportation Equity Act: A
Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU).
• Surface Transportation Program. Initially adopted
in 1991 as part of the Intermodal Surface Transporta-
tion Efficiency Act (ISTEA), this DOT program,
administered by FHWA, provides states and localities
with funding for projects on any federal-aid highway,
and allows funding to be "flexed" to FTA for transit
capital projects and intercity bus facilities. The program
allocates funds based on a formula and is flexible as to
the use of the funds, including uses such as vanpools as
well as pedestrian and bicycle facilities.
Web site: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/safetealu/fact-
sheets/stp.htm
Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ)
Improvement Program. DOT s CMAQ improvement
program, administered by FHWA, provides billions of
dollars in funding to states, MPOs, and transit agencies
for surface transportation and related projects that
reduce congestion and improve air quality. Like the
Surface Transportation Program, CMAQ funds can
also be flexed to FTA for transit projects, including
covering transit operations for the first three years of
new service. TCMs eligible for CMAQ funding include
improving traffic flow, enhancing transit services, and
providing other transportation alternatives.
Web site: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/
cmaqpgs/index.htm
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Transportation Enhancement (TE) Activities
Program. This FHWA program funds transportation-
related projects that add value for communities or the
environment over and above normal environmental
mitigation requirements. The list of eligible activities
includes the provision of facilities for pedestrians and
bicycles, safety and educational activities for pedes-
trians and bicyclists, and preservation of abandoned
railway corridors (including the conversion and use of
the corridors for pedestrian or bicycle trails).
Web site: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/te/
guidance.htm
ETA grants and financing. FTA operates a number of
grant programs to help communities support public
transportation, including grants for planning, facility
construction, and operations. FTA grant funding also
allows for joint development efforts and bike/pedes-
trian improvements that are physically or functionally
linked to a transit facility. Each year, FTA apportions
funds appropriated by Congress to local and state
government entities, including transit agencies, accord-
ing to formulas and Congressional earmarks. FTA
also manages discretionary grant programs under
which funds are distributed based on certain criteria.
Examples of FTA grant programs include:
Formula Programs:
Metropolitan and Statewide Planning
Urbanized-Area (large and mid-size cities)
Rail and Fixed Guideway Modernization
>• Transportation for Elderly Persons and Persons
with Disabilities
Other than Urbanized-Areas (state-administered
for rural transit service)
New Freedom (accessible transportation for people
with disabilities beyond federal requirements)
>• Job Access and Reverse Commute
Discretionary Programs:
Major Capital Investments (New Starts/Small
Starts)
>• Bus and Bus Facilities
>• Clean Fuel Buses
Paul S. Sarbanes Transit in the Parks
Tribal Transit
Web sites: http://www.fta.dot.gov/grants_finanting.
html (information on FTA), http://www.fta.dot.gov/
funding/'grants_financing_263.html (information on
FTA grant programs)
Transportation Infrastructure Finance. Established
by the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and
Innovation Act of 1998, this DOT program offers
secured direct loans, loan guarantees, and standby lines
of credit for eligible transportation projects of national
or regional significance. It is intended to supplement
federal funding by attracting private and other invest-
ment. Credit assistance can be awarded to state depart-
ments of transportation, transit operators, special
authorities, local governments, and private entities.
Web site: http://tifia.fhwa.dot.gov/
State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs). Established by
DOT under the 1995 National Highway System Desig-
nation Act as a pilot program, SIBs operate similarly
to a private bank by providing seed capital for projects
and a range of loans and credit enhancements. Funds
can be used to finance eligible surface transportation
projects, including both highway construction and
transit capital projects.
Web site: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/innovativefinance/
sib.htm
In June 2009, EPA, DOT, and the U.S. Department
of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) formed
the Partnership for Sustainable Communities to help
improve access to affordable housing, develop more
transportation options, and lower transportation
costs while protecting the environment in communi-
ties nationwide. Through a set of guiding livability
principles and a partnership agreement that will guide
the agencies' efforts, this partnership will coordinate
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7. COSTS AND FUNDING
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funding for federal housing, transportation, and other
infrastructure investments to protect the environ-
ment, promote equitable development, and help to
address the challenges of climate change. One funding
opportunity arising through this partnership is HUD's
Sustainable Communities Planning Grant Program,
which will offer $40 million in competitive challenge
grants to local communities that collaborate on hous-
ing, transportation, and environmental planning
efforts. Additional funding opportunities may arise
through this partnership. (See Section 8, Federal, State,
and Regional Policy and Program Resources, for more
information on the partnership.)
