Stale and Local
Climate and Energy Program
LOCAL GOVERNMENT CLIMATE AND ENERGY STRATEGY SERIES
Smart Growth
A Guide to Developing and Implementing
Greenhouse Gas Reductions Programs
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
2011
-------
EPA's Local Government Climate and Energy
Strategy Series
The Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series provides a comprehensive, straightforward overview of green-
house gas (GHG) emissions reduction strategies that local governments can employ. Topics include energy efficiency
transportation, community planning and design, solid waste and materials management, and renewable energy. City,
county, territorial, tribal, and regional government staff, and elected officials can use these documents to plan, implement,
and evaluate climate and energy projects.
Each document in the series provides an overview of project benefits, policy mechanisms, investments, key stakeholders,
and other implementation considerations. Examples and case studies highlighting achievable results from programs imple-
mented in communities across the United States are incorporated throughout the series.
While each strategy document stands on its own, the entire series contains many interrelated strategies that can be
combined to create comprehensive, cost-effective programs that generate multiple benefits. For example, efforts to improve
energy efficiency can be combined with transportation and community planning and design programs to reduce GHG
emissions, decrease the costs of energy and transportation for businesses and residents, improve air quality and public
health, and enhance quality of life.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT CLIMATE AND ENERGY STRATEGY SERIES
All documents are available at www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/resources/strategy-guides.html.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
1 Energy Efficiency in Local Government Operations
1 Energy Efficiency in K-12 Schools
1 Energy Efficiency in Affordable Housing
1 Energy-Efficient Product Procurement
1 Combined Heat and Power
1 Energy Efficiency in Water and Wastewater Facilities
TRANSPORTATION
1 Transportation Control Measures
COMMUNITY PLANNING AND DESIGN
Smart Growth
Urban Heat Island Reduction
SOLID WASTE AND MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Resource Conservation and Recovery
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Green Power Procurement
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation
Landfill Gas Energy
Please note: All Web addresses in this document were working as of the time of publication, but links may break over time
as sites are reorganized and content is moved.
-------
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements __ii
Executive Summary iii
1. Overview __1
2. Benefits of Smart Growth _3
3. Planning and Design Approaches to Smart Growth _5
Where Development Occurs _. _ 6
How Development Occurs _ 7
4. Key Participants _9
5. Foundations for Program Development _11
6. Strategies for Effective Program Implementation _17
7. Investment and Funding Opportunities 19
Investment ._ 19
Funding Opportunities ._ 19
Financing ._ 19
Funding Sources 21
8. Federal, State, and Other Program Resources 22
Federal Programs 22
State Programs __23
Other Programs ._ 23
Metropolitan Planning Organizations _ 23
Non-profit Organizations ._ 24
9. Case Studies 24
High Point, Washington 24
Program Initiation 24
Program Features __25
Program Results _. 25
Arlington, Virginia __26
Program Initiation __26
Program Features 26
Program Results ._ 27
10. Additional Examples and Information Resources 28
11. References 35
-------
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) would like to acknowledge the many individuals who contributed
their time and expertise to the development and review of this guide for the Local Government Climate and Energy
Strategy Series. The following contributors provided significant assistance in bringing this document to fruition:
EPA—Brian Ng, Mark Simons, Megan Susman, and Emma Zinsmeister.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development—Audrey Buehring, Michael Freedberg, Regina Gray, Richard
Santangelo, and Edwin Stromberg.
-------
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Developing and Implementing
Community Planning and
Design Programs
Community design—including factors such as physical
layout; proximity and accessibility to goods, services,
workplaces, and schools; and the materials and designs
used in building and infrastructure—affects energy
consumption and vehicle use, and thus greenhouse gas
emissions. By addressing these factors through plan-
ning, application of smart growth principles, measures
to reduce urban heat islands, and other initiatives, local
and regional governments can encourage economic
development while preserving their open spaces and
critical environmental habitats, protecting water and
air quality, and helping to mitigate climate change.
Community planning and design programs generally
act to reduce energy demand, as opposed to increasing
energy efficiency For example, by promoting mixed-
use development and public transportation, communi-
ties can reduce the need for residents to drive a car for
shopping, commuting to work, or getting to and from
school. Similarly, measures to reduce the urban heat
island effect, such as planting shade trees or install-
ing cool roofs, reduce a community's cooling energy
requirements.The community planning and design
guides in this series describe the process of develop-
ing and implementing strategies, using real-world
examples, which apply the principles of smart growth
or take steps to reduce the urban heat island effect.
Smart Growth
Smart growth development is based on 10 key prin-
ciples and benefits the economy, the community, the
environment, and public health. This guide provides
information on how local governments have planned,
designed, and implemented approaches that encourage
smart growth in their communities. It is designed to
be used by city planners, local energy managers and
sustainability directors, local elected officials, regional
planning agencies, metropolitan planning organiza-
tions, and citizen groups.
Readers of the guide should come away with an under-
standing of smart growth principles and how they can
be applied in practice, foundations and strategies for
smart growth development, expected costs, and poten-
tial funding opportunities.
RELATED STRATEGIES IN THIS SERIES
1 Community Planning and Design: Urban Heat
Island Reduction
Dark-colored buildings, paved surfaces, and reduced tree
cover in urban areas create "islands" of warmth, with
impacts on air quality, energy use, and public health.
Measures to reduce urban heat islands can complement
smart growth strategies by further reducing energy costs
and enhancing green space.
1 Transportation: Transportation Control Measures
Transportation control measures are strategies that
reduce vehicle miles traveled and improve roadway
operations to reduce air pollution, GHG emissions, and
fuel use from transportation. Many of these measures
encourage public transportation, carpooling, bicycling,
and walking, thus contributing to one of the key prin-
ciples of smart growth (to provide a variety of transporta-
tion choices).
1 Energy Efficiency: Energy Efficiency in Affordable
Housing
Energy costs can contribute substantially to the overall
financial burden of housing, and can make housing
unaffordable for many families. Lower home energy
use combined with smart growth strategies that reduce
the need for personal vehicle use can lead to substantial
reductions in the total energy cost burden of low-income
residents.
1 Energy Efficiency: Energy Efficiency in K-12
Schools
The proximity of schools to the neighborhoods they
serve, along with the accessibility of schools via a range
of transportation options, are important considerations
for smart growth strategies. Measures to improve energy
efficiency in K-12 schools can be combined with smart
growth strategies to reduce the total energy use and envi-
ronmental impacts associated with schools—both within
and beyond the school fenceline.
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
-------
The guide describes the benefits of smart growth
(section 2); planning and design approaches to smart
growth (section 3); key participants and their roles
(section 4); foundations for smart growth program
development (section 5); implementation strategies for
effective programs (section 6); investment and fund-
ing opportunities (section 7); federal, state, and other
programs that may be able to help local governments
with information or financial and technical assistance
(section 8), and finally two case studies of local govern-
ments that have successfully implemented smart
growth principles in their communities (section 9).
Additional examples of successful implementation are
provided throughout the guide.
Relationships to Other Guides
in the Series
Local governments can use other guides in this series
to develop robust climate and energy programs that
incorporate complementary strategies. For example,
local governments can combine smart growth develop-
ment with urban heat island reduction, transporta-
tion control measures, energy-efficient affordable
housing, and energy-efficient K-12 schools in a
comprehensive, community-wide approach to reducing
energy demand and vehicle miles traveled.
See the box Related Strategies in This Series on page
iii for more information about these complementary
strategies. Additional connections to related strategies
are highlighted in the guide.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Smart Growth
1. OVERVIEW
Many local governments strive to promote economic
development while preserving their open spaces and
critical environmental habitats, protecting water and
air quality, and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
sions. Across the United States, municipalities have
found that following smart growth principles can help
meet these goals, and that in addition to producing
environmental, economic, societal, and health benefits,
smart growth can lead to significant energy savings
(Friedman, 2004). Smart growth can also reduce costs
for transportation infrastructure and services, and
assist areas in attaining and maintaining air quality
standards under the Clean Air Act.
Smart growth development focuses on the issues of
how and where to accommodate new development and
redevelopment, and how to improve the efficiency of
the transportation system. It is centered on the 10 key
principles listed in the text box to the right. These prin-
ciples can be—and have been—applied to a wide range
of communities and rural areas.
Implementing these principles to promote smart
growth and its benefits involves rethinking typical
approaches to development, and taking a strategic,
often regionally coordinated approach to land use
planning. It involves considering the design of neigh-
borhoods, buildings, and infrastructure, as well as
location and land use.
Smart growth is place- and situation-specific and can
look quite different from community to community.
Accordingly, the benefits resulting from smart growth
strategies may vary widely from location to location,
based on site-specific factors such as existing devel-
opment patterns and infrastructure. Implementing
the same smart growth strategies in two different
communities may yield very different results, thus the
examples presented in this guide are meant to be illus-
trative of what particular communities have achieved
given their local context.
Smart growth policies and practices that advocate more
compact and mixed-use communities, more transpor-
tation options, and the preservation of green space can
influence energy consumption in multiple ways. For
example, how buildings are designed can determine
how much energy they use. Additionally, where
development occurs relative to the transportation
options that are available determines people's choice
of transportation—whether they drive, walk, bike,
or take public transit. Consequently, an important
component of a local government's clean energy and
climate change mitigation program involves making
the connection between energy use, transportation
infrastructure and services, and how and where
development occurs in their community.
SMART GROWTH PRINCIPLES
Based on the experience of communities around the
nation, the Smart Growth Network developed a set of 10
basic principles:
• Mix land uses
• Take advantage of compact building design
• Create a range of housing opportunities and choices
• Create walkable neighborhoods
• Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a
strong sense of place
• Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and
critical environmental areas
• Strengthen and direct development towards existing
communities
• Provide a variety of transportation choices
• Make development decisions predictable, fair, and
cost-effective
• Encourage community and stakeholder
collaboration in development decisions
These principles are flexible and adaptable, and have
been successfully applied in cities, suburbs, small towns,
and rural areas throughout the United States.
Source: Smart Growth Network, 1998.
Local governments have not typically implemented
smart growth initiatives specifically to save energy,
and thus may not have measured the energy savings
from these strategies. Nevertheless, recent stud-
ies substantiate the link between smart growth
and reductions in energy use. For example, many
regional scenario planning efforts have compared
alternative future development patterns and modeled
the performance of "business-as-usual" growth
versus more compact development (e.g., SACOG,
2005; Envision Utah, 2008). In these scenarios,
energy use and other measures, such as vehicle
miles traveled (VMT), water use, amount of land
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
1. OVERVIEW
-------
consumed, infrastructure costs, and other criteria have
typically been significantly lower in the more compact
scenarios.
Efforts are also being made to quantify the relation-
ships between energy savings, GHG emissions
reductions, smart growth strategies, transportation
investment plans, and programs that provide transpor-
tation choices (see text box, Energy Savings from Smart
Growth Transportation Policies, below, and EPA's Trans-
portation Control Measures guide in the Local Govern-
ment Climate and Energy Strategy Series). The link
between the type and size of housing stock, urban heat
island effects, and energy consumption is also being
quantified (Ewing and Rong, 2008).
This guide provides information on how local govern-
ments have planned and implemented activities that
encourage smart growth in their communities, sources
of funding, and case studies. Energy savings data are
included where available. Additional examples and
information resources are provided in Section 10,
Additional Examples and Information Resources.
ENERGY SAVINGS FROM SMART GROWTH TRANSPORTATION POLICIES
Smart growth policies encourage a more efficient use of transportation and other infrastructure by developing mixed-use communities
near commercial centers and incorporating a variety of transportation options. A reduction in VMT is one of the largest and most easily
quantifiable energy savings from smart growth policies. According to EPA's inventory of U.S. GHG emissions in 2007, 33 percent of U.S.
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (the largest component of GHGs) come from the transportation sector, of which 83 percent is from
on-road vehicles (U.S. EPA, 2009b). Because transportation has such an effect on energy consumption and air emissions, many local
governments are adopting smart growth principles that encourage compact development to reduce the distances their residents must
drive, and create other options to driving, such as walking, biking, and transit, to lower emissions and save energy.
Growing Cooler
In 2008, the Urban Land Institute published Growing Cooler: The Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change. This report
reviewed the literature on compact development, travel, and GHG emissions to estimate the GHG reductions that would be possible
from more compact, walkable development. Its main findings include:
• New vehicle and fuel technologies will not be sufficient on their own to reduce CO2 emissions from driving. To reduce emissions
to the level scientific consensus accepts as necessary to avoid potentially catastrophic consequences, VMT must be reduced.
• Compact development reduces the need to drive by putting destinations closer together and making walking, biking, and using
mass transit easier. Any given increment of compact development could reduce VMT up to 20 to 40 percent compared with
dispersed development on the outer fringe of an urban area.
• Given the market demand for smart growth neighborhoods, the amount of new development expected by 2050, and the CO2
reductions possible from compact development, aggressive implementation of smart growth strategies could reduce U.S. CO2
emissions by 7 to 10 percent by 2050.
Source: Ewing et ai, 2008.
Moving Cooler
A complementary report, entitled Moving Cooler: An Analysis of Transportation Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions,
published by the Urban Land Institute in July 2009, described an integrated, multi-strategy approach to reducing transportation-
related GHG emissions. Among the findings:
• Combinations of strategies create synergies that enhance the potential reductions from individual measures. For example, land use
changes combined with expanded transit services achieve stronger GHG reductions than when only one option is implemented.
• Advancing smart growth policies to increase compact development can achieve significant reductions in GHG emissions
at relatively low costs, but requires investments in transit expansion and improved highway development to avoid issues of
congestion, reduced mobility, and equity concerns.
Source: Cambridge Systematics, 2009.
1. OVERVIEW
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
-------
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE
Green infrastructure can work hand in hand with
smart growth initiatives. Communities can use
green infrastructure to make better use of existing
infrastructure and to encourage more compact,
walkable, mixed-use communities. The goal of
any green infrastructure project, or redesign, is to
design a hydrologically functional site that mimics
predevelopment, or natural conditions. This is
achieved by using design techniques that infiltrate,
filter, evaporate, and store stormwater runoff close
to its source. Rather than rely on costly large-scale
conveyance and treatment systems, green infrastructure
addresses stormwater overflow through a variety of
small, cost-effective landscape features located on
or near the development. Green infrastructure is an
approach that can be applied to new development,
urban retrofits, and urban revitalization projects.
These landscape features include green roofs, porous
pavement, rain gardens, and vegetated swales, and
produce a variety of environmental benefits. In addition
to effectively retaining and infiltrating rainfall, these
technologies can simultaneously help filter air pollutants,
reduce energy demands, mitigate urban heat islands,
and sequester carbon while also providing communities
with aesthetic and natural resource benefits. Green
infrastructure can be an important facet of any compact,
walkable community.
Source: U.S. EPA, 2008a.
Some research has been conducted to compare
the energy use of low-density, automobile-
dependent development with that of higher-density
neighborhoods.
The previously mentioned life-cycle analysis
of residential development in Toronto, Cana-
da, also found that the low-density develop-
ment used more than twice as much energy as the
high-density development (Norman et al, 2006).
Studies have found an average cost savings of nearly
27 percent on sewer infrastructures when compact
development was pursued. Similarly for water infra-
structure, the compact development pattern saved an
average of approximately 25 percent in infrastructure
costs (Delaware, 2004). Sewer and water systems typi-
cally account for 30 to 60 percent of municipal energy
costs, and can be the largest controllable energy cost
(U.S. EPA, 2008b). More compact systems typically
use less electricity for pumping, along with reducing
the energy embodied in materials and construction.
Several additional studies have also examined costs
for maintenance and new construction of transporta-
tion infrastructure, and reported an average savings of
nearly 33 percent when compact development is used
(Delaware, 2003).
Demonstrate leadership. Adopting smart growth
development policies can help a local government
demonstrate fiscal, environmental, and societal
responsibility. Public investments often meet multiple
goals, and investments in smart development can pay
off in energy savings as well as reduced infrastructure
costs. Municipal governments can send signals to the
private sector through their investment decisions. If
the government invests in infrastructure upgrades and
amenities in compact, walkable communities, private
investors such as banks and asset management groups
might be more comfortable investing their money
in new developments in those areas. Often, a small
initial public investment can be the catalyst for private
funding.
Reduce pollution. In addition to reducing GHGs,
creating neighborhoods where people can choose to
walk, bike, or take public transit means less air pollu-
tion from vehicle travel. Air pollution is estimated to
cause thousands of cases of chronic respiratory illness
and about 60,000 premature deaths in the United States
every year (Kaiser, 2005). Vehicle technology and
cleaner fuels have reduced the amount of certain air
pollutants (nitrogen oxides, volatile organic chemicals,
and carbon monoxide) emitted per mile; however,
because VMT increased at three times the rate of
population growth, the increase in driving has offset
the reductions in air pollution (Winkelman, 2002).
Enhance public health. Recent research has estab-
lished a link between automobile-oriented develop-
ment patterns and the rise of obesity, respiratory
illnesses, and other chronic diseases. Medical research
(CDC, 2009) has shown that 30 minutes per day of
moderate exercise such as walking, several times per
week, can reduce obesity and improve health. Other
recent research (Frank et al., 2005) has demonstrated
that compact, connected development patterns in a
region will increase overall activity levels.
