EIA Technical Review Guidelines:
Energy Generation and Transmission
Volume I
Regional Document prepared under the CAFTA DR Environmental Cooperation
Program to Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Review
Prepared by CAFTA-DR and U.S. Country EIA and Energy Experts with support from:
USAID
«OHn« trow*, noni
USAID ENVIRONMENT AND LABOR
EXCELLENCE FOR CAFTA-DR PROGRAM
* CCAD
COMISlON CENTKOAMERICANA DE AMBIE^4TE YOESARflOUO
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This document is the result of a regional collaboration under the environmental cooperation
agreements undertaken as part of the Central America and Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreements
with the United States. Regional experts participated in the preparation of this document; however,
the guidelines do not necessarily represent the policies, practices or requirements of their
governments and organizations.
Reproduction of this document in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit
purposes may be made without special permission from the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (U.S. EPA), Agency for International Development (U.S. AID), and/or the Central American
Commission on Environment and Development (CCAD) provided acknowledgement of the source is
included.
EPA/315R11001 July 2011
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EIA Technical Review Guidelines:
Energy Generation and Transmission
Volume I
The EIA Technical Review Guidelines for Energy Power Generation and Transmission were developed as
part of a regional collaboration to better ensure successful identification, avoidance, prevention and/or
mitigation of potential adverse impacts and enhancement of potential beneficial impacts of proposed
energy projects undergoing review by government officials, non-governmental organizations and the
general public throughout the life of the projects. The guidelines are part of a broader program to
strengthen environmental impact assessment (EIA) review under environmental cooperation
agreements associated with the "CAFTA-DR" free trade agreement between the United States and five
countries in Central America and the Dominican Republic.
The guidelines were prepared by regional experts from the CAFTA-DR countries and the United States in
both the government organizations responsible for the environment and energy and leading academics
designated by the respective Ministers. This work was supported by the U.S. Agency for International
Development (USAID) contract for the Environment and Labor Excellence Program and grant with the
Central America Commission for Environment and Development (CCAD). The guidelines draw upon
existing materials from within and outside these countries and from international organizations and do
not represent the policies, practices or requirements of any one country or organization.
The guidelines are available in English and Spanish on the international websites of U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), the International Network for Environmental Compliance and
Enforcement (INECE), and the Central American Commission on Environment and Development (CCAD):
www.epa.gov/oita/ www.inece.org/ www.sica.int/ccad/ Volume 1 contains the guidelines with a
glossary and references which track with internationally recognized elements of environmental impact
assessment; Volume 2 contains Appendices with detailed information on energy power generation and
transmission, requirements and standards, predictive tools, and international codes; and Volume 1 Part
2 contains example Terms of Reference cross-referenced to Volumes 1 and 2 for: 1) thermal/combustion
power generation, 2) hydroelectric power generation, 3) other renewable power sources i.e.
geothermal, wind and solar, and 4) transmission projects respectively for use by the countries as they
prepare their own EIA program requirements.
USAID ENVIRONMENT AND LABOR
EXCELLENCE FOR CAFTA-DR PROGRAM
*
s? CCAD
COMISI6N CENHCHMEtCANA E AMBIENIE YOESU1KMO
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Volume I- EIA Technical Review Guidelines: TABLE OF CONTENTS
Energy Generation and Transmission
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. INTRODUCTION 1
1 BACKGROUND 1
2 APPROACH 1
3 OBJECTIVES OF PRIORITY SECTOR EIA GUIDELINES 2
4 SCOPE AND CONTENTS OF ENERGY GUIDELINES 3
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4
B. EIA PROCESS AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 7
1 EIA PROCEDURES 7
1.1 Project Proponents: From Project Initiation to the EIA Application 7
1.2 EIA Application, Screening and Categorization 7
1.3 Scoping of EIA and Terms of Reference 9
1.4 Public Participation throughout the process 9
1.5 Preparation and Submission of the EIA Document 9
1.6 EIA Document Review 10
1.7 Decision on Project 10
1.8 Commitment Language for Environmental Measures 10
1.9 Implementation of Environmental Measures 11
1.10 Auditing, monitoring and follow up enforcement of commitments 11
2 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Requirements for Public Participation 12
2.3 Methods for Identifying and Engaging Affected and Interested Publics 13
C. PROJECT AND ALTERNATIVES DESCRIPTION 17
1 INTRODUCTION 17
2 DOCUMENTATION OF PURPOSE AND NEED 18
3 PROJECT AND ALTERNATIVES DESCRIPTION 18
3.1 Overall Project Description Information 19
3.2 Project Scope: Project Phases and Related or Connected Actions 21
4 PROJECT ALTERNATIVES 21
4.1 Identification and Assessment 21
4.2 Alternative Methods of Power Generation and Transmission Overview 23
4.3 Thermal/Fossil Fuel Power (Coal, Petroleum or Natural Gas) 24
4.4 Thermal/Biomass Power 27
4.5 Hydropower 28
4.6 Solar Power 36
4.7 Wind Power 43
4.8 Geothermal Power 44
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5 ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION 45
6 TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES 49
6.1 Roads 49
6.2 Transportation by Rail 49
6.3 Conveyors 50
6.4 Pipelines 50
7 ONSITE SUPPORT FACILITIES 50
8 CLOSURE AND DECOMISSIONING PLAN 51
9 MANPOWER AND LOCAL PURCHASES 52
D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 53
1 INTRODUCTION 53
2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 55
2.1 Geology and Soils 55
2.2 Water Resources 55
2.3 Air and Climate 58
2.4 Noise and Vibration 58
2.5 Aesthetic Resources 59
3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 59
3.1 Flora 60
3.2 Fauna 60
3.3 Ecosystems 61
3.4 Endangered or Threatened Species and Habitats 61
3.5 Protected Areas 63
4 SOCIAL-ECONOMIC-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT 63
4.1 Socio-Economic Conditions 63
4.2 Infrastructure 63
4.3 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources 65
4.4 Land Use 65
E. POTENTIAL IMPACTS 67
1 INTRODUCTION 67
2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 71
2.1 Geology and Soils 71
2.2 Water Resources 74
2.3 Air Resources 78
2.4 Noise and Vibration 80
2.5 Aesthetic Resources 81
3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 81
3.1 Flora, Fauna and Ecosystems 81
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3.2 Endangered or Threatened Species and Habitats and Protected Areas 85
4 SOCIAL-ECONOMIC-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT 88
4.1 Socio-Economic Conditions 88
4.2 Infrastructure 92
4.3 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources 93
4.4 Land Use 93
5 IDENTIFYING CUMULATIVE IMPACTS 94
5.1 Identifying Resources that have Potential for Cumulative Impacts 95
5.2 Regional, Sectoral or Strategic Assessment 96
F. ASSESSING IMPACTS: PREDICTIVE TOOLS AND CONSIDERATIONS 99
1 OVERVIEW OF PREDICTIVE TOOLS FOR EIA 99
1.1 Ground Rules: Basic Considerations for Predicting Impacts 99
1.2 Geographic Boundaries for Assessment of Impacts 100
1.3 Baseline 103
1.4 Data Requirements and Sources 103
1.5 Evaluation of the Significance of Impacts 104
1.6 Data Requirements and Sources Ill
2 GENERAL APPROACHES FOR PREDICTION OF IMPACTS Ill
2.1 Predictive Tools Ill
2.2 Geographic Information Systems and Visualization Tools 112
2.3 Selecting and Applying Quantitative Predictive Tools 112
3 SOILS AND GEOLOGY IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 113
3.1 Evaluation of impacts due to construction of a power plant or dam 113
3.2 Geologic Resources and Hazards 114
4 SOLID WASTE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 115
5 WATER RESOURCE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 115
5.1 Surface Water Impact Assessment Tools 115
5.2 Groundwater Impact Assessment Tools 124
6 AIR RESOURCES IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 126
7 NOISE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 129
8 AESTHETIC AND VISUAL RESOURCES IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 129
9 FLORA, FAUNA, ECOSYSTEMS AND PROTECTED AREAS IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 131
9.1 Terrestrial Resources 133
9.2 Aquatic Resources 134
10 SOCIO-ECONOMIC-CULTURAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 134
10.1 Socio-Economic Conditions, Infrastructure and Land Use 134
10.2 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources Impact Assessment Tools 135
10.3 Assessing Disproportionate Environmental Impacts on Vulnerable Populations 136
10.4 Health and Safety Impact Assessment Tools 136
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Energy Generation and Transmission
11 CUMULATIVE IMPACTS ASSESSMENT METHODS 137
11.1 Resource and Ecosystem Components 138
11.2 Geographic Boundaries and Time Period 139
11.3 Describing the Condition of the Environment 140
11.4 Using Thresholds to Assess Resource Degradation 141
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES 147
1 INTRODUCTION 147
2 SPECIFIC MITIGATION MEASURES 177
2.1 Seismic Events Associated with Geothermal Developments 177
2.2 Process and Wastewater Discharges 177
2.3 Air Emissions from Fossil Fuel- and Biomass-Fired Plants 178
2.4 Noise 186
2.5 Transmission Lines 188
3 MONITORING AND OVERSIGHT 190
4 FINANCIAL ASSURANCE 191
4.1 Financial Guarantees for Mitigation and Monitoring Measures and Restoration 191
5 AUDITABLE AND ENFORCEABLE COMMITMENT LANGUAGE 192
5.1 Fossil Fuel Fired Air Emission Limits Example 194
5.2 Hydropower Example 194
5.3 Transmission Line Example 197
H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN 201
/. REFERENCES 211
1 CITED REFERENCES 211
2 OTHER REFERENCES 213
2.1 General 213
2.2 CAFTA-DR Sector and EIA References 218
2.3 United States Sector, EIA and Permitting Internet Resources 218
3 GLOSSARY 219
J. EXAMPLE TERMS OF REFERENCE (TOR) 233
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Volume I- EIA Technical Review Guidelines: TABLE OF CONTENTS
Energy Generation and Transmission
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure B-1: The Environmental Impact Assessment Process 8
Figure C-l: Electrical power generation and transmission alternatives 23
Figure C- 2: Coal-fired thermal power plant diagram 25
Figure C- 3: Sources of biomass used globally for energy generation, including for cooking heating 27
Figure C-4: Hydroelectric dam diagram 30
Figure C- 5: Diversion hydroelectric project 31
Figure C- 6: Pumped Storage hydroelectric project 32
Figure C- 7: Wave energy devices 35
Figure C- 8: Tidal turbines 36
Figure C- 9: Solar power technologies and their environmental requirements 38
Figure C-10: Solar parabolic trough diagram 39
Figure C-11: Solar parabolic trough plant diagram with a liquid salt storage unit 39
Figure C-12: Solar power tower diagram 40
Figure C-13: Schematic of a dish-engine system with stretched-membrane mirrors 41
Figure C-14: Schematic of a photovoltaic power generating system 43
Figure D-1: Elements of the Physical, Biological and Social-Economic-Cultural Environments 54
Figure E 1: Social-Economic-Cultural common to nearly all energy generation and transmission projects
90
Figure E 2: Identifying potential cumulative effects issues related to a proposed action 96
Figure F-1: Asian Development Bank Rapid Environmental Assessment Checklist - General 107
Figure F- 2: Sample page from the Leopold Matrix 109
Figure F- 3: Conceptual framework to assess ecosystem services 133
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Volume I- EIA Technical Review Guidelines: TABLE OF CONTENTS
Energy Generation and Transmission
LIST OF TABLES
Table B-1: Responsibility in the EIA Process 8
Table C-1: Specific components requiring design details in the Project and Alternatives Description 47
Table E-1: Potential impacts to physical and biological environment common to most energy generation
and transmission projects 68
Table E- 2: Potential impacts to physical and biological environments common to specific energy
generation and transmission technologies 85
Table F-1: Surface water models 120
Table F- 2: Groundwater and geochemical computer models 125
Table F- 3: Air quality models 127
Table F- 4: Visual impact analysis tools (based on Cox, 2003) 131
Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation
and transmission projects 150
Table G- 2: Additional mitigation measures for impacts to physical and biological environments common
to specific energy generation and transmission technologies 160
Table G- 3: Mitigation measures for impacts to the social-economic-cultural environment 174
Table G- 4: Indicative Values for Treated Sanitary Sewage Discharges1 178
Table G-5: Noise Level Guidelines Table 188
Table G- 6: NGO recommendations for financial guarantees 192
Table H-1: Components of an Environment Management Plan: Program and Plan Elements 201
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Volume I - EIA Technical Review Guidelines: TABLE OF CONTENTS
Energy Generation and Transmission
VOLUME II TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPENDIX A. WHAT IS ENERGY GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION?. 1
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION 1
2.1 Steam Turbines 2
2.2 Combustion Power Plants 11
2.3 Hydropower 18
2.4 Solar Power 26
2.5 Wind Power 33
2.6 Geothermal Power 36
2.7 Transmission Substation 37
3 ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISION 37
3.1 Right-of-Ways 38
3.2 Overhead Transmission Lines 38
3.3 Underground Transmission Lines 39
3.4 Distribution Substation 40
APPENDIX B. ENERGY IN CAFTA-DR COUNTRIES. 41
1 REGIONAL OVERVIEW 41
1.1 Fuel and Energy Use Data for CAFTA-DR 41
1.2 Power Transmission 43
2 CAFTA-DR COUNTRY OVERVIEWS 44
2.1 Costa Rica 44
2.2 Dominican Republic 46
2.3 El Salvador 47
2.4 Guatemala 49
2.5 Honduras 50
2.6 Nicaragua 52
APPENDIX C. REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS: CAFTA-DR COUNTRIES, OTHER COUNTRIES, AND
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 55
1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS, STANDARDS, AND REQUIREMENTS 55
2 AMBIENT STANDARDS FOR AIR AND WATER QUALITY 59
3 ENERGY-SECTOR SPECIFIC PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 65
3.1 Energy Sector Water Discharge/ Effluent Limits 67
3.2 Supplemental U.S. Water Discharge/ Effluent Limits for the Energy Sector 69
3.3 Air Emission Limits for the Energy Sector 70
4 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS 84
5 ENERGY SECTOR WEBSITE REFERENCES 85
APPENDIX D. RULES OF THUMB FOR EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION CONTROL 87
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APPENDIX E. SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS PLAN 101
1 INTRODUCTION 101
1.1 Site Name or Sampling Area 101
1.2 Site or Sampling Area Location 101
1.3 Responsible Organization 101
1.4 Project Organization 101
1.5 Statement of the Specific Problem 102
2 BACKGROUND 102
2.1 Site or Sampling Area Description [Fill in the blanks.] 102
2.2 Operational History 102
2.3 Previous Investigations/Regulatory Involvement 103
2.4 Geological Information 103
2.5 Environmental and/or Human Impact 103
3 PROJECT DATA QUALITY OBJECTIVES 103
3.1 Project Task and Problem Definition 103
3.2 Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) 103
3.3 Data Quality Indicators (DQIs) 103
3.4 Data Review and Validation 104
3.5 Data Management 105
3.6 Assessment Oversight 105
4 SAMPLING RATIONALE 105
4.1 Soil Sampling 105
4.2 Sediment Sampling 105
4.3 Water Sampling 106
4.4 Biological Sampling 106
5 REQUEST FOR ANALYSES 106
5.1 Analyses Narrative 107
5.2 Analytical Laboratory 107
6 FIELD METHODS AND PROCEDURES 107
6.1 Field Equipment 107
6.2 Field Screening 107
6.3 Soil 108
6.4 Sediment Sampling 110
6.5 Water Sampling Ill
6.6 Biological Sampling 114
6.7 Decontamination Procedures 115
7 SAMPLE CONTAINERS, PRESERVATION AND STORAGE 116
7.1 Soil Samples 116
7.2 Sediment Samples 117
7.3 Water Samples 117
7.4 Biological Samples 119
8 DISPOSAL OF RESIDUAL MATERIALS 119
9 SAMPLE DOCUMENTATION AND SHIPMENT 120
9.1 Field Notes 120
9.2 Labeling 122
9.3 Sample Chain-Of-Custody Forms and Custody Seals 122
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9.4 Packaging and Shipment 122
10 QUALITY CONTROL 123
10.1 Field Quality Control Samples 123
10.2 Background Samples 128
10.3 Field Screening and Confirmation Samples 128
10.4 Laboratory Quality Control Samples 129
11 FIELD VARIANCES 130
12 FIELD HEALTH AND SAFETY PROCEDURES 131
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Figure A-1: Energy sources and generation technologies 1
Figure A- 2: Diagram of a generator 2
Figure A- 3: A basic diagram of a steam turbine 3
Figure A- 4: Common components of power plant using a steam turbine 3
Figure A- 5: Multi-pressure steam turbines 4
Figure A- 6: Once-through cooling system diagram 5
Figure A- 7: Once-through cooling system with cooling pond diagram 6
Figure A- 8: Recirculating cooling system with cooling pond diagram 7
Figure A- 9: Cooling tower diagram 8
Figure A-10: Dry cooling tower diagram for direct cooling 9
Figure A-11: Dry cooling tower diagram for indirect cooling 10
Figure A-12: Combustion steam turbine plant diagram 14
Figure A-13: Coal-fired thermal power plant diagram 15
Figure A-14: Gas turbine diagram 16
Figure A-15: Combined-cycle generating unit 17
Figure A-16: Hydroelectric dam diagram 19
Figure A-17: Water turbine 20
Figure A-18: Diversion hydroelectric project 22
Figure A-19: Pumped storage facility operation 23
Figure A- 20: Pumped storage hydroelectric project layout 23
Figure A- 21: Wave energy devices 25
Figure A- 22: Tidal turbines 26
Figure A- 23: Solar power technologies and their environmental requirements 27
Figure A- 24: Solar parabolic trough diagram 28
Figure A- 25: Solar parabolic trough plant diagram with a liquid salt storage unit 29
Figure A- 26: Solar power tower diagram 30
Figure A- 27: Schematic of a dish-engine system with stretched-membrane mirrors 31
Figure A- 28: Schematic of a photovoltaic power generating system 32
Figure A- 29: Horizontal axis wind turbine 33
Figure A- 30: Horizontal axis wind turbine components 34
Figure A- 31: Direct drive wind turbine 35
Figure A- 32: Horizontal axis wind turbine 35
Figure A- 33: Dry steam geothermal power plant 36
Figure A- 34: Binary cycle geothermal power plant (closed-cycle) 37
Figure A- 35: Different transmission tower configurations 39
Figure B-1: Costa Rica energy generation by fuel type 2008 44
Figure B- 2: Dominican Republic energy generation by fuel type 2008 46
Figure B- 3: El Salvador energy generation by fuel type 2008 47
Figure B-4: El Salvador energy generation by fuel type 2008 49
Figure B- 5: Honduras energy generation by fuel type 2008 50
Figure B- 6: Nicaragua energy generation by fuel type 2008 52
Figure C-1: Approaches to environmental management 57
Figure C- 2: Examples of environmental requirements 58
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Table A-1: Average cooling system water use and consumption at a coal-fired thermal plant 5
Table A- 2: Relative costs of cooling systems 10
Table B-1: Electricity generation indicators 42
Table B- 2: Electrical power production and consumption in the CAFTA-DR countries in 2008 43
Table B-3: Costa Rica energy trends 1998-2008 45
Table B-4: Dominican Republic energy trends 1998-2008 46
Table B-5: El Salvador energy trends 1998-2008 48
Table B-6: Guatemala energy trends 1998-2008 50
Table B-7: Honduras energy trends 1998-2008 51
Table B- 8: Generating capacity by type and company for 2009 53
Table B-9: Nicaragua energy trends 1998-2008 54
Table C-1: Freshwater quality guidelines and standards 59
Table C- 2: Drinking water quality guidelines and standards 61
Table C- 3: Ambient air quality guidelines and standards 64
Table C- 4: Environmental impacts from renewable energy sources 66
Table C- 5: Water discharge/effluent limits applicable to steam electric plants 67
Table C- 6: NPDES effluent limitations for steam electric generating facilities 70
Table C- 7: IFC small combustion facilities emissions guidelines (3MWth-50MWth) 71
Table C- 8: IFC emissions guidelines for boiler facilities 72
Table C- 9: IFC emissions guidelines for combustion turbines (units larger than 50 MWh) 72
Table C-10: IFC emissions guidelines for reciprocating engines 73
Table C-11: Particulate matter (PM) emissions limits / reduction requirements 74
Table C-12: Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions limits and reduction requirements 74
Table C-13: Oxides of nitrogen (NOX) emissions limits and reduction requirements 75
Table C-14: Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions limits 76
Table C-15: Particulate matter (PM) emissions limits 77
Table C-16: Nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions limits 78
Table C-17: Particulate matter (PM) emissions limits 79
Table C-18: Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions limits 80
Table C-19: NOX emissions limits for new stationary combustion turbines 82
Table C- 20: Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions limits by options 83
Table C- 21: Multilateral environmental agreements ratified (R) or signed (S) by CAFTA-DR countries ...84
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Volume I - EIA Technical Review Guidelines:
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A. INTRODUCTION
A. INTRODUCTION
Figure A-1: CAFTA-DR Countries
v\
onduras
Guatemala
El Salvador
Dominican Republic
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
This Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) Technical
Review Guideline and associated
Terms of Reference for Energy
projects (including fossil fuel fired
power plants, hydroelectric
dams, alternative energy sources
such as wind, geothermal and
solar, and transmission lines) was
developed as an outgrowth of
the Environmental Cooperation
Agreement developed in
conjunction with the CAFTA-DR
free trade agreements between
the United States, the Central
American countries of Costa Rica,
El Salvador, Guatemala,
Honduras, and Nicaragua and the
Dominican Republic. Developed
by designated experts from all of
the countries, it can be used as a basis for country-specific adaptation to their EIA programs.
1 BACKGROUND
The CAFTA-DR "Program to Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Review" was initiated as
a priority for environmental cooperation undertaken and funded in conjunction with the free trade
agreements. Designed to build on related references developed for the region or for individual
countries, the Program included: a) sustainable training to build skills in the preparation and review of
EIA documents and processes for all participants in the process, including government officials,
consultants, industry project proponents, academic institutions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
and the public, b) development of EIA Technical Review Guidelines and Terms of Reference for priority
sectors: mining, energy, and tourism, c) country-specific consultation to provide tools and reforms to
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of EIA, including deployment of EPA's GIS-based analytical tool
to support EIA project screening and administrative tracking systems, d) recommendations for
strengthening EIA procedures, and where necessary, regional and country EIA legal frameworks, and e)
regional meetings among EIA Directors to direct and support these activities and share experiences.
Work programs developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the U.S. Agency
for International Development (USAID), were designed to complement other work which had been
undertaken with the Central American Commission for Sustainable Development (CCAD) and the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) under a grant from the government of Sweden.
2 APPROACH
The guidelines were developed through a collaborative process consisting of three regional expert
meetings for discussion followed by several rounds of review and comment on draft documents. The
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Volume I-EIA Technical Review Guidelines: A. INTRODUCTION
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guidelines also benefitted from the overall guidance and active involvement of country EIA Directors.
The work was supported by USAID and their consultants under the Environment and Labor Excellence
Program (ELE). The overall approach to the development of Energy Sector EIA Review Guidelines and
Terms of Reference was:
a. Creation of an expert team including the designation of senior experts by the Ministers of the
Environment and for the Energy Sector from each of the CAFTA-DR countries and the U.S.
(drawn from US EPA's senior expert EIA Reviewers and sector experts from within EPA, the
Department of Energy, and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission), including the
opportunity for CAFTA-DR country officials also to include the designation of a key academic
institution relied upon by the countries for relevant expertise in the energy sector
b. Organization of three regional expert meetings to review and guide all work products drafted
with the assistance of a USAID's Environment and Labor Excellence contractor, Chemonics
International
c. Identification of existing resource materials, standards, practices, laws and guidelines related to
assessing the environmental impacts from energy projects
d. Development of baseline information on current practice, anticipated growth, existing standards
and guidance, norms, permits and environmental measures requirements related to energy
production and distribution in the CAFTA-DR countries and use this to assess the likely impact of
adoption of the regional guidelines
e. Development of information on alternatives for pollution control and environmental protection
drawn from benchmark organizations, development banks and countries including international
practices established by industry, the World Bank, the Inter American Development Bank, the
U.S., the European Union and other countries identified by the team of experts as being most
relevant
f. Development of options to achieve the benefits of requiring siting, design, construction,
operation and closure/reclamation and site reuse approaches which eliminate, reduce, mitigate
and/or compensate the adverse direct, indirect and/or cumulative adverse environmental
impacts related to energy generation and distribution based on best international practice
through a EIA Review guideline and Terms of Reference
g. Adaptation of these guidelines following country-specific training workshops to be held by CCAD
and the individual countries
3 OBJECTIVES OF PRIORITY SECTOR EIA GUIDELINES
Specific objectives of these guidelines included:
a. Improve environmental performance in the sector
b. Improve EIA document quality and quality of EIA decision making for the Energy Sector
c. Improve efficiency and effectiveness of the EIA process for the energy sector by clarifying
expectations, providing detailed guidelines and aligning preparation and review
d. Tailor guidelines to needs of CAFTA-DR countries
e. Provide technical guidelines for the identification of environmental, social and economic
impacts of the energy sector activities
f. Identify potential for avoidance and measures for adverse environmental, social and economic
impacts from the energy sector in relation to established requirements of law, industry best
practice to empower options for consideration by industry and government officials
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g. Encourage public participation throughout the process, a specific priority and request of CAFTA-
DR country officials
4 SCOPE AND CONTENTS OF ENERGY GUIDELINES
The guidelines address:
• The full scope of energy generation and transmission activities, including storage and transport
of fuels and other raw materials, site selection and development, alternative technologies for
generating electricity, distribution through transmission lines, and closure of the facility
• Identifying and evaluating the potential environmental impacts, including the physical, biological
and social-economic-cultural impacts
• Evaluating the full range of sustainable environmental measures to prevent, reduce and/or
mitigate impacts
• The need for enforceable and auditable commitment language in an EIA to ensure that
promised actions will be taken by the project proponent and that their adequacy can be
determined overtime
• Model terms of reference for development of renewable energy sources that are cross-linked to
the details provided in the guidelines
The guidelines are organized around each aspect of what is typically required in an EIA document. The
guidelines are divided into ten sections with accompanying appendices. These sections are:
A. Introduction
B. EIA Process and Public Participation
C. Proposed Project Description and Alternatives
D. Environmental Setting ( Physical, Biological and Socio-Economic-Cultural)
E. Potential Impacts
F. Assessing Impacts: Predictive Tools and Considerations
G. Mitigation and Monitoring Measures
H. Environmental Management Plan
I. References
J. Example Terms of Reference
Guideline appendices are:
A. What is Energy Generation and Transmission
B. Overview of Energy Activities in CAFTA-DR Countries
C. Requirements and Standards Applicable to Energy Internationally and Within CAFTA-DR
Countries, the United States, and Other Countries and International Organizations
D. Rules of Thumb for Erosion and Sediment Control
E. Sampling and Analysis Plan
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5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The EIA Technical Review Guidelines for the Energy Sector and associated Terms of Reference were
developed by experts designated by their Ministers from the environmental and sector agencies of the
United States and countries in Central America and the Dominican Republic that are parties to the
CAFTA-DR Free Trade Agreements. Following development of the regional EIA energy documents, the
Central American Commission on Environment and Development (CCAD) will host workshops in each of
the CAFTA-DR countries and they will adopt these guidelines for their own use.
US EPA- US AID/ Program for Environment and Labor Excellence ELE -CCAD
CAFTA-DR Program Team to Strengthen EIA Review
USAID
• Ruben Aleman, Contracting Officer Technical Representative, COTR, US AID Regional
Program
• Orlando Altamirano, CAFTA-DR Regional Environmental Specialist
• Walter Jokisch, Program Coordinator for ELE/Chemonics International, Inc.
• Mark Hodges, MACTEC, Inc., Energy Expert Consultant for ELE/Chemonics International, Inc.
• Phil Brown, Hydrobro, Expert Consultant for ELE/Chemonics International, Inc.
• Lane Krahl, Senior EIA advisor for ELE/Chemonics International, Inc.
Central American Commission for Sustainable Development (CCAD)
• Ricardo Aguilar, Chief of Party, Cooperation Agreement USAID - CCAD
• Judith Panameno, CCAD, CAFTA-DR, EPA program coordinator
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
• Orlando Gonzalez, Coordinator, CAFTA DR, Office of International Activities
• Cheryl Wasserman, Manager of the CAFTA DR Program to Strengthen EIA Review, U.S. EPA,
Associate Director for Policy Analysis, Office of Federal Activities, Office of Enforcement and
Compliance Assurance
• Marfa T. Malave, Technical Liaison for Development of EIA Technical Review Guidelines
• Daniel Gala and Brittany Ericksen, Legal Interns
Regional Expert Team
UNITED STATES
Cheryl Wasserman, US EPA Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance, Office of Federal Activities
Marfa T. Malave, US EPA Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance, Office of Federal Activities
Marthea Rountree, Senior NEPA Reviewer, Office of Federal Activities
Larry Svoboda, Director of NEPA Program, US EPA Region 8, Denver, Colorado
Keith Mason, Senior Analyst, Office of Policy and Review, US EPA Office of Air and Radiation
Ann Miles, Director, Hydropower Licensing Division, US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
Eric Cohen, Unit Leader, NEPA Policy and Compliance, US Department of Energy
David A. Harris, Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture
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COSTA RICA
Msc. Sonia Espinosa Valverde, Directora, Secretaria Tecnica Nacional Ambiental (SETENA)
Vera Quesada Ramfrez, Profesional Ambiental, Companfa Nacional de Fuerza y Luz, S.A.
Ronald Wright Ceciliano, Profesional, Companfa Nacional de Fuerza y Luz, S.A.
Eduardo Murillo Marchena, Coordinador Departamento de Evaluacion Ambiental, SETENA
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Lina del Carmen Beriguette Segura, Directora de EIA, Ministerio de Ambiente (MA)
Ignacio Leonardo Ramfrez, Analista Ambiental, Direccion de Normas Ambientales, MA
Vfctor Jimenez Vasquez, Analista de Gestion Ambiental, MA
Manuel Enrique Pena Gonzalez, Gerente de Energfa, Comision Nacional de Energfa
Juan Pablo Banks Pena, Encargado Departamento de Energfa y Ambiente, MA
El SALVADOR
Alberto Fabian, Tecnico, MARN
Balmore Amaya, Tecnico en Evaluacion Ambiental, MARN
Francisco Rodrfguez, Tecnico, MARN
Carlos Jose Hidalgo Lemus, Tecnico en Evaluacion Ambiental, MARN,
Jose Orlando Argueta Lazo, Jefe Unidad Ambiental, CEL
GUATEMALA
Hiram Perez, Asesor, MARN
Alejandro Recinos Flores, Asesor, MARN
Marleny Reyes, Coordinadora de la Unidad de Gestion Socio Ambiental, MEM
HONDURAS
Manuel Manzanarez, Director, Division de Energfa
NICARAGUA
Luis Nicolas Molina Barahona, MARENA
Miguel Angel Matute Hernandez, Especialista Ambiental, Ministerio de Energfa y Minas
Milton Francisco Medina Calero, Ingeniero, Gestion Ambiental, MARENA
COUNTRY EIA DIRECTORS
Msc. Sonia Espinosa Valverde, SETENA, Costa Rica
Lina del Carmen Beriguette Segura, Ministerio de Ambiente, Republica Dominicana
Ing. Hernan Romero, MARN, El Salvador
Dra. Eugenia Castro, MARN, Guatemala
Julio E. Eguigure, Director de la DECA, SERNA, Honduras
Hilda Espinoza, MARENA, Nicaragua
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B. EIA PROCESS AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
This section describes the general process and practices common to Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) procedures in CAFTA-DR countries, along with likely trends future directions of those programs as
part of the evolution of the EIA process that has been seen internationally. Because this guideline and
Terms of Reference were developed as regional products of designated experts from the CAFTA-DR
countries they can be adapted to the unique features in each country's EIA laws and procedures.