In addition to federal funding, many states provide
grant funding for local transportation, often from state
fuel taxes. Some of these state grants (similar to some
federal grants) require a local match. Local govern-
ments can also use local revenue from sales or parking
taxes, tolls, and other direct sources, in addition to
general revenues and reserve funds, to fund TCMs.
Sometimes local governments join partnerships with
other public and private entities for financing trans-
portation projects. Municipal financing, such as the
issuance of bonds, can also serve as a source of TCM
funding.
The Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) authority
constructed the rail extension to the San Fran-
cisco International Airport using funds raised
by issuing bonds against future sales tax revenues and
fare revenues. The San Francisco Bay Area's Metro-
politan Transportation Commission also plans to
issue bonds backed by bridge toll revenues to fund
BART rail extensions and other transit improve-
ments in the region (BATA, 2006).
Other innovative local financing sources for TCMs
include transportation impact fees and special property
taxes based on capturing the increase in the value of
land around transit facilities. Transportation impact
fees require that developers pay a fee based on the
transportation costs imposed by their projects, which
can then be used to pay for walking and cycling
improvements, or to fund other TCMs that can be
applied locally.
/\ The City of Portland, Oregon, used several
1Q] f innovative financing strategies to help fund the
IHll Portland Streetcar system, which opened in
2001. The city covered some of the initial costs of the
system through tax increment financing, in which the
Portland Development Commission issued bonds
against future property taxes to be paid by new devel-
opment along the streetcar line. Portland also created
a "local improvement district," which assessed a one-
time property tax from businesses within the district
based on their size and proximity to the streetcar line
(Portland Office of Transportation, 2008).
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AMERICAN RECOVERY AND REINVESTMENT ACT OF 2009
In an effort to help stimulate the economy. President Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) in March of
2009. ARRA contained billions of dollars in one-time allocations for transportation and infrastructure projects through a number of
new and existing DOT and DOE programs, which can be used to support TCMs. Some of the funding mechanisms that received monies
from ARRA include:
U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT)
• Surface Transportation Program (STP): $27.5 billion. The majority of these funds have been distributed to state departments of
transportation for use in highway or public transit projects. Priority has been given to projects that can be completed in three years
in economically distressed areas.
• Passenger and freight rail programs through the Capital Assistance to States program and a new High Speed Passenger Rail
program: $8 billion. These funds have been designated for distribution with a 100 percent federal share. A state rail plan has not
been required to receive funds.
• Public transit programs: $8.4 billion. These funds have been split among formula grants for capital projects ($6.9 billion); rail
modernization ($750 million); and the New Starts/Small Starts programs ($750 million), which support locally planned and
implemented major investments in building new fixed guideway transit systems or extended existing systems. ARRA also made
available $100 million for a discretionary program to support transit capital projects that would result in GHG reductions or
reduced energy use.
• Supplemental discretionary grants (also known as Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery, or TIGER,
Grants): $1.5 billion. These funds have been designated for projects with national, metropolitan, or regional significance with an
intermodal focus. Eligible projects include interstate and bridge maintenance and repair, freight and passenger rail, intermodal
ports, and public transportation.
For more information, see: http://www.dot.gov/recovery/, http://www.fta.dot.gov/index_9440.html, and http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/
economicrecovery/index.htm.
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
• Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grants: $3.2 billion. These funds have been designated for state, local, and tribal
projects that reduce energy use and fossil fuel emissions and improve energy efficiency. One of the 14 categories of eligible
projects covers the development and implementation of transportation programs and includes TCMs that conserve and reduce
energy used in transportation.
For more information, see http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/recovery/.
Source: Transportation for America, 2009 and U.S. DOE, 2009.
8. FEDERAL, STATE, AND
REGIONAL POLICY AND
PROGRAM RESOURCES
Policies and programs at the federal, state, and regional
levels can support implementation of TCMs by local
governments and influence which TCMs are most
appropriate for a given location. Some of the policies
and programs described below are statutory require-
ments that help encourage certain TCMs, while others
may help to fund TCM activities.