2. BENEFITS OF SMART GROWTH
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Policies that offer more transportation options can
have an immediate effect on public health by reducing
air pollution from driving while increasing physical
activity. Compact, mixed-use communities with streets
that are safe for pedestrians and bicyclists give people
the opportunity to incorporate physical activity into
their daily routine by walking or biking to school,
work, transit, stores, and restaurants, or for recreation.
One study in the Atlanta region found that people who
live in compact, more walkable neighborhoods drive
30 to 40 percent less than people who live in more
dispersed areas, are more than twice as likely to get the
recommended amount of physical activity, and weigh
an average of 10 pounds less than people who live in
more dispersed areas (Goldberg, 2007). Increasing
physical activity can make people healthier, often lead-
ing to a reduction in healthcare costs. For example,
another study found that physically active people
spend about $600 less on health care annually than
inactive people (Pratt et al., 2000).2
Smart growth also improves emergency services
response times as fire departments, emergency
responders, and police stations are closer to the areas
they serve and have more route options to respond to
emergency calls, given a typically gridded street pattern
with a choice of more direct routes.
Recently, many communities have been trying to bring
back neighborhood schools. Walking or biking to
school incorporates physical activity into a child's daily
routine. A Centers for Disease Control survey found
that only about 36 percent of students had completed
the recommended level of physical activity in the
week preceding the survey (Eaton et al., 2006). Lack of
regular physical activity puts a child at greater risk of
becoming overweight or obese, which can lead to prob-
lems such as diabetes, heart disease, high blood pres-
sure, depression, and respiratory problems. Programs
such as the Federal Highway Administration's
(FHWA's) Safe Routes to School can help communities
make the environment around a school more appealing
and safer for pedestrians and bicyclists (FHWA, 2008).
2 Converted from $330 in 1987 dollars to $616 in 2007 dollars.
MARIN COUNTY: SAFE ROUTES TO SCHOOL
Marin County, California, was one of the Safe Routes to
School pilot communities in 2000. Its program includes
educating and encouraging children and parents,
enforcing safety with crossing guards and other measures,
and improving infrastructure such as sidewalks and
crosswalks.
The county estimated that parents driving their children to
school accounted for as much as 20% to 25% of morning
traffic during the school year. Since the program started,
the county has seen a 13% decrease in traffic around
schools. By making it safe and easy for children to walk
or bike to school, municipalities can also reduce GHG
emissions and other pollution resulting from driving.
Sources: Safe Routes, 2008; Kallins, 2002.
1 Increase community choices. Market surveys have
found that many homebuyers—at least one-third and
perhaps as many as two-thirds of people looking for a
home—prefer communities that contain smart growth
characteristics, such as stores within walking distance,
parks, and safe places to walk and bike (Logan et al.,
2009). Many experts believe that there are not enough
homes in these communities to meet current demand,
and expect demand to grow due to demographic shifts,
such as the growth in households without children and
retiring baby boomers (Nelson, 2009).
1 Enhance quality of life. A less tangible benefit of smart
growth neighborhoods is the way they feel and look,
and the experience of living in them. Design features
of compact, carefully designed neighborhoods make it
easier to get to know neighbors and promote neighbor-
hood activity on the street throughout the day, increas-
ing safety.
3. PLANNING AND DESIGN
APPROACHES TO SMART
GROWTH
By making strategic decisions on how and where to
encourage new development and redevelopment,
policy makers can use smart growth strategies to
achieve multiple benefits, such as reduced GHG
emissions; reduced infrastructure costs; and reduced
energy consumption from transportation, community
services, and buildings. The "where" of smart growth
involves location and land use issues, while the "how"
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
3. PLANNING AND DESIGN APPROACHES
-------
concerns the design of neighborhoods, buildings, and
infrastructure. Combining these two concepts, while
adapting the principles of smart growth to best meet
the needs and constraints of their particular area and
directing transportation plans and programs accord-
ingly, allows policy makers to maintain a high quality
of life in their community while reducing the demand
for energy and total energy consumption.
Where Development Occurs
Development that is infill or close to existing devel-
opment and infrastructure can help reduce energy
consumption and GHG emissions and more effectively
use resources. By encouraging development in these
types of locations, local governments can support
existing communities with smaller environmental foot-
prints, create distinctive and attractive places, and help
preserve open space.
BALDWIN PARK: INFILL AND BASE REUSE
Baldwin Park in Orlando, Florida, is a new neighborhood
built on the site of a former military base. Orlando's Base
Reuse Commission organized to plan the property's future,
engaging citizens in hundreds of meetings over two years
to help devise and refine a plan to redevelop the base. At
visioning workshops, citizens described what they wanted:
a variety of housing types, a vibrant main street, public
access to lakes, and linkages with existing neighborhoods.
Mixed in with its variety of housing types are offices, a
supermarket, restaurants, doctors' offices, schools, adult
education, parks, and many other stores and services.
The community also created 16 extra acres of parkland
using an underground stormwater management system.
Audubon of Florida helped plan parks and wetlands
restoration projects, recreating ecosystems that were
lost years ago. Since it is an infill redevelopment project,
Baldwin Park can take advantage of existing power plants
and water and wastewater treatment facilities. At the same
time, the city will gain an additional $30 million in annual
property tax revenues. This project was a winner of the
National Award in Smart Growth Achievement.
Source: Baldwin Park, 2008; U.S. EPA, 2005.
Support existing communities. When local govern-
ments direct development toward existing commu-
nities already served by infrastructure, they can
take advantage of the resources offered by existing
neighborhoods while conserving open space and irre-
placeable natural resources on the urban fringe. This
type of development can benefit from a stronger tax
base; closer proximity to a range of jobs and services;
increased efficiency associated with using already
developed land, reusing/repurposing existing build-
ings, and using existing infrastructure; and reduced
development pressure on the edge. Several economic
incentives and tax policy options are available to direct
business development toward existing communities,
and more information is provided in both Section 5,
Foundations for Program Development, and Section 7,
Investment and Funding Opportunities.
' Foster distinctive and attractive communities with a
strong sense of place. Local governments can encour-
age development that reflects the culture and heritage
of the neighborhood, town, and region to create a
distinctive sense of place. This approach encourages
the preservation of existing buildings and construction
of new buildings that enhance the architectural beauty
and distinctiveness of the community. Well-designed,
well-located buildings are assets to a community over
time, not only because of the services provided within,
but because of the unique contribution they make to
the look and feel of a city.
Preserving older buildings saves energy on demolition
and new construction, and allows for retrofitting the
buildings with more energy-efficient measures. Local
governments can establish revolving loan funds desig-
nated for historic preservation and educate the public
about historically significant buildings and areas. They
can also develop design guidelines to encourage appro-
priate building form and regional architecture.
1 Preserve open space. Preservation of open space can
help reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions,
support local economies, preserve critical environ-
mental areas, improve quality of life, and guide new
growth into existing communities. Open spaces that
include trees and vegetation help save energy by reduc-
ing the urban heat island effect (for more information
on urban heat islands, see EPA's Urban Heat Island
Reduction guide in the Local Government Climate and
Energy Strategy Series). Economic benefits include
increased local property values, greater tourism
and recreation revenue, support for agriculture and
working lands, and limiting local tax increases (due
to savings from reducing the construction of new
infrastructure).
3. PLANNING AND DESIGN APPROACHES
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Management of the quality and supply of open space
also ensures that prime farm and ranch lands are
available, prevents flood damage, and provides a less
expensive and natural alternative for providing clean
drinking water. Preservation of open space benefits
the environment by combating air pollution, reducing
erosion from wind and water, and moderating temper-
atures. Open space also protects surface and ground
water resources by filtering trash, debris, and chemical
pollutants before they enter a water system.
SMART GROWTH AND BROWNFIELDS
Brownfields are properties that may contain or be
exposed to possible hazardous substances, pollutants, or
contaminants. Local governments can achieve multiple
benefits by encouraging smart growth practices when
redeveloping cleaned-up brownfields. These benefits
include a stronger tax base, closer proximity of jobs and
services, taxpayer savings, reduced pressure to build on
undeveloped (often called "greenfield") sites, and the
preservation of farmland and open space.
Brownfield and greenfield sites compete with each other
for new development activity. Many existing government
policies make it easier for developers to build on the
greenfield parcels rather than brownfields. Municipalities
can work with regional and state governments to find
ways to support planning initiatives that direct growth to
already developed brownfield areas.
Financial incentives and smart growth approaches, such
as allowing reduced parking or encouraging mixed-use
and higher density development, can make a developer
more willing to redevelop brownfields. Numerous
federal, state, and local government programs have
provided funds to support brownfields assessment
and cleanup, such as EPA's Brownfields Assessment,
Revolving Loan Fund, and Cleanup Grants. These
grants may be used to address sites contaminated by
petroleum and hazardous substances, pollutants, or
other contaminants (including hazardous substances co-
mingled with petroleum).
For more information on mechanisms for brownfield
development, see Section 7, Investment and Funding
Opportunities.
Local governments can use land trusts and financing
techniques to promote land conservation and develop
new permitting approaches for development to make
it easier to develop in desired locations. Some commu-
nities develop open space plans to support compact
development, achieve other land use goals, and protect
crucial resources.
How Development Occurs
The design of a community also influences its energy
use and environmental impact. Development that is
compact, mixes uses, provides a range of housing and
transportation options, and creates walkable neighbor-
hoods can help reduce the energy use, GHG emissions,
and the environmental footprints its of buildings,
infrastructure, and transportation, while meeting the
needs of residents with a range of incomes.
INTEGRATING MULTIPLE SMART GROWTH
APPROACHES: STAPLETON IN DENVER, COLORADO
In Denver, Colorado, the government and local residents
integrated multiple smart growth approaches into a plan
for redeveloping the Stapleton airport, which is also a
brownfield. When it was announced that the airport
would close, citizens in the adjacent neighborhoods,
under the name "Stapleton Tomorrow," collaborated on
a plan for redevelopment and, over a two-year period,
gathered ideas from all over the city. The mayor appointed
a citizens advisory group to produce the redevelopment
plan, which became the official blueprint for the new
Stapleton neighborhood. The plan incorporates a strong
sustainability component that promotes walking, biking,
and transit use; preserves open space; requires home
builders to meet ENERGY STAR or Colorado Built Green
standards; and promotes green building for commercial
structures. By the time it is completed in 2020, Stapleton
will have more than 30,000 people living in 12,000 homes
(apartments, duplexes, and single-family homes), 13
million square feet of office and retail space, six schools,
and more than 1,000 acres of open space.
Source: Forest City Stapleton, 2004; Stapleton, 2006; Leccese,
2005.
1 Reduce required infrastructure through compact
building design. Compact building design makes
more efficient use of land and resources. By construct-
ing and siting buildings that use space more efficiently,
local governments can design communities that reduce
the environmental footprint of new construction and
preserve open space. This approach encourages more
energy-efficient buildings and reduced materials and
construction efforts. Similar results can be achieved
by redeveloping and infilling existing neighborhoods,
including renovating all types of infrastructure such
as buildings and transit facilities. By taking advantage
of existing infrastructure, as well as reducing energy
and materials use associated with new construction,
communities can maximize the efficiency and sustain-
ability of smart growth strategies.
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
3. PLANNING AND DESIGN APPROACHES
-------
More compact communities require shorter and fewer
roads, sewer, water, and other utility lines; they can
use emergency services more efficiently; and they can
build schools, libraries, parks, and other civic facili-
ties that serve a larger population on less land. More
compact, mixed-use development should reduce some
infrastructure costs, increase the feasibility and cost-
effectiveness of public transit, and expand housing
choices where compact developments are undersup-
plied. Other benefits include less conversion of agri-
cultural and other environmentally fragile areas, and
greater opportunities for physical activity by facilitating
the use of non-motorized modes of travel, such as
walking and bicycling. On the cost side, the savings in
highway infrastructure will be offset, at least in part, by
increased expenditures for public transit, particularly
rail transit, to support high-density development.
THE LEED FOR NEIGHBORHOOD DEVELOPMENT
RATING SYSTEM
The LEED for Neighborhood Development (LEED-ND)
Rating System integrates the principles of smart growth,
new urbanism, and green building into a rating system
for neighborhood design. The rating system places
emphasis on the design and construction elements
that create environmentally, economically, and socially
sustainable neighborhoods. The system is designed to
achieve the following benefits:
• Promote sustainable communities;
• Encourage healthy living; and
• Increase transportation choices to decrease
automobile dependence.
Source: USGBC, 2008.
Examples of how governments can encourage compact
building include adopting zoning ordinances to
remove minimum lot and home sizes and to eliminate
or minimize parking requirements, and using best
management practices for energy efficiency in build-
ings. Investments in public transportation networks
can complement compact design strategies and can
yield significant savings in off-site road construction
and parking facilities on a regional scale.
In a regional planning effort to envision
future growth patterns, the Sacramento,
California, region compared various growth
scenarios with the "business as usual" base case.
The preferred growth scenario, which directed
some development to infill and promoted mixed-
use, walkable, compact development, is estimated
to save $13.8 billion in infrastructure and land
costs by 2050 compared with the base case
(SACOG, 2005).
1 Encourage a mix of uses. Neighborhood design that
encourages a mix of uses, such as residences, commer-
cial spaces, recreational facilities, and schools, can
save energy and reduce transportation costs by putting
destinations nearby so that people can walk, bike,
take transit, or drive shorter distances. A mixed-use
approach includes mixed-use buildings (e.g., stores on
the ground floor and apartments or condominiums
above), parking that can be shared among facilities
that need parking at different times of the day (e.g., a
parking structure that is used by employees from an
office building during the day and then patrons of a
restaurant next door during the evening), and neigh-
borhoods where people have transportation options
(e.g., walking, biking, or using transit) to travel from
their homes to work, shopping, and recreation.
1 Create a range of housing opportunities and choices.
Another important element of mixed-use develop-
ment is having safe, decent, and affordable housing
for people of all income levels, and ensuring a range
of single-family and multi-family housing types are
available to provide housing choices for families and
individuals at different stages of life. Even in built-out
neighborhoods, communities can add new housing
options by allowing attached housing or accessory
units without changing the landscape or developing
open spaces. By sharing walls, multi-family homes
and condominiums reduce heating and cooling
needs. According to the Department of Housing and
Urban Development (HUD), energy costs consume
19 percent of total annual income for low-income
residents (compared with a national average of only
4 percent). Reducing energy and transportation costs
can ensure that housing remains affordable for these
individuals (U.S. HUD, 2007). For more information
on improving the energy performance of affordable
housing, see EPAs Energy Efficiency in Affordable
Housing guide in the Local Government Climate and
Energy Strategy Series.
3. PLANNING AND DESIGN APPROACHES
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Local governments can encourage the mixing of land
uses and the provision of housing choices by revising
their zoning codes. They can achieve these goals by
promoting energy efficient mixed-use development,
and by requiring larger developments to include a vari-
ety of housing types and price ranges.
• Provide a variety of transportation choices. Many
communities use bike and pedestrian master plans,
integrated into their transportation master plans, to
create a vision for how all modes of transportation can
work safely together and to lay out plans to achieve that
vision. Local governments can provide a wide range
of transportation options to give people more choices
in how they get around, reduce fuel consumption,
and save money. Communities are coordinating land
use and transportation; increasing the availability and
reliability of transit service; creating redundancy (the
availability of multiple possible routes for any given
trip, which minimizes congestion), resiliency, and
connectivity within their road networks; and ensuring
connectivity between pedestrian, bike, transit, and road
facilities. They are coupling a multi-modal approach to
transportation with supportive development patterns,
to create a variety of transportation options that can
yield energy savings and GHG emissions reductions
by reducing VMT and the demand for fuel. For more
information on transportation options, see EPA's Trans-
portation Control Measures guide in the Local Govern-
ment Climate and Energy Strategy Series.
' Require a walkable, connected street network. In
a walkable neighborhood, the goods (e.g., housing,
offices, and retail stores) and services (e.g., transporta-
tion, schools, libraries) that people need on a regular
basis are located so that they are within easy and safe
walking distance. Walkable neighborhoods encourage
higher pedestrian activity, thus expanding transporta-
tion options and creating a streetscape that better
serves a wide range of users. An increase in the number
of pedestrians results in fewer vehicle miles traveled,
less fuel consumption, and lower GHG emissions and
air pollution. A streetscape that encourages walking
and biking, especially in proximity to a transit facility,
provides an economic boost to the local economy since
area retailers see increased foot traffic near their stores.
To foster walkability, it is important to mix land uses
and build compactly, and ensure safe and inviting
streets. Specific measures might include bike lanes and
secure bike parking; sidewalks, crosswalks, and street
furniture; sheltered transit stops with homes, stores,
and workplaces located nearby; and maps that make it
easy to find biking, walking, and transit routes to get to
various destinations.
4. KEY PARTICIPANTS
A broad range of public and private groups and indi-
viduals can be key participants in planning and imple-
menting smart growth activities, including:
1 Local government officials and staff. Local elected
officials and government staff can provide leadership
and action on smart growth activities. Elected officials,
planning board members, and staff in the planning,
public works, transportation, water and sewer, parks,
housing, and other departments are typically involved
in making decisions about development. Some
communities involve their public health departments
and school boards as well.
