Office of Brownfields and Land Revitalization
Air and Water Quality Impacts of
Brownfields Redevelopment
A Study of Five Communities
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of
Brownfields Redevelopment:
A Study of Five Communities
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
Office of Brownfields and Land Revitalization
Washington, DC 20460
April 2011
EPA 560-F-10-232
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Acknowledgments
This document was prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Office of
Brownfields and Land Revitalization (OBLR). The project management team consisted of Stacy
Swartwood of OBLR and John V. Thomas of the EPA's Office of Sustainable Communities.
This report would not have been possible without the assistance of staff throughout U.S. EPA,
and a number of officials and staff at state, county, and local jurisdictions, including Baltimore
Development Corporation, Baltimore Metropolitan Council, City of Dallas Brownfields Program,
City of Emeryville Redevelopment Agency, City of Minneapolis Assessor's Office, City of Saint
Paul Property Information Office, Environmental Coalition of South Seattle (ECOSS), Fort Worth
environmental Management Department, Hennepin County Dept of Environmental Services,
King County department of Natural Resources, Maryland Department of Assessments,
Maryland Department of the Environment, Metropolitan Transportation Commission (California)
(MTC), Minneapolis Environmental Initiative, North Central Texas Council of Governments
(NCTCOG), Puget Sound Regional Council (PSRC), Saint Paul Port Authority, Purdue
University Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department, Seattle Department of Planning
and Development, Twin Cities Metropolitan Council, and U.S. EPA Brownfields teams in
Regions 3, 5, 6, 9, and 10.
Notice
This document is intended for information purposes and does not create new nor alter existing
Agency policy or guidance. The document does not impose any requirements or obligations on
EPA, states, other federal agencies, or the regulated community. Mention of trade names or
commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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Table of Contents
Page
1. Introduction and Summary 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Study Approach 1
1.3 Results 2
1.4 Discussion 4
1.5 Other Impacts 5
1.6 Implications 7
2. Seattle Area 8
2.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario 8
2.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario 12
2.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios 15
2.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use 17
2.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads 18
2.4 Sensitivity Analysis 18
3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area 19
3.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario 19
3.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario 25
3.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios 26
3.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use 29
3.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads 31
4. Emeryville Area 32
4.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario 32
4.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario 38
4.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios 41
4.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use 43
4.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads 44
5. Baltimore Area 45
5.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario 45
5.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario 52
5.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios 55
5.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use 55
5.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads 58
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6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area 59
6.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario 59
6.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario 64
6.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios 67
6.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use 67
6.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads 70
References 71
Appendix A. Vehicle Miles Traveled: Empirical Results of Previous Studies 73
Methodology 73
Findings 73
Appendix B. Methodology 75
Introduction 75
Methodology Overview 76
Brownfields Development Scenario 76
Identification of Brownfield Sites 76
Estimation of Impacts on Air Quality and Personal Vehicle Energy Use 76
Estimation of Impacts on Water Quality: Overview 77
L-THIA Application at Brownfield Sites 79
Issues in the Application of L-THIA 80
Alternative Conventional Development Scenario 81
Identification of Alternative Conventional Locations 81
Estimation of Alternative Conventional Development Size 81
Estimation of Impacts on Air Quality and Personal Vehicle Energy Consumption 82
Estimation of Impacts on Water Quality 82
Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios 84
Percent Change for Air Quality and Energy Measures 84
Alternative VMT Comparisons 84
Percent Change for Water Quality Impacts 85
Alternative Stormwater Comparisons 85
Limitations of the Analysis 86
General 86
Air Quality 87
Water Quality 87
Acronyms and Abbreviations 89
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1. Introduction and Summary
1.1 Introduction
A number of previous studies have compared the environmental performance of specific brownfield
redevelopments with similar projects built on undeveloped greenfield sites, which often are located
in less dense and less accessible areas.1 These studies generally examined a single brownfield or
infill development and entailed extensive site-specific analysis. The comparison greenfields generally
accommodated the same number of residential units and commercial square footage, but their
designs typically used more acreage per employee or per residence and were less location efficient. A
review of 12 of these studies concluded that the brownfield and infill developments result in
significant environmental benefits compared to their greenfield counterparts (Appendix A).
However, making broader quantitative assessments of other brownfield redevelopment around the
country requires a methodology that is more easily transferable.
This study tests an analytical approach to quantifying the environmental impacts of multiple
redevelopment projects in a given municipal area in a manner that can be replicated in other regions.
The method was applied to five cities and their surrounding areas—Seattle, Washington; Baltimore,
Maryland; Minneapolis-Saint Paul, Minnesota; Emeryville, California; and Dallas-Fort Worth,
Texas. These municipal areas correspond approximately to metropolitan statistical areas as defined
by the U.S. Census Bureau.
1.2 Study Approach
The municipal areas were selected based on several factors, including a significant number of
brownfield properties that had benefited from assistance from U.S. EPA's Brownfields Program and
had development completed or under way, the availability of information about the reuse status of
the brownfield sites, and the availability of data that could be used as indicators of local
environmental performance. Most of these properties are in close-in, highly developed areas.
Alternative development locations were identified for each of the brownfield sites, based on
prevailing development trends in the area. Most, but not all of the alternative sites were located
outside the urban core. That is, it was assumed that had the brownfields been unavailable, the
development would have gone to these locations. Development on suburban and exurban sites
consumes more acreage per resident or employee than urban core project areas. It was assumed that
these projects were sited on greenfields and would require 2-4 times the acreage typically used for
development on brownfield sites. This assumption, believed to be conservative, is derived from
factors drawn from literature on land use patterns by type of use as well as experience in the Puget
Sound area. Nearly all alternative locations identified for this study would require more land to
accommodate the same type of development on brownfield sites.
The environmental performance of both sets of locations was measured and compared in terms such
as vehicle use per capita, air pollutant emissions per capita, personal vehicle energy use per capita,
and stormwater runoff and pollutant loads. The environmental performance measures were
developed with data from regional transportation demand models, a watershed management model,
and INDEX, a geographical information system-based analytical tool (EPA 2001b, Allen 2008).
Appendix B contains a more detailed description of the methodology.
1 EPA defines "brownfield site" as real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be
complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant.
Section 1. Introduction and Summary Page 1
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A total of 163 brownfield properties met the criteria for inclusion in the study. These properties
represent 35-40% of the total number identified in EPA's ACRES database for the five cities. The
other sites were not included in the study either because they had not been redeveloped, or because
confirmation that the property had benefited from U.S. EPA Brownfields Program assistance was not
available. In a few cases, sites were not included because it was difficult to categorize their use for
the purposes of this study, such as a property that was used for a bridge approach. The 163 developed
brownfield sites account for a relatively small portion of total development acreage in these areas,
however, their reuse has been important to the communities in overcoming obstacles to
redevelopment. Exhibit 1-1 provides summary information for the five municipal areas.
Exhibit 1-1. Municipal Areas Included in Study
City
Seattle
Minneapolis-
Saint Paul
Emeryville
Baltimore
Dallas-Ft. Worth
Total
No. of
Brownfield
Properties (a)
25
37
39
37
25
163
Brownfield
Acreage
87
80
183
322
266
938
City
Population in
Thousands
(Year)
592.8 (2007)
676.7 (2007)
10.1 (2009)
636.9 (2008)
2,026.6 (2009)
City
area
(Sq. Mi.)
83.87
114.60
1.9
92.07
678
Planning Area
4-county area
7-county area
9-county area
5 counties &
Baltimore City
12-county area
Population
in Planning
Area
(millions)
3.6
2.9
5.1
2.5
6.5
(a) Properties that have received EPA Brownfields Program assistance and have been, or are being,
redeveloped.
1.3 Results
Indicators of environmental performance, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, personal vehicle
energy use, and stormwater runoff, were estimated for each of the 163 brownfield sites and their
hypothetical counterparts. The values varied widely from site to site, as would be expected given the
wide range of characteristics of the various locations. For 90-95% of the sites, however, the
brownfield locations had environmental performance superior to their conventional or greenfield
counterparts. The results were averaged for each municipal area and are shown in Exhibit 1-2.
Averaging the results for the five municipal areas indicates that:
• Automobile use by residents and employees at brownfield locations is estimated to be
substantially lower than at the alternative locations:
n Daily vehicle miles traveled per capita would be 32-57% lower.
n Daily vehicle trips per capita would be 16-38% lower.
n Personal vehicle energy use per capita would 32 - 57% lower.
• Brownfield redevelopments produce 32 - 57% less carbon dioxide emissions per capita relative
to conventional developments.
• Brownfield redevelopments produce 32 - 57% less air pollutant emissions per capita relative to
conventional developments.
• Stormwater runoff from brownfield redevelopments is estimated to average 43 - 60% less than
the greenfield alternatives.
Section 1. Introduction and Summary
Page 2
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Exhibit 1-2. Comparison of Environmental Performance of Brownfield
and Conventional Development in Five Municipal Areas
Environmental
Indicator
Home based vehicle miles
traveled
Non-home-based vehicle miles
traveled
Total vehicle miles traveled
Home based vehicle trips
Non-home based vehicle trips
Total vehicle trips per capita
Personal vehicle energy use
Residential structural energy
use
Carbon dioxide (CC>2)
emissions
Air pollutants (NOx, HC, & CO)
Land consumption
Stormwater runoff
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Suspended solids
Biological oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Oil and grease
Metals (average for .lead,
copper, zinc, cadmium,
chromium, nickel)
Units
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
trips/capita/day
MMBtu/capita/yr
MMBtu/capita/yr
Ibs/resident/yr
Ibs/resident/yr
acres
acre feet/yr
Ibs/yr
Ibs/yr
Ibs/yr
Ibs/yr
Ibs/yr
Ibs/yr
Ibs/yr
Percent Difference for Brownfields as Compared to Conventional
(Conventional less Brownfield Scenarios as a Percent of Conventional)
Twin Cities Emeryville Baltimore Dallas-Fort
Seattle Area Area Area Area Worth Area Average
67%
37%
57%
11%
29%
19%
57%
6%
57%
57%
50 to
75%
49 to
64%
57 to
71%
64 to
78%
65 to
79%
64 to
78%
65 to
79%
65 to
79%
60 to 74%
32%
34%
32%
13%
19%
16%
32%
NA
32%
32%
50 to 75%
48 to
69%
75 to
-17%
81 to
-36%
26 to
83%
67 to
83%
71 to
84%
71 to
84%
65 to 78%
53%
45%
49%
36%
40%
38%
49%
NA
49%
49%
50 to 75%
27 to 45%
53 to 69%
77 to -11 3%
79 to -11%
54 to 77%
60 to 77%
60 to 77%
53 to 64%
37%
53%
42%
NA
NA
NA
42%
NA
42%
42%
50 to
75%
48 to 70%
1 to 74%
79 to -13%
30 to 80%
65 to 78%
61 to 78%
65 to 80%
62 to 77%
NA
NA
53%
NA
NA
24%
53%
NA
53%
53%
50 to
75%
43 to 52%
66 to -48%
77 to -55%
79 to -3%
59 to 78%
66 to 79%
67 to 80%
54 to 68%
45%
43%
47%
20%
30%
24%
47%
NA
47%
47%
50 to
75%
43 to 60%
9 to 71%
-31 to +78%
21 to 80%
62 to 79%
65 to 79%
66 to 80%
59 to 72%
Notes: MMBtu = millions of British thermal units; mi = miles; Ibs = pounds; yr = year; CO2 = carbon dioxide; CO = carbon monoxide; HC = hydrocarbons; NOx nitrogen
oxides; NA = data not available; Non-home vehicle miles and trips per capita are calculated per employee; ranges in stormwater indicators are due to a range of
greenfield site acreages and land use types. Loadings of some water pollutants in some regions are higher under the brownfields development scenario; on average they
are lower.
Section 1. Introduction and Summary
Page 3
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• Brownfield redevelopments also produce substantially lower loads of all pollutants studied,
averaging from 9% to 80% for conventional pollutants and 59% to 72% for metals. 2
• Based on a literature review, it is estimated that brownfield sites typically accommodate the
same number of homes and businesses on about 1A to 1A the land typically used at corresponding
conventional sites.
These results are generally consistent with the land use patterns and urban form measures for the
areas studied. On average, neighborhoods with the brownfield sites had higher development density
(population, dwelling units, and employees per gross acre), more travel accessibility to other areas (in
terms of distance and travel time), and better access to transit than the areas where the conventional
counterparts are located. Exhibit 1-3 summarizes these measures. For example, the Seattle
neighborhoods with the brownfields have, on average, twice the population density of the
conventional counterpart areas. In addition, the percentage of the population within 1A mile of transit
in the brownfield neighborhoods is more than double that of the conventional locations, on average.
1.4 Discussion
The results in Section 1.3 generally are in line with other studies that compare the environmental
performance of brownfield or infill development with conventional and greenfield development.
More than a dozen such studies were reviewed and the percentage improvement in vehicle miles
traveled is within the range estimated by those studies (Appendix A). The previous studies generally
addressed one or several properties and examined specific characteristics of each property, as well as
the hypothetical counterpart greenfield sites in detail. This study examines 163 properties in five
cities, but with less detail about each property than the previous studies, as the ultimate goal is to
determine the feasibility of developing national estimates of environmental impacts.
The results of this study are also consistent with other studies that have evaluated the relationship
between urban built environment and vehicle use and air emissions using data for wider geographic
areas, such as counties and metropolitan statistical areas. A well-researched summary of this
literature is included in the report Growing Cooler: The Evidence of Urban Development and
Climate Change (Ewing 2008). The study estimated that, with more compact development, people
drive 20 to 40% less.
Another study used the 1999 Puget Sound Household Travel Survey and land use measures to
examine the relationship between land use patterns and travel and vehicle emissions (Frank 2005).
The findings suggest that residents make travel choices based on several factors, most of which are
related to time spent traveling, including wait times, which are, in turn, related to land use patterns.
Increased levels of mixed-use development, retail density, and street connectivity were associated
with lower per capita emissions and an increased tendency to walk.
Although the results for each city show significant positive environmental outcomes from building
on brownfields, the estimates vary from city to city. This variation is not readily explained by a direct
comparison of the average urban form indicators, such as population density, employment density,
dwelling units per gross acre, and accessibility measures. Direct comparisons of these variables are
confounded by the facts that the results are first differences between the conventional and brownfield
scenarios (i.e., the conventional scenario less the brownfield scenario) and that there are many factors
that vary among cities, such as geographical barriers, socioeconomic characteristics, the existence
and effectiveness of mass transit, the physical form of existing conventional and greenfield areas, and
2 These estimates do not include the potential reduction in pollutant loads from cleanup of the brownfield
properties.
Section 1. Introduction and Summary Page 4
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economic growth. For example, because Seattle is surrounded by many bodies of water and
mountains, some of the outlying areas are accessible to the central city or other destinations only by
bridge, ferry, or circuitous routes. This fact may explain why the results for the Puget Sound area
indicate greater reductions in vehicle miles traveled and emissions under the brownfields
redevelopment scenario than for the other cities. Minneapolis has the lowest percentage net
improvement in environmental performance (e.g., 32% lower vehicle energy use), although the ratios
of density and other urban form indicators would indicate that that it should be closer to the other
four cities in this study (40 - 50%). This is partly explained by the fact that people in the brownfield
areas tend to drive more than those in other cities. People in the outer areas tend to drive about as
much as those in the outer areas of the other regions.
Despite the environmental advantages of more compact, accessible development, the extent of
implementation of smart growth policies may be limited by the demand for urban development. The
Growing Cooler study and a recent EPA study (Thomas 2009) indicate that, in many cities, there is
strong demand for housing in central cities and core suburban areas relative to suburban and exurban
areas. The EPA study found that the percentage of houses built in urban areas has been increasing
dramatically, relative to the outer areas. Residents show a preference for neo-traditional urban
design, and relatively higher use mix and density. The fact that the housing market has been
receptive to smart growth policies indicates that in the current real estate market, there is potential for
leveraging smart growth policies in these cities. A number of factors contribute to this trend, such as
demographics, local growth planning, lifestyle changes such as the growing popularity of walkable
communities, and lifecycle changes of individuals (e.g., baby boomers who, upon becoming empty
nesters, wish to move from the suburbs to the city). Some cities with weak growth policies also
exhibit this trend. The study also found considerable variation in characteristics such as market-share
trends among the municipal areas, as does this study.
1.5 Other Impacts
There are a number of other important environmental and human health benefits that result from
compact development that are not addressed in this study.
• Infrastructure, such as roads and utilities, to support brownfield redevelopment generally requires
less land per capita and results in less stormwater runoff than infrastructure needed to support a
similar amount and type of conventional development. Generally, the lower the population
density, the more roads and highways are called for to connect trip origin and destination points.
On the other hand, residents and employees in more efficiently located, compact communities
typically drive less and have opportunities to use other transportation modes. The resulting lower
demand for highways implies fewer lane-miles and less road surface and, consequently, lower
stormwater runoff, energy consumption, and cost for construction, maintenance, snow removal,
and highway safety programs. Studies have shown that infrastructure costs for conventional
development are significantly higher than that of infill areas.
• Greenfield conversion can have climate change and other ecological effects. Since forests
generally sequester carbon, their elimination can result in higher levels of CO2 in the atmosphere
(EPA 2010). The development of pasture and forest can reduce or fragment habitat areas
necessary for species to maintain a minimum viable population and to maintain biodiversity.
• A number of studies have shown that compact development also provides health benefits by (a)
reducing air pollutant emissions; and (b) providing more opportunities for physical activity, such
as walking and biking, which generally are associated with improvements in public health.
(Frank 2005, Ewing 2003, McCann 2003, Sturm 2004).
Section 1. Introduction and Summary Page 5
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Exhibit 1-3. Comparison of Measures of Urban Form of Brownfield
and Conventional Development in Five Municipal Areas
Land Use and Urban
Form Indicator
Population density
Employment density
Dwelling density
Jobs-to-housing balance
Transit adjacency to housing
Transit adjacency to
employment
Units
Persons / gross
acre
Employees /
gross acre
DU/gross acre
Jobs/DU
% population
within 1/4-mi
% employees
within 1/4-mi
Percent Difference for Brownfields as Compared to Conventional
(Conventional less Brownfield Scenarios as percent of Conventional)
Seattle Emeryville Baltimore
Area Twin Cities Area Area Dallas Area Average
166
1,086
154
51
169
113
519
176
450
40
245
249
54
130
127
67
45
45
91
-11
96
3
NA
NA
15
186
8
122
185
166
169
313
167
57
161
143
% total region HH w/in 10 min.
walk from TAZ center
% total region HH w/in 30 min.
transit ride from TAZ center
% total region HH w/in 6 mi. by
SOV from TAZ center
% total region empls w/in 10
min. walk from TAZ center
% total region empls w/in 30
min. transit ride from TAZ
center
% total region empls w/in 6 mi.
by SOV from TAZ center
%
%
%
%
%
%
72
366
318
1,053
3,630
1,283
75
9,470
474
309
10,409
346
85
174
102
97
485
118
NA
122
115
16
NA
139
2
NA
36
307
NA
115
59
2,533
209
356
4,751
400
Notes: MMBtu = millions of British Thermal Units; DU = dwelling unit; HH = households; SOV = single occupancy vehicle; TAZ = traffic analysis zone or travel
analysis zone; mi = miles; Ibs = pounds; yr = year; CO = carbon monoxide; HC = hydrocarbons; NOx = nitrogen oxides
Negative value indicates that the brownfield value is lower.
Section 1. Introduction and Summary
Page 6
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
• Brownfield and infill residences require less energy per capita than conventional residences. This
study examined this phenomenon for the Seattle area, the only one of the five regions studied for
which the necessary data was available. Residential energy consumption for brownfield
properties in Seattle averages 6% lower than that of the alternative sites.
1.6 Implications
The study results have implications for EPA's Brownfields Program and development planners at the
state and local levels:
• Previous EPA Brownfields grant funds to the five cities have facilitated development with more
positive environmental outcomes compared to the prevailing development trends in their
metropolitan areas.
• Further examination of this data may inform EPA regarding providing outreach or engaging in
other efforts to encourage positive environmental outcomes.
• The results of this study strongly endorse smart growth practices and may serve to encourage and
contribute to outreach efforts by EPA regions and state and local officials.
• It is feasible to quantify the environmental impact of the built environment in a region, using data
elements similar to those in this study, although data sources may differ by region. Such
estimates may contribute to the efforts of local, state, and regional planners and officials.
• It is probable that if this analysis were repeated at another location, especially in large
metropolitan areas, it would obtain similar results. Nevertheless, the estimates for these five
regions cannot simply be extrapolated to all brownfields properties in the country.
This report does not infer the quantitative estimates to other jurisdictions. However, the findings of
this study, taken together with other studies discussed above, indicate that there are substantial
environmental advantages to brownfield redevelopment as compared to conventional and greenfield
development.
The methodologies used in this study are subject to a number of limitations and caveats. These are
discussed in Appendix B, Methodology.
Section 1. Introduction and Summary Page 7
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
2. Seattle Area
The analysis of the Seattle area follows the basic methodology outlined in Section 1 and described in
more detail in Appendix B. It was based on a set of 28 brownfield properties in Seattle that had
benefited from U.S. EPA Brownfields Program funding and had redevelopment completed or under
way. These parcels represent a variety of uses and are scattered throughout Seattle, with some
concentration in industrial or former industrial areas.
2.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario
The brownfields scenario was described in terms of the number and characteristics of brownfield
sites in the city, and measures of urban form, energy use, air emissions, and estimated stormwater
runoff and pollutant loads from the brownfield locations.
Seattle Brownfield Properties: Using EPA's ACRES database, the EPA Region 10 web site, and
other online sources, over 70 brownfield properties in the Seattle area were initially identified.
Several sources, including the King County web site, the Environmental Coalition of South Seattle
(ECOSS), tax assessor records, and building permit files, were consulted to determine property
location, acreage, use type (commercial, industrial, recreational, and residential), and the status of
use. This analysis showed that 28 properties had reuse completed, under way, or planned. Properties
for which there were firm specific reuse plans in place were considered as having development under
way. To facilitate the calculations, data for four adjacent properties with the same use type (multi-
family residential) were consolidated into one hypothetical larger parcel. The resulting 25 parcels are
listed in Exhibit 2-1, and their locations are shown in Exhibit 2-2.
Many of the redeveloped brownfield sites in Seattle are small parcels with small business
establishments. The average parcel size is only 3.5 acres. When one very large site is removed, the
average of the remaining 24 sites is only 1.2 acres. Details about these sites are sometimes limited to
anecdotal information and informal records of local officials.