Clean Air Act State Implementation Plan credit for
TCMs. Under the Clean Air Act (CAA), areas that do
not meet air quality standards must be covered by State
Implementation Plans (SIPs) that establish a plan for
reducing emissions. Under current rules, TCMs that
meet certain CAA requirements to ensure accountabil-
ity and effectiveness (see footnote on page 1) are eligible
for SIP "credit." These TCMs include employer-based
transportation management programs, work schedule
changes, rideshare incentives, parking management,
and a variety of other efforts (U.S. EPA, 1997). SIPs can
include both voluntary and mandatory TCMs.
Including TCMs in an approved SIP can help provide
access to federal transportation funding and gain
support for these activities at the state and federal
levels. Note that TCMs in SIPs must be implemented
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8. POLICY AND RESOURCES
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on the schedule established in the SIP. If a TCM falls
behind schedule and the area still intends to implement
it, the MPO must demonstrate that past obstacles to
implementation have been identified and overcome,
and that state and local agencies with funding authority
are giving the delayed TCM maximum priority.
Federal and state tax codes. The federal tax code
includes provisions to encourage alternatives to
commuting. For example, the tax code includes tax-
free transportation fringe benefits of up to $230 per
month per employee for transit/vanpool expenses
or parking, or $20 for bicycle expenses (Transporta-
tion for America, 2009). These tax provisions save
employers the payroll tax they would pay to provide
employees with equivalent amounts of cash, and save
employees the income tax they would pay on this
added income. In some states, tax codes encourage
commuting alternatives.
Maryland, Georgia, Minnesota, Delaware,
and other states provide employer tax credits
for offering commuter benefit programs
(U.S. EPA, 2005b). Oregon provides a tax credit for
employer investment in telecommuting (e.g.,
purchasing and installing office and computer
equipment) (U.S. EPA, 2005d).
Partnership for Sustainable Communities. In June
2009, EPA, DOT, and HUD formed this partnership to
coordinate their funding and better support sustain-
able communities. EPA, DOT, and HUD will work
to assure that their programs maximize the benefits
of their combined investments in communities for
livability, affordability, environmental excellence, and
the promotion of green jobs of the future. HUD and
DOT will work together to identify opportunities to
better coordinate their programs and encourage loca-
tion efficiency in housing and transportation choices.
HUD, DOT, and EPA will also share information and
review processes to facilitate better-informed decisions
and coordinate investments. For more information and
updates see http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/partner-
ship/index.html.
State traffic mitigation laws. Some states mandate
that businesses of a certain size develop and implement
employee commuting reduction strategies.
In 2006, the Washington State Legislature
passed the Commute Trip Reduction (CTR)
Efficiency Act, which requires local govern-
ments in those counties experiencing the greatest
automobile-related air pollution and traffic
congestion to develop and implement plans to
reduce SOV trips. The Commute Trip Reduction
program has found that employees commuting to
participating worksites made nearly 26,000 fewer
vehicle trips each weekday morning in 2007 than
when they entered the program. The percentage of
people who drove alone to work to CTR worksites
declined from 71 percent in 1993 to 66 percent in
2007. The absence of about 26,000 vehicles on the
state's roads each weekday morning in 2007
reduced gasoline consumption by nearly 8 million
gallons, saving commuters some $23 million. It
also reduced criteria pollutants by nearly 4,000
tons, and emissions of CO2-equivalent greenhouse
gases by nearly 77,700 metric tons—equal to the
annual emissions from more than 14,000 cars
(WSDOT, Undated). (For information on how
Bellevue in King County, Washington has
complied with the state's CTR mandate, see
Section 9, Case Studies.)
Regional transportation planning. Collaboration
between neighboring local governments can be an
effective means of addressing traffic patterns and
transportation demands that cross jurisdictions. By
engaging in regional transportation planning, local
governments can leverage their resources and develop
methods of transportation control that maybe more
efficient and practical than creating wider and faster
roadways within their borders (which can be costly
and limited in effectiveness, due to induced demand.)
Regional transportation planning also enables local
governments to take a more holistic approach to trans-
portation planning by using the principles of smart
growth to create "smart transportation" plans that
address the factors influencing transportation demand.