For example, in Portland, Maine, develop-
ment proposals go through a review by a
team that includes representatives from the
departments handling planning, fire, public works,
parks and recreation, economic development, and
traffic, as well as the city's corporation counsel
(City of Portland, 2008).
1 Regional planning agencies. Regional planning orga-
nizations, such as metropolitan planning organizations
(MPOs) and councils of governments (COGs), typi-
cally serve more of a coordinating function, developing
long-term regional transportation, housing, or envi-
ronmental plans. MPOs have a federal statutory role
in transportation planning, whereas COGs and other
regional planning agencies do not. Many COGs host
MPOs, but also cover more rural outlying counties,
and frequently deal with rural planning issues.
Since regional organizations are typically "owned" and
directed by their member localities (with local elected
officials serving as the board), regional organizations
can play a very effective role by exploring impacts and
benefits of different development patterns. By conduct-
ing and integrating transportation and land use
scenario planning and visioning, and by educating the
public and policy makers about smart growth policies,
regional planning organizations can often develop a
regional consensus that leads to locally adopted plans,
policies, and projects. It can also be more effective to
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
4. KEY PARTICIPANTS
-------
develop new codes and guidelines at the regional scale,
which then can be customized and enacted by each
jurisdiction.
1 Utilities. Utilities have a significant interest in growth
and development because of the effect planning has
on their costs. Development that is spread out and
far away from central water-treatment or electricity-
generating facilities costs more to serve than compact,
close-in development. Utilities are not always able to
charge the customer the actual cost of service to these
distant locations.
Local governments have different relationships with
utilities depending on state and local regulations. In
some areas, the local government might control a util-
ity [e.g., the water utility in Albuquerque, New Mexico,
is governed by a board of local officials (Albuquerque,
2008)] and will thus have more power to implement
policies that promote efficient use of the utility infra-
structure, such as emphasizing maintenance of existing
lines rather than extending new service, or pricing
service and hook-ups based on actual costs of delivery.
In communities that obtain their utility services from a
private company or a state, regional, or federal author-
ity, the local government has less direct influence on
utilities' policies.
In some cases, the utility company has taken the lead
on smart growth efforts as it realizes that sprawling
development costs more and reduces available funds
that could be used to maintain existing infrastructure.
A Rhode Island utility helped start Grow
Smart Rhode Island, a nonprofit that works
with municipalities to promote more effi-
cient development. The utility realized that its gas
subsidiary was spending $18 million a year on
expanding its infrastructure to outlying areas,
while its customer base was growing by only 1
percent a year (Wasserman, 2000). Grow Smart
Rhode Island is now a statewide public interest
group that represents a broad coalition of partners
working to improve development decision-making
and researching policies that lead to better-
managed growth.
Real estate/development community. Real estate and
development communities understand the market
benefits of building more energy-, resource-, and
location-efficient communities.3 As more communities,
businesses, and residents demand more efficient homes
and offices, and as municipal governments make smart
growth development easier, the development commu-
nity will respond by increasing the supply of these
buildings and neighborhoods.
In Boca Raton, Florida, a developer and the
city formed a public-private partnership to
demolish a failing mall and redevelop it into
Mizner Park, a mixed-use project of stores, enter-
tainment facilities, housing, and office space. The
project encouraged residents to travel downtown
and spurred new development in the area (City of
Boca Raton, Undated). The city entered into a
leaseback agreement with the developer and guar-
anteed a bond issue supported by tax increment
financing (Thome, 2002).
Business community. The local business community
has a stake in ensuring that attractive, energy-efficient,
transit-accessible neighborhoods are available within
a reasonable commuting distance for their workers.
Research suggests that walkable, vibrant communities
attract and retain skilled workers for area businesses
(Cortright, 2007; Florida, 2004).
In Traverse City, Michigan, the local cham-
ber of commerce realized that development
pressures threatened the natural beauty and
quality of life that drew people to the area. Work-
ing with local officials, the chamber developed
"New Designs for Growth" to promote smart
growth development practices. The project
produced a development guidebook and the
DevelopMentor program, which offers training
resources for officials who make decisions on land
use issues (Traverse City Area Chamber of
Commerce, Undated).
3 EPA commissioned a set of papers from leading real estate experts to
outline the market benefits of smart growth. These papers are available at
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/sg^>i
-------
Public transportation operators. Since providing a
variety of transportation choices is essential to smart
growth development, public transportation operators
can play an important role in helping to implement
smart growth strategies. Transportation operators can
get directly involved in development around transit
stations, both in terms of investing in real estate proj-
ects near transit stations and improving accessibility
to transit (for example, by supporting community bike
paths that lead to transit stations).
Valley Metro, a light rail system serving the
area of Greater Phoenix, Arizona, takes an
active role in promoting high-quality, more
intensive development on and near properties
adjacent to transit stations. By doing so, the transit
operator can increase ridership and support long-
term system capacity while creating investment
opportunities for the private sector and stimulat-
ing additional development (Valley Metro, 2010).
General public and interest/citizens groups. Inter-
est groups and citizens groups have a strong stake in
development decisions and can slow down or even stop
development if they are not included in the process.
It is important to involve these groups early and often
with opportunities to offer ideas and concerns and to
provide feedback on development and smart growth
proposals. Local governments can keep the entire
community informed using a variety of outreach
mechanisms, including local news media, Web sites,
government newsletters, and other means.
Smart Growth Vermont works with local
officials, developers, non-profit organiza-
tions, political leaders, and businesses to
develop land use and development policies that
enhance communities. The group coordinates the
Vermont Smart Growth Collaborative, a group of
10 organizations working to shape and implement
smart growth policies and practices. The collab-
orative also provides Housing Endorsement for
projects that meet established smart growth crite-
ria (Smart Growth Vermont, Undated).
5. FOUNDATIONS FOR
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
As described in Section 3, Planning and Design
Approaches to Smart Growth, it is crucial for local
governments to include a wide range of approaches
in their smart growth programs. When implement-
ing these approaches, local governments can choose
from many different mechanisms to achieve their goal.
Implementation mechanisms to promote smart growth
in communities include:
1 Develop a vision for the region and the community
of an energy-efficient, smart future. Engaging the
entire community in creating a vision for the future
helps leaders understand what residents want; educate
the community about development patterns that use
less energy and emit less GHGs; and determine how
the community can achieve its smart growth goals. A
community leader, a local government staff person,
an elected official, or a planning commissioner who
believes the community needs a cohesive vision for the
future typically initiates the visioning process. Often
the process is prompted by an outside action that
could drastically change a community's direction, such
as closing or expanding a military base; the need to
reduce air pollution in order to comply with air quality
standards under the Clean Air Act; or projections of
rapid growth that must be accommodated.
After the municipal staff and elected officials agree that
the region needs a visioning process, a project timeline
and budget is developed. Typically, the community
issues a request for proposals for a consultant to
conduct the process. Then a consultant is selected, and
when the process is complete, the appropriate commis-
sions and councils review the work and decide whether
to accept it as a formal element of how the community
functions. Once the community has a vision, it can
translate that vision into its comprehensive plan, which
can help guide development decisions.
Many regional government organizations, such as
MPOs and councils of governments, conduct regional
visioning and related scenario planning.
Envision Utah was a visioning exercise
conducted in the Greater Wasatch area
around Salt Lake City. Concerned by growth
estimates that predicted 1 million new residents in
the area by 2020, local leaders engaged residents to
determine how the region could grow. The process
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
5. FOUNDATIONS
11
-------
lasted almost three years and included research
about commonly held values, extensive public
meetings and workshops, and surveys. Residents
chose a development scenario that conserved land,
provided more housing and transportation choic-
es, and invested public funds wisely (Envision
Utah, 2008).
SMART GROWTH IMPLEMENTATION TOOLKIT
The Smart Growth Leadership Institute, using an EPA
grant, created a toolkit based on its experience helping
communities determine why they were not achieving the
type of development they wanted. The toolkit includes:
• A Quick Diagnostic to help the community
determine which tool will be most helpful.
• A Policy Audit to assess whether existing land
use and development policies align with the
community's aspirations for its future.
• A Code and Zoning Audit to check if local zoning
codes and regulations implement the vision for
smarter growth.
• An Audit Summary to summarize the findings from
the policy and zoning audits.
• A Project Scorecard to evaluate how a proposed
development project adheres to the community's
vision for smarter growth.
• An Incentives Matrix to identify and catalog
available incentives to encourage specific smart
growth projects.
• A Strategy Builder to identify the weaknesses,
opportunities, and challenges in the community, and
to help find the most lasting change.
The toolkit is available athttp://www.sgli.org/toolkit/
index.htm.
Source: Smart Growth Leadership Institute, 2008.
It is important to ensure that existing regulations align
with the community vision. One way to determine
if rules need to be changed is to conduct an audit
of existing development regulations. Several do-it-
yourself audits and scorecards are available online.4
The Smart Growth Leadership Institute created a Smart
Growth Implementation Toolkit to help local govern-
ments assess their development regulations (Smart
Growth Leadership Institute, 2008) (see text box to the
left, Smart Growth Implementation Toolkit). EPA has
also developed tools to help communities revise their
4 See http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/scorecards/for some sample audit
tools and scorecards.
development ordinances to meet their vision, including
Essential Smart Growth Fixes for Urban and Suburban
Zoning Codes, which offers guidance on everything
from minor tweaks to comprehensive overhauls of
zoning and other regulations,5 and The Water Quality
Scorecard, which helps communities incorporate green
infrastructure practices in their codes and ordinances.6
Both tools are designed to work for urban, suburban,
and rural areas.
Engage the local planning process. Many local
governments have used their ongoing, comprehensive
land use, smart growth, and/or transportation planning
processes to establish goals and/or new regulations
to encourage compact development and enhanced,
efficient community design. As part of the Partnership
for Sustainable Communities, described in Section 7,
Investment and Funding Opportunities, HUD's Sustain-
able Communities Planning Grant Program will offer
$100 million in competitive challenge grants to support
regional planning efforts that integrate housing, land
use, economic and workforce development, transporta-
tion, and infrastructure investments in a manner that
empowers jurisdictions to consider the interdependent
challenges of economic competitiveness and revitaliza-
tion; social equity, inclusion, and access to opportunity;
energy use and climate change; as well as public health
and environmental impacts.
Envision Lancaster County (Pennsylvania) is
a comprehensive, multi-staged countywide
plan to direct new development to existing
towns to protect the farmland, rural areas, and
natural landscapes that define the county's rural
character. Throughout the process of developing
the plan, the Lancaster County Planning Commis-
sion actively engaged the public and local govern-
ments. The county's good working relationship
with municipalities encouraged them to buy into
the plan's principles. To ensure public input, the
commission conducted educational workshops
and public forums, and developed a citizens' task
force. The county also reached out to Lancaster's
Amish and Plain Sect communities through
targeted publications and meetings with religious
leaders. The commission worked with municipali-
ties to establish 47 Urban Growth Areas and
5 Available at http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/essential fixes.htm. A
version specifically for rural communities is under development and will be
available at the same URL.
6 Available at http://www.epa.gov/dced/water scorecard.htm.
12
5. FOUNDATIONS
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Village Growth Areas. In the City of Lancaster, 62
projects have been completed, are under develop-
ment, or are planned for development in Growth
Areas. As part of the broader Green Infrastructure
plan for this initiative, the commission has
protected almost 82,000 acres of farmland and
preserved nearly 6,000 acres of parks and natural
lands throughout the county. By doing so, the plan
preserves open space, protects water resources,
and provides for greater housing and transporta-
tion choices. Envision Lancaster County received
EPA's 2009 National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement (U.S. EPA, 2009c).
An award winner in 2004 for Smart Growth
Achievement, the San Juan Pueblo in New
Mexico initiated a community planning
process in 2000. The resulting Master Land Use
Plan provides a long-term growth strategy for the
pueblo. This strategy coordinates existing infra-
structure with housing and commercial develop-
ment, preserves walkable plazas, encourages retail
and commercial uses in the main street area, and
incorporates design guidelines to preserve the
architectural heritage of the pueblo (U.S. EPA,
2004).
Change development rules to make it easier to
implement smart growth projects. Developers who
want to build smart growth projects can face barriers,
including the need to coordinate with multiple sellers
to assemble a large parcel of land for development,
work with neighbors who oppose new development,
clean up environmental contamination, or improve
existing infrastructure (Leinberger, 2008). In many
communities, zoning and other land use regulations
can make it illegal to build smart growth projects.
If a developer wants to build using a smart growth
approach, he or she must obtain waivers or other
exceptions, which can be time-consuming and difficult.
Revising land use rules to make smart growth "by
right"—meaning it does not need special approvals
from the planning commission or similar entity—
clears the way for developers to build smart growth
development. The process for changing development
rules varies depending on state and local regulations
and procedures.
Specific mechanisms for changing development rules
often work in the same way for municipalities with a
mayor or a city or county executive, manager, or coun-
cil. All of these entities can initiate development rule
reviews and changes. Other stakeholders that can initi-
ate these reviews include lawyers representing govern-
ment, planning commission members, or government
staff, such as a planning director. Even local citizens
or a committee, such as a historic preservation review
committee, can propose a rule change or visioning
process.
Examples of zoning changes that municipalities have
used to encourage and implement more compact and
energy-efficient growth include:
> Density bonuses. The community can allow a
developer to build more densely than the zoning
code states in exchange for providing an additional
amenity. This allows denser development, which
supports retail and transit, and often delivers addi-
tional benefits from development.
One of the many cities that use density
bonuses is Bellevue, Washington. As part of
an effort to make the downtown more
appealing to pedestrians, the city developed a
formula that calculates how much more develop-
ers can build in exchange for providing retail
space, public places, plazas, and similar amenities
(Bach, 2007; City of Bellevue, 2006). Because of
this policy and other efforts to bring development
to its downtown, Bellevue has 5,000 residents now
living downtown, with another 9,000 expected by
2020, compared with very few residents 10 years
ago (City of Bellevue, 2007; Pryne, 2008).
Density bonuses are often used to encourage develop-
ers to build affordable housing in both suburban and
urban areas.
y\ In Montgomery County, Maryland, the
1Q] f Moderately Priced Dwelling Unit program
I—I requires developments of more than 20 units
to reserve 12.5 to 15 percent of those units for
moderate-income residents. As an incentive, the
county grants a density bonus that allows the
developer to build up to 22 percent more units
than would otherwise be allowed. Because locali-
ties bear little of the financial cost of this program,
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
5. FOUNDATIONS
13
-------
it is an alternative or supplement to traditional
housing subsidy programs. The county notes that
the program has "not been shown to have a detri-
mental effect on the value of the market priced
housing and the program has never been legally
challenged by either developers or citizens"
(Montgomery County, 2005).
> Parking regulations. Local governments can
evaluate parking space requirements to ensure
they match both use and need, and develop city
ordinances for meeting smart growth parking
space requirements. Many municipalities establish
parking standards that set a minimum number
of parking spaces for a development project. It is
important to base these parking space standards on
the specific conditions or needs of the immediate
neighborhood and to avoid developing excessive
parking.
For example, a mixed-use, compact development that
has multiple transit options does not require as many
parking spaces as a lower-density area where residents
rely on their private vehicles for transportation. "Over-
parking" can hinder development or redevelopment.
Building parking spaces is expensive and takes up
land that could be more profitably used for additional
homes, offices, retail, or open space. Large parking lots
in areas that do not need them create more impervious
surfaces that produce runoff into water supplies.
EFFECTS OF TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT ON
PARKING
In an analysis of more than 17 Transit-oriented
Development (TOD) projects nationwide, the Transit
Cooperative Research Program found that TOD housing
generates an average of 44 percent fewer weekday
vehicle trips than the number estimated by the Institute
for Transportation Engineers (ITE) manual for a typical
housing development
Many communities use the ITE guidelines to determine
minimum parking requirements, even for TOD projects.
This practice can cause an oversupply of parking in TOD
areas and increases development costs unnecessarily,
costs that may be passed on by developers to consumers
as higher housing costs.
Source: TCRP, 2008.
Some municipalities that want to encourage walking,
biking, and transit use have found that providing
free parking subsidizes drivers. In some cases, these
municipalities are revising their regulations to allow
less parking if the project is in a walkable area or near
transit, or if it can share parking with other nearby
uses, while other municipalities are setting maximum
parking standards instead of minimums.
Portland, Oregon, has no minimum parking
requirements in its downtown—if a devel-
oper finds that its parking needs can be met
by a nearby garage, it is not required to provide
additional parking spaces. In most neighborhoods,
the city sets maximum parking standards. Devel-
opments that choose not to build the maximum
allowed parking can sell the rights to that parking
to another entity, which gives them a financial
incentive to provide only the parking their tenants
actually need. The city allows developments to
meet their parking needs through shared parking
with nearby uses. For example, an apartment
building shares parking with an adjacent high
school; the school parking lot is most in demand
during the day, when apartment residents are at
work, but it would otherwise be empty at night
and on weekends, when the apartment residents
need it. By sharing parking, the developers of the
apartment building were able to save about $1
million in construction costs (U.S. EPA, 2006a).