Air Quality Impacts and Personal Vehicle Energy Use: Data used to estimate automobile use,
energy consumption, and air pollutant emissions associated with the brownfield locations were
provided by the Puget Sound Regional Council (PSRC), which is responsible for growth
management and transportation planning in the approximately four-county region (Exhibit 2-3). For
growth modeling purposes, PSRC subdivides the region in two ways: (1) a grid of 2,200-acre cells
known as subareas;3 and (2) traffic analysis zones (TAZs) of varying size, all smaller than subareas.
Some of the environmental indicators were available at the subarea level, while others were available
at the TAZ level. The environmental and urban form characteristics of the subareas and TAZs were
described according to TAZ indicators already scored by PSRC and the subarea indicators modeled
by PSRC using INDEX planning support software (Allen 2008, EPA 2001b). Residential structural
energy use was also tabulated, although data for this indicator were not available for the other four
metropolitan areas studied. Urban form indicators include density measures (population, dwelling
units, and employment per gross acre), jobs-to-housing balance, and several transportation
accessibility indicators. For the other four regions, all calculations were at the TAZ level.
The 2,200-acre cells are aggregations of 5.5-acre cells used in the UrbanSim model. UrbanSim is the regional
planning model used for the Puget Sound area.
Section 2. Seattle Area Page 8
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
Exhibit 2-1. Seattle Brownfield Properties Studied
ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Property
Rainier Court
Development
Colman Building
Kwick Cleaners
Coleman Creosote
Property
Pier 1 Property
Ballard Oil Bulk Plant
Georgetown Gasoline
Station
Central Painting
Crosby Frame & Axle
Property
Pederson Property
Ballard Auto Wrecking
Tsubota Industrial
Supply
Bill's Tires
General Disposal Site
Former Lloyd's Rocket
Gas Sta.
Ninth & Jefferson Street
Building
SeaCon Property
North Bay at Terminal
91
Doc Freeman
Properties
Doc Freeman
Properties
Chrome Plating Works
All Metal Fabricators
NW Enviroservice 1st
Ave. So. Spill
Advanced Electroplating
Inc.
Kvichak Marine
Address
NW of Rainier Ave. S &
S. Charlestown Street
2203 E. Union St.
2701 15th Ave S
333 Elliott Avenue W
2130 Harbor Ave. SW
1101 NW 45th Street
6527 4th Ave S
4749 W. Marginal Way S
8621 14th Ave S
8520 14th Ave S
1515NWLearyWay
1837 15th Avenue W
4910 NWLeary Way
141 5 Ballard Way NW
110 Boren Avenue S
925 James Street
9530 10th Ave S
2001 West Garfield Street
3831 Stone Way N
3939 Stone Way N
601 North 35th Street
2952 1st AvenueS
8105 1st AvenueS
9585 8th Ave. S
469 NW Bowdoin Place
Parcel Size
(Acres)
7.0
0.37
0.28
1.17
2.51
0.88
0.18
0.4
0.14
0.12
0.68
1.75
0.13
1.91
0.33
0.34
4.43
57
0.14
0.27
0.2
0.83
2.12
1.26
2.08
Building Size
(SF)
20,000
+ 500 DUs
N/A
5,746
6-stories
1 -story
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1 -story
N/A
1,157
30,500
2,038
N/A
N/A
N/A
2,750
2,400
NA
N/A
N/A
30,500
42,100
Past Use
N/A
Apartments above commercial
Dry cleaner
Wood treating facility
Seafood processing, metal
fabrication
Bulk oil storage
Gas station
Commercial painting
Auto repair/gas station
Garage & gas station
Auto wrecking yard
Steel fabrication, industrial sales
Gas station/tire store
Garbage truck maintenance facility
Gas station & garage
Former dry cleaner and other
commercial
Vacant-contaminated fill
Marine terminals, bulk oil storage,
auto storage, seafood processing
Commercial rental
Commercial retail
Metal plating
Warehouse
Truck repair shop
Metal plating
Steel fabrication
Present Use
N/A
Vacant
Retail bakery
Office building
Seafood processing
Pavingstone Supply Co.
Check cashing store
Stone countertop finishing
Sewing shop
Produce market
Vacant lot for lease
Mostly vacant
Station Bistro rest
Under construction for new dev.
New restaurant
Medical facility
Ind./warehouse/ off.
Marine terminal is active, but
uplands mostly pending dev
Office space
Indoor Garden Center-retail
Burt Sugar retail consignment
store
Retail use
Service garage for trash trucks
Industrial/Gen. Pur-pose
contractor
Alum, boat mfg .
Future Use
500 units affordable senior & family
housing; 20,000 sf. commercial
Residential/commercial
No change expected
Office space
Residential/commercial condominiums
with greenspace
Continued outdoor commercial/retail
No further change expected
No further change expected
No further change expected
No further change expected
Commercial
Commercial/retail development planned
No further change expected
Mixed retail/commercial
No further change expected
Medical facility
No further change expected
Mixed industrial, commercial
No further change expected
No further change expected
No further change expected
Commercial/retail
No further change expected
Same
No further change expected
Notes/ NA = Not available
Source/ U.S. EPA, ACRES database, King County, WA, and Environmental Coalition of South Seattle.
Section 2. Seattle Area
Page 9
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
Exhibit 2-2. Locations of 25 Brownfield Sites in Seattle
Section 2. Seattle Area
Page 10
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
Exhibit 2-3. Puget Sound Regional Council Planning Area
Section 2. Seattle Area
Page 11
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
The urban form indicators are not directly used in the calculations of VMT, air pollutant emissions,
and stormwater runoff; these indicators are provided as additional metrics that are considered to be
related to travel efficiency in the region.
Water Quality Impacts: The Long-Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment (L-THIA) watershed
management model was used to estimate stormwater runoff and pollutant loads for each site. The
model calculates runoff as a function of precipitation, site size, type of land use (e.g., commercial,
industrial, residential), and hydrologic soil group. L-THIA contains data on average county
precipitation, generally accepted soil curves for each type of land use and soil (USDA 1986), and
hydrologic soil group. Data on site location, parcel size, and land use type, shown in Exhibit 2-1,
were entered into the model. Appendix B describes the rationale for using this model, how it was
applied, and some important assumptions.
The estimated runoff from former uses of the Seattle brownfield sites was compared to those of the
redeveloped brownfield sites. Seattle's developed brownfields were estimated to have 3.5% more
runoff than that from the former uses. This small change is due to parcels shifting from one
developed use to another, such as from industrial to commercial. A number of parcels did not change
their land use classification. These differences are insignificant compared to the total amount of
runoff from the alternative sites.
Appendix B provides further detail on the application of L-THIA, key assumptions, and limitations
of the approach.
2.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario
The alternative conventional scenario assigned locations that were reasonable for the same type of
development, if the development had not occurred on the brownfields, and estimated the
environmental performance of these locations.
Alternative Conventional Locations: For each brownfield site, an alternative location was assigned
based on recent development patterns in the region. The development counterpart for each
brownfield site was assigned to one of the top 5% fastest growing areas in the four-county region
(about 73 TAZs and census tracts). The fastest growing areas were determined from the number of
residential building permits issued from 2000 to 2005 and from the change in employment from 1995
to 2000, the latest period for which data were available.4 While information on the dates of the
development of these properties is imprecise, these time periods are believed to be approximately
when redevelopment decisions and other activities took place for a number of the sites. The high-
growth areas are shown in Exhibit 2-4. An additional analysis using the top 10% of the TAZs also
showed a similar distribution among outlying areas. Alternative locations for each of the 25
brownfield sites are shown in Exhibit 2-5. These locations were selected from among the 73 high-
growth areas. The use of a statistical selection procedure helped to ensure impartiality.
To reflect growth in both employment and residents, the 25 brownfield sites were divided into two groups
according to whether, based on their redevelopment use, they were more likely to be located in, or economically
linked to, a residential area (13 sites) or a non-residential area (12 sites). For the residential-related counterpart sites,
the fastest growing TAZs were based on residential building permit volume. The fastest growing non-residential areas
were identified by census tract employment data.
Section 2. Seattle Area Page 12
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
Exhibit 2-4. High Growth TAZs and Census Tracts in the Seattle Area
Top 5% High Residential Growth TAZs
| Top 5% High Employment Growth Census Tracts
Section 2. Seattle Area
Page 13
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
Exhibit 2-5. Alternative Conventional Locations
in the Seattle Area: 25 Sites
r
Section 2. Seattle Area
Page 14
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
Alternative Conventional Development Size: Development generally consumes more acreage in
suburban and rural areas than in more dense, urban areas, due to building practices, parking
requirements, and typically lower land cost. Based on the methodology described in Appendix B, it
was assumed that the conventional/greenfield sites would generally require two to four times the
acreage of their brownfield counterparts. Planners at PSRC, based on their professional judgment,
indicated that this range is reasonable (PSRC 2006). Land use decisions are inherently influenced by
a number of site-specific factors. As a result, there is a wide variation in the amount of land
consumed by similar uses in different areas, or even properties within close proximity. Thus, the
average acreage multiplier of two is used for a more conservative estimate, and an average of four is
used for an upper bound.
Air Quality, Energy Consumption, and Urban Form: Using information on the conventional
locations, acreage, and types of use, the environmental characteristics of these locations were
described according to indicators scored by the PSRC transportation and land use models, in a
procedure identical to that described above for the brownfield sites.
Water Quality: Using information on the alternative development locations, which were assumed
to be greenfields for the stormwater modeling, acreage, and categories of land use (e.g., commercial,
residential, pasture, forest), the stormwater runoff and pollutant loads for these locations were
estimated with the L-THIA model in a procedure identical to that described above for the brownfield
sites.
It was assumed that new construction would take place either in a former vacant pasture area or in a
former forested area.5 Using two land use categories provides a range of acceptable values rather
than a single estimate. This approach is appropriate, as the precise location of the greenfield site
within the TAZ or census tract is unknown. To obtain the net new runoff contribution of the
greenfield development, the existing runoff (pasture or forest area footprint) was subtracted from the
runoff expected from the developed uses, which were commercial, industrial and residential. To
obtain the net change in runoff for the entire region, the changes in runoff due to the development at
the brownfield sites were also factored in. These calculations are described in greater detail in
Appendix B.
2.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios
For each site pair, the estimated indicators were compared, and totals for all sites were averaged. The
results of the air quality and energy analysis were generally expressed in terms of percent difference
in VMT and emissions associated with the brownfield site compared to its conventional alternative
on a per capita basis. The results of the stormwater runoff analysis were expressed in terms of
percent difference in stormwater runoff and pollutants for brownfields in the group of 25 site pairs. A
number of limitations and caveats apply to this comparison. These are discussed in Appendix B,
Methodology.
Exhibit 2-6 compares the environmental indicators for the averaged totals of all the site pairs. Twenty
six of the indicators relate to urban form, travel, energy use, and air emissions; and nine variables
address land use, stormwater runoff, and water pollutants. In general, the brownfield locations
demonstrate substantially greater land-use and location efficiency, less auto dependency, and lower
personal vehicle energy use, air pollutant emissions, and stormwater runoff and pollutant loads.
The predominant undeveloped land use in the region is forest. Since the precise locations of the alternative
greenfield sites within the census tracts are unknown, this range was used to account for the possibility that some
projects may be located on pasture. L-THIA's Basic module offers three land use categories for undeveloped land:
forest, pasture/grassland, and agricultural.
Section 2. Seattle Area Page 15
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
Exhibit 2-6. Comparison of Environmental Indicators in the Seattle Area:
Average Differences Between 25 Site Pairs
Accessibility Indicators
Households in TAZ
% total region HH w/in 10 min. walk from TAZ center
% total region HH w/in 30 min. transit ride from TAZ center
% total region HH w/in 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Employment in TAZ
% total region emps w/in 1 0 min. walk from TAZ center
% total region emps w/in 30 min. transit ride from TAZ center
% total region emps w/in 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Environmental Performance
Indicators
Population density
Transit adjacency to housing
Jobs-to-housing balance
Employment density
Transit adjacency to employment
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
Hydrocarbon (HC) pollutant emissions
Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
Home-based vehicle miles traveled
Non-home based vehicle miles
traveled
Total vehicle miles traveled
Home-based vehicle trips
Non-home based vehicle trips
Total vehicle trips
Dwelling density
Residential structural energy use
Personal vehicle energy use
Stormwater Runoff and Pollution
Indicators
(Average of All 25 Site Pairs)
Land area (Acres)
Annual runoff
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Suspended solids
Biological oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Oil and grease
Metals (average for copper, zinc,
cadmium, chromium, nickel)
Units
persons/gross ac
% pop. w/in 1/4-mi
jobs/DU
emps/gross ac
% empl w/in 1/4-mi.
Ibs/resident/yr
Ibs/resident/yr
Ibs/resident/yr
Ibs/resident/yr
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
trip/capita/day
trip/capita/day
trip/capita/day
DU/gross ac
MMBtu/capita/yr
MMBtu/capita/yr
Brownfield
Average
1,210
0.09%
0.70%
9.16%
3,666
0.21 %
2.00%
19.13%
7.7
96.7
3.0
15.5
94.8
15.6
2,892
30.3
233.9
5.6
5.8
11.4
1.4
0.9
2.4
2.4
36.6
26.00
Conventional
Average
1,621
0.05%
0.15%
2.19%
809
0.02%
0.05%
1 .38%
2.9
36.0
0.5
1.3
44.5
36.0
6,681
69.9
540.4
17.2
9.2
26.4
1.6
1.2
2.8
0.9
38.9
60.07
Percent Change
(Conventional
less Brownfield)
(a)
25%
72%
366%
318%
353%
1 ,053%
3,630%
1 ,283%
166%
169%
51%
1 ,086%
113%
57%
57%
57%
57%
67%
37%
57%
11%
29%
19%
154%
6%'
57%
Percent Change (Conventional/Greenfield less Brownfield) (a)
Pasture (Grasslands) Forest
Low Bound Upper Bound
(2x Brownfield (4x Brownfield
Acres) Acres)
50% 75%
49% 60%
57% 70%
64% 78%
65% 79%
64% 78%
65% 79%
65% 79%
60% 720X,
Low Bound Upper Bound
(2x Brownfield (4x Brownfield
Acres) Acres)
50% 75%
53% 64%
59% 71%
64% 78%
65% 79%
64% 78%
65% 79%
65% 79%
62% 74%
Notes:
TAZ = traffic analysis zone; HH= household; Ac = acre; Pop = population; SOV = single occupancy vehicle; DU = dwelling unit;
MMBTU = millions of British Thermal Units
(a) Percentage change calculated as: [(Value for conventional - Value for brownfield) / Value for conventional] x 100
Section 2. Seattle Area
Page 16
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
2.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use
The average brownfield scores were superior for all indicators except jobs-to-housing balance. The
primary reason for this counter-intuitive finding is that the brownfield TAZs tend to be in non-
residential areas, with high jobs/dwelling unit ratios (average 3.0). The 0.7 average for the
conventional TAZs is closer to a balanced score. Although this ratio is often considered to be related
to travel efficiency, the data in an area could show a very balanced ratio, while at the same time,
residents are traveling elsewhere to work and regional employees are drawn from other places.
The calculations show that nearly all redeveloped brownfield sites result in substantially better
environmental performance than similar conventional development. These results (Exhibit 2-6)
indicate the following:
• Brownfield sites accommodated the same number of homes and businesses on about one-fourth
to one-half the land typically used at corresponding conventional sites.
• Automobile use by residents and employees at brownfield locations is estimated to be
substantially lower than at the alternative locations.
° Average daily vehicle miles traveled per capita would be 57% lower.
° Average daily vehicle trips per capita would be 19% lower.
n Personal vehicle energy use per capita would be 57% lower.
• The brownfield redevelopment areas average 57% lower air pollutant emissions per capita
relative to conventional development.
• Residential energy use in the brownfield TAZs was also lower by 6%.
The positive environmental indicator values at the brownfield locations stem from the fact that the
brownfield neighborhoods in this study are denser and more accessible by most measures. Density is
measured primarily by the number of residents, households, or employees per gross acre. Generally,
the denser an area, the shorter the distance to various destinations for shopping, recreation,
employment and other purposes. Population density for the average brownfield TAZ in this study is
about twice that of the average alternative TAZ. Employment density in the average brownfield TAZ
is seven times that of the average alternative TAZ.
Accessibility is measured primarily in terms of time required to travel between key origin-destination
points within the region. Based on the indicators in Exhibit 2-6, people living and working in the
brownfield neighborhoods have substantially more accessibility to other neighborhoods and to points
within their TAZs than those in their conventional counterparts. For example, the percentage of all
households in the four-county region within a 30-minute transit ride of the center of the average
brownfield TAZ is more than seven times that of the average conventional TAZ. Nineteen percent of
total regional employees are within six miles by single occupancy vehicle (SOV) from the TAZ
center for the average brownfield TAZ. The figure for conventional TAZs is 1.4%.
The primary air quality indicators in this study are per-resident emissions of nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons. Lower emissions are considered a positive
environmental outcome, and more intensive development in more central areas usually results in
lower per-capita emissions than if the same amount of development was located in less dense, less
accessible areas. However, although total emissions in a region may be lower due to more compact
and location-efficient development patterns, a particular intensive development can result in local
"hot spots" of one or more pollutants. Hot spots are local areas of very high concentrations that may
present a health or environmental risk or cause an area to fall out of compliance with air pollutant
Section 2. Seattle Area Page 17
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfield Redevelopment
levels.
Some pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, are primarily a local health concern. Others, such as
carbon dioxide, are greenhouse gases, which contribute to climate change. Some pollutants, such as
nitrous oxide, can have local health impacts and are also greenhouse gases. None of the brownfield
development projects in this study is large enough or has enough industrial or transportation activity
to be a regional concern on its own. However, analysis of other development in the area was not
conducted to see if, combined with the other projects, there might be significantly elevated levels of
emissions.
2.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads
Using the lower-bound (more conservative) footprint, runoff in acre feet due to development of
brownfield sites would be 49% lower than if their counterpart sites were in pasture (grassland) areas.
Using the high-footprint estimate, it would be 60% lower. If the counterpart sites were in forested
areas, the differences were 53% and 64%, respectively. Loads for conventional pollutants, such as
nitrogen, phosphorous, suspended solids, biological oxygen demand, and chemical oxygen demand
range from 65 to 79% lower.
Based on the calculations using L-THIA, stormwater runoff from redeveloped brownfields in the
City of Seattle is estimated to be about 3.5% greater than that from the former uses. This result is
caused by shifts in land use from one type of developed use to another, such as from industrial to
commercial. In a separate calculation, runoff was estimated at the alternative locations with and
without development, without considering runoff at the brownfield sites. If left undeveloped, the 25
alternative sites in Seattle would produce 76 - 82% less runoff than if they were developed.
Further explanation of the methodology used to develop these estimates as well as issues to consider
in interpreting results and limitations are provided in Appendix B.
2.4 Sensitivity Analysis
To test the robustness of the estimates, a second group of 25 alternative sites (Alternative B sites)
was selected using a methodology similar to that for the first group. The statistical site selection
procedure used to select the conventional sites from among the fastest growing TAZs helped to
ensure that the process was impartial. Because these sites were also selected from the fastest growing
areas in the region, they generally reflect the prevailing development patterns in the four-county
region. In this analysis, the results for the individual sites differed from the first group of sites.
However, the 25-site averages of the environmental indicators were within a few percentage points of
the first set of sites, thereby supporting the initial results.
Section 2. Seattle Area Page 18
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
The analysis of the Minneapolis-Saint Paul area follows the basic methodology outlined in Section 1
and described in more detail in Appendix B. It was based on a set of 37 brownfield properties in
Minneapolis and Saint Paul (Twin Cities), Minnesota that benefited from U.S. EPA Brownfields
Program funding and had redevelopment completed or under way. These sites represent a variety of
uses and are scattered throughout the Twin Cities, with 25 in Minneapolis and 12 in Saint Paul.
3.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario
The brownfields scenario was described in terms of the number and characteristics of brownfield
sites in the city, and measures of urban form, energy use, air emissions, and estimated stormwater
runoff and pollution loads from the brownfield locations.
Minneapolis-Saint Paul Brownfield Properties: Using EPA's ACRES database, the EPA Region 5
web site and other online sources, 86 brownfield properties in the Twin Cities were initially
identified. Several sources, including the City of Minneapolis Assessor's Office, Hennepin County
Assessor's Office and building permit data, City of Saint Paul Property Information Office, and the
Saint Paul Port Authority, were consulted to determine or confirm property location, acreage, use
type (commercial, industrial, recreational, and residential), and the status of use. Properties for which
there were firm specific reuse plans in place were considered as having development under way. This
analysis indicated that 37 of the 86 properties have reuse completed or under way and had benefited
from assistance from EPA's Brownfields Program. These properties are listed in Exhibit 3-1, and
their locations are shown in Exhibit 3-2. Site size ranged from 0.1 acre to 18 acres, with an average
of 2.2 acres. Only three sites are greater than five acres. Some of the properties were not completely
built out, although development had begun or was ongoing.
Air Quality Impacts and Personal Vehicle Energy Use: Data used to estimate automobile use,
personal vehicle energy consumption, and air pollutant emissions, as well as measures of urban form,
were provided by the Metropolitan Council, which coordinates economic development, provides
planning assistance to communities, and provides transit, wastewater, and other services for the
seven-county Minneapolis-Saint Paul region. The counties include Anoka, Carver, Dakota,
Hennepin, Ramsey, Scott, and Washington (Exhibit 3-3). For planning purposes, the Council
subdivides the region into 1,201 traffic analysis zones (TAZs) of varying size.
Estimates of environmental and urban form indicators were developed for each of the TAZs in which
the brownfields are located. Some of these indicators were scored directly from the regional
transportation demand model by the Metropolitan Council staff, while others were estimated by the
study team based on data from the region's model. For example, the personal vehicle energy use and
pollutant emissions were estimated based on vehicle miles traveled (VMT) and vehicle trips (VT)
data provided by the Council. Open space connectivity was calculated using INDEX planning
software, and the accessibility indicators were provided by the Council.
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area Page 19
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 3-1. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Brownfield Properties Studied
Parcel
Site Size Bldg Size
No. Property Name Address City (Acres) (SF) Past Use Current Use Future Use
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Mel Schroeder Inc.
Tapestry Folk Dance
Center
Former B. F. Nelson
Mandile Fruit Co &
Packaging Concepts, Inc.
Hamma
Minneapolis Builders
Exch & Hmong American
Minneapolis Public
School Board of Ed.
KDS, INC
Timberland Lumber Co,
Inc.
Northwestern Tire and
Auto Co.
MN Plating Facility
East River Mews, LLC
Fritz's Auto Service
ADM Grain Elevator/ Soo
Line Garden
One Malcolm Avenue SE
3748 Minnehana Avenue S.
401 North Main Street NE
260 Fremont Avenue N.
1209 Glenwood Avenue N.
1121/1123Glenwood
Avenue N.