In addition, the federal government requires state
departments of transportation and MPOs to develop
long-range transportation plans and short-term
transportation programs. Transportation projects must
be included in these plans and programs in order to
receive federal funding. For areas with a population
higher than 200,000, federal regulations require a
congestion management process (which would likely
include TCMs) as part of the planning process.
22
8. POLICY AND RESOURCES
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Anticipating that the region will grow by more
than 1.7 million residents within the first half
of the 21st century, the Sacramento Area Coun-
cil of Governments (SACOG), representing six coun-
ties and 22 cities in northern California, initiated the
Sacramento Blueprint Project in 2002. The goal of
the project was to examine current land use and
future growth patterns and plan where and how the
region should grow through the year 2050. In a series
of workshops, regional conferences, Web-based
dialogues, and surveys, more than 5,000 citizens in
the region helped to create and refine the Preferred
Blueprint Scenario, which promotes compact, mixed-
use development and more transit choices as an alter-
native to low density development. SACOG estimates
that by 2050, this scenario could reduce the number
of trips made by car by 10 percent, reduce vehicle
miles traveled per day from 47.2 to 34.9, and reduce
emissions of CO2 and fine particulates by 15 percent
(SACOG, 2007). In 2008, this scenario was incorpo-
rated in the Metropolitan Transportation Plan for
2035 to provide a smart growth framework for
investing $42 billion in transportation infrastructure
over 28 years (SACOG, 2008).
U.S. EPA State and Local Climate and Energy Program.
This program assists state, local, and tribal govern-
ments in meeting their climate change and clean ener-
gy efforts by providing technical assistance, analytical
tools, and outreach support. It includes two programs:
The Local Climate and Energy Program helps
local and tribal governments meet multiple
sustainability goals with cost-effective climate
change mitigation and clean energy strategies.
EPA provides local and tribal governments with
peer exchange training opportunities and financial
assistance along with planning, policy, technical,
and analytical information that support the reduc-
tion of GHG emissions.
The State Climate and Energy Program helps
states develop policies and programs that can
reduce GHG emissions, lower energy costs,
improve air quality and public health, and help
achieve economic development goals. EPA
provides states with and advises them on proven,
cost-effective best practices, peer exchange oppor-
tunities, and analytical tools.
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/
9. CASE STUDIES
The following case studies describe two TCM programs
implemented by local governments. Each case study
describes how the program was initiated, key program
features, and results.
City of Bellevue, Washington-
Commute Trip Reduction
The City of Bellevue in Washington has implemented
a wide range of TCMs—including a strong employer-
based program—as part of its CTR plan. These
measures help the city address its transportation-
related environmental issues while reducing VMT and
SOV use.
PROFILE: BELLEVUE, WASHINGTON
Area: 31 square miles
Population: 117,000
Structure: The City of Bellevue's Transportation
Department runs the Commute Trip Reduction
(CTR) program as part of its mission to provide
a safe and efficient transportation system that
supports livable neighborhoods and a vital
economy in partnership with the community.
Program Scope: The CTR program mandates
employer-based commuter programs to help
reduce VMT and SOV use. These goals are
supported by a comprehensive suite of TCMs,
including policy and regulatory activities, service
and facility improvements, employer outreach,
construction mitigation projects, and Growth and
Transportation Efficiency Centers.
Program Creation: The program was created in
response to the State of Washington's Commute
Trip Reduction Act in 1991, mandating CTR for
the nine most populous counties, including
Bellevue's King County.
Program Results: Bellevue's CTR efforts have lead
to important drops in drive-alone rates citywide
for CTR worksites (12% from 1993-2007) and for
worksites of all sizes in the downtown area (7%
from 2000-2008).
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9. CASE STUDIES
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PROGRAM INITIATION
In 1991, the State of Washington instituted the
Commute Trip Reduction Act, which applies to the
most populous counties/growth areas (including
Bellevue's King County) in Washington State.3 This
program requires that applicable local governments
adopt CTR ordinances and support local employers in
implementing CTR. Employers within those jurisdic-
tions are required to develop a commuter program
designed to achieve reductions in vehicle trips.