Street design and streetscape standards. To
encourage walking, biking, and taking transit,
some communities are setting street design stan-
dards for narrower streets with sidewalks, trees,
crosswalks, medians, and other amenities that
make it safer and easier to walk or bike.
For example, the town of Addison, Texas
wanted to encourage more people to walk
around its mixed-use, transit-accessible town
center, Addison Circle. The main street was modi-
fied to be more pedestrian friendly, with parallel
parking, planters, street trees, and few driveways
to cross. At intersections, curbs are extended to
shorten the distance pedestrians have to cross. The
street originally had two 15-foot travel lanes in
each direction, which were changed to two 10.5-
foot lanes and an 8-foot parking lane, so no traffic
capacity was lost. The town has additional design
14
5. FOUNDATIONS
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
standards for the area to make it engaging and
comfortable for pedestrians, including benches,
lighting, minimum setbacks from the sidewalk,
landscaping, and other amenities (ITE, 2006).
Rehabilitation codes. Making it easier for devel-
opers to rehabilitate and reuse existing buildings
saves energy, and in the case of historic buildings,
also preserves a community's heritage and sense
of place. Rehabilitation codes, also known as
"smart codes," take into account that renovation
of existing buildings—and particularly of historic
buildings—requires more flexibility in meeting
code requirements than new structures. The
authority for these codes is usually vested in the
state, but in states with home rule, municipalities
can adopt a rehabilitation subcode. More informa-
tion on smart codes can be found in the HUD
report, Smart Codes in Your Community: A Guide
to Building Rehabilitation Codes, available at http://
www.huduser.org/portal/publications/destech/
smartcodes.html.
In 2001, Wichita, Kansas, convened a
committee of architects, engineers, preserva-
tionists, developers, realtors, and business
owners to develop incentives for reusing existing
buildings in the city. A rehabilitation subcode was
one of the committee's recommendations. The city
hired a consultant to create the code, adopted it,
and organized trainings and seminars to educate
the local development community (Pianca, 2002).
Combined with design guidelines and public-
private partnerships, the city restored and revital-
ized its Old Town and other historic neighbor-
hoods, encouraging more people to visit, new resi-
dents to move in, and generating more than $40
million in increased property values in Old Town
alone (U.S. EPA, 2006b; City of Wichita, 2008).
NEW JERSEY-THE FIRST REHABILITATION CODE
New Jersey instituted the first rehabilitation code because
the state wanted to encourage development in its cities,
increase housing options, and promote reusing buildings
to conserve energy and natural resources. However,
existing regulatory barriers and the additional costs
involved in renovating existing buildings discouraged
developers and encouraged building on greenfields
instead. Instead of treating existing buildings like new
structures, the new code described requirements for
specific types of projects, such as renovations or additions,
and ensured that rehabilitated buildings would be as
safe as new ones, although they might meet the safety
standards in a different way.
In 1998, the year after New Jersey adopted its
rehabilitation subcode, spending on rehabilitation projects
in its five largest cities grew by 60%. By comparison, in
1997, rehabilitation spending in those cities grew by less
than 2%. HUD used New Jersey's rehabilitation code as
the basis for its model code, the Nationally Applicable
Recommended Rehabilitation Provisions, and in turn,
the International Codes Council used HUD's code for its
model rehabilitation code. Several other states have since
adopted the code.
Sources: Connolly, Undated; Van Cieson, 2005.
> Transit districts. Some communities designate
areas around transit stations for denser, mixed-use
development. Zoning codes can require a transit
district overlay or similar mechanism to make it
easier for developers to build to the community's
vision of transit-oriented development (TOD). A
California study of the potential benefits of TOD
found that if a typical household moved from a
suburban area with no transit access to a TOD,
it could consume, on average, 250 to 380 fewer
gallons of gasoline annually (CA DOT, 2002). The
annual Emerging Trends in Real Estate report from
the Urban Land Institute and PricewaterhouseC-
oopers notes TODs as strong investments. The
2009 report remarked that "Increasingly, people
want to drive less and seek subway, commuter
railroad, or light-rail alternatives. Developers can't
miss securing project sites near rail stops and
train stations" (ULI and PricewaterhouseCoopers,
2009).
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
5. FOUNDATIONS
15
-------
TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT AND
OLDER ADULTS
Housing located within walking distance of reliable, safe
public transit and other amenities provides many benefits
for older adults, allowing them to retain independence
as they age. TOD can help fill this need, although
communities may need to ensure that senior housing
remains affordable as land and property values increase
in transit-accessible neighborhoods due to market
demand.
To ensure the availability of affordable housing near
transit for low-income older people, a report by
the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)
Public Policy Institute recommends that communities
preserve existing affordable housing; integrate housing,
transportation, and land use planning more effectively;
and improve and invest in public transportation.
Source: AARP Public Policy Institute, 2009.
The Center for Transit-Oriented Development studied
the demand for housing near transit and found that
almost 15 million households will want homes within
half a mile of transit by 2025—more than double the
number that live in those areas now, and about a quar-
ter of all households in the United States. This demand
offers energy-saving opportunities as well; a little over
half the people who currently live in transit areas
commute by private vehicle, compared with more than
80 percent for the regions as a whole (CTOD, 2004).
Some regions have let market forces start TOD
around transit stations and have only later modified
their development rules to make it easier to build the
compact, walkable development that TOD requires.
Other cities planned for TOD and revised their regula-
tions to support it.
Jersey City, New Jersey, incorporated the
New Jersey Transit light rail line into its
master plan before the rail line had even
been built. When the rail line was built, and devel-
opers, who wanted access to New York City with-
out paying Manhattan real estate prices, became
interested in land around the stations, the city had
a process already worked out to help the develop-
ers acquire land and get the necessary approvals
quickly. As a result, development in Jersey City is
well ahead of other areas in the county, and its
population increased from 1980-2004 while other
New Jersey cities declined (Fitzsimmons and
Birch, 2003).
Subdivision regulations. These rules govern how
land is subdivided into lots and may include review
and approval of plans, design guidelines, street
design, and other standards. They also have to
conform to the community's comprehensive plan.
Subdivision regulations account for a significant
share of the costs of producing new housing,
and in many cases impose costs beyond those
necessary to achieve health and safety benefits
for the community. Excessive lot size regulations
account for the largest percentage of this additional
cost, with excessive floor area and lot width also
contributing notable amounts (NAHB Research
Center, 2007).
In Nashville, Tennessee, the city found that
its residents could not get the type of devel-
opment they wanted in rural and urban areas
because the city's subdivision regulations treated
every area, regardless of its surrounding context,
the same way—as suburban development with
wide streets and low density. The city could get
around these requirements with overlay zones and
planned unit developments, but these require the
city planning and public works departments to
decide case-by-case on whether to use these
options (Smart Growth Leadership Institute,
2004). To make the process more predictable,
Nashville decided to rewrite its subdivision regula-
tions to fit a variety of contexts—for example,
promoting more compact, walkable conditions in
urban neighborhoods while preserving more open
space in rural areas (Nashville, 2005).
Design guidelines. To maintain a consistent visual
character, communities can institute design stan-
dards that govern the appearance of buildings and
streets. Often these guidelines are based on the
cultural or historic character of the neighborhood,
but they also support public safety and maintain
aesthetic standards.
16
5. FOUNDATIONS
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Austin, Texas, bases its downtown design
guidelines on shared community values, such
as preserving its history and character;
building sustainably; maintaining diversity and
economic vitality; and making streets safe,
comfortable, and appealing. The guidelines
include images of appropriate development and
describe goals, such as recycling existing building
stock or providing lighting along pedestrian paths,
without being restrictive about specific methods to
achieve those goals (City of Austin, 2000).
Change the development approval process to give
priority to smart growth projects. Private developers
who want to build smart growth development can be
rewarded with an easier approval process. If a develop-
ment proposal conforms to the community's vision
and meets or exceeds its goals in areas such as density,
affordable housing, amenities for pedestrians and bicy-
clists, or public transportation facilities, the developer
could get expedited proposal review.
Some communities, such as Montgomery
County, Maryland, have speeded develop-
ment reviews by creating a team from all the
city departments to review proposals. The team
works with the developer before the proposal is
even submitted, and proposals under this program
are given priority for review. Cities can apply this
program to proposals in areas where they want
revitalization, or to proposals that meet certain
smart growth criteria (U.S. EPA, 2006c).
Prioritize development and spending to encourage
infill and transit access. Funding is a lever for locating
the type of development a community wants where
it wants it. By gathering and prioritizing funding,
including federal and state funds for infrastructure,
municipalities can help ensure financial assistance for
their smart growth projects. Some communities use
a scorecard to rank projects for funding.7 A scorecard
also gives developers predictability by allowing them to
see what attributes their projects must include to score
well. Criteria might include mixing uses; proximity to a
transit station; safe and pleasant sidewalks; efficient use
of land; and/or amenities for the community, such as
public space, libraries, schools, or recreational facilities.
7 See http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/scorecards/for examples of
scorecards.
The city of Mobile, Alabama, created a
matrix for proposed developments that
developers and city staff can use to assess
their projects. The matrix gives the development
proposal a score based on several factors, includ-
ing its location relative to existing communities,
mix of uses, street design, accessibility to various
transportation modes, and environmental factors.
The development can be eligible for a range of
incentives, based on its score. For example, a
development that scores 40-55 percent of the total
possible score can get a 50 percent reduction of
permit and application fees, and one that scores
above 55 percent has those fees waived entirely
(City of Mobile, 2008).
6. STRATEGIES FOR
EFFECTIVE PROGRAM
IMPLEMENTATION
Local governments can use a number of strategies to
reduce potential barriers to smart growth and ensure
that the desired development patterns and policies are
efficiently and effectively implemented and monitored
over time, fn addition to implementing and maintain-
ing the mechanisms described in the previous section,
these strategies include:
1 Engage in regional collaboration. Communities often
are concerned that if they institute stronger develop-
ment regulations, they will encourage development to
move to neighboring jurisdictions with more relaxed
regulations. One solution is to cooperate regionally.
Land use decisions in one town can affect the entire
region's traffic, air quality, housing prices, and econom-
ic well-being. Regional cooperation is a way to get an
outcome that works for all the communities in the
region, fn many places, the MPO, which has a statutory
mandate to conduct regional transportation planning,
may be coincident with the regional planning agency
responsible for land use planning, and thus able to
facilitate this coordination, fn other areas, multiple
organizations may need to coordinate to ensure that
transportation, land use, and environmental planning
considerations are integrated regionally.
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
6. STRATEGIES
17
-------
>\ In the Minneapolis-St. Paul region, the
1 Fm Metropolitan (Met) Council not only coordi-
I—I nates plans for regional growth in transpor-
tation, water resources, regional parks, and open
space, it reviews local governments' comprehen-
sive plans for consistency with regional plans. The
council "encourage [s] land-use patterns that
connect a variety of uses, take advantage of exist-
ing sewer infrastructure, and have convenient
access to transportation corridors" (Met Council,
2008a). The Met Council also has a regional tax-
base sharing program to reduce fiscal disparities
among its member governments. Forty percent of
the growth in the commercial and industrial prop-
erty tax base since 1971 goes into a pool shared
among the jurisdictions that contribute. This pool
is then redistributed back to jurisdictions based on
their population and property values. Municipali-
ties with lower per capita property values get a
larger share. All the jurisdictions benefit from
growth in the region, and the program reduces
competition among individual towns for tax reve-
nue (Met Council, 2008b). The Met Council is a
recipient of the National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement (U.S. EPA, 2004).
1 Educate and engage stakeholders. Educating the
public and local officials about the benefits of smart
growth development and of using energy more
efficiently is important for gaining support for smart
growth strategies. There may be a perception that
people are automatically against new development,
especially when the development is dense. However,
municipalities can respond to these concerns by
presenting the facts clearly and providing public
education. Public education can include editorials
in the local newspaper, public workshops, meetings
with small groups of key stakeholders, or informative
displays in civic buildings, like city hall or a library.
Providing opportunities for stakeholder engagement
also helps to ensure that the decision making process is
transparent and that resulting development strategies
meet the unique needs of the community.
When the city of Pasadena, California, was
developing its Central District Specific Plan,
the planning department found new ways to
engage the public. The department had a "Story
Bus" that traveled to community events to reach
people who would not normally attend planning
meetings. They used low-tech tools like Play-Doh
and cardboard boxes to demonstrate how new
development might look. The department also
made its GIS data available to the public so that
people could create maps showing where they
lived or worked and discuss their ideas and
concerns with planning staff (U.S. EPA, 2005).
> Use design charrettes. On the community level,
tools such as design charrettes can help involve
people in making sure they get the type of develop-
ment they want. A charrette is a design workshop
that engages the public by soliciting their concerns
about and desires for the proposed develop-
ment, then obtains public feedback on different
designs. Residents have a chance to share what
they like about their community, what they want
to preserve, and what they want to change. They
can offer suggestions for new development and
see those ideas sketched out by design profession-
als. With several feedback loops to incorporate
residents' and developers' concerns and ideas, the
process results in a plan that everyone has had a
chance to influence.
> Use real world examples. Showing people attrac-
tive, compact, walkable, energy-efficient neighbor-
hoods is also a tool to help make development
decisions. Some cities have taken key staff and
elected officials to national models such as Port-
land, Oregon; Arlington, Virginia; or Chattanooga,
Tennessee. To find closer examples, governments
can use EPA's National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement; the Urban Land Institute's Awards
for Excellence; the Congress for the New Urban-
ism's Charter Awards; and the American Institute
of Architects' Honor Awards, particularly for
Housing and Regional & Urban Design, to find
model communities (links to these awards are
provided in Section 10, Additional Examples and
Information Resources). Many state and regional
smart growth organizations, such as Vision Long
Island (New York), Idaho Smart Growth, and
10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania, give their own
awards as well.
18
6. STRATEGIES
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
7 INVESTMENT AND
FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES
This section provides information on the costs of
implementing more energy-efficient land use patterns
and describes funding opportunities for addressing
these costs.
Investment
Implementing smart growth policies typically requires
an investment, although that investment is often one
that would have to be made anyway, such as updating
land use regulations. The size of this investment varies
depending on the size and scope of the activity and the
community, and may include some of the following
activities:
Development and review of land use regulations.
Land use regulations often come up periodically for
review. Some local governments have the expertise and
staff to revise regulations themselves; others may need
to hire consultants. Costs vary widely depending on
the scope of the revisions, the government staff capac-
ity, the extent of public outreach, and other factors.
If a community is interested in revising its regulations
to fit smart growth principles, several resources are
available to help communities with limited funds.
The American Planning Association and the Local
Government Commission have each compiled model
smart growth codes that local governments can use as
a basis for revising their land use regulations (Meek et
al., 2006; Tracy, 2003). EPA also has resources to help
communities review and update their zoning codes
(U.S. EPA, 2009a).
Public outreach. Public engagement mechanisms
such as visioning exercises and design charrettes often
require assistance from outside consultants because of
their complexity. Having a neutral third-party conduct
these exercises can often make them more open and
fair.
Incentives. Some localities may worry about the cost
of incentives for developers who build according to the
community's vision. When the cost of incentives is a
concern, the local government can consider solutions
such as Silver Spring's streamlining program, described
in Section 5, Foundations for Program Development.
Programs that streamline and speed development
approvals cost the local government nothing but trans-
late into financial incentives for developers.
Despite these potential costs, in many cases smart
growth development can cost less for communities
than conventional development because it uses existing
infrastructure and other resources more efficiently.
Sprawling land use patterns can increase the cost of
providing public services because it is less efficient
to provide services to dispersed buildings. Research
suggests that local governments could save about 10
percent in local road costs, 10 percent in public service
costs, and 7 percent in water and sewer infrastructure
costs by encouraging compact growth in already devel-
oped areas, rather than dispersed development on the
fringe (Burchell and Mukherji, 2003).
Funding Opportunities
This subsection describes a variety of financing mecha-
nisms and funding sources that local governments can
use when investing in smart growth initiatives.
FINANCING
Financing refers to accessing new funds through means
such as loans, bonds, and grants to pay for smart
growth initiatives. Key financial vehicles, which can be
used to access the sources of funding described in the
subsequent subsection, are described below.
1 Direct grants. Some federal agencies offer grants that
help communities plan for or implement better devel-
opment practices; affordable housing and community
development; improved walking, biking, and transit
options; or parks and open space. The Web site
http://www.grants.gov lists all available federal grants.
EPA's Brownfields Program offers grants, revolving
loan funds, and links to other funding resources for
brownfields assessment, clean-up, and other assistance
at http://www.epa.gov/brownjields/mmatters.htm.
HUD offers Community Development Block Grants;
some block grants are awarded directly to major
cities and others are awarded to states to pass along to
smaller cities (U.S. HUD, 2008). The Federal Transit
Administration (FTA) sponsors a variety of grants
to urban and rural communities to assist with public
transportation-related projects (FTA, 2008).