1 EIA PROCEDURES
No work may begin, that is no site clearing, site preparation or construction, before the Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) process is complete and government agencies have either approved or
provided conditioned approval of a proposed project.
1.1 Project Proponents: From Project Initiation to the EIA Application
A project proponent initiates the idea for a project based on a purpose and need for the action, in this
instance there is existing or projected demand for electrical power, which maybe paid for by consumers
of the power. Between the idea and the application for EIA to the government for approval, the project
proponent will explore project alternatives. It is during this early stage that environmental, social and
economic impacts should be introduced, and alternatives developed — even before an application is
made for EIA. Many problems can be avoided through wise selection of location, site and operations
design, and anticipation of issues such the full life cycle of the project, taking the whole of the
environmental setting into account early in the process. If environmental consultants or environmental
impact expertise are brought in late in the process, at the stage when the proponent needs to prepare
an application and an EIA document for approval, it limits the opportunities to build environmental,
social and economic considerations into the project proposal as an integral part of developing project
feasibility. This is universally considered to be a short sighted practice. Projects which require
substantial financing often will have fatal flaw analyses of all sorts performed, including environmental.
Some of the outcome of such analyses also feeds the narrative on Project Alternatives and why some of
the alternatives were rejected.
1.2 EIA Application, Screening and Categorization
Each CAFTA-DR country has established its own EIA regulations and guidelines defining different
circumstances and procedures for particular types of projects and situations. These regulations
distinguish the size and nature of proposed projects or the types of projected impacts for which the full
environmental impact assessment procedure and which types of projects or impacts might justify a
streamlined procedure based on potential lower level of impact and nature of the proposed activity.
Projects usually fall within one of three categories, some of which are further subdivided: A usually is
high impact, Bl and B2, medium impact and C low impact but this varies by country. Screening is the
process used by government officials to review an application for EIA to determine the appropriate
categorization. For the most part, energy production and distribution activities are usually considered
among those projects with potentially high or high medium impact.
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Figure B-1: The Environmental Impact Assessment Process
THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS
.
i 10 I Monitor and
Follow-up
IMPLEMENTATION
site preparation
construction
operation
monitor mitigation activities
monitor environmental impact
review policy/program
Purpose and Need || EIA Policies/
%^ Requirements; |
(for project, plan,
policy, program)
characterize affected anwonment
mmaiire basrtne natural and human
Identify
MITIGATION
approaches
preitcliwi forecasling approach
selecl and apply predsclion Tcrecasling
(41
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Source: Principles of Environmental Impact Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992.
Table B-1: Responsibility in the EIA Process
"Responsibility" in the EIA Process
Project Proponent
on throughout
4 Public Participat
1 Initiate Project
2 Prepare EIA Application
3 Scope EIA Issues
5a Prepare and Submit EIA Document
5b Correct deficiencies and respond to comment
9 Implementation of Project, Environmental
Measures and financial assurance
10 Correct violations
Government
2 Screening: Review EIA Application and
Categorization
3 Prepare Terms of Reference and Scope
EIA issues
6 Review EIA Document
7 Decision on Project
8 Incorporate commitments into legal agreements
10 Auditing, compliance monitoring and
enforcement
Source: Wasserman, Cheryl, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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1.3 Scoping of EIA and Terms of Reference
Scoping is a process used to identify the important issues on which the EIA analysis should focus and
those on which it would not be informative to focus. Although any preparer of an EIA would have to
engage in a scoping process, the term often is used to describe a process of consultation with interested
and affected stakeholders in the project, in the area and infrastructure potentially affected by the
project and in the potentially affected resources. In CAFTA-DR countries of Central America and the
Dominican Republic, government officials issue a Terms of Reference to help guide the preparation of an
EIA document, in essence a form of scoping which usually includes a requirement for the project
proponent to engage the public and stakeholders, including local governments, NGOs and leaders of
indigenous groups, before proceeding to prepare the EIA document just for this purpose. In guidelines
issued by the International Finance Corporation and as a practice in the U.S. and some CAFTA-DR
countries, the project proponent would carry out public scoping early in the process for the most
significant types of projects, presumably to be able to influence the Terms of Reference. Section B2 in
this section of the guideline expands on public participation during the scoping process.
1.4 Public Participation throughout the process
EIA is intended to be a transparent process with the opportunity for public involvement from the
earliest stages of project development. It is customary for the Terms of Reference to include
requirements for the project proponent to engage the public and to document the results of this
outreach process in the EIA document. Countries will usually provide a formal opportunity for a public
hearing after the EIA document is reviewed by government staff and determined to be complete. The
Model Terms of Reference included in this guideline emphasizes the importance of early public
involvement to ensure that opportunities for reconciling economic, social and environmental concerns
can be considered. A special section on Public Participation is included in this guideline in subsection B2.
1.5 Preparation and Submission of the EIA Document
The structure of EIA documentation of analysis has been fairly standardized over the many years it has
been adopted as a practice. It includes:
• Executive Summary
• Table of Contents
• Project Description, Purpose and Need
• Alternatives, including the proposed action
• Environmental Setting
• Assessment of Impacts
• Mitigation and Monitoring Measures
• Commitment Document: Environmental Management Plan, which contains a facility-wide
monitoring plan and a facility-wide mitigation plan, which addresses mitigation for
environmental and socio-economic resources
• List of preparers
• List of Agencies, Organizations, and persons to whom copies of the statement are sent
• Index
• Appendices
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In countries in Central America and the Dominican Republic, deficiencies in an EIA document are usually
addressed through additional supplemental submissions of Annexes and correspondence. If deficiencies
are sufficiently significant an EIA document might be rejected and the project proponent would restart
the entire process. In the U.S. a draft EIA document is submitted for both government and public review
and a final document is then submitted which includes the response to comments and any additional
analysis that might be needed.
1.6 EIA Document Review
Government EIA Reviewers have an independent review function to determine if an EIA submitted by a
project proponent:
a) Complies with minimum requirements under country laws, regulations, and procedures
b) Is complete
c) Is accurate
d) Is adequate for decision makers to be able to make informed decisions and choices, including
alternatives that might serve to avoid adverse impacts, and reasonable commitments to
measures for addressing adverse impacts that cannot be avoided
e) Distinguishes what may be a significant concern from those that are less significant
f) Provides a sufficient basis for assuring that commitments to environmental measures will be
met, taking into account not only the EIA but any additional supporting documents such as:
• Environmental Management Plan
• Mitigation measures that are integrated in the project design, operations and closure, and
their maintenance
• Monitoring and reporting measures
• Infrastructure investments
1.7 Decision on Project
As a decision making process which is informed by the EIA analysis, the actual decision on the project
and its rationale is important, particularly if the EIA analysis is not just to be a paper exercise. It
therefore is very important that the consideration of alternatives, impacts and their environmental
measures be written in a clear and accessible manner to the range of stakeholders who are making
decisions related to the project. Part of the decision process is engagement of stakeholders within and
outside government in a timely and constructive manner, allowing for the type of give and take needed
to address and find acceptable solutions to diverse interests.
1.8 Commitment Language for Environmental Measures
Countries differ on the vehicles they use to establish and hold project proponents accountable for
commitments made during the EIA process, ranging from reliance on the EIA document itself, a
document from the government establishing project environmental feasibility which highlights
commitments, the environmental management plan, a measures plan, an environmental permit,
concession and/or contract.
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1.9 Implementation of Environmental
Measures
The EIA process objectives can only be achieved
if promises and assumptions made in an
approved EIA document are followed in
practice. Commitments are usually secured with
financial guarantees. The commitment to
implement environmental measures runs
throughout the process from site preparation to
closure. It is the responsibility of the project
proponent to implement measures unless the
commitments are assigned and agreed to by
other parties such as might be the case in the
provision of adequate infrastructure to address
needs to treat liquid and solid waste from a site,
or to construct a road.
Subsection B2 addresses requirements for
public participation. Included in this chapter
are:
1. Requirements for participation;
2. Methods for identifying and
engaging affected and interested
publics; and
3. Reporting on and responsiveness to
public comments.
1.10
Auditing, monitoring and follow up enforcement of commitments
Countries employ a mix of mechanisms to ensure that commitments in the EIA document are followed,
including: short- and long-term monitoring and reporting; creating and certifying third party auditors
and defining their roles in the process; government inspection; and sometimes monitoring by the
community or NGOs to assure compliance. It is not sufficient to monitor compliance with commitments.
Failure to meet commitments should be followed by enforcement for failure to comply in order to
compel actions needed to protect the environment, cultural and economic interests. For this system to
work, commitments in the EIA, should be written in a manner which clearly provides the basis for an
independent audit and also clarity for the project proponent to ensure it is clear what they will be
undertaking and when.
2 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
2.1 Introduction
Public participation and stakeholder involvement is an essential and integral part of the Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) process and CAFTA-DR countries have adopted policies and regulations and
procedures to require that this occurs throughout the EIA process. Reviewers should ensure that
minimum requirements are met, that key stakeholders and important issues have not been ignored or
under-represented, and that opportunities for effectively resolving underlying conflicts are provided.
The process for engaging the public and other stakeholders fails if it is undertaken as an afterthought or
poorly implemented or viewed as a one-time event. Opening up real opportunities for engagement by
the public, local governments, and interested and affected institutions requires a degree of openness
and disclosure which can be uncomfortable for some who fear that it might open the door to
unnecessary complication, higher costs and loss of control. However, the clear lessons from failed
public participation processes are just the reverse: if the public is engaged early, and in an open and
transparent manner, the process can help to avoid both unnecessary conflict and potential financial
hardship due to project delays and occasionally even permit denial. This chapter will refer to public and
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stakeholder involvement interchangeably, but requirements for and the timing of participation for
different subgroups may vary.
2.2 Requirements for Public Participation
Public participation requirements of individual countries should be identified and followed. Because
there is no easy formula for describing what is required to be successful in a given situation, legal
requirements for public participation are formulated as minimum requirements of law, and generally do
not reflect best practices designed to meet the full goals of public participation as an ongoing process.
To address the need to tailor a public participation plan to the circumstances some CAFTA DR countries
require that the project proponent develop and implement such a plan. The EIA should document the
steps taken to meet requirements and overall goals of public participation including: when, who was
involved, what the comments were and how they were considered.
Reviewers should carefully examine:
• Were requirements for public participation identified and complied with?
• Was timing of public notice sufficient to allow meaningful comment?
• What documents and information were disclosed and when?
• Are there obvious concerned public groups that were not involved and consulted?
• Were opportunities to address public concerns and information overlooked?
Public participation requirements may include:
General Requirements to include the public in the EIA process
Public Notification: Rules about the use of media to announce the EIA process and the points of
participation for the public and requirements for the Ministry or the owner/developer to announce
the public consultations in national and local media. Public participation and consultation ideally
should be initiated at the scoping stage of the EIA process, before steps are taken to prepare the
EIA document. This can be accomplished through a public notice of intent to prepare an EIA for a
specific action. Such a notice of intent should include a description of the proposal and describe
how the public may participate in the process
Public Consultation: Rules about the consultations and observations that the public presents
Public Disclosure: Requirements that the Ministry or the owner/developer publish the EIA for
review during the public consultations
Public Written Comment: Requirements for the public to have the opportunity to submit written
comments to the Ministry and the owner/developer in addition to the consultations.
Requirements may specify whether solicitation of comments from the public should take place in
formal public hearings, or may allow or encourage informal workshops or information sessions
Public Hearings: Most laws on public participation provide for the opportunity for a public hearing.
This is a formal legal process with little opportunity, if at all, for give and take discussion on
options, alternatives and assumptions. It is for that reason it is considered by most experts on
public participation to be the least effective means for actual public involvement
Consideration of Public Comments: Requirements for public comments to be considered in the
review by the government if they have a sound basis
Allocation of costs: Rules about who needs to pay, i.e. the owner/developer generally must pay for
the consultations with some exception where the Ministry pays.
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2.3 Methods for Identifying and Engaging Affected and Interested Publics
Successful public participation processes are built upon plans developed and tailored to a specific
project or program. This section addresses: (1) the identification of stakeholders, taking into account
the goals and objectives of the specific project or program that is being analyzed in the assessment and
the potential issues of concern; and (2) methods, or the tools and techniques to engage the identified
stakeholders, when those tolls are employed, including roles and responsibilities.
Potential stakeholders to be considered:
• Persons living and working in the vicinity of the project
o Individual citizens with specific interests
o Local residents and property owners
o Local businesses and schools
• Local, provincial, tribal, and national governmental
agencies, including regulators and those responsible for
infrastructure such as roads, water, solid waste
• Citizen, civic, or religious groups representing affected
communities
• NGOs with specific interests
• Environmentalists and conservation groups interested in
protection and management of sensitive ecosystems and
protected areas
• Recreational users and organizations
• Farmers, fishermen, and others who utilize a potentially
affected resource
• Industry groups such as power generation, fisheries,
forestry, and mining
• Technical experts
• Low income, minority, people who may be
disproportionately affected
• Indigenous peoples
2.3.1 Stakeholder Identification
Project proponents and their consultants
should make a diligent effort to identify and
engage individuals and groups both within
and outside of government who might
either be affected by or interested in a
proposed project and its potential impacts.
The geographic scope should include the
areas in and around the project, political
and natural resource boundaries, in other
words the full geographic scope of each of
the natural and human resources potentially
affected by the proposed action. Identifying
the specific issues presented by a proposed
project or program can help to reveal the
key stakeholders. Much as the stakeholders
also can help to identify issues for analysis.
Additional stakeholders can be discovered
throughout the entire assessment process
and should be included in subsequent public
participation activities.
2.3.2 Engagement Methods and Timing
A variety of tools and techniques can be utilized during the public process depending upon the level of
public participation sought, which can range from merely providing information to working in a
collaborative relationship. Although laws and regulations might only require a formal public hearing,
"talking at the public" is not a substitute for active listening. That is why public hearings are historically
poor ways to engage the public, and it is best to augment formal procedures with other processes to
enable the give and take of dialogue and discussion. Cultural nuances may make other types of
outreach helpful and informative, such as home visits with elders or people who do not trust public
meetings.
Three consistent lessons learned for effective public participation process are to:
• Adapt the process to meet the needs of the circumstances
• Reach out to and understand the audience
• Start early in the EIA process
To be effective, public participation should be tailored to the particular audiences and meet the goals of
the specific public engagement or communication, and those goals should be clear. Communications
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which are early, clear and responsive both to information provided and concerns raised are essential to
build trust. The selection and timing of methods used to engage stakeholders and the broader public
should result in: a) encouragement to offer information important to assessing impacts and developing
alternatives, b) transparency about what is proposed, its potential impacts and means of addressing
them, and c) a clear message to all members of the public that their input is important and useful
throughout the EIA process.
Public participation tools often used in an EIA process:
• Public meetings
• Public hearings
• Small group meetings or workshops
• Community advisory panels
• News releases, newsletters with public comment forms,
fact sheet, flyers
• Media - feature stories, interviews, public service
announcements
• Project/program web sites
• Public comment periods soliciting written comment
letters
• Information repositories or clearinghouses
• Speakers bureaus
• Surveys
• Mailing lists
• Briefings by and for public officials
• Use of social networking such as Facebook, Twitter, etc.
There are several guidelines that have been developed by the
CAFTA DR countries (e.g. Guatemala) and international
organizations concerning the planning and implementation of
public participation which are noted in the reference list.
Public Participation Tool Kits are available from EPA in
different languages
(/http://www.epa.gov/international/toolkit/) and the
International Association for Public Participation Web site at
www.iap2.org on the home page under Practitioner's Tools
(IAP2's Public Participation Toolbox).Also see
http://www.epa.gov/care/librarv/community culture.pdf
Scoping occurs early in the EIA process
to identify key issues, and to focus and
bound the assessment. Many of the
CAFTA-DR countries require project
proponents and their consultants to
engage the public during this phase,
before beginning work on the EIA.
Scoping typically is conducted in a
meeting or series of meetings involving
the project proponent, the public, and
the responsible government agencies.
The structure of the meetings may vary
depending on the nature and complexity
of the proposed action and on the
number of interested participants.
Small-scale scoping meetings might be
conducted like business conferences,
with participants contributing in
informal discussions of the issues.
Large-scale scoping meetings might
require a more formal atmosphere, like
that of a public hearing, where
interested parties are afforded the
opportunity to present testimony.
Other types of scoping meetings could
include "workshops," with participants
in small work groups exploring different
alternatives and designs. Meetings may
need to include interpreters to translate information for people who do not speak the language in which
the meeting is being conducted, as is the case with all procedural and analytical stages of the EIA
process.
2.3.3 Reporting On and Responsiveness To Public Comments
Public input should be reflected in changes in the assessment, the project or program, or to
commitments for environmental measures. Project proponents should document specific steps taken to
engage the public and other stakeholders, and the timing of those engagements before undertaking to
prepare the EIA and during its development. Included in the annexes of the EIA should be a summary of
public outreach activities, audience, number of persons, organizations involved, concerns raised,
responses to comments and, if required, actual copies of written comments received. Reporting on
comments obtained through any of the methods identified above should be sufficiently clear to enable
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an EIA reviewer and the public to assess responsiveness to comments, including whether they were
understood, whether they were found to be appropriate or not and why, and if appropriate, what
actions were taken to respond to them and whether those actions are sufficient to fully address the
concerns. Several approaches might be acceptable to summarize or include actual transcripts and
copies of oral and written comments and to demonstrate responsiveness through narrative, tables and
cross-references to specific changes.
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C. PROJECT AND ALTERNATIVES DESCRIPTION
C. PROJECT AND ALTERNATIVES DESCRIPTION
1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental Impact Assessment starts with the
description of the proposed project with sufficient
detail to support a credible assessment of impacts
for both the proposed actions and reasonable and
feasible alternatives. This section contains some of
the most important information in the EIA since it
provides the core data for forecasting potential
environmental impacts, and to reduce, eliminate or
mitigate those impacts.
The main elements of the description of the
proposed project and alternatives should include:
• Objectives and Justification: A clear
statement with supporting information
(sometimes this might be referred to as
purpose and need)
• Description of the proposed project
detailing:
o How it meets the purpose and need.
o Facility and engineering design details
in sufficient detail to support an
accurate identification and assessment
of impacts
o Coverage of all phases of the project
both in chronological time from site
preparation to construction to
operation to closure and also phases if
there are plans to increase the capacity
at later points in time.
o Expected physical releases into the
environment
• Alternatives: an identification of
alternatives for meeting the purpose and need which are economically and technically feasible,
and sufficient detail for the most appropriate and alternatives to permit comparative
assessment of impacts. This can include modifications to the proposed project or entirely
different projects to meet the purpose and need.
• Documentation of the economic viability of the proposed project
The proposed engineering design would already include information describing the design and
operation of a proposed energy project and its alternatives, such as fuel or energy input, location, and
technologies. Usually, by the time an EIA is being prepared, much of the preliminary planning and
ENGINEERING DESIGN
Whether a thermal, hydropower, renewable energy
powered or power transmission project, appropriate
environmental practices for construction and operation
begin with appropriate engineering design. This design
should take into account:
• Power generation technology
• Location (Siting)
• Construction
• Fuel quality and rates of use for thermal power
• Hydrological considerations for hydroelectric and
use of cooling water for thermal if water cooled
• Size of the project footprint
• Transportation of fuel to the plant, if thermal power
• Emissions, effluents and other wastes resulting
from operation
• Support facilities and services required
• Use of local infrastructure and manpower
• Closure and restoration plans, if applicable
The ultimate goal of the design is to provide a blueprint
for the construction and operation of an
environmentally and economically desirable project,
from start to finish.
Engineering design as present in the EIA should present a
clear understanding as to how the power plant or
transmission line will be operated from start to finish.
Process flow diagrams show the path of fuel, water,
other renewable energy resource or electricity
(transmission) in to the project, power out, and all major
operating components required. Maps and plan views
should be developed to show the layout of the project
and proximity of sensitive receptors of environmental
impacts. The design should also describe any planned
changes in size, fuel, capacity, e.g., for a gas fired
turbine, upgrading from simple to combined cycle.
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engineering design have been completed by the proponent to prove economic feasibility. The designs
and construction plans may not be detailed enough for actual construction and implementation, but all
aspects of the plan should have been contemplated and preliminary power generation or transmission
system designs prepared and compiled. The plan will also contain information on support facilities and
labor needs.
2 DOCUMENTATION OF PURPOSE AND NEED
In describing the underlying purpose and need, the EIA should be more specific than assertions that
more energy might be needed. The assessment of impacts will be different based on the responses to
several questions that need to be made clear in the EIA:
• Who needs the energy and for what purpose?
• Where is the energy needed and what form should it take?
• How much energy is needed and when are different levels needed?
• What are the levels of uncertainty in energy need?
The purpose and need description also should help to explain whether the proposed project is a new
project, an expansion, upgrade or a replacement of an existing project, and whether and why the
project might be phased in overtime. This information is an important aspect of the project description.
It also will help to clarify who the intended recipients are of the energy being generated and/or
distributed, i.e. will it be for local use or for users at a distance? Will it be used domestically or exported
to other countries?
3 PROJECT AND ALTERNATIVES DESCRIPTION
This section of the EIA should provide information on the proposed project and alternatives sufficient
not only to describe how it meets the purpose and need but as a basis for identifying and assessing its
impacts. This project description should include, the nature, size and type of project and all related
facilities and activities, its design, construction, operation, site design and land area, subsequent
anticipated expansion and decommissioning as well as the profile of direct releases into the
environment, employment, resource and waste streams, related transportation and the like which are
elaborated below for non-renewable and renewable energy generation and distribution. Additional
detail on energy technology is provided in Appendix A.
The Project Description section of the EIA should begin with an overview of the proposed activities and a
general description of background information to place the proposed energy project in context.
Overview information includes project location and access (shown on an overview map), a general
description of the overall project including project type, identification of each component including
layouts and schematic drawings, waste flowcharts, initial construction sequencing, and life of the
operation. Background information includes pre-construction land uses, land ownership and applicable
laws, regulations and best practices. In addition, other alternatives should be identified to the proposed
actions. These could include "Do Nothing," best practices that are not included in the project proposal,
an alternative location to avoid or mitigate potential adverse impacts, or other actions as appropriate.
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3.1 Overall Project Description Information
Typically by the time an EIA is started much of the preliminary design work has been completed by the
project proponent to prove economic feasibility and support bankability of the project. The designs and
construction plans may not be entirely complete but most if not all of the details required for
environmental impact assessment should be available.
Project Description: a brief summary of the type (fossil fuel plant, biomass/biofuel plant, hydropower
facility, transmission line, etc.) and size (installed capacity and expected energy generation) of the
project that is proposed, including a description of all project facilities. It also should include a flow
diagram for power generation or transmission showing all components of the plant or transmission
system and their relationships to each other. Detailed information required for each type of facility is
presented in Subsection 4 Project Alternatives.
Project Operations: including a description of how the project will operate (seasonally, monthly, daily,
or hourly, as appropriate) and its mode of operation (peaking, base load, run-of-the-river and/or
storage). This section should include a roster of all non-power generating equipment and machinery to
be used during project operation, specifying type and quantity by size, weight, motor size, and fuel
requirements for each operational activity. Similar information on power generating equipment will be
provided below in the Project Alternative Design subsection. This section should also provide the overall
energy requirements for operation and source or sources of that energy.
Location: the general location of the project and associated activities in terms of:
• Political-administrative location (region, district, town or other relevant political-administrative
units) with accompanying location map.
• Means of site access - i.e., by air, river, road, train or vehicle.
• Latitude and longitude of project area.
• Maps of project area showing location and general plan for the facilities and activities.
• Maps of the area of influence that will be included in the EIA analysis, and an explanation of how
that area of influence was determined.
Physical Description: a general description of the site and the surrounding area. This is only a summary
description as a more detailed description will be presented in the Environmental Settings section of the
EIA. This description, however, should summarize information on:
• Geology, soils and topography including topographic maps
• Vegetative cover
• Principal watersheds
• Water bodies
• Hydrogeology
• Roads and landmarks
• General land use (specific information is presented in subsection 5.18)
Summary of Proposed Project and Alternatives: a general identification and summary of all project
alternatives that are reasonable and feasible and meet the purpose and need for the proposed project.
In addition to the proposed project, alternatives may include:
• Alternative locations
• Alternative fuels
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• Alternative site configuration of elements of the project
• Alternative size and output capacity
• Alternative plans for construction, operation and decommissioning
This part of the EIA should also describe the criteria used for identifying which alternatives are fully
described and assessed in the EIA. This description should conclude by identifying which alternatives
are included in the EIA.
Associated Transmission Lines and Connections: including all new and existing lines and connections at
the site or connecting the site to existing transmission lines. The information necessary for extensive
new transmission lines are described below in Subsection 5 Transmission Lines.
• Line voltage
• Total length of line in km
• Minimum height of conductors over ground level
• Width of the right of way in meters
• Source
• Destination
• Number and types of towers
• Height of towers
• Number of circuits, stations and transformer yards
• Points of interconnection between existing and new
Construction Phase and Timetable: including the following:
• A schedule for each phase of construction for all project and ancillary facilities including, but not
limited to:
o Mobilization
o Road construction and improvements
o Land clearing
o Drilling
o Blasting
o Borrow and spoil disposal
o Erosion and sediment control
o Excavation and sub grade preparation
o Foundation preparation
o Concrete work
o Construction or installation of each project facility
o Stabilization of disturbed areas
• A GANTT or critical path management chart for the entire project, from start to finish
• Equipment
o Equipment Roster specifying type and quantity by size, weight, motor size, and fuel
requirements for each piece of equipment or machinery used in each activity
o Transportation mobilization and mobilization frequency
o Machinery and equipment mobilization routes to be used, as well as the features of the
ways on which they will be transported, including a map of routes, as applicable, and
mobilization
• Raw materials to be used for construction
o Give a complete list of the raw materials and construction materials to be used, indicating
the amounts per day, month, and the storage means
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o Include an inventory of chemical, toxic or hazardous substances, active elements, sites and
storage means, safety aspects regarding transportation and handling and any other relevant
information
• Construction camp (if applicable)
o A map at a legible scale appropriate to the size of the project showing all buildings, roads,
transmission and communication lines, drainage systems, etc.
o Water supply and distribution system including use (m3/day), rights and sources
o Waste handling and disposal components including sewers, wastewater treatment and solid
waste collection, treatment and disposal facilities
o Energy generation and use requirements
o Closure or transition from construction camp to final onsite housing
3.2 Project Scope: Project Phases and Related or Connected Actions
All power generation and distribution projects include the following phases:
• Design engineering
• Environmental impact assessment (EIA) and permitting
• Site Preparation
• Construction
• Operation and maintenance
• Possible up-gradations or de-ratings
• Decommissioning demobilization
All phases and details about them should be provided.
All related or connected actions should be addressed in the EIA. There may be different entities and
project proponents responsible for different aspects of proposed projects and alternatives. Even if there
are different entities involved the test is whether a proposed energy project X would still be proposed if
another project Y were not also proposed. For example, an energy generation plant is proposed but the
electricity will need to be distributed and connected to transmission lines and the transmission lines
would not be proposed for that particular location if it were not for the proposed energy generation
plant. So the two projects should be assessed at the same time either by cross referencing in separate
EIA documents or within a single, integrated document. The same logic applies to related projects such
as pipelines, storage, port facilities and ships delivering fuels and the opening or expansion of quarries
for building materials to be used in construction.
4 PROJECT ALTERNATIVES
4.1 Identification and Assessment
Consideration of alternatives is the "heart" of the EIA process and is a requirement of country EIA laws
and procedures to foster sustainable development and improved decision making to reconcile
economic, environmental and social concerns. This requirement to consider alternatives only pertains
to reasonable alternatives, which are those alternatives that meet the underlying purpose for the
project and are economically and technically feasible. In many cases analyzing in detail only a subset of
alternatives considered would adequately represent the range of reasonable alternatives also In
addition, analyzing a No Action alternative is required to provide an environmental baseline for
comparison with the proposed action and alternatives. Given the public participation requirements of
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the EIA process, it is also important for the project proponent to solicit public comment on the proposed
alternatives to be analyzed in the EIA.
There are several issues to consider in determining the scope of alternatives that will need to be
addressed. All ElAs for energy power production and distribution projects should include:
b)
No Action Alternative: the analysis of
the no-action alternative, which
provides a baseline and represents the
reasonable impacts, projected into the
future, of taking no action. The No
Action Alternative does not mean that
nothing will happen, but rather it
projects what would happen in the
future if the proposed project is not
approved or is withdrawn.
Reasonable technically and
economically feasible project options
that would reduce potential adverse
environmental and socioeconomic
impacts such as alternative designs,
technology, site design and facility
design options for the project location
including proposals by stakeholders, for
modifications or new project options
posing lower impact.
ALTERNATIVES
Analyzing alternatives is important to sound decision making by
informing the decision makers of the environmental
consequences of project choices and providing a means for
exploring opportunities to avoid environmental, social and
economic concerns rather than just mitigate them for a specific
proposal. Alternatives should include:
• No action alternative: what happens in absence of the
proposed actions
• Modified project
o Alternative size and sequencing of the project
o Alternative location/sites
o Alternative site design/facility design or use
o alternative site access, storage
o Alternative and combined energy mix
• Alternative Project
o Alternative technologies
o Alternative energy source or fuel mix
o Alternative connections to related infrastructure
o Alternative project at alternative location or site
Project descriptions for alternatives should be of sufficient detail to assess relative impact on the
environment and support any conclusions about why the alternative may have been selected or rejected
and the project proponent and government reviewer has had the opportunity to consider whether
feasible alternatives can achieve the purpose and need in a manner which better achieves sustainable
development goals.
It becomes a challenging policy issue as to how far to go in calling for individual proposed project
proponents to explore the full range of energy production options. It is always helpful to have a clear
policy or planning context for making project specific decisions. The public and private nature of energy
production and supply makes it a likely candidate for strategic environmental assessment or
programmatic EIA. As such, some of the considerations about preferred energy mix, or preferred
locations for wind, solar and hydropower or for transmission may already have been considered. It is
likely, however, that the assessment will not be neatly tied to either a plan or program and/or it will
remain unclear as to how to approach specific energy project proposals even when they exist.
Therefore countries will need to address the scope of consideration of alternatives in individual project
environmental impact assessments and this guideline presents a range of approaches that can be
adopted. Given the range of options that differ so dramatically, it will be something each country or the
CAFTA DR region needs to address.
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4.2 Alternative Methods of Power Generation and Transmission Overview
There are many ways to produce electric energy, but they can be broadly divided into two groups:
• Thermal/combustion power plants using a range of non-renewable fossil fuels and, in some
instances, renewable fuel energy sources such as biomass and biofuels.
• Renewable energy sources such as hydroelectric, hydrokinetic, solar, wind and geothermal.
Figure C-l: Electrical power generation and transmission alternatives.
Power generation technologies
• Non-renewable (fossil fuel is the source of energy), which can be further broken
down into external or internal combustion, or
• Renewable (the source of energy is constantly renewed/inexhaustible or
renewable over a short period of time, and is used at a sustainable rate).