1001 Second Avenue N.
241 Fremont Avenue N.
250 Fremont Avenue N.
1 200 Glenwood Avenue N.
1 900 Central Avenue NE
825 Thornton Avenue
2800 Bloomington Avenue S.
2845 Garfield Avenue S.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
0.89
0.20
0.25
0.58
0.81
0.84
13.60
1.23
4.04
0.41
0.87
4.60
0.36
0.96
17,097
10,694
2,532
10,500
7,557
8,036
144,000
26,160
10,000
8,300
NA
NA
NA
NA
Commercial
Commercial
Residential
IWS warehouse
12-medium industrial
district
Office
Industrial
Vacant warehouse
Industrial
Motor vehicle repair;
garage
NA
Vacant lot; former
Superfund site; fuel
tank storage
Commercial, auto
repair
Light industrial
Commercial
Folk dance center
Residential
IWS warehouse
12-medium industrial
district
Office
Industrial
Occupied warehouse
Industrial
Motor vehicle repair;
garage
58 apartment &
retail; Silver Angel
Secondhand Goods
B; Anytime Fitness
53 condominium
units
15 townhouses
Community gardens
(zoned commercial)
Commercial, Apropos
studio
No change expected
Residential
No change expected
Restaurant
No change expected
COW warehouse &
offices, Board of Ed.
Warehouse, occupied
Lumber co. warehouse,
off & storage
No change expected
No change expected
No change expected
No change expected
No change expected
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
Page 20
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 3-1. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Brownfield Properties Studied (Continued)
Parcel
Site Size Bldg Size
No. Property Name Address City (Acres) (SF) Past Use Current Use Future Use
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Former Roofing
Company
Despatch Laundry
2826 Stevens Ave. S.
3408 Snelling Property
2309 Plymouth
Minneapolis American
Indian Center, Inc.
727 5th Ave. S.
11 32 South 8th Street
1 51 5 Chicago Avenue
3254Stinson Blvd.
271 Girard
Office Warehouse
Building
Case Distribution
Twin City Castings
Como Avenue
commercial property
3408 Snelling Avenue S.
11 3-1 15 26th Street E.
2826 Stevens Avenue
S.
3408 Snelling
2309 Plymouth Avenue
N.
1530 E. Franklin Avenue
727 5th Avenue S.
11 32 South 8th Street
1515 Chicago Avenue
3254 Stinson Blvd.
271 Girard
867-885 Pierce Butler
Route
1927 Case Avenue
750 Pelham Blvd.
SW of Western Avenue
and Como Avenue
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
Mnpl.
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
0.14
0.67
0.18
0.14
0.23
2.52
0.28
0.72
0.75
0.97
0.11
2.17
18.00
0.52
2.70
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
55,415
23,792
15,096
NA
NA
52,963
NA
NA
NA
Equip, storage / vacant
lot
Garage stall
Vacant
Vacant lot
Former church
American Indian Center
Apartment building;
A16 Apartment
Apartment building
Former gas station and
car repair shop
Vacant lot
Office & warehouse;
Building 1966
Warehouse
Vacant commercial
bldg
Auto salvage yard
Equip storage/ vacant
lot
Garage stall
One house
Vacant lot
Former church
American Indian
Center; education &
community services
Apartment building;
51 efficiencies; 181-
bedrooms; tot=69
Apartment 56
efficiencies, 1-one
bedroom; 57 units; 2-
stories
Affordable rental
housing; 38
efficiencies in same
building
Former gas station
and car repair shop
Vacant lot
Office & warehouse
Warehouse
Vacant commercial
bldg.
Auto salvage yard
1 Habitat House
22 dwelling units; with
commercial on ground
floor
1 House
1 House
Multifamily residential;
6 units
No change expected
Affordable rental
housing in same
building
Affordable rental
housing
No change expected
2 Houses
1 House
Office & warehouse
Storage + low-rise
office
Commercial: New
Bldg built 2005
No change expected
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
Page 21
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 3-1. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Brownfield Properties Studied (Continued)
Parcel
Site Size Bldg Size
No. Property Name Address City (Acres) (SF) Past Use Current Use Future Use
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Whirlpool Building 17
Mississippi and Hyacinth
Nebraska Ave E. &
ArkwrightSt. (lots 13, 14,
1 5, & 1 6)
962 Forest Street
Crane-Ordway Building
Dale Street Shops Wt
Dale Street Shops - East
Hmong American Funeral
Home/Riverview Industrial
park Parcel E-3
844 Arcade Street
NE of Mississippi Street
and Hyacinth Avenue
Vacant parcels on
Nebraska/ West of
Arkwright
962 Forest Street
281 East 5th Street
500 Minnehaha Avenue
W.
500 Minnehaha Avenue
W.
NE of Eaton Street and
West Lafayette Frontage
Road
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
St.
Paul
4
1.3
0.4
0.1
0.22
6.7
4.5
3.3
NA
NA
NA
5,040
64,960
NA
NA
120,000
Commercial bldg
Vacant lot
Vacant lot
Retail (1 -story)
Vacant commercial
building
Vacant lot
Vacant lot
Vacant lot
Indoor/outdoor rock
climbing facility
Vacant lot
Vacant lot
Retail (1 -story)
Vacant commercial
building
Vacant lot
Vacant lot
Vacant lot
No change expected
10 houses
3 houses
No change expected
Building converted to 70
affordable rental and
for-sale units
Commercial/light
Industrial/ mixed
Commercial/light
industrial/ mixed
Office/flex
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
Page 22
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 3-2. Locations of 37 Brownfield Sites in Minneapolis and Saint Paul
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
Page 23
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 3-3. Metropolitan Council Planning Area
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Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
Page 24
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Water Quality Impacts: The Long-Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment (L-THIA) watershed
management model was used to estimate stormwater runoff and pollutant loads for each site. The
model calculates runoff as a function of precipitation, site size, type of land use (e.g., commercial,
industrial, residential), and hydrologic soil group. L-THIA contains data on average county
precipitation, generally accepted soil curves for each type of land use (USDA 1986), and, when
available, hydrologic soil group. Data on site location, site size, and land use type (Exhibit 3-1) were
entered into the model. Soil groups were derived from USDA's soil survey data and entered into the
model. Appendix B describes the rationale for using this model, how it was applied, and some
important assumptions and limitations.
It was assumed that all soil at the brownfield sites within the Twin Cities was type B. This data was
not available from USDA. This assumption is based on data from about 10 sites in Hennepin County.
About two-thirds of the acreage of these sites contains B soils. Soil types for the alternative locations
were drawn from USDA's Soil Survey Data (USDA 2008, 2009), since L-THIA's soil-type feature
was not functioning. The effect of these assumptions on the overall conclusions is likely to be small.
The estimated stormwater runoff from redeveloped brownfields in the Twin Cities is approximately
0.6% greater than that from the former uses.
3.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario
The alternative conventional development scenario assigned locations that were reasonable for the
same type of development if the development had not been built on the brownfields, and estimated
the environmental performance of these locations.
Alternative Conventional Locations: For each brownfield site, an alternative location was assigned
based on recent development patterns in the region. Since the brownfield sites in this dataset are only
a small portion of total development in the region, it is reasonable to assume that the alternative
development would generally follow the prevailing patterns. Using the process outlined in Appendix
B, Methodology, the counterpart for each brownfield site was selected from one of the top 10%
highest growth employment and residential areas (117 TAZs).6 The fastest growing TAZs were
based on population and employment shifts from 1995 to 2005 where the percentage of the regional
population and employment for each TAZ experienced the greatest increase in population and
employment with respect to all other TAZs.7 This period is believed to overlap with much of the
development activity, although the dates of development activity at many of the sites could not be
precisely identified. The high-growth areas are shown in Exhibit 3-4. Alternative locations for each
of the 37 brownfield sites are shown in Exhibit 3-5.
Alternative Conventional Development Size: Development generally consumes more acreage per
capita in suburban and rural areas than in more dense, urban areas, due to building practices, parking
requirements, and typically lower land cost. Based on a range of values derived from literature on
land use patterns (Appendix B), it was assumed that the conventional/greenfield sites would
generally require an average of two to four times the acreage of their brownfield counterparts. Land
use decisions are inherently influenced by a number of site-specific factors. As a result, there is wide
variation in the amount of land consumed by similar uses in different areas, or even between
In order to select the fastest growing TAZs between 1995 and 2005, the 1990 TAZ boundaries were used. Since
there were 1,171 TAZs in 1990, there are 117 TAZs in the top 10%.
7 To reflect growth in both employment and residents, the 37 brownfield sites were divided into two groups
according to whether, based on their redevelopment use, they were more likely to be located in, or economically
linked to, a residential area (19 sites) or a non-residential area (18 sites).
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area Page 25
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
properties within close proximity. Land use can be determined by overlapping jurisdictions, special
exemptions, historical practices, and other factors that may cause developers to over- or under-
comply with zoning densities. An average acreage multiplier of two is used for a more conservative
estimate, and an average of four is used for an upper bound.
Air Quality, Energy Consumption, and Urban Form: Using information on the alternative
locations, acreage, and types of use, the environmental characteristics of these locations were
described according to indicators scored from the data in the transportation demand model, in a
procedure identical to that described previously for the brownfield sites.
Water Quality: Using information on the alternative locations, which were assumed to be
greenfields for the stormwater modeling, acreage, and types of use, the stormwater runoff and
pollutant loads from these locations were estimated with the L-THIA model in a procedure identical
to that described previously for the brownfield sites.
It was assumed that the development would take place either in a former vacant pasture area or in a
former agricultural area.8 Using two land use categories provides a range of acceptable values rather
than a single estimate. This approach is appropriate, as the precise location of the greenfield site
within the TAZ or census tract is unknown. To obtain the net new runoff contribution of the
greenfield development, the existing runoff (pasture or agricultural area footprint) was subtracted
from the runoff expected from the developed uses, which were primarily commercial and residential.
To obtain the net change in runoff for the entire region, the changes in runoff due to the development
at the brownfield sites were also factored in. These calculations are described in greater detail in
Appendix B.
3.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios
For each site pair, the estimated indicators were compared, and totals for all sites were averaged. The
results of the air quality and energy analysis were generally expressed in terms of percent difference
in VMT and emissions associated with the brownfield site compared to its conventional alternative
on a per capita basis. The results of the stormwater runoff analysis were expressed in terms of
percent difference in stormwater runoff and pollutants from brownfields in the group of 37 site pairs.
A number of limitations and caveats apply to this comparison. These are discussed in Appendix B,
Methodology.
The predominant land uses in the region are agricultural, range, and open land. It is sometimes difficult to
distinguish among these uses from satellite images available on Google Earth. L-THIA' Basic module offers three
land use categories: forest, pasture/grassland, and agricultural.
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area Page 26
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 3-4. High Growth TAZs in the Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
Top 10% High Residential Growth TAZs
Top 10% High Employment Growth TAZs
Top 10% High Residential & Employment Growth TAZs
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
Page 27
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 3-5. Alternative Conventional Locations in the
Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area: 37 Sites
/
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
Page 28
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 3-6 compares the average differences in the estimated indicators. Twenty-six of the
indicators relate to urban form, travel, personal vehicle energy use and air emissions; and 16
variables address land use, stormwater runoff, and water pollutants. In general, the brownfield
locations demonstrate substantially greater land-use efficiency, less auto dependency, greater
location efficiency, and lower personal vehicle energy use, air pollutant emissions, and stormwater
runoff and pollutant loads.
3.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use
The average brownfield scores were positive for all air emissions and energy use indicators. The
results show that nearly all redeveloped brownfield sites result in significantly better environmental
performance than similar conventional development.
• Brownfield sites accommodated the same number of homes and businesses on about one-fourth
to one-half the land typically used at corresponding conventional sites.
• Automobile use by residents and employees at brownfield locations is estimated to be
substantially lower than at the alternative locations.
• Average daily vehicle miles traveled per capita would be 32% lower.
• Average daily vehicle trips per capita would be 16% lower.
• Personal vehicle energy use per capita would be 32% lower.
• The brownfield redevelopment areas average 32% lower carbon dioxide and air pollutant
emissions per resident from personal vehicle use relative to conventional development.
The positive environmental indicator values at the brownfield locations stems from the fact that the
brownfield neighborhoods in this study are denser and more accessible by most measures. Density is
measured primarily by the number of residents, households, or employees per gross acre. Generally,
the denser an area, the shorter the distance to various destinations for purposes such as shopping,
recreation, and employment. Population density for the average brownfield TAZ in this study is
about six times that of the average alternative TAZ. Employment density in the average brownfield
TAZ is nearly three times that of the average alternative TAZ.
Accessibility is measured primarily in terms of time required to travel between key origin-destination
points within the region. Based on the indicators in Exhibit 3-6, people living and working in the
brownfield neighborhoods have substantially better accessibility to other neighborhoods and to points
within their TAZs than those in their conventional counterparts. Accessibility to transit shows the
greatest difference, although walking and automobile travel also show substantial differences. For
example, 1.6% of all employees in the seven-county region are within a 30-minute transit ride to the
center of the average brownfield TAZ. The figure for conventional TAZs is 0.02%. For households,
the figures are 5.1% and 0.05%, respectively.
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area Page 29
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 3-6. Comparison of Environmental Indicators in the Minneapolis-Saint
Paul Area: Average Differences Between 37 Site Pairs
Accessibility Indicators
Households (HH) in TAZ
% total region households within 1 0 min. walk from TAZ center
% total region households w/in 30 min. transit ride from TAZ
% total region households w/in 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Employment in TAZ
% total region employees within 10 min. walk from TAZ center
a% total region employees within 30 min. transit ride from TAZ
% total region employees within 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Environmental Performance Indicators
Population density
Dwelling density
Transit adjacency to housing
Jobs-to-housing balance
Employment density
Transit adjacency to employment
Open space connectivity
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions
Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2)
Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions
Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
Home-based vehicle miles traveled
Non-home-based vehicle miles traveled
Total vehicle miles traveled
Home-based vehicle trips
Non-home-based vehicle trips
Total vehicle trips
Personal vehicle energy use
Stormwater Runoff and Pollution
Indicators
(Total for All 37 Site Pairs)
Land area (acres)
Annual runoff
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Suspended solids
Biological oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Oil and grease
Lead
Copper
Zinc
Cadmium
Chromium
Nickel
Fecal coli
Fecal strep
Units
persons/gross acre
DU/gross acre
% pop. w/in 1/4-mi.
jobs/dwelling unit
emps/gross acre
% empl. w/in 1/4-mi.
0-1 scale
Ibs/resident/yr.
Ibs/resident/yr.
Ibs/resident/yr.
Ibs/resident/yr.
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
trip/capita/day
trip/capita/day
trip/capita/day
MMBtu/capita/yr.
Brownfield
Average
1,545
0.11%
5.12%
20.30%
2,069
0.12%
1 .62%
15.02%
12.86
5.1
90.47
1.34
13.82
90.47
0.05
27.32
5,067
53.03
409.82
13.79
6.18
19.97
1.57
0.86
2.42
45.56
Conventional
Average
1,418
0.06%
0.05%
3.54%
3,140
0.03%
0.02%
3.37%
2.08
0.93
26.19
2.21
5.00
25.94
0.19
40.82
7,571
79.24
612.28
20.24
9.60
29.84
1.81
1.09
2.89
67.5
Percent Change
(Conventional-
Brownfield) (a)
9%
75%
9,470%
474%
34%
309%
10,409%
346%
519%
450%
245%
40.0
176%
249%
73%
32%
32%
32%
32%
32%
34%
32%
13%
19%
16%
32%
Percent Change (Conventional/Greenfield less Brownfield) (a)
Pasture (Grassland) Agricultural Land
Lower Bound
(2x Brownfield
Acreage)
50%
59%
65%
68%
71%
71%
71%
71%
68%
64%
72%
66%
62%
71%
70%
69%
Upper Bound
(4x Brownfield
Acreage)
75%
69%
75%
81%
83%
83%
84%
84%
79%
74%
83%
74%
73%
83%
82%
82%
Lower Bound
(2x Brownfield
Acreage)
50%
48%
-15%
-31%
26%
67%
71%
72%
69%
70%
70%
63%
49%
71%
-18%
69%
Upper Bound
(4x Brownfield
Acreage)
75%
56%
-17%
-36%
30%
79%
84%
84%
80%
79%
79%
67%
55%
81%
-21%
82%
Notes:
TAZ = traffic analysis zone; HH = household; Ac = acre; Pop = population; SOV = single occupancy vehicle; DU = dwelling unit;
MMBTU = millions of British thermal units
(a) Percent change calculated as: [(Value for conventional -Value for Brownfield) /Value for conventional] x 100.
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area
Page 30
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
The primary air quality indicators in this study are emissions per resident of nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons. Lower emissions are considered a positive
environmental outcome, and more intensive development in more central areas usually results in
lower emissions than the same amount of development in less dense areas that are less accessible.
However, although total emissions in a region may be at acceptable levels, a particular intensive
development can result in local "hot spots" of one or more pollutants. Hot spots are local areas of
very high concentrations that may present a health or environmental risk or cause an area to fall out
of compliance with air pollutant levels.
Some emissions, such as carbon monoxide, are primarily a local health concern. Others, such as
carbon dioxide, are greenhouse gases, which contribute to climate change. Some pollutants, such as
nitrous oxide, can have local health impacts and are also greenhouse gases. None of the brownfield
development projects in the Twin Cities is large enough or has enough industrial or transportation
activity to be a regional concern on its own. However, analysis of other development in the area was
not conducted to see if, combined with the other projects, there might be significantly elevated levels
of emissions.
3.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads
Total runoff in the region in would be 59 - 69% lower if development occured on brownfields rather
than pasture areas, while it would be 48 - 56% lower for alternative sites on agricultural land (Exhibit
3-6). Compared to pasture areas, percentage reductions for all pollutants are substantial. Loads of
conventional pollutants, such as nitrogen, phosphorous, suspended solids, and biological oxygen
demand would be 65% to 84% lower. Metals ranged from 62% to 83%. Compared to agricultural
areas, the loadings of three pollutants, nitrogen, phosphorous, and fecal coli, would increase if the
brownfield were developed in lieu of the greenfield (15-17%, 31-36%, and 18-21%, respectively).
Agricultural land has high concentrations of these substances and, under the brownfield
redevelopment scenario, they would continue to generate stormwater runoff. Loads of other
conventional pollutants ranged from 26 to 84% lower and metals ranged from 49 to 81% lower.
Based on the calculations using L-THIA, stormwater runoff from the brownfield sites will change
minimally from pre- to post-development. Runoff from redeveloped brownfields is estimated to be
only about 0.6% lower than that from former uses within the Twin Cities. This result is attributable to
the fact that some properties will continue in the same land use while others will shift within a
developed land use category or among developed categories. The change in runoff across these land
uses is a fraction of the values experienced when undeveloped land becomes developed.
However, it is unclear how much runoff would actually change, because developers may incorporate
more effective stormwater management practices than was the practice at the time of the former
property use.
In a separate calculation, runoff was estimated at the alternative locations with and without
development, without considering runoff at the brownfield sites. If left undeveloped, the 37
alternative locations in the Minneapolis region would have 67 - 82% less runoff than if they were
developed.
Appendix B describes the rationale for using L-THIA, how it was applied, and some important
assumptions and limitations of this analysis.
Section 3. Minneapolis-Saint Paul Area Page 31
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
4. Emeryville Area
The analysis of the Emeryville, California area follows the basic methodology outlined in Section 1
and described in more detail in Appendix B. It was based on a set of 39 brownfield properties in the
City of Emeryville that benefited from U.S. EPA's Brownfields Program funding and had
redevelopment completed or under way. These parcels represent a variety of uses and are scattered
throughout the small, 1.9-square mile city.
4.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario
The brownfields scenario was described in terms of the number and characteristics of brownfield
sites in the city, and measures of urban form, energy use, air emissions, and estimated stormwater
runoff and pollution loads from the brownfield locations. Energy use was measured in terms of
personal vehicle energy use per capita. Urban form indicators included density measures (population,
dwelling units, and employment), and several indicators of travel efficiency.
Emeryville Brownfield Properties: Using EPA's ACRES database and information provided by the
City of Emeryville Redevelopment Agency, about 60 brownfield properties that had been associated
with U.S. EPA grant activities were initially identified in Emeryville. Information from several
sources was used to determine or confirm property location, acreage, use type (commercial,
industrial, recreational, and residential), and the status of use. These sources included the Emeryville
Redevelopment Agency, California Department of Toxic Substances Control, and the Alameda
County Assessor's office.
This analysis identified 39 properties that had reuse completed or under way and had benefited from
EPA Brownfields Program assistance. Properties for which there were firm, specific reuse plans in
place were considered as having development under way. For some properties, it was difficult to
confirm that EPA Brownfields funds were involved, because documentation of specific funding
sources was sparse, and local officials did not recollect the site-specific situation. The 39 sites are
listed in Exhibit 4-1, and their locations are shown in Exhibit 4-2. Site acreage ranged from 0.1 acre
to 30 acres. Eight sites are greater than five acres. Some of the properties were not completely built
out, although development had occurred or was ongoing.
Air Quality Impacts and Personal Vehicle Energy Use: Data used to estimate automobile use,
personal vehicle energy consumption, and air pollutant emissions, and measures of urban form were
provided by the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC), the Metropolitan Planning
Organization (MPO) for the nine-county area: Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, Santa Clara,
San Francisco, San Mateo, Solano, and Sonoma (Exhibit 4-3). For planning purposes, the Council
subdivides the region into 1,474 transportation analysis zones of varying size.
The environmental and urban form indicators used in this analysis were developed for each of the
TAZs in which the brownfields are located. Some of these indicators were scored directly from the
regional transportation demand model by MTC, while others were estimated by the study team based
on the data from the MPO's transportation demand model. For example, the vehicle energy use and
pollutant emissions were estimated based on vehicle miles traveled and vehicle trips data provided by
the transportation demand model. The accessibility indicators were also provided by MTC.
Section 4. Emeryville Area Page 32
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 4-1. Emeryville Brownfield Properties Studied
Site
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Parcel
ID
14241
14247
14249
15628
26821
15627
15625
20221
65861
27401
20241
20201
65862
12049
Property
Name
Breuners/
Ryerson
E. Baybridge
Housing
Pixar
Animation
Studio Office
AC Transit
Dutro
Jug Liquor
Viacom
Mound
4062 Hollis
4369 Adeline
Street -
Thamkul
Ambassador
BlackS
White (B&W)
Ennis/AC
Transit
Miller
Property
Heritage
Square
ADDRESS
Hollis Ave. & 65th
St.
1325 E. 400th St.
1200 ParkAve.
4301 Doyle St.
1379 62nd St.
3645 San Pablo
Ave.
Horton and 59th
St.
4062 Hollis St.
4369 Adeline St.
11 60- 11 68 36th
St.
4053 San Pablo
Ave.