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
7. INVESTMENT AND FUNDING
19
-------
In June 2009, EPA, HUD, and the Department of
Transportation formed the Partnership for Sustainable
Communities to help improve access to affordable
housing, more transportation options, and lower
transportation costs, while protecting the environment
in communities nationwide. Through a set of guiding
livability principles and a partnership agreement that
will guide the agencies' efforts, this partnership will
coordinate funding for federal housing, transportation,
and other infrastructure investments to protect the
environment, promote equitable development, and
help to address the challenges of climate change. One
funding opportunity arising through this partnership
is HUD's Sustainable Communities Planning Grant
Program, which will offer $100 million in competitive
challenge grants to support regional planning efforts
that integrate housing, land use, economic and work-
force development, transportation, and infrastructure
investments in a manner that empowers jurisdictions
to consider the interdependent challenges of economic
competitiveness and revitalization; social equity, inclu-
sion, and access to opportunity; energy use and climate
change; as well as public health and environmental
impacts. Additional funding opportunities may arise
through this partnership. (See Section 8, Interaction
with Federal, State, or Other Programs, for more infor-
mation on the partnership.)
In 1998, the Metropolitan Transportation
Commission (MTC) in the San Francisco
Bay area launched the Transportation for
Livable Communities (TLC) program. Since then,
MTC has awarded more than $80 million to more
than 80 local projects that support multimodal
travel, more livable neighborhoods, and the devel-
opment of jobs and housing in existing town
centers. Successful projects improve walking and
bicycle access to transit hubs and stations, major
activity centers, and neighborhood commercial
districts as a way of fostering community vitality.
The program provides technical assistance and
capital grants to help cities, neighborhoods, transit
agencies, and nonprofit agencies develop transpor-
tation-related projects fitting the TLC profile
(Metropolitan Transportation Commission, 2009).
1 Federal tax incentives. Tax incentives, which are avail-
able for historic preservation, affordable housing, and
land conservation, can make it more feasible for local
governments and private developers to meet commu-
nity goals. Federal tax incentives are typically awarded
through competitive programs administered by state
housing or community development agencies.
1 Tax-increment financing (TIP). In addition to direct
grants or low-interest loans from the federal govern-
ment, local governments can help finance develop-
ment through bonds or tools, such as tax-increment
financing, to encourage smart growth development.
This mechanism allows a city to use the additional tax
revenue generated by a new development or redevelop-
ment project to fund improvements to the district in
which it is located. Tax revenue continues to go to the
city's general coffers in the same amount as before the
new project, but the "increment," or additional amount
that the project generates, is usually used to pay off a
bond that the city has used to fund for the improve-
ments. Once the bond is paid off, all of the tax revenue
goes to the general coffers. According to the Council
of Development Finance Agencies, "No new taxes are
requested and no existing taxes are used in the financ-
ing of the project" (CDFA, 2007).
TIP can be used to fund infrastructure maintenance
and repair, pedestrian amenities, and other improve-
ments. Almost every state gives local governments
authority to create a TIP district. Originally, TIP was
intended to help areas that needed redevelopment and
revitalization. However, some states are now permit-
ting them to be used in affluent areas, which diverts
public money from helping places that otherwise
would have a harder time attracting redevelopment
(Good Jobs First, Undated). Local governments can
institute guidelines that ensure that TIP is used only in
locations where the community wants growth and for
projects that will benefit the community by providing
jobs, housing, amenities, or other priorities (CDFA,
2007).
A mixed-use brownfield redevelopment in
midtown Atlanta, called Atlantic Station, was
designated a Tax Allocation District (Geor-
gia's term for TIP) in 1999, a designation that will
stand for 25 years. The city uses the additional
revenue to pay off the bonds that helped finance
the development. Before the redevelopment in
1999, the district's per-acre tax digest was roughly
$3,000; in 2006, it was more than $210,000—an
increase of more than 7,000 percent (Livable
Communities Coalition, 2007).
20
7. INVESTMENT AND FUNDING
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
FUNDING SOURCES
Numerous sources are available to fund smart growth
initiatives. These sources of funding can be accessed
through the financial vehicles described above. EPAs
Smart Growth Program maintains a Web page of fund-
ing opportunities at http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/
grants/index.htm. Examples of these funding opportu-
nities are noted below.
1 EPA's Brownfields Program. EPA provides direct
funding for brownfields assessment, cleanup, revolving
loans, and environmental job training. The program
collaborates with other EPA programs, other federal
partners, and state agencies to identify and make avail-
able resources that can be used for brownfields activi-
ties. In addition to direct brownfields funding, EPA
also provides technical information on brownfields
financing matters, including assessment grants, revolv-
ing loan fund grants, and cleanup grants.
1 Federal transportation funding. Federal surface
transportation funding is allocated to states, MPOs,
and urbanized areas to support local transportation
needs. Funding from a number of FHWA and FTA
programs—many of which have broad eligibility
requirements—can be used for improvements that
support livability and promote the safety of pedestri-
ans, bicyclists, and transit users. Relevant programs
include the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality
Improvement Program (FHWA and FTA), the High-
way Bridge Program (FHWA), the Highway Safety
Improvement Program (FHWA), the National High-
way System (FHWA), New and Small Starts (FTA),
Nonurbanized Area Formula Grants (FTA), Safe
Routes to School (FHWA), the Surface Transportation
Program (FHWA), and Transportation Enhancements
(FHWA). (See EPAs Transportation Control Measures
guide in the Local Government Climate and Energy
Strategy Series for more information on transportation-
related funding opportunities.) Individual states may
also have programs that can help fund smart growth
approaches.
Using federal transportation funds, the
Livable Centers Initiative (LCI) encourages
mixed-use, walkable, and transit-accessible
development in the Atlanta metropolitan area,
covering 18 counties and more than 4.5 million
people. The Atlanta Regional Commission created
the LCI in 1999, and has awarded more than $1
million annually in planning grants to help
communities use transportation improvements to
revitalize town centers and key corridors. Once the
planning studies funded by LCI are completed, the
communities can apply for implementation fund-
ing through the regional Transportation Improve-
ment Program (TIP), which is funded by federal
transportation money. As of 2006, 724 projects
had been completed or had broken ground in
communities that received LCI funds. These devel-
opments include 63,000 residential units, more
than 11 million square feet of commercial space,
and 40 million square feet of office space. LCI has
helped spur not only revitalization, but also policy
changes in towns throughout the Atlanta region.
Almost all of the communities that have received
funding have revised their comprehensive plans to
promote pedestrian-friendly, mixed-use develop-
ment (U.S. EPA, 2008c).
Nonprofit funding. Foundations, non-profit organiza-
tions, and financial institutions also can provide fund-
ing to help communities improve quality of life. The
Foundation Center (http://foundationcenter.org) and
the Funders' Network for Smart Growth and Livable
Communities (http://www.fundersnetwork.org) are
resources for identifying foundations based on topics
or location. National and regional non-profit organiza-
tions can offer small grants, and they can also direct
local governments to funding sources.
In addition, these organizations can help with the
acquisition of open space. Land trusts operate at the
local and regional level to acquire and protect land
of significant ecological, open space, recreational,
and historical value. Organizations such as the Trust
for Public Land (TPL) (http://www.tpl.org) and The
Nature Conservancy (http://www.nature.org) act as
intermediate brokers for land acquisition by purchas-
ing property, conveying it to the local jurisdiction, and
then waiting for local funding to come through.
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
7. INVESTMENT AND FUNDING
21
-------
The city of Tucson, Arizona, asked TPL to
buy a scenic mountain tract overlooking
downtown, which was being offered for sale
by a savings and loan. City officials intended to
include the costs of the property in the next
budget, but legally they could not commit the
funds. The trust purchased the property for the
city and was reimbursed during the next budget
cycle (TPL, Undated).
8. FEDERAL, STATE,
AND OTHER PROGRAM
RESOURCES
A variety of federal, state, regional, and other agencies
and organizations provide resources that local govern-
ments can use when planning and implementing smart
growth activities.
Federal Programs
The federal government offers resources to help states
and localities make development decisions.
1 FHWA. This federal-aid transportation planning
program supports efforts to coordinate land use and
transportation decision making and to foster smart
growth initiatives.
Web site: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/ppasg.htm
1 FTA. This program provides funding for planning
multimodal transportation investments in metropoli-
tan areas and states, including the coordination of land
use and transportation decision making, and provides
technical assistance for transportation planning staff
and policy makers.
Web site: http://www.fta.dot.gov/planning_environ-
ment.html
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING CAPACITY BUILDING
PROGRAM-FHWA & FTA
The Transportation Planning Capacity Building (TPCB)
Program—a joint venture of FHWA and FTA—is designed
to help decision makers, transportation officials, and staff
resolve the increasingly complex issues they face when
addressing transportation needs in their communities.
This comprehensive program for training, technical
assistance, and support targets state, local, regional, and
tribal governments; transit operators; and community
leaders. Resources provided by TPCB include:
• Examples of effective transportation planning
practices from across the nation.
• A central clearinghouse for information and
contacts within the transportation planning
community.
• Training programs and peer-to-peer information
exchange opportunities.
Many of these resources can help communities
implement smart growth projects.
See http://www.planning.dot.gov/default.asp; http://
planning.dot.gov/Peer/NewMex/albuquerque_09.asp
' Partnership for Sustainable Communities. In June
2009, EPA, the Department of Transportation (DOT),
and HUD formed this partnership to coordinate their
funding and better support sustainable communities.
EPA, DOT, and HUD will work to assure that their
programs maximize the benefits of their combined
investments in communities for livability, afford-
ability, environmental excellence, and the promotion
of green jobs of the future. HUD and DOT will work
together to identify opportunities to better coordinate
their programs and encourage location efficiency in
housing and transportation choices. HUD, DOT, and
EPA will also share information and review processes
to facilitate better-informed decisions and coordinate
investments.
• U.S. EPA Office of Transportation and Air Quality.
This program offers policy and guidance documents
regarding transportation and land use.
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/otaq/stateresources/
policy/pag_transp.htm#lu.
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/partner-
ship/index.html.
22
8. POLICY AND RESOURCES
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
1 U.S. EPA Smart Growth Program. This program
offers research and publications, tools, and technical
assistance to help communities create better develop-
ment. EPA offers an annual Smart Growth Implemen-
tation Assistance competition, which funds national
experts to offer technical assistance to tribal, regional,
state, and local governments that want to implement
smart growth strategies but aren't sure how to do it.
Web site: www.epa.gov/smartgrowth
' U.S. EPA State and Local Climate and Energy
Program. This program assists state, local, and tribal
governments in meeting their climate change and
clean energy efforts by providing technical assistance,
analytical tools, and outreach support. It includes two
programs:
> The Local Climate and Energy Program helps
local and tribal governments meet multiple
sustainability goals with cost-effective climate
change mitigation and clean energy strategies.
EPA provides local and tribal governments with
peer exchange training opportunities and financial
assistance along with planning, policy, technical,
and analytical information that support reduction
of GHG emissions.
> The State Climate and Energy Program helps
states develop policies and programs that can
reduce GHG emissions, lower energy costs,
improve air quality and public health, and help
achieve economic development goals. EPA
provides states with and advises them on proven,
cost-effective best practices, peer exchange oppor-
tunities, and analytical tools.
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/
State Programs
Although states may set specific development objec-
tives, the authority to make land use determinations
usually resides in the local the zoning process. Local
governments can work with states to make sure their
plans meet the state's goals for energy efficiency and
land use. States can influence land use to varying
degrees through funding and sometimes through
direct regulation. Local governments should look
to their states for more information about available
programs and funding opportunities. The examples
below are just a few of the many states that have smart
growth-related offices or programs.
1 In 2000, Colorado's legislature passed into law legisla-
tion that created the Office of Smart Growth in the
Colorado Department of Local Affairs. The goal of
the office is to provide direct technical and financial
assistance to local governments in the areas of land use
planning and growth management.
Colorado Office of Smart Growth Web site:
http://dola.colorado.gov/dlg/osg/index.htm
1 In Massachusetts, the state allocates funding through
its Commonwealth Capital Fund using a scorecard
that awards points to local governments based on their
development rules. Those municipalities that promote
compact, mixed-use, walkable neighborhoods receive
higher scores and funding priority (Massachusetts,
2008a). The state has developed a Smart Growth/Smart
Energy toolkit to assist local governments in making
smart growth decisions (Massachusetts, 2008b).
Massachusetts Smart Growth/Smart Energy toolkit
Web site:
http://www.mass.gov/envir/smart_growth_toolkit/
index.html
~ New Jersey's Office of Smart Growth (OSG) coordi-
nates planning throughout New Jersey to protect the
environment and guide future growth into compact,
mixed-use development and redevelopment. OSG
integrates programmatic and regulatory land use deci-
sions through all levels of government and with the
private sector. The office implements the goals of the
State Development and Redevelopment Plan to achieve
comprehensive, long-term planning.
New Jersey Office of Smart Growth Web site:
http://www. nj.gov/dca/osg/
Other Programs
METROPOLITAN PLANNING ORGANIZATIONS
All metropolitan areas (i.e., urbanized areas with popu-
lations greater than 50,000) have an MPO designated
by local officials and the governor of the state, which is
responsible for carrying out the metropolitan transpor-
tation planning process required for securing federal
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
8. POLICY AND RESOURCES
23
-------
funding for transportation projects, plans, and studies.
In some instances, the body designated as the MPO
may also be responsible for making regional land use
decisions. MPOs, COGs, and other regional govern-
ments can be important to help municipalities cooper-
ate on development issues. Some, like the Minneapolis-
St. Paul Met Council, take responsibility for developing
visions for the region's growth, funding affordable
housing, and offering grants or awards to their member
jurisdictions to help them promote smarter, more
efficient development (Met Council, 2008c). Others are
less active in growth management issues, but they are
still important partners to engage because they control
transportation funding, and that has a significant
impact on growth patterns in the region.
American Association of Metropolitan Planning Organi-
zations Web site: http://www.ampo.org/index.php
NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
1 Smart Growth Online. The Smart Growth Network
provides a clearinghouse of smart growth-related news,
resources, tools, and other information.
Web site: www.smartgrowth.org
9. CASE STUDIES
The following two case studies describe comprehensive
programs for promoting smart growth. Each case study
describes how the program was initiated, key program
activities and features, and program benefits.
High Point, Washington
High Point is a HOPE VI8 redevelopment project in
West Seattle, Washington. This former public housing
project is now a neighborhood with narrow streets,
playgrounds, parks, mature trees, and community
8 HUD's HOPE VIprogram focuses on revitalization of severely distressed
of public housing in three main areas: physical improvements, management
improvements, and social and community services to address resident needs,
through a variety of grant programs. More information on HOPE VI is
available at http://www.hud.gov/offices/pih/programs/ph/hope6/.
In the FY2010 HUD Appropriations law, Congress authorized HUD's to use
up to $65 million of the HOPE VI appropriations for a Choice Neighborhoods
demonstration. Phase two of Seattle's High Point project was selected for a
Choice Neighborhoods grant. For more information on Choice Neighborhoods,
see http://www. hud.gov/offices/pih/programs/ph/cn/.
gardens. It blends rental and for-sale homes, and its
affordable housing units are indistinguishable from the
market-rate homes. All the homes are built to at least
the three-star level of Washington's Built Green stan-
dards (City of Seattle, 2006a). Residents of the old High
Point project and of surrounding neighborhoods were
closely involved in the design of the new neighborhood
development.
Profile: High Point, Seattle, Washington
Area: 120 acres
Population: Approximately 4,000 residents
expected at build-out (1,600 housing units)
Structure: The Seattle Housing Authority
owns the land and is building about half the
development; private developers are building the
rest.
Program Scope: Using funds from the federal
HOPE VI program. High Point reflects many
of Seattle's priorities, including reducing GHG
emissions, creating mixed-income communities,
and using natural drainage systems. The city is
using many of the techniques from High Point,
including the natural drainage system and the
public outreach program, as models for other
development projects.
Program Creation: The Seattle Housing Authority
initiated the redevelopment and commissioned
the plan in 2001. Residents began living in the
neighborhood in 2005.
Program Results: The neighborhood's 1,600
homes are projected to use less energy than
the 716 homes that were previously on the site.
The city estimates that energy savings, reduced
demand on wastewater treatment facilities, and
other environmental benefits add up to about $17
million.
Source: SHA, 2007.
PROGRAM INITIATION
The Seattle Housing Authority (SHA) initiated redevel-
opment of the public housing project in 2001. About
40 percent of the funding for the project came from
public entities, including $41 million from SHA funds
(including bonds), $39 million from HUD's HOPE VI
program and other federal sources, $4 million from the
Washington State Housing Trust Fund, and $3 million
from city funds. The remaining 60 percent came from
private sources, including $65 million in land sales to
24
9. CASE STUDIES
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
private builders, $53 million in affordable housing tax
credit capital investment, and $6 million in private
fundraising (SHA, 2007).
Seattle's Design Commission and the West Seattle
Design Review Board reviewed the master plan for
High Point. The city council passed a resolution autho-
rizing the redevelopment plan in 1999 (City of Seattle,
2006b).
PROGRAM FEATURES
1 Public involvement. With an intensive public involve-
ment process, SHA gathered ideas and feedback from
residents of the existing public housing, as well as the
neighborhoods around it, about what they wanted to
see in the new High Point development.