With state funding, technical assistance, and program-
matic guidance, Bellevue's ordinance, issued in 1993,
identifies which commuters are affected (private and
public employers with 100 or more affected employees
at a single worksite, with certain exemptions), program
components (a transportation coordinator, information
distribution to employees, commuter surveys, etc.),
what types of commute trip reduction measures may
be included in the program, and how travel impacts are
measured and reported.
PROGRAM FEATURES
The City of Bellevue set an overall jurisdiction goal
of 10 percent reduction in drive-alone rates and 13
percent reduction in VMT by 2011 for more than 60
CTR sites (City of Bellevue, 2008a). The city provides
employer-specific goals and support, which aggregate
into the larger program goal. The 2008 update of the
City of Bellevue CTR Plan includes a comprehensive
range of complementary CTR strategies, covering poli-
cies and regulations, services and facilities, employer
outreach, and special programs for the mitigation of
construction activities (City of Bellevue, 2008a).
3 The state of Washington updated this legislation through the Commute Trip
Reduction Efficiency Act of 2006, focusing the areas in which the program
applies (originally to nine counties, reduced to only the areas with greatest
congestion delay) and clarifying certain elements of the program and employer
requirements that arose during the first 15 years of its implementation.
Bellevue has identified activities to improve existing
policies and regulations to support the CTR program
and its goals, including:
Re-examining the density bonus scheme for develop-
ment in the downtown area.
Cataloguing the parking inventory of the city in the
downtown area.
Evaluating and promoting voluntary parking manage-
ment strategies to employers, including a shift from
parking subsides to transit benefits.
Incorporating multi-modal street design features
through the Great Street Project, which advances
attractive pedestrian environments.
Assessing land use and transportation policy concur-
rency to ensure that transportation planning and land
use planning match in their goals and plans.
The city's CTR plan examines existing services and
facilities and identifies a number of opportunities for
reducing commuter VMT, such as:
Adding new high occupancy vehicles lanes on 1-90.
Installing transit signal priority signals on select transit
routes.
Exploring the feasibility of a bus rapid transit route
between Bellevue and Redmond, Washington.
Continuing ridesharing support services through King
County Metro, including marketing for ride-matching,
carpooling, and vanpooling.
Collaborating with Flexcar to increase awareness of
car sharing services available, including an employer
matching effort to help share in the subscription fees.
Since employers play a central role in the CTR
program, a significant element of the city's plan focuses
on outreach and support to companies covered by CTR
mandates. Specific outreach efforts strategies covered
in the plan include:
1 Providing training to transportation coordinators at
employer worksites.
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9. CASE STUDIES
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Offering mini-grants to employers to hold transporta-
tion fairs.
1 Requiring preferential parking for carpools and
vanpools in specific buildings.
Creating off-the-shelf marketing materials, promoting
commuting options.
Providing housing assistance through the "You Can
Live in Bellevue" seminars.
Initiating a Commuter Club, an incentive-based
program to reward commuters who use alternative
modes.
Aware that many of its planned construction activities
will have impacts on the city's transportation system,
Bellevue has incorporated strategies into its CTR plan
to lessen the number of daily trips through areas with
construction activities and reduce the adverse effects
of construction on commuting. Special programs for
the mitigation of construction activities have been
designed to promote VMT reductions and discourage
SOV use, including:
Working with King County to support its promotions
during construction periods, such as Neighborhood
in Motion programs (similar to Portland's SmartTrips
program described on page 16), area transit subsidies
promotions, general marketing, and carpool incentive
programs.
Holding a "Battle of the Sites" promotion to have
employers compete against one another to reduce their
drive-alone rates.
The state revised the CTR Act in 2006 to allow juris-
dictions the option of designating and planning for
areas of dense population and employment, known
as Growth and Transportation Efficiency Centers
(GTECs). The GTEC program originated from the
recognition that the CTR program, although very
successful, could not fully address larger congestion
issues in dense urban areas due to its focus on large
employers. The 2008-2011 Downtown Bellevue
Growth and Transportation Efficiency Center plan
provides a customized downtown-wide trip reduction
program designed to complement Bellevue's other
CTR efforts by targeting additional populations, such
as employers with fewer employees, the retail and
hospitality industry, and downtown residents. The state
awarded Bellevue $300,000 in 2008 for this effort (City
of Bellevue, 2008b).