Fuels and energy source alternatives
Nonrenewable
• Nuclear (not addressed in this document)
• Fossil fuel (thermal)
• Fossil fuel (reciprocating engine)
Renewable
Hydroelectric
Wind
Geothermal
Solar
Biomass , Bio fuels and Waste to Energy
Technology for converting fuels energy
to electrical power
• Steam turbines
• Gas turbines
• Combined cycle (gas turbine followed by heat
recovery and steam turbine)
• Reciprocating engines
• Microturbines
• Stirling engines
• Impact and aerodynamic turbines
Types of electric power transmission projects
• Overhead transmission lines and associated transformer stations
• Underground transmission lines and associated transformer stations
• Combinations of overhead and underground, and associated transformer
stations
Emissions, effluents, wastes and other physical factors resulting from construction and operation of the
power plant or transmission line will depend on the fuel or energy source and the size and type of
energy production and distribution. It is the combination of the characteristics of the fuel and energy
sources and the technology used to convert the fuel energy into electrical power that defines the
project footprint and potential environmental and social-economic impact.
Section 3.1 of this chapter listed the general information that should be included in the project and
alternative descriptions for all energy generation and transmission projects, regardless of the power
generating technology used. Sections 4.3 through 4.8 of this chapter provide information on the specific
design information requirements for each type of energy production. Section 5 presents design
information needs for transmission projects. Table C-l (located after Section 5) summarizes the specific
design information that should be included in the description of the proposed project and its
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alternatives, depending on the source of energy. Transmission is also included in Table C-l. Appendix A
presents more detailed information on each of these technologies.
Regardless of whether a project is for generation or transmission of electrical power and regardless of
the technology used, all project descriptions should include design drawings including plan (overhead)
views, elevations (front views) and profiles (side views). The plans should be digitized and presented in
a format which is readily readable by the reviewer.
4.3 Thermal/Fossil Fuel Power (Coal, Petroleum or Natural Gas)
Thermal/Fossil Fuel power production uses the combustion of fossil fuels to either directly or indirectly
turn generators or alternators that produce electrical energy. The technologies can be divided into two
basic categories, external combustion and internal combustion. These two technologies are discussed in
the following subsections. The third subsection presents the specific design information that should be
included in the Project Description for a thermal/fossil fuel power plant.
4.3.1 External Combustion
External combustion means that combustion of the fuel is external to the machinery that turns the
generator or alternator to produce electricity. The heat energy generated by the combustion of fuel is
transformed into electrical energy indirectly, usually by means of heating boilers or boiler tubes to
generate steam. The resulting steam is then used to power steam turbines or engines that turn
generators or alternators, thus creating electrical energy.
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and
converts it into rotary motion. It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine
because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power to weight ratio. Because the turbine
generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator - about 80
percent of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines.
A typical diagram of a thermal fossil fuel power plant using external combustion is presented Figure C-2.
Although this diagram is for a coal powered plant, the basic components are similar for any thermal
power plant using external combustion. The key differences are due to differences in fuel and
combustion waste by products, so that 14 through 16 and 18 in the diagram may be different for
different types of fuels.
4.3.2 Internal Combustion
Internal combustion means that the fuel is combusted internal to the engine, as in a confined chamber
or cylinder and that resulting mechanical action directly turns generators or alternators. Sections 4.3.2.1
through 4.3.2.3 present brief descriptions of the three principal forms of internal combustion engines
used to generate electrical energy.
4.3.2.1 Simple Cycle Combustion Turbine
Simple cycle combustion turbine (SCCT) is a type of gas or oil fired turbine most frequently used in the
power industry. The main advantage of an SCCT is the ability for it to "cycle" or be turned on and off
within minutes. Due to their ability to operate from several hours per day to dozens of hours per year,
SCCTs are useful for supplying power during peak demand. In areas with a shortage of base load a gas
turbine power plant may regularly operate during most hours of the day and even into the evening. A
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typical large simple cycle gas turbine may produce 100 to 300 MW of power and have 35 to 40 percent
thermal efficiency. The most efficient turbines have reached 46 percent efficiency.
Figure C- 2: Coal-fired thermal power plant diagram
1. Cooling system
2. Cooling water pump
3. Transmission line
4. Step-up transformer
5. Electrical generator
6. Low pressure steam turbine
7. Condensate pump
8. Surface condenser
9. Intermediate pressure steam
turbine
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wi
10. Steam Control valve
11. High pressure steam turbine
12. Deaerator
13. Feedwater heater
14. Coal conveyor
15. Coal hopper
16. Coal pulverizer
17. Boiler steam drum
18. Bottom ash hopper
ki/Thermal_power_station
19. Superheater
20. Forced draught (draft) fan
21. Reheater
22. Combustion air intake
23. Economiser
24. Air preheater
25. Emissions control
26. Induced draught (draft) fan
27. Flue gas stack
4.3.2.2 Combined Cycle Turbine
A combined cycle turbine is characteristic of a power producing engine or plant that employs more than
one thermodynamic cycle. In a combined cycle power plant or combined cycle gas turbine plant a gas
turbine generator generates electricity and the waste heat is used to make steam to generate additional
electricity via a steam turbine. Using the direct combustion as well as the waste heat to generate
electricity enhances the efficiency of electricity generation. Usually less than 50 percent of the heat
generated is used and the remaining heat (e.g. hot exhaust fumes) from combustion is wasted. Most
new gas power plants in North America and Europe are of this type. For large scale power generation a
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typical set would be a 400 megawatt (MW) Gas Turbine coupled to a 200 MW Steam Turbine giving 600
MW. A typical power station might comprise of between 2 and 6 such sets.
4.3.2.3 Reciprocating Engine Generators
Only large capacity diesel reciprocating engine generators are considered in these guidelines as gasoline
powered systems are generally not used in the energy sector. A reciprocating engine generator is a
combination of a diesel engine, a generator and various ancillary devices such as base, canopy, sound
attenuation, control systems, circuit breakers, jacket water heaters, starting systems etc. Sizes up to
about five MW are used for small power stations, which may use up to 20 units. In these larger sizes the
engine and generator are brought to site separately and assembled along with ancillary equipment.
Diesel generators, sometimes as small as 250 kilovolt amps, are widely used at power plants not only for
emergency power, but also many have a secondary function of feeding power to utility grids either
during peak periods, or periods when there is a shortage of large power generators.
One or more diesel generators operating without a connection to an electrical grid are said to be
operating in "island" mode. Several parallel generators provide the advantages of redundancy and
better efficiency at partial loads. An island power plant intended for primary power source of an
isolated community will often have at least three diesel generators, any two of which are rated to carry
the required load. Groups of up to 20 are not uncommon.
4.3.3 Implications for Project Description
In addition to the list of general information presented in Section 3.1, thermal/fossil fuel project
descriptions should include design information and specifications for the following:
• Type of technology (external combustion with steam turbine, or internal combustion with
combined cycle turbine, simple cycle combustion turbine, or reciprocating engine)
• Design details for each power generation component (as appropriate)
o Combustion chambers
o Boilers
o Steam controls
o Turbines
o Generators
o Cooling systems
o Noise control
o Fuel storage
o Amount, type and constituents of the waste from fuel combustion
o Plans for storage and disposal of combustion waste
o Heat and extent of thermal discharge as well as heat discharge control technology
o Treatment and emission of exhaust gases
• Use of air pollution control devices (electrostatic precipitators, baghouses, cyclones,
scrubbers, dust suppressants, steam injection, limestone or ammonia injection, fuel
cleaning and or use of cleaner fuels, and other control measures)
• Disposal of dust and slag from treatment systems
• Optimization of stoichiometry of combustion
• Limitation of process rates or hours of operation
• Design of stacks to minimize downwash or near field plume impacts
• Type of fuel or mix, indicating:
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o Amounts required per day and month
o BTU, water content, and other characteristics that will determine how well combustion will
take place and resulting air emissions
o Where it will come from
o How it will be transported to site
• Roads, railways or waterways
• Conveyor belts
• Pipelines
o Storage requirements
o Required processing or cleaning
• Pre-operation Phase: projects with cooling ponds should include a filling plan including, but not
limited to:
o Proposed filling rate with definite hold periods for observation
o Options to control filling
o Schedule for inspection and evaluation of structures and instrumentation
4.4 Thermal/Biomass Power
Thermal/Biomass power production uses the combustion of biomass or biofuels to either directly or
indirectly turn generators or alternators that produce electrical energy. The technologies used to
generate energy are the same as those for Thermal/Fossil Fuel power production, but the fuels and their
generation are significantly different. Biomass and biofuels are a renewable energy source derived from
living, or recently living organisms, such as wood, waste, plants and algae (Figure C-3). It excludes
organic material such as fossil fuel such which has been transformed by geological processes over long
periods of time.
Figure C- 3: Sources of biomass used globally for energy generation, including for cooking heating
Forest Residues
.Black Liquor
1%
Wood Industry
Residues
5%
Energy Crops
3%
MSW
and Landfill Gas
3%
Source: EIA Bioenergy. 2009. Bioenergy a Sustainable and Reliable Energy: A review of status
and prospects, pg. 10. http://www.ieabioenergy.com/Libltem.aspx?id=6479
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Thermal/Biomass power production includes the external combustion of biomass such as wood, hemp,
miscanthus, crop by-products (straw, field residues, rice husks, corn cobs, etc.), solid waste or biofuels
to heat boilers or boiler tubes to generate steam. The steam is then used to turn generators or
alternators. It also includes the use of biofuels to directly fuel internal combustion turbines or
reciprocating engines hooked to turbines. The system components are the same as those presented in
Figure C-2 with the exception of the fuel preparation and delivery (items 14-16).
Biofuels are derived from conversion of biomass (organic material) into a combustible fuel. Biomass can
be converted into biofuels via physical extraction (as in the case of some oils), decomposition,
fermentation, thermal processes, or chemical processes. Biofuels may be gases such as methane or
liquids such as ethanol or biodiesel. Most biofuel production comes from harvesting organic matter and
then converting it to fuel but an alternative approach relies on the fact that some algae naturally
produce ethanol and this can be collected without killing the algae. In addition to being used to power
external combustion systems, biofuels can be used to power internal combustion, so that they can be
used as fuel for the technologies described in subsection 4.3.2.
Several agricultural products are specifically grown for biofuel production:
• Corn, switchgrass and soybeans, primarily in the United States
• Rapeseed wheat and sugar beet primarily in Europe
• Sugarcane in Brazil
• Palm oil and miscanthus in South-East Asia
• Sorghum and cassava in China
• Jatropha and Pongamia pinnata in India
• Pongamia pinnata in Australia and the tropics
• Hemp has also been proven to work as a biofuel
In addition to the general list above in 3.1 and the specific design information required for thermal
plants in 4.3, biomass project descriptions should include:
• Source of biomass (specific locations of production centers, including solid waste facilities if
applicable)
• Land dedicated to growing/producing crops or trees for biomass
o Development of support facilities, such as irrigation systems including diversions, reservoirs,
canals, etc.
o Chemical use and storage for pesticides and fertilizers on production lands
• Design details for any treatment for biomass use or conversion for biofuel required before use
o Energy demands and sources for treatment
o Releases to the environment
• Storage of raw and treated materials
4.5 Hydropower
Hydropower is further subdivided into the categories of hydroelectric power and hydrokinetic power.
Hydroelectric projects generate electricity from the flow of water with use of a dam or diversion,
whereas hydrokinetic projects generate electricity from the movement of waves or currents without the
use of a dam or diversion.
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4.5.1 Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power is categorized by capacity as being pico (< 5 kW), micro (< 100 kW), mini (< 1 MW),
small (< 30 MW) and large (> 30 MW), and by head, where low head is < 30 meters, medium is 30-300
meters and high head is > 300 meters. Most hydroelectric projects connected to the grid in CAFTA-DR
countries are large, however there is growing interest in smaller projects (pico, micro, mini or small
capacity) because they can serve small remote communities or individual facilities. If these facilities are
not located near endangered species and do not significantly alter the flow of the river, they can offer a
relatively benign source of energy.
There are three types of hydroelectric power projects: conventional, pumped storage and instream
energy generation technology.
a) Conventional projects, use a dam or diversion, and may operate in a run-of-the-river mode,
where outflow from the project approximates inflow, or peaking, where flows are stored and
released on a daily, monthly, or seasonal basis. To increase "head" for electrical generation, the
developer may construct the powerhouse downstream from the dam, diverting water from a
section of river known as the bypassed reach. Figures C-4 and C-5 present diagrams of typical
conventional hydroelectric projects.
b) Pumped storage projects use bodies of water at two different elevations. Water flows to the
lower body of water by gravity, generating power during periods of peak electrical use and
pumping water back uphill during off-peak hours (see Figure C-6). If both the upper and lower
bodies of water are distinct reservoirs, the pumped storage is considered closed. Conversely, an
open pumped storage system would typically have a dammed river as either the upper or lower
water body.
c) Instream energy generation technology derives power from low-head turbines placed directly in
rivers or manmade channels, where the current directly turns the turbine generating electrical
energy. These systems require no dams or diversions, so that their environmental impacts can
be relatively benign. Low-head turbines turn much slower than conventional turbines and
generate less energy per turbine (10 to 40 kW per turbine) requiring many more to be built for a
given level of energy production.
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Figure C- 4: Hydroelectric dam diagram
^X«L-
Darn
Source: http://www.tva.gov/power/hydroart.htm
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Figure C- 5: Diversion hydroelectric project
Source: World Bank. Renewable Energy Toolkit Technology Module, page 3.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRENENERGYTK/Resources/REToolkit Technologies.pdf
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Figure C- 6: Pumped Storage hydroelectric project
s
In addition to the general list above in 3.1, hydroelectric project descriptions should include:
• Type (Hydroelectric dam or diversion, pumped storage, instream energy generation technology
or hydrokinetic)
• Intake: describe the water point of intake in terms of:
o Peak level in m above mean sea level
o Length in m
o Operation mechanisms such as grids, gates, useful volume, dead volume etc.
• Diversion (if applicable)
o Type
o Height, height of crown and length in m
o Type and number of gates
• Dam (if applicable)
o Type
o Height, height of crown and length in m
o Type and number of gates
• Reservoir (if applicable)
o Surface area at specified elevations
o Maximum and minimum operational pool level in m AMSL
o Total volume in m3
o Operational volume in m3
o Information on reservoir strata and limnology
o Sediment storage in m3
o Retention time
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o Height-volume curve
o Lining (if applicable)
• Power house
o Number and type of turbines
o Minimum and maximum hydraulic capacity of turbines
o Cooling system
o Generators
o Other special equipment
• Tunnels and canals
o Lengths in km
o Cross sections indicating size in m and construction materials
• Penstocks and pipelines
o Lengths in km
o Cross sections indicating size in m and construction materials
• Pre-operation Phase: Reservoir filling plan (if appropriate) including, but not limited to:
o Proposed filling rate with definite hold periods for observation
o Options to control filling
o Schedule for inspection and evaluation of structures and instrumentation
4.5.2 Hydrokinetic Power
Hydrokinetic power is defined as projects that generate electricity from waves or directly from the flow
of water in ocean currents, tides or inland waterways without use of a dam. Hydrokinetic power is a
newer development and it is estimated that 30% or more of global power needs in nations having
enough coastal access could be generated using hydrokinetic power.
There are four types of wave energy devices: point absorbers, attenuators, overtopping terminators,
and oscillating water column terminators (see Figure C-7). Current energy devices consist of a rotor and
generator. The two types are axial, which are typically horizontal (Figure C-8) and cross flow (either
vertical or horizontal).
Point absorbers are floating structures with one component (generally a buoy) that moves up and down
with wave action and another component that is fixed to the ocean floor or relatively fixed via a
submerged damper. The two components move independently, causing a piston action, which is
converted to energy via electromechanical or hydraulic converters. Point absorbers are not currently
being used anywhere as a major energy source, but experimental versions have proven that they
produce energy.
Attenuators are long, multi-segment floating structures oriented parallel to the direction of wave travel.
The motion of the waves moves the segments independently, causing them to flex at the joints where
the segments connect. The flexing action is converted into energy via hydraulic pumps or other
converters. Those connected to hydraulic pumps pressurize hydraulic fluid, which is then used to drive a
generator. The first commercial wave farm using Pelamis attenuators began operation in 2008 off the
coast of Portugal (Agucadoura). But since has shut down; first for technical reasons, then for later for
financial reasons.
Overtopping terminators float at or near the ocean surface, perpendicular to the direction of wave
travel and located near the shore where waves break. They have reservoirs that are filled when waves
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overtop the structure. After the device is overtopped, the water in the reservoir is above the average
surrounding sea level. The water is then released through a controlled opening in the reservoir, and
gravity causes it to fall back toward the ocean surface. The energy of the falling water is used to turn
conventional, low-head hydro turbines. No overtopping terminators are currently proposed for use in
the United States; however, projects and prototypes have been demonstrated in the United Kingdom,
Denmark and Portugal.
Oscillating water column (OWC) terminators are built on shore, perpendicular to the direction of wave
travel. When waves break on shore, water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber with air
trapped above it. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a
piston, forcing the air though an opening connected to a wind turbine. A full-scale, 500-kW, prototype
OWC designed and built by Energetech is undergoing testing offshore at Port Kembla in Australia. The
technology has also been demonstrated in the United Kingdom and Portugal, and at least two projects
are under development in the United States.
In addition to the general list above in 3.1, hydrokinetic project descriptions should include:
• Description, including dimensions, of all devices, moorings, safety markers, and transmission
line to shore facilities
• All land-based facilities and technologies used to capture and distribute the electricity
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Figure C- 7: Wave energy devices
Point Absorbers
Attenuators
Overtopping Terminators
reservoir
overtopping
The Wells turbines rotate in the same
direction regardless of the direction of the air
flow, thus generating irrespective of upward
or downward movement of the water column.
Oscillating Water Column
Terminators
Air is compressed and decompressed by
tha Oscillating Water Column (OWC).
This causes air to be forced out and then
sucked back through (he Wells turbine.
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Figure C- 8: Tidal turbines
t
3
Sea Level
Curfont
Sashed
4.6 Solar Power
Solar energy can provide electrical power for distribution by utilities in sizes ranging from 10's of
megawatts to a 1,000 megawatts. Solar power plants can be stand-alone or hybrid plants in which solar
and other power sources are combined. Solar power can be used to generate electricity either directly
through use of photovoltaic cells or by heating a fluid or gas which then drives a steam turbine or a
Stirling or Brayton heat engine.
All solar power projects have some common design components in addition to those identified in
section 3.1. These include:
• Water sources, amounts and storage for regularly washing the collector surfaces
• Energy storage, if applicable
• Plans for back up power systems using fossil fuels or other sources, if applicable
• Alternative fluid heating system, if applicable
o Specifications
o Fuel
o Fuel storage
o Emissions controls
Solar power is divided into two generic types: concentrating solar power and photovoltaic (PV) (Figure
C-9). The following subsections present basic information on each of these technologies.
4.6.1 Concentrating Solar Power
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies use mirrors to concentrate or focus the sun's light energy
and convert it into heat to achieve sufficient fluid temperatures to efficiently produce electrical energy.
Higher efficiencies reduce the plant's collector size and total land use per unit power generated,
reducing the environmental impacts of a power plant as well as its expense.
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There are four primary types of CSP plants:
• parabolic troughs
• linear Fresnel systems
• power towers
• parabolic dishes
With a parabolic trough system the sun's energy is concentrated using parabolically curved, trough-
shaped reflectors (Figure C-10) onto a receiver pipe running along the focal line of the curved surface in
which there is a heat transfer fluid. A Fresnel system is similar to a trough in that mirrors focus the sun's
energy onto a pipe in which there is a heat transfer fluid. The mirrors, however, are in long narrow
strips located close to the ground. Power towers utilize an array of sun-tracking mirrors (heliostats) to
focus sunlight on a receiver at the top of a tower in the center of the array, which contains a heat
transfer fluid. In all three systems the hot heat transfer fluid is used to generate steam to power a
turbine, similar to that used in other thermal power plants. As such, a solar thermal plant can have
most of components 1-13 in Figure C-2, as can be seen in the system diagrams presented in Figures C-ll
and C-12.
Parabolic trough, linear Fresnel and power tower plants generate heat to convert water to steam, but
many plants also store excess heat for subsequent use. With current technology, storage of heat is
much cheaper and more efficient than storage of electricity. This can be seen in the "Thermal Storage"
component in Figure C-ll. This design runs a heat transfer fluid through the parabolic array and to a
heat exchanger for the water/steam system, turning the water into steam that then drives a steam
turbine. When the sun is strong enough to provide more energy than is needed for the direct heat
exchange, a portion of the heated transfer fluid passes through an exchanger for the liquid salt system,
which heats liquid salt from the cold tank and stores it in the hot tank. When the solar energy is
insufficient to provide the necessary energy to transform water into steam, the hot liquid salt can be
pumped through the heat exchanger, thus boosting the temperature of the transfer fluid. When the sun
goes down, the storage system can continue to heat the fluid. In this way, the CSP plant can produce
electricity day and night. Some projects install a back-up system that uses fossil energy to fire boilers.
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Figure C- 9: Solar power technologies and their environmental requirements
CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS
Parabolic Trough
• Rows of parabolic mirrors each with
an absorber tube
• Thermal power plant
• Land requirement - 5 acres/MW
• Water - 7,400 to 16,000 m3/yr/MW
Linear Fresnel System
• Rows of long narrow mirrors low
to ground focused on an
absorber tube
• Thermal power plant
• Land requirement - 5 acres/MW
Power Tower
• Central tower (300-450 ft
height)/field of mirrors
• Thermal power plant
• Land requirement - 9 acres/MW
• Water - 7,400 to 16,000
m3/yr/MW
S|£Sr&£KVv«v
v ^ %: 4\>_--*, ;.*• <^ < &
Parabolic Dish
• Dish shaped mirror/heat piston engine
• Sterling or Brayton engine, no thermal plant
• Land requirement - 9 acres/MW
• Water - 62 m3/yr/MW
PHOTOVOLTAIC/CONCENTRATED PHOTOVOLTAIC
• Solar cell panels
• No thermal plant
• Land requirement-10
acres/MW
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Figure C-10: Solar parabolic trough diagram
_ Reflector
Absorber tube
Solar field piping
Source: International Energy Agency. 2010. Technology Roadmap: Concentrating Solar Power. Paris.
pg. 11. http://www.iea.org/papers/2010/csp roadmap.pdf
Figure C-11: Solar parabolic trough plant diagram with a liquid salt storage unit.
1. Parabolic troughs
2. Transfer fluid piping
3. Oil/salt heat exchange
4. Salt piping
5. Hot salt storage tank
6. Cold salt storage tank
7. Oil/Steam heat exchange
8. Water-Steam piping
9. Steam turbine
10. Generator
11. Substation
12. Heat exchange
13. Cooling Tower
Source: International Energy Agency. 2010. Technology Roadmap: Concentrating Solar Power. Paris. Pg. 13.
http://www.iea.org/papers/2010/csp roadmap.pdf
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Figure C-12: Solar power tower diagram
iiyi«ii Bourdary
Substation Steer* T
and Etaldt Ceneiancr
Source: http://www.solarpaces.org/CSP Technology/docs/solar tower.pdf
In addition to the general list above in 3.1 and 4.6, project descriptions for CSP using parabolic trough,
linear Fresnel, or power tower technologies should include:
• Type (parabolic trough, linear Fresnel or power tower)
• Mirror array (concentrators)
o Type
o Design
o Placement
o Foundations
o Tracking controls, if applicable
• Heating fluid
o Type-chemical composition
o Quantity
o Storage
o Disposal of spent fluid
• Piping for fluid conveyance from collectors to plant
• Heat storage
• Heat exchangers
• Boilers
• Steam controls
• Cooling system
• Cooling water
o Quantity
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o Source(s)
o Intakes
o Treatment and discharge
• Turbines
• Electrical generators
• Transformers
4.6.2 CSP Parabolic Dish-Engines
CSP parabolic dish systems use a mirror array (also called concentrators) to reflect and concentrate the
sun's energy on a receiver which transfers the energy to a working fluid or gas that in turn powers an
engine that turns a generator or alternator (Figure C-13). These systems are often referred to as solar
dish-engine systems. The electrical energy is generated at each engine, so the fluid or gas does not need
to be piped through the facility. The electrical energy is transported to the collector substation via
electrical cabling. To make the arrays effective, they should track the sun in two axes, so that the
reflected energy is always concentrated on the receiver.
The engines that are generally favored are the Stirling and Brayton (gas turbine) engines. The Sterling
engines require a cooling system, which is generally a radiator. The Brayton engines discharge most of
their waste heat in the exhaust. Both types of engines can be operated using other sources of external
heat, such as fossil fuel, so that they can function even when solar radiation is too low or non-existent.
Figure C-13: Schematic of a dish-engine system with stretched-membrane mirrors
Source: http://www.solarpaces.org/CSP Technology/docs/solar dish.pdf
In addition to the general list above in 3.1 and 4.6, solar dish engine project descriptions should include:
• Mirror array (concentrators)
o Type
o Design
o Foundations
o Tracking controls
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• Receivers
o Type
o Specifications
• Working fluid/gas
o Composition
o Source
o Transport
o Storage
o Disposal of spent fluid/gas
• Engines
o Type
o Specifications
o Generators or alternators
o Capacity
o Cooling system
• Electrical collector lines
• System controls
• Collector substation
• Transformers
4.6.3 Solar Photovoltaic
A solar cell is a device that converts sunlight into electric current. The cell is constructed of
semiconductor materials similar to those used in computer chips. When exposed to the sunlight, these
materials absorb photons and release electrons. The free electrons can be captured and converted into
electrical energy. There are fourteen competing types of photovoltaic cells, including monocrystalline
silicon, polycrystalline silicon, and amorphous cells. It is too early to know which technology will
become dominant.
Each solar cell is generally very small and capable of generating only a few watts of electricity. They are
typically combined into modules of about 40 cells, and the modules are assembled into photovoltaic
(PV) arrays up to several meters on a side. A PV generating facility will have hundreds of these arrays
connected together and set at a fixed angle facing south, or mounted on tracking devices that follow the
movement of the sun (Figure C-14). A single-axis array tracks the sun from East to West during the day
and can provide 30%-40% more energy than a fixed array.
The energy collected by the arrays is direct current, so it has to be transformed into alternating current
before it can be delivered to the grid. The conversion is accomplished using inverters. The resulting
energy is than adjusted to the necessary voltage and frequency with the use of transformers, switches
and control circuits.
Concentrating PV (CPV) systems are a relatively new method of electricity generation from the sun. CPV
systems employ lenses and mirrors to focus greater amount of solar energy onto highly efficient solar
cells. This greatly increases the efficiency of the cells. CPV systems should track the sun to keep the
light focused on the PV cells, which generally requires highly sophisticated tracking devices.
In addition to the general list above in 3.1, solar photovoltaic cell project descriptions should include:
• Solar panels
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o Type
o Chemical composition of materials in the cells
o Capacity
• Electrical collector lines
• System controls
• Collector substation
• Transformers
• Plans for disposing of damaged or inoperable solar panels
Figure C-14: Schematic of a photovoltaic power generating system
Solar arrays
Sources: U.S. Department of Energy, http://solareis.anl.gov/documents/docs/NREL PV 2.pdf and
http://solareis.anl.gov/guide/solar/pv/index.cfm
4.7 Wind Power
Due to changing meteorological conditions and wind speed variability, wind is an inconsistent source of
energy, thus wind energy requires storage or backup generation systems. This could include demand-
side energy management, but if that is insufficient the project will have to include backup power
generation from hydropower, fossil fuel or other sources.
There are two general types of wind turbine, horizontal and vertical axis. Horizontal axis wind turbines
(HAWT), the more commonly used type, are comprised of blades situated perpendicular to the direction
of wind flow and are typically like a very large three-bladed aircraft propeller. Current utility-grade wind
turbines are 100 meters or higher at the hub, and typically have capacities of one, two, three, or five
MW.
Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) are rare in utility applications as they are of much smaller MW
capacity. VAWTs are situated closer to the surface and therefore normally exposed to lower wind
energies than at higher elevation on the same site, and have about twice the blade sweep area as HAWT
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systems. VAWT systems are, however, gaining in popularity due to easier installation and service, lower
visual and sound profile, lower impact on bat and bird populations, and ability to collocate on the
footprints of existing HAWT farms thereby generating additional power at a lower incremental cost per
additional MW installed.
In addition to the general list above in 3.1, wind project descriptions should include:
• Wind turbines
o Type
o Nameplate capacity and capacity factor. Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's
annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings
multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this
theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 20 to 40
percent.
o Height
• Hub height
• Rotor diameter
• Total height
o Foundations
• Electrical collector lines
• System controls
• Collector substation
• Transformers
• Energy storage, if applicable
• Backup energy source, if applicable
4.8 Geothermal Power
There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle. Dry steam
power plants pipe steam directly from underground wells to the power plant, where it is directed into a
steam turbine/generator unit. These systems require sources of underground steam, which are not
common.
Flash steam power plants are the most common. They use geothermal reservoirs of water with
temperatures greater than 182°C, which flows up through wells under its own pressure. As it flows
upward, the pressure decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then
separated from the water and used to power a steam turbine/generator.
Both dry and flash steam plants are open systems, meaning that the geothermal water and steam is not
fully contained and can off-gas air emissions. As these plants use steam turbines, they have most of
components 1-13 in Figure C-2.
Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of about 107°—182°C. These plants
use the heat from the hot water to boil a working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling
point. The working fluid is vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a turbine/generator unit or a
Sterling engine/generator. The water is then injected back into the ground to be reheated. The water
and the working fluid are kept separated during the whole process, so there are little or no air
emissions.
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Geothermal electric plants have until recently been built exclusively on the edges of tectonic plates
where high temperature geothermal resources are available near the surface. The development of
binary cycle power plants and improvements in drilling and extraction technology may enable enhanced
geothermal systems over a much greater geographical range.
In addition to the general list above in 3.1, geothermal project descriptions should include:
• Descriptions of all geothermal wells, including both exploratory wells and production wells
o Number
o Location
o Depth and diameter
o Design
o Materials used
• Equipment used for drilling wells
o Disposition of waste material during drilling
o Water intakes
o Water discharges including reinjection
o Turbines and electrical generators
o Transformers and transmission lines
• Piping for water conveyance from wells to plant
• Heat exchangers
• Boilers
• Steam controls
• Cooling system
• Cooling water
o Quantity
o Source(s)
o Intakes
o Treatment and discharge
• Treatment of "spent" thermal water
o Type (reinjection or surface discharge)
o Locations
o Specifications
o Treatment, if applicable
• Turbines
• Electrical generators
• Transformers
• Air emissions controls for "open" systems
5 ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION
Electric power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy between the point of generation and
multiple substations near a populated area or load center. Electric power transmission allows distant
energy sources to be connected to consumers in population centers, and may allow exploitation of low-
grade fuel resources such as coal that would otherwise be too costly to transport to generating facilities.
A power transmission network is referred to as a "grid." Multiple redundant lines between points on
the grid are provided so that there are a variety of routes from any power plant to any load center. The
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specific routing of electricity on the grid at any time is based on the economics of the transmission path
and the cost of power.
Usually transmission lines use three phase alternating current (AC). High voltage direct current systems
are used for long distance transmission, or some undersea cables, or for connecting two different AC
networks. Electricity is usually transmitted at high voltages (110 KV or above) to reduce the energy lost
in transmission.
Transmission may be via overhead or underground lines. Overhead transmission lines are made of bare
metal, uninsulated conductors. The conductor material is nearly always an aluminum alloy, made into
several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Improved conductor material and shapes are
regularly used to allow increased capacity and modernize transmission circuits. Because the lines are
uninsulated, minimum clearances should be observed to maintain safety both in terms of access from
the ground and from the airspace.
