UNITED STATES • CANADA
AIR QUALITY AGREEMENT
1998 PROGRESS REPORT
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Cover photos by Steve Delaney, U.S. EPA
Recycled/Recyclable
Printed with Vegetable Oil Based
Inks on Recycled Paper (20% Postconsumer)
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UNITED STATES • CANADA
AIR QUALITY AGREEMENT
1998 PROGRESS REPORT
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YOUR COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT WOULD BE APPRECIATED BY FEBRUARY 26, 1999:
The International Joint Commission (IJC) is responsible for inviting public
comment on Air Quality Agreement Progress Reports and for distributing
comments received on request. Written comments on this report should be
sent to one of the following offices on or before February 26, 1999;
SECRETARY, CANADIAN SECTION
International Joint Commission
100 Metcalfe Street
Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5M1
SECRETARY, UNITED STATES SECTION
International Joint Commission
1250 23rd Street NW, Suite 100
Washington, DC 20440
Fax: (613) 993-5583
Kmail; lengellef@ottawa.ijc.org
Fax: (202) 736-9015
Email: bevacquaf@washington.ijc.org
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION I
INTRODUCTION. ...1
SECTION II
COMMITMENTS AND PROGRESS. ...2
Reductions in Kmissions of Sulphur Dioxide 2
Reductions in Kmissions of Nitrogen Oxides 3
Monitoring of Kmissions 5
Prevention of Air Quality Deterioration and Visibility Protection 6
Notification of Significant Transboundary Air Pollution 7
Assessment and Mitigation of Transboundary Air Pollution 8
SECTION III ADDITIONAL AIR QUALITY
PROGRAMS AND INITIATIVES 9
Cooperation on Ground-level Ozone and Particulate Matter 9
Domestic Programs to Address Ozone and PM 9
Other Cooperative Air Quality Kfforts 12
SECTION IV SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
ACTIVITIES 14
Kmissions Inventories 14
Acid Deposition Monitoring 16
Aquatic Kffects and Research Monitoring 18
Forest Kffects 19
Kffects on Materials 21
Health Kffects 21
Ozone Monitoring, Research, and Assessment 23
Particulate Matter Monitoring and Research 24
SECTION V CONCLUSION 25
BIBLIOGRAPHY 26
APPENDIX UNITED STATES-CANADA
AIR QUALITY COMMITTEE.. ...27
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
Under the 1991 Air Quality Agreement,
Canada and the United States have committed
to addressing transboundary air pollution. To
date, work under the Agreement has focused
on acid rain issues. The two governments have
made significant reductions in emissions of
the two major acid rain pollutants — sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX).
Over the past two years,
the Federal governments'
close cooperation with State
and Provincial governments
and other stakeholders has
demonstrated that, in addi-
tion to the importance of
continuing joint work on
common concerns to reduce
acid deposition, the two
countries have substantial
common interests in the problems of ground-
level ozone and particulate matter pollution,
particularly due to their impacts on human health.
This fourth report on the Air Quality
Agreement focuses on progress since 1996
to meet commitments in the Agreement, key
scientific and technical trends related to air
pollution, and the results of the acid rain con-
trol programs in each country. The report also
considers the increasing cooperation of both coun-
tries in addressing the emerging transboundary
issues of ground-level ozone and particulate
matter (PM).
During April 1997 meetings in Washington
between the Prime Minister and the President,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (KPA)
Administrator Carol Browner
and the former Canadian
Minister of the Knvironment
signed the Program to Develop
a Joint Plan of Action for
Addressing Transboundary
Air Pollution. The Joint Plan's
focus was on ground-level ozone
and particulate matter. In June
1998, Administrator Carol
Browner and Minister of the
Knvironment Christine Stewart
endorsed a report from the Canada—U.S. Air
Quality Committee outlining a strategy that
will lead, by April 1999, to recommendations
on negotiation of an ozone annex pursuant to
the Air Quality Agreement and on a joint plan
for transboundary inhalable fine particles.
Note: Canadian spelling is used throughout. Future reports
will alternate the use of Canadian and American spelling.
Dollars are $ U.S. unless otherwise indicated.
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SECTION II
COMMITMENTS AND PROGRESS
This section focuses on Canadian and U.S. progress in meeting key commitments
under Annex I of the Air Quality Agreement.
REDUCTIONS IN EMISSIONS
OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE
CANADIAN COMMITMENT
• SO2 emissions reduction in 7 easternmost provinces
to 2.3million tonnes^ by 1994
' Maintenance of 2.3-million tonne annual cap
for eastern Canada through December 1999
' Permanent national cap for SO2 emissions
of 3.2million tonnes by 2000
Canada has surpassed its international
and domestic commitments to reduce emis-
sions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) both in the
seven easternmost provinces and nationally.
In 1997, national emissions were approxi-
mately 2.6 million tonnes, or 18% below the
cap of 3.2 million tonnes. In eastern Canada,
emissions were approximately 1.7 million
tonnes, or 24% below the cap of 2.3 million
tonnes. Furthermore, forecasts of emissions of
SO2 up to the year 2010 indicate that Canadian
emissions will remain well below these caps.
Despite meeting and exceeding its commit-
ments, Canada remains concerned about acid rain
in eastern Canada. Knvironment Canada is work-
ing with the provinces and territories to develop
a Canada-Wide Acid Rain Strategy for Post-2000
that would lead to the establishment of new SO2
targets and reduction schedules for the provinces
of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova
Scotia. The strategy, expected to be submitted
to provincial and Federal Knergy and Knviron-
ment Ministers for approval in 1998, is based
on a 1997 report issued by the multi-stakeholder
Acidifying Kmissions Task Group. The report,
Towards a National Acid Rain Strategy, concluded
that emissions reductions of up to 75% beyond
current commitments would be required in
targeted regions of eastern Canada and the
United States to prevent damage to sensitive
ecosystems in Canada.
U.S. COMMITMENT
• SU2 emissions reduction of 10 million tons
from 1980 levels by 2000Z
' Permanent national cap of 8.95million tons of
SU2 per year for electric utilities by the year 2010
' National cap of 5.6 million tons for industrial
source emissions beginning in 1995
Since implementation of the U.S. Acid Rain
Program in 1995, utility units targeted under
Phase I (1995-1999) have continued to show a
50% reduction in SO2 emissions from 1980 levels.
These Phase I units, which include the highest
emitting plants, have exceeded their prescribed
annual emissions reductions, reducing SO2 emis-
sions significantly below allowed annual levels. In
1997, SO2 emissions for all affected Phase I units
were 5.5 million tons, which is 23% (or 1.7 million
tons) below the 7.1 ton allowable level determined
by 1997 allowance allocations. All affected Phase 1
units include the highest emitting 263 original units
and 160 other participating units in 1997. SO2
1- One Tonne is equal to 1.1 short tons 2. One (short) ton is equal to 0.9 tonnes.
3- With the exception of sources re-powering with a qualifying clean coal technology, sources receiving bonus allowances as part of the Allowance
Trading Program and sources using allowances earned for early reduction efforts prior to the year 2000.
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emissions for the original units were 4.8 million
tons in 1997. For the first three years of the pro-
gram (1995—1997), SO2 emissions from all Phase I
units have been 30% below allowable levels.
As part of the Acid Rain Program, all
affected utility units (which account for more
than 99% of utility SO2 emissions) are allocated
a specific number of emissions allowances, with
one allowance equalling one ton of SO2 emis-
sions. Allowances are tradable, and utilities are
free to buy, sell, or bank them for future use.
In Phase II (to begin in the year 2000), the total
number of allowances allocated is set at half the
1980 emissions level, providing a legally binding
cap on national utility SO2 emissions.
U.S. S02 Emissions Reductions at Original Phase 1 Utility Units
1997 Allowable Emissions
6.0
1985 1990 1997
Year
Note: Original utility units include the 263 highest emitting Phase 1 units.
The SO2 Allowance Trading Program is
the first large-scale emissions trading program
in the United States. The flexibility of this
program and other compliance options has
resulted in significantly lower than expected
costs for reducing emissions.
REDUCTIONS IN EMISSIONS
OF NITROGEN OXIDES
CANADIAN COMMITMENT
• By 2000, reduce stationary source emissions 100,000
tonnes below the forecast level of 970, 000 tonnes
' By 1995, develop further annual national emissions
reduction requirements from stationary sources to
be achieved by 2000 and/or 2005
' Mobile sources.' implement NOX control program
In Canada, nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions
have decreased from 2.1 million tonnes in 1990
to 2.0 million tonnes in 1995, largely as a result
of industrial process changes, retrofitting of
fossil-fuelled power plants, and provincial and
Federal programs targeting mobile sources.