40th and Adeline
St.
5850 Hollis St.
2 Admiral Dr.
Zip
CODE
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
SIZE
(acres)
11
4
13
8.96
1.28
0.1
1.59
0.78
0.12
0.42
0.57
0.03
1.1
3.8
Bldg.
Size
(SF)
NA
NA
41 5K
NA
NA
2,830
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
78,513
Jobs
NA
NA
1,000
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Former Use
Unknown
Asphalt mixing, metal
working, auto repair
Industrial, TSCA
landfill
Bus depot,
manufacturing
Light manufacturing -
Christy Metal
Products (previous
owner).
Liquor store, gas
station
Industrial, TSCA
landfill
World Geodetic
System of 1984
Apartment building,
with ground floor
community use.
Laundry and multi-
tenant commercial
Former warehouse
and other light
industrial uses
Previously owned by
Southern Pac. Rail
Road, portion of
former rail spur
Mfg., light industry;
adjacent to rail spurs
& other brownfields
Offices
Current Use
Unknown
Mixed use -
shopping center and
housing
Corp HQ
Bus depot
Light
manufacturing/hand
trucks
Liquor store- retail
Parking lot
Metal stamping,
storage
Same - helped with
transaction
Vacant
Same
Vacant
Light mfg.; &
biodiesel pilot
manufacturing
Same
Future Use
Mixed
Same as current,
with more density
Same
Same with more
density
Park
Retail
Transit center,
pkg. & R&D &/or
office &/or medical
facilities
Arts and cultural
center
Same
Multifamily
affordable rental
Same
Fourplex,
relocated from
another brownfield
site
Same, with more
density
Same, with
structured parking
Section 4. Emeryville Area
Page 33
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 4-1. Emeryville Brownfield Properties Studied
Site
No.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Parcel
ID
16160
16159
65922
86802
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Property
Name
5701 Hollis
Green City
Lofts
Park Avenue
Park-UPRR
Parcel D
1 042 48th
Street Site
Ikea
Courtyard by
Marriott
Gateway
Housing
Woodfin
Suites Hotel
Hollis
Business
Center
Remar Lofts
(Bakery lofts)
Emery
Station Plaza
Emery Tech
ADDRESS
5701 Hollis St.
1 007 41 st St.
Sherwin Ave. and
Halleck St.
1 042 48th St.
4400 Shellmound
St.
5555 Shellmound
St.
4800 San Pablo
Ave.
5800 Shellmound
St.
6491 Hollis St.
1 01 0 46th St.
59th and Horton
St.
6529 Hollis St.
Zip
CODE
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
SIZE
(acres)
0.5
0.9
2
0.08
15.5
4.3
0.6
2
3.5
1.8
12
0.35
Bldg.
Size
(SF)
NA
NA
NA
NA
275 K
162K;
288
rooms,
17
THs
177K;
200
rooms
225 K
57
HUs
550K
230K
Jobs
NA
NA
NA
NA
300
80
45
NA
NA
1270
600
Former Use
Manufacturing/light
industrial, chromium
plating
Paint manufacturing
Rail yard; owned by
railroad co. Adjacent
uses are paint/
pesticide manufacture
and dry cleaner
cartridge recycling
Vacant lot used for a
neighborhood garden.
A house was razed in
1973. Lead concen-
trations above PRGs
Steel plant
Steel plant
Gas station
Manufacturing
Warehouse
Bakery
Tank farm;
transformer
manufacturing
Heavy industry
Current Use
Office/retail
62 condos
Vacant
Vacant
Vacant
Vacant
Townhouses
Hotel
Office
Bakery
Mixed use -
shopping center and
housing
Office/retail
Future Use
Same, with
parking converted
to park
Same
Park or exchange
the property for
equivalent open
space on adjacent
property
Community
Garden
Retail
Hospitality
17 townhouses
Hotel
Office
Residential:
Live/work lofts; 57
HUs
Mixed use -
shopping center
and housing
Office/retail
Section 4. Emeryville Area
Page 34
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 4-1. Emeryville Brownfield Properties Studied
Site
No.
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Parcel
ID
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Property
Name
Emeryville
Warehouse
Lofts
Oliver Lofts
Andante
Phase 1
Bay Street
(South Bay
front)
City Limits
Elevation 22
Liquid Sugar
Promenade
Public Market
The
Courtyards
(Ryerson
Steel)
Adeline Place
Oak Walk
(Bay rock)
Terraces at
Emery
Station
ADDRESS
1500 ParkAve (&
Hubbard St)
1 200 65th St.
1121 40th St.
5600 Shellmound
St.
67th St.& Oakland
border
Powell St.
between Hollis &
Doyle
1 251 66th St.
San Pablo Ave.
between ParkAve.
and 45th St.
5959 Shellmound
St.
65th St. between
Hollis and the
railroad
San Pablo
Ave./MacArthur
Blvd./Adeline
4002 San Pablo
Ave.
5855 Morton St.
Zip
CODE
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
94608
SIZE
(acres)
1.7
2.85
1.8
22
30
1.8
2
3.2
18
5.5
1.1
1.7
1
Bldg.
Size
(SF)
138
HUs
80K
15K
com. +
HU
NA
NA
71
THs
54
HUs
42K
NA
4300
retail &
HUs
30
HUs +
retail
5500 +
HUs
101
HUs
Jobs
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
41
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Former Use
Warehouse
Oliver Rubber factory
Card club
Unknown
Fabco auto truck plant
Industrial &
commercial
Corn syrup
processing plant
Unknown
Unknown
Ryerson Steel bldg.;
warehouse &
distribution
Check cashing
business
Unknown
Unknown
Current Use
Residential: 130
lofts, 2 penthouses,
6 townhouses
50 HUs
Mixed; 102 HU (10
mod, 10 low inc.);
15ksf. com.
Mixed - retail; 400K
sf.;356HU
Townhouses
71 Townhouses
54 Condos. 1, 2, & 3
BR units
Retail
Retail
331 apartments;
4,300 sf. retail
30 HUs + retail
Mixed: 62 condos &
5500 sf. retail
101 apts.
Future Use
50 HUs
Mixed; 102 HU (10
mod, 10 low inc.);
15ksf. com.
Commercial,
mixed
Townhouses
71 Townhouses
54 Condos. 1, 2,
&3 bedroom units
Retail
Retail
Same
Mixed - 30 HUs +
retail
Same
101 apts.
Notes: HU = housing units; TH = town house
Section 4. Emeryville Area
Page 35
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 4-2. Locations of 39 Brownfield Sites in Emeryville
Section 4. Emeryville Area
Page 36
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 4-3. Metropolitan Transportation Commission Planning Area
SAN
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Water Quality Impacts: The L-THIA watershed management model was used to estimate
stormwater runoff and pollutant loads from each site. The model calculates runoff as a function of
precipitation, site size, type of land use (e.g., commercial, industrial, residential), and hydrologic soil
group. L-THIA contains data on average county precipitation, generally accepted soil curves for each
type of land use and soil type (USDA 1986), and hydrologic soil group. Data on site location, parcel
size, and land use type (Exhibit 4-1) were entered into the model. Appendix B describes the rationale
for using this model, how it was applied, and some important assumptions.
Several adjustments to the soil-type data were made: (a) The calculations for the Emeryville region
were based on 32 sites instead of all 39 in the Emeryville dataset. Seven sites totaling about 30 acres
were eliminated because information on hydrologic soil groups was not available for the alternative
locations in western Santa Clara County, (b) It was assumed that all soil at the brownfield sites
within the City of Emeryville was type D. This assumption is based on the dominance of low
permeability soils within two-miles of the city (USDA 2009). This data was not available for the City
of Emeryville. Soil types from the remaining alternative locations were drawn from USDA's Soil
Survey Data (USDA 2008, 2009) as L-THIA's soil-type feature was not functioning, (c) Where a
site's former use was unknown (three sites totaling 32 acres), it was assumed that the future and
former uses, and therefore their runoff, were the same. The effect of these assumptions on the overall
conclusions is likely to be small.
Based on the calculations using L-THIA, stormwater runoff from redeveloped brownfields in
Emeryville is estimated to be about 6.2 % less than that from former uses.
4.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario
The alternative conventional scenario assigned locations that were reasonable for the same type and
amount of development if development had not been built on the brownfields, and estimated the
environmental performance of these locations.
Alternative Conventional Locations: For each brownfield site, an alternative location was assigned
based on recent development patterns in the region. Since brownfield sites are only a small portion of
total development in the region, it is reasonable that the alternative development would generally
follow the prevailing patterns. The development counterpart for each brownfield site was assigned to
one of the top 10% highest employment and residential growth locations. The fastest growing TAZs
were based on population and employment shifts from 2000 to 2006, where the percentage of the
regional population and employment for each TAZ experienced the greatest increase in population
and employment with respect to all other TAZs.9 The high-growth areas are shown in Exhibit 4-4.
Alternative locations for each of the 39 brownfield sites are shown in Exhibit 4-5. The use of a
statistical site selection procedure minimized any potential partiality that might influence the
analysis.
9 To reflect growth in both employment and residents, the 39 brownfield sites were divided into two groups
according to whether, based on their redevelopment use, they are more likely to be located in, or economically linked
to, a residential area (19 sites) or a non-residential area (20 sites).
Section 4. Emeryville Area Page 38
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 4-4. High Growth TAZs in the
Emeryville Planning Area
Top 10% High Residential & Employment Growth TAZs
Top 10% High Residential Growth TAZs
Top 10% High Employment Growth TAZs
Section 4. Emeryville Area
Page 39
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 4-5. Alternative Conventional Locations
in the Emeryville Area: 39 Sites
Section 4. Emeryville Area
Page 40
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Alternative Conventional Development Size: Because development generally consumes more
acreage in suburban and rural areas than in more dense, urban areas, it is anticipated that most of the
39 alternative locations would require more land than their brownfield counterparts. Based on a range
of values derived from literature on land use patterns (Appendix B), it was assumed that the
conventional/greenfield sites would generally require an average of two to four times the acreage of
their brownfield counterparts. Land use decisions are inherently influenced by a number of site-
specific factors. As a result, there is a wide variation in the amount of land consumed by similar uses
in different areas, or even properties within close proximity. Reviewing zoning ordinances will not
necessarily result in an accurate estimate of likely land consumption. An average acreage multiplier
of two is used for a more conservative estimate and an average of four for an upper bound.
Air Quality and Personal Vehicle Energy Consumption and Urban Form: Using information on
the conventional locations, acreage, and land use, the environmental characteristics of these locations
were described according to indicators scored from the data in the transportation demand model, in a
procedure identical to that described above for the brownfield sites.
Water Quality: Using information on the alternative development locations, which were assumed
to be greenfields for the stormwater modeling, acreage, and categories of use (e.g., commercial,
residential, agricultural), the stormwater runoff and pollutant loads from these locations were
estimated with the L-THIA model in a procedure identical to that described above for the brownfield
sites.
It was assumed that the new construction would take place either in a former vacant pasture area or
in a former agricultural area.10 Applying two land use categories provides a range of acceptable
values rather than a single estimate. This approach is useful, as the precise location of the greenfield
site within the TAZ or census tract is unknown. To obtain the net new runoff contribution of the
greenfield development, the existing runoff (pasture or agricultural area footprint) was subtracted
from the runoff expected from the developed uses, which were primarily commercial and residential.
To obtain the net change in runoff for the entire region, the changes in runoff due to the development
at the brownfield sites were also factored in. These calculations are described in greater detail in
Appendix B.
4.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios
For each site pair, the estimated indicators were compared, and totals for all sites were averaged (39
for air quality and energy analysis, 32 for stormwater analysis). The results of the air quality and
energy analysis were generally expressed in terms of percent difference in VMT and emissions
associated with the brownfield site compared to its conventional alternative on a per capita basis. The
results of the stormwater runoff analysis were expressed in terms of percent difference in stormwater
runoff and pollutants for brownfields in the group of 25 site pairs. A number of limitations and
caveats apply to this comparison. These are discussed in Appendix B, Methodology.
The key performance measures are shown in Exhibit 4-6. Twenty-six indicators relate to urban form,
travel, energy use and air emissions; and 16 variables address land use, stormwater runoff, and water
pollutants. In general, the brownfield locations demonstrate substantially greater land-use and
location efficiency; less auto dependency; lower personal vehicle energy use, carbon dioxide and air
pollutant emissions per capita; and lower stormwater runoff and pollutant loads for the region.
10 The predominant uses for undeveloped land in the region are agricultural, range, and open land. It is sometimes
difficult to distinguish among these uses from satellite images available on Google Earth. L-THIA' Basic module offers
three land use categories for undeveloped land: forest, pasture/grassland, and agricultural.
Section 4. Emeryville Area Page 41
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 4-6. Comparison of Environmental Indicators in the Emeryville Area:
Average Differences Between 39 Site Pairs
Accessibility Indicators
Households (HH) in TAZ
% total region households within 1 0 min. walk from TAZ center
% total region households w/in 30 min. transit ride from TAZ center
% total region households w/in 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Employment in TAZ
% total region Employees within 10 min. walk from TAZ center
% total region Employees within 30 min. transit ride from TAZ center
% total region Employees within 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Environmental Performance Indicators
Land area
Population density
Dwelling density
Transit adjacency to housing
Jobs-to-housing balance
Employment density
Transit adjacency to employment
Nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
Hydrocarbon pollutant (HC) emissions
Carbon monoxide emissions (CO)
Home-based vehicle miles traveled
Non-home-based vehicle miles traveled
Total vehicle miles traveled
Home-based vehicle trips
Non-home-based vehicle trips
Total vehicle trips
Personal vehicle energy use
Stormwater runoff and pollution
indicators
(Total for all 32 site pairs) (b)
Land area (acres)
Annual runoff
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Suspended solids
Biological oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Oil and grease
Lead
Copper
Zinc
Cadmium
Chromium
Nickel
Fecal coli
Fecal strep
Units
acres
persons/gross acre
DU/gross acre
% pop. w/in 1/4-mi.
jobs/dwelling unit
emps/gross acre
% empl. w/in 1/4-mi.
Ibs/capita/yr.
Ibs/capita/yr.
Ibs/capita/yr.
Ibs/capita/yr.
mi/capita/day
trip/capita/day
MMBtu/capita/yr.
Brownfield
Average
4,299
0.22%
1 .38%
5.81 %
16,360
0.50%
6.22%
6.94%
183
12.59
6.60
100.00
3.81
21.95
100.00
14.20
2,635
27.6
213.1
5.6
4.7
10.4
.8
.8
1.6
23.69
Conventional
Average
2,218
0.12%
0.51%
2.87%
5,062
0.25%
1 .06%
3.18%
366 - 732
8.20
2.91
68.84
2.28
9.53
68.84
28.09
5,210
54.50
421.3
12.0
8.6
20.5
1.3
1.3
2.6
46.84
Percent Change
(Conventional less
Brownfield) (a)
94%
85%
174%
102%
223%
97%
485%
118%
50% to 75%
54%
127%
45%
67%
130%
45%
9%
49%
49%
49%
53%
45%
49%
36%
40%
38%
49%
Percent Change (Conventional/Greenfields less Brownfields) (a)
Pasture (Grasslands) Agricultural Lands
Low Bound
(2x Brownfield
Acres)
50%
37%
53%
62%
66%
60%
60%
60%
55%
44%
69%
54%
39%
62%
63%
.54%
Upper Bound
(4x Brownfield
Acres)
75%
45%
66%
77%
79%
77%
77%
77%
66%
54%
80%
55%
48%
78%
78%
75%
Low Bound
(2x Brownfield
Acres)
50%
27%
-61%
-100%
-8%
54%
60%
60%
62%
62%
66%
48%
18%
62%
-38%
54%'
Upper Bound
(4x Brownfield
Acres)
75%
34%
-69%
-113%
-11%
70%
77%
77%
74%
75%
77%
48%
23%
78%
-41%
75%
Notes:
NA: Data not available; DU = dwelling units; MMBTU = millions of British thermal units.
(a) Percentage change calculated as: [(Value for conventional- Value for brownfield) / Value for conventional] x 100
(b) The figures for the stormwater and water pollution variables were based on 32, instead of all 39 sites, because soil type
data were not available for part of Sara Clara County.
Section 4. Emeryville Area
Page 42
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Appendix B provides further explanation of the methodology used to develop these estimates.
4.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use
The average brownfield scores were positive for most of the indicators. The calculations show that
nearly all (36 out of 39) redeveloped brownfield sites resulted in better environmental performance
than similar conventional development. These results indicate the following:
• Brownfield sites accommodated the same number of homes and businesses on about one-fourth
to one-half the land typically used at corresponding conventional development.
• Automobile use by residents and employees at brownfield locations is estimated to be
substantially lower than at the alternative locations.
• Average daily vehicle miles traveled per capita would be 49% lower.
• Average daily vehicle trips per capita would be 38% lower.
• Personal vehicle energy use per capita would be 49% lower.
• The brownfield redevelopment areas average about 49% lower carbon dioxide emissions per
capita relative to conventional development.
• The brownfield redevelopment areas average about 49% lower air pollutant emissions, such as
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, per capita relative to conventional development.
The positive environmental indicators at the brownfield locations relate to the fact that the
brownfield neighborhoods in this study are denser and more accessible, by most measures. Density is
measured primarily by the population, households, and employees per gross acre. Generally, the
denser an area, the shorter the distance to various destinations for purposes such as shopping,
recreation, and employment. Population per gross acre for the average brownfield TAZ in this study
is about is 54% greater than for the average alternative TAZ, and the number of employees per gross
acre at the average brownfield location is 2.3 times that of the average alternative TAZ.
Accessibility is measured in terms of the time required to travel between key origin-destination
points within the region and distance to transit. Based on the indicators in Exhibit 4-6, people
working in the brownfield neighborhoods have better accessibility to other neighborhoods and to
points within their TAZs than those in their conventional counterpart areas. For example, 7% of all
employees in the region are within six miles, by single-occupancy vehicle, from a TAZ center for the
average TAZ where a brownfield is located. The average figure for the conventional counterpart
TAZs is 3%. All employees in the region are within 1A mile of a transit facility in the brownfield
TAZs, compared to only 69% for the alternative TAZs. For households, comparison of accessibility
and proximity figures also indicates that the brownfield areas generally have better environmental
performance than the conventional locations.
The primary air quality indicators in this study are emissions of pollutants per capita, such as
nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Lower emissions are considered a positive
environmental outcome, and more intensive development in more central areas usually results in
lower emissions than the same amount of development in less-dense areas that are less accessible.
However, although total emissions in a region may be at acceptable levels, a particular intensive
development can result in local "hot spots" of one or more pollutants. Hot spots are local areas of
very high concentrations that may present a health or environmental risk or cause an area to fall out
of compliance with air quality attainment goals.
Section 4. Emeryville Area Page 43
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
None of the brownfield redevelopment projects in Emeryville is large enough, or has enough
industrial or transportation activity, to be a regional concern on its own. However, analysis of other
development in the area was not conducted to determine if, combined with the other projects, there
might be significantly elevated levels of emissions.
4.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads
Total runoff in the region in acre feet would be 37 - 45% lower for development on brownfields
rather than pasture areas, and 27 - 34% lower than agricultural areas (Exhibit 4-6). Compared to
pasture areas, the differences for all pollutants are substantial. Loads of conventional pollutants, such
as nitrogen, phosphorous, suspended solids, and biological oxygen demand would be 53% to 79%
lower. Metals ranged from 39% to 80% lower. Compared to agricultural areas, the loadings of BOD,
COD, oil and grease and fecal strep were at least 70% lower. However, the quantities of four
pollutants would increase under the brownfields redevelopment scenario (nitrogen 69%, phosphorous
113%, total SS 11%, and fecal coli 41%). Agricultural land often has high concentrations of these
substances and, under the brownfields redevelopment scenario, these locations would continue to
generate Stormwater runoff. Loads for other conventional pollutants ranged from 54-77% lower and
that of metals ranged from 18 to 80% lower. These totals are based on 32 properties, rather than all
39, because soil type data were not available for seven sites in Santa Clara County, where USDA has
not completed a soil survey.
Stormwater runoff from redeveloped brownfields is estimated to be about 6% greater than that from
former uses within the City of Emeryville. This result is caused by shifts in land use from one type of
developed use to another, usually from industrial to commercial or residential. For about half the
properties, land use type did not change. Nevertheless, it is unclear how much runoff would actually
change because developers may incorporate more effective Stormwater management practices than
were used at the time of the former property use. Runoff at the alternative locations would be 44 -
58% lower if left undeveloped than if developed.
Appendix B describes the rationale for using this model, how it was applied, and some important
assumptions and limitations.
Section 4. Emeryville Area Page 44
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
5. Baltimore Area
The analysis of the Baltimore, Maryland area follows the basic methodology outlined in Section 1
and described in more detail in Appendix B. It was based on a set of 37 brownfield properties in the
City of Baltimore that benefited from U.S. EPA Brownfields Program funding and had
redevelopment completed or underway. These sites represent a variety of uses and are scattered
throughout the city.
5.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario
The brownfields scenario was described in terms of the number and characteristics of brownfield
sites in the city, and measures of urban form, energy use, air emissions, and estimated stormwater
runoff and pollution loads from the brownfield locations. Energy use was measured in terms of
personal vehicle energy use per capita. Urban form indicators included density measures (population,
dwelling units, and employment), and several indicators of travel efficiency.
Baltimore Brownfield Properties: Using EPA's ACRES database, the EPA Region 3 web site,
information provided by the Baltimore Development Corporation, and other online sources, 102
brownfield properties in the City of Baltimore were initially identified. For each property,
information from several sources, including the Baltimore Development Corporation, Maryland
Department of Assessments and Taxation, Maryland Department of the Environment, and the City of
Baltimore planning information, was used to determine or confirm property location, acreage, use
type (commercial, industrial, recreational, and residential), and the status of use. This analysis
identified 37 properties that had reuse completed or under way and benefited from assistance from
U.S. EPA's Brownfields Program. Properties for which there were firm, specific reuse plans in place
were considered as having development under way. These sites are listed in Exhibit 5-1, and their
locations are shown in Exhibit 5-2. Site size ranges from 0.4 to 40 acres, with an average of 8.7
acres. Approximately half the sites have more than five acres.
Air Quality Impacts and Personal Vehicle Energy Use: Data used to estimate automobile use,
personal vehicle energy consumption, air pollutant emissions, and measures of urban form, were
provided by the Baltimore Metropolitan Council, which is the regional planning organization that
undertakes planning activities for the six-jurisdiction area. The Council is involved in a variety of
region-wide issues, such as transportation planning, air and water quality programs, and economic
and demographic research. A component of the Council, the Baltimore Regional Transportation
Board (BRTB) is the federally-recognized Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO) for the
Baltimore region and provides transportation planning and other services for the area. The
jurisdictions include the City of Baltimore and the counties of Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Carroll,
Harford, and Howard (Exhibit 5-3). For planning purposes, the Council subdivides the region into
1,151 small areas called transportation analysis zones (TAZs) of varying size. These areas are
approximately the size of one or more census block groups and often follow census boundaries.