The City of Bellevue funds its CTR initiatives through
a variety of sources, including the state CTR grant
program, local jurisdiction operating funds and capital
investment program funds, employer contributions,
transit matching grants, construction mitigation trans-
portation demand management funds, and the GTEC
funds. The city's total estimated program expenses
from FY2008-2012 are slightly under $1.6 million
and average approximately $400,000 annually (City of
Bellevue, 2008a).
PROGRAM RESULTS
Over the last 10 years, the city has achieved some
impressive results from its CTR programs. Citywide,
the drive-alone rate in CTR-affected worksites dropped
from 75 percent in 1993 to 63 percent in 2007 (City
of Bellevue, 2010). From 2000-2008, the drive alone
commute rate at worksites of all sizes in the downtown
area decreased from 68 percent to 61 percent (City of
Bellevue, 2009).
Assuming continued success, the city estimates there
will be more than 2,500 additional non-drive-alone
commuters on local and regional roadways during the
peak morning commute by the end of 2011. If all CTR
sites meet their targeted goal of a 13 percent reduction
in VMT, more than 136,000 vehicle miles traveled will
be also be removed during the peak morning commute
by the end of 2011. These results will help to lower
congestion on both local and regional roadways, as
well as potentially avoid the consumption of more than
6,800 gallons of fuel and eliminate more than 59 metric
tons of CO2 emissions over four years—equivalent to
the annual emissions of 11 passenger vehicles (City of
Bellevue, 2008a).
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9. CASE STUDIES
25
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City of Santa Monica-
Transportation Control
Measures
The southern California city of Santa Monica has
implemented TCMs—including ridesharing and park-
ing cash-out—as a strategy for improving air quality
and reducing traffic congestion. These measures join an
effective transit system and other activities to address
transportation-related environmental issues in the city.
PROFILE: SANTA MONICA, CALIFORNIA
Area: 8.26 square miles
Population: 84,000
Structure: The city of Santa Monica established
its Planning and Community Development
Department (PCDP) to deal with transportation
issues. The city's TCMs are implemented by the
Transportation Management Division (TMD), in
the PCDP.
Program Scope: A ridesharing program
implemented by the TMD focuses on providing
alternatives to commuters through ridesharing.
A mandatory parking cash-out program, also
operated by TMD, applies to all business above
50 employees. These and other programs are
reinforced by the city's award-winning public
transit system.
Program Creation: The ridesharing and cash-
out programs were authorized by city and state
law in the early 1990s; from 1987 to 2000, the
city's transit system won the American Public
Transportation Association's "Outstanding
Transportation System" award four times.
Program Results: Santa Monica's TCMs have led
to increasing trends in average vehicle ridership
and transit ridership. However, it should be noted
that traffic and congestion issues still remain a
problem for the city.
PROGRAM INITIATION
The Santa Monica Planning and Community
Development Department has identified the follow-
ing transportation and air quality issues as major
challenges for southern California [Santa Monica,
Undated(a)]:
Motor vehicle emissions account for 70 percent of
the smog in southern California.
In the South Coast Air Basin—where Santa Monica
is located—90 percent of employees commute to
work by car.
In total, California drivers spend 1.2 billion hours
stuck in traffic each year.
To address these issues, Santa Monica undertook
a number of efforts in the early 1990s to reduce
congestion and emissions, including:
Developing a ridesharing program following the
passage of the city's 1990 Transportation Manage-
ment Ordinance 1604, which required employers to
provide information and resources for ridesharing;
Instituting a mandatory parking cash-out program
under California State Law AB2109, passed in 1992;
and
Continuing to operate and enhance its award-
winning public transit system, characterized by its
signature "Big Blue Buses."
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9. CASE STUDIES
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PROGRAM FEATURES
Santa Monica's ridesharing program focuses on
providing alternatives to commuters driving to and
from work. Under Ordinance 1604, which autho-
rized the program, employers with 10-49 employ-
ees are required to provide each of their employees
with information about air quality, ridesharing,
and other transportation alternatives. Employers
with 50 or more employees are required to imple-
ment a variety of incentives and strategies for ride-
sharing. An annual survey tracks each employer's
progress in reducing single occupancy vehicle
commuting trips. As an employer in the city, the
city government participated in the program and
sought to reach the city's average vehicle ridership
goal of a minimum of 1.5 people per vehicle.