Although more costly and therefore less used, burying power cables underground can assist the
transmission of power across:
• Densely populated urban areas
• Areas where land is unavailable or planning consent is difficult (Underground cables need a
narrower surrounding strip of about 1 to 10 meters to install, whereas an overhead line requires
a surrounding strip of about 20 to 200 meters wide to be kept permanently clear for safety,
maintenance and repair)
• Rivers and other natural obstacles
• Land with outstanding natural or environmental heritage
• Areas of significant or prestigious infrastructural development
• Areas with high risk of damage from severe weather conditions (mainly wind)
• Areas with concerns about emission of electromagnetic fields (EMF). (All electric currents
generate EMF, but the shielding provided by the earth surrounding underground cables restricts
their range and power.)
Most high-voltage underground cables for power transmission that are currently sold on the market are
insulated by a sheath of cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE). Some cable may have a lead or aluminum
jacket in conjunction with XLPE insulation to allow for fiber optics to be seamlessly integrated within the
cable.
In addition to higher installation costs, underground lines also have higher maintenance and operation
costs. Whereas finding and repairing overhead wire breaks can be accomplished in hours, underground
repairs can take days or weeks, and for this reason redundant lines are run. Operations are more
difficult since the high reactive power of underground cables produces large charging currents and so
makes voltage control more difficult.
In addition to the general list above in 3.1, transmission project descriptions should include:
• All Transmission
o Voltage carried
o Number of lines
o Total length of line in km (disaggregated by overhead and buried if applicable)
o The grid into which the transmission line will connect and the points of interconnection
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o Number and designs of substations to be constructed or modified and operated in
conjunction with the transmission line (include all component parts, i.e. transformers,
switches, fuses, etc.)
Overhead Transmission
o Tower design (number, type, composition and dimensions)
o Conductors
• Composition and diameter
• Minimum height over ground level and between lines
o Shield wire composition
o Right of way
• Width in meters
• Initial and maintenance vegetative treatments, including disposal of waste material
Underground Transmission
o Conductors
• Composition and diameter
• Depth and trench and fill specifications
o Number, type, composition and dimensions of manholes
o Conductors
• Composition and diameter
• Minimum height over ground level for overhead lines
• Depth and trench and fill specifications for buried lines
Table C- 1: Specific components requiring design details in the Project and Alternatives Description
Components
(Specific design details are presented in TOR 4.4)
01
3
LL.
'w
U)
O
LL.
Biomass/Biofuel
Hydro power
•D
C
5
1_
as
0
Ifl
Geothermal
Transmission
Design and Engineering Features of the Main Power Plant
Towers
Wind turbines
Solar panels
Mirror array (concentrators)
Receivers
Working gas/fluids
Engines
Heating fluids
Piping for fluid conveyance from collectors to plant
Heat exchangers
Cleaning water for regularly washing reflective surfaces and panels
Electrical collector lines
System controls
Collector substation
Geothermal wells
• Equipment used for drilling wells
• Disposition of waste material during drilling
• Piping for water conveyance from wells to plant
A
X
A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
X
X
X
X
A
A
A
X
X
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C. PROJECT AND ALTERNATIVES DESCRIPTION
Components
(Specific design details are presented in TOR 4.4)
01
3
LL.
1
£
Biomass/Biofuel
Hydropower
•D
C
5
i_
as
O
1/1
Geothermal
Transmission
Design and Engineering Features of the Main Power Plant
Combustion chambers
Boilers
Steam controls
Turbines
Generators
Cooling systems
Cooling water treatment and discharge
Treatment and disposal of "spent" thermal water
Storage and disposal of combustion ash and/or slag
Treatment and emission of exhaust gases
Substations
Transformers and/or alternators
Onsite connecter and transmission lines
Energy storage
Backup energy source
Water Intake or diversion
Dam
Reservoir or ponds
Water tunnels, canals, penstocks and pipelines
Fuel
• Type of fuel or mix
• Amount
• Heat and extent of associated thermal discharge
• Source
• Transport to site
• Storage
• Land dedicated to growing/producing crops or trees for biomass
X
A
A
A
X
X
A
A
X
X
X
X
A
A
A
A
X
X
A
A
A
X
X
A
X
X
X
X
X
A
A
A
A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
A
A
X
X
X
X
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
X
X
A
A
A
A
A
A
X
X
X
X
X
A
X
X
X
A
A
A
Off-site Transmission lines
Line voltage
Total length of line (disaggregated by overhead and buried if applicable)
Conductors
Shield wire composition
Number, type, composition and dimensions of towers
Number, type, composition and dimensions of manholes
Number and designs of new or upgraded substations
Points of interconnection with the existing grid
Right-of-way
• Location
• Width
• Treatments/maintenance
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Key:
X= Required
A=lf Applicable (this component may or may not be part of this type of Energy Project)
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6 TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
All new and existing transportation facilities should be addressed in this section, including roads, trains,
conveyors, and waterways. If the project will require new access routes, these should also be included
in this section. This section should contain a map of transportation routes that will be constructed and
maintained by the project, indicating the type and size of each route as well as the timing of its
construction.
6.1 Roads
There are several types of roads that may be used, maintained, upgraded or constructed as part of the
project, including primary and secondary roads used to bring in construction materials and provide
facility access and smaller roads used for accessing remote sites for monitoring. For each of these roads,
the project description should include maps and specific design information including:
• Identify all existing roads to be used
o Traffic volume, operating speeds and trip times
• Detailed information on any roads to be constructed
o Location
o Timing of construction
o Road surface and shoulder width and barriers
o Grade specifications
o Construction methods including clearing and grubbing
o Construction materials
o Compaction specifications
o Stream crossings and associated designs
o Animal crossings
o Sedimentation and erosion prevention structures and practices
o Stabilization methods for cuts and fills
o Typical elevations for each type and situation of road displaying construction materials,
levels of compaction and erosion and sedimentation features
o Borrow pits
o Closure plan, if applicable
o Traffic volume, operating speeds and trip times
• Dust control for construction and operation
• Maintenance
• Roster for construction and maintenance equipment, specifying type and quantity by size,
motor size, and fuel requirements
6.2 Transportation by Rail
If a railroad is to be used or constructed to bring in construction materials or fuels, information will need
to be provided concerning its construction and alignment, including a map of its location. Necessary
design criteria include:
• Timing of construction
• Roadbed width
• Roadbed construction method including clearing and grubbing
• Roadbed materials
• Grade and maximum grade
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• Tightest curves
• Track construction materials
• Turnouts and sidings
• Railroad communications and signaling
• Designs, including typical elevations of:
o Road crossings
o Stream crossings and associated designs
o Sedimentation and erosion prevention structures and practices
• Stabilization methods for cuts and fills
• Maintenance
• Dust control measures during construction
• Borrow pits
o Location and size (area and volume of material)
o Operation
o Sedimentation and erosion controls
o Closure plan
• Construction equipment roster specifying type and quantity by: size, motor size, and fuel
requirements for each type of equipment
An operations program should address traffic volume, operating speeds and trip times. The train itself
should be described in terms of the type and amount of cars and locomotives, the overall length, the
average tons per car and per train, the number of trips per week it would be operated.
If an existing railroad is to be used, improvements and changes to the existing operations will need to be
indicated in terms of the aspects outlined in the above paragraphs.
6.3 Conveyors
Conveyors may be used to transport fuel to the site or to move fuel onsite. Maps showing the locations
and lengths of all conveyors and complete design details, including source of energy for operation and
dust control measures, should be included in this section. Where conveyors cross water bodies,
conveyors should be covered to prevent water contamination.
6.4 Pipelines
If pipelines will be used to deliver fuel to the site, information should be presented in this section on the
location, design, construction and operation of the pipelines, including:
• Maps showing the location of the pipeline
• Source of fuel
• Stream and road crossing designs
• Monitoring
7 ONSITE SUPPORT FACILITIES
Energy generation projects may have many ancillary structures at the plant facility such as office, toilet
facilities, bath houses, laboratories, shops, vehicle maintenance areas, warehouses, storage buildings,
storage areas, back up power generation, fuel preparation and cleaning areas, fences and fueling
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facilities. If the site is in a remote location, he facility may also construction camps (which may apply to
transmission as well as generation projects) and have employee housing.
Many of these facilities will require water systems, sewage treatment facilities and solid waste collection
and disposal. Some of them, such as vehicle maintenance, storage areas, power generation, and fueling
facilities, may generate hazardous wastes including solvents, lubricants, hydraulic fluids, anti-freeze,
spent tires and wash water. Others, such as warehouses, storage buildings and fueling stations may
store hazardous products (fuels, chemicals, heat transfer fluids, working fluids and explosives) that will
require containment and emergency procedures.
The Project and Alternatives Description should include a description and digitized site drawing of each
facility including its location, design, and associated services (water, sewage, solid waste disposal, etc.).
It should include a description of areas that will be temporarily disturbed during construction as well as
those areas that will be occupied by the facilities. It should detail how wastes from these facilities will
be managed and disposed.
This section should contain and inventory of all chemical, toxic or hazardous substances that will be used
during operation of the facilities including the active elements, means of storage, and safety precautions
to be used during transport and handling. It should include containment designs and emergency
response provisions for all facilities in which hazardous substances will be stored and handled as well as
those that may generate hazardous wastes. This section should also contain the project:
• Hazardous Waste Management Program
• Wastewater Management Program
• Solid Waste Management Program
• Spill Prevention Program
8 CLOSURE AND DECOMISSIONING PLAN
The project description should include at least a general closure and decommissioning plan describing
the plan for closing the facility, decommissioning the machinery and structures, and restoring the land
surface. The plan should contain a commitment to contact the proper regulatory agency(ies) at the time
of closure to obtain the environmental applicable guidelines to carry out the closure or
decommissioning, recognizing that terms of closure may be very different when this phase approaches.
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9 MANPOWER AND LOCAL PURCHASES
The project description should present information on the number and type of employees that will be
hired by the project, during all phases of its life, and the level at which the project will be relying upon
local businesses to provide goods and services. This information is necessary for assessing the social
impacts of the proposed mine. For both construction and operation, this information should include:
• Number and type of employees (by local hire and non-local hire) by field of expertise
• Days per week
• Hours per day
• Shifts per day
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D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
1 INTRODUCTION
A detailed description of the
Environmental Setting for an energy
power generation or transmission project
is an important aspect of an
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
It provides an environmental,
socioeconomic and cultural baseline for
assessment of impacts by describing the
existing conditions and those that are
predicted for the future in the absence of
the proposed project. The information
presented in the Environmental Setting
should not be encyclopedic, but rather
the specific, detailed information that is
necessary to predict impacts and
ultimately against which to monitor
impacts. This section should include an
environmental baseline of what would
exist in the absence of the proposed
project for the physical, biological and
social-economic-cultural environments
that could be affected by the alternatives
under consideration. This baseline takes into account both the current situation and important trends.
What is included in each of these three environments is summarized in Figure D-l. The scope of the
specific information required to describe each type of environment will vary with type and setting of the
project as well as the typical types of impacts with which it is associated with each type of project.
This baseline aids in focusing attention on the critical environmental and socioeconomic factors, how
the project might affect them, and how best to avoid or mitigate potential problems. In addition,
description of both the current environment and expectations in the absence of the proposed project
aids in the determination of potential cumulative environmental impacts that might occur should there
be other impact causing activities to those same resources and how to minimize these cumulative
impacts.
ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
In order to predict potential impacts of an energy power generation
and/or transmission project it is important to have detailed
information on the Environmental Setting to provide baseline
conditions for the:
• Physical environment,
• Biological environment, and
• Socioeconomic and cultural environment.
The details on how each of these is addressed in the EIA is
dependent on the complexity of the area, the nature of the energy
operation (small or large, in an urban environment or rural, thermal
or hydro etc.), social issues and regulatory requirements. The period
of baseline data collection for water resources, air, climate, and
ecosystems (flora, fauna, wildlife, etc.) should be significant enough
so that determination of long-term impacts can be made and may
require data to be collected over a period of one to five years.
Special emphasis for baseline studies depends on the nature of the
proposed project, for example a thermal electric power plant may
require more air quality data and a hydropower plant more data on
downstream water users, bridges, aquatic life, flood plain and
wetlands delineation.
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Figure D-1: Elements of the Physical, Biological and Social-Economic-Cultural Environments
Physical Environment
Geology and Soils (seismology/volcanology)
Water Resources
• Surface Water
• Groundwater
• Water Quality
Air and Climate
• Meteorology
• Ambient Air Quality (includes levels, visibility and deposition patterns)
• Existing Emissions
Noise and Vibration
Aesthetic Resources
Biological Environment
Flora
Fauna
Ecosystems (terrestrial, wetlands, aquatic, and/or marine)
• Key trends in structure and functions not captured under Flora and Fauna
• Sensitive Ecosystems
• Ecosystem Services
Endangered or Threatened Species and Habitats
Protected Areas
Social-Economic-Cultural Environment
Socioeconomic Condition
• Population
• Economy
• Social Characteristics
• Health
Infrastructure
• Transportation
• Public Health
• Communications
• Energy
Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources
Land Use
• Existing and Potential Land Use
• Recreation and Tourism
• Housing, Commercial and Industrial Development
• Population Centers
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2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Geology and Soils
Documentation of geology, soils and topography at the power plant site and along the transmission
route should be presented in the Environmental Setting in narrative and tabular form, cross-sections,
and on maps on which potential impacts can be overlaid. Information on geology, soils and topography
is typically available from the responsible ministries and academia. A site specific soil survey and test
boring may be required if such data is not reliable, adequate or readily available.
Seismic zone determination, frequency and intensity of earthquakes and tremors, maximum credible
earthquake, and maximum probable earthquake data should be included in this subsection, particularly
for projects that include large structures, fuel storage, impoundment dams, canals and penstocks. If the
power plant site or right of way is located within a radius of 30 km from an active volcanic emission
center information should also be presented on the general volcanic features of the area near the site,
historical eruptions, and period of recurrence, type of eruptions, and areas most likely to be affected by
eruptions.
During baseline data collection it is important to collect information on the erosion potential of the soils,
the chemical composition of each soil type, and the availability and suitability of soils for use during
restoration and revegetation. If a soil survey is necessary, it should include: soil type, grain size
distribution, engineering properties including stability, depth of various horizons, permeability, erosion
and sedimentation potential, current uses, fertility, and vegetative growth potential, etc. Particular care
should be given to studying tropical soil structure and chemistry since such soils are very sensitive to
degradation.
All energy generation and transmission projects have the potential to modify runoff and sedimentation,
so it is important that enough soil data is provided so that runoff and sediment transport models can
provide meaningful results.
2.2 Water Resources
2.2.1 Surface Water
The Environmental Setting section should include an evaluation of surface water resources in the direct
vicinity of the project. This should include the analysis of the watershed characteristics including water
quality, flow characteristics, drainage patterns and runoff characteristics, soils, vegetation, and
impervious cover (see box below). This information should be included on topographic maps which
should include all surface water resources and floodplains in the area of influence overlaid with the
proposed project facilities including all monitoring stations and discharge points.
All nearby rivers, streams, wetlands, lakes and other water bodies should be identified as well as the
current uses of the water. All existing historic surface water flow data in the area of influence should be
collected, compiled and analyzed to present information on:
• Average daily, monthly and annual flows in cubic meters per second (m3/s)
• Maximum monthly flows in m3/s
• Minimum monthly flow in m3/s
• 2-, 10-, 25-, 50- and 100-year runoff events and associated floodplains for streams and rivers
• Seasonal fluctuations in area and volume of wetlands, lakes and reservoirs
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For hydroelectric projects that alter the flow of rivers or streams or for other projects that will require a
significant amount of operational water (e.g., thermal plants with large water demand for cooling), the
Environmental Setting section should also present inventories of consumptive and non-consumptive use
(including types of uses by volume of use) and a calculation of the current surface water balance.
Watershed Approach
It is important to evaluate the environmental setting and potential impacts of an energy generation
and/or transmission project in relation to the entire watershed. Watershed management involves both
the quantity of water (surface and ground water) available and the quality of these waters.
Understanding the impact of the project on both the quantity and quality of water should take into
account the cumulative impacts of other activities in the same watershed.
A watershed-based impact assessment approach involves the following 10 steps. Steps 1-6 apply directly
to establishing the Environmental Setting. Steps 7-9 are concerned with assessing the impacts of the
project. Step 10 insures that stakeholders are involved in the design and analysis of the project.
1. Identify and map the boundaries of the watershed in which the project is located and place the
project boundaries on the map.
2. Identify the drainage pattern and runoff characteristics in the watershed.
3. Identify the downstream rivers, streams, wetlands, lakes and other water bodies.
4. Determine the existing quality of the water in these resources.
5. Determine the current and projected consumptive and non-consumptive uses of the water in
these resources:
• Drinking water
• Irrigation
• Aquaculture
• Industry
• Recreation
• Support of aquatic life
• Navigation
6. Determine the nature and extent of pollutants discharged throughout the watershed.
7. Determine the anticipated additional pollutants discharge from the proposed activity.
8. Estimate the impact of the project on the consumptive and non-consumptive use of water.
9. Identify other potential additional developments planned or projected for the watershed.
10. Identify stakeholders involved in watershed and encourage their participation in project design.
An important aspect of an EIA is the development and presentation of baseline surface water quality
monitoring data, which should be collected prior to disturbance. All existing historic water quality data
for the area of influence should be collected and compiled to help define the baseline.
For hydroelectric projects or projects that will have significant wastewater discharges, including thermal
discharges, these data should be augmented by the results of a surface water quality monitoring
program conducted at specific sites in the project area. Monitoring of baseline conditions should take
place for at least a year so that seasonal fluctuations in flow and water quality can be determined.
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Prior to implementing any baseline monitoring program, a "Sampling and Analysis Plan" should be
developed. This plan would define sample locations, sampling techniques, chemical parameters, and
analytical methods. Sample locations should be located upstream and immediately downstream of
potential pollutant sources (including dam and diversion outlets). The selection of chemical parameters
to be monitored is dependent on the nature of the pollutants to be discharged to surface water.
Monitored parameters may include: field parameters (pH, specific conductance, temperature, etc.) and
laboratory analyzed parameters (total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, selected trace metals,
major cations/anions), and perhaps other parameters depending on the nature of the operation.
2.2.2 Groundwater
The extent of the characterization of the baseline groundwater resources necessary for energy projects
varies greatly with the type of project. Wind and transmission lines have virtually no potential impacts
on groundwater, so do not require baseline information on groundwater. Other projects may have
impacts on groundwater quality or quantity or both, and therefore require more information on
groundwater conditions. Hydroelectric projects that create reservoirs can obviously have an effect on
the quantity of water in unconfined surface aquifers below the reservoir sites. The storage of fuel at
thermal/combustion plants can potentially impact groundwater quality. Consumptive use of water by
thermal power plants and discharge of cooling waters into cooling ponds can have impacts on both the
quantity and quality of groundwater.
For those projects that can impact groundwater quantity, the Environmental Setting section should
include descriptions of aquifers (bedrock and alluvial) including their geology, aquifer characteristics
(hydraulic characteristics), and the flow regime/direction for each aquifer. The influences of geologic
structures (faults, contacts, bedrock fracturing, etc) and surface water bodies on the aquifers should also
be mapped or determined.
All wells and springs in the area should be mapped and information provided on their flows, water levels
and uses. These maps should be overlaid with the topography and should cover the area of influence.
For wells, depth and construction information should be presented. The EIA should also indicate which
ones have been monitored and which ones will be monitored during and after operations. This
information can then be used, along with the locations of potential recharge and contaminant sources,
to determine potential impacts.
For those projects that can impact groundwater quality or quality, the information on vadose zone and
aquifer characteristics should include sufficient data on the parameters to allow aquifer and vadose
zone modeling. The necessary parameters will depend on the type modeling that will be required,
which should be selected based on the nature of the potential impacts. For instance, a hydroelectric
project with a reservoir will require sufficient data to run a groundwater flow model (analytical or
numeric) to determine the potential impacts to nearby wells. A project with cooling ponds or a project
with storage of solid or liquid fuel should use a groundwater flow model and a hydrochemistry model to
determine the potential impacts. Any model used requires good data to make realistic predictions.
As with surface water, an important aspect of the EIA is the development and presentation of baseline
water monitoring data, collected prior to disturbance. All existing data on quantity and quality of water
from springs and wells in the vicinity of the project should be collected and reported in the EIA to help
define the baseline. Water quality in all springs and nearby wells should be reported at least quarterly
for at least one year (and preferably two years) to determine baseline quality and chemistry. In
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addition, maps showing variations on a seasonal basis of water quality and groundwater levels should be
included.
For projects that can potentially have impacts on groundwater quality, if data for existing wells and
springs are not available, a "Sampling and Analysis Plan" should be prepared and a sampling program
implemented. The sampling should include water levels and flow rates as well as other parameters such
as pH, temperature, and specific conductance. The selection of chemical parameters to be monitored is
dependent on the nature of the activity and its potential to contaminate the aquifer.
2.3 Air and Climate
2.3.1 Climate and Meteorology
Understanding climate and meteorology in the project area is important for the design of a long-term air
monitoring program (necessary for all power plants at which fuel is combusted), developing a water
balance for the site, and designing water/erosion control structures. During the baseline data collection
period, climatic data from local weather stations should be gathered and analyzed. These data should
include at least historic rainfall data (total precipitation, rainfall intensity, and duration), wind direction
and speed, solar radiation, evaporation rates, barometric pressure, and temperature variations. For
large projects, if no data are available near the site, a weather station should be established and
baseline data should be collected for at least one year to reflect the seasonal changes at the site. All
sampling site and weather station locations should be depicted on a map in the EIA.
2.3.2 Ambient Air Quality and Existing Emissions
Baseline air quality data is critical for all power facilities that combust fuel, as it will be used to assess air
quality impacts from stack emissions. For such plants the air pollutants of primary concern will be
particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO) and
greenhouse gas emissions (primarily as CO2, nitric oxide [N2O] and methane [CH4]).
Air monitoring should be conducted, both upwind and downwind of the facility. Monitoring should
include the use of high volume samplers and/or other methods to collect samples of air borne
particulates and gases that may be emitted from the facility. Sampling may be either continuous or by
grab or composite samples. Selection of monitoring locations requires an understanding of site-specific
meteorological conditions that can affect pollutant fate and transport.
This subsection of the Environmental Setting should also include an inventory of all current air pollutant
emission sources (including greenhouse gases) in the area of influence. The inventory should include
locations of emissions and current emission levels.
2.4 Noise and Vibration
If possible noise and vibration impacts are suspected (i.e., if the project will generate significant noise
and there are nearby receptors), baseline noise measurements should be included in the Environmental
Setting section of the EIA. If they do not exist, they should be taken at representative points of
reception prior to start of construction. Noise levels in and around sensitive habitats and areas of
human habitation also should be taken.
A point of reception or receptor may be defined as any point on or near the premises occupied by
persons or animals where extraneous noise and/or vibration are received. Examples of receptor
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locations include: permanent or seasonal residences; hotels/motels; schools and daycare facilities;
hospitals and nursing homes; places of worship; parks and campgrounds; sensitive habitats such as
breeding, birthing or nesting areas.
Noise monitoring programs should be designed and conducted by trained specialists. The monitoring
periods should be sufficient for statistical analysis and may last 48 hours or cover differing time periods
within several days, including weekday and weekend workdays. Noise monitoring should be carried out
using a Type 1 or 2 sound level meters meeting all appropriate IEC standards and capable of logging the
type of data required by the design (continuously over the monitoring period, or hourly, or more
frequently, as appropriate). Monitors should be located approximately 1.5 meters above the ground.
2.5 Aesthetic Resources
Baseline information on views and vistas that could be impacted by the proposed project should be
identified in the Environmental Setting. Vistas and views include, but are not limited to mountains,
waterfalls, skylines including sunrises and sunsets, and cultural, archeological, and historical structures.
The location of these views and vistas can be documented by presenting panoramic views of them from
potential viewpoints such as communities, roads, and designated scenic viewing areas. Narrative
descriptions of existing visual assets are also useful as the specific importance of a view may not be
obvious to a non-local viewer. In addition, this subsection should present information on existing
visibility in the project area.
This subsection should present panoramic photos of the proposed facility site from potential viewpoints
such as communities, roads, and designated scenic viewing areas. These photos can be used to
establish the views without the facility and provide a baseline on which the facility can be overlaid.
Information should also be presented in the subsection on light pollution from existing sources in the
project area including communities, factories, street lights, etc. Where objective measurement is
desired, light levels can be quantified by field measurement or mathematical modeling, with results
typically displayed as an isophote map or light contour map.
3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
The Environmental Setting information for biological resources should include information on aquatic,
terrestrial and wetland ecosystems in the vicinity. The challenge for development of an EIA for energy
projects is to qualitatively evaluate and record the local ecosystems and their biodiversity, often in the
absence of clear protective designations. This involves looking at a range of criteria to determine
whether the site is of local, regional, national or international importance.
In evaluating baseline conditions of aquatic, terrestrial and wetlands ecosystems (as appropriate for the
project area) the following steps should be taken:
• Obtain readily available information on biodiversity through review of maps, reports and
publications available from government agencies, universities, NGOs or online.
• Produce maps of all habitats and key species locations, protected areas, migration corridors,
seasonal use areas (mating, nesting, etc.)
• Describe timing of important seasonal activities (nesting, breeding, migration, etc.) for species
that could be affected by the energy project activities.
• Determine the following ecological characteristics of the project area:
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o Size of each habitat
o Existing condition of each habitat and its value
o Species/habitat richness
o Fragility of the ecosystem
o Population size for important species or species of concern
o Rarity of any species or habitat
• Identify whether the site or surrounding area falls within a protected area - that is, whether it is
a natural area designated by the government as having special protection (National Park,
National Forest, Wildlife Reserve, etc.).
• Identify whether the site or surrounding area is not currently protected but has been identified
by governments or other stakeholders as having a high biodiversity conservation priority.
• Identify whether the site or surrounding area has particular species that may be under threat.
• Review and summarize relevant legal provisions relating to biodiversity, species protection and
protected area management (including requirements of any management plans that exist for
designated protected areas).
• Elicit the views of stakeholders on whether the site or surrounding area has rare, threatened, or
culturally important species.
The evaluation of any ecosystem whether aquatic, terrestrial, or wetland is dependent upon
professional judgment and requires the involvement of trained ecologists. In areas where there is little
or no information available, considerable field work is required to collect the information listed above.
3.1 Flora
An inventory of flora within the project boundaries and project area of influence should be conducted
during the collection of baseline information for the Environmental Setting. The best sources of data on
local fauna are local peoples, relevant ministries (forestry, agriculture and environment), and academia.
The results of the inventory should be presented as vegetative maps of the area, which usually will also
serve to provide a map of the relevant ecosystems. Narrative descriptions of vegetative types should
also be included, identifying species endemism, keystone species (species that play a critical role in
maintaining the structure of an ecological community and whose impact on the community is greater
than would be expected based on its relative abundance or total biomass) and species rarity including
identification of those that may be threatened or endangered.
Of particular importance is the delineation of wetlands as they are sensitive habitats and quite
important with respect to cleaning water that passes through them as well as serving as buffers against
flooding elsewhere in the hydrological basin. Already identified in surface water subsection, in this
subsection the ecological characteristics should be presented.
3.2 Fauna
An inventory of aquatic and terrestrial fauna within the project boundaries and project area of influence
should also be conducted during the collection of baseline information for the Environmental Setting.
The best sources of data on local fauna are local peoples, relevant ministries (forestry, agriculture and
environment), and academia.
The results of the inventory should present information on the status (i.e. endemic, migratory, exotic,
keystone, threatened, endangered, etc.) and life history characteristics (mating and brooding seasons,
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migratory patterns, etc.) of the species identified as residing in the area. For terrestrial species, maps
should be included identifying:
• Breeding areas
• Nesting and calving areas
• Migratory corridors (if applicable)
Information on fish, mussel, macroinvertebrate and other aquatic species should include:
• Spatial and temporal distribution
• Species life stage composition
• Standing crop
• Age and growth data
• Spawning timing run
Understanding site specific conditions and geographic location for a proposed wind turbine/farm is very
important. Several studies support the importance of site-specific information (e.g., geographic
features, existing migratory patterns, surveying for features such as caves and/or abandoned mines that
may be used by bats near a proposed site) are an important indicator that possible mitigation may be
needed to avoid or minimize potential loss of bats and birds, which in turn can have important impacts
on both agriculture and public health.
3.3 Ecosystems
Beyond looking at flora and fauna independently, an EIA needs to be integrated, i.e. to address the
relationships between biophysical, social and economic aspects in assessing project impacts (IAIA 1999).
Addressing these relationships relies on an integrated description of ecosystems in the Environmental
Setting as well as integrated impact assessment (see text box on the ecosystem services approach p 63).
It is often challenging to describe complex interactions between flora and fauna, physical and human
threats, and key trends in the structure and functions of the ecosystems. Methodologies for describing
ecosystem interactions are evolving.
3.4 Endangered or Threatened Species and Habitats
Threatened and endangered flora and fauna are a subset of the complete inventory of flora and fauna in
the project area and its area of impact. This involves:
• Review of local, national, regional and global literature on the range and domain of endangered
or threatened species.
• Consultation with local and national government agencies, NGOs and academic institutions to
determine what species may be in the project area.
• Cross-referencing this list with national lists of threatened and endangered species as well as the
international lists such as the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature
(http://www.iucnredlist.org) and the species in the appendices of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
(http://www.cites.org/eng/app/index.shtml).
• Conducting a thorough physical survey of the project area and inquiring of local residents and
authorities to determine if those species are present.
These guidelines suggest that the endangered and threatened species and habitats be covered
separately under flora and fauna, and then summarized in this subsection to highlight particularly
sensitive areas of concern in evaluating impacts. This separate subsection is not intended to duplicate
the information under Flora and Fauna, but rather to pull it together in an integrated manner.
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ECOSYSTEM SERVICES APPROACH: PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER
An ecosystem services approach recognizes the intrinsic and complex relationships between biophysical and socio-
economic environments. It integrates these aspects by explicitly linking ecosystem services (the benefits people derive
from ecosystems), their contribution to human well-being, and the ways in which people impact ecosystems' capacity to
provide those services. The approach relies on a suite of tools such as a conceptual framework linking drivers of change,
ecosystems and biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being (MA 2005); guidelines for private sector companies
to assess risks and opportunities related to ecosystem services (Hanson et al. 2008), and manual for conducting ecosystem
services assessments (UNEP to be published).
In the context of environmental impact assessments, the ecosystem services approach provides a more systematic and
integrated assessment of project impacts and dependencies on ecosystem services and the consequence for the people
who benefit from these services. It helps EIA practitioners to go beyond biodiversity and ecosystems to identify and
understand the ways natural and human environment interrelates. This holistic understanding, from description of the
Environmental Setting to the impact assessment, will lead the EIA practitioner through a new set of questions organized
around the conceptual framework shown below:
• What are the ecosystem services important for local communities? Which services will the project potentially
impact in a significant way? How does the impact on one ecosystem service affect the supply and use of other
ecosystem services?
• What are the underlying level of biodiversity and the current capacity of the ecosystems to continue to provide
ecosystem services?
• What are the consequences of these ecosystem service impacts on human well-being, for example what are the
effects on livelihoods, income, and security?
• What are the direct and indirect drivers of ecosystem change affecting the supply and use of ecosystem services?
How will the project contribute to these direct and indirect drivers of change?