The estimates of environmental and urban form indicators used in this analysis were developed for
each of the TAZs in which the brownfields are located. Some of these indicators were scored directly
from the regional transportation demand model (TMD) by the Metropolitan Council staff, while
others were estimated based on the data from the TMD. For example, the personal vehicle energy use
and pollutant emissions were estimated based on vehicle miles traveled (VMT) and vehicle trips
(VT) data provided by the Council.
Section 5. Baltimore Area Page 45
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 5-1. Baltimore Brownfield Properties Studied
Site Size Bldg. Size
No. Property Name Address CITY (Acres) (SF) Jobs Current Use Future Use
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Dickman Street Site
(Middle Branch Park)
921 -979 East Fort
Avenue (Maryland
White Leadworks]
Tulkoff Warehouse
Brewers Hill East
Hiken Brothers Inc.
Chesapeake Machine
Company
Clipper Industrial Park
Gunther/Tulkoff
Carroll-Camden
Area/Warner Street
Corridor-Lot 3/Block
840
Bayview Research
Center
101 W. Cromwell
St.
921 -979 East Fort
Ave. (Foundry at
Fort)
1200 S. Conkling
St.
3701 Dillon St.
307 South Eaton
St.
210 S. Janney St.
3500 Clipper Rd
1101,1211, And
1221 S. Conkling
St.
Warner & Haines
St. So. of M&T
stadium) **
4940 Eastern Ave.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
7
2.25
1.4
3
0.39
0.84
17
15.5
11
11
NA
NA
NA
16,800
NA
NA
NA
NA
573,000
40
200
NA
600
NA
15
245
NA
1500
NA
NA
Developed as mixed
use project
NA
Off & mixed use
Complex Corp
Chesapeake Machine
240 dwelling units; (No.
of lofts & apt.) 80, 000
s. f. office & artists
studios.
Mixed: office,
warehouse, and
residential
500 acre area Gateway
So. no dev yet on
other parcels
None
Aquarium nature &
education center/ Park
Same: Commercial
mixed use
Same: use commercial
Industrial
Industrial
Commercial
Commercial
Business park
(Gateway South;
Commercial
Commercial: Medical
services & research
Section 5. Baltimore Area
Page 46
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 5-1. Baltimore Brownfield Properties Studied (Continued)
Site Size Bldg. Size
No. Property Name Address CITY (Acres) (SF) Jobs Current Use Future Use
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
1809 Bayard Street
820 Key Highway
Reisterstown Road
Properties
Frankford Gardens
Shopping Center
Cambrex Bioscience
Inc. Expansion
Main Steel
Durett-Sheppard
Property (Steel)
3500 East Biddle Street
4400 Reisterstown
Road
5600 Lombard Street
1809 Bayard St.
820 Key Highway
4419-4431 and
4501-4551
Reisterstown Rd.
5330 Frankford
Ave&5418
Sinclair Ln.
5901-6001
Lombard St.
1301 Boyle St.
1301 Wicomico
St.
3500 East Biddle
St.
4400
Reisterstown Rd.
5600 Lombard
St.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
0.8
0.47
1.58
3.48
13.45
0.96
15.5
22.5
0.75
10.7
34,881
NA
10,200
NA
NA
150,000
401,000
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
150
NA
NA
80
1157
NA
Zoned industrial;
county use 28,500
American Visionary Art
Museum, annex
Planned senior center
Retail shopping; older
stores (reuse)
Fairly new bldg.
1 story commercial
bldg.
Property on market for
mixed use. Part used
for steel fabrication.
Industrial
Burger King
Container storage near
port
Commercial: Tithe
Corp.; air conditioner
manufacture & repair
Same
Senior activities
center
Same
Bio Research; part of
Hopkins Med. Center
Same Block 2012, lot
1. Rezoned m3 to B-
2-3
Industrial warehouse;
steel & pipe
warehouse &
fabricating
Central garage for
City of Bait.
Same
Remains container
storage
Section 5. Baltimore Area
Page 47
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 5-1. Baltimore Brownfield Properties Studied (Continued)
Site Size Bldg. Size
No. Property Name Address CITY (Acres) (SF) Jobs Current Use Future Use
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Fairfield Mixed II Site
Fairfield Mixed I Site
Seton Business Park
Fort McHenry Shipyard
CSX; 700 Chesapeake
Avenue
North Haven Street Site
Fairfield Homes
Canton Site/Highland
Marine Terminal
Tate St., North of
Chesapeake Ave.
& East for Fairfield
Sun St. and
Chesapeake Ave.
Metro Dr.
1201 Wallace St.
700 Chesapeake
Ave.
807 North Haven
St.
Shell Rd and
Childs Ave.
South Highland
Ave.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
9
9
40
13.8
6
7.6
20
30
NA
NA
NA
300,000
NA
NA
200,000
800,000
NA
NA
NA
40
NA
NA
20
220
NA
NA
Commercial: Advance
Bank: Bait. Assoc. for
Retarded Citizens,
Inc.; 5 sites;
Complete -Steinwig
import-export (metals)
Unknown
Unknown
Madison Warehouse &
Distribution Center
1 SOKsf new + 730k K
sf rehabilitation
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial: complete
- Chimes Office park
Warehouse, + outdoor
storage etc.
Commercial
Light industry/ &
warehouse
Unchanged, complete
Commercial,
unchanged
Section 5. Baltimore Area
Page 48
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 5-1. Baltimore Brownfield Properties Studied (Continued)
Size Bldg. Size
Property Name Address CITY (Acres) (SF) Jobs Current Use Future Use
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
American Can
Camden
Crossing/Koppers
(Perkin St. site)
Lancaster Square
801 South Caroline
Street
806 Haven St.
Gunther Brewery
900-901 S. Wolfe St.
Guilford
Pharmaceuticals
Chesapeake Advertising
Boston & Hudson
Sts.; (2400 Boston
St.)
Poppleton Ave. &
McHenry, Scott, &
Clifford Sts.
1816 Lancaster;
708 South Wolfe
801 South Caroline
Street
806 Haven St.
3701 O'Donnell St.
900-901 S. Wolfe
St.
Ft. Holabird
Industrial Park,
6611 Tributary St.
901 E Fayette St.
Bait.
NA
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
Bait.
NA
Bait.
Bait.
4.3
9.7
2
3
1
9.2
1.1
4.5
1.5
300,000
NA
50,000
NA
NA
NA
50,000
73,000
41,200
800
NA
100
320
NA
NA
NA
100
NA
Mixed - retail, office
Residential- 150
dwelling units/
townhouses
Mixed - retail, office,
res. (10DUs)
Office and retail
City maintenance
facility
Mixed: residential,
warehouse, office
Office & retail; 250
dwelling units
Pharmaceuticals
Commercial
condominiums
Same, complete
Residential
Same, complete
Same
Same
Same
Same, 33,000 s. f.,
complete
Same, complete
Same
Notes:
Residential = SF = square feet; HU = housing units; TH = town house
Section 5. Baltimore Area
Page 49
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 5-2. Locations of 37 Brownfield Sites in Baltimore
27 22
Section 5. Baltimore Area
Page 50
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 5-3. Baltimore Metropolitan Council Planning Area
City
of
Baltimore '
Section 5. Baltimore Area
Page 51
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Water Quality Impacts: The Long-Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment (L-THIA) watershed
management model was used to estimate stormwater runoff and pollutant loads from each site. The
model calculates runoff as a function of precipitation, site size, type of land use (e.g., commercial,
industrial, residential), and hydrologic soil group. L-THIA contains data on average county
precipitation, generally accepted soil curves for each type of land use and soil (USDA 1986), and
hydrologic soil group. Data on site location, site size, and land use type (Exhibit 5-1) were entered
into the model. Appendix B describes the rationale for using this model, how it was applied, and
some important assumptions.
As L-THIA's soil-type feature was not available at the time of the analysis, soil types were drawn
from the USDA's on-line soil survey data for the relevant census tracts, except for Baltimore County.
The County, which borders the city on the north, east, and west (Exhibit 5-3) is completely separate
from the city. Soil type data for Baltimore County was available in a paper version of a 1976 soil
survey obtained locally (USDA 1976). For the City of Baltimore, soil type was assumed to be B,
based on review of 12 locations in Baltimore County, which indicated that about 88% of soils are
group B.
Data on former land uses of the Baltimore brownfield sites was considered unreliable for about three-
fourths of the sites. The former land uses for these parcels were assumed equal to the redeveloped
uses. This assumption is based on data from the other four cities that indicate that shifting land uses
among the brownfield sites within the cities resulted in only small changes in runoff (range of-3.5%
to 6.2%, see Exhibit B-7).
5.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario
The alternative conventional scenario identified locations that were reasonable for the same type of
development if they had not been built on the brownfields, and estimated the environmental
performance of these locations.
Alternative Conventional Locations: For each brownfield site, an alternative location was assigned,
based on recent development patterns in the region. Since brownfield sites are only a small portion of
total development in the region, it is reasonable to assume that the alternative development would
generally follow the prevailing patterns. The conventional development counterpart for each
brownfield site was assigned to one of the top 10% fastest growing locations (112 TAZs). The fastest
growing TAZs were based on population and employment shifts from 1995 to 2005, where the
percentage of the regional population and employment for each TAZ experienced the greatest
increase in population and employment with respect to all other TAZs. n The high-growth areas are
shown in Exhibit 5-4. Alternative locations for each of the 37 brownfield sites are shown in Exhibit
5-5. The use of a statistical site selection procedure helped to ensure that the process remained
impartial.
Alternative Conventional Development Size: Because development generally consumes more
acreage in suburban and rural areas than in more dense, urban areas, it is anticipated that most of the
37 alternative locations would require more land than their brownfield counterparts. Based on a range
of values derived from literature on land use patterns (Appendix B), it was assumed that the
conventional/greenfield sites would generally require an average of two to four times the acreage of
To reflect growth in both employment and residents, the 37 brownfield sites were divided into two groups
according to whether, based on their redevelopment use, they are more likely to be located in, or economically linked
to, a residential area (14 sites) or a non-residential area (23 sites).
Section 5. Baltimore Area Page 52
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 5-4. High Growth TAZs in the Baltimore Area
Top 10% High Residential Growth TAZs
Top 10% High Employment Growth TAZs
V-.
Section 5. Baltimore Area
Page 53
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 5-5. Alternative Conventional Locations
in the Baltimore Area: 37 Sites
Section 5. Baltimore Area
Page 54
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
their brownfield counterparts. Land use decisions are inherently influenced by a number of site-
specific factors. As a result, there is a wide variation in the amount of land consumed by similar uses
in different areas, or even within close proximity. Reviewing zoning ordinances will not necessarily
result in an accurate estimate of likely land consumption. An average acreage multiplier of two is
used for a more conservative estimate and an average of four for an upper bound.
Air Quality, Vehicle Energy Consumption and Urban Form: Using information on the
conventional development locations, acreage, and categories of use, the environmental characteristics
of these locations were described by indicators scored from the data in the transportation demand
model using a process identical to that described above for the brownfield sites.
Water Quality: Using information on the conventional development locations, which were assumed
to be greenfields for the stormwater modeling, acreage, and categories of use (e.g., commercial,
residential, agricultural), the stormwater runoff and pollutant loads from these locations were
estimated with the L-THIA model in a procedure identical to that described above for the brownfield
sites.
It was assumed that the new construction would take place either in a former vacant pasture area or
in a former agricultural area. L-THIA's basic module offers three land use categories for
undeveloped land: forest, pasture/grassland, and agricultural. Using two land use categories provides
a range of acceptable values rather than a single estimate. This approach is appropriate, as the precise
location of the greenfield site within the TAZ or census tract is unknown. To obtain the net new
runoff contribution of the greenfield development, the existing runoff (pasture or agricultural area
footprint) was subtracted from the runoff expected from the developed uses, which were primarily
commercial and industrial. To obtain the net change in runoff for the entire region, the changes in
runoff due to the development at the brownfield sites were also factored in. These calculations are
described in greater detail in Appendix B.
5.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios
For each site pair, the estimated indicators were compared, and totals for all sites were averaged. The
results of the air quality and energy analysis were generally expressed in terms of percent difference
in VMT and emissions associated with the brownfield site compared to its conventional alternative
on a per capita basis. The results of the stormwater runoff analysis were expressed in terms of
percent difference in stormwater runoff and pollutants for brownfields in the group of 37 site pairs. A
number of limitations and caveats apply to this comparison. These are discussed in Appendix B,
Methodology.
The key performance measures are shown in Exhibit 5-6. Nineteen of the indicators relate to urban
form, travel, personal vehicle energy use, and air emissions; and 16 variables address land use,
stormwater runoff, and water pollutants. In general, the brownfield locations demonstrate
substantially greater land-use efficiency; less auto dependency; lower personal vehicle energy use,
carbon dioxide emissions, and air pollutant emissions per capita; and lower stormwater runoff and
pollutant loads for the region. Appendix B discusses a number of caveats that apply to these
comparisons.
5.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use
The average brownfield scores were positive for all indicators. The calculations show that nearly all
redeveloped brownfield sites result in substantially better environmental performance than similar
conventional development. The key performance measures are shown in Exhibit 5-6.
Section 5. Baltimore Area Page 55
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 5-6. Comparison of Environmental Indicators in the Baltimore Area:
Average Differences Between Site Pairs
Percent Change
(Conventional
Brownfield Conventional less Brownfield)
Average Average (a)
Accessibility Indicators
Households (HH) in TAZ
% total region households w/in 30 min. transit ride from TAZ
center
% total region households w/in 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Employment in TAZ
% total region employees within 10 min. walk from TAZ center
% total region employees within 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Environmental Performance Indicators
Land area
Population density
Dwelling density
Jobs-to-housing balance
Employment density
Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
Hydrocarbon (HC) pollutant emissions
Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
Home-based vehicle miles traveled
Non-home-based vehicle miles traveled
Total vehicle miles traveled
Personal vehicle energy use
Units
Acres
persons/gross acre
DU/gross acre
jobs/dwelling unit
EMS/gross acre
Ibs/resident/yr.
Ibs/resident/yr.
Ibs/resident/yr.
Ibs/resident/yr.
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
mi/capita/day
MMBtu/capita/yr.
841
2.98%
17.87%
2,491
0.41 %
22.62%
322
12.69
5.76
2.96
11.87
13.82
2,562.2
26.82
207.2
7.20
2.90
10.10
23.00
871
1 .34%
8.30%
2,671
0.35%
9.45%
644 - 1 ,288
6.64
2.93
3.07
13.35
23.97
4,445.3
45.53
359.1
11.50
6.00
17.52
40.00
3%
122%
115%
7%
16%
139%
50% - 75%
91%
96%
3%
11%
42%
42%
42%
42%
37%
53%
42%
42%
Stormwater Runoff and Pollution percent change (Conventional/Greenfield less Brownfield) (a)
(Total for All 37 Site Pairs) Pasture (Grasslands) Agricultural Land
Land area (acres)
Annual runoff
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Suspended solids
Biological oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Oil and grease
Lead
Copper
Zinc
Cadmium
Chromium
Nickel
Fecal coli
Fecal strep
Low Bound
(2x Brownfield
Acres)
50%
58%
62%
66%
67%
64%
61%
67%
63%
61%
67%
67%
67%
67%
68%
69%
Upper Bound
(4x Brownfield
Acres)
75%
70%
74%
79%
80%
77%
73%
80%
76%
73%
81%
80%
80%
80%
81%
82%
Low Bound
(2x Brownfield
Acres)
50%
48%
1%
-11%
30%
65%
65%
65%
61%
47%
67%
64%
67%
67%
1%
69%
Upper Bound
(4x Brownfield
Acres)
75%
57%
1%
-13%
35%
78%
78%
78%
73%
56%
81%
77%
80%
80%
1%
82%
Notes:
TAZ = traffic analysis zone; HH= household; Ac = acre; Pop = population; SOV = single occupancy vehicle; DU = dwelling unit;
MMBTU = millions of British thermal units
Percentage change calculated as: [(Value for conventional - Value for brownfield) / Value for conventional] x 100
Section 5. Baltimore Area
Page 56
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
• Brownfield sites accommodated the same number of homes and businesses on about one-fourth to
one-half the land typically used at corresponding conventional sites.
• Automobile use by residents and employees at brownfield locations are estimated to be
substantially lower than at the alternative locations.
• Average daily vehicle miles traveled per capita would be 42% lower.
• Personal vehicle energy use per capita would be 42% lower.
• The brownfield redevelopment areas average about 42% lower carbon dioxide emissions per capita
relative to conventional development.
• The brownfield redevelopment areas average about 42% lower air pollutant emissions per capita
relative to conventional developments.
The positive performance of the environmental indicators at the brownfield locations stems from the
fact that the brownfield neighborhoods in this study are denser and more accessible, by most
measures. Density is measured primarily by the number of residents, households, or employees per
gross acre. Generally, the denser an area, the shorter the distance to various destinations for purposes
such as shopping, recreation, and employment. Population density and dwelling density for the
average brownfield TAZ in the Baltimore dataset are almost twice that of the average alternative
TAZ. Employment density in the average brownfield TAZ is about 11% less than that of the average
alternative TAZ.
Accessibility is measured primarily in terms of time required to travel between key origin-destination
points within the region. Based on the indicators in Exhibit 5-6, people living and working in the
brownfield neighborhoods have better accessibility to other neighborhoods and to points within their
TAZs than those in their conventional counterpart areas. Accessibility to transit shows the greatest
difference, although walking and automobile travel also show substantial differences. For example,
3.0% of all households in the Baltimore region are within a 30-minute transit ride of the center of the
average brownfield TAZ; while the figure for alternative conventional TAZs is 1.3%.
The primary air quality indicators in this study are emissions per capita of nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons. Lower emissions is considered a positive
environmental outcome, and more intensive development in more central areas usually results in
lower emissions than the same amount of development in less dense areas that are less accessible.
However, although total emissions in a region may be at acceptable levels, a particular intensive
development can result in local "hot spots" of one or more pollutants. Hot spots are local areas of
very high concentrations that may present a health or environmental risk or cause an area to fall out
of compliance with air quality attainment goals.
Some pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, are primarily a local health concern. Others, such as
carbon dioxide, are greenhouse gases, which contribute to climate change. Some pollutants, such as
nitrous oxide (N20), can have local health impacts and are also greenhouse gases. None of the
brownfield development projects in Baltimore is large enough, or has enough industrial or
transportation activity to be a regional concern on its own. Analysis of other development in the area
was not conducted to determine if, combined with the other development, there might be
significantly elevated levels of emissions.
Section 5. Baltimore Area Page 57
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
5.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads
Total runoff in the region in acre feet would be 58 - 70% lower if development occurs on brownfields
rather than in pasture areas, and 48 - 57% lower than agricultural areas (Exhibit 5-6). Compared to
pasture areas, loads for all pollutants are substantially lower. Loads of conventional pollutants, such
as nitrogen, phosphorous, suspended solids, and biological oxygen demand would be 61% to 82%
lower. Metals ranged from 61% to 82% lower. Compared to agricultural areas, the loadings of all
pollutants, except phosphorous and nitrogen would be substantially reduced. The loads of
phosphorous would increase 11 - 13%, while that of nitrogen would be reduced by only 1%.
Agricultural land generally has high concentrations of these substances and, under the brownfield
redevelopment scenario, they would continue to generate stormwater runoff. Loads of the other
conventional pollutants ranged from 30-82% lower and that of metals ranged from 47 to 81% lower.
As described in Section 5.1, it is estimated that the runoff from redeveloped brownfields would equal
that from former uses. While shifts in land use from one type of "developed" use to another may
occur, such as from industrial to residential, the amount that runoff would actually change is difficult
to estimate as developers may incorporate more effective stormwater management practices. Runoff
from the alternative locations would be 71 - 87% lower if left undeveloped than if developed.
Appendix B discusses the details of the methodology, including assumptions and caveats.
Section 5. Baltimore Area Page 58
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area
The analysis of the Dallas-Fort Worth area was based on a set of 25 brownfield properties that
benefited from U.S. EPA Brownfields Program funding and had redevelopment completed or
underway. These sites represent a variety of uses and are scattered throughout Dallas (17 sites), Fort
Worth (5 sites), Garland (2 sites ), and Grand Prairie (1 site), Texas.
6.1 Brownfield Redevelopment Scenario
The brownfields scenario was described in terms of the number and characteristics of brownfield
sites in the Dallas-Fort Worth area, and measures of urban form, energy use, air emissions, and
estimated stormwater runoff and pollution loads from the brownfield locations. Energy use was
measured in terms of personal vehicle energy use per capita. Urban form indicators included density
measures (population, dwelling units, and employment), and several indicators of travel efficiency.
Dallas-Fort Worth Brownfield Properties: Using EPA's ACRES database, the EPA Region 6 web
site and other online sources, 70 brownfield properties were initially identified in the Dallas area.
Several sources were consulted to determine or confirm property locations, acreage, use type
(commercial, industrial, recreational, and residential), and the status of use. These sources included
data from the U.S. EPA Region 6 Brownfields Team, the City of Dallas Brownfields Program, Fort
Worth Environmental Management Department, the assessors' Offices of Dallas and Tarrant
counties, and the City of Garland tax database.
This analysis indicated that 25 of the 70 properties had reuse completed or under way and benefited
from U.S. EPA Brownfields Program assistance. Properties for which there were firm, specific reuse
plans in place were considered as having development underway. For some sites, it was difficult to
confirm that U.S. EPA Brownfields Program funds were involved, because documentation of specific
funding sources was sparse and local officials did not recollect the situation at a number of sites. The
25 sites are listed in Exhibit 6-1 and their locations are shown in Exhibit 6-2.
Air Quality Impacts and Personal Vehicle Energy Use: Data used to estimate automobile use,
energy consumption, and air pollutant emissions, as well as measures of urban form, were provided
by the North Central Texas Council of Governments (NCTCOG), which is the Metropolitan Planning
Organization (MPO) for a 16-county area which includes the Cities of Dallas and Fort Worth.
NCTCOG is a voluntary association of about 230 local governments established to assist in planning
for common needs, cooperating for mutual benefit, and coordinating for regional development. This
study used data from 12 counties: Collin, Dallas, Denton, Ellis, Hood, Hunt, Johnson, Kaufman,
Parker, Rockwall, Tarrant, and Wise (Exhibit 6-3). For planning purposes, the Council subdivides the
region into 6,672 traffic service zones (which is analogous to the term "traffic analysis zone," and for
expediency this report will use the term TAZ).