The city helps residents locate ridesharing oppor-
tunities through the CommuteSmart program,
which serves the five-county region of which
Santa Monica is a part. This service allows riders
to find carpools and vanpools in their area. It
also provides resources such as bicycle maps,
trip planners, traffic updates via real-time traffic
information, and a guaranteed ride home program
(CommuteSmart, Undated).
Under Santa Monica's parking cash-out program,
employers of 50 or more employees that lease
their parking and subsidize any part of their
employee parking must offer their employees the
opportunity to give up their parking spaces and
seek alternative commute modes. As an incentive
to relinquish their parking spaces, the employer
pays the employees the cost of the spaces, and the
employees can use these funds to make indepen-
dent transportation arrangements of their choice
[U.S. EPA.Undated(b)].
Santa Monica also continues to upgrade its
public transit system. It has won the American
Public Transportation Association's "Outstanding
Transportation System" award four times since
1983 (Big Blue Bus, 2008) for being a role model
of excellence, leadership, and innovation that has
greatly advanced public transportation. The city
is currently focusing on upgrading buses with
efficient technology and cleaner-burning fuels
as they become available. Nearly one-half of its
current fleet of 210 buses is fueled by Liquefied
Natural Gas (LNG), which is 75 percent cleaner
burning than diesel-fueled buses [Santa Monica,
Undated(b)].
PROGRAM RESULTS
In its 2008 "Sustainable City Report Card," Santa
Monica gave itself a medium grade on transporta-
tion [Santa Monica, Undated(b)]. The report card
highlights the city's advocacy for regional transpor-
tation planning and infrastructure, increased use of
renewable and alternative fuels in the city fleet, and
increasing trends in average vehicle ridership and
transit ridership as strengths. The average vehicle
ridership was 1.59, exceeding the city's plan target
of 1.5, and almost 100 percent of the city's public
transit fleet was alternatively fueled. The city's new
bike valet parked more than 16,000 bikes in 2008
(Santa Monica, 2009).
At the same time, however, Santa Monica noted
that traffic and congestion issues remain a
problem. Tourism and the availability of ample
downtown parking continue to put pressure on
the city's transportation grid. Approximately 13
percent of the city's intersections have unaccept-
able levels of transit service (Santa Monica, 2005a),
and bicycling and walking infrastructure are below
city targets. The City aims to provide 30 percent
of arterials with bike lanes/routes, but as of 2005
only 3 percent had these features (Santa Monica,
2005b).
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9. CASE STUDIES
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10. ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES
Title/Description Web Site
Local Examples of TCMs
Berkeley's Bicycle Boulevards - Bicycle Boulevards are Berkeley's network of
bicycle priority streets, where all types of vehicles are allowed, but the roadway
is modified as needed to enhance bicycle safety and convenience. Bicycle
boulevards are the backbone of the city's network of 50 bikeways.
http://www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/ContentDisplay.
aspx?id=66SO
Commuter Challenge— Seattle - This nonprofit organization provides www.commuterchallenge.org
information, technical assistance, and incentives to employers and employees to
help reduce the number of vehicle miles traveled in Seattle.
City of Santa Monica, Transportation Management Programs -These programs
include municipal parking cash-out and other initiatives to reduce commuter-
related travel.
Denver Regional Council of Governments, RideArrangers - RideArrangers is a
service to businesses and individuals to provide resources for carpool matching,
vanpools, and other commuting alternatives.
Downtown Minneapolis Carpool and Vanpool Resources - This Web site
provides an example of a municipal program and resources to promote carpool
and vanpools.
King County Metro, Employer Commute Services - This Web site describes
county-level commuter support services.
http://santa-monica.org/planning/transportation/
abouttransmanagementtmo.html
http://www. drcog. org/index.
cfm ?page=RideArrangersh
http://www.mplstmo.org/pages/commuter_
carpool.html
http://metro.kingcounty.gov/cs/employer/
empcommute.html
Information Resources on TCMs
American Public Transportation Association - This organization works to http://www.apta.com
ensure that public transportation is available and accessible for all Americans in
communities across the country.
American Telecommuting Association - The American Telecommuting
Association is a membership organization whose members are telecommuting
employees and their employers.