1 Reconnecting to the community. One of the key
points that all parties agreed on was that the new
community should be integrated into the surrounding
neighborhoods. Toward that end, High Point includes a
library, a medical and dental clinic, community center,
and an elementary school. Residents of High Point
can walk to these facilities, as well as residents of the
surrounding neighborhoods (SHA, 2007).
1 Transportation choices. The neighborhood is served
by bus lines and has narrow streets that feel safer
for walking and biking, so residents can reduce the
amount they need to drive (SHA, 2007).
1 Energy efficiency. The site and all the multifamily
rental housing are built to the highest Built Green stan-
dards; other homes are built to at least the three-star
level. Most buildings are ENERGY STAR qualified as
well. Sixty homes are "Breathe-Easy Homes," designed
for people with asthma (SHA, 2007).
1 Green space. The project doubled the density from
what existed before, but was able to do so while
preserving trees and adding parks and open space
(SHA, 2007).
1 Low impact development. High Point uses an innova-
tive natural drainage system to manage stormwater
runoff, helping to protect the salmon stream that runs
through the neighborhood (SHA, 2007). SHA and the
city worked together to get narrower streets to reduce
the amount of impervious surface, as well as natural
stormwater management elements that would blend
into the neighborhoods design. The city has agreed to
cover the difference between the cost of a conventional
stormwater management system and that of a natural
drainage system (Wells, 2008).
PROGRAM RESULTS
1 SHA estimates that, in addition to the initial $210
million investment that got the project started, about
$225 million in private investment has come in (SHA,
2007).
1 Homes at High Point use about 20 percent less energy
than similar homes at another Seattle HOPE VI rede-
velopment, New Holly, which was built about six years
earlier (Wells, 2008).
1 SHA estimates that High Point has created about $58
million in new property taxes, residents' income taxes,
and spending by businesses and residents (SHA, 2007).
1 The neighborhood provides much-needed afford-
able housing for a variety of income levels. Half the
homes are market rate, 29 percent are rental units for
people earning 30 percent or less of the area's median
income, 16 percent are rental units for people earning
60 percent or less of median income, and 5 percent are
for-sale homes reserved for people earning 80 percent
or less of median income (City of Seattle, 2006b). The
housing mix also includes market-rate and income-
restricted independent and assisted-living apartments
for seniors (SHA, 2008b).
1 High Point has won numerous awards, including EPA's
2007 National Award for Smart Growth Achievement
(SHA, 2008a; U.S. EPA, 2007).
1 The High Point project created new ways of working
together for city agencies and has been a model for
other development projects in the region (SHA, 2007).
1 Web site: http://www.seattlehousing.org/Development/
highpoint/highpoint.html, and http://www.thehigh-
point.com/
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
9. CASE STUDIES
25
-------
Arlington, Virginia
Arlington County is an inner suburb just across the
Potomac River from Washington, DC, and a nation-
ally recognized leader in smart growth and TOD.
The county has aligned its land use policies to make
the most of public investment in the regional transit
system.
Profile: Arlington County, Virginia
Area: 26 square miles
Population: 208,000
Structure: The county is governed by a five-
member county board, elected at large.
Program Scope: Arlington County has two
Metrorail corridors. The Rosslyn-Ballston corridor
has five stations, and the Jefferson Davis corridor
has two.
Program Creation: Arlington began planning
its transit-oriented strategy in the 1960s as the
Washington, DC, Metrorail system was being
developed. The county has added many other
policies designed to give its residents more
transportation options and improve their quality
of life in the years since then.
Program Results: The county's land use policies
and transportation options allow at least one-
third of its residents to commute to work without
a car, which reduces air pollution, fuel use, and
GHG emissions.
PROGRAM INITIATION
When the Washington Metrorail subway system was
being planned in the 1960s, the portion of it that
would pass through Arlington County was originally
positioned to run down the median of Interstate 66.
Arlington County lobbied to have the line go under-
ground through the county's commercial corridor
instead, with closely spaced transit stops (Arlington,
2008a). The county wanted to leverage the investment
in the Metro system to revitalize its Rosslyn-Ballston
corridor, which had started losing businesses and resi-
dences to suburbanization. Arlington decided to build
a strategy that the county's transportation director
calls "brand-new and untested" at the time: focusing
mixed-use development around the transit stations and
tapering down the intensity and size of buildings
into the surrounding residential neighborhoods
(Leach, 2004).
The county planning staff developed a general land
use plan for the entire corridor, then sector plans for
each station area that outlined the specific design
features, land uses, public improvements, and other
aspects of that location. The public had extensive
involvement in creating not only the individual
station plans, but also the overall policy framework
(Leach, 2004). Each station area has a different char-
acter, intentionally developed to reflect the county's
goals—although all have a mix of uses within a
quarter mile of the station, some place more empha-
sis on retail, others are more residential, and others
are office-oriented (Arlington, 2008b).
PROGRAM FEATURES
• Development approvals for station areas. Devel-
opments are approved using a site plan process
that must comply with the general land use plan,
the zoning ordinance, and the station area sector
plan. Developers get to build more densely in
exchange for building the type of development the
county wants, where it wants it, and with the public
improvements the county requests (Arlington,
2008a).
• Housing options. Because Arlington's station areas
quickly taper down to residential neighborhoods,
people who live in single-family houses on quiet
streets are still within walking distance of public
transit, as well as a vibrant array of shops, restau-
rants, and other amenities. The density around
the stations and the emphasis on a mix of uses has
created apartments, condominiums, and town-
houses, which give new options to people who don't
want or cannot afford to buy a house.
• Transportation options. Arlington's transit-
oriented, walkable urban villages give residents
and visitors a wide variety of options to get around
without a car:
26
9. CASE STUDIES
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
> Metrorail (subway): 12 miles of Metrorail lines and
11 stations9 (one of which also serves the regional
commuter rail).
> Metrobus (DC area regional bus service): 18 major
bus lines and approximately 100 individual route
variations serving Arlington.
> Arlington Regional Transit (local bus service): 12
lines, uses smaller, neighborhood-friendly vehicles
fueled with compressed natural gas.
> Paratransit service for elderly and disabled
residents.
> Carsharing services.
> Walking and biking: the county creates maps show-
ing popular routes and Web sites with resources
(WalkArlington.com and BikeArlington.com).
PROGRAM RESULTS
1 More than 35 million square feet of office space, 4
million square feet of retail space, and 35,000 residen-
tial units are in Arlington's Metro corridors, creating
vibrant urban villages around the stations (Arlington,
2005).
1 The Metro corridors contain 11 percent of Arlington's
land area but provide almost half the county's assessed
land value (Arlington, 2008a).
1 About 28 percent of county residents live in one of the
two Metrorail corridors, and two-thirds of the county's
jobs are in the two Metrorail corridors (Arlington,
2005).
• 23 percent of residents commute using public transit;
39 percent of residents living in the Metrorail corridors
commute by transit (Arlington, 2005). By comparison,
the national average for commuting by transit is about
5 percent (Arlington, 2008a).
1 Almost 10 percent of county residents commute by
bike or on foot, compared with a regional average of 2
percent (Arlington, 2008a).
1 Although Arlington's population continues to grow
by about 1 percent per year, traffic on arterials and
neighborhood streets has remained fairly stable or even
9 Metroraifs Orange Line has five stations in the Rosslyn-Ballston corridor
and a sixth Arlington station further away. The Blue Line has two stations in
the Jefferson Davis corridor and three additional stations that are surrounded
by land not under the county's control.
declined. On average, traffic increased by less than
one-half of one percent on most streets (Arlington,
2008a).
In a 2006 survey, 88 percent of county residents
rated their quality of life as "good" or "very good"
(Arlington, 2008c).
Web site: http://www.arlingtonva.us
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
9. CASE STUDIES
27
-------
10. ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES
Title/Description
Examples of Local Smart Growth Activities
Web Site
Marin County, California - Marin Country's comprehensive Safe Routes program
has education programs, encouragement activities, safety enforcement, and
infrastructure plans. Funds for infrastructure in Marin County come from local
jurisdictions, as well as from state and federal funds.
http://drusilla.hsrc.unc.edu/cms/downloads/srts_
case_studies.pdf
Orlando, Florida - Baldwin Park is a redevelopment project that used community
outreach to plan the property's future, engaging citizens in hundreds of
meetings over two years. Mixed in with its variety of housing types are offices, a
supermarket, restaurants, doctors' offices, schools, and adult education, parks,
and many other stores and services. The community also created 16 extra acres
of parkland using low impact development.
http://www.baldwinparkfl.com
Boulder, Colorado - Boulder developed a transportation master plan that
integrates a variety of smart growth approaches to improve its transportation
network, infrastructure, and local economy.
http://www.bouldercolorado.gov/files/
Transportation_Master_Plan/modal_
shiftl990-2006_report_final.pdf
Denver, Colorado - The Stapleton brownfield redevelopment project
incorporates a strong sustainability component that promotes walking, biking,
and transit use; preserves open space; requires home builders to meet ENERGY
STAR or Colorado Built Green standards; and promotes green building for
commercial structures.
http://about.stapletondenver.com/about/
sustainability#
Portland, Maine. Portland involves a large variety of local government offices
when developing its smart growth initiatives. Development proposals go
through a review by a team that includes representatives from the departments
handling planning, fire, public works, parks and recreation, economic
development, and traffic, as well as the city's corporation counsel
http://www.ci.portland.me.us/planning/devreview.
asp
Boca Raton, Florida - The development of Mizner Park in Boca Raton consisted
of the acquisition of approximately 30 acres of land, and the construction
of a mixed-use urban village incorporating public park facilities, mixed-use
development and cultural facilities.
http://www.ci.boca-raton.fl.us/dev/pdf/CRA/
MiznerParkHandout.pdf
Salt Lake City, Utah - The Envision Utah partnership was formed to guide the
development of a broadly and publicly supported Quality Growth Strategy. This
strategy is a vision to protect Utah's environment, economic strength, and quality
of life.
www.envisionutah.org
Bellevue, Washington - Bellevue developed the FAR Amenity Incentive System,
a Land Use Code process designed to ensure the provision of amenities that
are essential to the creation of the urban environment envisioned by Bellevue's
Comprehensive Plan.
http://www.ci. bellevue.wa.us/pdf/PCD/L-15_FAR_
Dwntwn.pdf
Montgomery County, Maryland - Montgomery County developed the country's
first mandatory, inclusionary zoning law that specified a density bonus allowance
to builders for providing affordable housing. The law currently requires that
between 12.5 and 15 percent of the total number of units in every subdivision or
high-rise building of 20 or more units be moderately priced. The law is applicable
to property zoned one-half acre or smaller.
http://www.montgomerycountymd.gov/dhctmpl.
asp?url=/content/dhca/housing/housing_P/mpdu/
history.asp
Portland, Oregon - Portland has introduced several smart growth planning
policies to balance transportation needs with environmental protection,
community design, affordable housing, and other goals. These include a range
of parking policies to promote infill development and balance driving and
alternatives to the private car.
http://www.portlandonline.com/bps/index.cfm?
28
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
10 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES (cont.)
Title/Description
Examples of State Smart Growth Activities
Web Site
California Strategic Growth Council - In September 2008 Governor Arnold
Schwarzenegger signed SB 732, creating the Strategic Growth Council. The
Council is a cabinet level committee that is tasked with coordinating the activities
of state agencies to improve air and water quality; protect natural resource
and agriculture lands; increase the availability of affordable housing; improve
infrastructure systems; promote public health; and assist state and local entities
in the planning of sustainable communities and meeting AB 32 goals.
http://www.sgc.ca.gov/
Colorado Office of Smart Growth - Established by the state legislature in 2000,
the office provides direct technical and financial assistance to local governments
in the areas of land use planning and growth management.
http://dola.colorado.gov/dlg/osg/index.htm
Florida Department of Community Affairs - The Department of Community
Affairs assists Florida's communities as they plan for the impacts of growth
and development. It provides funding to local communities to help improve
housing, streets, utilities, and public facilities. The division assists with efforts to
revitalize underserved communities and encourage economic development for
the common good, and to help low-income residents meet the costs of such
essential services as home heating and cooling.
h ttp://www. dca. s ta te. fl. us/
Maryland Department of Planning - Office of Smart Growth. The Office of Smart
Growth directs the state to target programs and funding to support established
communities and locally designated growth areas, and to protect rural areas. The
Priority Funding Areas Act provides a geographic focus for the state's investment
in growth-related infrastructure.
http://www.mdp.state.md.us/OurWork/
SmartCrowth.shtml
Massachusetts Clean Energy & Smart Growth-Smart Energy - The state has
developed a Smart Growth/Smart Energy toolkit to assist local governments
in making smart growth decisions. The state also allocates funding through
its Commonwealth Capital Fund using a scorecard that awards points to local
governments based on their development rules.
http://www.mass.gov/7pagel D=gov3subtopicfrL=4
&LO=Home&Ll=Key+Prioritiesd-L2=Job+Creation+
%26+Economic+Growth&L3=Clean+Energy+%26+
Smart+Crowth-Smart+Energy(tsid=Agov3
New Hampshire—Office of Energy and Planning—Achieving Smart Growth
in New Hampshire - The office developed a pilot project which included an
evaluation of development policies and regulations in relation to principles and
examples of Smart Growth. Three communities were selected and residents
were invited by the local planning boards to participate in two public meetings
to explore what they value about their towns, their visions for the future, and to
consider possible ways to preserve the features and character.
http://nh.gov/oep/programs/SmartCrowth/index.
htm
New Jersey Office of Smart Growth. New Jersey's Office of Smart Growth (OSG)
coordinates planning throughout New Jersey to protect the environment and
guide future growth into compact, mixed-use development and redevelopment.
OSG integrates programmatic and regulatory land use decisions through all
levels of government and with the private sector.
http://www.nj.gov/dca/osg/
Washington State Community, Trade, and Economic Development—Smart
Growth - Washington State Community, Trade, and Economic Development
developed an action plan entitled Smart Growth Strategy for the 21st Century.
The plan builds on the state's growth management efforts, and finds solutions for
emerging needs. It includes benchmarks and indicators to measure smart growth
progress.
http://smartgrowth.wa.gov/
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
29
-------
10 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES (cont.)
Title/Description
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources—Wisconsin's Planning Law -
Wisconsin's Planning Law defines what a "comprehensive plan" is, outlines
procedures for adopting plans, and requires that certain actions, beginning
in 2010, be consistent with an adopted plan. The legislation creates a
comprehensive planning grants program and stresses the importance of citizen
involvement, community visioning, and other types of public participation in the
planning and plan adoption processes.
Web Site
h ttp://www. dnr. s ta te. wi. us/org/es/science/
landuse/smart/SGlaw.htm
Information Resources for Smart Growth Activities
Affordable Housing and Smart Growth: Making the Connection - This paper
uses case studies to illustrate strategies that can foster affordable housing and
smart growth.
http://www.epa. gov/smartgrowth/pdf/epa_ah_
sg.pdf
Air Quality and Smart Growth: Planning for Cleaner Air - This paper describes
the links between development and air quality.
http://www.fundersnetwork.org/files/'Air_Quality_
and_Smart_Growth.pdf
American Planning Association and the Environmental and Energy Study
Institute - The American Planning Association and the Environmental and Energy
Study Institute are working together to better connect land use planning and
energy conservation.
h ttp://www. eesi. org/apa
Atlantic Station (Atlantic Steel Site Redevelopment Project - This example
describes the transformation of a brownfield in midtown Atlanta into the thriving
Atlantic Station neighborhood.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/topics/atlantic_
steel.htm
Best Development Practices: A Primer for Smart Growth - This International
City/County Management Association and Smart Growth Network primer
describes land use practices that create attractive communities, offer more
transportation choices, and protect the environment.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/pdf/
bestdevprimer.pdf
Case Studies for Action - This Web site provides information on a series of case
studies of innovative programs from the Urban Land Institute's District Councils
aimed at engaging stakeholders to resolve complex land use, development, and
redevelopment problems.
http://www.uli.org/CommunityBuilding/Smart%20
Growth%20Alliances/SGAIN%20Resources/
Case%20Studies%20for%20Action.aspx
Choosing Our Community's Future: A Citizen's Guide to Getting the Most
Out of New Development - This paper focuses on the visioning and planning
efforts that set the stage for smarter growth and how citizens can engage and
make suggestions for better growth and development through collaborative
stakeholder meetings and workshops.
http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/resources.
html
Complete Streets - The National Complete Streets Coalition provides
information and resources to help with the adoption and implementation of
statewide, regional, and local complete streets policies. Complete streets are
designed and operated to enable pedestrians, bicyclists, motorists, and public
transportation users of all ages and abilities to safely move along and across
roadways.
http://www.completestreets.org/
Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU) Charter Awards - CNU gives its Charter
Awards each year to recognize excellent plans and projects that advance the
principles of the Charter of the New Urbanism.
http://www.cnu.org/awards
Context Sensitive Solutions in Designing Major Urban Thoroughfares for
Walkable Communities - This Institute of Transportation Engineers report
provides guidance for practitioners on how major urban streets can be designed
to support walking and biking, compact development, and mixed land uses.
h ttp://www. ite. org/ess/
30
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
10 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES (cont.)