The environmental and urban form indicators were calculated for each of the TAZs in which the
brownfields are located. Some of these indicators were scored directly from the regional
transportation demand model by the NCTCOG staff, while others were estimated based on the data
from the regional transportation demand model. For example, the vehicle energy use and pollutant
emissions were estimated based on vehicle miles traveled (VMT) and vehicle trips (VT) data
provided by the TMD. The accessibility indicators were also provided by the NCTCOG.
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area Page 59
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 6-1. Dallas-Fort Worth Brownfield Properties Studied
Site Parce ZIP Property Bldg.
No. I ID Property Name Address Code Size (acres) Size (SF) Jobs Past Use Current Use Future Use
Dallas
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
10872
10894
10911
10917
10932
10959
13955
13959
13947
13953
13943
13950
13939
15914
Union Gospel Mission
Jack Evans Police Headquarters
(old Sears Automotive)
Los Arboles de Santa Maria
Grand Plaza Shopping Center
Dallas Area Habitat for Humanity,
Inc.
Cityville, Southwestern Medical
District
Dallas Sports Arena (Victory Park;
America Airlines Center)
Jefferson at Kessler Heights
Jefferson North End
South Side on Lamar
Larry Johnson Recreation Center
DART passenger transfer location
(PTL)
Pal Ex (American Pallet Recyclers)
BAC5 Business and Job Training
Complex
3211 Irving Blvd.
1400 South Lamar St. at
Belleview St.
1802-1 846 Muncie AVE;
& 1802-1838 Bayonne St.
31 03-31 29 Grand Ave.
3020 Bryan St.
2222 Motor Street at
Bengal St.
2500 Victory Ave.
1520 N Beckley (formerly
1726 Young St.)
2323 North Field St.
(River St. & Field St.)
1409 South Lamar
3700 Dixon Ave. and
Wullchleger St.
5057 Singleton Blvd.
2401 Vinson St.
208 East Wheatland Rd.
75247
75215
75212
75215
75204
75235
75201
75201
75202
75215
75210
75220
75212
75241-
5311
0.26
3.20
5.05
1.99
1.05
5.70
72.00
27.00
11.00
17.50
2.60
1.80
26.40
0.80
NA
354,000
NA
NA
NA
48,000 sf.
retail + 278
HUs
NA
674 HUs
540 HUs
1 .4 MM sf.
14,260
NA
NA
NA
NA
880
(combined
from
different
locations)
NA
NA
NA
125.00
NA
NA
12.00
200.00
5.00
3.00
91.00
139F/T&
P/T
NA
Auto repair
10 stores
Manufac-
turing
Mixed
Commer-
cial & light
industrial
Comm. &
light
industrial
Apartments
Auto repair
& salvage
Manufac-
turing
Vacant
pasture &
woodland
Homeless
shelter
Police Station
Retail
Housing
Indoor
sports/enter-
tainment
complex
Apartment;
674 units
Residential
Mixed:
commercial,
res., retail,
hospitality
Recreation
center
PTL
Light industry
Vacant pasture
& woodland
Homeless
shelter
Police Station
Affordable
housing &
mixed use
Retail
Residential
278 HUS&48K
sf. retail
Apartment; 674
units
Residential
Mixed:
commercial,
res., retail,
hospitality
Recreation
center
PTL
Light industry
Job training
center
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area
Page 60
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 6-1. Dallas-Fort Worth Brownfield Properties Studied (Continued)
Site Parce
No. I ID
Property Name
ZIP Property Bldg.
Address Code Size (acres) Size (SF) Jobs Past Use Current Use Future Use
15
16
17
49501
79401
79521
Belleview-Lamar Condos (Beat
Condos)
.26 Acre Commercial Property
Dallas County Community College
District Offices
918 PowhattanSt.
(formerly 1300 South
Lamar St.)
969 & 971 S. Lamar
1601 & 1700S. Lamar
(So. Side of Lamar)
75215
75215
75215
4.30
0.26
2.40
NA
1 fir. retail;
1 fir.
storage
NA
NA
NA
Sales, mfg,
warehouse
Oil storage,
mfg.,
warehouse
NA
NA
75 Condos
Liquor store; &
warehouse
Office
390 Condos
Retail & storage
Office
Fort Worth
18
19
20
21
22
12222
12223
12224
12225
15747
Ellis Pecan
LaGrave Field/American Cyanamid
Fourth and Elm downtown
Cotton Depot Freight Terminal
Downtown
Tarrant Community College
1012 N Main St.
600 No. Jones/ 500 No.
Commerce
Fourth and Elm St.
downtown
555 Elm St.
5901 Fitzhugh Ave.
76164
76164
76102
76102
76119
0.30
34.00
1.00
5.80
3.64
NA
NA
NA
210 loft
apartments
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Vacant
warehouse
Petrol.
Refining
catalyst
operation
Mfg/vacant
Freight
terminal &
warehouse
NA
Vacant
Vacant
Vacant
Loft-style
apartments
Vacant bldg
Office
Mixed use
Urban park
Loft-style
apartments
Office & corp.
services
training center
Garland
23
24
10871
15152
Continental Emsco
Former DDI Facility
2441 Forest Ln.
1500 East Highway 66
75042
75040
14.80
20.90
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Warehouse/
industrial
NA
Warehouse/
industrial
Municipal fire
admin &
training facility
Grand Prairie
25
11956
"300 NW 4th St, Dallas, TX"
300 4th St. NW
75050
1.87
NA
NA
NA
Office
Office
Notes: HU = housing units.
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area
Page 61
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 6-2. Locations of 25 Brownfield Sites
In Dallas-Fort Worth
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area
Page 62
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 6-3. North Central Texas Council of Governments Planning Area
fifO ' *-
•f -<- w ^ £LrTx- -; ••
frg/- *rjr—if' "if~
" "''"" " JCKWLL
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area
Page 63
-------
Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Water Quality Impacts: The Long-Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment (L-THIA) watershed
management model was used to estimate stormwater runoff and pollutant loads from each site. The
model calculates runoff as a function of precipitation, site size, type of land use (e.g., commercial,
industrial, residential), and hydrologic soil group. L-THIA contains data on average county
precipitation, generally accepted soil curves for each type of land use and soil (USDA 1986). Data on
site location, parcel size, and land use type are shown in Exhibit 6-1. Hydrologic soil group data were
extracted from USDA's soil survey data (USDA 2008 and 2009), as L-THIA's look-up maps were
out of service at the time of this analysis.
Estimated runoff from former uses of the Dallas brownfield sites was compared to those of the
redeveloped brownfield sites. Based on this analysis, stormwater runoff from the 25 redeveloped
brownfields is estimated to be about 2.7% less than that from the former uses. For six properties
totaling 124 acres, land use type did not change, and for five properties totaling 29 acres, former uses
were unknown. For this calculation, the land uses for the latter properties were set equal to the new
uses. This result is caused by shifts in land use from one type of developed use to another, such as
from industrial to residential or one type of commercial use to another.
Appendix B provides further detail on the application of L-THIA, key assumptions, and limitations
of the approach.
6.2 Alternative Conventional Development Scenario
The alternative conventional scenario identified locations where the same type of development
would likely have been built if they had not been built on the brownfields, and estimated the
environmental performance of these locations.
Alternative Conventional Locations: For each brownfield site, an alternative location was
assigned, based on recent development patterns in the region. Since brownfield sites are only a
small portion of total development in the region, it is reasonable that the alternative development
would generally follow the prevailing patterns. The development counterpart for each brownfield
site was assigned to one of the top 10% fastest growing locations (667 TAZs). The fastest
growing TAZs were based on population and employment shifts from 2000 to 2005, where the
percentage of the regional population and employment for each TAZ experienced the greatest
increase in population and employment with respect to all other TAZs.12 The high-growth areas
are shown in Exhibit 6-4. Alternative locations for each of the 25 brownfield sites are shown in
Exhibit 6-5. These locations were selected from the high-growth employment areas and high-
growth residential areas using a statistical site selection procedure. The use of a statistical site
selection procedure ensured that the process was impartial.
Alternative Conventional Development Size: Because development generally consumes more
acreage in suburban and rural areas than in more dense, urban areas, it is anticipated that most of the
25 alternative locations would require more land than their brownfield counterparts. Based on a range
of values derived from literature on land use patterns, it was assumed that the conventional/greenfield
sites would generally require an average of two to four times the acreage of their brownfield
counterparts. Land use decisions are inherently influenced by a number of site-specific factors. As a
result, there is a wide variation in the amount of land consumed by similar uses in different areas,
12 To reflect growth in both employment and residents, the 25 brownfield sites were divided into two groups
according to whether, based on their redevelopment use, they are more likely to be located in, or economically linked
to, a residential area (11 sites) or a non-residential area (14 sites).
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area Page 64
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 6-4. High Growth TAZs in the 12-County
Dallas-Fort Worth Planning Area
Top 10% High Residential & Employment Growth TAZs
Top 10% High Residential Growth TAZs
Top 10% High Employment Growth TAZs
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area
Page 65
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 6-5. Alternative Conventional Locations in the
Dallas-Fort Worth Planning Area: 25 Sites
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Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area
Page 66
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
or even at properties within close proximity. Reviewing zoning ordinances will not necessarily result
in an accurate estimate of likely land consumption. Thus, an average acreage multiplier of two is
used for a more conservative estimate and an average of four is used for an upper bound.
Air Quality and Personal Vehicle Energy Consumption: Using information on the conventional
development locations, acreage, and categories of use, the environmental characteristics of these
locations were described according to indicators scored from the data in the TMD, with a procedure
identical to that described above for the brownfield sites.
Water Quality: Using information on the alternative development locations, which were assumed
to be greenfields for the stormwater modeling, acreage, and categories of use (e.g., commercial,
residential, agricultural), the stormwater runoff and pollutant loads from these locations were
estimated with the L-THIA model in a procedure identical to that described above for the brownfield
sites.
It was assumed that the new construction would take place either in a former vacant pasture area or
on former agricultural land.13 To obtain the net new runoff contribution of the greenfield
development, the existing runoff (pasture or agricultural area footprint) was subtracted from the
runoff expected from the developed uses, which were primarily commercial and industrial. To obtain
the net change in runoff for the entire region, the changes in runoff due to the development at the
brownfield sites were also factored in. These calculations are described in greater detail in Appendix
B. Using two land use categories provides a range of acceptable values rather than a single estimate.
This type of estimate is appropriate, since the precise location of the greenfield site within the TAZ
or census tract is unknown.
6.3 Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios
For each site pair, the estimated indicators were compared, and totals for all sites were averaged. The
results of the air quality and energy analysis were generally expressed in terms of percent difference
in VMT and emissions associated with the brownfield site compared to its conventional alternative
on a per capita basis. The results of the stormwater runoff analysis were expressed in terms of
percent difference in stormwater runoff and pollutants from brownfields in the group of 25 site pairs.
A number of limitations and caveats apply to this comparison. These are discussed in Appendix B,
Methodology.
6.3.1 Air Emissions and Personal Vehicle Energy Use
The average brownfield scores were positive for all indicators. The calculations show that nearly all
(21 out of 25) redeveloped brownfield sites result in better environmental performance than similar
conventional development. The key performance measures are shown in Exhibit 6-6. These results
indicate the following:
13 The predominant land uses in the region are agricultural, range, and open land. It is sometimes difficult to
distinguish among these uses from satellite images available on Google Earth. L-THIA' Basic module offers three
land use categories for undeveloped land: forest, pasture/grassland, and agricultural.
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area Page 67
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit 6-6. Comparison of Environmental Indicators in the
Dallas-Fort Worth Area: Average Differences Between 25 Site Pairs
Accessibility Indicators
Households (HH) in TAZ
% total region households within 1 0 min. walk from TAZ center
% total region households w/in 30 min. transit ride from TAZ
% total region households w/in 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Employment in TAZ
% total region Employees within 10 min. walk from TAZ center
% total region Employees within 30 min. transit ride from TAZ
% total region Employees within 6 mi. by SOV from TAZ center
Environmental Performance Indicators
Land Area
Population Density
Dwelling Density
Transit Adjacency to Housing
Jobs-to-Housing Balance
Employment Density
Transit Adjacency to Employment
Open Space Connectivity
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
Hydrocarbon (HC) Emissions
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emissions
Total Vehicle Miles Traveled
Total Vehicle Trips
Personal Vehicle Energy Use
Stormwater Runoff and Pollution
Indicators
(Total for All 25 Site Pairs)
Land area (Acres)
Annual Runoff
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Suspended Solids
Biological Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Oil and Grease
Lead
Copper
Zinc
Cadmium
Chromium
Nickel
Fecal coli
Fecal strep
Units
Acres
persons/gross acre
DU/gross acre
% pop. w/in 1/4-mi.
jobs/dwelling unit
emps/gross acre
% empl. w/in 1/4-mi.
0-1 scale
Ibs/capita/yr.
Ibs/capita/yr.
Ibs/capita/yr.
Ibs/capita/yr.
mi/capita/day
trip/capita/day
MMBtu/capita/yr.
Brownfield
Average
208
0.02%
NA
5.52%
753
0.20%
NA
8.87%
265
5.90
2.86
90.16
3.62
10.72
91.40
NA
16.50
3,060
32.03
247.48
12.06
1.48
27.51
Conventional
Average
489%
0.02%
NA
4.07%
797
0.05%
NA
4.13%
530-1060
5.14
2.65
31.68
1.63
3.75
34.42
NA
35.40
6,566.12
68.72
531 .03
25.88
1.95
59.04
Percent Change
(Conventional less
Brownfield) (a)
57%
2%
NA
36%
5%
307%
NA
115%
50% to 75%
15%
8%
185%
122%
186%
166%
NA
53%
53%
53%
53%
53%
24%
53%
Percent Change (Conventional/Greenfield less Brownfield) (a)
Pasture (Grassland) Agricultural Land
Low Bound
(2x Brownfield
Acres)
50%
43%
54%
62%
66%
60%
60%
60%
55%
44%
69%
54%
39%
62%
63%
54%
Upper Bound
(4x Brownfield
Acres)
75%
52%
66%
78%
79%
78%
79%
80%
70%
61%
79%
63%
55%
79%
78%
75%
Low Bound
(2x Brownfield
Acres)
50%
32%
-41%
-49%
-1%
59%
66%
67%
64%
64%
65%
41%
26%
66%
-29%
60%
Upper Bound
(4x Brownfield Acres)
75%
38%
-48%
-55%
-3%
72%
79%
80%
76%
76%
77%
46%
28%
79%
-29%
77%
Notes: NA: Data not available; DU = dwelling
household; Ac = acre; Pop = population; SOV =
(a) Percentage change calculated as [(Value
units; MMBTU = Millions of British thermal units; TAZ = traffic analysis zone; HH :
single occupancy vehicle; DU = dwelling unit
for conventional - Value for conventional / Value for conventional] x 100
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area
Page 68
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
• Brownfield sites accommodated the same number of homes and businesses on about one-fourth to
one-half the land typically used at corresponding conventional sites.
• Automobile use by residents and employees at brownfield locations is estimated to be substantially
lower than at the alternative locations.
• Average daily vehicle miles traveled per capita would be 53% lower.
• Average daily vehicle trips per capita would be 24% lower.
• Personal vehicle energy use per capita would be 53% lower.
• The brownfield redevelopment areas average about 53% lower carbon dioxide emissions per
capita relative to conventional development.
• The Brownfield redevelopment areas average about 53% lower air pollutant emissions per capita
relative to conventional development.
The positive environmental indicator values at the brownfield locations relate to the fact that the
brownfield neighborhoods in this study are denser and more accessible by most measures. Density is
measured primarily by the number of population, households and employees per gross acre.
Generally, the denser an area, the shorter the distance to various destinations for purposes such as
shopping, recreation, and employment. Dwelling units per gross acre for the average brownfield TAZ
in this study is about is 8% greater than for the average conventional location and employees per
gross acre at the average brownfield locations is 2.8 times that of the average conventional TAZ.
Accessibility is measured primarily in terms of time required to travel between key origin-destination
points within the region and distance to transit. Based on the indicators in Exhibit 6-6, people
working in the brownfield neighborhoods have better accessibility to other neighborhoods and to
points within their TAZs than those in their conventional counterparts. For example, 9% of all
employees in the region are within six miles by single-occupancy vehicle from a TAZ center for the
average TAZ where a brownfield is located. The average figure for the conventional TAZs is 4%.
Ninety percent of all employees and households in the brownfield areas are within 1A mile of a transit
facility in the brownfield TAZs, compared to only 32% for the conventional TAZs. Some of the
accessibility measures for households, however, indicate no clear trend.
The primary air pollution indicators in this study are per capita emissions of pollutants such as
nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Lower emissions are considered a positive
environmental outcome, and more intensive development in more central areas usually results in
lower emissions than the same amount of development in less-dense areas that are less accessible.
However, although total emissions in a region may be at acceptable levels, a particular intensive
development can result in local "hot spots" of one or more pollutants.
Hot spots are local areas of very high concentrations that may present a health or environmental risk
or cause an area to fall out of compliance with air quality attainment goals. None of the brownfield
development projects in Dallas is large enough, or has enough industrial or transportation activity, to
be a regional concern on its own. However, this study did not analyze other development in the area
to determine if, combined with the other development, there might be significantly elevated levels of
emissions.
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area Page 69
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
6.3.2 Stormwater Runoff and Pollutant Loads
Runoff in acre feet would be 43 - 52% lower if development occurs on the brownfield rather than
pasture areas, and 32 - 38% lower than if the alternative sites were in woodland areas (Exhibit 6-6).
Conventional pollutants loads, such as nitrogen, phosphorous, suspended solids, biological oxygen
demand, and chemical oxygen demand, were 54 - 80% lower than development on grasslands and 55
- 80% lower than development on woodlands.
Based on the calculations using L-THIA, stormwater runoff from the 25 developed brownfields is
estimated to be about 2.7% less than that from former uses within Dallas-Fort Worth. This result is
caused by shifts in land use from one type of developed use to another, such as from industrial to
residential. For six properties totaling 124 acres, land use type did not change, and for five properties
totaling 29 acres, former uses were unknown. The land uses for the latter properties were set equal to
the new uses. Runoff at the alternative greenfield locations would be 47 - 65% lower if left
undeveloped than if developed. It is unclear how much runoff would actually change, because
developers may incorporate more effective stormwater management practices. These issues are
further discussed in Appendix B.
Section 6. Dallas-Fort Worth Area Page 70
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
References
References are divided into two sections: one addressing air quality, energy, and land use, and one
addressing stormwater runoff and water quality.
Air Quality and Energy and Land Use
Allen, E. 2008. Clicking Toward Better Outcomes: Experience with INDEX, 1994 to 2006. Eliot Allen, in
Planning Support Systems for Cities and Regions, Ed. Richard Brail, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
Cambridge, MA, 139-166.
Burchell, R. et al. 2002. Costs of Sprawl-2000, Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP), Robert
Burchell, et al., National Academy Press, Washington, B.C. 2002.
Deason, J.P., et. al. 2001. Public Policies and Private Decisions Affecting the Redevelopment of
Brownfields: An Analysis of Critical Factors, Relative Weights, and Arial Differentials, George
Washington University Press.
Envision Utah. Cooperative Conservation Case Study, Cooperative Conservaion.org, accessed June 2010.
http://www.cooperativeconservation.org/viewproject.asp?pid=367
Ewing, R. and R. Cervero 2001. Travel and the Built Environment, Transportation Research Record, Vol.
1780: 87-114,2001.
Ewing, R. 2003. Urban sprawl as a risk factor in motor vehicle occupant and pedestrian fatalities, AJPH,
Reid Ewing, Schieber R.A., Zegeer C.V., 2003; 93 (9): 1541-1545.
Ewing, R. et al. 2008. Growing Cooler: The Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change, Reid
Ewing, Keith Bartholomew, Steve Winkelman, Jerry Walters, Don Chen, Urban Land Institute, 2008.
Frank, L. 2005. Travel Behavior, Emissions & Land Use Correlation Analysis in the Central Puget
Sound, Lawrence Frank, James Chapman, Mark Bradley, T. Keith Lawton, prepared for the Washington
State Department of Transportation, June 2005.
Industrial Economics, Inc. 2003. Analysis of Environmental and Infrastructure Costs Associated with
Development in the Berkeley Charleston Dorchester Region, April 2003. (BCD, SC area).
McCann, B., Ewing, R. 2003. Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl: A National Analysis of Physical
Activity, Obesity and Chronic Disease, Smart Growth America, Washington, DC, 2003.
NRDC 2000. Environmental Characteristics of Smart Growth Neighborhoods, an Exploratory Case
Study, Sacramento, CA. NRDC web site.
NRDC 2003. Environmental Characteristics of Smart Growth Neighborhoods, Phase II: Two Nashville
Neighborhoods, Eliot Allen and F. K. Benfield, Natural Resources Defense Council, February 2003.
Schroeer, William 1999. Transportation and Environmental Analysis of the Atlantic Steel Development
Proposal, Prepared for U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Urban and Economic Development
Division, May 10, 1999.
Sturm, R., Cohen D.A. 2004. Suburban sprawl and physical and mental health, Public Health. 2004;
118:488-496.
Thomas, J. 2009. Residential Construction Trends in America's Metropolitan Regions, John V. Thomas,
References Page 71
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Development, Community, and Environmental Division, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
January 2009.
U.S. EPA 1999. The Transportation and Environmental Impacts of Infill Versus Greenfield Development:
A Comparative Case Study Analysis, prepared by Hagler Bailly Services, Inc. and Criterion
Planners/Engineers, October 1999. (Montgomery County, MD, Palm Beach, FL, and San Diego, CA).
U.S. EPA 2001a. Comparing Methodologies to Assess Transportation and Air Quality Impacts of
Brownfield's and Infill Development, Development, Community, and Environment Division, EPA 231-
R-01-001, August 2001
U.S. EPA 2001b. EPA's Smart Growth Index in 20 Pilot Communities: Using GIS Sketch Modeling to
Advance Smart Growth, EAP 231-R-03-001, August 2001.
U.S. EPA 2002. Quantifying Emissions Impacts of Brownfields and Infill Development, prepared for
OPEI by IEC and Cambridge Systematics, Inc. (Boston, Charlotte, Denver).
U.S. EPA 2010. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2008, U.S. EPA # 430-R-
10-006, April 2010. http://epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.html
Water Quality
L-THIA website, 2008. Long-Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment Model, Purdue Research Foundation,
et. al. http://www.ecn.purdue.edu/runoff/documentation/hsg.html
USDA 2008 & 2009. Web Soil Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation
Service, accessed in 2008 and 2009. http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/
USDA 1976. Soil Survey Baltimore County Maryland, U.S. Department of Agriculture and Maryland
Agricultural Experiment Station, 1976.
USDA 1986. U.S. Department of Agriculture 1986. Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, TR-55.