^ Existing relations between natural and human environment
y Project impacts and dependencies on ecosystem services
HUMAN WELL-BEING
Basic material for ggod life
Health
Good social relations
Security
Freedom of choice
INDIRECT DRIVERS OF
ECOSYSTEM CHANGE
Demographic
•^Economic
Sociopolitical
Cultural and religious
Science and technology
Contribution of project to
drivers of ecosystem
change
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Provisioning services
Regulating services
Cultural services
Supporting services
Dependency of project
on ecosystem services
I DIRECT DRIVERS OF
ECOSYSTEM CHANGE
Change in local land use/ cover
^ Climate change
Pollution
Invasive species
Over use
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
Ecosystem type and extent
Species diversity and numbers
Conceptual framework to assess ecosystem services (adapted from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, MA 2005)
Examining all the boxes in this framework systematically as part of an environmental assessment of project impacts carries
the following promises:
• Since ecosystem services by definition are linked to different beneficiaries, any ecosystem service changes can
then be explicitly translated into a gain or loss of human well-being.
• It will highlight the impact on all important ecosystem services provided by the area such as erosion control,
pollination, water regulation, and pollutant removal.
• It will ensure that the EIA accounts for the effects of the project on existing direct and indirect drivers of
ecosystem change that in turn could impact the ecosystem services provided by the area.
• It will improve the project's management of risks and opportunities arising from ecosystem services.
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3.5 Protected Areas
Protected areas should be highlighted in the EIA as areas which have already been identified as
significant and needing special protection. One of the challenges in preparing the EIA is the fact that
boundaries of protected areas may be imprecise on available maps. Within the area of influence of the
project, steps should be taken to better define these boundaries, to ensure that the proposed project
will not encroach on the protected area. The Environmental Setting should also report on the status of
management plans for the protected areas, and where applicable, identify the allowed uses in each
management zone. The project should not be inconsistent with the allowable uses in a designated
protected area.
It is also important to identify areas in area of influence that are not currently designated as protected
areas, but have been identified by governments or other stakeholders as having a high biodiversity
conservation priority.
4 SOCIAL-ECONOMIC-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Socio-Economic Conditions
This subsection should include descriptive and quantitative information for the area surrounding the
project site on:
• Population, including age, gender, ethnic composition, religions, languages spoken and
educational level
• Economic activities, including industrial and commercial activities, employers, employment,
incomes and distribution of income, tax base and skills, services and goods availability in the
communities
• Crime rates
• Literacy rates
• Community organizations
• Public Health and Safety
o Diseases in the project area (including the sources of data and the methodology used to
collect and analyze the data)
o Existing practice for assessment of occupational health
o Existing electromagnetic fields (primarily associated with high voltage electric power lines)
o Local perceptions of the proposed project
4.2 Infrastructure
This subsection should include descriptive and quantitative information on the current and future
planned infrastructure, in the absence of the proposed project, in the following areas:
• Transportation
• Public Health
• Communications
• Energy
It should not repeat the information provided in the project and alternatives description (e.g.,
information on access roads that will be used) unless necessary for clarity.
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4.2.1 Transportation
The information on the transportation infrastructure should addresses baseline conditions of
transportation and traffic patterns on existing roads. This should include:
• Maps showing the location of all existing roads, railroads, air strips, airports and pipelines
• Condition
o Surface materials
o Erosion and sediment problems and controls
o Maintenance programs (what, when and whom)
• Description of anticipated third-party improvements (government or entity other than the
proponent)
• Traffic patterns and densities on roads which may experience significant increased use during
construction or operation of the project
• Safety levels and current circulation issues, and capacity
4.2.2 Public Health
The information presented on the public health infrastructure includes information on the existing
drinking water, wastewater and solid waste management systems. The Environmental Setting should
provide maps and quantitative information on the existing infrastructure for these systems, their
capacities and any plans for expansion or change in technology or management of the systems. For
drinking water system(s), this should include:
• Sources of drinking water,
• Quality (before and after treatment)
• Access
• Trends in availability of potable water
Information on the wastewater system(s) should be presented on maps as well as in narrative and
tabular forms and include:
• Quantity (inflow and discharges)
• Treatment
• Sludge disposal, if applicable
• Discharge points
• Trends
Information on the solid waste management system(s) should include:
• Quantity (daily quantities generated, collected and disposed of)
• Collection systems
• Recycling programs
• Disposal facilities (locations, sizes and management)
4.2.3 Communications and Energy
Information on communications should include the types of communications systems in the project area
and their associated infrastructure such as transmission lines and microwave towers. Information on
energy should include the types and sources of energy in the project area including:
• Generating facilities
• Transmission and distribution lines
• Storage facilities (including fuel storage facilities)
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4.3 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources
All cultural, archeological, ceremonial and historic resources within the project boundaries and within
the area of direct impact should be inventoried and mapped. Excellent sources of information on
location of such assets usually include federal ministries responsible for such assets, local religious
institutions and scholars, and the UNESCO World Heritage Site (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list). During
the preparation of the EIA, views should be solicited from stakeholders on whether the any sites or
surrounding areas have important traditional or cultural value. This subsection should also include
information on any indigenous people or other traditional cultures in the project area.
WHAT ARE WASTES AND WHAT TYPES OF WASTES SHOULD BE CONSIDERED?
A waste is any solid, liquid, or contained gaseous material that is being discarded by disposal,
recycling, burning, or incineration. It can be byproduct of a manufacturing process or an obsolete
commercial product that can no longer be used for intended purpose and requires disposal.
Solid (non-hazardous) wastes generally include any garbage, refuse. Examples of such waste include
domestic trash and garbage; inert construction / demolition materials; refuse, such as metal scrap
and empty containers (except those previously used to contain hazardous materials which should, in
principle, be managed as a hazardous waste); and residual waste from industrial operations, such as
boiler slag, clinker, and fly ash.
Hazardous waste shares the properties of a hazardous material (e.g. ignitability, corrosivity,
reactivity, or toxicity), or other physical, chemical, or biological characteristics that may pose a
potential risk to human health or the environment if improperly managed. Wastes may also be
defined as "hazardous" by local regulations or international conventions, based on the origin of the
waste and its inclusion on hazardous waste lists, or based on its characteristics.
Sludge from a waste treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility,
and other discarded material, including solid, liquid, semisolid, or contained gaseous material
resulting from industrial operations should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to establish whether
it constitutes a hazardous or a non-hazardous waste.
4.4 Land Use
The land use subsection of the Environmental Setting should include information on actual and potential
land use in and around the proposed project. It should indicate trends in land use and patterns of land
use. The information should be presented as a land use map showing location, size and proximity of:
• Population centers
• Agricultural lands
• Forested lands
• Flood plains and water bodies
• Coastal zones
• Protected areas
• Wetlands
• Other environmentally sensitive areas
• Recreational or tourist areas
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• Culturally sensitive areas
• Other land uses as appropriate
The information on population centers should include information on the numbers, sizes and locations
of:
• Schools
• Cemeteries
• Churches
• Other public buildings
• Housing (including housing density)
The information on the tourism and recreation areas should include the numbers, sizes and locations of
recreation facilities and eco-cultural-tourist locations. This subsection should also include information
on the current and projected future employment opportunities associated with tourism based on
natural or cultural resources.
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1 INTRODUCTION
The Impacts section of the EIA should identify and, to the extent possible, quantify the potential impacts
of the project. This section of the Guidelines identifies the types of impacts that may be generally
associated with power generation and transmission projects. Section F identifies predictive tools and
methodologies that can be employed to present and quantify the impacts and the magnitude, duration
and extent of those impacts and their significance.
Energy projects can have impacts on physical, biological and social-economic-cultural resources in the
construction, operation and closure stages of the project. The impact assessment should account for all
of the activities involved in the project, including specific technologies. The EIA should define direct,
indirect and cumulative impacts.
• Direct impacts are due to a specific project-related activity in the same place and time as the
project.
• Indirect impacts are due to actions resulting from the specific project, and are later in time or
further removed in distance, but still are reasonably foreseeable. Indirect impacts may include
growth inducing impacts and other impacts related to induced changes in the pattern of land
use, population density, or growth rate, and related impacts on air and water and other natural
systems, including ecosystems.
• Cumulative impacts are the incremental impacts of the proposed project on a particular
resource when added to past, present and reasonably foreseeable future actions, regardless of
what entity undertakes such actions. Cumulative impacts can result from individually minor but
collectively significant actions taking place over a period of time.
Impacts are site-specific and are determined by the geology, soils, hydrology, hydrogeology, climate,
ecosystems and human populations in the vicinity of the project. The impacts may be positive or
negative. Positive impacts can result, for instance, if a new power plant is coupled with taking one or
more older, more polluting power plants out of service, thus resulting in net improvement in
environmental conditions.
Impacts associated with energy generation and transmission projects can vary considerably as the
activities associated with individual projects can be quite different: from retrofitting a penstock with a
water turbine at an existing dam, to building a new dam that will flood a large area, to installing a wind
farm, to constructing a coal-fired power plant. However, there are several activities that are common to
nearly all projects such as land clearing and shaping, construction of facilities and support structures,
and construction or upgrade of access roads and connections to the grid (short of building a new
transmission line). In addition, many projects may involve construction and operation of temporary
construction camps and onsite storage buildings, offices or housing. All of these activities and their
associated impacts on the physical and biological environments are presented in Table E-l. Table E-l is
followed by subsections for each component of the physical and biological environments, in which the
potential impacts to each component of each type of project are described. Each subsection begins by
identifying and discussing the impacts common to most projects, followed by those specific to one or
more (but not most) technologies. Table E-2, located after the Biological Environment subsection,
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presents potential impacts to the physical and biological environments associated with specific power
generation and transmission technologies.
Table E-2 is followed by Figure E-l that presents the common impacts from power generation and
transmission projects on the social-economic-cultural environment. This table is followed by
subsections for each component of the social-economic-cultural environment in which the impacts are
described and additional impacts that are specific to particular types of projects are identified.
Table E-1: Potential impacts to physical and biological environment common to most
energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Affected Environment
Environmental Concerns
SITE PREPARATION AND CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
Land clearing,
earthmoving, terrain
shaping (leveling,
drainage, etc.) and
associated activities
(e.g., borrow pits,
quarries)
Construction and
landscaping of onsite
facilities, structures and
buildings
Geology
Soil
Water Quality
Air Quality
Noise and Vibration
Aesthetics
Terrestrial Flora and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and associated
Ecosystems
Threatened and Endangered
Species and Habitats
Soil
Water Quantity
Landslide hazards (creation of unstable slopes)
Erosion
Soil compaction
Spills and leaks of hazardous materials (fuel, waste oil, etc.)
Disposal of cleared debris
Modification of drainage patterns
Increased runoff due to soil compaction and changes in
vegetative cover
Modification of streams and rivers due to crossings
Run-off carrying sediments and associated contaminants
Spills and leaks of hazardous materials (fuel, waste oil, etc.)
Equipment emissions and fugitive dust
Noise and vibration from heavy equipment
Blasting
Disruption or views
Degradation of natural landscapes
Use of nighttime lighting for security and construction activities
Deforestation, wetland destruction and other devegetation
Wildfire
Loss of habitat
Habitat fragmentation
Disruption and dislocation (via noise, vibration, lights and human
presence) of local and/or migratory wildlife, including
disturbance of migratory corridors and breeding, nesting and
calving areas
Poisoning via contamination of waste and spills and leaks of
hazardous materials (fuel, waste oil, etc.)
Wildfire
Wetland destruction
Run-off carrying sediments and associated contaminants
Poisoning via spills and leaks of hazardous materials (fuel, waste
oil, etc.)
Reductions in species or habitats
Erosion
Soil compaction
Spills and leaks of hazardous materials (fuel, waste oil, etc.)
Disposal of construction wastes, including potentially hazardous
wastes
Water needs for construction, such as cement mixing and dust
control
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Activity
Construction and/or
upgrade of access roads
Construction of power
line connections
Affected Environment
Water Quality
Air Quality
Noise and Vibration
Aesthetics
Terrestrial Flora and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and associated
Ecosystems
Environmental Concerns
Increased runoff due to soil compaction and changes in
vegetative cover
Run-off carrying sediments and associated contaminants
Spills and leaks of hazardous materials (fuel, waste oil, etc.)
Equipment emissions and fugitive dust
Noise and vibration from heavy equipment, on-site machinery
(crushers, batch plants, etc.) and transport of materials and
machinery to site
Noise from the use onsite of tools
Disruption or degradation of views
Use of nighttime lighting for security and construction activities
Spread of invasive species
Wildfire
Disruption and dislocation (via noise, vibration, lights and human
presence) of local and/or migratory wildlife, including
disturbance of migratory corridors and breeding, nesting and
calving areas
Wildfire
Run-off carrying sediments and associated contaminants
Same as for Construction and landscaping of onsite facilities, structures and buildings with the
addition of the following:
Water Quality
Air Quality
Terrestrial Flora and Fauna and
associated Ecosystems
Aquatic Species and associated
Ecosystems
Threatened and Endangered
Species and Habitats
Protected Areas
Modification of streams and rivers due to crossings
VOC emissions from asphalt batch plants, if applicable
Increased road access in remote areas may lead to:
• Increased fishing/hunting/collecting, stressing populations
• Human invasion of previously inaccessible areas
CONSTRUCTION CAMP AND ONSITE HOUSING ACTIVITIES
(construction of camps and housing has the same impacts as identified above for other facilities)
Camp management
Solid and human waste
disposal
Water supply
Fuel and chemical
storage and handling
Energy production
Transportation
Terrestrial and Aquatic Fauna
and associated Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and associated
Ecosystems
Water Quantity
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and associated
Ecosystems
Air Quality
Water Quality
Air Quality
Animals attracted to garbage and food waste
Disruption and dislocation (via noise, vibration, lights and human
presence) of local and/or migratory wildlife, including
disturbance of migratory corridors and breeding, spawning,
nesting and calving areas
Degradation of ecosystems from fuel wood gathering
Increased collecting, hunting and fishing (food for workers)
Soil contamination
Water quality degradation from discharges and leaching
Attraction of pests and vectors
Run-off carrying associated contaminants
Depletion of nearby water sources
Soil contamination from spills or leaks of hazardous materials
(fuel, waste oil, etc.)
Water quality degradation from spills or leaks
Poisoning via contamination of waste and spills or leaks
Contamination from spills or leaks
Emissions from generators
Spills and leaks of hazardous materials (fuel, waste oil, etc.)
Emissions from vehicles and fugitive dust
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Activity
Affected Environment
Environmental Concerns
OPERATIONS
Solid and human waste
disposal
Fuel and/or chemical
storage and handling
Existence of structures
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and associated
Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and associated
Ecosystems
Water Quality
Air Quality
Noise and Vibration
Aesthetics
Terrestrial Fauna
Soil contamination
Water quality degradation from discharges and leaching
Attraction of pests and vectors
Run-off carrying associated contaminants
Soil contamination from spills or leaks
Water quality degradation from spills or leaks
Poisoning via contamination of waste and spills or leaks
Contamination from spills or leaks
Accidental releases of insulating fluids
Accidental releases of insulating gases
Transformers and switches
Disruption or degradation of views
Light pollution
Electrocution
DECOMMISSIONING
Removal and transport
of machinery and
equipment
Decommissioning and
disposal of damaged or
obsolete equipment
Removal or
decommissioning of
structures and buildings
Restoration of terrain
and vegetation
Noise and Vibration
Soil
Soil
Water Quantity
Water Quality
Air Quality
Noise and Vibration
Aesthetics
Terrestrial Flora and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and associated
Ecosystems
Soil
Aesthetics
Noise and vibration from heavy equipment, on-site machinery
and transport of equipment and machinery from site
Noise from the use onsite of tools
Disposal of wastes, including potentially hazardous wastes such
as equipment contaminated by lubricants and other fluids and
material from photovoltaic cells
Erosion
Soil compaction
Spills and leaks of hazardous materials (fuel, waste oil, etc.)
Disposal of construction wastes, including potentially hazardous
wastes
Water needs for construction, such as dust control
Increased runoff due to soil compaction and changes in
vegetative cover
Run-off carrying sediments and associated contaminants
Spills and leaks of hazardous materials (fuel, waste oil, etc.)
Equipment emissions and fugitive dust
Noise and vibration from heavy equipment and on-site
machinery and possibly blasting
Noise from the use onsite of tools
Effect on views (positive or negative)
Wildfire
Disruption and dislocation (via noise, vibration, lights and human
presence) of local and/or migratory wildlife, including
disturbance of migratory corridors and breeding, nesting and
calving areas
Wildfire
Run-off carrying sediments and associated contaminants
Erosion (positive and negative)
Effect on views (positive or negative)
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2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Geology and Soils
Energy projects, with few exceptions (e.g., retrofitting an existing penstock with a water turbine), will
include construction activities that can impact geology and soils including:
• Land clearing for site preparation and access routes
• Earth moving and terrain shaping including excavation and filling, involving earth moving
equipment and often blasting
• Disposal of spoils (vegetation, soil, stones) removed during these activities and construction
debris
• Use and possible storage of lubricants, fuels and other chemical products
• Decommissioning
Land clearing, earth moving and terrain shaping will remove vegetative cover and change the
topography of the affected area, which can cause increased soil compaction, erosion and associated
sedimentation. Changing the topography of the site can create the potential for landslides or slope
failure, depending on the soil types and magnitude of the change. It will also change the drainage
patterns and in combination with removal of vegetative cover can lead to erosion, the magnitude and
extent of which will in part be determined by the resulting gradients, soil types, rainfall and local
hydrology. Exposing bare soil during these activities can also increase wind erosion. These impacts can
be short-term, if proper soil erosion and slope stability controls are used or installed, although they may
often exist through the completion of construction of onsite facilities, structures and buildings, access
roads and transmission line connections, as these activities also disturb soil.
The large amount of land required for utility-scale solar power plants (approximately one square
kilometer for every 20 to 60 MW generated) and hydroelectric projects that create new reservoirs
makes this issue greater at these facilities than at other power generating facilities. Similarly, if
construction of lengthy access roads is required by the project, this issue also will be of greater concern.
Right-of-ways may cover a significant land mass, but seldom require land clearing, earth moving and
terrain shaping. If, for a biomass or biofuel project, the source of production of biomass (i.e., the farms
or forests that produce the raw materials) is included in the scope of the EIA, this may involve large
areas of land and potential erosion impacts should be assessed.
A potential effect of growing trees and other plants for energy is that it could benefit soil quality. Energy
crops could be used to stabilize cropland or rangeland prone to erosion and flooding. Trees would be
grown for several years before being harvested, and their roots and leaf litter could help stabilize the
soil. The planting of coppicing, or self-regenerating, varieties would minimize the need for disruptive
tilling and planting. Perennial grasses harvested like hay could play a similar role. Soil losses with a crop
such as switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), for example, would be negligible compared to annual crops
such as corn.
If improperly managed, however, energy farming could have harmful impacts on soils. Although energy
crops could be grown with less pesticide and fertilizer than conventional food crops, large-scale energy
farming could nevertheless lead to increases in chemical use simply because more land would be under
cultivation. If agricultural or forestry wastes and residues were used for fuel, then soils could be
depleted of organic content and nutrients unless care is taken to leave enough wastes onsite to
generate soil organic material.
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Disposal of solid waste and spills of lubricants, fuels and chemicals (e.g., wood preservatives, herbicides)
during land clearing, terrain shaping, construction (both onsite and offsite) and decommissioning and
restoration creates the potential for soil and water contamination. The types of solid waste generated
during these activities include:
• Trees and other vegetation removed during site preparation
• Casting forms
• Defective or compromised building materials
• Waste concrete
• Waste from on-site maintenance and repair of machinery and equipment
• Waste from demolition of existing structures
• Packaging, pallets and crates
• Other wastes associated with onsite activities of workers in relation to the number of workers
Solid waste disposal and chemical and fuel leaks and spills at construction camps and during all types of
power plant facility operation can also contaminate soil. Camps and facilities can generate human
wastes and solid wastes generated by the workers. Construction camps often include storage and
dispensing facilities for fuels, lubricants and chemicals used during construction. Most power plants also
have onsite facilities for storage of lubricants and other chemicals and hazardous materials used at the
plant on a regular basis.
During operation, and particularly during maintenance of machinery and equipment, the following solid
and hazardous wastes may be generated:
• Used oil
• Contaminated absorbent materials
• Burned out light bulbs
• Used batteries
• Toxic and hazardous substances and associated wastes
• Hazardous and toxic substance containers
• Tires
• Used parts, scraps and debris
Most power plants also have equipment onsite that contain hazardous substances, including insulating
oils associated with transformers and switches. If these substances leak, they can contaminate soil.
Insulating oils are used to cool transformers and switches and provide electrical insulation between live
components. PCB's were widely used as insulating oils on large equipment up until 2000, when their
use was discontinued due to potential harmful effects on human health and the environment. Modern
transformers and switches use the highly refined ASTM D3487 standard mineral oil. Insulating oils are
typically found in the largest quantities at electrical substations and maintenance shops.
In addition to these generic impacts associated with energy projects, there are specific impacts
associated with specific types of projects. Several technologies generate unique solid wastes, the
disposal of which can contaminate soil. These include:
• Thermal/Combustion plants fueled by coal, oil, and biomass can generate:
o Residues from onsite fuel washing or preparation
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o Ash and sludge resulting from combustion and collected by pollution control devices, which
may contain mercury, selenium, arsenic or other metals, depending on fuel analysis
• All types of Thermal plants requiring cooling systems can generate solid wastes removed from
the system. These wastes may be may be partially dehydrated or dried before disposal and
include:
o Cooling water sludge
o Materials dredged cooling ponds and associated structures
o Materials removed from cooling towers
• Hydroelectric plants with reservoirs can generate solid wastes from dredged from the reservoir,
or anywhere else where unwanted sediments may accumulate.
• Solar Dish-Engine and many Thermal Solar and Geothermal plants will use and store heat
transfer fluids.
• Solar Photovoltaic plants can produce hazardous waste related to the decommissioning of solar
photovoltaic cells. These cells may contain components made of hazardous materials.
• Open-Loop Geothermal projects can also produce sludge deposited by geothermal water
throughout the system that needs to be periodically collected and disposed of.
Coal-fired and biomass-fired (including solid waste) thermal power plants generate the greatest amount
of solid wastes due to the relatively high percentage of ash in the fuel. Coal combustion wastes include
fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, and bed ash (the combination of fly ash and bottom ash generated in a
fluidized-bed combustion boiler). Coal-fired plants can also generate flue gas desulfurization (FGD)
sludge. Biomass contains less sulfur; therefore FGD may not be necessary.
Fly ash removed from exhaust gases makes up 60 to 85 percent of the coal ash residue in pulverized-
coal boilers and 20 percent in stoker boilers. Bottom ash includes slag and particles that are coarser and
heavier than fly ash. Due to the presence of sorbent material, fluidized-bed combustion boiler wastes
have a higher content of calcium and sulfate and a lower content of silica and alumina than conventional
coal combustion wastes.
Metals are constituents of concern in both coal combustion wastes and low-volume solid wastes. For
example, ash residues and the dust removed from exhaust gases may contain significant levels of heavy
metals and some organic compounds, in addition to inert materials.
Ash residues are not typically classified as a hazardous waste due to their inert nature. However, where
ash residues are expected to contain potentially significant levels of heavy metals, radioactivity, or other
potentially hazardous materials, they should be tested at the start of plant operations to verify their
classification as hazardous or non-hazardous according to local regulations or internationally recognized
standards.
Oil combustion wastes include fly ash and bottom ash and are normally only generated in significant
quantities when residual fuel oil is burned in oil-fired steam electric boilers. Other thermal/combustion
technologies (e.g., combustion turbines and diesel engines) and fuels (petroleum and diesel) generate
little or no solid wastes. Gas-fired thermal power plants generate essentially no solid waste because of
the negligible ash content, regardless of the combustion technology.
Geothermal technologies generally do not produce a substantial amount of solid waste, but open-loop
systems can generate large amounts of solid wastes as sulfur, silica, and carbonate precipitates in
cooling towers, air scrubber systems, turbines, and steam separators. This sludge may be classified as
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hazardous depending on the concentration and potential for leaching of silica compounds, chlorides,
arsenic, mercury, vanadium, nickel, and other heavy metals. These wastes may be dried and disposed of
in landfills meeting hazardous waste requirements in which case they can impact have the potential to
impact soil quality at the disposal as well as the potential for impacting soil quality during transport from
the points of generation and treatment to the point of disposal
The disposal of solid wastes is not the only activity at power generation and transmission projects that
can contaminate soil:
• Thermal/Combustion plants produce air emissions which can be deposited on soil downwind
from the facility resulting in soil contamination
• Thermal/Combustion plants fueled by oil and petroleum can store large volumes of fuel onsite,
creating the potential for leaks and spills that can contaminate soil
• Biomass projects can have impacts on soils on the farms or forests at which the biomass is
produced, including potential salinization if the farms are irrigated and potential soil
contamination if pesticides and fertilizers are improperly managed
• Similar soil contamination impacts can be associated with Transmission Line projects, if
herbicides are proposed for vegetative management and they are not managed correctly
Finally, some types of projects can have impacts associated with geologic resources.
• All projects that involve building dams, either for hydroelectric reservoirs or cooling water ponds
are subject to possible dam failures as a result of seismic activities
• Withdrawal of geothermal water can cause land subsidence in land overlying the aquifers from
which the water is withdrawn. If, however, the spent water is reinjected into the aquifer,
subsidence may be avoided.
• Enhanced geothermal system activities such as from reservoir stimulation, are a potential
concern to local residents, including a concern that activities may induce earthquakes. Reports
of small tremors at or near geothermal fields in the United States generally have indicated
minimal or no harm, however there have been some reports of building shaking and cracked
foundations. Reports of a small (magnitude 3.4) but damaging earthquake triggered by an
enhanced geothermal project in Basel, Switzerland have raised concerns about potential for
induced seismicity at projects in California. The U.S. Department of Energy is developing a
protocol to ensure that seismicity risks are low from geothermal projects.
2.2 Water Resources
As discussed in the previous subsection on Geology and Soil, nearly all energy projects involve land
clearing for site preparation and access routes and earth moving and terrain shaping, which may change
the drainage patterns and increase runoff and associate soil erosion and sedimentation. For power
plants fueled by biomass, if the source of production of biomass (i.e., the farms or forests that produce
the raw materials) is included in the scope of the EIA, then runoff and erosion from those lands are also
an issue to be addressed in the EIA.
Runoff can carry sediments and other contaminants either attached to the sediment or in solution,
including soil nutrients and lubricants, fuels and chemicals that may be spilled at the sites. Any source of
soil contamination identified in the previous subsection, can be carried in runoff. If agricultural
chemicals are used on farms or forests associated with biomass production or if herbicides are used
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during land clearing or to manage vegetation in right-of-ways, they can also become components of
runoff. Depending on the local conditions and the distance to surface water, these contaminants can
impact water quality in the surface waters that receive drainage from the affected areas.
Construction or upgrading of access roads to the facility site or to the right-of-way, in the case of
transmission projects, may also require construction across wetlands or streams, which can disrupt
watercourses and wetland flow regimes, directly impact water quality and cause bank erosion.
Another potential water quality impact can occur when power transmission cables are installed on
marine floors. This is done with a cable-laying vessel and a remotely operated, underwater vehicle. The
cable laying operation can cause sedimentation resulting in turbidity and reductions in water quality.
As identified in the previous subsection, Geology and Soils, power production facilities generate various
types of process solid wastes that have the potential to contaminate soil. These same solid wastes can
also contaminate surface water and groundwater quality. If runoff is allowed to flow off of areas where
these wastes are stored or disposed, they have the potential of contaminating surface water. If rain fall
is retained on the storage or disposal areas, and the sites are not lined then the solid wastes have the
potential to contaminate groundwater via leachate.
All power plants may need domestic water and may produce domestic solid wastes and domestic
wastewater due to the onsite presence of workers. The amount of water required for domestic
purposes and the amount of waste generated will generally be minimal, but the EIA should assess the
impacts of these activities to ensure that they will not impact water availability or contaminate surface
or groundwater.
All power plants except wind need water for operation. Solar plants require water for washing reflector
and glass surfaces. These withdrawals could have an impact on water availability, and should be
assessed. The amount of water is not great (62 m3/year/MW), but its potential impact on water
availability in the area of influence should be assessed, particularly if the plant is located in an area with
a water shortage. The water is used in open areas and generally excess water enters the soil where it is
evaporated or transpired by vegetation, generally not causing water quality impacts.
Thermal/Combustion. Solar Thermal and Geothermal plants, require water for cooling, boiler makeup
(open-loop geothermal plants being an exception), auxiliary station equipment and, at coal- or biomass-
fired plants, ash handling and FGD systems. During construction water will be required to pressure
check tanks and flush piping and tubing. They can use significant quantities of water for these purposes,
which may have big impact on water availability.
Thermal power plants use steam turbines with boilers and/or heat recovery steam generators used in
combined cycle gas turbine units. All require a cooling system to condense steam used to generate
electricity. Typical cooling systems used in thermal power plants include:
• Once-through cooling system where sufficient cooling water and receiving surface water are
available
• Closed circuit wet cooling system
• Closed circuit dry cooling system (e.g., air cooled condensers)
Wet cooling systems are the most common systems used in thermal power plant.
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Once-through cooling systems require large quantities of water to cool and condense the steam for
return to the boiler. This cooling water is discharged back to receiving surface water or into cooling
ponds. It will have elevated temperature and can carry biocides or other additives, if they are used, but
otherwise can have little difference in composition than the source of the water. If the water is cooled
(via a cooling pond for instance) and reused, the natural chemical components in the source water as
well as any additives can become concentrated due to evaporation.
Cooling water discharges are not the only wastewater streams in thermal power plants. Other
wastewater streams include:
• Cooling tower blow-down
• Ash handling wastewater
• Wet FGD system discharges
• Material storage runoff (for coal- and biomass-fired plants)
• Cleaning wastewater
• Low-volume wastewater, such as
o Air heater and precipitator wash water
o Boiler blow-down
o Boiler chemical cleaning waste
o Floor and yard drains and sumps
o Laboratory wastes
o Back-flush from ion exchange boiler water purification units
o Domestic wastewater
Contaminants from these wastewater streams can degrade water quality via discharge to surface water
or recharge to groundwater. The characteristics of the wastewaters generated depend on the ways in
which the water has been used. Contamination arises from the use of demineralizers; lubricating and
auxiliary fuel oils; trace contaminants in the fuel (introduced through the ash-handling wastewater and
wet FGD system discharges); and chlorine, biocides, and other chemicals used to manage the quality of
water in cooling systems. Cooling tower blow-down tends to be very high in total dissolved solids but is
generally classified as non-contact cooling water and, as such, is typically subject to limits for pH,
residual chlorine, and toxic chemicals that may be present in cooling tower additives (including
corrosion inhibiting chemicals containing chromium and zinc whose use should be eliminated).
Each wastewater stream should be identified and fully characterized in regards to volume and
composition, to determine if it will pose a threat to water quality. Characterization is discussed in
section F, Assessing Impacts.
Geothermal plants have some potential water quality and quantity impacts unique to them. The
extraction, reinjection, and discharge of geothermal fluids may affect the quality and quantity of surface
and groundwater resources. Examples of specific impacts include the inadvertent introduction of
drilling mud and geothermal fluids into shallower productive aquifers during extraction and reinjection
activities or a reduction in the flow of hot thermal springs due to withdrawal activities. Although very
rare, well blowouts and pipeline failures may occur during well drilling or facility operations. Such
failures can result in the release of toxic drilling additives and fluids, as well as geothermal fluids into
overlying aquifers. Pipeline ruptures may also result in the surface release of geothermal fluids and
steam. These fluids and steam can contain heavy metals, acids, mineral deposits and other pollutants.
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Steam production and re-injection wells may be installed during exploration, development, and
operational activities. Drilling fluids employed during drilling activities may be water- or oil-based, and
may contain chemical additives to assist in controlling pressure differentials in the drill hole and to act
against viscosity breakdown. Cuttings from oil-based mud are of particular concern due to the content
of oil-related contaminants and may necessitate special on-site or off-site treatment and disposal.