Title/Description
Creating Great Neighborhoods: Density in Your Community - This report
highlights nine community-led efforts to create vibrant neighborhoods through
density, discusses the connections between smart growth and density, and
introduces design principles to ensure that density becomes a community asset.
Web Site
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/density.htm
Economic Development and Smart Growth - This report highlights the
connections between smart growth and economic outcomes, such as job
growth, occupancy rates, tax base, and private investment. It uses detailed case
studies to illustrate economic outcomes in places that have incorporated smart
growth development strategies.
http://www.iedconline.org/Downloads/Smart_
Crowth.pdf
Emerging Trends in Real Estate - This report provides an annual outlook for the
real estate and land use industries.
www. uli. org/em erg ing tren ds/
Energy and Smart Growth: It's about How and Where We Build - This paper, by
the Funders' Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities, explains the
links between energy use and development patterns.
http://www.fundersnetwork.org/files/Energy_and_
Smart_Growth.pdf
EPA Smart Growth Program - This program offers research and publications,
tools, and technical assistance to help communities create better development.
www.epa.gov/smartgrowth
Essential Smart Growth Fixes for Urban and Suburban Zoning Codes - The
document addresses the most common barriers local governments face in
implementing smart growth. Each Essential Fix describes the problem or barrier
and the actions that the community could take to overcome that barrier.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/essent/aL/7xes.
htm
Getting to Smart Growth: 100 Policies for Implementation - This International
City/County Management Association and Smart Growth Network book provides
a road map for states and communities that have recognized the need for smart
growth, but are unclear on how to achieve it. The book provides 100 policy ideas,
along with additional resources and brief case studies of communities that have
applied these approaches to achieve better development.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/getting_to_sg2.
htm
Getting to Smart Growth II: 100 More Policies for Implementation - This
International City/County Management Association and Smart Growth Network
book is Volume 2 of an ongoing series by ICMA and the Smart Growth Network,
which describes the concrete techniques of putting the 10 smart growth
principles into practice.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/getting_to_sg2.
htm#2
Growing Cooler: The Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change -
This Urban Land Institute book connects compact, walkable development with
CO2 reductions.
http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/gcindex.html
Growing Smart - This guidebook provides state and local governments with
model statutes for planning and the management of change. The statutes are
intended as an update to and rethinking of the Standard City Planning and
Zoning Enabling Acts drafted by an advisory committee of the U.S. Department
of Commerce in the 1920s ("Standard Acts"), and the American Law Institute's A
Model Land Development Code (1976), as well as other model statutes.
http://www.huduser.org/portal/publications/pdf/
growingsmart_guide.pdf
Growing Toward More Efficient Water Use: Linking Development, Infrastructure,
and Drinking Water Policies - This EPA document focuses on the relationships
among development patterns, water use, and the cost of water delivery. It
includes policy options for states, localities, and utilities that directly reduce the
cost and demand for water while indirectly promoting smarter growth.
http://www.epa. gov/smartgrowth/water_
efficiency.htm
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
31
-------
10 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES (cont.)
Title/Description
Higher-Density Plans: Tools for Community Engagement - This best-practices
report from San Jose State University's Mineta Transportation Institute gathers an
extensive list of tools and techniques that local governments can use to engage
residents and educate them about development decisions. It includes several
California case studies.
Web Site
http://transweb.sjsu.edu/mtiportal/research/
publications/documents/03-02/Higher-
DensityPlans.book.htm
Impact Fees and Housing Affordability: A Guide for Practitioners - This report
encourages local governments to use impact fees to help support affordable
housing. Impact fees are a one-time charge on new developments. Included
in this guidebook are core background and research information for reference
purposes.
http://www. huduser. org/Publica tions/pdf/
impactfees.pdf
Measuring the Air Quality and Transportation Impacts of Infill Development -
This EPA document illustrates how regions can calculate the transportation and
air quality benefits of infill, based on standard transportation forecasting models
used by MPOs across the country. The results suggest that strong support for
infill development can be one of the most effective transportation and emission
reduction investments regions can pursue.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/impacts_infill.
htm
Model Smart Growth Codes - The American Planning Association has developed
a set of model codes for municipal governments that address mixed uses, open
space preservation, housing, transportation options, and predictability in the
development review process.
http://www.planning.org/research/smartgrowth/
National Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT) Smart Communities
Network - This Web site provides resources, tools, links to articles and
publications, and community success stories on a variety of "smart communities"
topics, including community energy, land use planning, transportation, and
financing.
http://www.smartcommunities.ncat.org/
National Award for Smart Growth Achievement - This annual award from EPA
recognizes communities that use the principles of smart growth to create better
places.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/awards.htm
National Center for Safe Routes to School - The National Center for Safe Routes
to School has resources to help communities improve the walking and biking
environment around their schools.
http://www.saferoutesinfo.org
National Charrette Institute - The National Charrette Institute offers training and
other resources to help communities set up charrettes for development projects.
www. charretteinstitute. org
National Trust Main Street Center - The National Trust for Historic Preservation's
Main Street Center helps communities revitalize historic commercial districts,
making them economically successful while preserving their distinctive
character.
http://www.mainstreet.org
New Partners for Smart Growth - This annual conference brings together a
multidisciplinary audience to learn from each other.
www. newpartners. org
Our Built and Natural Environments - A Technical Review of the Interactions
Between Land Use, Transportation, and Environmental Quality. This EPA
document examines trends in land use and their impacts, and then explores
how different development patterns and practices can minimize environmental
damage.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/built.htm
32
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
10 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES (cont.)
Title/Description
Parking Spaces/Community Places - Finding the Balance Through Smart Growth
Solutions. This EPA document highlights proven approaches that balance parking
with broader community goals. Communities have found that combinations of
parking pricing, shared parking, demand management, and other techniques
have helped them create vibrant places while protecting environmental quality.
Web Site
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/parking.htm
Pedestrian- and Transit-Friendly Design: A Primer for Smart Growth - This
International City/County Management Association and Smart Growth Network
primer suggests design elements that make walking and transit use easier and
more comfortable.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/pd f/ptfd_primer.
pdf
Public Transportation's Contribution to U.S. Greenhouse Gas Reduction - This
report by the American Public Transportation Association assesses how public
transportation can help reduce GHG emissions.
h ttp://www. ap ta. com/resources/
reportsandpublications/Documents/climate_
change.pdf
Reconnecting America - This non-profit organization provides a number of
reports and books on both development-oriented transit and transit-oriented
development. For example, TOD 101: Why Transit-Oriented Development And
Why Now? lays out the case for TOD in a simple, easy-to-read format.
http://www.reconnectingamerica.org/public/
reports
Sample Bicycle Plans - The Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center maintains
a list of sample bicycle master plans from states, regions, and cities around the
country.
http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/develop/sample-
plans.cfm
Sample Pedestrian Plans - The Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center
maintains a list of sample pedestrian master plans from states, regions, and cities
around the country.
http://www.walkinginfo.org/develop/sample-plans.
cfm
Schools for Successful Communities: An Element of Smart Growth - This
EPA document explains why and how communities can employ smart growth
planning principles to build schools that better serve and support students, staff,
parents, and the entire community.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/schools.htm
Smart Codes in Your Community: A Guide to Building Rehabilitation
Codes - This HUD report provides a broad overview of the general regulatory
environment governing the use and reuse of existing buildings. It also provides
examples of state and local efforts to reduce regulatory complexity and
suggests possible strategies to help spur reinvestment in the existing building
infrastructure.
http://www.huduser.org/portal/publications/
destech/smartcodes.html
Smart Growth America - Smart Growth America is a coalition of national,
state and local organizations working to support citizen-driven planning that
coordinates development, transportation, revitalization of older areas and
preservation of open space and the environment.
www.smartgrowthamerica.org
Smart Growth Illustrated - This EPA resource shows how smart growth
techniques look in communities around the country.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/case.htm
Smart Growth Is Smart Business - This National Association of Local
Government Environmental Professionals and Smart Growth Leadership Institute
publication identifies successful companies that promote smart growth and bring
vitality and prosperity to their communities.
www.nalgep.org
Smart Growth Online - The Smart Growth Network's clearinghouse of smart
growth-related news, resources, tools, and other information.
www.smartgrowth.org
Smart Growth Scorecards - EPA has developed this online-only resource of
sample scorecards used by communities to evaluate policies and development
projects.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/scorecards
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 33
-------
10 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES (cont.)
Title/Description
Smart Growth Shareware - This CD-ROM contains a library of smart
growth resources from more than 100 organizations, including road-tested
presentations and materials by local and national leaders and organizations,
publications and fact sheets, and Web links to more than 100 additional
resources.
Web Site
www.smartgrowthamerica.org
Smart Growth: The Business Opportunity for Developers and Production
Builders - This Web site provides eight white papers that present a "business case
for smart growth" to assist developers and home builders considering whether to
pursue smart growth projects.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/sg_business.htm
Smart Growth Zoning Codes: A Resource Guide - This publication from the
Local Government Commission helps communities learn about and implement
smart growth codes.
www.lgc.org
Study of Subdivision Requirements as a Regulatory Barrier - This study
addresses the characterization on a national basis of the regulatory cost barriers
associated with land subdivision, specifically barriers to the subdivision of land
that can be developed with single-family detached dwellings.
http://www. huduser. org/Publica tions/pdf/subdiv_
reportpdf
This Is Smart Growth - This International City/County Management Association
and Smart Growth Network report illustrates how communities can turn their
values, visions, and aspirations into reality, using smart growth techniques to
improve development. It features 40 places around the country—from cities to
suburbs to small towns to rural areas—that have found success by implementing
smart growth principles.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/tisg.htm
Transit Oriented Development Best Practices - This best practices manual was
developed by the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority based on analysis
of case studies of TOD in regions around the country and lessons learned from
other regions' experiences.
http://www.riderta.com/pdf/tod/GCRTA_TOD_
Best_Practices.pdf
Transportation Reform and Smart Growth: A Nation at the Tipping Point - This
Founders' Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities paper discusses
the links between growth patterns and transportation policy.
http://www.fundersnetwork.org/files/
transportation_paper.pdf
Travel and Environmental Implications of School Siting - This EPA document
provides important information about how the location of a school affects how
its students get to it, showing that school siting and design can influence traffic
congestion, air pollution, school transportation budgets, and children's health
and obesity.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/school_travei
htm
Urban Land Institute (ULI) Awards for Excellence - These awards are given by
ULI each year to recognize outstanding projects that enhance the community
and the environment.
http://www.uli.org/AwardsAndCompetitions/
AwardsForExcellenceProgram
Win-Win Emission Reduction Strategies - This paper by the Victoria Transport
Policy Institute outlines transportation and land use strategies that can reduce
GHG emissions and provide other societal benefits.
http://www.vtpi.org/wwclimate.pdf
34
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Transportation Control Measures | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
11. REFERENCES
AARP Public Policy Institute. 2009. Preserving Afford-
ability and Access in Livable Communities: Subsidized
Housing Opportunities Near Transit and the 50+
Population. Available: http://www.aarp.org/research/
ppi/tiv-com/housing/artides/2009-15.html. Accessed
2/18/2010.
Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility
Authority. 2008. Your Water Authority. Available:
http://www.abcwua.org/content/view/68/57/. Accessed
7/31/2008.
Arlington. 2005. Master Transportation Plan:
Baseline Conditions Report, Sept. 2005, p.2.
Available: http://www.arHngtonva.us/Departments/
EnvironmentalServices/Documents/3910MTP%20
Basetine.pdf. Accessed 3/19/2010.
Arlington. 2008A. "30 Years of Smart Growth: Arlington
County's Experience with Transit Oriented Development
in the Rosslyn-Ballston Metro Corridor" Arlington
County Department of Community Planning, Hous-
ing, and Development. Presentation, July 2008.
Arlington. 2008B. What Is a Metro Station
Area? Available: http://www.arlingtonva.us/
DEPARTMENTS/CPHD/planning/data_maps/metro/
CPHDPlanningDataandMapsMetro_Station.aspx.
Accessed 8/5/2008.
Arlington. 2008C. Smart Growth. Available:
http://www. co. arlington. va. us/Departments/CPHD/
planning/CPHDPlanningSmartGrowth.aspx.
Accessed 8/6/2008.
Bach, A. 2007. "A new Bellevue: Step by step to a pedes-
trian-friendly downtown" Seattle Times. April 9, 2007.
Baldwin Park. 2008. Web site. Available:
http://www.baldwinparkfl.com. Accessed 8/1/2008.
Burchell, R., and Mukherji, S. 2003. "Conventional
Development versus Managed Growth: The Costs of
Sprawl" American Journal of Public Health. September
2003, Vol. 93, No. 9, pp. 1534-1540.
California Department of Transportation. Statewide
Transit-Oriented Development Study: Factors for
Success in California. Sept. 2002. p. 42. Available at
http://transitorienteddevelopment.dot.ca.gov/PDFs/
Statewide%20TOD%20Study%20Final%20Report%20
Sept.%2002.pdf. Accessed 7/18/2008.
California Office of the Governor. 2008. Gover-
nor Schwarzenegger Signs Sweeping Legislation
to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions through
Land-Use. September 30, 2008. Available at
http://gov. ca.gov/press-release/10697. Accessed
11/3/2008.
Cambridge Systematics, Inc. 2009. Moving Cooler:
An Analysis of Transportation Strategies for Reduc-
ing Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Washington, DC:
Urban Land Institute, http://www.movingcooler.info/.
Accessed 12/5/2009.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
2009. "Recommended Community Strategies and
Measurements to Prevent Obesity in the United States"
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports. 58(RR07):
1 -26. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/
rr5807al.htm
CD FA. 2007. "Tax Increment Finance Policy & Practices
that Encourage Smart Growth" Presentation at the New
Partners for Smart Growth conference. February 8,
2007. Available: http://www.smartgrowthonlineaudio.
org/np2007/107a.pdf. Accessed 8/22/2008.
City of Austin. 2000. Downtown Austin Design Guide-
lines. Available: http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/downtown/
designguidelines.htm. Accessed 7/24/2008.
City of Bellevue. 2006. FAR Amenity System for Down-
town Development. Development Services Handout
L-15. Available: http://www.ci.bellevue.wa.us/pdf/
PCD/L-15_FAR_Dwntwn.pdf. Accessed 7/18/2008.
City of Bellevue. 2007. Bellevue by the Numbers. Avail-
able: http://www.ci.bellevue.wa.us/images/Manager/
BellevueBytheNumbers.pdf. Accessed 3/19/10.
City of Boca Raton. UNDATED. The Mizner Park Proj-
ect. Available: http://www.ci.boca-raton.fl.us/dev/pdf/
CRAfMiznerParkHandout.pdf. Accessed 7/29/2008.
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
11. REFERENCES
35
-------
City of Boulder. 2007. Modal Shift in the Boulder
Valley, 1990 to 2006. National Research Center. July
2007. Available: http://www.bouldercolorado.gov/files/
Transportation_Master_Plan/modal_shiftl990-2006_
report_final.pdf. Accessed 3/19/2010.
City of Boulder. 2003. Transportation Master Plan.
Available: http://www. bouldercolorado.gov/files/
Transportation_Master_Planf2008_EoulderTMP.pdf.
Accessed 7/24/2008.
City of Mobile. 2008. Urban Development. Available:
http:/'/urban, cityoftnobile. org/urban_pc/landuse_
plan_comm.php. Accessed 7/28/2008.
City of Portland. 2008. Development Review. Available:
http:/7www. ci.portland. me. us/planning/'devreview. asp.
Accessed 7/31/2008.
City of Seattle. 2006A. Green Home Case Study: High
Point. City of Seattle Department of Planning and
Development. January 2006. Available: http://www.
ci.seattle.wa.us/DPD/stellent/groups/pan/@pan/@
sustainableblding/documents/web_informational/
dpds_007254.pdf. Accessed 3/19/2010.
City of Seattle. 2006B. High Point Redevelopment.
Exhibit. City of Seattle Department of Planning and
Development. Jan.-June 2006. Available: http://www.
ci.seattle.wa.us/dpd/Planning/Planning_Exhibit/
HighPointfindex.htm. Accessed 7/31/2008.
City of Wichita. 2008. Historic Preservation. Avail-
able: http://www.wichita.gov/CityOffices/Planning/
Preservation/. Accessed 7/25/2008.
Colorado OSG. 2008. Colorado Office of Smart
Growth. Available: http://dola.colorado.gov/dlg/osg/
index.htm. Accessed 8/21/2008.
Connolly, W.M. UNDATED. Rules That Make Sense-
New Jersey's Rehabilitation Subcode. New Jersey Depart-
ment of Community Affairs. Available: http://www.
state, nj. us/dca/codes/rehab/pioneerart.shtml Accessed
7/25/2008.
Cortright, J. 2007. City Advantage. CEOs for Cities.
October 2007. Available: http://www.ceosforcities.org/
filesfdtyAdvantage.pdf. Accessed 8/22/2008.
CTOD. 2004. Hidden in Plain Sight: Capturing
the Demand for Housing near Transit. Center
for Transit-Oriented Development, Reconnecting
America. September 2004. Available: http://www.
reconnectingamerica. org/public/reports. Accessed
7/18/2008.