Natural Resources Conservation Service, 164 pp.
ftp://ftp.wcc .nrcs.usda.gov/downloads/hydrology _hydraulics/tr55/tr55.pdf
U.S. EPA undated. Urban BMP Performance Tool, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) web page, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Accessed July 2009. Includes links to the
National Pollutant Removal Performance Database, developed by the Center for Watershed Protection,
Ellicot City, Md. Version 3, September, 2007.
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/urbanbmp/bmpeffectiveness.cfm
U.S. EPA 1993. Handbook Urban Runoff Pollution Prevention and Control Planning, EPA 625/R-93/004.
Office of Research and Development, 186 pp.
U.S. EPA 1997. Compendium of Tools for Watershed Assessment and TMDL Development, EPA 841-B-
97-006, Office of Water, 244 pp.
U.S. EPA 2005. TMDL Model Evaluation and Research Needs, EPA/600/R-05/149. Office of Research
and Development.
References Page 72
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Appendix A. Vehicle Miles Traveled: Empirical Results of
Previous Studies
This appendix reports the empirical results of a number of studies that compared the environmental
performance of developing on brownfield and infill properties to similar development on greenfield
properties. Almost all of these studies indicate that there are significant environmental benefits from
developing on brownfield and infill areas compared to greenfield areas. Comparing the results of
these studies is complicated by the fact that city characteristics, methodologies used, and study
objectives all varied from one study to another. This appendix summarizes an analysis of vehicle
miles traveled (VMT) estimates from 12 existing studies of brownfield and infill development
compared to greenfield development. VMT was the only variable that could be consistently tracked
across all the studies.
Methodology
The average difference in environmental performance (i.e., changes in vehicle miles traveled (VMT),
vehicle trips, emissions, and land consumption) estimated by all 12 studies was reviewed and the
variation of the results among the studies was examined. Usually, the smaller the variation, the
greater confidence that the average (arithmetic mean) is likely to be a good indicator of
environmental performance at other brownfield sites. In order to develop these calculations, it was
necessary to make adjustments to the reported data.
Because the studies expressed results in different metrics, an average benefit could not be directly
calculated. Some of the studies expressed results in terms of nominal values, such as tons of
emissions or VMT for the entire city. Other studies expressed estimates on a per capita basis, for a
particular neighborhood, for a group of neighborhoods or for analysis zones. To enable comparison
of results among the studies, the estimates of VMT were adjusted to normalize all results on the basis
of total development shifted from the brownfield or infill locations to the greenfield locations. Thus,
the analysis essentially compares VMT on a per capita or per job basis.
Findings
Normalizing all the conclusions of these studies and expressing the VMT changes in terms of
percentage change from the baseline (brownfield/infill development scenario), provided consistent
data for VMT for 12 cities (Exhibit A-l). Vehicle miles traveled is one of the most important
indicators of environmental performance. It is usually directly related to emissions and vehicle
energy use, although it is not the only variable that affects emissions. (Some emission constituents
are more directly related to vehicle starts than miles driven.)
Exhibit A-1. Cities Included in the Previous Studies
1. Atlanta, GA (Shroeer 1999) 7. Nashville, TN (NRDC 2003)
2. Baltimore, MD (EPA 2001 a) 8. Sacramento, CA (NRDC 2003)
3. Boston, MA (EPA 2002) 9. San Diego, CA (EPA 1999)
4. Charlotte, NC (EPA 2002) 10. Montgomery County, MD (EPA 1999)
5. Denver, CO (EPA 2002) 11. West Palm Beach, FL (EPA 1999)
6. Dallas, TX (EPA2001a) 12. BCD (Berkeley, Charleston, Dorchester),
SC (IEC2003)
Appendix A. Vehicle Miles Traveled Page 73
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit A-2 provides summary statistics for the 12 study areas. If the brownfield/infill development
in these areas were shifted to greenfield areas, the VMT by people who live or work in these areas
and were included in the reallocation would increase by an average of 65%. The range is 23% to
156%, and the standard deviation is 45%.
Exhibit A-2. Estimated Changes in VMT Per Capita:
Previous studies
Change (Reduction) in VMT Change in VMT*
(Brownfield as a % of (Greenfield - Brownfield as
Greenfield) % of Brownfield)
Range 39% - 81 % 23% - 156%
Average 61% 65%
Standard deviation NA 45%
Average of lowest 7 studies 75% 34%
Reasonable consensus 61%-75% 34% - 65%
* Increase in VMT due to shifting development from brownfield or infill to greenfield. If the development occurred on
the greenfield, VMT would be 34 - 65% higher than on the brownfield, on average.
Considering the limited number of cities and the great variety of urban characteristics, a 45%
standard deviation is not surprising. Although the estimated average increment (65%) may be
representative of the population of brownfield or infill projects, the large standard deviation indicates
that there is a significant range of possibilities. However, it is clear that even the lowest values
indicate significant benefits. If the five highest values were eliminated, the average for the remaining
seven cities (+34%) still indicates substantial improvement in VMT as a result of brownfield
redevelopment compared to greenfield development. Thus, a conservative interpretation of this data
would be that:
• If the brownfield or infill sites were not developed, VMT would be 34 - 65% higher, using the
"consensus" estimate (which omits the high values). As stated above, this conclusion is a
conservative interpretation, since the five highest values were excluded from the calculation of
the average. The comparable figure estimated for the average of the five regions in this study is
46 - 133%, slightly outside this range .
• Another way of expressing this is that the average brownfield VMT as a percent of their
counterpart greenfield VMT for the 12 studies is 61 - 75%, using the consensus estimate. The
average value for the five regions addressed in this study is 43 - 67% (shown in Exhibit 1-2).
That is, the brownfield locations would produce 43 - 67% less VMT per capita than the
greenfield locations.
• These estimates also do not fully account for some benefits, such as those arising from intrazonal
changes in modal shares of trips. That is, they represent a somewhat conservative estimate.
Appendix A. Vehicle Miles Traveled Page 74
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Appendix B. Methodology
Introduction
This study tests an analytical approach to quantifying environmental impacts of multiple
redevelopment projects in a municipal area. For each of five cities, all known brownfield sites that
benefited from U.S. EPA Brownfields Program assistance and had redevelopment completed or
under way were identified. Most of these properties are in close-in, densely developed areas. The
study also identified locations that were reasonable alternatives for each of the brownfield sites,
based on prevailing development trends in the region. It was assumed that had the development not
occurred on the brownfield, it would have gone to these locations. The environmental performance of
both sets of locations were measured and compared, in terms such as vehicle miles traveled per
capita, air pollutant emissions per capita, personal vehicle energy use per capita, and stormwater
runoff and pollutant loads. The environmental performance measures were developed with data from
regional transportation demand models, a watershed management model, and INDEX, a geographical
information system-based analytical tool (EPA 2001b, Allen 2008).
The regions studied were selected based on several factors, including a significant number of
brownfield properties that had benefited from U.S. EPA Brownfields Program funding and had
development completed or under way, the availability of information about the reuse status of the
brownfield sites, and the availability of data that could be used as indicators of local environmental
performance.
Exhibit B-l provides summary information for the municipal areas studied. The study team identified
163 brownfield properties that met the above criteria. This figure is 35-40% of the total number
identified in EPA's ACRES property profile form database in the five cities. The other sites were not
included in the study either because they had not been redeveloped or because confirmation that the
property had benefited from U.S. EPA Brownfields Program assistance could not be obtained. A few
sites were excluded because it was difficult to categorize their use type for purposes of this study,
such as a property that was used for a bridge approach. These sites account for a small portion of
total (brownfield and non-brownfield) development acreage in these areas. However, their
development has been important to the communities in overcoming issues with properties that have
been obstacles to redevelopment.
Exhibit B-1. Municipal Areas Included in Study
City Population
No. of Population in City in Planning
Brownfield Brownfield Thousands area Area
City Properties (a) Acreage (Year) (Sq. Mi.) Planning Area (millions)
Seattle
Minneapolis-St.
Paul
Emeryville
Baltimore
Dallas-Ft. Worth
Total
25
37
39
37
25
163
87
80
183
322
266
938
592.8 (2007)
676.7 (2007)
10.1 (2009)
636.9 (2008)
2,026.6 (2009)
83.87
114.60
1.9
92.07
678
4-county area
7-county area
9-county area
5 counties &
Baltimore City
12-county area
3.6
2.9
5.1
2.5
6.5
(a) Properties that have received U.S. EPA Brownfields Program assistance and have been, or are being,
redeveloped.
Appendix B. Methodology
Page 75
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Methodology Overview
For each of the five municipal areas, the environmental performance of the two development
scenarios were compared. (1) In the brownfield redevelopment scenario, the environmental
performance was estimated for all identified brownfield sites in the selected municipalities that had
benefited from EPA Brownfields Program funding where redevelopment was completed or under
way. (2) In the alternative conventional development scenario, reasonable alternative locations for
each of the brownfield sites were identified, a quantity of residential and commercial space matching
each brownfield redevelopment project was allocated among these areas, and environmental
performance of these locations was estimated. Environmental performance was measured in terms
such as carbon dioxide and air pollutant emissions per capita, personal vehicle energy use per capita,
and stormwater runoff and pollutant loads. The differences between the environmental performance
parameters represent relative environmental benefits of redeveloping brownfield sites compared to
similar development on conventional sites.
The following sections describe the basic steps taken to assemble the brownfield and conventional
scenarios, and the process used to compare the environmental outcomes of the two.
Brownfields Development Scenario
The brownfields scenario was described in terms of the number and characteristics of brownfield
sites in each city, and measures of urban form and environmental performance. Urban form
indicators include metrics such as population density, travel efficiency, and jobs-to-housing balance.
To specify the brownfields development scenario, the following activities were undertaken:
Identification of Brownfield Sites
Using a number of sources, such as U.S. EPA's ACRES database, EPA regional web sites and staff,
and other online sources, brownfield properties were identified in each of the five municipal areas.
For each property, information from several sources, including municipal and county data bases,
non-profit organizations, tax assessor records, building permit files, and local government officials
was used to determine or confirm property location, acreage, use type (commercial, industrial,
recreational, and residential), and the status of use. Based on this information, about two-thirds of the
sites were eliminated from the study, either because they were not developed or it could not be
confirmed that U.S. EPA Brownfields Program assistance was used at the site.
This analysis resulted in a list of 163 properties that had reuse completed, under way, or planned and
had benefited from U.S. EPA Brownfields Program assistance. Properties for which there were firm,
specific reuse plans in place were considered as having development under way. These properties are
listed along with basic descriptive information in Sections 2 through 6 of this report (25 in Seattle, 37
in Minneapolis-Saint Paul, 39 in Emeryville, 37 in Baltimore, and 25 in Dallas-Fort Worth).
Estimation of Impacts on Air Quality and Personal Vehicle Energy Use
Data used to estimate automobile use, energy consumption, and air pollutant emissions associated
with the brownfield locations were provided by metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs) in each
region. These organizations are typically responsible for transportation planning and, often, land-use
planning in their regions, which generally cover several counties. The five MPOs in this study had
planning areas that ranged from four to 12 counties. They each maintain a transportation demand
model, which contains the basic data used for this study. For modeling purposes, each MPO divides
the region into grids of cells of varying size known by terms such as traffic analysis zones (TAZs),
Appendix B. Methodology Page 76
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
travel analysis zones, and traffic service zones.14 Using this data and INDEX planning support
software (EPA 2001b, Allen 2008), environmental measures were developed at the TAZ level. Urban
form indicators included items such as density measures (population, dwelling units, and
employment per gross acre), jobs-to-housing balance, and several transportation accessibility
indicators. The indicators are listed in Exhibit B-2.
Estimation of Impacts on Water Quality: Overview
For the purposes of stomwater modeling, all alternative conventional sites were assumed to be
greenfields. For each brownfield site and corresponding alternative location, pre-development and
post-development stormwater runoff and pollutant loads were estimated. These values were summed
for each region and the differences between brownfield development scenarios and
conventional/greenfield development scenarios were tabulated and evaluated.
The study used the Long-Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment (L-TFflA) watershed management
model to estimate stormwater runoff and pollutant loads from each site. To select the model for use
in this study, a review of the models evaluated in two EPA reports (U.S. EPA 2005, and 2007) and
other sources was conducted. This review concluded that L-TFflA offered the best policy-level
options of the models evaluated. In the event that more detailed analysis would be needed, the EPA
Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) was suggested as an alternative. SWMM is a design
model and, to be used properly, it requires site-specific data, which would require a more resource-
intensive effort. Given the fact that the specific design parameters for the properties addressed in this
study are sparse, it was determined that L-TFflA would better meet the needs of the project
objectives.
As a policy level model, L-TFflA makes several simplifying assumptions that a design model
generally would not. These include:
• Neglecting the contributions of snowfall to runoff;
• Neglecting the effect of frozen ground that can cause increases stormwater runoff during cold
months; and
• Neglecting variations in antecedent moisture conditions that affect infiltration rates.
Since these simplifications are applied equally to brownfield and greenfield development scenarios,
the effects on the relative differences in runoff are likely to be negligible.
L-TFflA uses the generally accepted soil curve method for calculating runoff. It has default features
as well as the ability to input site-specific values, and contains soil type look-up maps as well as
county-specific precipitation data. These features could provide considerable time savings over some
models that require locating and importing soil type and precipitation data from third party sources.
A traffic analysis zone (TAZ) is a special area delineated by state and/or local transportation officials for
tabulating traffic-related and other planning data. A TAZ usually consists of one or more census blocks, block groups,
or census tracts.
Appendix B. Methodology Page 77
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit B-2. Indicators of Environmental Performance
Accessibility Indicators
Households (HH) in TAZ
% total region households w/in 10 minute walk from TAZ center
% total region households w/in 30 minute transit ride from TAZ center
% total region households w/in 6 miles by single occupant vehicles (SOV) from TAZ center
Employment in TAZ
% total region employees within a 10 minute walk from TAZ center
% total region employees within a 30 minute transit ride from TAZ center
% total region employees within 6 miles by single occupant vehicles (SOV) from TAZ center
Environmental Performance Indicators
Land area
Population density
Transit adjacency to housing
Jobs-to-housing balance
Employment density
Transit adjacency to employment
Nitrogen oxides pollutant (NOx) emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
Hydrocarbon pollutant (HC) emissions
Carbon monoxide pollutant (CO) emissions
Home-based vehicle miles traveled (VMT)
Non-home-based vehicle miles traveled (VMT)
Total vehicle miles traveled (VMT)
Home-based vehicle Trips (VT)
Non-Home-Based Vehicle trips (VT)
Total vehicle Trips (VT)
Dwelling density
Personal vehicle energy use
Stormwater Runoff and Pollution Indicators
Land area (acres)
Annual runoff
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Suspended solids
Biological oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Oil and grease
Lead
Copper
Zinc
Cadmium
Chromium
Nickel
Fecal coliform
Fecal streptococcus
Units
Acres
persons/gross acre
% population within 1/4-mi.
jobs/dwelling units (DU)
Employees/gross acre
% employees within 1/4-mi.
Ibs/resident/yr.
Ibs/resident/yr.
Ibs/resident/yr.
Ibs/resident/yr.
mi. /capita/day
mi. /capita/day
mi. /capita/day
Trips/capita/day
Trips/capita/day
Trips/capita/day
Dwelling units (DU)/gross acre
Millions of British Thermal Units
(MMBtu)/capita/yr.
Units
Acres
Acre feet
Lbs.
Lbs
Lbs
Lbs
Lbs
Lbs
Lbs
Lbs
Lbs
Lbs
Lbs
Lbs
Millions of coliform
Millions of coliform
Notes:
TAZ = traffic analysis zone, travel analysis zone, transportation analysis zone, or similar terms; HH= household; Ac = acre; Pop
= population; SOV = single occupancy vehicle; DU = dwelling unit; MMBTU = millions of British thermal units
(a) Percentage change calculated as [(conventional value less brownfield value) / conventional value] x 100
Appendix B. Methodology
Page 78
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Soil types are derived from USDA and L-THIA data. For a number of locations, the L-THIA
look-up maps were out of service or did not function, and the data were derived from the USDA
Web Soil Survey (USDA 2008 and 2009). Soil type A represents soils with high infiltration rates
and type D represents the lowest infiltration rates. For the greenfield locations, soil types for the
closest matching census tracts were used. The sizes of the greenfield sites were estimated from
several sources as described in subsequent sections of this appendix, and a range of values was
used in the L-THIA analysis. The range reflects a conservative estimate that results in the
greenfields development averaging twice the acreage of the brownfield sites, and an average
upper-bound estimate of four times.
L-THIA Application at Brownfield Sites
L-THIA estimates stormwater runoff as a function of precipitation, site size, type of land use
(e.g., commercial, industrial, residential), and hydrologic soil group. It estimates pollutant loads
as a function of runoff, soil type, and land use type. L-THIA contains data on average county
precipitation, generally accepted soil curves (USDA 1986), and hydrologic soil groups.
Data on brownfields locations, site size, and land use type for each brownfield site were entered into
the model. L-THIA provided the long-term average precipitation values. Soil groups were derived
from either L-THIA's internal database or USDA's soil survey data.15 The sources of these data for
each of the five regions are described in the report section for that region. Developed land use types
were broad categories: commercial, industrial, and high- and low-density residential. L-THIA offers
an option to use more disaggregated land use categories for some land uses. However, since the
objective of this study is to develop broad comparisons and an approach that can be practicably
emulated, the study team used the "Basic" run option, which includes three undeveloped land uses
and four developed land uses.
For each brownfield site, estimated runoff and pollutant loads were calculated for both the former
brownfield land use and for the redeveloped brownfield land use. Even though a property's size and
location does not change, its runoff can change if land use type changes, such as if a former industrial
property is redeveloped as retail space. The total of these two calculations were tabulated for all the
brownfields in each city and compared. The differences between these two figures were relatively
small, ranging from -3.5% to 6.2% (Exhibit B-3).
Exhibit B-3. Change in Runoff on the Brownfield Sites
City % Change in Runoff (a)
Seattle - 3.5%
Minneapolis - 0.6%
Emeryville 6.2%
Dallas - 2.7%
Baltimore (b) Unknown (b)
(a) (Undeveloped runoff- Developed runoff) / Undeveloped runoff
(b) Assumed to be zero. Data on pre-developed land uses
in Baltimore are considered unreliable.
During the period of this study, the soil type look-up maps were disabled for several regions. These data were
extracted from USDA's soil survey data (USDA 2008, 2009). For some locations, soil groups were not available. For
most of these sites, assumptions were made, based on the prevailing soil groups in nearby areas. Where there was
no basis for an assumption, sites were excluded from the calculations.
Appendix B. Methodology Page 79
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
To calculate the net effect of a development scenario on the region's runoff and pollutant load, the
runoff from the corresponding greenfield site must also be considered. This calculation is described
in the section on "Comparisons of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios" below.
Issues in the Application of L-THIA
The estimates of runoff and pollutant loads at the brownfield sites are based on the assumption that
L-THIA is representative of conditions at these sites. However, brownfield sites may have different
hydrologic properties than those of other infill sites or greenfields. Soils may be different than the
original soils in the area. They may have been graded, compacted, or replaced or supplemented with
fill brought in from elsewhere and they may contain high concentrations of pollutants. If fill has been
used, permeability may be increased. If the cleanup included a protective cover, permeability may be
reduced and runoff would be elevated. L-THIA was not designed to address these special conditions.
The runoff and pollutant load estimates based on L-THIA do not consider situations that have these
unusual hydrologic effects. The model is meant to represent "typical" urban situations. Accounting
for this pollutant reduction would require more site-specific data that are not readily available, such
as runoff, pollutant concentrations, and percent of a site that is impervious. Thus, although L-THIA
provides a broad approximation adequate for a comparative analysis of this sort, it may over- or
under-estimate runoff values.
One result of this limitation is that the estimates of stormwater runoff impacts do not consider the
contribution to pollution reduction resulting from the cleanup of the brownfield sites. To the extent
that heavy contamination at a site that produced high pollutant loadings had been cleaned up, the
benefits (reduction in pollutant loads) due to the cleanup is not considered in this analysis. On the
other hand, this factor is mitigated by the fact that many brownfield sites actually require little or no
cleanup. The estimated values should be considered as reductions in runoff due to the development,
which usually occurs after cleanup.
Pollutant loads, as well as runoff water quantity, also can be affected by the application of
stormwater best management practices (BMPs) at a site. A number of these BMPs (e.g., detention
and retention basins, infiltration basins and trenches, porous pavement, native landscaping, and green
roofs) can be applied to individual properties and developments. The version of the L-THIA model
used does not consider BMPs in its algorithms. Adjustments to the estimates based on average
performance characteristics of various BMP techniques were considered. However, information was
not available regarding which types of BMPs might be employed at either the brownfield or
hypothetical alternative locations.
The efficiency of BMPs in removing pollutants can vary widely with the type of BMP and site and
rainfall characteristics. A number of sources indicate that BMP removal efficiencies can range from
negligible to 100 percent of pollutants from runoff, depending on the site conditions and type of
BMP employed (EPA undated and EPA 1993). Thus, it is possible that effective BMPs would reduce
the significance of the brownfield-greenfield comparison. While BMPs could affect total loads, it is
unclear whether considering BMPs would affect the percentage comparisons of the brownfields and
their counterpart greenfield sites, since BMPs may be applied to both brownfield and greenfield sites.
Given the greater acreage of the greenfield sites, there may be greater potential for benefits of BMPs
at these sites than at developed brownfield sites. Quantitative analysis of the impact of BMPs was not
conducted for this study. It is possible that BMPs will be a greater factor in current and future
development, as smart growth practices become more common.
Appendix B. Methodology Page 80
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Alternative Conventional Development Scenario
The alternative scenario includes the locations where the same type of development would likely
have been built if it had not been built on the brownfields, and estimates of the environmental
performance indicators for these locations.
Identification of Alternative Conventional Locations
For each brownfield site, an alternative location was assigned using a methodology suggested in EPA
guidance on applicable methodologies to account for the benefits of infill in state implementation
plans (EPA 200la). Methodology M2 of EPA's guidance calls for assigning development to the
fastest growing parts of a planning region. Since brownfield sites are only a small portion of total
development in the region, it is reasonable that the alternative development would generally follow
this pattern. The development counterpart for each brownfield site was assigned to one of the top
10% (5% for Seattle) fastest growing traffic analysis zones (TAZs). The fastest growing TAZs were
based on population and employment shifts in recent years, where the percentage of the regional
population and employment for each TAZ experienced the greatest increase in population and
employment with respect to all other TAZs. The high-growth areas are shown on maps included in
Sections 2 through 6. Alternative locations for each brownfield were selected from among the high-
growth employment areas and high-growth residential areas. Properties with uses that are
economically linked primarily to residences were assigned according to the TAZs with the fastest
growing population or housing stock. Properties whose activities are primarily linked to employment
were assigned to the TAZs with the fastest growing employment. The use of a statistical location-
selection procedure helped to ensure impartiality in the site-selection process.