Spent geothermal fluids consist of the reject water from steam separators (rejected water is water that
initially accompanies the steam from the geothermal reservoir), and condensate derived from spent
steam condensation following power generation (open-loop systems). Facilities that use water cooling
towers in an evaporative process typically direct geothermal condensate into the cooling cycle.
Geothermal condensate may be characterized by high temperature, low pH, and heavy metals content.
Reject waters from the separators are often pH neutral and may contain heavy metals. Formation
steam and water quality varies depending on the characteristics of the geothermal resource.
Closed-loop systems are almost totally benign, since gases and fluids removed from the well are not
exposed to the atmosphere and are usually injected back into the ground after giving up their heat.
Nonetheless, there is the potential for groundwater contamination during reinjection, if it is not
properly designed and maintained.
Any projects that include the use of dams, such as those needed for Hydroelectric reservoirs or Thermal
power cooling dams can have their own unique potential impacts on water quantity and quality. The
impoundments behind the dam can impact water table levels in their vicinity. This can cause seepage
downstream of the dam and impact nearby wells and springs as well as surface water flows. Depending
on the quality of the water in the impoundments, they can also have an impact on groundwater quality.
If the impacted aquifer discharges to springs and surface waters, surface water quality can also be
impacted. Dams are subject to containment failure and overflows, which can impact downstream flows
and, in the case of cooling ponds, release contaminated water.
Hydroelectric projects may affect the quantity and quality of water in the project area. Projects with in-
stream diversions and/or dams can alter flow in a water course. Diversions, whether temporary during
dam construction or permanent for hydroelectric generation, can drastically change water flow in
stream beds between the diversion and discharge points. During the filling of an impoundment behind a
dam, downstream flow can be drastically reduced. The management of dam releases (generally based
on demand for energy production) directly influences downstream flows. Projects using instream
energy generation technologies without dams or diversions are likely to have minimal to no adverse
environmental impacts to water resources, considering both operations and the low level of
construction required to develop the projects.
In-stream dams also hold back sediments that can change downstream water quality and can cause
downstream bank and streambed erosion. Retaining sediment can improve downstream turbidity, but
when a river is deprived of its sediment load, it seeks to recapture it by eroding the downstream
riverbed and banks. Riverbeds downstream of dams are typically eroded by several meters within the
first decade after dam construction. The damage can extend for tens or even hundreds of kilometers
below a dam. Riverbed deepening from scouring caused by reduction in sediments can also lower water
tables along a river, if the river is hydraulically connected to the surrounding groundwater, thus reducing
water availability in wells and springs.
Other water quality issues potentially associated with reservoirs include:
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• Accumulation of nutrients leading to increased growth in microbacteria, aquatic plants, etc. and
potentially leading to eutrophication and reductions in dissolved oxygen
• Temperature stratification and associated impacts on dissolved oxygen and chemical
composition
• Discharge of oxygen depleted water due to the fact that the discharge water usually comes from
several meters below the surface of the reservoir where oxygen levels are lower (Oxygen levels
can rise rapidly after the point of discharge if there is turbulent flow.)
2.3 Air Resources
Air contamination at energy generation and transmission projects arise primarily from dust and
equipment emissions during construction and decommissioning and from stack emissions at
thermal/combustion power plants during operation.
Dust is generated at all energy projects during land clearing, earth moving, terrain shaping, construction
and decommissioning activities. Despite the best attempts to control dust, there can be areas and times
when elevated dust concentrations can occur during these activities. A large portion of dust is made up
of large particles, with diameters greater than 10 microns. This coarse dust usually settles
gravitationally within a few hundred meters of the source. The smaller particle size fractions (PM10),
however, can be carried by wind in dust clouds for great distances and may be deposited on or near
populated areas. Dust from land clearing and construction, however, is a short-term impact.
At coal- and biomass-fired power plants, fugitive dust can also be released during transportation,
unloading, storage and processing of fuels.
During site preparation and construction, the project will likely generate particulate and gaseous air
pollutant emissions from vehicle and construction equipment exhaust. Particulate emissions (including
PM10 emissions), carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons (volatile organic compounds), nitrogen
oxides and sulfur dioxide result from fuel combustion in vehicles, heavy equipment, and generators
associated with land clearing and construction. If asphalt batch plants will be used during these
activities, then there can also be emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Many power generation and transmission projects include substations with electrical transformers and
switches. Some transformers, switches, associated cables and tubular transmission lines contain
insulating gases such as fluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). These are all greenhouse gases. SF6
is a greenhouse gas with a significantly higher global warming potential than carbon dioxide (CO2).
Some solar dish-engines use hydrogen or helium as a working gas. At those facilities, not only will the
gas be in the engines, but the facility will likely keep a supply on site for maintenance and repair. In both
the situations, there is the possibility of releases of these gases if the equipment is damaged.
During operation, the greatest air emissions will be associated with power plants fueled by fossil fuels,
biomass and biofuel. The primary emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass are
nitrogen oxides (NOX), particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO) and greenhouse gases, such as
CO2. Fossil fuel facilities fueled by oil and coal will also emit sulfur dioxide (SO2). In addition, fossil fuel
plants that burn waste fuels or solid fuels as well as biomass-fired plants that burn solid wastes can
release heavy metals (i.e., mercury, arsenic, cadmium, vanadium, nickel, etc), halide compounds
(including hydrogen fluoride), unburned hydrocarbons and other VOCs. These latter pollutants may be
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emitted in smaller quantities, but may have a significant influence on the environment due to their
toxicity and/or persistence.
The amount and nature of air emissions depends on factors such as type of fuel (e.g., coal, fuel oil,
natural gas, or biomass), the type and design of the combustion unit (e.g., reciprocating engines,
combustion turbines, or boilers), operating practices, emission control measures (e.g., primary
combustion control, secondary flue gas treatment), and the overall system efficiency. For example, gas-
fired plants generally produce negligible quantities of particulate matter and sulfur oxides, and levels of
nitrogen oxides are about 60 percent of those from plants using coal (without emission reduction
measures). Natural gas-fired plants also release lower quantities of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.
Geothermal power plant emissions typically are negligible compared to those of combustion-based
power plants. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and mercury are the main potential air pollutants associated with
geothermal power generation. Their release is an issue for open-loop systems employing flash or dry
steam technologies. Also, although very rare, well blowouts and pipeline failures may occur during well
drilling or facility operations resulting in releases of gases from underground formations.
While air quality impacts from geothermal facilities are generally small, public and regulatory concerns
have sometimes been high. This is primarily due to the fact that the major pollutant, H2S, has an
extremely low olfactory threshold, causing odor problems for nearby residents. In addition, the
presence of toxic pollutants such as mercury, radon, and arsenic in some geothermal areas has raised
concerns.
Several greenhouse gases are associated with power generation and transmission, including CO2,
N2O,methane (CO4), hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and SF6. CO2, one of the major greenhouse
gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and N2O are emitted from
the combustion of fossil fuels, biomass and biofuel. Methane can be released at geothermal facilities
during drilling and during the operation of open-loop system. It can be released at gas-fired power
plants from leaks in pipelines, compressors and valves. Methane can also be released during the
anaerobic digestion of organic wastes at biofuel plants or in organic sediments associated with dams. As
mentioned previously, fluorocarbons, HF6 and SF6 may be used as insulating gases in high voltage power
transformers, switches and transmission systems.
Among the types of facilities and activities covered by these guidelines, the greatest emitters of green
house gases are thermal/combustion power plants fueled by fossil fuel or biomass. Geothermal plants
have the potential to release CO2 associated with geothermal water and steam, but a geothermal plant
still only releases about five percent of the amount of CO2 emitted by a coal or oil-fired power plant (as
measured as CO2 per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated).
Substituting biomass for fossil fuels can, if done in a sustainable fashion, greatly reduce emissions of
greenhouses gases. The amount of carbon dioxide released when biomass is burned is very nearly the
same as the amount required to replenish the plants grown to produce the biomass. Thus, in a
sustainable fuel cycle, there would be no net emissions of carbon dioxide, although some fossil-fuel
inputs may be required for planting, harvesting, transporting, and processing biomass. Yet, if efficient
cultivation and conversion processes are used, the resulting emissions should be small (around 20
percent of the emissions created by fossil fuels alone). And if the energy needed to produce and
process biomass came from renewable sources, the net contribution to global warming would be zero.
Similarly, if biomass wastes such as crop residues or municipal solid wastes are used for energy, there
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should be few or no net greenhouse gas emissions. There would even be a slight greenhouse benefit in
some cases, since, when landfill wastes are not burned, the potent greenhouse gas methane may be
released by anaerobic decay.
It is important to note that there is considerable technical controversy regarding the net life-cycle
greenhouse gas emissions associated with producing energy or fuels from biomass, particularly where
land use change (e.g., rain forest-to-cropland) may occur. Some researchers dispute the greenhouse gas
benefits of biomass use, citing, among other things, a need to account for energy use in producing
biomass, potential N2O emissions associated with fertilizer use, indirect land use changes at other
locations resulting from changes in land use to produce biomass, foregone sequestration, and a need to
repay a "carbon debt" resulting from the release of carbon from disturbed soil systems. Despite some
important disagreement, the prevailing view is that biomass to energy applications can provide
greenhouse gas benefits, and that, while the appropriate quantification of indirect greenhouse gas
emissions is being debated, sustainable policies could play an important role in ensuring that biomass
use provides environmental benefits.
2.4 Noise and Vibration
Noise and vibration at energy generation and transmission projects are generated during construction
and decommissioning activities from blasting, construction equipment, and the transport of equipment
and materials. Nearly all energy projects have associated transformers and switches, which are a source
of noise. Other operational noises at energy power plants vary with the type of plant. Noise and
vibration from wind turbines can be significant, whereas solar photovoltaic plants will generate virtually
no noise.
Solar dish-engines will generally have noise levels below those of internal combustion engines. Stirling
engines, which are commonly used at these facilities, are known for being quiet, relative to internal
combustion gasoline and diesel engines. Even the highly recuperated Brayton engines are reported to
be relatively quiet. The biggest source of noise from a Stirling engine system is the cooling fan for the
radiator.
Principal sources of noise in thermal power plants include the turbine generators and auxiliaries; boilers
and auxiliaries; fans and ductwork; pumps; compressors; condensers; precipitators, including rappers
and plate vibrators; piping and valves; reciprocating engines; motors; radiators; and cooling towers. At
coal- and biomass-fired thermal plants the transportation of fuel via trucks or trains and its preparation
(e.g., pulverizers, choppers) are also sources of noise. Thermal power plants used for base load
operation may operate continually while smaller plants may operate less frequently but still pose a
significant source of noise if located in urban areas.
Additional noise sources in geothermal facilities are related to well drilling, steam flashing and venting.
Temporary noise levels may exceed 100 A-weighted decibels (dBA, a scale which simulates the
sensitivity of the human ear) during certain drilling and steam venting activities.
At hydroelectric plants, the principal sources of noise are turbines, generators, compressors, ventilation
systems and spillway discharges.
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2.5 Aesthetic Resources
Impacts of power generation and transmission projects on landscape and aesthetic resources include:
• Impacts on visual resources and landscapes
• Impacts on visibility (air contamination projects only)
• Increases in light contamination
Visual impacts of power projects and transmission lines are highly variable, depending on the project
type, location, lines of sight, and scenic vistas that may exist in the project area. Visual impacts may
include power plants, smoke stacks, cooling towers, dams, wind turbines, arrays of solar collectors,
roads, and right-of-ways.
Light pollution is excessive or obtrusive artificial light and can be a problem at all power generating
projects and at substations associated with transmission projects. Light pollution is a broad term that
refers to multiple problems, all of which are caused by inefficient, unappealing, or (arguably)
unnecessary use of artificial light. Light pollution sources from power projects include:
• Lights used during construction to enable work at night or during low light conditions
• Building and structure exterior and interior lighting
• Nighttime security lighting
• On-site streetlights
• Vehicular lighting associated with traffic to and from the site
• Glare from solar panels
Thermal/combustion power plants can degrade ability to view vistas from a distance due to air
emissions generated from combustion.
3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
The primary pathways of impacts on the biological environment are contamination of soil, water and air
and alteration of flow in surface water. However, biological resources can also be affected by land use
conversions, increased human activity in the vicinity of the project, and increased pressure on natural
resources in the area of influence due to human population increases associated with the project.
3.1 Flora, Fauna and Ecosystems
3.1.1 Terrestrial Species and Associated Ecosystems
Terrestrial species are those which may occur on land, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians,
invertebrates, trees, shrubs, forbs, grasses, fungi, mosses and microbes. Possible impacts on terrestrial
species and the ecosystems associated with them (including wetlands and riparian areas) include:
• Destruction, modification or fragmentation of habitat
• Disruption of behavior, including feeding, migration, breeding, nesting, and calving
• Direct impacts
o Poisoning from direct contact with hazardous substances or contamination of watering
holes
o Electrocution or incineration
o Impacts with wind turbine blades
o Increased collection and hunting
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Destruction or fragmentation of terrestrial ecosystems is largely associated with land clearing,
earthmoving and terrain shaping at the facility site and along access roads and right-of-ways. However,
the creation of water impoundments can also flood ecosystems. This may be a relatively small area in
the case of cooling ponds, or several hundreds of hectares in the case of a large hydroelectric dam.
Excessive collection of fuel wood by workers during construction or operation can also lead to
deforestation. Destruction of ecosystems can also be caused indirectly if emissions from a
thermal/combustion plant kill or reduce productivity of vegetation downwind from the facility.
For biomass projects that propose burning wood, the associated increase in the amount of forest wood
harvested could have both positive and negative effects. On one hand, it could provide an incentive for
the forest-products industry to manage its resources more efficiently, and thus improve forest health.
But it could also provide an excuse, under the "green" mantle, to exploit forests in an unsustainable
fashion, resulting in the destruction of species habitat. Unfortunately, commercial forests have not
always been soundly managed, and many people view with alarm the prospect of increased wood
cutting.
Wildfire is another source of ecosystem destruction. Facility construction and operation increases the
number of humans in its vicinity, which increases the possibility of human caused wildfires. This is also
true along access routes and right-of-ways. If vegetative management of right-of-ways allow for the
build-up of fire fuels, such as slash, this can increase the intensity of fires in the right-of-ways.
Hydroelectric dams can cause seepage below the dam, which can impact terrestrial ecosystems where
the seepage occurs. Riverbed scouring caused by hydroelectric dams can cause stream bed erosion,
which can lower water availability in riparian zones in the area of the scouring, causing die-off of
vegetation.
The construction of access roads and right-of-ways can fragment existing ecosystems and interrupt
migratory corridors. Access roads and right-of-ways can also open to human activities areas that had
previously been relatively wild, disturbing the species in those areas and creating opportunities for
increased collection or harvest of plant life and collection or hunting of animals.
Some ecosystems are more critical to species survival than others. These include migratory routes or
corridors, watering holes, salt licks, and breeding, nesting and calving areas. These areas should have
been identified in the preparation of the Environmental Setting. Any impacts in these areas should
receive special attention.
Modification of habitat can be associated with right-of-way management as well as with releases of
noxious or invasive species. Excessive vegetation maintenance in right-of-ways may remove
unnecessary amounts of vegetation resulting in disrupting succession and increasing the likelihood of
the establishment of non-native invasive species.
Alteration of terrestrial habitat for construction of transmission and distribution projects may also yield
benefits for wildlife such as the creation of protective nesting, rearing, and foraging habitat for certain
species; the establishment of travel and foraging corridors for ungulates and other large mammals; and
nesting and perching opportunities for large bird species atop transmission towers and associated
infrastructures.
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Energy generation and transmission projects can disrupt animal behavior in several ways. If the project
involves a construction camp or onsite housing during operation, animals can be attracted to garbage
and food waste thus changing there feeding habits and their interactions with humans. Regular
maintenance of right-of-ways to control vegetation may involve the use of mechanical methods, such as
mowing or pruning machinery, in addition to manual hand clearing and herbicide use, all of which can
disrupt wildlife and their habitats. Noise, vibration, illumination, and vehicular movement can disrupt
animal activities. These are particularly of concern if animals are disrupted in sensitive habitats, such as
migratory routes or corridors, watering holes, salt licks, and breeding, nesting and calving areas.
Light pollution can pose a serious threat to wildlife, having negative impacts on plant and animal
physiology. Light pollution can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change
predator-prey relations, and cause physiological harm. The rhythm of life is orchestrated by the natural
diurnal patterns of light and dark, so disruption to these patterns impacts the ecological dynamics.
Direct impacts to wildlife can be caused by increase hunting, improper solid or liquid waste disposal and
direct contact by animals with project components. Increased collection and hunting can be stimulated
by increased human activity in the area by workers and the population that grows to meet those
workers needs. Improper waste disposal can bring animals into direct contact with hazardous
substances or poison watering holes.
The most common form of animal contact is electrocution via contact with equipment in substations,
but other types of negative contacts can also occur including avian collisions with solar heliostat towers
and potential for bird incineration and blinding from solar technology.
The combination of the height of transmission towers and the electricity carried by transmission lines
can pose potentially fatal hazard to birds and bats through collisions and electrocutions. Avian collisions
with power lines can occur in large numbers if located within daily flyways or migration corridors, or if
groups are traveling at night or during low light conditions (e.g., dense fog). In addition, bird and bat
collisions with power lines may result in power outages and fires.
Birds and bats also may be directly impacted by wind turbines. Many factors affect the potential risk of
harm to birds and bats from wind turbines, including turbine variables (size, rotational speed,
operational time, rotor swept area, spacing, tower type), variables at the turbine site (habitat, presence
of features such as caves or cliffs) and bird/bat behavior (seasonal migration, hunting or feeding
behaviors, other species-specific behaviors). Loss of bat populations can have significant secondary
impacts on both agriculture and public health because of the role bats play in controlling insect
populations. Morbidity and mortality of birds as a result of wind turbine operation is caused by blade
impact - typically at or near the tip of the blade where radial velocities are high. Morbidity and
mortality among bats is largely caused by barotraumas - a sudden reduction in barometric pressure
near the blade. Research indicates that operational adjustments, such as altering wind turbine cut-in
speeds, may act as a mitigation to reduce barotrauma impacts to bats; mitigation techniques based on
site characterization studies also may be effective (Arnett, et. al., 2011; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
2011; Baerwald, et al., 2009; and California Energy Commission, 2007).
3.1.2 Aquatic Species and Associated Ecosystems
Aquatic species are those species that may live in water. They include species that live in marine water
as well as freshwater. Impacts that can affect aquatic species and the ecosystems associated with them
include:
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• Water contamination
• Changes in water flows or water levels in surface water
• Direct aquatic habitat alteration
• Injury or mortality from:
o Direct contact with in-water technologies (e.g., hydroelectric and hydrokinetic turbines)
o Increased collection or fishing
• Habitat avoidance due to noise or visual disturbances
Impacts on aquatic ecosystems caused by water contamination and water flows are derived directly
from the water quantity and quality impacts identified in subsection 2.2, Water Resources. If the project
can impact water quality or quantity in surface water, then it has the potential to impact the aquatic
species in those waters. For example, discharges with elevated temperature and chemical contaminants
can affect phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, crustaceans, shellfish, and many other forms of aquatic life.
Discharges from hydroelectric dams can often lower the temperature downstream of the dam, which
can cause changes in the ecosystem and the species composition. Similar ecosystem and species
composition impacts can occur if the amount of flow is reduced or if the project introduces large
variances in flow rates. These types of ecosystem changes can often lead to invasion by non-native
species. These impacts and others caused by changes in water quality and quantity should be
investigated and characterized.
Direct aquatic habitat alteration can occur during construction or upgrading of access roads and right-of-
ways. If such activities require construction across wetlands or streams; on the borders of ponds or
lakes estuaries; or on coastlines, they can disrupt watercourses and wetland flow regimes, impact water
quality and cause bank erosion all of which impact aquatic habitats. The installation of power
transmission cables on marine floors can disrupt marine habitat including intertidal vegetation (e.g.,
eelgrass), coral reefs, and marine life.
Hydroelectric dams can cause changes in river ecosystems. Dams block movement of species from
downstream of the dam to upstream of the dam. This can be a major issue if migratory fish are in the
river or if spawning grounds for downstream populations are located upstream of the dam. As
discussed in the Water Resources subsection, dams also hold back sediments, which lead to
downstream riverbed scouring. This cuts off sediment that would naturally replenish downstream
ecosystems and reduces habitat for fish that spawn in river bottoms, and for invertebrates that live
there.
In addition, proliferation of aquatic weeds in hydroelectric reservoirs and downstream of the dam
(introduced at the reservoir) can impair fisheries by depleting dissolved oxygen. In worst cases, this can
lead to eutrophication and aquatic species mortality.
Projects using instream energy generation technologies without dams or diversions may have adverse
impacts on aquatic species depending upon the specific species, settings and technologies used. Recent
field studies at a limited number of specific instream energy generation locations have found low
impacts on fish attributed to the dynamics of these types of devices, which involved: 1) relatively slow
turbine rotations and water velocities, allowing fish to avoid the devices, and 2) no differential in head
pressure, eliminating injuries from rapid changes in ambient pressure. However, because the
technologies are new, it is important to monitor project effects to confirm whether there is the potential
for, and if so the significance of, impacts on fish due to mortality.
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For thermal projects that divert surface water to use in cooling and in boilers as well as hydroelectric
projects, aquatic organisms can be drawn into intake structures and impinged on components of the
intake structure or the equipment it delivers water to (e.g., hydroelectric and hydrokinetic turbines) or,
in the case of cooling water systems, entrained in the system. In either case, aquatic organisms may be
killed or subjected to significant harm. In some cases (e.g., sea turtles), organisms can become
entrapped in intake canals.
3.2 Endangered or Threatened Species and Habitats and Protected Areas
It is imperative that no endangered or threatened species or designated protected areas be adversely
impacted by the power or transmission line project. These species should receive particular attention
during the assessment of impacts on flora and fauna, striving for no net loss. All activities proposed for
the project should be overlaid on maps of the habitats for endangered and threatened species as well a
protected areas, to identify any potential impacts.
Table E- 2: Potential impacts to physical and biological environments common to
specific energy generation and transmission technologies
Activity
Affected Environment
01
3
u.
'w
°
Biomass/Biofuel
Hydropower
•O
_C
i_
IS
o
I/)
Geothermal
Transmission
Environmental Concerns
SITE INVESTIGATION (Site investigation activities requiring a permit, and therefore covered by an EIA. Generally this is only the
case for hydroelectric dams and geothermal projects, which involve invasive site investigations.)
Access to sites
Soil and geologic borings
Exploratory drilling
Soil
Terrestrial Flora
Terrestrial Fauna
Terrestrial Fauna
Soil
Water Quality
P
P
X
X
X
Erosion from off-road vehicle use
Degradation of vegetation from off-road
vehicle use
Disturbance of wildlife
Disturbance of wildlife drilling mud
disposal
Soil contamination from drilling mud
disposal
Groundwater contamination
Surface water contamination from drilling
mud disposal
CONSTRUCTION
Well drilling
Installing marine floor
cables
Soil
Water Quality
Noise and Vibrations
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
p
p
P
P
p
p
X
X
X
X
Drilling fluid disposal
Drilling fluid disposal
Well blowouts and pipeline failures
Drilling equipment
Habitat alteration from turbidity increases
and sedimentation
OPERATION
Dams (including dams for
cooling ponds)
Geology
Water Quantity
Water Quality
p
p
p
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
p
p
p
p
p
p
Dam failure (hydroelectric reservoirs and
cooling pond dams)
Raising water tables
Downstream seepage
Changes in downstream flow regimes
Downstream streambed scouring
Groundwater recharge by cooling ponds
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Activity
Diversions
Cooling systems
On-site equipment
Maintenance
Affected Environment
Terrestrial Flora and
associated Ecosystems
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Water Quantity
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Water Quantity
Noise
Terrestrial Fauna
Soil
Water Quality
HI
3
u.
a
o
u.
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
X
P
P
P
X
P
Biomass/Biofuel
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
X
P
P
P
X
P
Hydropower
P
P
P
P
P
P
X
X
X
X
P
P
•O
c
i
X
X
X
k.
(0
£
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
X
p
Geothermal
P
P
X
X
X
X
X
X
p
X
p
p
Transmission
Environmental Concerns
Destruction of ecosystems by inundation
Alteration of ecosystems from
downstream seepage
Alteration of ecosystems from changes in
downstream water temperatures, flow
regimes, turbidity and sediment loads
Barrier to upstream migration
Aquatic weed proliferation
Individuals killed, damaged or entrapped
by intake structures, cooling systems or
turbines.
Changes in stream flow regimes between
intake and discharge points
Habitat alteration from changes in flow
regimes between intake and discharge
points
Individuals killed, damaged or entrapped
by intake structures or turbines.
Disposal of material dredged from ponds
or removed from cooling towers
Disposal of material dredged from ponds
or removed from cooling towers
Discharges of cooling water
Habitat alteration from discharges of
cooling water
Water needs for cooling
Turbines and generators
Boilers, pumps, precipitators, cooling
towers, fans and ductwork, compressors,
condensers, precipitators, piping and
valves
Engines
Emission control equipment
Steam flashing and venting
Disruption and dislocation (via noise,
vibration, lights and human presence) of
local and/or migratory wildlife, including
disturbance of migratory corridors and
breeding, spawning, nesting and calving
areas
Bird and bat collisions with wind turbine
blades
Bird incineration
Disposal of material deposited and
removed throughout the system for open-
loop geothermal plants
Disposal of material dredged from cooling
ponds, reservoirs or other structures
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Activity
Storage and handling of
heat transfer substances
Geothermal withdrawals
Production of biomass
(activities on farms and
forests)
Fuel washing and
preparation
Affected Environment
Water Quantity
Terrestrial Flora and
associated Ecosystems
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
Air Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Geology
Water Quality
(groundwater)
Air Quality
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Flora and
associated Ecosystems
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
Air Quality
HI
3
u.
a
o
u.
P
P
P
P
P
Biomass/Biofuel
P
P
P
X
P
P
P
P
Hydropower
P
•O
C
i
L.
(0
£
X
p
p
p
p
p
Geothermal
X
P
P
P
X
X
p
X
X
Transmission
P
X
X
P
Environmental Concerns
Vegetation control practices in right-of-
ways causing erosion and/or
contamination by herbicides
Water needs for glass and reflector
cleaning
Boiler water needs
Water needs for ash handling and FGD
systems at coal- and biomass-fired plants
Alteration (positive or negative) of
ecosystems (species and structural
composition, introduction of exotic
species, etc.) associated with right-of-way
maintenance
Disruption and dislocation of local and/or
migratory wildlife, including disturbance
of migratory corridors and breeding,
spawning, nesting and calving areas
associated with right-of-way maintenance
Habitat alteration from water
contamination from disposal of dredged
or removed material
Habitat alteration from water
contamination from vegetative
management in right-of-ways
Leaks or spills of fluids
Releases of gaseous substances (used in
some solar dish-engines)
Habitat alteration from water
contamination from
Subsidence
Stimulate seismic activity
Reinjection of spent geothermal fluids
Well blowouts and pipeline failures
Off-gassing of geothermal water and
steam
Erosion
Salinization
Contamination by agricultural chemicals
Forest degradation from fuel wood
harvests OR
Improved forest ecosystems from
sustainable management
Habitat alteration from water
contamination from farm and forest
management practices
Soil contamination from residue disposal
Dust from pulverizers, choppers, etc.
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Activity
Fuel storage
Fuel combustion
Affected Environment
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
Air Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
Air Quality
Noise
Aesthetics
Terrestrial Flora and
associated Ecosystems
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
HI
3
u.
a
o
u.
P
P
P
P
P
X
P
X
P
P
P
X
P
Biomass/Biofuel
P
P
P
P
X
P
X
P
P
P
X
P
Hydropower
•O
C
i
L.
(0
£
Geothermal
Transmission
Environmental Concerns
Habitat alteration from water
contamination from residue disposal
Spills and leaks
Dust from fuel storage piles (coal and
biomass)
Habitat alteration from water
contamination from spills and leaks
Soil contamination from ash and sludge
disposal (from the combustion chamber
and air control devices)
Deposition of air contaminants on
downwind soils
Ash and sludge disposal (from the
combustion chamber and air control
devices)
Stack and exhaust pipe emissions
Engines
Emission control equipment
Visibility
Destruction or degradation of ecosystems
downwind from stack emissions
Habitat alteration from water
contamination from ash and sludge
disposal
Key
X = Associated with a technology
P = Possible association with the technology, depending on the specific type of technology, associated facilities and the location
4 SOCIAL-ECONOMIC-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
Social-economic-cultural impacts from power generation and or transmission projects are highly
variable and dependent on the project type, project size, project footprint, energy source(s), existing
land use patterns, proximity of population, local livelihoods, and presence of cultural and religious
assets. Further, different types of impacts can occur during project preparation, construction, operation
and decommissioning. Nonetheless, there are a set of impacts on the social-economic-cultural
environment that are common to nearly all energy projects. These are summarized in Figure E-l.
4.1 Socio-Economic Conditions
The social and economic impacts of energy generation and transmission projects can be both positive
and negative. Socio-economic impacts can vary by location and size of the project, length of the project
from construction to closure, manpower requirements, the opportunities the company has for the local
community employment and involvement, and the existing character and structure of the nearby
communities.
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Positive impacts can potentially include:
• Increased individual incomes
o Direct employment on the project
o Indirect employment generated by project activities
o Increased purchases from local businesses
o Other economic activities stimulated in the community as a result of the project
• Employment opportunities for local residents (short- and long-term)
• Increased tax base
• Less expensive and more reliable electric power
Negative impacts can potentially include:
• Displacement and relocation of current settlements, residents or community resources
• Displacement or disruption of people's livelihoods (e.g., fishing, hunting, grazing, farming,
forestry and tourism)
• Public finance requirements - more infrastructure and services needed to meet the demands of
increased population (e.g., public education, policing, fire protection, water, sanitation, roads)
• Increased traffic and truck trips (safety, noise, exhaust)
• Reduction in quality of life for residents from visual and noise impacts
• Impacts on public health (not applicable to all projects)
o Water-related vector diseases (malaria, dengue, etc.)
o Health impacts of pesticide and fertilizer use
• Impacts on worker health and safety
o Identification of hazardous jobs and number of workers exposed with duration of exposure
o Occupational diseases due to exposure to dust and other project related activities such as
handling of explosives, solvents, petroleum products, etc.
o Identification of physical risks and safety aspects
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Figure E 1: Social-Economic-Cultural common to nearly all energy generation and transmission projects
Socio-Economic Conditions
• Increased individual incomes
o Direct employment at the project
o Indirect employment generated by project activities
o Increased purchases from local businesses
o Other economic activities stimulated in the community as a result of the project
• Employment opportunities for local residents (short- and long-term)
• Increased tax base
• Less expensive and more reliable electric power
• Displacement and relocation of current settlements, residents or community resources
• Displacement or disruption of people's livelihoods (e.g., fishing, hunting, grazing, farming, forestry and tourism)
• Public finance requirements - will more infrastructure or services be needed to meet the demands of increase population
in the areas (e.g., public education, policing, fire protection, water, sanitation, roads)
• Reduction in quality of life for residents from visual and noise impacts
• Change in population
o Change in character of community
o Change in religious, ethnic or cultural makeup of community
• Change in crime rates (drugs, alcohol, prostitution, etc.) due to changes in population and/or community character
• Impacts on worker health and safety
o Identification of hazardous jobs and number of workers exposed with duration of exposure
o Occupational diseases due to exposure to dust and other project related activities such as handling of explosives,
solvents, petroleum products, etc.
o Identification of physical risks and safety aspects
o Potential impacts from electromagnetic fields
Infrastructure
Changes in demand on existing infrastructure resulting in need for new or improved infrastructure
• Transportation infrastructure
o Potential changes to traffic patterns, densities, and traffic safety issues in area affected by project
• Public health infrastructure
• Communications infrastructure
• Energy infrastructure
Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources
• Destruction, damage and/or alteration during construction
• Removal from historic location
• Introduction of visual or audible elements that diminish integrity
• Neglect that causes deterioration
• Loss of medicinal plants
• Loss of access to traditional use areas
• Impacts (i.e., vandalism) to previously inaccessible areas from development/improvement of roads
Land Use
• Changes in land use by both area and location
o Potential impacts to previously inaccessible areas from improvement of roads
• Change in housing market (during construction and operation and after closure) and associated services (schools,
cemeteries, churches, other public buildings)
• Identification of any components of the proposed project that would fall within 25- or 100-year flood plains
• Changes in tourism and recreation activities
Some impacts have the potential to be positive and/or negative such as:
• Change in population
o Change in character of community
o Change in religious, ethnic or cultural makeup of community
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• Change in crime rates (drugs, alcohol, prostitution, etc.)