The largest contributor of NOX in Canada
is the transportation sector, which accounts for
about 60% of all emissions. Improvements are
expected by 2010, with an anticipated decline in
NOX emissions of 10% from 1990 levels, primar-
ily as a result of improved standards for on-road
vehicles. In 1997, Transport Canada adopted new
regulations under the Motor Vehicle Safety Act
that harmonized Canadian light-duty vehicle
emissions standards with those of the United
States. The new regulations apply to light-duty
vehicles, light-duty trucks, engines, and motor
cycles manufactured after September 1, 1997,
which are fuelled by gasoline, methanol, com-
pressed natural gas (CNG), and liquefied natural
gas (LNG). Additional new regulations apply
to diesel-fuelled on-
road heavy-duty
vehicles manufac-
tured after January
1, 1998. Regulations
are pending for
diesel construction
vehicles and certain
off-road vehicles,
which will likely
be harmonized
with U.S. standards.
A Memorandum
of Understanding
signed in 1995
with the Railway Association of Canada restricts
NOX emissions to 115 kilotonnes (kt) per year
for the railway industry.
For stationary source sectors, Canada is on
target to meet its commitment to reduce national
stationary source NOX emissions by the year 2000,
with expected reductions well in excess of the
required 100 kt. Reductions are in place at major
combustion sources, power plants, and metal
smelting facilities. Stricter emissions limits for
reducing NOX emissions from new power plants
have been established for 1995, and further tight-
ening of the emissions limits for post-2000 is in
Photo by Steve Delaney, U.S. EPA
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progress. New guidelines have also been
developed for reducing NOX emissions from
new and modified commercial and industrial
boilers, process heaters and cement kilns,
combustion turbines, and gas-fired reciprocating
compressor engines.
Ontario, Quebec, the Lower Fraser Valley of
British Columbia, and the Atlantic provinces are
completing action plans to reduce NOX emissions
as part of their acid rain or smog programs. These
include actions to reduce vehicle emissions and
cut NOX emissions at large stationary sources
such as power plants.
U.S. COMMITMENT
By 2000, reduce total annual emissions of NOX by
2 million tons
Implement stationary source control program
for electric utility boilers
Implement mobile source control program
The United States continues to address NOX
emissions from stationary and mobile sources
under the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments
(CAAA), which has mandated a two million ton
reduction in NOX emissions by the year 2000.
The Acid Rain Program and the motor vehicle
source control program together are expected
to exceed this goal.
In 1996, the first year that NOX reductions
were implemented under the Acid Rain Program,
affected utility units reduced emission rates by
an average of 40% below 1990 levels, emitting
33% less NOX (a reduction of 340,000 tons) and
achieving an average of 18% overcompliance
with required emission rate levels.
The number of utility units required to make
reductions in 1997 was 10% greater than in 1996.
These units reduced emission rates by an average
of 41% below 1990 levels, emitting 32% less NOX
(a reduction of 409,000 tons) and achieving 16%
overcompliance with required emission rate levels.
Beginning in the year 2000, NOX emissions
from electric utility units are expected to be
reduced by an additional 1.7 million tons per
year as a result of regulations issued in December
1996 for virtually all coal-fired utility boilers.
KPA continues to implement regulations
established under the CAAA for passenger
cars and trucks, heavy-duty trucks, locomotives,
aircraft, and nonroad engines. The National
Low Kmission Vehicle (NLKV) Program, pro-
mulgated in March 1998, will achieve substantial
nationwide NOX emissions reductions. NLKV
vehicles will be as much as 70% cleaner than
current vehicles. Kmissions reduction estimates
are based on a start date of May 1999 in the
Northeast and May 2001, nationwide.
In October 1997, EPA adopted more
stringent emissions standards for heavy-duty
diesel engines, which will be used in trucks
and buses beginning in the model year 2004.
This new combined
standard for NOX
and hydrocarbons
(HC) represents a
50% reduction in
NOX emissions from
the existing 1998
NOX standard. In
September 1997,
EPA proposed
stringent new
standards for
diesel engines
used in a wide
range of nonroad
construction, agricultural, and industrial
equipment, and some marine applications.
In December 1997, EPA finalized emissions
standards for NOX, HC, carbon monoxide (CO),
PM, and smoke for newly manufactured and
remanufactured diesel-powered locomotives
and locomotive engines. The standards will take
effect in 2000 and will result in an approximate
two-thirds reduction in NOX emissions. In April
1997, EPA finalized new emissions standards
for NOX and CO for commercial aircraft engines.
Aircraft engines contribute about 2% of the total
U.S. mobile source NOX and CO emissions but
can account for up to 4% of mobile source NOX
emissions in some airport areas.
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KPA has also undertaken to reduce
NOX emissions under the ground-level ozone
nonattainment provisions of the Clean Air Act.
In November 1997, KPA proposed the ozone
transport reduction rulemaking to establish
budgets for NOX emissions for various states.
By the summer of 2007, the rulemaking is
expected to result in NOX reductions of more
than 1.1 million tons annually beyond those
achieved through the acid rain and mobile source
control programs. To assist the states in meeting
their NOX budgets, KPA proposed a voluntary
NOX trading program in May 1998. Final regula-
tions on the NOX budgets and the voluntary NOX
trading program are expected in the fall of 1998.
MONITORING OF EMISSIONS
Canada and the United States differ in the
compliance monitoring systems that they use
to measure emissions of SO2, NOX, and other
pollutants from utilities.
CANADIAN COMMITMENT
By 1995, estimate emissions of NOX and SO2 from
new electric utility units and existing electric utility
units greater than 25 MWe (megawatts electric)
using a method of comparable effectiveness to
Continuous Emissions Monitors (OEMs)
By 1995, investigate feasibility of using CEMs
Other major stationary sources.' work towards
comparably effective methods of emission estimation
for SO2 and NOX emissions
pipeline compressors, and peaking units,
however, still depend upon alternative methods
with comparable effectiveness to CKM, such
as annual sampling, fuel/steam/water flow mea-
surement, or parametric performance analysis.
New cement plants will be required to use CKM
systems, although more flexible approaches will
continue to be accepted for existing plants.
As part of the NOX/VOC Management
Program, the National Emission Guidelines for
Commercial/Industrial Boilers and Heaters has been
published. The guideline references a range of
emissions measurement options that can be used
to evaluate NC) emissions and calls for some
U.S. stack testers perform measurements to
improve quality assurance requirements
for flow CEMs which measure stack gases
form of continuous verification from sources with
an input capacity greater than 250 million British
thermal units per hour [MMBtu/hrJ i.e., >73
megawatts (MW) thermal].
Continuous Kmissions Monitoring (CKM)
systems are not yet fully utilized in Canada as
a tool for tracking emissions at all major sources.
However, either CKM or mass balance methods
are used to estimate SO2 emissions in both utility
and nonutility installations because emissions from
these sources are regulated to reduce acid rain.
Since NOX emissions are more difficult to estimate
in equipment such as utility boilers, almost all
of Canada s base-loaded utility units now have
CKMs to measure NOX. Some of the large gas
turbine cogeneration facilities also have CKM
systems for NOX monitoring. Small cogenerators,
U.S. COMMITMENT
By 1995, new electric utility units and existing units
greater than 25 MWe operate CEM systems
CKMs are used by all utilities affected under
the Acid Rain Program and are critical to the
success of the program, providing some of the
most accurate data ever collected by KPA. CKM
data establish the basis for the SO2 allowance
trading program and are used to determine
compliance with the NOx reduction program.
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Visibility on good (left) and bad (right) day at Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, Minnesota
Courtesy of the U.S. Forest Service
Any new or existing utility units greater than
25 MW must use CKMs that measure gaseous
pollutants. Coal units must use volumetric flow
monitors. Some natural gas and oil-fired units
have alternative monitoring requirements. Kach
regulated unit must account for each ton of emitted
SO2, NOX, and carbon dioxide (CO2) and provide
this and other operating data quarterly to KPA's
Kmissions Tracking System, which then analyzes
the data. Utility quarterly reports are available
on the Internet (http://www.epa.gov/acidrain).
PREVENTION OF AIR QUALITY
DETERIORATION AND VISIBILITY
PROTECTION
CANADIAN COMMITMENT
• By 1995, develop and implement means affording
levels of prevention of significant air quality
deterioration and visibility protection comparable
to those in the United States for sources that could
cause significant transboundary air pollution
Knvironmental management in Canada
includes a range of measures for prevention
of significant air quality deterioration (PSD)
and visibility protection. A compilation of
all of the abatement requirements for new
sources across the country is currently being
completed to demonstrate the means Canada
uses to prevent air quality deterioration.
In addition, Federal and provincial
environmental assessment legislation requires
that air quality be considered for all major
new point sources or modifications to exist-
ing sources. Mandatory provincial reporting
processes require new and existing sources
to file notifications, which are reviewed
to determine the scale of environmental
assessment appropriate to each case.
The development of Canada-Wide
Standards for particulate matter and ozone,
which will set air quality targets and establish
implementation plans to meet the targets,
will also contribute to efforts to address
Canada's obligations related to PSD and
visibility protection under the Air Quality
Agreement.