Estimation of Alternative Conventional Development Size
Development generally consumes more acreage in suburban and rural areas than in more dense,
urban areas, due to building form, parking requirements, and, typically, lower land cost. Therefore,
the majority of the alternative locations would require more land than their brownfield counterparts.
Based on a range of values derived from literature on land use patterns (Exhibit B-4), it was assumed
that the alternative sites would generally require an average of two to four times the acreage of their
brownfield counterparts. This range was considered reasonable, based on the best professional
judgment of planners in the Seattle area (PSRC 2006). Judgments of local planners were not
available for the other regions. Thus, an average acreage multiplier of two is used for a more
conservative estimate and an average of four for an upper bound value. Considering that the
objective of this study is to develop an approach that can be readily replicated in different regions,
and potentially nation-wide, a simpler approach is warranted.
Land use decisions are inherently influenced by a number of site-specific factors, including specific
type of land use, regional practices, and location within a region, such as inner or outer suburb or
exurb. As a result, there is a wide variation in the amount of land consumed in similar uses in
different areas, or even properties within close proximity. In many areas, land use is determined by
overlapping jurisdictions, special exemptions, historical practices, and other factors that may cause
developers to over- or under-comply with zoning densities. Reviewing zoning ordinances will not
necessarily provide an accurate estimate of likely land consumption.
Appendix B. Methodology Page 81
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit B-4. Brownfield/Conventional Offset Ratios
Source
J. P. Deason, et. al.
Burchell, R.W., et. al.
Best Professional
Judgment for Seattle
Area
Review of 12 studies
(Appendix A)
Variable
Mean
Median
Range
Mean
Mean
Range
Industrial
6.2
1.3
0.5-60
2-4
2-4
Commercial
2.4
1.7
0.5-13
2-4
2-4
Residential
5.6
2.2
0.4 - 46
2-4
1.6-4.5
Total/Average
4.5
NA
NA
2-4
1.6-4.5
2-8
* Ratio of greenfield acreage to brownfield acreage typically used for the same use type and amount of
development.
Sources & Notes:
Deason, J.P., et. al. 2001. Public Policies and Private Decisions Affecting the Redevelopment of Brownfields: An
Analysis of Critical Factors, Relative Weights, and Arial Differentials. The estimates in this report are based on land
use requirements in six urban areas, not on the study of actual projects. There is no knowledge as to whether
developers over-complied or under-complied with the regulations. The study did, however, use a number of
conservative assumptions when judgments were needed. Range and standard deviations were high.
Burchell, R.W. et, al., 2000. Cosf of SprawlC2000, Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 74. This
study estimates land requirements for a given amount of non-residential and residential demand using typical floor
area ratios (FARs) at the county level. Residential densities at the county level were derived from a combination of
sources, including Census' Survey of Construction, Survey of New Mobile Home Placements, and Survey of
Market Absorption, and information from the Urban Land Institute and the National Association of Home Builders.
Based on historical county-level data, the study estimates that multifamily residential densities for the Pacific coast
in urban areas/urban centers is 4.5 times the densities in undeveloped rural areas, 3.02 times rural city densities,
and 1.6 times suburban center densities.
Professional judgments for Seattle area, based on communications with planners at the Puget Sound Regional
Council (PSRC 2006).
Estimation of Impacts on Air Quality and Personal Vehicle Energy Consumption
Using information on the conventional development locations, acreage, and categories of use, the
environmental characteristics of these locations were described in terms of the indicators listed in
Exhibit B-2 for the brownfield sites.
Estimation of Impacts on Water Quality
For the purposes of stormwater modeling, all alternative sites were assumed to be greenfields. Using
information on the alternative development locations, acreage, and categories of use (e.g.,
commercial, residential, agricultural), the stormwater runoff and pollutant loads for each greenfield
location was estimated with the L-THIA model in a procedure identical to that described above for
the brownfield sites. Since the precise location of a greenfield site within a TAZ or census tract was
unknown, two land use categories were selected for each region. This approach allowed the
calculation of a range of acceptable values based on highest and lowest likely runoff rates, rather than
a single estimate. For example, for the Minneapolis region, it was assumed that the new construction
would take place either in a former vacant agricultural or pasture area. These assumptions were based
on the prevailing land use in the area and observation of Google Earth satellite images in the area of
the TAZs.
Appendix B. Methodology
Page 82
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
The greenfield runoff values were also calculated for two different site sizes, which are described
above in the subsection on air quality (2 x and 4 x the acreage of the corresponding brownfield).
Thus, there are four different runoff values estimated for each undeveloped greenfield site and each
developed greenfield site. These values were summed for each region. The algorithms used to
calculate the final changes in runoff and pollutant load estimates are shown in the "Comparison"
subsection.
The runoff estimates for the alternative locations did not include potential runoff from infrastructure
needed to support the development, such as roads and utilities. Because most of the development in
conventional development locations is less compact than at the brownfield sites, they typically
require more road surface per capita than the brownfields. Thus, consideration of this factor would
likely increase the estimated runoff resulting from the alternative conventional development scenario
relative to the brownfield development scenario.
The estimate also may not have fully accounted for the differences in impervious area that may exist
between brownfields and their counterpart alternative sites. It may be that the percent impervious
area for greenfield sites is, on average, lower than that of their brownfield counterparts. This study
found only three cases with clear empirical estimates. Based on these cases, the imperviousness of a
greenfield site would be approximately 15-20% less than that of a corresponding brownfield
property. Since this sample size is so limited, it was not used to adjust the estimates of runoff from
the developed greenfields. However, these values formed the basis for a sensitivity analysis which
provides an approximation of the magnitude of this effect.
L-THIA includes a fairly ample impervious area in its default settings (15% for commercial and 28%
for industrial). Given these values, and the data from three previous studies, it is unlikely that the
adjustment factor needed would be greater than the 10-20% range.
Using this range, an approximation was made of the impact on the delta runoff estimates provided in
Sections 2 through 6. That is, the percent imperviousness for greenfield areas was reduced by 10-
20% and the effect on the runoff estimates were estimated. This analysis was conducted for the
Minneapolis-Saint Paul region. The results are that increasing imperviousness 10-20% would
decrease the range of "impacts" (percentage decrease in runoff from greenfield development scenario
to brownfield development scenario) from a reduction of 48-73% to 36-67% (Exhibit B-5). The
reduction is nonlinear primarily because the runoff values for the brownfields in the equation on this
page do not change with changes at the brownfields. That is, relative to the greenfield development
scenario. The impact of this factor is greatest for agricultural lands, less for pasture and even less for
forest.
% change = (Developed GF + undeveloped BF) - (Undeveloped GF + Developed BF)1
(Developed GF + undeveloped BF)
Appendix B. Methodology Page 83
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Exhibit B-5. Impact of Imperviousness on Runoff Estimates
Delta Pervious
Acreage (a)
0% (b)
10%
20%
Total Pervious Area
(% of total parcel)
1 5-28%
25-38%
35-48%
Percent Reduction of Runoff (BF-GF)/BF
Forest
62-73%
55-67%
54-65%
Pasture
59-69%
51-62%
50-60%
Agricultural
Land
48-56%
38-46%
36-44%
(a) increase in percent of greenfield acreage that is pervious relative to brownfields.
(b) Impervious values used for brownfields.
Comparison of Brownfield and Conventional Scenarios
The environmental performance measures for each site were compared and averaged for each region.
The results were generally expressed in terms of percentage improvement of the brownfield site
compared to its conventional/greenfield alternative on a per-capita basis or on a per-acre basis. For
example, energy and emissions changes are expressed as the percentage reduction in personal vehicle
energy use and emissions of carbon dioxide and air pollutants per capita that result from shifting
development from greenfield to brownfield locations. Stormwater runoff was compared in terms of
acre-feet and pollutants in appropriate metrics, such as pounds of pollutant.
Percent Change for Air Quality and Energy Measures
For the air quality and energy analysis, the results are expressed in terms of the percentage change
from a conventional development scenario to a brownfield development scenario. For example, the
change in vehicle miles traveled (VMT) is expressed as:
Change in VMT = (VMT C - VMT BF) / VMT C
Where,
VMT C = VMT per capita from a developed conventional scenario
VMT BF = VMT per capita from a developed brownfield scenario
% Change in VMT = (VMT C - VMT BF) / VMT C x 100
This expression calculates the percent reduction in VMT from shifting an equal amount of employees
and residents from the prevailing practices in conventional development areas to brownfield areas.
Alternative VMT Comparisons
To test the sensitivity of the estimates derived by this method, a variation of EPA's Method M2
(EPA 200la) was implemented. In this analysis, the average total VMT for the top 10% high-growth
TAZs was compared to the average for the brownfields (average brownfield total VMT/average top
10% high-growth TAZs) (Exhibit B-6). Data were available for only three of the five cities (Seattle,
Baltimore, and Emeryville). Using this method, the estimated VMT differences were an average of
9% greater than those of the primary method. Reductions in VMT under Method B are larger than
under Method A because the average VMT of the fastest growing 10% of TAZs is greater than that
of the statistically-selected TAZs. These estimates are not inconsistent with the results of the first
calculation method.
Appendix B. Methodology
Page 84
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Table B-6. Comparison of VMT Estimates
Region % VMT Reduction % Difference
Method A (a) Method B (b) (B1-B2)/B1
Seattle
Minneapolis
Emeryville
Baltimore
Dallas
Average
Range
57%
32%
49%
42%
53%
49%
42-57%
58%
No data
51%
51%
No data
53%
51-58%
2%
No data
4%
21%
No data
9%
2-21%
(a) From Table 1-1, based on EPA's Method M2 (EPA 2001a).
(b) Method 2 = Total VMT decrease from the average of 10% fastest growing TAZ, a variant of EPA's M2
Percent Change for Water Quality Impacts
The water quality comparisons follows the same basic rationale as the air quality analysis, but must
also consider the runoff that continues at the brownfield site and the change in runoff due to the
redevelopment at the brownfield site, even if the alternative site is developed instead. The delta
runoff is divided by the total amount of runoff from both the developed brownfields and undeveloped
greenfield alternatives. To obtain the net change in runoff for the entire region, the changes in runoff
due to the development at the brownfield sites need to be factored in, which is done with the
following algorithm:
A = Runoff occurring if greenfield were developed = (Developed GF + undeveloped BF)
B = Runoff occurring if brownfield were developed = (Undeveloped GF + Developed BF)
The percentage change (relative to greenfield development) =
(1) = (Developed GF + Undeveloped BF) - (Undeveloped GF + Developed BF)1
(Developed GF + Undeveloped BF)
The denominator represents the total amount of runoff that would exist if the brownfield were not
developed. This ratio was calculated for four scenarios for the greenfield locations: For example, in
the Twin Cities area, when the greenfield is pasture at the lower acreage estimate (2 x the brownfield
size), pasture at the higher acreage estimate (4 x the brownfield size), agricultural land with a lower
acreage estimate, and agricultural land at the higher acreage estimate.
Alternative Stormwater Comparisons
In addition to the comprehensive calculation of regional net impacts, other ways of comparing the
environmental performance of brownfields and infill development with greenfield development were
considered . One method is to compare runoff and pollutant load of a developed and undeveloped
greenfield, without considering runoff at the brownfield. The calculation is:
Percentage change (relative to greenfield development) =
(2) = (Developed GF runoff) - (Undeveloped GF runoff)
(Developed GF runoff)
Appendix B. Methodology
Page 85
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Because this approach does not incorporate runoff occurring at the brownfields, it tends to estimate
greater percentage reductions in runoff than the previous algorithm. It provides a picture of the
changes in greenfield areas, and does not address the brownfield areas. Although this value may be
of interest to local planners, it does not fully capture the net change in runoff for the region. Exhibit
B-7 compares the estimates of runoff developed from the two approaches.
Exhibit B-7. Comparison of Alternative Estimates of
Change in Stormwater Runoff
Region
Seattle
Minneapolis-St.
Paul
Emeryville
Baltimore
Dallas-Ft. Worth
Delta Brownfield /
Undeveloped
Brownfield (%)
- 3.5%
- 0.6%
6.2%
Unknown
-2.7%
Delta Greenfield /
Developed
Greenfield (%)
-76 to -82%
-67 to -82%
-44 to -65%
-71 to -87%
-47 to -72%
Comprehensive Algorithm
(Includes Both Brownfield and
Greenfield Values) (a)
-49 to -64%
-48 to -69%
-27 to -45%
-48 to -70%
-32 to -52%
(a) From Exhibit 1-2
Limitations of the Analysis
General
• There is no way to completely ensure that double counting of benefits does not occur. Because
brownfields development may replace other infill projects, it would be appropriate to estimate the
magnitude of this replacement and adjust any estimate of gross benefits by this amount, thereby
determining the net benefits. Some previous studies accounted for this factor by adjusting the
benefits down by some factor such as 10-20%. To some extent, the methodology used in this
study accounts for this type of double counting because it statistically allocates the hypothetical
alternative development among the fast-growing TAZs, regardless of the TAZs' location within
the multi-county planning area. In fact, a few of the alternative sites were located in downtown
areas and others just outside city limits.
• In selecting the alternative growth locations, this study did not inventory the neighborhoods with
respect to their development potential. Such an inventory would help identify undeveloped or
underdeveloped land, including infill and greenfield sites, that are available to absorb
development and that do not have environmental or zoning restrictions that would preclude
development. Although the locations were selected statistically, which helped to ensure that the
process was impartial, there is always the possibility that one or more of the locations selected
would not be a feasible or practical development site. If this methodology were expanded to
many other metropolitan areas, it would be impractical to obtain reviews of the relevant local
planners.
• Implicit in this analysis is the assumption that a number of factors that can substantially affect
land use over long periods of time will remain unchanged. Examples of these factors include land
use policy (e.g., zoning, environmental regulations), transportation policy (e.g., parking or toll
pricing), transportation infrastructure (e.g., roads, bridges, and transit), economic conditions, and
Appendix B. Methodology
Page 86
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
demographic characteristics. This assumption is justified because the analysis will be applied to
known EPA-assisted brownfield redevelopment sites, and these sites are a relatively small part of
the total development activity in a metropolitan area. However, if a municipal area should
undergo significant changes in any of these factors, or should brownfields development become a
larger part of the regional economy, this assumption would need to be revisited.
• The data used in this study do not, for the most part, reflect the potential impacts of new urban
designs. These designs include strategies such as compact, mixed-use, and transit oriented
development and are occurring in outlying as well as urban areas. This type of development has
the potential to improve the environmental footprint of some outlying areas as well as infill areas.
It is unclear to what extent these developments would alter the results of this study. In addition,
the implementation of this type of development is not universal. Much, but not all, of the data
used in this study predates many of these projects.
• As a result of smart growth implementation, many strategies are available to help achieve
environmentally responsible development, whether on a brownfield or a conventional site. These
strategies, which can include urban design, efficient transportation, stormwater BMPs, and green
building techniques, can be considered when planning and implementing intensive development
programs. Even though the environmental footprint of development in both urban areas and
outer-ring suburban areas may be improving, it is likely that development in urban areas will
continue to have a better environmental footprint, especially for transportation-related measures,
because of the relatively superior location efficiencies of most infill areas.
Air Quality
• There are differences in how MPO's estimate VMT, but they are not likely to significantly affect
the outcome of this study. The primary comparisons in the study are between brownfield and
alternative conventional sites within each region. The same MPO tabulated the estimates used for
both brownfield and conventional locations, so the comparisons are valid.
• The analysis did not quantify the potential for very localized high concentrations of pollutants
that may occur due to high development or activity in any specific area. High concentrations of
some of these pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic
compounds, can lead to increased health risks or cause an area to fall out of compliance with air
quality attainment goals. High concentrations can occur in a specific location even though the
total emissions for the region have declined or remained unchanged. Only one site out of the 163
sites in the dataset may have potential for generating an amount of commercial traffic large
enough to cause significantly elevated levels of these pollutants to be of concern to a
neighborhood. This 20-acre property, which is not yet fully built out, may generate large amounts
of heavy truck traffic as a result of a new warehouse and distribution center. Despite this
potential hot spot, the brownfields development results in a reduction of these emissions for the
entire region.
Water Quality
• The estimates of stormwater runoff and pollutant loads may understate or overstate the full
amount of the benefit of brownfields cleanup and redevelopment, because the L-THIA
stormwater management model does not consider unusual conditions that may exist at a
brownfield site that can have hydrologic effects. Examples of such effects include heavy
pollution, extremely compacted or graded soil, or a site built on fill brought in from elsewhere.
The model is meant to represent "typical" urban situations, not necessarily sites with unusual
conditions.
Appendix B. Methodology Page 87
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
• Following from the previous point, the estimates of stormwater runoff benefits do not consider
the contribution to pollution reduction resulting from the cleanup of the brownfield sites, which
may contribute to an underestimate of the full amount of differences between the brownfields and
their greenfield counterparts. However, since many brownfield sites actually require little or no
cleanup, this difference may or may not be significant.
• The stormwater runoff analysis did not incorporate estimates of the potential impacts of
stormwater best management practices (BMPs). Information on the types of BMPs used, if any,
at the brownfield sites or at the hypothetical greenfield sites was not available. The efficiency of
BMPs in removing pollutants can vary widely with the type of BMP, site characteristics, and
precipitation profile. A number of sources indicate that BMPs can remove anywhere from
negligible amounts to 100 percent of pollutants from runoff, depending on the site conditions and
type of BMP employed (EPA 2009 and EPA 1993). Thus, it is possible that effective BMPs
would minimize the significance of the brownfield-greenfield comparison. While BMPs could
affect total loads, it is unclear whether considering BMPs would affect the percentage
comparisons of the brownfields and their counterpart greenfield sites, since BMPs may be
applied to both brownfield and greenfield sites. In some situations, the potential for benefits from
BMPs may be greater for the greenfield sites, because the volume of stormwater is much greater
(due to the greater size of the average greenfield site relative to the brownfield).
• The stormwater runoff estimates do not allow for potential differences in the percent
imperviousness of a site between brownfield sites and their greenfield counterparts. This
limitation is due to a lack of information with which to estimate percent imperviousness for the
study sites. A simulation using assumed values based on a limited number of case studies,
indicated that the benefits would be reduced somewhat, but would still be substantial.
• This study did not account for the stormwater runoff associated with infrastructure, such as roads
and utilities. Infrastructure needed to support brownfields development generally requires less
land per capita and results in less runoff than infrastructure needed to support a similar amount
and type of development on conventional sites. Generally, the lower the population density, the
more road and highway surface is called for to connect the many trip origin and destination
points. Fewer lane-miles implies less road surface and, consequently, lower stormwater runoff.
The methods used in this study have provided approximations of the level of environmental
parameters which are not considered precise enough for regulatory proceedings, such as air quality
planning submissions. However, they appear to provide a good indication of the relative
environmental performance of brownfield versus conventional sites of the same use type.
Appendix B. Methodology Page 88
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Acronyms
Ac
ACRES
BMP
BOD
CO
CO2
COD
DU
ECOSS
Acre
Assessment, Cleanup and Redevelopment Exchange System
Best management practice
Biological oxygen demand
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Chemical oxygen demand
Dwelling unit
Environmental Coalition of South Seattle
HC
HH
INDEX
L-THIA
MPO
MMBtu
NOx
PSRC
SOV
ss
SWMM
TAZ
TSS
VMT
VT
Hydrocarbon
Household
A geographical information system (GlS)-based planning support analytical tool
Long-Term Hydrologic Impact Assessment, a stormwater management model
maintained by Purdue University
Metropolitan planning organization
Millions of British thermal units
Nitrogen oxides
Puget Sound Regional Council
Single occupancy vehicle
Suspended solids
Storm Water Management Model
Traffic analysis zone, travel analysis zone or similar designation. Also
referred to as a travel survey zone in some regions
Total suspended solids
Vehicle miles traveled
Vehicle trips
Accessibility Metrics
Jobs-to-housing balance
% total region HH w/in 10 min.
walk from TAZ center
Total number of jobs divided by the number of dwelling units
Percent of households in the region within a 10 minute walk from
the TAZ center along pedestrian routes
% total region HH w/in 30 min.
transit ride from TAZ center
Percent of households in the region within a 30 minute transit ride
from the TAZ center including walk time to the transit stop and
travel time
% total region HH w/in 6 mi. by
SOV from TAZ center
% total region em pis w/in 10
min. walk from TAZ center
Percent of households in the region within a 6-mile drive from the
TAZ center
Percent of jobs in the region within a 10 minute walk from the TAZ
center along pedestrian routes
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Page 89
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
% total region em pis w/in 30
min. transit ride from TAZ
center
% total region em pis w/in 6 mi.
by SOV from TAZ center
Transit adjacency to
employment
Transit adjacency to housing
Percent of jobs in the region within a 30 minute transit ride from the
TAZ center including walk time to the transit stop and travel time
Percent of households in the region within a 6 mile drive from the
TAZ center
Percent of employment in a TAZ within %-mile of the TAZ center
Percent of housing in a TAZ within %-mile of the TAZ center
Travel Activity
Home based vehicle miles
traveled
Home based vehicle trips
Non-home-based vehicle miles
traveled
Average vehicles miles traveled per resident produced during trips
either originating or ending at home
Average number of vehicle trips per resident either originating or
ending at home
Average vehicles miles traveled per employee produced during trips
neither beginning nor ending at home
Non-home based vehicle trips
Average number of vehicle trips per employee neither beginning
nor ending at home
Personal vehicle energy use
Total vehicle miles traveled
Total vehicle trips
General Terms
Brownfield
Dwelling density
Employment density
Annual MMBtu per capita for home based residential vehicle
energy use and the annual MMBtu per employee for non-home
based vehicle energy use
The sum of the average home based vehicle miles traveled per
resident and the average non-home based vehicle miles traveled per
employee
The sum of the average number of home based vehicle trips per
resident and the average number of non-home based vehicle trips
per employee
EPA defines "brownfield site" as real property, the expansion,
redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the
presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant,
or contaminant
Dwelling units per gross acre
Employees per gross acre
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Page 90
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Air and Water Quality Impacts of Brownfields Redevelopment
Greenfield Parcel of land that is previously undeveloped, except perhaps for
agriculture
Gross acre An actual acre consisting of 43,560 square feet, including the
development footprint and non-buildable land
Infill The use of vacant land and property within a built-up area for
further construction or development
Pop Population
Population density Number of residents per gross acre
Residential structural energy use Annual millions of British thermal units (MMBtu) per capita for
residential structural energy use
Travel demand model A computerized model used by transportation and other planners to
simulate travel patterns in a region
Acronyms and Abbreviations Page 91
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Solid Waste EPA-560-F-10-232
Air and Water Impacts of Brownfields and Emergency April 2011
Redevelopment: A Study of Five Communities Response (5105T) www.epa.gov/brownfields
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