One of the primary socio-economic concerns is displacement of people through: involuntary or forced
taking of land, relocation or loss of shelter, loss of assets (farmlands, forests, fisheries, etc.), and/or loss
of income sources or means of livelihood. This is an especially crucial consideration for indigenous
people and projects, like hydroelectric dams, that can impact vast areas. Development bank experience
indicates that involuntary resettlement under development projects, if unmitigated, often gives rise to
severe economic, social and environmental risks arising from a chain of actions following displacement.
Production systems are dismantled and people face impoverishment. People are relocated to
environments where their productive skills may be less applicable and the competition for resources
greater. Community institutions and social networks are weakened. Kin groups are dispersed. Cultural
identity, traditional authority and the potential for mutual help are diminished or lost.
The impacts on public health will vary with the type of project. Any projects that create water bodies
(hydroelectric dams and thermal power plants using cooling ponds) can create habitats for mosquitoes.
If dengue fever or malaria is prevalent in the area, these impoundments could increase the population
of mosquitoes that carry these diseases. Emissions from thermal/combustion projects can impact
health in downwind communities, depending upon the concentrations and the distance to the
communities.
Any project that runs transmission lines near residences can create electromagnetic fields (EMF).
Although there is public concern over the potential health effects associated with exposure to EMF (not
only high voltage power lines and substations, but also from everyday household uses of electricity),
empirical data is insufficient to demonstrate adverse health effects from exposure to typical EMF levels
from power transmissions lines and equipment.
Biomass and biofuel projects, in which the production of biomass is included in the scope of the EIA, can
have positive economic impacts beyond the operation of the plant. A potential effect of growing trees
and other plants for energy is that it could benefit farm economies. Energy crops could provide a steady
supplemental income for farmers in off-seasons or allow them to work unused land without requiring
much additional equipment.
A special focused analysis to explicitly identify and address potential impacts which may fall
disproportionately on vulnerable populations is sometimes warranted. "Environmental justice" is a
term first developed in the United States to describe such circumstances. Impact analysis and policy
considerations that may be valid for the general population may not adequately capture important
impacts on subsets of society. For these communities efforts to protect their environmental health and
wellbeing requires further investigation into their special relationship to the environment to assess
whether predicted impacts may fall upon them disproportionately heavily. Impacts that may not be
considered significant for the general population may overlook potentially significant impacts on these
populations without this special focus. Whether these impacts can be anticipated from proposed
energy projects depends upon the area of influence of the impacts of the proposed project and the use
of the affected resources by populations which may be disproportionately affected typically indigenous
peoples, minority or low-income groups.
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4.2 Infrastructure
The impacts on infrastructure of energy generation and transmission projects can be neutral, positive or
negative, varying with the location and size of the project, manpower requirements, economic benefits
to the community, impact on availability of public funds and the existing infrastructure. The impacted
infrastructure can include:
• Transportation Infrastructure
o Existing roads
o Associated structures (bridges, tunnels, traffic controls, etc.)
o Airports
o Railroads
• Public Health Infrastructure
o Drinking water supplies and treatment
o Wastewater treatment and management
o Solid and hazardous waste management and treatment
• Communications Infrastructure
o Telephone services (fixed lines and mobile)
• Associated transmission facilities
o Radio stations
o Television stations
• Energy Infrastructure
o Electrical power
o Fuel stations and storage facilities
For all of these types of infrastructure, the question for the EIA is do they have the capacity to meet the
demands the project will create, or will they have to be altered, improved or expanded? Additionally,
the EIA should determine if the project will alter the condition of the infrastructure. If the existing
infrastructure will not meet the demand of the project, or if the project will impact the condition of the
infrastructure, then the project has an impact on infrastructure.
For transportation infrastructure, this subsection should addresses impacts of transportation and traffic
patterns on existing roads. It should identify any anticipated changes in traffic patterns, densities, and
traffic safety. If such changes are identified, the EIA should also estimate their impact on traffic
accidents, congestion and noise.
Some impacts on infrastructure are unique to particular types of energy projects. A hydroelectric
project that includes building a dam will retain sediment behind the dam, thus depriving the river
downstream of its sediment load. The downstream river will seek to recapture the sediments by
eroding the downstream river bed and banks, potentially undermining bridges and other riverbank
structures. It can also cause downstream seepage, which may negatively impact structures in the areas
that experience seepage. However, a dam can also provide regulated flow and flood control that can
protect downstream structures, and the reservoir that it creates can provide new tourism and fisheries
opportunities.
Wind turbine blade tips, at their highest point, may reach more than 100 meters in height. If located
near airports or known flight paths, a wind farm may impact aircraft safety directly through potential
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collision or alteration of flight paths. Similarly, if located near ports, harbors, or known shipping lanes,
an offshore wind turbine may impact shipping safety through collision or alteration of vessel traffic.
Wind turbines could potentially cause electromagnetic interference with aviation radar and
telecommunication systems (e.g., microwave, television, and radio). This interference could be caused
by three main mechanisms, namely near-field effects, diffraction, and reflection or scattering. The
nature of the potential impacts depends primarily on the location of the wind turbine relative to the
transmitter and receiver.
4.3 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources
Impacts on cultural, archeological, ceremonial and historic resources include any direct or indirect
alteration of sites, structures, landmarks or traditional cultural lifestyles and resources associated with
those lifestyles. Cultural, archeological, ceremonial and historic resources include: archeological sites,
historic buildings, burial grounds, sacred or ceremonial sites, areas used for the collection of materials
used in ceremonies or traditional lifestyles, and sites that are important because of their roles in
traditional stories. Examples of adverse effects to cultural and historical resources from energy projects
may include:
• Destruction during construction
• Damage and alteration
• Removal from historic location
• Introduction of visual or audible elements that diminish integrity
• Neglect that causes deterioration
• Loss of medicinal plants
• Loss of access to traditional use areas
• Impacts to previously inaccessible areas from development/improvement of roads
4.4 Land Use
Energy projects can impact local land use. Clearly, land use on the project site itself will be modified for
the life of the project. This impact, however, varies greatly with the size of the facility site. A small
geothermal facility may have little impact whereas a large solar power plant (requiring approximately
one square kilometer for every 20 to 60 MW generated) can have a greater impact, and a large
hydroelectric reservoir that inundates hundreds of hectares can have considerable impact. Other long-
term impacts can include those associated with roads, rails and other ancillary facilities that may stay in
place and be used for many years, possibly even after the project's life.
Projects can impact land use on properties adjacent to the facilities as well as properties through which
roads and right-of-ways may pass. Land use in these areas can be impacted by visibility, noise, odor, air
pollution, and water contamination. The development of new roads also may open up previously
inaccessible areas to development.
For projects proposing to use biomass as a fuel, the land use impacts can extend to the areas where the
biomass is produced. Alternative uses of the bio materials if they were not used for the purpose of
generating energy
Land use in communities nearby the facility can experience changes due to increased population,
demanding more housing, schools, churches, and commercial and public services. For energy
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generation and transmission projects these impacts may be short-lived, occurring only during
construction when the number of workers is highest. However, some projects, like hydroelectric
reservoirs, can create recreational activities that can stimulate long-term changes in population and
economic activity, and corresponding changes in land use.
Some projects, instead of creating tourism opportunities could negatively impact existing tourism land
use. A hydroelectric reservoir could flood tourist attractions. Thermal generation plants burning fossil
fuel or biomass as well as large scale wind and solar projects could detract from the visual experience
and thereby impact the tourist experience.
Hydroelectric dams have potential impacts on land use beyond the direct removal of land from land use
via inundation, including seasonal or daily inundation caused by fluctuations in reservoir levels. The
chief advantage of hydroelectric dams is their ability to handle seasonal or daily high peak loads. When
the electricity demands drop, the dam simply stores more water to provide more flow when demand
increases. In practice the utilization of stored water in river dams can have negative impacts on
downstream land uses such as irrigation and recreation, which may have water demands out of phase
with peak electrical demands. Riverbed deepening from scouring caused by reduction in sediments can
also lower water tables along a river, threatening local wells in the floodplain and requiring crop
irrigation in places where there was previously no need. In addition, seepage caused by hydroelectric
dams can impact land uses in the areas affected.
5 IDENTIFYING CUMULATIVE IMPACTS
Cumulative effects are those effects on the
environment that result from the
incremental effect of the action when added
to other past, present, and reasonably
foreseeable future actions regardless of
what a project proponent undertakes.
Cumulative effects can result from
individually minor, but collectively significant
actions, taking place over a period of time.
Energy projects can contribute to cumulative
effects when their effects overlap with those
of other activities in space, or time, or both.
Effects can be either direct or indirect.
Direct effects are those that occur in the
same place and at the same time and are a
direct result of the proposed action. For
example, water quality downstream of a
hydroelectric project might be affected by
reduced spillage at a dam in concert with
irrigation withdrawals. Indirect effects can
occur at a distance from the proposed
action, or the effects may appear some time
EXAMPLES OF CUMULATIVE EFFECTS
Incremental loss of wetlands
Degradation of rangeland from multiple grazing
allotments and the invasion of exotic weeds
Population declines in nesting birds from multiple
tree harvests within the same land unit
Increased regional acidic deposition from
emissions and changing climate patterns
Blocking offish passage by multiple hydroelectric
dams and reservoirs in the same river basin
Cumulative commercial and residential
development and highway construction associated
with encroaching development outside of urban
areas
Increased soil erosion and stream sedimentation
from multiple logging operations in the same
watershed
Change in neighborhood socio-cultural character
resulting from ongoing local development including
construction
Degraded recreational experience from
overcrowding and reduced visibility
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after the proposed action occurs. For example, an upstream timber harvest area and upstream water
sewage treatment plant may affect water quality, in addition to the effects on water quality from the
proposed action.
Although required of ElAs the cumulative impact assessment is often overlooked because many of the
actions that need to be taken into account are not within the control of the project proponent, or
because methods for cumulative impact assessment may not be apparent.
Cumulative impacts may be positive or negative. A new power plant may facilitate taking one or more
older, more polluting power plants out of service, and may result in net improvement in environmental
conditions. Conversely, installing and operating several small diesel generator stations within a small
area, or building several small hydroelectric projects in a given watershed may result in net
environmental impacts that exceed those of any one of the projects. In summary, additive or
cumulative impacts of the project with those of existing, planned or future activities should be
accounted for. This is typically done by adding predicted impacts to existing conditions.
5.1 Identifying Resources that have Potential for Cumulative Impacts
Resources which may require the analysis of cumulative effects described in Chapter F can be identified
through the results of any scoping meetings, site visit, public interest in a particular resource; and
consultation with the agencies and governmental organizations (NGOs) familiar with or responsible for
those resources. Figure E-2 provides a set of factors to consider in identifying potential cumulative
impacts.
Additional guidance on defining cumulative analysis resources can be found in: Considering Cumulative
Effects under the National Environmental Policy Act (Council on Environmental Quality, 1997), which is
available on the web at http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/ccenepa/ccenepa.htm.
An example of the affected environment, or a resource, where operations may cause a cumulative and
additive impact would be groundwater usage. In the project area there already may exist wells that are
tapping the same aquifer for irrigation, industrial, and municipal uses that the energy project proposes
to use for cooling water. Pumping water from that same aquifer may produce a cumulative impact.
These uses, when evaluated separately, may not produce a noticeable or measurable decline in the
groundwater elevation. However, if these usages are modeled together with the estimated volumes per
year of each use and over the time period of planned use, the model may show a cumulative impact of
widespread and significant decline in groundwater elevation. A cumulative impact for groundwater,
widespread and significant decline in water elevation, then may produce an impact to surface water
elevation by lowering stream levels and base flows in nearby streams if there is a hydrologic connection
between the aquifer and streams. Declines in groundwater elevations, causing declines in base flows in
neighboring streams may produce an impact to habitat critical to wildlife or vegetation therefore
impacting certain species of wildlife and vegetation.
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Figure E 2: Identifying potential cumulative effects issues related to a proposed action
1. What is the value of the affected resource or ecosystem? Is it:
• Protected by legislation or planning goals?
• Ecologically important?
• Culturally important?
• Economically important?
• Important to the well-being of a human community?
2. Is the proposed action one of several similar past, present, or future actions in the same geographic area?
3. Do other activities (whether governmental or private) in the region have environmental effects similar to those of the
proposed action?
4. Will the proposed action (in combination with other planned activities) affect any natural resources; cultural resources; social
or economic units; or ecosystems of regional, national, or global public concern? Examples: release of chlorofluorocarbons
to the atmosphere; conversion of wetland habitat to farmland located in a migratory waterfowl flyway.
5. Have any recent or ongoing EIA analyses of similar actions or nearby actions identified important adverse or beneficial
cumulative effect issues?
6. Has the impact been historically significant, such that the importance of the resource is defined by past loss, past gain, or
investments to restore resources?
7. Might the proposed action involve any of the following cumulative effects issues?
• long range transport of air pollutants resulting in ecosystem acidification or eutrophication
• air emissions resulting in degradation of regional air quality
• release of greenhouse gases resulting in climate modification
• loading large water bodies with discharges of sediment, thermal, and toxic pollutants
• reduction or contamination of groundwater supplies
• changes in hydrological regimes of major rivers and estuaries
• long-term containment and disposal of hazardous wastes
• mobilization of persistent or bioaccumulated substances through the food chain
• decreases in the quantity and quality of soils
• loss of natural habitats or historic character through residential, commercial, and industrial development
• social, economic, or cultural effects on low-income or minority communities resulting from ongoing development
• habitat fragmentation from infrastructure construction or changes in land use
• habitat degradation from grazing, timber harvesting, and other consumptive uses
• disruption of migrating fish and wildlife populations
• loss of biological diversity
Source: Edited from Table 2.1, Council on Environmental Quality, Considering Cumulative Effects under the NEPA Policy Act,
January 1997
5.2 Regional, Sectoral or Strategic Assessment
Regional, sectoral, or strategic social and environmental assessment may be available to provide the
additional perspective in addition to the social and environmental impact assessment. Regional
assessment is conducted when a project or series of projects are expected to have a significant regional
impact or influence regional development (e.g., an urban area, a watershed, or a coastal zone), and is
also appropriate where the region of influence spans two or more countries or where impacts are likely
to occur beyond the host country. Sectoral assessment is useful where several projects are proposed in
the same or related sector (e.g., power, transport, or agriculture) in the same country, either by the
client alone or by the client and others. Strategic assessment examines impacts and risks associated
with a particular strategy, policy, plan, or program, often involving both the public and private sectors.
Regional, sectoral, or strategic assessment may be necessary to evaluate and compare the impact of
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alternative development options, assess legal and institutional aspects relevant to the impacts and risks,
and recommend broad measures for future social and environmental management. Particular attention
is paid to potential cumulative impacts of multiple activities. These assessments are typically carried out
by the public sector, though they may be called for in some complex and high risks private sector
projects.
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F. ASSESSING IMPACTS
ASSESSING THE IMPACTS OF POWER GENERATION
AND TRANSMISSION PROJECTS
Predictive tools can be quantitative - as in the
case of analytical or numerical air and water
models, semi-quantitative based on the results
of surveys used to evaluate socio-economic
impacts, or qualitative based on professional
judgment and comparisons with known impacts of
similar projects and environmental settings.
F. ASSESSING IMPACTS: PREDICTIVE TOOLS AND CONSIDERATIONS
1 OVERVIEW OF PREDICTIVE TOOLS FOR EIA
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) employs predictive tools to determine the locations, magnitude,
duration, extent and significance of potential impacts
on the environment. EIA for energy sector projects
involves a wide range of energy sources and
technologies that may be incorporated in a project
whose impacts may require the use of a range of
predictive tools to assess impacts. The selection of
appropriate methods for predicting impacts is
important and should be based on sound scientific
principles. Many of these methods for predicting
impacts are presented in this section of the
guidelines.
1.1 Ground Rules: Basic Considerations for Predicting Impacts
The EIA should assess as appropriate the direct, indirect and cumulative impacts for the proposed
project including alternatives and for every phase of the project: exploration, site development,
construction, operation, maintenance and closure if closure is expected within nominally 20-30 years. If
closure is predicted to be further in to the future then much might have changed in the interim and it is
not appropriate to plan for closure at the start of the project.
Ground Rules for predicting impacts:
1. Generally accepted scientific practices should be used to estimate potential impacts.
2. Greater detail and analysis should be included for those impacts which are potentially
significant.
3. It will be important to identify uncertainties to lay the groundwork for decisions about the
project, proposed environmental measures, monitoring and contingency plans.
4. The assessment of impacts builds on and indeed depends on a complete and accurate
description of the project and related activities, alternatives and the information on the
environmental setting. The assessment may take into account proposed environmental
measures incorporated into the siting, design and processes and procedures, but to the extent
that this is done in the assessment of impacts, those actions should be included in the
Environmental Management section of the EIA which describes the commitments of the project
developer to environmental measures activities. In other words, the project proponent cannot
assume for purposes of analysis that the impact is half of what it would otherwise be because of
a control device and then fail to include that control device in the environmental measures that
are committed to for the project. Control technologies proposed are also often part of the
project alternatives addressed - balancing cost against benefits.
5. Key assumptions should be explicit in the EIA. Because prediction is only as good as the
assumptions and the appropriateness of the tools, information required should be explicitly
spelled out in the EIA for the reviewer and decision maker. Although a range of predictive tools
may be available, however, the user should justify and validate or qualify the tools and data
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used based on the site location and situation. Topography, meteorology, hydrology, land use
and ground cover, energy input types and rates, and conditions that may be unique to the
project site should also be considered.
6. Cumulative impacts should not be ignored. Impacts of project construction and operation
should be added to existing and other predicted impacts (other projects already under
development), as the overall net impacts should be addressed.
7. To employ predictive tools it usually is necessary to calculate intermediary factors such as the
resulting direct emissions or releases into the environment from a given set of activities, or, the
area and type of land disturbance, number of employees that may be required during
construction phases, and other factors. By applying these intermediary factors to what is known
about the environmental setting, predictive tools provide quantitative and qualitative
information on the impacts based upon known or anticipated relationships.
1.2 Geographic Boundaries for Assessment of Impacts
The geographic boundaries for assessment of impacts are an important factor in correct assessment of
impacts. It is often called the "area of influence". Determining the geographic boundaries and time
periods for the assessment depends on the characteristics of the resources affected, the magnitude and
scale of the project's impacts, the timing of the source of impacts, the duration of the impacts, and the
environmental setting. In practice, a combination of natural and institutional boundaries may be
required to adequately consider both potential impacts and possible environmental measures.
Ultimately, the scope of the analysis will depend on an understanding of how the effects are occurring in
the assessment area.
1.2.1 Project Footprint
Development of process flow diagrams and associated plot plans is essential to understanding the
"footprint" of a project, and potential impacts. Sources, pollutant transport mechanisms and potential
impacts within the project boundary and within the area of influence can be more easily understood and
addressed if the assessment starts with such graphic overviews of the project. Outputs of numerical
predictive models can also be overlaid on plot plans and maps of surrounding areas. Both the footprint
of the disturbed area, adjacent areas for temporary storage of equipment, or debris and the final site
plan for the project need to be considered in the footprint.
1.2.2 Area of Influence considerations for different resources
Determining the area of influence for a project can be complex. It is rarely limited to the project fence
line or a uniform radius around the project site, and may include sensitive and protected areas at
greater distances than may be normally thought of as being within the area of influence. Defining the
area of influence is often, if not always, variable and dependent on the affected resource, including
human health and welfare. Some examples for consideration of geographic boundaries for different
resources include:
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General Guidelines for Area of Influence used by U.S. Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission for Energy Transmission
Projects
Resource
Map of all resources
Potable water intake sources
Public and private ground-
water supply wells or springs
Land use
Planned development
All habitable buildings
AM radio transmitters
FM radio transmitters
Private airstrips
Public airports
Heliports
Protected Area
Distance
0.4km
4.8km
50m
0.4km
0.4km
0.8 km
3km
0.3km
3km
6 km
1.5km
0.4km
From
Center of Right-
of-Way
Downstream of
project activities
Construction
areas
Edge of Right-
of-Way
Edge of Right-
of-Way
Edge of Right-
of-Way
Edge of Right-
of-Way
Edge of Right-
of-Way
Edge of Right-
of-Way
Edge of Right-
of-Way
Edge of Right-
of-Way
Edge of Right-
of-Way
Soils and Geology: The area of
influence for impacts on soils is
usually localized and restricted
to the project footprint,
disturbed area or its
immediate surroundings.
However, evaluation of
geologic hazards should
consider the area of potential
impact of geologic risks.
Water Resources: The area of
influence related to releases of
pollutants to a water body will
depend on the nature of the
watershed, type of water body
(e.g., stream, river, or lake),
the volume and flow of that
water body, the nature of the
pollutant, and the chemical
characteristics of the water
body. For water releases, the
area of influence can be
limited to a single river or
stream, but could extend many
miles downstream. The area
of influence related to use of
water will depend upon the
water source (e.g., surface water body, groundwater, captured wastewater), the volume of
water required, and competing uses for the water.
Air Quality: The area of influence for air emissions will be influenced by prevailing winds,
weather patterns, terrain, and the nature of the pollutant being considered. Sophisticated air
dispersion models can predict spatial patterns of air dispersion and deposition for various
chemicals and allow for close delineation of the area of influence. Local, regional and global air
quality impacts should be considered.
Noise: The area of influence may take several forms for noise. Noise in undeveloped areas can
disturb animal mating, breeding and communications. The operational noise of everyday facility
operations (air conditioners, water-based and road-based transportation noise, etc.) and the
intermittent noise from trucks or rail transportation of supplies and visitors. These can have
differing areas of influence, analysis and mitigation.
Political boundaries: In the realm of standards, policies, plans and programs and socio-
economic-cultural impacts there are not only natural boundaries, but also political boundaries
including international borders, regional and local governments with varying requirements,
values, and practices.
Biological Resources: The area of influence for biological resources are defined by the presence
of flora and fauna and key habitat areas for fish and wildlife. The area of influence can be
complicated by the presence of migratory species that are not present year-round and
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ecosystems which are sensitive and unique. Thus, areas that are a great distance away from the
project can be influenced by the project.
• Ecosystems and watersheds: Boundaries would be based on the resources of concern and the
characteristics of the specific area to be assessed. In many cases, the analysis should use an
ecological region boundary that focuses on the natural units that constitute the resources of
concern and geographic areas that sustain the resources of concern. Importantly, the
geographical boundaries should not be extended to the point that the analysis becomes
unwieldy and useless for decision-making. In practice, the areas for several target species or
components of the ecosystem can often be captured by a single eco-region or watershed.
• Land Use and Socioeconomics: The area of influence may be localized and restricted to the
project footprint and immediate surroundings, but because of induced indirect impacts it can be
far reaching. The area of influence also will depend on regional socioeconomic conditions and
whether the project will alter the essential character of the community, existing or potential
uses of the land, infrastructure and the population. The geographic boundary can be quite
different in rural as opposed to urban environments.
1.2.3 Considerations based on project phase and duration:
• Site Characterization: The area of influence is usually limited to the immediate area of activities.
• Construction: The area of influence includes the project footprint and immediate surroundings,
and the socioeconomic regions supplying workers.
• Operations: The area of influence includes the project footprint and surroundings, areas
affected by emissions and effluents, and the socioeconomic regions supplying workers.
• Closure: The area of influence includes the project footprint and immediate surroundings, and
the socioeconomic regions supplying workers.
• Duration of impacts: Determining the temporal scope requires estimating the length of time
the effects of the proposed action will last. More specifically, this length of time extends as long
as the effects may singly, or in combination with other potential effects, be significant on the
resources of concern.
1.2.4 Consideration based on direct, indirect and cumulative impacts:
• A project's direct, indirect and cumulative impacts may affect the area of influence. Generally,
the scope of analysis for assessing cumulative impacts will be broader than the scope of analysis
used in assessing direct or indirect effects. Spatial and temporal boundaries should not be
overly restricted in cumulative impact analysis. However, to avoid extending data and analytical
requirements beyond those relevant to decision making, the cumulative impact assessment can
stop at the point where the contribution of effects of the action, or combination of all actions,
to the cumulative impact is not significant. The important factor in determining cumulative
impact is the condition of the resource (i.e., to what extent it is degraded).
• An appropriate spatial scope of the cumulative impact analysis by considering how the
resources are being affected. This determination involves two basic steps:
1. Identifying a geographic area that includes resources potentially affected by the proposed
project.
2. Extending that area, when necessary, to include the same and other resources affected,
positively or negatively, by the combined impacts of the project and other actions.
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1.3 Baseline
Impacts are always assessed against a baseline. The baseline used in an EIA is the "no action
alternative." This is a description of the environment in the absence of the proposed project but
including consideration of other changes predicted to take place in the absence of the proposal. The
baseline for assessing impacts is different from existing conditions as it does consider other changes that
may occur in future but independent of the project, e.g., other project start-ups, closures or major
modifications. The geographic and political boundaries for assessing project impacts will depend upon
the affected resource and the nature of the potential impacts and may also be influenced by the
distances specified by the organization responsible for EIA review, likely specified in the Terms of
Reference and/or EIA application form.
Section D, Environmental Setting, goes into considerable detail on baseline data requirements.
Acquisition or development of accurate baseline data is very important in assessing the environmental
impacts of a power generation or transmission project.
1.4 Data Requirements and Sources
Data requirements are determined by the types and locations of impacts to be predicted, and by the
predictive tools and model to be used. Sources include direct measurement and monitoring, existing
literature, field studies, surveys. As with any numerical modeling exercise, the validity of the output is
governed by the appropriateness of model selection, quality of data used, and the experience of the
modeler. When data are of unconfirmed quality, of insufficient quantity, are from surrogate operations
and locations, or are extrapolated from other studies then results should be duly caveated.
Countries which lack some of the data required by experts or to run models for impact assessment can
use the approach of "the Best Available Data (BAD)" to substitute simplified evaluation criteria for
estimating potential impacts in terms of risk rather than a modeled estimate of tons/acre,
Further, some countries have built in adaptive management and monitoring to overcome these
uncertainties during project implementation, but this should be done only where there is a basic
confidence that significant adverse impacts are unlikely to occur or that required levels of performance
can be met.
Finally, in some circumstances unlikely scenarios from accidents and natural disasters pose risks that
may be beyond existing baseline and trend data but need to be assessed to bound potential impacts and
to avoid and/or prepare for adequate response. The Text Box below describes approaches to bound the
risks by developing scenarios for these circumstances.
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ANALYZING AND PREPARING FOR POTENTIAL RISK: USE OF BOUNDING SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT
ElAs for energy projects should include an analysis of risk. The analysis should represent the range of potential
impacts of potential accidents and destructive natural events, including those from likely scenarios as well as those
from low-probability, high-consequence scenarios. (The latter are sometimes referred to as "worst case scenarios"
but this term can be misleading.) The analysis of risk should be considered in the design of all structures as well as
in the development of spill and catastrophic failure contingency plans.
Modern energy projects utilize state-of-the-art models to predict the potential environmental impacts to water, air
and other resources as well as potential exposures to populations at risk. To avoid under-predicting impacts,
models use conservative assumptions and analyze potential accidents or natural disasters with the most severe
consequences reasonably foreseeable to occur. These analyses enable the identification of controls to protect
human health and the environment even under these unlikely but foreseeable situations. This analytical approach
ensures that the risk analyses in the EIA "bound" the potential risks. That is, the analysis represents the full range
of risks and will not under-predict the most severe consequences. There are understandably policy decisions that
are inherent in carrying out this type of analysis as to the threshold for defining a reasonable set of assumptions in
developing these scenarios,
This approach has been used to design control technologies and emission controls. In the case of accidental spills,
dam failure, fires, hurricanes, unforeseen weather events, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other events,
contingency plans should be applied to:
• Emergency notification and evacuation
• Fire control
• Spill clean up - it is recommended that spill kits are kept at strategic locations throughout the facility site
• Warning systems
• Medical support
• Other items dealing with the health and safety of the workers and the local community
In addition, a program should be developed to train project personnel how to react to emergency situations.
In evaluating these scenarios, the regulator should be aware of the environmental and socio-economic setting to
ensure that the conservative assumptions are reasonable. For instance, water management experts reviewing an
EIA risk analysis often require that impoundments be designed to handle runoff from a maximum probable rainfall
event. The calculation of such an event is based on many years of data. These data may not be available for a
particular drainage and information should be gathered from other similar areas if available. In addition, "climate
change" may increase the frequency of large storm events possibly making historic data less reliable for predictive
purposes. It takes professional judgment to ensure that the right approach is taken. It is also important for the
reviewers to ensure that in case of a disaster or emergency that contingency plans are in place.
1.5 Evaluation of the Significance of Impacts
In assessing the environmental impacts of an Energy project one should determine the magnitude,
location and significance of the impact.
1.5.1 Quantitative thresholds of Significance
• If regulatory criteria standards exist (e.g., air quality standards, water quality standards,
radiation exposure standards), these can serve as benchmarks against which impacts can be
measured. Exceeding the standards would be considered significant. Impacts would not be
considered significant if no exceedance occurred. Some of the CAFTA-DR countries may lack
certain standards that might be used for criteria for determining the significance of an impact.
This guideline provides a range of standards used internationally, and for a range of countries
that may be used for this purpose in lieu of in the absence of country standards in the absence
of regulatory performance standards.
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• If adequate data and analytical procedures are available, specific thresholds that indicate
degradation of the resources of concern should be included in the EIA analysis. The thresholds
should be practical, scientifically defensible, and fit the scale of the analysis. Thresholds may be
set as specific numerical standards (e.g., dissolved oxygen content to assess water quality,
particulate matter levels to assess air quality, etc.), qualitative standards that consider biological
components of an ecosystem (e.g., riparian condition and presence of particular biophysical
attributes), and/or desired management goals (e.g., open space or unaltered habitat).
Thresholds should be represented by a measurement that will report the change in resource
condition in meaningful units. This change is then evaluated in terms of both the total threshold
beyond which the resource degrades to unacceptable levels and the incremental contribution of
the proposed action to reaching that threshold. The measurement should be scientifically based.