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U.S. COMMITMENT
Maintain means for preventing significant air quality
deterioration and protecting visibility as required
under the Clean Air Act for sources that could cause
significant transboundary air pollution
The U.S. PSD program has three key goals!
protecting the public health and welfare from
any adverse effects that might occur — even
at air pollution levels lower than the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS);
preserving, protecting, and enhancing the air
quality in Class I areas, such as large national
parks and wilderness areas; and ensuring that
economic growth occurs in harmony with the
preservation of existing clean air resources.
The PSD program sets maximum air quality
degradation limits that can ensure that the air
quality in many areas of the country remains
better than that mandated by the NAAQS. The
program also requires best available control
technology for all new sources.
In July 1997, KPA proposed regulations that
expand the scope of existing 1980 visibility rules
to include regional haze problems. The proposed
rules will improve visibility or visual air quality
at specially protected "Class I" national parks
and wilderness areas including the Grand
Canyon, Yosemite, Yellowstone, Mount Ranier,
Shenandoah, the Great Smokies, Acadia, and the
Kverglades. The proposed regulations set targets
for each Class I area allowing for improvement of
visibility on the most impaired days and preven-
tion of further degradation on the least impaired
days. Visibility beyond these areas would also be
improved. Under the proposal, states must imple-
ment a planning process to attain the new ambi-
ent air quality standards for ozone and PM and
improve visibility problems caused by regional
haze. Final regulations are expected in the fall of
1998. As a result of the proposed regulations, and
in an effort to achieve greater consistency among
Federal land managers on permit review issues,
the U.S. National Park Service, the U.S. Forest
Service, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
have initiated a process to undertake the follow-
ing: provide a list for the public of the different
species sensitive to air pollution within Class I
areas; determine critical loads and criteria for
adverse impacts; and standardize their requests
for analyses that should be performed by permit
applicants.
In other program activities, KPA proposed
revised New Source Review regulations in July
1996 in an effort to streamline its permitting
procedures. Among other things, the proposed
regulations would clarify and codify the proce-
dures for reviewing the impact of major new
sources (or major modifications of existing
sources) for Class I areas. Final regulations
are expected in December 1998.
NOTIFICATION OF SIGNIFICANT
TRANSBOUNDARY AIR
POLLUTION
CANADIAN AND U.S.
COMMITMENT
Each Party shall notify the other concerning a pro-
posed action, activity, or project that would be likely
to cause significant transboundary air pollution
Canada and the United States are continuing
notification procedures initiated in the fall of 1994
to identify possible new sources or modifications
to existing sources of transboundary air pollution
within 100 kilometres [62 miles] of the border,
as well as any new sources or modifications of
concern beyond the 100-km limit. Canada has
notified the United States of 12 sources to date,
and the United States has notified Canada of 6
sources. Transboundary notification information
is available to the public on the Internet (see
box). Both governments are making an effort
to improve their notification procedures.
INTERNET SITES
Canada! http!//www.doe.ca/pdb/can_us/applic_e.html
U.S.! http://www.epa.gov/ttn/gei/uscadata.htrnl
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Canadian and U.S. officials discuss monitoring in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario,
at the Algoma Steel consultation meeting (June 1998).
Canada and the United States are involved
in specific discussions on the Algoma Steel plant
in Ontario, the Boundary Dam power station in
Saskatchewan, and the Connors Creek/Detroit
Kdison facility in Detroit, Michigan.
ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION
OF TRANSBOUNDARY AIR
POLLUTION
CANADIAN AND U.S.
COMMITMENT
Each Party shall, as appropriate and as required
by its laws, regulations, and policies, assess those
proposed actions, activities, and projects within the
area under its jurisdiction that, if carried out, would
be likely to cause significant transboundary
air pollution
Despite different interpretations of the
commitment to assess and mitigate under the
Agreement, Canada and the United States
have made progress in finding ways to
cooperate. For example, in 1996, Canada
formally raised its concern to the United
States that the Federal Knergy Regulatory
Commission (FKRC) decision to allow open-
access transmission of U.S. electric power
generation could potentially increase trans-
boundary flows of emissions due to possible
changes in the locations of power generation
as a result of competition in electricity markets.
Following FKRC's adoption of an
open access transmission policy, President
Clinton proposed the Comprehensive
Klectricity Competition Plan, which recom-
mends a number of measures to improve
energy efficiency and reduce emissions of
air pollutants, including NOX. Under this
plan, Federal agencies are committed to coor-
dinating their air emissions data and reporting
annually to the President. KPA is developing
analytical tools to assist in monitoring power
plant emissions and analyzing electricity
markets as the electricity industry becomes
more competitive. KPA is developing a
comprehensive data system comparing
environmental attributes of all generating
plants and companies in the United States.
KPA has agreed to share the results of the
monitoring and tracking of emissions with
Canada.
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SECTION III
ADDITIONAL AIR QUALITY PROGRAMS
AND INITIATIVES
In recognition of the harmful effects of ground-level ozone and inhalable particles,
Canada and the United States are now undertaking cooperative efforts on these issues.
COOPERATION ON
GROUND-LEVEL OZONE
AND PARTICULATE MATTER
Joint Plan of Action for Addressing
Transboundary Air Pollution
In April 1997, KPA Administrator Carol Browner
and the former Canadian Minister of the Envi-
ronment signed an agreement calling on both
governments to develop a Joint Plan of Action
for Addressing Transboundary Air Pollution
focusing on ozone and particulate matter (PM).
In June 1998, EPA Administrator
Carol Browner and Canadian Minister of the
Environment Christine Stewart signed a Progress
Report on the Joint Plan that sets targets and
schedules for governments toward a negotiated
ozone annex to the Air Quality Agreement and
a joint plan on inhalable particles. The Progress
Report identifies the following strategy!
April 1998: Deliver to the Canadian
Minister of the Environment and the U.S. EPA
Administrator a progress report on work plans
to develop the Joint Plan of Action [completed];
December 1998: Review by the Canada—U.S.
Air Quality Committee of possible elements
of a new ozone annex to the Canada—U.S.
Air Quality Agreement and of possible
next steps on fine inhalable particles; and
April 1999: Deliver to the Canadian
Minister of the Environment and the U.S.
EPA Administrator a recommendation on
negotiation of an ozone annex pursuant to
the Air Quality Agreement and on a joint
work plan for transboundary fine inhalable
particles.
The delivery of the Progress Report on
the Joint Plan of Action to the U.S. EPA
Administrator and the Canadian Minister of
the Environment fulfilled the first step of the
strategy. The report outlines the work that
Canada and the United States will undertake
by April 1999 to support a recommendation
regarding development of an ozone annex
and a joint work plan for transboundary fine
inhalable particles.
DOMESTIC PROGRAMS TO
ADDRESS OZONE AND PM
The following subsection identifies the increasing
program efforts of both the Canadian and U.S.
governments to address ground-level ozone and
PM issues.
CANADA
Air Quality Objectives and Standards
The current Canadian national air quality
objective for ground-level ozone is 82 parts
per billion (ppb) averaged over one hour. This
objective has been translated into standards in
many provinces. At present, there are no national
objectives for PM other than total suspended
particulate matter (TSP); however, British
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Columbia and Newfoundland
have each set an air quality
criterion for particulate matter
with a diameter of 10|lm (PM10)
at 50 micrograms per cubic
metre (|lg/m3) averaged over
24 hours. Ontario has set an
interim criterion at the same
level. Newfoundland has set
a PM25 criterion of 25 |lg/m3
(averaged over 24 hours).
In view of recent research
findings linking serious adverse
health impacts to ground-level ozone and fine
PM, Canada is conducting a scientific review
of the PM and ozone objectives.
Building on this work, the Federal and
Provincial governments are developing Canada-
Wide Standards (CWS) for ground-level ozone
and PM (PM10 and PM25). The CWS will set
achievable targets for these pollutants that all
Canadian jurisdictions will formally agree to
meet. The recommendations on CWS for PM
and ozone, with accompanying jurisdictional
implementation plans, are expected to be
presented to the Canadian Council of Ministers
of the Knvironment in the fall of 1999.
Smog Management (Ground-level
Ozone and PM)
The Phase 1 NOX/VOC Management Plan, in
place since 1990, includes a wide range of Federal
and provincial initiatives and measures to reduce
NOX and VOCs. Complementing the Phase 1
Federal initiatives, the Phase 2 Federal Smog
Management Plan, published in 1997, outlines
further initiatives to be taken at the Federal level
to reduce NOX and VOC emissions and broadens
the issue to consider PM.
Provinces are also developing smog
management plans. These initiatives incorporate
substantial reductions of NOX and VOC emis-
sions in the Windsor—Quebec City Corridor, the
Southern Atlantic Region, and the Lower Fraser
Valley of British Columbia. In British Columbia,
the Greater Vancouver Regional District has
enacted a stringent program of regulatory limits
for VOC and NOX emissions
for a wide range of industrial
and commercial point sources
as well as Canada's first man-
datory vehicle inspection and
maintenance (I&M) program.
Following more than a
year of intensive consultations,
Ontario published a smog plan
in January 1998 that includes
a wide range of specific indus-
trial commitments to reduce
NOX and VOC emissions.