Association for Metropolitan Planning Organizations - This association provides
resources and links to Metropolitan Planning Organizations, which have a
responsibility for planning, programming, and coordinating federal highway and
transit investments.
Best Workplaces for Commuters - This EPA-sponsored program encourages
employers to provide commuter alternatives and provides resources on how to
implement such programs.
Center for Clean Air Policy Transportation and Emissions Guidebook- This
guidebook and associated calculator can help municipalities calculate the cost
savings, fuel reductions, and emissions reductions from TCM policies.
Clean Air Council Green Commute Program - Through this program, the Clean
Air Council provides information on telecommuting as a means to reduce air
pollution.
CommuterChoice.com - This Web site is a resource for employees to connect to
commuter choice service providers in their areas.
National Complete Streets Coalition - This organization is a coalition of groups
that support municipal "complete streets" ordinances to promote biking, walking,
and other transportation alternatives.
http://www.yourata.com/index.html
http://www.ampo.org/
http://www.bestworkplaces.org/
http://www.ccap.org/guidebookAccess/login.php
www.cleanair.org/Transportation/
http://www.commuterchoice.com
http://www.completestreets.org/early.html
28
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
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10 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES (cont.)
Title/Description
Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program - This program
provides federal funding to states, metropolitan planning organizations, and
transit agencies to improve air quality and reduce congestion, including through
TCMs.
FHWA and FTA: Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program - This
program provides training, and technical assistance to state, local, regional,
and tribal governments; transit operators; and community leaders responsible
for planning for the capital, operating, and maintenance needs of the surface
transportation system.
FTA: Transit and Environmental Sustainability - This Web site provides links to
information on transit's role in sustainability and FTA's sustainability activities
(including grant programs).
Gil Gordon Associates - Gil Gordon Associates maintains a Web site with a wide
variety of information, including links to research articles and "how-to" tips on
telecommuting.
Midwest Institute for Telecommuting Education - This consultant group
provides expertise in strategic planning, manager/employee training, and policy
development to assist successful implementation of telecommuting work
arrangements.
Moving Cooler: An Analysis of Transportation Strategies for Reducing
Greenhouse Gas Emissions - This report published by the Urban Land Institute
describes an integrated, multi-strategy approach to reducing transportation-
related GHG emissions.
National Transportation Demand Measures and Telework Clearinghouse - This
clearinghouse provides a research and information on transportation demand
measures and telecommuting.
State Implementation Plans under the Clean Air Act - TCMs can be a strategy
for reducing emissions in areas that do not meet national ambient air quality
standards.
State of California, Parking Cash-out Legislation - This legislation describes
the state's parking cash-out program, which "requires certain employers who
provide subsidized parking for employees to offer a cash allowance in lieu of a
parking space."
Online Transportation Demand Measure (TDM) Encyclopedia - Published by the
Victoria Transport Policy Institute, this resource provides information on a range
of TDM policies, costs, and benefits.
Web Site
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/cmaqpgs/
index.htm
http://www.planning.dot.gov/default.asp
http://www.fta.dot.gov/sustainability
http://www.gilgordon.com
http://www.mite.org
h ttp://www. m ovingcooler. in fo/
http://www.nctr.usf.edu/clearinghouse
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/stateresources/policy/
general/vmep-gud.pdf
http://www.arb.ca.gov/planning/tsaq/cashout/
cashout.htm
h ttp://www. vtpi. org/tdm/
Telework Coalition - This coalition is a membership organization that supports http://www.telcoa.org/
telework through research, education, technology, and legislation.
Telework Connecticut - Sponsored by the Connecticut Department of http://www.telecommutect.com
Transportation, this resource helps employers design, implement, and maintain a
telecommuting program.
Telework Resource Center - This center provides free information and assistance
to help local organizations start or expand telework programs.
Travel Advisory News Network - This network provides real-time information on
traffic and road conditions in selected metropolitan areas to reduce congestion
by informing drivers.
Work at Home Success Website -This Web site provides information and
resources for those seeking to work at home.
http://www.mwcog.org/commuter2/resources/
teleworkcen ters. h tm
http://traffic.tann.net/
http://www.workathomesuccess.com/telecomm.
htm
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
29
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