Delaware. 2003. Exploring the Benefits of Compact
Development. Research Study. Delaware's Office of State
Planning Coordination. August 2003
Delaware. 2004. Delaware Strategies for State Policies
and Spending. 5 Year Update, July 2004. Delaware's
Office of State Planning Coordination. Avail-
able: http://stateplanning. delaware.gov/strategies/
document_04l05_choice.pdf. Accessed 9/24/2010.
Eaton, D. K., et al. 2006. Youth Risk Behavior Surveil-
lance— United States, 2005. Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention. June 9, 2006 / 55 (SS05); 1-108.
Available at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/
mmwrhtmllss5505al.htm. Accessed 3/28/2008.
Envision Utah. 2008. History of Envision Utah.
Available: www.envisionutah.org. Accessed 3/13/2008.
Ewing, R., K. Bartholomew, S. Winkelman, J.
Walters, and D. Chen. 2008. Growing Cooler: The
Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change.
Urban Land Institute. Available: http://www.uli.
org/ResearchAndPublications/Reports/~/media/
Documents/ResearchAndPublications/Reports/
GrowingCooler.ashx. Accessed 3/19/2010.
Ewing, R., and Fang Rong. 2008. The Impact of Urban
Form on U.S. Residential Energy Use. Housing Policy
Debate, Volume 19, Issue 1.
FHWA. 2008. FHWA Safety: Safe Routes to School. Web
site. U.S. Department of Transportation. Available:
http://safety.fhwa. dot.gov/saferoutes/. Accessed:
3/19/2010.
Fitzsimmons, N., and W. Birch. 2003. "Hudson-Bergen
Light Rail System and Economic Development on the
Waterfront." Transportation Research Circular, No.
E-C058: 9th National Light Rail Conference, Port-
land, OR, Nov. 16-18, 2003, pp. 205-214. Available
http://onUnepubs.trb.org/OnUnepubs/circulars/ec058/
ec058.pdf. Accessed 3/19/2010.
36
11. REFERENCES
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Florida, R. 2004. "The Great Creative Class Debate."
The Next American City. Issue 5, July 2004. Avail-
able: http://americancity.org/magazine/article/
the-great-creative-dass-debate-revenge-of-the-
squelchers-florida/. Accessed 8/21/2008.
Forest City Stapleton, Inc. 2004. Stapleton Sustain-
ability Master Plan. Available: http://stapletondenver.
com/data/uploads/Stapleton_Sustainability_Plan.pdf.
Accessed 3/19/2010.
Frank, L.D., T.L. Schmid, J.F. Sallis, J. Chapman, and
B.E. Saelens. 2005. "Linking objectively measured physi-
cal activity with objectively measured urban form: find-
ings from SMARTRAQ" American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 28 (2 Suppl. 2): 117-25.
Friedman, Naomi. 2004. Energy and Smart Growth: It's
about How and Where We Build. Available: http://www.
fundersnetwork.org/files/Energy_and_Smart_Growth.
pdf. Accessed 3/19/2010.
FTA. 2008. Grant Programs. Available: http://www.fta.
dot.gov/funding/grants_financing_263.html. Accessed
8/20/2008.
Goldberg, D. 2007. New Data for a New Era: A
Summary of the SMARTRAQ Findings. Available at
http://www.act-trans.ubc.ca/smartraq/pages. Accessed
3/13/2008.
Good Jobs First. UNDATED. Job Subsidies. Avail-
able: http://'www.goodjobsfirst.org/'smart_growth/
subsidies_sprawl.cfm. Accessed 8/22/2008.
ITE. 2006. Context Sensitive Solutions in Designing
Major Urban Thoroughfares for Walkable Communities.
Institute of Transportation Engineers, pp 200-204.
Available: http://www.ite.org/bookstore/RP036.pdf.
Accessed 3/19/2010.
Kallins, W. 2002. Safe Routes to School Overview.
U.S. Department of Transportation: National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Available:
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/pedbimot/
bike/Safe-Routes-2002/overview.html. Accessed
3/28/2008.
Kaiser, J. 2005. "Mounting Evidence Indicts Fine-Particle
Pollution" Science, 25 March 2005: Vol. 307. No. 5717,
pp. 1858-1861.
Leach, D. 2004. "Rosslyn-Ballston Corridor" The New
Transit Town: Best Practices in Transit-Oriented Devel-
opment, H. Dittmar and G. Ohland, editors. Island
Press, 2004. pp. 131-153.
Leccese, M. 2005. "Denver's Stapleton: Green Urban
Infill for the Masses?" Terrain.org., No. 17, Fall/Winter
2005. Available: http://www.terrain.org/articles/17/
leccese.htm. Accessed 7/30/2008.
Leinberger, C. 2008. Walkable Urban Development:
The Private Developer's Perspective. Presentation,
July 17, 2008. Available: http://www.nemw.org/
images/stories/documents/'ArcadiaLeinberger.pdf.
Accessed 3/19/2010.
Livable Communities Coalition. 2007. Survey
and Analysis of Tax Allocation Districts (TADs)
in Georgia. October 4, 2007. Available: http://
www.livablecommunitiescoalition.org/
uploads/100012_bodycontentfiles/l 00578.pdf.
Accessed 8/22/2008.
Logan, G., S. Siejka, and S. Kannan. 2009. The Market
for Smart Growth. U.S. EPA. http://www.epa.gov/
smartgrowth/pdf/logan.pdf.
Massachusetts. 2008A. Commonwealth Capital—2009
Summary. Available: http://www.mass.gov/Agov3/
docs/smart_growth/Commonwealth%20Capital%20
Summary%2009.rtf. Accessed 7/24/2008.
Massachusetts. 2008B. Smart Growth/Smart Energy
Toolkit. Available: http://www.mass.gov/envir/smart_
growth_toolkit/index.html. Accessed 5/29/2008.
Meek, S., et al. 2006. Model Smart Land Development
Regulations. American Planning Association. Available
at http://www.planning.org/research/smartgrowth/.
Accessed 3/19/2010.
Met Council. 2008A. 2030 Regional Development
Framework and Policy Plans. Available: http://www.
metrocouncil org/planning/framework/overview. htm.
Accessed 7/24/2008.
Met Council. 2008B. Fiscal Disparities: Tax Base Sharing
in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area. Available: http://
www.metrocouncil.org/metroarea/FiscalDisparities/
index.htm. Accessed 7/25/2008.
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
11. REFERENCES
37
-------
Met Council. 2008C. Planning for a better region. Avail-
able : http://www. metrocountil. org/planning/planning.
htm. Accessed 7/24/2008.
Metropolitan Transportation Commission.
2009. Smart Growth I Transportation for Livable
Communities. Available: http://www.mtc.ca.gov/
planning/'smart_growth/. Accessed 3/19/2010.
Montgomery County. 2005. History of the Moderately
Priced Dwelling Unit (MPDU) Program in Mont-
gomery County, Maryland. Available: http://www.
montgomerycountymd.gov/dhctmpl.asp?url=/content/
dhca/housing/housing_P/mpdu/history. asp. Accessed
7/22/2008.
Nashville. 2005. Fact Sheet: Expanded Subdivision Regu-
lations. Metropolitan Government of Nashville and
Davidson County. Dec. 2005. Available: http://www.
nashville.gov/mpc/subdivregs/fact_sheet. asp. Accessed
3/19/2010.
National Association of Home Builders (NAHB)
Research Center. 2007. Study of Subdivision Require-
ments as a Regulatory Barrier. Available: http://www.
huduser.org/Publications/pdj7subdiv_report.pdf.
Accessed 3/19/2010.
Nelson, A. C. 2009. Where Will Everybody Live? U.S.
EPA. Publication forthcoming.
Norman, J., H. L. MacLean, and C. A. Kennedy. 2006.
"Comparing High and Low Residential Density: Life-
Cycle Analysis of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emis-
sions" Journal of Urban Planning and Development, Vol.
132, No. I.March 2006.
ORNL. 2007. 2001 National Household Travel Survey.
Available: http://nhts.ornl.gov. Accessed 3/13/2008.
Pianca, E.G. 2002. Smart Codes. National Trust
for Historic Preservation. Available: http://www.
preservationnation.org/issues/smart-growth/
additional-resources/toolkit_codes.pdf. Accessed
7/25/2008.
Pratt, M., C. Macera, and G. Wang. 2000. "Higher
Direct Medical Costs Associated with Physical Inactiv-
ity" The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 28. pp. 63-70.
Pryne, E. 2008. "New Bellevue Safeway caters to urban
dwellers" Seattle Times. June 27, 2008.Available: http://
seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnol-
ogy/2008021192_safeway28.html. Accessed 3/19/2010.
SACOG. 2005. Initial Blueprint Infrastructure Cost
Analysis. Regional Report. Sacramento Area Council
of Governments. October 2005. Available: http://www.
sacog.org/regrpt/pdf/2005/10-Oct/OCT_RR_2005_
V6_5.pdf. Accessed 3/19/2010.
Safe Routes. 2008. Safe Routes to School: Case Studies
from Around the Country. Available: http://drusilla.
hsrc.unc.edu/cms/downloads/srts_case_studies.pdf.
Accessed 3/19/2010.
SHA. 2007. Seattle Housing Authority. Application for
2007 National Award for Smart Growth.
SHA. 2008A. Seattle Housing Authority Awards. Avail-
able: http://www.seattlehousing. org/about/awards/.
Accessed 3/19/2010.
SHA. 2008B. High Point Redevelopment Plan. Available:
http://www.seattlehousing.org/development/highpoint/
plan.html. Accessed 8/4/2008.
Smart Growth Leadership Institute. 2004. Nashville-
Davidson County Subdivision Regulations Audit: Final
Report and Recommendations. Smart Growth Leader-
ship Institute. Available: http://www.sgli.org/ourwork/
downloads/reports/nashville.pdf. Accessed 3/19/2010.
Smart Growth Leadership Institute. 2008. Smart
Growth Toolkit. Available: http://www.sgli.org/toolkit/
index.htm. Accessed 3/19/2010.
Smart Growth Network. 1998. Principles of Smart
Growth. Available: http://www.smartgrowth.org/about/
principles/'default.asp. Accessed 4/15/2008.
Smart Growth Network. 2002. Getting to Smart
Growth: 100 Policies for Implementation. Available:
http://www.smartgrowth. org/pdf/gettosg.pdf. Accessed
11/12/2008.
Smart Growth Vermont. UNDATED. Smart Growth
Vermont. Web site. Available: http://www.smartgrowth-
vermont.org/Accessed 11/11/2008.
11. REFERENCES
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Stapleton. 2006. "Stapleton Economic Development
Study Released" Press release, Stapleton Development
Corporation. September 27, 2006. Available: http://
www.stapletoncorp.com/plan.htm. Accessed 7/30/2008.
Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP).
2008. Effects of TOD on Housing, Parking, and Travel.
Available: http://onlinepubs. trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/
tcrp_rpt_128.pdf. Accessed 2/18/10.
Thorne, S. 2002. "Once Scorned, MiznerPark Now City's
Pride" Shopping Centers Today. August 2002. Avail-
able: http://www.icsc.org/srch/sct/sct0802/page28.php.
Accessed 7/29/2008.
Tracy, S. 2003. Smart Growth Zoning Codes: A Resource
Guide. Local Government Commission. Available at
www.lgc.org. Accessed 3/28/2008.
Traverse City Area Chamber of Commerce. UNDAT-
ED. New Designs for Growth. Available: http://www.
newdesignsforgrowth.org/. Accessed 3/19/2010.
Trust for Public Land. UNDATED. Local Programs.
Available: http://www.tpl.org/. Accessed 11/11/2008.
ULI. 2008. Growing Cooler: Evidence on Urban Develop-
ment and Climate Change. Available: http://www.uli.
org/AM/Template.cfm?Section = Home&CONTENTID
= 118999&TEMPLATE = /CM/ContentDisplay.cfm.
Accessed 4/15/2008.
ULI and PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP. 2009. Emerg-
ing Trends in Real Estate 2009. Available at http://
www.pwc.com/us/en/asset-management/real-estate/
publications/emerging-trends-in-real-estate-2009.
jhtml Accessed 12/7/2009.
U.S. BTS. 2001. Highlights of the 2001 National House-
hold Travel Survey. U.S. Bureau of Transportation
Statistics. Available: http://www.bts.gov/publications/
highlights_of_the_2001_national_household_travel_
survey/html/section_02.html. Accessed 3/13/2008.
U.S. EPA. 2002. National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement, 2002. EPA 231-F-02-002. Available:
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/awards_2002.htm.
U.S. EPA. 2004. National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement, 2004. EPA 231-F-04-001. Available
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/sg_awards_
publication_2004.htm.
U.S. EPA. 2005. National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement, 2005. EPA 231-K-05-001. Available:
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/awards/sg_awards_
publication_2005.htm. Accessed 7/24/2008.
U.S. EPA. 2006A. Parking Spaces/Community Places:
Finding the Balance through Smart Growth Solutions.
EPA 231-K-06-001. Available: http://www.epa.gov/
smartgrowth/parking.htm.
U.S. EPA. 2006B. National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement, 2006. EPA 231-K-06-004. Available
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/awards/sg_awards_
publication_2006.htm. Accessed 7/24/2008.
U.S. EPA. 2006C. Smart Growth Illustrated: Silver
Spring's Green Tape program. Available: http://www.
epa.gov/smartgrowth/case/greentap.htm. Accessed
5/28/2008.
U.S. EPA. 2007. National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement, 2007. EPA 231-K-07-001. Available:
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/awards/sg_awards_
publication_2007.htm. Accessed 7/31/2008.
U.S. EPA. 2008A. About Smart Growth. Available: http://
www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/'about_sg.htm. Accessed
5/28/2008.
U.S. EPA. 2008B. Ensuring a Sustainable Future:
An Energy Management Guidebook for Wastewater
and Water Utilities. Available: http://www.epa.gov/
waterinfrastructure/pdfs/guidebook_si_energyman-
agement.pdf. Accessed 12/04/2009.
U.S. EPA. 2008C. National Award for Smart
Growth Achievement, 2008. EPA 231-K-08-001.
Available: http://www. epa.gov/dced/awards/
sg_awards_publication_2008.htm. Accessed
2/18/2010.
U.S. EPA. 2009A. Essential Smart Growth Fixes for
Urban and Suburban Zoning Codes. EPA 231-K-09-
003. Available: http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/
essential_fixes.htm.
U.S. EPA. 2009B. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas
Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2007. Available: http://epa.
gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport09.
html. Accessed 3/19/2010.
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
11. REFERENCES
39
-------
U.S. EPA. 2009C. National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement, 2009. Available: http://www.epa.gov/
dced/awards/sg_awards_publication_2009.htm.
Accessed 2/18/2010.
U.S. HUD. 2007. HUD's Public Housing Program.
Available: http://www. hud.gov/renting/phprog. cfm.
Accessed 11/14/2008.
U.S. HUD. 2008. Community Development Block
Grant Program. Available: http://www.hud.gov/offices/
cpd/communitydevelopment/programs/index. cfm.
Accessed 8/20/2008.
U.S. GSA. 2010. Privately Owned Vehicle Mileage
Reimbursement Rates. Available: www.gsa.gov/mileage.
Accessed 2/18/2010.
U.S. Green Building Council. 2008. LEEDfor Neigh-
borhood Development Rating System. Available: http://
www. usgbc. org/DisplayPage. aspx?CMSPageID=l 48.
Accessed 11/17/2008.
Valley Metro. 2010. Metro TOD Policy. Available:
http://www.valleymetro.org/metro_light_rail/about_
light_rail/metro_tod_policy/. Accessed 2/18/2010.
Van Gieson, J. 2005. "The Code Word Is Smart Growth"
On Common Ground. The National Association
of Realtors. Summer 2005. pp. 16-21. Available:
http://www.realtor.org/smart_growth.nsf/docfiles/
summer05smart.pdf/$FILE/summer05smart.pdf.
Accessed 7/25/2008.
Wasserman, M. 2000. Urban Sprawl. Federal Reserve
Bank of Boston. Available: http://www.bos.frb.org/
economic/nerr/rr2000/ql/wassOO_l .htm. Accessed
7/29/2008.
Wells, W. 2008. "High Point: A Blueprint for Greening
Affordable Housing in Seattle" Terrain.org, No. 22:
Summer/Fall 2008. Available: http://www.terrain.org/
articles/22/wells.htm. Accessed 7/31/08.
Winkelman, S., et al. 2005. Air Quality and Smart
Growth: Planning for Cleaner Air. Funders Network
for Smart Growth and Livable Communities. Avail-
able : http://www.fundersnetwork. org/files/Air_Qual-
ity_and_Smart_Growth.pdf. Accessed 3/19/2010.
40
11. REFERENCES
Smart Growth | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
-------
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
1200 PENNSYLVANIA AVENUE, NW
WASHINGTON, DC 20460
WWW.EPA.GOV/STATELOCALCLIMATE/RESOURCES/STRATEGY-GUIDES.HTML
EPA-430-R-09-042
------- |