Ontario is putting in place its own mandatory
in-use vehicle I&M program ("Drive Clean"),
which includes heavy-duty vehicles. In addition,
Ontario is developing a particulate strategy as
part of its smog plan commitments.
Work has begun on a Phase 3 Federal
smog management program, which will include
an increased focus on inhalable particles as an
important component of smog, and will link
measures more strongly with other air quality
programs, including the acid rain program.
UNITED STATES
Revised Ozone and PM Standards
In 1997, EPA revised the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ozone and PM.
EPA is phasing out the previous 1-hour primary
(health-based) standard for ozone and replacing
it with a new 8-hour standard of 0.08 parts per
million (ppm). To ensure a smooth, legal, and
practical transition, EPA will not revoke the
0.12 ppm 1-hour standard in a given area until
that area has achieved three consecutive years
of air quality data meeting the 1-hour standard.
EPA has also replaced the previous secondary
standard for ozone (to protect the environment,
including crops, national parks, and forests) with
a standard identical to the new primary standard.
For PM, EPA revised the primary (health-
based) standards by adding a new annual PM25
standard of 15|lg/m3 and a new 24-hour PM25
standard of 65 |lg/m3. EPA is retaining the current
annual PM10 standard of 50 |lg/m3 and adjusting
10
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the PM10 24-hour standard of 150|lg/m3 by
changing the form of the standard. KPA revised
the secondary (welfare-based) standards by
making them identical to the primary standards.
Secondary standards must specify the level of air
quality necessary to protect the public welfare
from any known or anticipated adverse effects
associated with the pollutant in ambient air.
EPA PM2.5 monitors at the North Carolina training site.
EPA believes that the PM25 and PM10
standards, combined with the Acid Rain Program
and Regional Haze Program, will provide protec-
tion against the major PM-related welfare effects,
including visibility impairment, soiling, and
materials damage. For the new PM25 standards,
several years of monitoring and planning will be
undertaken before EPA will require local control
measures. The first priority will be to establish
a comprehensive monitoring network (compris-
ing over 1,000 sites) to determine ambient fine
particle concentrations across the country. The
network will help EPA and the states determine
which areas do or do not meet the new air quality
standards, the major sources of PM25 in various
regions, and what action is needed to clean up the
air. Components of this monitoring network will
help provide subsequent support for scientific
research on PM.
Three years of acceptable monitoring data
from the PM network will be available from
the monitors by the spring of 2001 at the earliest,
and three years of data will be available from
all monitors in 2004. The first determinations
about nonattainment status will not occur before
2002. States will then have three years from a
designation of nonattainment to submit, to EPA,
State Implementation Plans (SIPs) for attaining
the standards. The next review of the PM
standards will be completed in 2002, before
the SIPs are developed.
The Ozone Transport Reduction Rule
EPAs strategy for implementing the new
ozone standard will build on work conducted
over the past two years by the Ozone Trans-
port Assessment Group (OTAG), which is
made up of environmental commissioners from
the 37 easternmost states and the District of
Columbia. In accordance with the Presidential
directive issued with the new NAAQS, EPA
intends to adopt a regional strategy to reduce
ozone in the eastern United States.
In November 1997, EPA proposed an ozone
transport reduction rule requiring states in the
OTAG region that are significantly contributing
to nonattainment or interfering with maintenance
of attainment in downwind states to submit revised
SIPs to reduce interstate pollution. Twenty-three
jurisdictions are affected by the proposed NOX
SIP call. The final rulemaking is expected in the
fall of 1998. In the proposal, EPA estimates that
the vast majority of the 96 "new" counties (coun-
ties that violate the new 8-hour standard but not
the old 1-hour standard) in the 23 jurisdictions
are projected to come into attainment as a result
of implementation of the regional NOX reductions
included in the OTAG modelling results.
Ozone Transport Assessment Group (OTAG) States
^| States Affected by the Proposed NOX SIP Call
I I Other OTAG States
I I States Outside the OTAG Region
11
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OTHER COOPERATIVE AIR
QUALITY EFFORTS
In a spirit of bilateral cooperation, some
Canadian provinces and American states have
established partnerships and developed initiatives
to address transboundary air quality issues.
New England Governors and Eastern
Canadian Premiers
The Conference of New Kngland Governors
and Kastern Canadian Premiers announced
resolutions containing action plans for acid rain
and mercury at its June 1998 annual meeting.
The resolutions include commitments to expand
deposition and effects monitoring and analysis
for SO2, NOX, and mercury. The governors and
premiers also committed to establishing new
SO2 reduction targets for 2010 in each of their
jurisdictions and called on the Federal govern-
ments to reduce annual SO2 emissions in each
country by a further 50% below the current com-
mitments. For mercury, they agreed to further
specific emissions reductions within the region.
The resolutions were an outgrowth of a February
1998 workshop held in Portland, Maine. These
issues will remain on the agenda for several years.
Partnerships for Protected Areas
A regional air quality partnership in the north-
eastern United States and Atlantic Canada has
been established to preserve and enhance the air
quality of protected national parks and wilderness
areas, as well as other areas in the region. Known
as the Northeast Regional Air Quality Committee
(NKRAQC), it is made up of international,
Federal, provincial, and state agencies. The
Committee provides a vehicle for information
exchange on air pollution research, monitoring,
and mitigation efforts among member agencies.
The Committee also develops jointly sponsored
projects that enhance the understanding of
the importance of clean air and supports efforts
to maintain or improve air quality in protected
areas. Among NKRAQC s achievements have
been the installation and operation of a continu-
ous monitor for ozone at Roosevelt Campobello
International Park, preparation of a regional air
quality assessment, and a letter of support regard-
ing KPAs proposed regional haze regulations.
More information is available on the Internet
(http://capita.wustl.edu/NEARdat/transflo/
NERAQC/NERAQC.HTM).
The Great Lakes Clean Air Partnership
(GLCAP) is being organized with states,
provinces, and native Canadians and Americans
in the Great Lakes region to focus on sources
of air pollution affecting protected areas in the
United States and Canada in the Great Lakes
ecosystem. GLCAP recently finalized its
Memorandum of Understanding and established
an executive secretariat composed of Canadian
and U.S. co-chairs and two additional members
from each country.
A third international partnership is being
organized in the Pacific Northwest (British
Columbia, Washington, and Oregon) to deal
with air pollution impacts on protected areas
in that region. The group is made up of Federal,
state, provincial, and local land management
and air regulatory agencies.
The NAFTA Commission for
Environmental Cooperation (CEC)
Transboundary Ozone Report
A report entitled Long-Range Transport of Ground-
level Ozone and Its Precursors! Assessment of Methods
to Quantify Transboundary Transport Within the
Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada
(1997) was prepared by the NAFTA Commis-
sion for Environmental Cooperation (CEC)
Secretariat together with the Northeast States for
Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM)
and the Eastern Canada Transboundary Smog
Issue Group (ECTSIG). The report showed
that transboundary transport of these pollutants
exists in North America, particularly where pol-
lutants from upwind regions with high levels of
precursor emissions flow into downwind regions
experiencing high ozone levels. Findings also
indicated that when local pollution is factored
in with long-range transport, ground-level ozone
can be a regional problem over an area of more
than 600 kilometres [about 400 miles] and for
periods of several days. The report is available
from the Commission for Environmental
Cooperation, 393 St. Jacques West, #200,
12
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Montreal, Quebec, Canada H2Y 1N9 or
NESCAUM, 129 Portland Street, Boston,
MA 02114, USA.
Canada—U.S. Georgia Basin
Ecosystem Initiative
Canada and the United States are moving to
implement integrated, inter-agency airshed
management plans to improve air quality within
the Georgia Basin, which encompasses parts of
Washington State and the Province of British
Columbia. Analysis of air and precipitation sam-
ples, meteorological patterns, and output from
computer models indicates the transborder flow
of pollutants between Washington State and the
Canadian portion of the Lower Fraser Valley,
with windflow patterns moving pollution in both
directions across the border. Computer models
clearly show the transborder flow of air pollution
during smog episodes in the Lower Fraser Valley.
U.S. Air Quality Prediction
Pilot Projects
Several states are actively developing a credible
air quality forecasting system to issue warnings
when public health might be threatened. The
focus is most often on urban areas (e.g., in
southern states and in the West), but is some-
times regional. As a step in the development
process, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) is making experimental
air quality forecasts for the Northeast available
via the Internet. A select number of states will
be evaluating the accuracy of predictions, and
the results will guide future projects.
EMPACT Project
Under the "Right to Know Initiative," EPA
created the Environmental Monitoring for Public
Access and Community Tracking (EMPACT)
project which includes an ozone mapping project
developed in cooperation with the states. The
project uses real-time data from more than
400 monitoring stations in 21 eastern and mid-
western states to provide colour-coded, animated
images of ozone levels throughout the day. The
maps allow local media to deliver accurate and
timely health messages about ozone pollution
to interested areas including Canada. EPA will
generate animated movies and peak daily concen-
tration maps for different subsets of the 21-state
region. Ozone maps are available on EPAs
website (http://www.epa.gov/airnow).
Canadian Public Smog Forecasts —
Air Quality Prediction Pilot Project
During the summer of 1997, a pilot project in
New Brunswick tested the concept of providing
"smog forecasts" to the public. Daily predictions
of ozone concentrations, along with public health
and educational messages, were prepared for the
Greater Saint John Region. Issuing the forecast
required continual exchanges of information with
the State of Maine Department of Environmental
Protection. Environment Canada is considering
the feasibility of expanding this service to other
urban centres.
Great Lakes Binational Toxics
Strategy
In April 1997, Canada's Minister of the
Environment and the EPA Administrator signed
the Great Lakes Binational Toxics Strategy.
The strategy, developed in close cooperation
with the eight Great Lakes States, the Province
of Ontario, and key stakeholders, includes goals
for reducing or virtually eliminating certain
persistent toxic substances in the Great Lakes
ecosystem. Work is still under way to reduce
the deposition of air toxics from sources both
within and outside the Great Lakes Basin.
13
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SECTION IV
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES
This section presents the progress of both countries in meeting the commitments in
Annex 2 of the Air Quality Agreement, which addresses coordination and cooperation
on air quality modelling, monitoring, and effects research.
EMISSIONS INVENTORIES
SO2, NOX, and VOCs are the main pollutants
addressed in this subsection. SO? and NO
£ X
emissions are the dominant precursors of acidic
deposition; NOX and VOCs are primary contrib-
utors to the formation of ground-level ozone; and
all three pollutants contribute to PM formation.
Methodologies to determine emissions estimates
for SO2, NOX, and VOCs have been revised
in both Canada and the United States since
the 1996 Progress Report was published, and
methods continue to change as new models
and data (e.g., CKM data) are introduced.
SO2
The principal anthropogenic sources of SO2
are coal and oil combustion, smelting, and a
few industrial processes. SO2 emissions are
declining in Canada and the United States.
Overall trends in emissions levels from 1980
to 2010 are shown below.
SO, Emissions
30-
_£
I 20-
.1
1 15-
I 10-
5-
-25
-20
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
-5
2005 2010
Canada —*-U.S. —•- Total
• Estimated Emissions Projected Emissions
Canadian emissions data are preliminary.
S02 Emissions (1995)
Canada
Fuel Combustion
13%
Electric Utilities
21%
Transported
5%
Industrial Sources
61%
Canadian Total:
2.7 million tonnes
3.0 million short tons
United States
Electric Utilities
66%
Industrial Sources 8%
- Transportation 4%
—Fuel Combustion
22%
U.S. Total:
16.8 million tonnes
18.6 million short tons
NOX
The principal anthropogenic source of NOX
emissions is combustion of fuels in stationary
and mobile sources. This occurs in motor
vehicles, residential and commercial furnaces,
industrial and electric utility boilers and engines,
and other equipment. Overall estimated trends
for anthropogenic emissions of NOX in Canada
and the United States from 1980 to 2010 are
shown on page 15.
14
-------
NOX Emissions (1995)
Canada
Electric Utilities
11%
Transportation
59%
— Fuel Combustion
23%
ndustrial Sources
7%
Canadian Total:
2.0 million tonnes
2.2 million short tons
United States
Electric Utilities \
27%
Incineration/ —I
misc/other
1%
Fuel Combustion
19%
— Industrial Sources
3%
Transportation
50%
U.S. Total:
21.7 million tonnes
23.9 million short tons
NO. Emissions
30-
-g- 25-
f 20-
I 15-
|
1 10-
5-
-15 =
-10
-5
1980
1985
1990 1995
Year
2000 2005 2010
•-Canada —*-U.S. —"-Total
Estimated Emissions - - Projected Emissions
Canadian emissions data are preliminary.
VOCs
VOCs contribute to the formation of
ground-level ozone. Anthropogenic emis-
sions of VOCs come from a wide variety of
sources, such as mobile sources and industrial
processes (e.g., chemical manufacturing and
production of petroleum products). Klectric
utilities produce negligible amounts of VOCs.
There are also important natural sources of
VOCs. VOC emissions in both countries are
expected to decline by the year 2000 and then
remain stable through 2010. Overall estimated
trends in anthropogenic VOC emissions from
1980 to 2010 for Canada and the United
States are shown on page 16.
VOC Emissions (1995)
Canada
Other
Transportation
27%
Fuel Combustion
25%
Industrial Sources
29%
Canadian Total:
2.7 million tonnes
3.0 million short tons
United States
Incineration/
misc/other
46%
Transportation
40%
Industrial Sources Fuel Combustion
9%
5%
U.S. Total:
18.7 million tonnes
20.5 million short tons
15
-------
VOC Emissions
30 H
1 20-
|
I- 15-
|
i 10-
5-
1980
I
1985
I
1990
I
1995
Year
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
2000
2005 2010
Canada —*- U.S. —•- Total
Estimated Emissions - - - Projected Emissions
Canadian emissions data are preliminary.
ACID DEPOSITION MONITORING
There has been substantial interaction
between Canada and the United States relating
to deposition monitoring. Future collaborative
efforts may include steps towards network inte-
gration, coordinated analyses, and assessment to
examine the extent of impacts on transboundary
deposition resulting from changes in emissions.
from precipitation. In Canada, this area declined
by 46% from 1980 to the early 1990s.
Surprisingly, however, emissions reductions
have not yet been matched by a similar reduction
in the acidity of precipitation because concentra-
tions of base ions (e.g., calcium, magnesium, and
potassium), which normally neutralize the effects
of acid deposition, have decreased at the same
time as sulphur dioxide emissions. The reasons
for the decrease in base ions are not yet fully
understood.
UNITED STATES
Acid deposition is measured as both wet
deposition (rain, snow, fog) and dry deposition
(particles and gases). The National Atmospheric
Deposition/National Trends Network (NADP/NTN)
is a national long-term wet deposition network
made up of 200 sites. An analysis using results
from NADP/NTN reported that, in 1995,
the sulphate concentration in wet deposition
decreased by as much as 25% in the eastern
United States compared to the period between
1983 and 1994, particularly in some of the most
sensitive areas. This decrease was accompanied
by a reduction in the acidity of the precipitation.
CANADA
In 1997, Canada completed a major review
of acid deposition and its effects in Canada!
the 1997 Canadian Acid Rain Assessment. The
assessment builds on the contribution of its
predecessor (1990) by asking two key questions!
"What progress has there been to date?" and
"Is that enough to protect Canada's forests
and the health of its citizens from continuing
damage by acid rain and other forms of
acidic deposition? Some of the findings
are summarized in this report.
In Canada, reductions in SO2 emissions
have been matched by a corresponding decline
in concentrations of sulphates in air and preci-
pitation. These declining concentrations are
also reflected in reductions of sulphate deposi-
tion on the ground. Between the early 1980s and
the early 1990s, there was a noticeable decrease
in the area of eastern North America receiving
more than 20 kg per hectare per year of sulphate
Percent Change of 1995 Sulphate Concentrations
in Precipitation (from 1983-1994) following
Major Reductions in Sulphur Emissions
SULPHATE CONCENTRATION
> 15% decrease
"j 5-15% decrease
no change
Adapted in the Illinois State Water Survey Annual Report, July 1,
1996-June 30,1997, from J. A. Lynch, V. C. Bowersox and
J. W. Grimm (see Bibliography, page 26)
16
-------
Wet Sulphate and Wet Nitrate Deposition in 1980-1984 and 1995
Wet deposition in 1995 can be compared to the average during 1980 to 1984. Comparing (a) and (b) shows that wet sulphate deposition has
decreased during the period, generally corresponding to the decrease in SO, emissions. On the other hand, wet nitrate deposition — panels
(c) and (d) — has remained essentially unchanged. Units are kilograms per hectare per year (kg/ha/yr). These analyses are based on
measurements of precipitation chemistry from the NADP/NTN and CASTNeT in the USA, and from Federal and provincial monitoring networks
in Canada. Wet sulphate deposition has been adjusted for the sea-salt contribution of sulphate.
Units are kilograms
per hectare per year
Units are kilograms
per hectare per year
(a) 1980-84 Wet Sulphate Deposition
(b) 1995 Wet Sulphate Deposition
^V
Units are kilograms
per hectare per year
Units are kilograms
per hectare per year
(c) 1980-84 Wet Nitrate Deposition
(d) 1995 Wet Nitrate Deposition
17
-------
The Clean Air Status and Trends
Network (CASTNet) is a long-term dry
deposition network made up of 70 sites with
a data record starting in 1989. An analysis
of CASTNet data completed in 1997 reported
that sulphate and sulphur dioxide concentra-
tions in air at the 31 eastern sites decreased
by 25% to 30% between 1989 and 1995.
A longer record is available at the similar
(but substantially fewer) sites of the NOAA
Atmospheric Integrated Assessment Monitor-
ing Network (AIRMoN). The AIRMoN data
also reveal a decrease in air concentrations of
sulphur species in 1995 to levels
substantially below those of the
early 1990s and apparently
returning to levels of the mid-
1980s. Further interpretation
of available data continues
to be fully explored.
There is no consensus
regarding trends in nitrate data.
Unlike sulphate, wet deposition
data for nitrate do not show a
reduction in 1995. The dry
deposition and air concentration
data are relatively inconclusive. Additional data
are necessary to assist in detecting trends. The
importance of maintaining a dry deposition net-
work has been underlined by recent analyses.
AQUATIC EFFECTS AND
RESEARCH MONITORING
Assessing the effectiveness of acid rain control
programs and characterizing the continuing
effects of acid deposition are important efforts in
both Canada and the United States. Research and
monitoring activities are necessary to assess
whether the control programs and
resulting changes in emissions and
subsequent deposition are having the
desired ecological results.
CANADA
Despite acid rain control programs,
a large area of southeastern Canada
continues to receive twice as much
sulphate as the lakes and wetlands
can tolerate without suffering long-
term damage. The maximum amount
of acidic deposition an ecosystem can tolerate —
an amount known as its critical load — depends
principally on its local geology.
Projected sulphate deposition exceedances of critical loads in eastern Canada in the year 2000
10
0
Kilograms of wet
sulphate/hectare/year
This figure represents the difference between the critical loads and the expected sulphate deposition after both Canadian and U.S. controls are in place.
It shows that a large area (791,000 km2) of southern and central Ontario, southern Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia will continue to receive
mean annual sulphate deposition amounts that exceed their critical loads. The critical load will be exceeded by up to 10 kg/ha/yr of wet sulphate
in parts of central Ontario and in southern Quebec. As a result, approximately 95,000 lakes will remain damaged by acid rain.
18
-------
In response to declining sulphate deposition,
surface water quality is improving gradually.
Sulphate concentrations have declined in the
majority of monitored lakes in Ontario and
Quebec, but this is not the case in the Atlantic
provinces. Corresponding reductions in lake
acidity have been modest, however, since the
concentrations of base ions have also declined.
An Integrated Assessment Model has been
used to predict the acidification status of clusters
of Canadian lakes as a function of SO2 emissions.
The model projects that once all the emissions
controls established under the legislation of both
countries are in place, aquatic ecosystems in a large
area of eastern Canada will continue to receive
sulphate deposition amounts that exceed their
critical loads. As a result, the model predicts that
approximately 11% to 25% of the lakes will remain
chemically damaged (i.e., with a pH below 6),
while approximately 6% to 15% offish species will
continue to be lost. Models indicate that further
emissions reductions of as much as 75% in targeted
regions of eastern Canada and the United States
will be needed to protect sensitive areas in Canada.
UNITED STATES
Trends in surface water chemistry have been
reported for 36 sensitive lakes [i.e., low to
moderate acid neutralizing capacity (ANC)] as
they relate to trends reported for 15 deposition
monitoring stations in the northeastern United
States for the period 1982—1994. In apparent
response to significant declines in sulphate depo-
sition, all lakes had strong decreases in sulphate
concentrations. Lakes in New Kngland appeared
to have reacted differently from lakes in the
Adirondacks: New Kngland lakes showed some
recovery (i.e., increased ANC), whereas lakes in
the Adirondacks did not show a trend in ANC
or experienced further acidification.
The United States will continue annual
monitoring of a representative set of 100 lakes
in the Northeast and 100 streams in the Mid-
Atlantic states that are appropriate for estimating
changes in acidification in surface waters in these
two regions (the TIMK Program). More frequent
monitoring and data analysis will be conducted
on 30 lakes in the Northeast and 15 streams in
the Mid-Atlantic (the LTM Program).
The United States will also conduct water-
shed modelling to evaluate the effect of controls
on responses of watersheds and surface waters to
forms and levels of acidic deposition and to help
explain and predict possible future responses. Of
particular interest are efforts to model the dynam-
ic impacts of nitrogen and sulphur deposition on
surface waters and to further characterize the
role and rate of watershed response to deposition
levels. Previous modelling conducted by KPA
projected that in a sensitive population of lakes
(such as the Adirondacks, N.Y., area), a range
of 11% to 43% of sensitive lakes may continue
to be acidic with full implementation of the
Clean Air Act.
FOREST EFFECTS
There is increasing evidence that decades of acid
deposition have depleted the natural reserves of
basic ions such as calcium and magnesium from
forest soils that are naturally poor in bases. Such
acidified soils can no longer protect downstream
ecosystems from acid rain; waters that drain these
forests carry both acids and toxic aluminum into
streams, lakes, and rivers. The decrease in atmos-
pheric deposition of bases is also contributing to
depleting the ecosystems of their store of miner-
als, which are essential nutrients for most plants.
Some effects have been observed at research sites
in sensitive areas of eastern North America. It is
extremely difficult to predict how ecosystems will
respond to this challenge over the next decades;
however, further investigation will help character-
ize the extent and magnitude of the problem.
CANADA
As a result of acidic deposition, soil nutrients are
declining in certain Canadian forest ecosystems.
In Ontario, ambient levels of sulphate and nitrate
deposition have accelerated the loss of base ions
from soils that support sugar maple-dominated
hardwood forests. Studies in Quebec indicate
that the nutrient status of sugar maple seedlings
declines as soil acidification increases and basic
ions are lost from the soil. Trees in nutrient-
depleted areas initially show reduced growth,
with more visible signs of damage, such as de-
foliation, appearing later. These effects will likely
19
-------
be sustained or increased at current deposition
levels, resulting in a long-term decline in forest
ecosystem productivity.
Critical loads of acidic
deposition have been esti-
mated for certain Canadian
forest soils. They are derived,
in large part, from the inher-
ent capacity of soils to buffer
incoming acidity. Theoreti-
cally, when combined amounts
of sulphur and nitrogen fall
below these loads, forest
ecosystems will be buffered
against adverse effects. If criti-
cal loads are exceeded for long
periods, nutrient imbalances
will develop in acidified soils
and forest productivity will
decline. Critical loads are
consistently being exceeded
for large portions of south and central Ontario
and Quebec as well as portions of Atlantic
Canada. Preliminary analyses indicate that
exceeding critical loads by an acid deposition
rate of 500 acid equivalents per hectare per
year (eq/ha/yr) — currently the case for some
sensitive forest soils — is associated with a loss
of 10% in annual productivity.
Laboratory research on tree seedlings
indicates that Canadian forests, particularly in
areas of high episodic events (Atlantic Canada,
southern Ontario and Quebec, and the Fraser
Valley in British Columbia) are susceptible to
damage and decline from ground-level ozone.
The Canadian Forest Service is establishing a
network of passive ozone monitors in represen-
tative forest ecosystems across the country to
measure ambient levels of ozone. This network
will allow determination of ozone injury risk
for the various forest types.
UNITED STATES
The Forest Health Monitoring Program (a joint
effort of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
Forest Service, State foresters, and universities)
continues to show that there is no evidence of
broad regional-scale forest decline in the north-
eastern United States due to acidic deposition.
The eastern North American
hardwood forest is generally
in good health. However, sensi-
tive, high-elevation forests and
certain types of forest soils may
be showing continuing signs of
vulnerability. Some dieback and
mortality of northern hardwoods
were reported in several high-
elevation localities in the south-
ern Appalachian mountains,
with a total affected area of
between 500 and 1,000 acres
(1% of national forest lands of
the northern hardwood type).
The United States main-
tains three mountain cloud
chemistry sites in the northern
and southern Appalachians to better quantify
the contribution of clouds to total deposition
at high elevations. These sites are located
where high-elevation forest effects are a con-
cern. Researchers are conducting surveys of
some 300,000 acres of northern hardwood forest
to determine the cause and extent of regional die
back and mortality. The annual monitoring pro-
gram uses a permanent plot system to establish
a baseline to track forest health. The grid cur-
rently covers 60% of the forest lands across all
ownerships in the continental United States.
Ozone damage to plants in the United
States has been documented for at least 30
to 40 years. The Forest Health Monitoring
Program is expected to provide 100% coverage
by 2003. The program continues to find evi-
dence of ozone injury on sensitive tree, shrub,
and herb plant species in forested areas of the
Northeast, Great Lakes, and Middle Atlantic
States. Kvidence of ozone injury also continues
to be found in forests in southern and central
California. The direction of the trend in ozone
effects on forests is uncertain. Once fully imple-
mented, the Forest Health Monitoring Program
is expected to provide a statistical trend on the
impacts of ozone on forests.
20
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EFFECTS ON MATERIALS
HEALTH EFFECTS
UNITED STATES
The National Park Service continues to
sponsor and promote research on the effects of
anthropogenic air pollution on cultural resources
through the Materials Research Program (MRP)
of the National Center for Preservation Tech-
nology and Training (NCPTT) , located in
Natchitoches, Louisiana. Most of the studies
under way focus on the effects of gaseous SO2
pollution on buildings and monuments and
stone decay. A 1997 report of field studies on the
Cathedral of Learning in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania,
shows the interaction of various processes,
including deposition velocity, wind patterns, and
erosion on the soiling of the building. In another
project, MRP sponsored a state-of-the-art litera-
ture review, which is available on request from
the National Center for Preservation Technology
and Training at NSU, Box 5682, Natchitoches,
LA 71497. Kfforts are under way to make this
review more widely available by publishing it as
a monograph through an academic press. Since
the 1996 Progress Report, MRP has expanded
its in-house research on stone decay processes
and its work on cooperative research projects.
Acid rain and other pollutants can damage statues.
CANADA
Canadian scientific efforts have focused
specifically on evaluating the impacts
of relatively low levels of air pollution.
Kpidemiological studies have shown a
strong association between episodes of
elevated PM concentrations in ambient air
and increased rates of hospitalization due
to cardio-respiratory problems, as well as
increased rates of mortality. These studies
are based on large databases and are consistent
with several studies reported in the United
States and Kurope. PM has also been linked to
reduced lung function in children, increases in
asthma symptom-days, and restricted activity
days in both children and adults.
Similar risks result from exposure to
elevated ambient levels of ozone; the major
health effects in exposed populations are also an
increased rate of hospitalization and mortality.
The identification of independent health
effects of pollutants such as SO2 and NOX
should provide a strong basis for a more
comprehensive ozone and particulate strategy
that would emphasize both particles and
precursor gases.
Overall, the amount of research on the
human health impacts of air pollutants has
decreased substantially in Canada in the past
two years; however, two studies will continue.
Data collected for the past several years in
Saint John, New Brunswick, will be analyzed
to determine the specific exposure-response
relationships in individual patients who visit
the hospital for an emergency condition or an
admission. No further data collection is planned.
A follow-up study to the 1987-1994 joint study
conducted by Health Canada and the Harvard
School of Public Health began this year and
will be completed in 2002. Its purpose is to
determine whether the effects of the reduced
lung function observed among children in
the original study persist into adolescence
and young adulthood.
21
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UNITED STATES
Particulate Matter
Continuing epidemiological studies have shown
an association between air pollution (especially
particulate matter) and acute increases in mor-
tality and morbidity. Fine particles penetrate
deeply into the lungs and are more likely than
coarse particles to contribute to adverse health
effects, including premature death and increased
hospital admissions and emergency visits, primar-
ily for the elderly and persons with respiratory
and cardiopulmonary disease.
Research continues to identify and character-
ize the specific components of PM responsible for
these effects and causal mechanisms. KPA scien-
tists have examined some of the mechanisms by
which inhaled pollutants, especially ozone and
PM, damage lung cells. Transition metals (such
as iron) in PM can induce significant lung injury
and inflammation via the formation of free radi-
cals, which can lead to cardiopulmonary stress.
This research will lay the groundwork for further
studies to determine if particles and gaseous
pollutants (which coexist in the atmosphere) have
additive or synergistic effects. Devices capable of
concentrating ambient air particles have received
considerable attention, and scientists from both
the United States and Canada have collaborated
with scientists from Harvard University in devel-
oping a fine particle concentrator for use in
human studies.
Components of the national PM2 5 network
will provide subsequent support for scientific
research on PM (see Section III, page 11, for
details).
Ozone
A new KPA study shows that some changes
in lung function, symptoms, and inflammatory
markers, seen on acute exposure, are no longer
evident in humans after exposure to ozone
for five consecutive days, although indicators
of lung injury persist. This may indicate that
ozone-induced lung injury can continue despite
the absence of symptoms. In healthy, nonsmoking
joggers exposed to ozone in the New York City
metropolitan area during the course of a summer
season, scientists found evidence of lung injury
Child taking asthma medication
Courtesy of tlie Asthma Society of Canada
and reduction in host defence capability but
no evidence of inflammation at the end of the
summer. These data suggest that humans naturally
exposed to low levels of ozone for an extended
period of time can develop potentially adverse
health effects. Human response to a particular
exposure is often difficult to quantify, since
variables such as exposure concentration,
exposure duration, and breathing volume
must be taken into account. A mathematical
model that quantifies the relationships among
these variables has been used as a part of an
ozone health risk assessment.
Assessments
KPAs National Center for Knvironmental
Assessment (NCKA) will be conducting its
five-year review of air quality criteria for
both PM and ozone. These assessments form
the scientific basis for the National Ambient
Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). In addition,
KPAs Kcological Risk Assessment Guidelines
should be finalized in the near future to pro-
vide guidance for environmental risk assessors.
NCKA has published Particulate Matter Research
Needs for Human Health Risk Assessment to provide
guidance on health and environmental research
issues needed to support future reviews of
the NAAQS. A similar document outlining
22
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ozone health and environmental research
needs is expected in the future.
Recognizing that NOX emissions contribute
to multiple public health and environmental
problems, the United States has initiated efforts
to coordinate activities and assess an integrated
approach to achieving decreases in NOX emis-
sions. In August 1997, KPA released Nitrogen
Oxides^ Impacts on Public Health and the Environment,
which represents a step toward coordinated
research, monitoring, and assessment activities
as well as better integration of emissions
reduction efforts. The report is available
(http://www.epa.gov/ttn/oarpg/tlria.html).
The National Acid Precipitation Assessment
Program (NAPAP) released, in August 1998,
its four-year integrated assessment report on
the costs, benefits, and effectiveness of the Acid
Rain Program. The report concluded that the
market-based emissions trading system has been
a cost-effective mechanism to achieve significant
emission reductions. The report documented the
measured reductions in acid rain, particularly in
the northeastern United States. However it also
concluded that while recovery of ecosystems is
becoming evident in certain regions, it is not yet
occurring in some of the most sensitive areas,
such as the Adirondack Mountains in New York.
Further reductions in acid deposition may be nec-
essary to protect these areas and continued moni-
toring is required to assess ecological response.
The report summary is available (http://www.
nnic.noaa.gov/CENR/NAPAP/NAPAP_96.htm).
OZONE MONITORING,
RESEARCH, AND ASSESSMENT
CANADA
Assessment
In 1997, Canada published the results of its
first NOX/VOC science assessment. The seven-
volume assessment draws together a wide range
of scientific tools and knowledge in support
of resolving the ground-level ozone problem.
The reports cover health and vegetation effects;
ambient air monitoring and data analysis;
mathematical modelling for emissions control
scenario evaluation; and emissions inventories
for ozone and its precursors.
The NOX/VOC science assessment was
undertaken expressly to respond to the needs
of policy makers for defensible, high-quality,
scientific information upon which to design
and implement future emissions reduction
strategies in Canada. There are five major
policy-relevant findings!
• There is no discernible human health
threshold for ground-level ozone. The
current 82-ppb one-hour Canadian
ozone objective is not fully protective
of human health and vegetation. The
apparent continuum of adverse health
effects indicates that any improvements
in ambient ozone concentrations are
expected to result in public health
benefits. Therefore, strategies for ozone
management should focus on continuous
improvement.
• The design of emissions reduction strate-
gies will be different for each of the ozone
problem areas (the Lower Fraser Valley,
the Windsor—Quebec City Corridor, and
the Southern Atlantic Region). Reductions
in both NOX and VOC emissions will bene-
fit large urban areas, whereas on a regional
basis, NOX reductions may be more effec-
tive in lowering widespread ozone concen-
trations, benefiting nonurban areas. In all
areas, however, large emissions reductions
will be required to meet the current 82-ppb
one-hour ozone objective.
• In eastern Canada, transboundary transport
plays a major role during smog episodes.
Therefore, air quality improvements will
depend on concurrent U.S. emissions
reductions.
• Responsible agencies should maintain
the air monitoring network as a minimum
at the density recommended in the Ambient
Air Monitoring Working Group s report
and implement the network enhance-
ments identified in the Working Group's
Implementation Plan. Agencies should
also cooperate to improve the timeliness
and accuracy of emissions inventories.
23
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• Responsible agencies should maintain their
support for research to answer the remain-
ing scientific uncertainties and policy and
scientific questions in support of Canadian
smog policy development. Sound policy
is dependent on a sound scientific basis.
Over the past several years, the Science
Program has answered some important policy
questions that provide directional guidance
and strengthen decision making on the optimal
emissions reductions leading to resolution of
the ground-level ozone problem in Canada.
The completion of the
science assessment is the
starting point for the col-
laborative process between
the Canadian policy and
scientific communities that
is necessary to resolve some
outstanding ground-level
ozone issues.
Canadian involvement in
trilateral scientific research
efforts, such as the North
American Research Strategy for Tropospheric
Ozone, and participation in international pro-
grams, such as the United Nations Kconomic
Commission for Kurope s Convention on
Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution,
are expected to yield long-term benefits in
understanding the ground-level ozone problem
and in reducing precursor concentrations.
UNITED STATES
Monitoring
The United States continues its ozone monitoring
program, which principally comprises three related
networks! State and Local Air Monitoring Sta-
tions (SLAMS), which are used for a variety of
purposes, including describing compliance with
the NAAQS for ozone; National Air Monitoring
Stations (NAMS) , which conduct long-term
national monitoring for urban area-oriented
ambient monitoring; and Photochemical Assess-
ment Monitoring Stations (PAMS), which
monitor all ozone nonattainment areas classified
as serious, severe, or extreme.
Research
Research continues under the North American
Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone
(NARSTO). NARSTO is a public/private part-
nership that includes the United States, Canada,
and Mexico and has the goal of determining
efficient and effective strategies for local and
regional ozone management across the North
American continent. NARSTO coordinates
research on the atmospheric processes involved
in ozone and ozone precursor accumulation,
transformation, and transport in the continental
troposphere. The NARSTO
State-of-the-Science Assess-
ment Report, scheduled for
release in early 1999, will
address tropospheric ozone
and ozone precursor trans-
boundary issues, emissions,
monitoring trends, modelling,
and methods development.
Quality assurance and
data management guidelines
and assistance are available
to all NARSTO researchers at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
A permanent NARSTO data archive is main-
tained by the NASA EOSDIS Distributed
Active Archive Center at the Langley Research
Center in Langley, Virginia.
PARTICULATE MATTER
MONITORING AND RESEARCH
CANADA
PM levels are monitored throughout Canada
by the National Air Pollution Surveillance
(NAPS) network in cooperation with the
provinces and municipalities. Ambient levels
of particulate matter across Canada are affected
by a number of factors, including local sources
of PM and precursor gases as well as contri-
butions from long-range atmospheric transport.
PM levels at a given site are usually quite low,
but this predominance of low levels is contrasted
by periodic episodes during which concentra-
tions of PM can be significantly higher. PM
24
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is a public health concern and an important
cause of reduced atmospheric visibility.
Data from the NAPS network have shown
that the highest PM10 concentrations are found
at sites in the Windsor—Quebec City Corridor
and Winnipeg, Calgary, Regina, and Kdmonton.
Prairie sites are noted for elevated levels of coarse
particles that are predominantly from windblown
soil. Sites in the Windsor—Quebec City Corridor
and Vancouver have the highest concentrations
of fine particles (known as PM2 5 because of their
diameter of 2.5 microns or less). A significant
proportion of these fine particles are formed in
the atmosphere through chemical reactions from
the burning of fossil fuels and other industrial pro-
cesses. The smaller the particle, the more likely it
is to be transported long distances with the winds.
PM concentrations in Canada appear to
be decreasing, based on measurements from
ten urban sites across Canada for the 1984—1993
period. Trend analyses have shown that annual
average PM10 (fairly coarse particles with a
diameter of 10 microns or less) concentrations
have decreased by an average of 2% per year
on a national basis and PM25 concentrations by
3.3% (1984-1993). However, recent (1991-1996)
PMio results from six Ontario sites show no
consistent trend.
Canada is developing a model that will
simulate the atmospheric chemistry and transport
of PM. The model will assist in the formula-
tion of effective control strategies for PM, and
it will estimate the improvements in PM levels
that will result from current strategies to reduce
emissions of SO2, NOX, VOCs, and toxic
substances.
UNITED STATES
PM monitoring efforts are discussed in Section
111, page 11, in connection with revision
of the PM standard.
SECTION V
CONCLUSIO
Considerable success is being achieved in
Canada and the United States in reducing
emissions of SO2 and NOX. Both pollutants
contribute to acid rain, which was the initial
focus of efforts under the Air Quality Agreement.
Over the past two years, the Federal govern-
ments close cooperation with State and Provincial
governments and other stakeholders has demon-
strated that, in addition to the importance of con-
tinuing joint work on common concerns to reduce
acid deposition, the two countries have substantial
common interests in focusing on the problems
of ground-level ozone and particulate matter,
particularly due to their impacts on human health.
The April 1997 signing of the Agree-
ment to develop a Joint Plan of Action for
Addressing Transboundary Air Pollution by
U.S. KPA Administrator Browner and the
former Canadian Minister of the Knvironment
inaugurated a new era of binational cooperation
on transboundary air issues. KPA Administrator
Browner and Knvironment Minister Stewart
endorsed, in June 1998, a timetable and strategy
for addressing ground-level ozone and parti-
culate matter. The stage has now been set for
increased cooperation on these two additional
pollutants of concern.
25
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acidifying Emissions Task Group. 1997.
Towards a National Acid Rain Strategy.
Environment Canada (Transboundary
Air I
Branch).
ssues JDranc
Chevone, B. I. and S. N. Linzone. 1988.
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Devlin, R. B., L. J. Folinsbee, F. H. Biscardi,
G. Hatch, S. Becker, M. Madden,
M. K. Robbins, and H. S. Koren. 1997.
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Inhalation Toxicology^'. 211—235.
Environment Canada. 1997. 1997 Canadian
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Environment Canada. 1998. 1997'Annual
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for the Eastern Canada Acid Rain Program.
Federal-Provincial Working Group on Air
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Federal-Provincial Working Group on Air
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Government of Canada. 1997.
Phase II Federal Smog Management Plan.
Greater Vancouver Regional District. 1994.
GVRD Air Quality Management Plan'. Overview.
Holland, D., P. Principe, and J. Sickles II. 1998.
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Lynch, J. A., V C. Bowersox, and
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Amendments of 1990, Title /l^U.S. Geological
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McDonnell, W. F, P. W. Stewart, S. Andreoni,
E. Seal, H. R. Kehrl, D. H. Hortsman,
L. J. Folinsbee, and M. V Smith. 1997.
Prediction of ozone-induced FEV 1 changes:
effects of concentration, duration and ventilation.
Amer. Jour. Respir. Crit. Care M*/156: 715-722.
Multi-stakeholder NOX/VOC Science Program.
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the key results of the NOJVOC Science Program.
Knvironment Canada (Atmospheric
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Ontario Ministry of the Environment,
(Standards Development Branch). 1997.
Ontario s Smog Management Plan.
Ozone Transport Assessment Group,
Air Quality Analysis Workgroup. 1997.
Telling the OTAG Story With Data. Final Report.
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Ozone Transport Assessment Group. (Internet
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J. D. Spengler, and M. E. Raizenne. 1991.
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Raizenne, M., L. Neas, A. Damokosh,
D. Dockery, J. Spengler, P. Koutrakis,
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Stoddard, J. L., C. Driscoll, J. Kahl,
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APPENDIX
UNITED STATES-CANADA AIR QUALITY COMMITTEE
CANADA
Co-Chair!
Francois Guimont
Assistant Deputy Minister
Knvironmental Protection Service
Knvironment Canada
Members!
David Kgar
Air Pollution Prevention Directorate
Knvironmental Protection Service
Knvironment Canada
Gordon McBean
Atmospheric Knvironment Service
Knvironment Canada
Frank Ruddock
U.S. Transboundary Relations
Foreign Affairs and International Trade
Walter Chan
Air Policy and Climate Change Branch
Ontario Ministry of Knvironment
Jim Knight
Knvironmental Quality Branch
New Brunswick Knvironment
Randy Angle
Air Issues & Monitoring
Alberta Knvironmental Protection
Conrad Anctil
Kxpertise scientifique
Knvironnement Quebec
Jean Cooper
Knergy Policy Branch
Natural Resources Canada
UNITED STATES
Co-Chair:
Rafe Pomerance
Deputy Assistant Secretary
for the Knvironment and Development
Department of State
Members:
Abraham Haspel
Deputy Assistant Secretary
for Kconomics and Knvironmental Policy
Department of Knergy
K. Anthony Wayne
Deputy Assistant Secretary
for Kuropean and Canadian Affairs
Department of State
Bruce Hicks
Director
Air Resources Laboratory
NOAA
David Kee
Air and Radiation
KPA Region 5
Molly Ross
Office of Assistant Secretary
for Fish, Wildlife and Parks
Department of Interior
John Seitz
Director
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
KPA
Paul Stolpman
Director
Office of Atmospheric Programs
KPA
27
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Subcommittee on Program
Monitoring and Reporting
Co-Chairs!
D. Wayne Draper
Associate Director
Transboundary Air Issues Branch
Environmental Protection Service
Knvironment Canada
Brian McLean
Director, Acid Rain Division
Office of Atmospheric Programs
Knvironmental Protection Agency
Subcommittee on
Scientific Cooperation
Co-Chairs!
Ann McMillan
Chief, Science Assessment
and Policy Integration Branch
Atmospheric Knvironment Service
Knvironment Canada
Lawrence J. Folinsbee
Chief, Knvironmental Media Assessment Branch
National Center for Knvironmental Assessment
Knvironmental Protection Agency
28
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TO OBTAIN ADDITIONAL INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT:
IN CANADA
Transboundary Air Issues Branch
Knvironment Canada
351 St. Joseph Blvd.
llth Floor, Place Vincent Massey
Hull, Quebec K1A OH3
IN THE UNITED STATES
Acid Rain Division
U.S. Knvironmental Protection Agency
Mail Code 6204J
401 M Street SW
Washington, DC 20460
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