1.5.2 Professional Judgment to assess significance of impacts:
• Establishing criteria for insignificant and significant impacts may also rely on professional
judgment, but these should be well-defined in the assessment. Criteria often need to be
established separately for each resource. The idea of direct and indirect, or secondary impacts
should also be considered, whereas loss of jobs by persons and industries who depend on the
forest or other systems depend on the forest would be a secondary or indirect impact.
o Area of Influence: Discussed in subsection 1.2.
o Percentage of Resource Affected: This can include habitat, land use, and water resources.
o Persistence of Impacts: Permanent or long-term changes are usually more significant than
temporary ones. The ability of the resource to recover after the activities are complete is
related to this effect.
o Sensitivity of Resources: Impacts to sensitive resources are usually more significant than
impacts to those that are relatively resilient to impacts.
o Status of Resources: Impacts to rare or limited resources are usually considered more
significant than impacts to common or abundant resources.
o Regulatory Status: Impacts to resources that are protected (e.g., endangered species,
wetlands, air quality, cultural resources, water quality) typically are considered more
significant than impacts to those without regulatory status. Note that many resources with
regulatory status are rare or limited.
o Societal Value: Some resources have societal value, such as sacred sites, traditional
subsistence resources, and recreational areas.
1.5.3 For some purposes qualitative assessment criteria may be used such as:
o None: No discernable or measurable impacts.
o Small: Environmental effects are at the lower limits of detection or are so minor that they
will neither destabilize nor noticeably alter any important attribute of the resource.
o Moderate: Environmental effects are sufficient to noticeably alter important attributes of
the resource but not to destabilize them.
o Large: Environmental effects are clearly noticeable and are sufficient to destabilize the
resource.
1.5.4 Checklists and Matrices
Checklist and matrices can be used to assist in the identification of possible impacts, categorization of a
project or valuation of the significance of impacts across a wide spectrum of potential sources and
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impacts. The use of checklists for identifying and, to a limited extent, characterizing, environmental
impacts, is very common throughout existing EIA processes. A checklist forces the assessment to
consider a standardized set of activities or effects for each proposed action, thus bringing uniformity to
the assessment process. Checklists can be used to determine environmental impact thresholds, thus
indicating whether a full-scale EIA is needed for a particular project or whether a finding of no significant
impact might be issued.
The evolution from checklist to matrix is intuitively and easily accomplished. A checklist can be viewed
as a single-column summary of a proposed action, with only a coarse characterization of the nature and
magnitude of potential environmental impacts provided. An EIA matrix provides a finer degree of
impact characterization by associating a set of columns (actions) with each row (environmental
attribute) of the matrix and assigning some value to the effect.
Matrices are very likely the most popular and widely used EIA methodology. One common application is
in the comparison of alternative actions. Alternative actions (measures, projects, sites, designs) are
listed as column headings, while the rows are the criteria that should determine the choice of
alternative. In each cell of the matrix, a conclusion can be listed indicating whether the alternative
action is likely to have a positive or negative effect relative to the indicated criterion. Very often, the
conclusion is stated as a numerical value or symbol indicating the level of intensity of the effect. There
is an opportunity, moreover, to apply relative weighting to the various criteria when evaluating the
completed matrix.
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) Rapid Environmental Assessment (REA) checklists, Leopold Matrix
approach, and the valuation matrix used by Costa Rica to assess environmental feasibility are discussed
in the following sections.
1.5.4.1 Rapid Environmental Assessment Checklists
Rapid Environmental Assessment (REA) checklists allow a rapid, initial assessment of environmental
impacts developed and used by the World Bank and regional development banks. The Asian
Development Bank (ADB) REA checklist approach is an excellent means by which the possible
environmental and social impacts of any given project can be initially assessed. The approach assists in
assuring that from the start there are no serious errors or omissions with respect to possible impacts.
The approach is also useful in comparing possible environmental and socio-economic impacts of
alternative projects and/or of the same project on different sites. Figure F-l presents the contents of
the ADB REA checklist for projects in general. Appendix F in Volume 2 of these guidelines presents the
ADB REA checklists for energy projects (Hydropower, Power Transmission, Solar Energy, Thermal Power
Plants, and Wind Energy).
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Figure F- 1: Asian Development Bank Rapid Environmental Assessment Checklist - General
Screening Questions
A. Project Siting
Is the project area adjacent to or within any of the following
environmentally sensitive areas?
• Cultural heritage site
• Legally protected area (core zone or buffer zone)
• Wetland
• Mangrove
• Estuarine
• Special area for protecting biodiversity
B. Potential Environmental Impacts
Will the project cause
• impairment of historical/cultural areas; disfiguration of landscape or
potential loss/damage to physical cultural resources?
• disturbance to precious ecology (e.g. sensitive or protected areas)?
• alteration of surface water hydrology of waterways resulting in
increased sediment in streams affected by increased soil erosion at
construction site?
• deterioration of surface water quality due to silt runoff and sanitary
wastes from worker-based camps and chemicals used in
construction?
• increased air pollution due to project construction and operation?
• noise and vibration due to project construction or operation?
• involuntary resettlement of people? (physical displacement and/or
economic displacement)
• disproportionate impacts on the poor, women and children,
Indigenous Peoples or other vulnerable groups?
• poor sanitation and solid waste disposal in construction camps and
work sites, and possible transmission of communicable diseases
(such as STI's and HIV/AIDS) from workers to local populations?
• creation of temporary breeding habitats for diseases such as those
transmitted by mosquitoes and rodents?
• social conflicts if workers from other regions or countries are hired?
• large population influx during project construction and operation
that causes increased burden on social infrastructure and services
(such as water supply and sanitation systems)?
• risks and vulnerabilities related to occupational health and safety due
to physical, chemical, biological, and radiological hazards during
project construction and operation?
• risks to community health and safety due to the transport, storage,
and use and/or disposal of materials such as explosives, fuel and
other chemicals during construction and operation?
• community safety risks due to both accidental and natural causes,
especially where the structural elements or components of the
project are accessible to members of the affected community or
where their failure could result in injury to the community
throughout project construction, operation and decommissioning?
• generation of solid waste and/or hazardous waste?
• use of chemicals?
• generation of wastewater during construction or operation?
Yes
No
Remarks
Source: Asian Development Bank,
http://www.adb.org/documents/Guidelines/Environmental Assessment/eaguidelines002.asp
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1.5.4.2 Leopold Matrix
The Leopold Matrix is a qualitative EIA method pioneered in 1971 by the United States Geological Survey
(Leopold eta[. 1971). It is used to identify the potential impact of a project on the environment. The
system consists of a matrix with columns representing the various activities of the project, and rows
representing the various environmental attributes or factors to be considered.
The original Leopold Matrix consisted of 100 columns representing examples of causative actions, and
88 rows representing environmental components and characteristics (a portion of the matrix is
presented in Figure F-2). As a first step, the columns that correspond with the nature of the proposed
action are checked off. Then, for each column that is marked, the cells corresponding to environmental
effects are examined. Two scores (on a scale from 1 to 10) are listed in each cell, separated by a slash
(/); the first score represents the magnitude of the possible impact, while the second score represents
the importance of the possible impact. Beneficial impacts are indicated by a plus (+) sign and negative
impacts with a minus (-) sign. The interpretation of the matrix is based on the professional judgment of
those individuals performing the EIA.
Measurements of magnitude and importance tend to be related, but do not necessarily directly
correlate. Magnitude can be measured fairly explicitly, in terms of how much area is affected by the
development and how adversely, but importance is a more subjective measurement. While a proposed
development may have a large impact in terms of magnitude, the effects it causes may not actually
significantly affect the environment as a whole.
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Figure F- 2: Sample page from the Leopold Matrix
Evaluation Method
(Rate + or - and Score 1-10)
/Social Conditions
Environmental
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Sea Quality
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Odors
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Forests
Crops
Wetlands
Sea-Grasses
River Flora
Mammals
Birds
Fish
Other vertebrates
Invertebrates
Ecosystems Quality
Ecosystems
Destruction
Rural
Fisheries
Urban
Industrial
Recreational Uses
Landscape
Historical / Cultural
Heritage
Wilderness Quality
Population Density
Employment
Hazards
Total
Action
Raw Material
Production
Building
Operations
Water
Supply
Energy
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Raw
Material
Preparation
Industrial
Processes
Gaseous
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Wastes
Treatment
Transportation
Total
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1.5.4.3 Valuation Matrix in Use in Costa Rica
Several variants of the Leopold Matrix have been prepared. Once such variant is the matrix required for
use in the preparation of ElAs in Costa Rica, the Matriz de Importancia de Impacto Ambiental (MIIA).1
The MIIA is used to calculate a numeric value for the environmental significance of impacts. As with the
Leopold Matrix, the MIIA uses activities as the headings for the columns in the matrix and
environmental factors as headings for the rows. For each box in the matrix a score for each of 10
variables is assigned by the team and a value for the overall significance is calculated using the following
formula:
I = ± [3IN + 2 EX + MO + PE + RV + SI + AC + EF + PR + MC]
Where: I = Significance
IN = Intensity (Level of destruction scored as 1 [low] - 12 [very high])
EX = Extension (Size of area of influence scored as 1 [local] - 8 [extremely extensive])
MO = Moment of Impact (Time of impact relative to action scored as 1 [5 or more years
after action] - 4 [immediate] and can be raised to 8 [an additional 4 points] if the
impact is considered critical)
PE = Persistence (Length of time the impact will be felt scored as 1 [<1 year] - 4 [>5
years])
RV = Reversibility (Ability of impacted resource to naturally return to pre-activity
condition scored as 1 [<1 year] - 4 [>5 years])
SI = Synergy (Level of synergetic effects scored as 1 [no synergies] - 4 [highly
synergetic])
AC = Cumulative Effects (Are the effects of the impact cumulative? scored as 1 [no] or 4
[yes])
EF = Effect (Is the impact direct or indirect? scored as 1 [indirect] or 4 [direct])
PR = Periodicity (scored as 1 [irregular], 2 [periodic], or 4 [continuous])
MC = Recoverability (Ability of human actions to restore the impacted resource to its
pre-activity condition scored as 1 [immediately and easily] - 8 [not possible])
The resulting score is evaluated as follows:
Less than 25 = acceptable
From 25 through 50 = moderate
From 50 through 75 = severe
More than 75 = critical
The results of the predictions of impacts are often reported in summary tables and matrices to facilitate
comparisons across different alternatives.
1A full description of the matrix can be found in Annex 2 of Decree No. 32966 of the Ministry of the Environment
and Energy (MINEA) for Costa Rica at:
http://www.setena.go.cr/documentos/Normativa/32966%20Guia%20para%20elaboracion%20de%20instrumento
s%20EIA%20(MIT%20IV).doc
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1.6 Data Requirements and Sources
Data requirements are determined by the types and locations of impacts to be predicted, and by the
model and other tools to be used. Sources include direct measurement and monitoring, existing
literature, field studies, surveys. As with any numerical modeling exercise, the validity of the output is
governed by the appropriateness of model selection, quality of data used, and the experience of the
modeler. When data are of unconfirmed quality, of insufficient quantity, are from surrogate operations
and locations, or are extrapolated from other studies then results should be duly caveat.
Countries which lack some of the data required by experts or to run models for impact assessment can
use the approach of "the Best Available Data (BAD)" to substitute simplified evaluation criteria for
estimating potential impacts in terms of risk rather than a modeled estimate of tons/acre.
Further, some countries have built in adaptive management and monitoring to overcome these
uncertainties during project implementation, but this should be done only where there is a basic
confidence that significant adverse impacts are unlikely to occur or that required levels of performance
can be met.
Finally, in some circumstances unlikely scenarios from accidents and natural disasters pose risks that
may be beyond existing baseline and trend data but need to be assessed to bound potential impacts and
to avoid and/or prepare for adequate response. The Text Box below describes approaches to bound the
risks by developing scenarios for these circumstances.
2 GENERAL APPROACHES FOR PREDICTION OF IMPACTS
2.1 Predictive Tools
Prediction of impacts on physical, biological and social-economic-cultural resources is accomplished by
using a variety of predictive techniques, with results compared to accepted criteria, to evaluate the
significance of an impact. There are a range of predictive techniques that can be used including
• Experts/professional judgment
• Extrapolation from past trends/statistical models
• Scenarios based upon risks and potential hazards not captured by past trends
• Measured resource responses in other similar geographic areas
• Modeling of the resource
• Geographic information systems
For any of these prediction methods, data requirements are determined by the types and locations of
impacts to be predicted, and by the conceptual or quantitative model to be used. As with any numerical
modeling exercise, the validity of the output is governed by the appropriateness of model selection,
quality of data used, and the experience of the modeler. When data are of unconfirmed quality, of
insufficient quantity, are from surrogate operations and locations, or are extrapolated from other
studies then results should be duly caveated.
The remainder of this section of the guidelines identifies quantitative models for assessing impacts as
examples of scientifically accepted practices, but criteria for applying a specific methodology in any
given circumstances should be carefully assessed and justified, data sources and assumptions made
clear and any resulting uncertainties identified. It is important in the development of an EIA that models
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are used wisely and that the results are not accepted without strenuous review. Quantitative models,
calibrated to particular settings and circumstances, are particularly useful to assess impacts to air and
water resources as well as potential risks to humans and biota, and may even be required as a
consistent and objective approach to evaluating impacts where those models are validated for use in the
particular circumstances. One other advantage of using models is that sensitivity analyses can be
performed and "what-if" scenarios can be modeled to identify the nature and extent of impacts and
identify which variables contribute to impacts as well as uncertainty of the results.
2.2 Geographic Information Systems and Visualization Tools
To understand the impacts of a project on, it is important to be able to visualize and calculate potential
changes which may occur. This can be done by developing maps which show pre-project and post-
project conditions. In many countries, geographic information system (GIS) is used extensively for this
purpose. GIS captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data that is linked to location. GIS
applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user created searches), analyze
spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations. A GIS includes
mapping software and its application with remote sensing, land surveying, aerial photography,
mathematics, photogrammetry, geography, and other tools.
ArcGIS is a suite of GIS tools (ArcView, ArcGIS Server, etc) for working with maps and geographic
information. It is used for assembling, storing, manipulating and displaying geographically referenced
data. ArcGIS is a powerful tool whereby layers of data on a variety of topics can be collated, sieved,
selected or superimposed.
U.S. EPA has developed an application for screening projects for EIA which uses the off the shelf
software of ArcGIS Server to create instantaneous access to distributed sources of data, integrate the
data spatially, and provide an analysis of key relationships of environment and social-economic-cultural
features in both a standardized and flexible manner. This tool has been adapted for use in CAFTA-DR
countries and deployed throughout the region.
2.3 Selecting and Applying Quantitative Predictive Tools
It is important in the development of an EIA that models are used wisely and that the results are not
accepted without strenuous review. Needless to say, the advantage of using quantitative models is that
sensitivity analyses can be performed and "what-if" scenarios can be modeled to identify the nature and
extent of impacts and identify which variables contribute to impacts as well as uncertainty of the results.
When limited baseline data are available or the exact nature of the project is not known, impact
determinations using models should be based on a number of assumptions. Each of the assumptions has
some uncertainty associated with it. To compensate for these uncertainties, conservative assumptions
are usually made to ensure that impacts are not underestimated. Even with conservative assumptions,
impacts that are poorly understood (e.g., the response of resources to the environmental changes
brought about by the project is not known) can be underestimated or improperly characterized.
Conservative assumptions can result in greatly overestimating impacts and unnecessary costs for a
project if environmental measures are not properly directed and scaled to the impact.
Different countries may also require or accept certain models. It is imperative that such requirements or
preferences be determined well in advance of performance of modeling. This will assure that adequate
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time is allowed to collect input data required by the model(s) and that results are accepted by
organizations that must approve the EIA.
The following subsections present a brief overview of how these analytical methods can be used in
assessing impacts of proposed power generation and transmission projects.
3 SOILS AND GEOLOGY IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
3.1 Evaluation of impacts due to construction of a power plant or dam
On soils and geology is usually based on professional judgment as well as on existing literature, field
studies, surveys, trend analysis or measured resource responses in other geographic areas. Tools such
as GIS overlaying activities on maps of soils and geology and graphics generated from comprehensive
databases are useful toward visualization and determination of the magnitude of potential impacts. Soil
Loss and Erosion Potential
For soils, it is important to understand the potential for soil loss due to wind and water erosion. The US
Natural Resources Conservation Service developed the wind erosion equation (WEQ) expressed in
function form as:
E = f(l, K,C, L,V)
Where: E = the potential average annual soil loss
I = the soil erodibility index
K = the soil ridge roughness factor
C = the climate factor
L = unsheltered distance across a field
V = the equivalent vegetative cover
Because field erodibility varies with field conditions, a procedure to solve WEQ for periods of less than
one year was devised. In this procedure, a series of factor values are selected to describe successive
management periods in which both management factors and vegetative covers are nearly constant.
Erosive wind energy distribution is used to derive a weighted soil loss for each period. Soil losses for
individual periods are summed to estimate annual erosion. Soil loss from the periods also can be
summed for multi-year rotations, and the loss divided by the number of years to obtain an average,
annual estimate.
The NRCS has also developed the Wind Erosion Prediction System (WEPS) that incorporates this new
technology and is designed to be a replacement for the WEQ. Unlike WEQ WEPS is a process-based,
continuous, daily time-step model that simulates weather, field conditions, and erosion. It is a user
friendly program that has the capability of simulating spatial and temporal variability of field conditions
and soil loss/deposition within a field. WEPS can also simulate complex field shapes, barriers not on the
field boundaries, and complex topographies. The saltation, creep, suspension, and PM10 components
of eroding materials can also be reported separately by direction in WEPS. WEPS is designed to be used
under a wide range of conditions in the United States and easily adapted to other parts of the world.
For soil loss due to water erosion, estimation can be done using RUSLE described in the box below.
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SOIL LOSS
Predicting soil loss and sediment due to rainfall erosion is an important aspect in assessing the impacts of activities
that may cause disturbance of large surface areas. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is an empirical
equation developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA, 1997) that predicts annual erosion
(tons/acre/yr) resulting from sheet and rill erosion in croplands. The RUSLE employs a series of factors, each
quantifying one or more of the important soil loss processes and their interactions, combined to yield an overall
estimate of soil loss. The equation is (USDA, 1997):
A = R*K* (LS) *C*P
Where: A = Annual soil loss (tons/acre) resulting from sheet and rill erosion.
R = Rainfall-runoff erosivity factor measuring the effect of rainfall on erosion. The R factor is computed
using the rainfall energy and the maximum 30 minutes intensity (EI30).
K= Soil erodibility factor measuring the resistance of the soil to detachment and transportation by
raindrop impact and surface runoff. Soil erodibility is a function of the inherent soil properties,
including organic matter content, particle size, permeability, etc. In the USDA soils data sets, two K
factors are given, Kw and Kf. Soil erodibility factors (Kw) and (Kf) quantify soil detachment by runoff
and raindrop impact. These erodibility factors are indexes used to predict the long-term average soil
loss, from sheet and rill erosion under crop systems and conservation techniques. Factor Kw applies
to the whole soil, and Kf applies only the fine-earth fraction, which is the <2.0 mm fraction (USDA,
1997).
L = Slope length factor accounting for the effects of slope length on the rate of erosion.
5 = Slope steepness factor accounting for the effects of slope angle on erosion rates.
C = Cover management factor accounting for the influence of soil and cover management, such as tillage
practices, cropping types, crop rotation, fallow, etc., on soil erosion rates. The C-factor is derived
from land-use/land-cover types.
P = Erosion control factor accounting for the influence of support practices such as contouring, strip
cropping, terracing, etc.
Source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=5971
3.2 Geologic Resources and Hazards
It is important to have a thorough understanding of the geologic hazards that are or could be at the site.
These include:
• Landslide hazards: Types of movements and depths, such as shallow or deep-seated,
translational or rotational landslides, slumps, debris flows, earth flows, mass wasting, etc. It is
important that the project does not increase the potential the hazards on and off site.
Analytical and numerical approaches should be used to analyze this potential problem.
• Seismic hazards: Potential for strong ground shaking, surface rupture, fault creep, and/or
liquefaction. Deterministic seismic hazard analysis methods should be used to estimate most
expected seismic hazards.
• Volcanic hazards: Potential for molten rock, rock fragments being propelled great distances,
dust, gases, ash fall, fumaroles, landslides and mudflows. Potential for volcanic activity in the
area should be assessed by a literature search.
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• Other geologic hazards (e.g., subsidence, rock fall): In some localities, hazard areas have been
identified in the process of developing local critical or sensitive area ordinances. Contact the
appropriate local planning departments to obtain the most current information. In some
localities, hazard areas are not delineated on maps, but are defined in terms of landscape
characteristics (e.g., slope, geologic unit, field indicators). In these instances, hazard areas
should be mapped by identifying where the defining characteristics apply to the project area.
4 SOLID WASTE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
Solid waste generated during construction and operation will depend on what is built and where, and
subsequently what wastes if any are generated as a result of operation. In both instances the
assessment tools are generally the calculation of amounts and types of waste generated. Mass and
volumes of wastes can be estimated on a mass balance basis. The amounts of hazardous and
nonhazardous waste should be calculated separately.
5 WATER RESOURCE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
5.1 Surface Water Impact Assessment Tools
For surface water, a useful way to organize the analysis is to take a watershed approach, as presented in
the following box.
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WATERSHED APPROACH
It is important to evaluate the impacts of an energy generation and/or transmission project in relation to the entire
watershed. Watershed management involves both the quantity of water (surface and ground water) available and
the quality of these waters. Understanding the impact of the project on both the quantity and quality of water
should take into account the cumulative impacts of other activities in the same watershed.
A watershed-based impact assessment approach involves the following 10 steps. Steps 1-6 apply directly to
establishing the Environmental Setting. Steps 7-9 are concerned with assessing the impacts of the project. Step 10
insures that stakeholders are involved in the design and analysis of the project.
1. Identify and map the boundaries of the watershed in which the project is located and place the project
boundaries on the map.
2. Identify the drainage pattern and runoff characteristics in the watershed.
3. Identify the downstream rivers, streams, wetlands, lakes and other water bodies.
4. Determine the existing quality of the water in these resources.
5. Determine the current and projected consumptive and non-consumptive uses of the water in these resources:
• Drinking water
• Irrigation
• Aquaculture
• Industry
• Recreation
• Support of aquatic life
• Navigation
6. Determine the nature and extent of pollutants discharged throughout the watershed.
7. Determine the potential additional pollutants discharge from the proposed activity.
8. Estimate the impact of the project on the consumptive and non-consumptive use of water.
9. Identify other anticipated additional developments planned or projected for the watershed.
10. Identify stakeholders involved in watershed and encourage their participation in project design.
5.1.1 Surface Water Flow
When assessing impacts on surface water flow, two initial questions should be asked:
1) Will the project alter surface water flow in the catchment?
2) Will the project affect surface water quality in the catchment and if there is conflict over water
use, among others?
If the answer to one or both questions is yes, an effort should be made to determine the magnitude and
nature of the impact. This includes but is not limited to:
• An estimate of volume of water used (cooling) and volume of water consumed (boilers, cooling
towers, cleaning, etc.)
• The timing of use (particularly important for hydroelectric projects which may not consume
water, but can affect fluctuations in flows)
• Long- and short-term effects of water diversions and impoundments on the river or streams
including its flood plain characteristics and its structural stability as well as affects on the water
table. This is of particular importance in the case of certain hydroelectric projects and for fossil
fuel fired projects which require large volumes of cooling water
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• Affects on flood characteristics in the watershed. This, too, applies primarily to hydroelectric
projects where dams are installed or substantial diversion of flow occurs
An accurate understanding of the water balance in the watershed is necessary to successfully manage
storm runoff, stream flows, and point and non-point source pollutant discharges from a power plant
site. Natural system waters are fed to the site through rainfall, seeps and springs, groundwater and
surface water. Water is lost from the system through surface water runoff, infiltration, and evaporation.
Each of these factors is quite variable and difficult to predict. Process and cooling water use is
reasonably constant and predictable. Water is lost from the system water through evaporation;
facilities such as cooling towers and sedimentation or cooling ponds may result in significant evaporative
losses. Spreadsheets are a common way to evaluate water balances on the site. What-if scenarios can
be easily run based on probabilities of rainfall events occurring and changeable weather patterns such
as those associated with climate change.
5.1.2 Surface Water Quality
Impacts on surface water quality will depend on the quality of the water discharged from project
activities and the assimilative capacity of the receiving water. The assimilative capacity of the receiving
water body depends on numerous factors including, but not limited to:
• the total volume of water
• flow rate
• flushing rate of the water body
• the loading of pollutants from other effluent sources
To estimate impacts of discharges of polluted water on the receiving water body it is necessary to
estimate discharge volumes and quality characteristics and characterize existing quantity, quality and
performance of the receiving body. Measurements of wastewater quality and baseline water quality
should be taken to assure that receiving waters are able to assimilate the waste stream and that
incremental effluents will not cause violation of applicable water quality standards, or in the absence of
standards, water quality thresholds established for the project. The thresholds should be established for
the receiving water and should be developed for parameters that reflect the types of pollutants
expected to be discharged. These may include such parameters as pH, oily wastes, additives (e.g.,
demineralizers in cooling systems), turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and temperature. The intended uses of
the water body will influence the setting of threshold levels.
Numerical standards for dissolved oxygen and water temperature could be used to determine
significance of impacts to fisheries. Prescribed standards for stream condition would be used to
determine thresholds for successful fish spawning or other defined uses. This information can also be
used to determine potential impacts to downstream water supplies.
Thresholds for a decline in water quality can also take the form of the presence and distribution of larval
and adult macroinvertebrates and fish species or bioassays performed on indicator species in the
laboratory. They may also be set as the size and amount of riparian buffer zones. Condition of riparian
zones and changes in percent of buffer areas can indicate a decline in water quality due to soil erosion,
sediment loading, and contaminant runoff.
The WHO guidelines for recreational use are an example of health based guideline values for receiving
waters based on intended use.
http://www.who.int/water sanitation health/dwq/guidelines/en/index.html. Appendix C identifies
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some of the current parameters and requirements in place in CAFTA-DR countries, the United States,
other countries and international organizations as a point of reference in the absence of local criteria
other recognized criteria
5.1.3 Analytical Approaches
The assessment of impacts to surface water quantity and quality can be done analytically or using
numerical models. The following methods are used to determine changes in runoff characteristics and
sediment yield due to surface disturbances, primarily during construction.
The United States Natural Resources Conservation Service's procedures for "Estimation of Direct Runoff
from Storm Rainfall" is the most common technique for estimating the volume of runoff after a storm
event (National Engineering Handbook, Part 630, Chapter 10
http://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17752.wba). The method
involves estimating soil-types within a watershed and applying an appropriate runoff curve number to
calculate the volume of excess precipitation for that soil and vegetation cover type. This method was
developed for agricultural uses and can be used for power plant sites if sufficient data is available to
estimate curve numbers. Curve numbers are approximate values that do not adequately distinguish the
hydrologic conditions that occur on different range and forest sites and across different land uses for
these sites.
A more appropriate technique for developing and analyzing runoff at power plant sites utilizes the unit
hydrograph approach as defined in detail at
http://www.nohrsc.noaa.gov/technology/gis/uhg manual.html. A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph of
runoff resulting from a unit of rainfall excess that is distributed uniformly over a watershed or sub-basin
in a specified duration of time (Barfield et al., 1981). Unit hydrographs are used to represent the runoff
characteristics for particular basins. They are identified by the duration of precipitation excess that was
used to generate them; for example, a 1-hour or a 20-minute unit hydrograph. The duration of excess
precipitation, calculated from actual precipitation events or from design storms, is applied to a unit
hydrograph to produce a runoff hydrograph representing a storm of that duration. For example, 2 hours
of precipitation excess could be applied to a 2-hour unit hydrograph to produce an actual runoff
hydrograph. This runoff volume can be used as input to route flows down a channel and through an
outlet or for direct input to the design of a structure.
Common methods to develop and use unit hydrographs are described by Snyder (1938), Clark (1945),
and SCS (1972). Unit hydrographs or average hydrographs can also be developed from actual stream
flow runoff records for basins or sub-basins. The SCS (1972) method is perhaps the most commonly
applied method to develop unit hydrographs and produce runoff hydrographs. The SCS (1972)
publication recommended using the SCS Type I, Type I-A or Type II curves for creating design storms and
using the curve number method to determine precipitation excess. Another technique to determine
runoff from basins or sub-basins is the Kinematic Wave Method. This method applies the kinematic
wave interpretation of the equations for motion (Linsley et al., 1975) to provide estimates of runoff from
basins. If applied correctly, the method can provide more accurate estimates of runoff than many of the
unit hydrograph procedures described above, depending on the data available for the site. The method,
however, requires detailed site knowledge and the use of several assumptions and good professional
judgment in its application.
As previously indicated, only peak runoff rates at a given frequency of occurrence, are used to design
many smaller hydrologic facilities, such as conveyance features, road culverts or diversion ditches. The
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hydrograph methods listed above can be used to obtain peak runoff rates, but other methods are often
employed to provide quick, simple estimates of these values. A common method to estimate peak
runoff rates is the Rational Method. This method uses a formula to estimate peak runoff from a basin or
watershed:
Q = C / A
Where: Q = the peak runoff rate as cubic feet per second
C = the run-off coefficient
/ = the rainfall intensity as inches per hour
A = the drainage area of the basin expressed as acres
A comprehensive description of the method is given by the Water Pollution Control Federation (1969).
The coefficient C is termed the runoff coefficient and is designed to represent factors such as
interception, infiltration, surface detention, and antecedent soil moisture conditions. Use of a single
coefficient to represent all of these dynamic and interrelated processes produces a result that can only
be used as an approximation. Importantly, the method makes several inappropriate assumptions that
do not apply to large basins or watersheds, including: (1) rainfall occurs uniformly over a drainage area,
(2) the peak rate of runoff can be determined by averaging rainfall intensity over a time period equal to
the time of concentration (tc), where tc is the time required for precipitation excess from the most
remote point of the watershed to contribute to runoff at the measured point, and (3) the frequency of
runoff is the same as the frequency of the rainfall used in the equation (i.e., no consideration is made for
storage considerations or flow routing through a watershed) (Barfield et al., 1981). A detailed discussion
of the potential problems and assumptions made by using this method has been outlined by McPherson
(1969).
Other methods commonly used to estimate peak runoff are the SCS TR-20 (SCS, 1972) and SCS TR-55
methods (SCS, 1975). Like the Rational Method, these techniques are commonly used because of their
simplicity. The SCS TR-55 method was primarily derived for use in urban situations and for the design of
small detention basins. A major assumption of the method is that only runoff curve numbers are used
to calculate excess precipitation. In effect, the watershed or sub-basin is represented by a uniform land
use, soil type, and cover, which generally will not be true for most watersheds or sub-basins.
The Rational Method and the SCS methods generally lack the level of accuracy required to design most
structures and compute a water balance. This is because they employ a number of assumptions that are
not well suited to large watersheds with variable conditions. However, these methods are commonly
used because they are simple to apply and both Barfield et al. (1981) and Van Zyl et al. (1988) suggest
that they are suitable for the design of small road culverts or non-critical catchments. Van Zyl et al.
(1988) suggested that the Rational Method can be used to design catchments of less than 5 to 10 acres.
It is important that the design engineer and the hydrologist exercise good professional judgment when
choosing a method for determining runoff as discussed above. Techniques should be sufficiently robust
to match the particular design criteria. It is particularly important that critical structures not be
designed using runoff input estimates made by extrapolating an approximation, such as that produced
by the Rational Method, to areas or situations where it is not appropriate. Robust methods that employ
a site specific unit hydrograph or the Kinematic Wave Method will produce more accurate hydrological
designs, but requires more expertise, time and expense.
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5.1.4 Numerical Models
There are several numeric and analytical computer models that are available both in the public domain
and commercially that can be used to estimate impacts to surface water from power plant operations.
These models have been used to assess impacts of disturbance of local soils and geology to aquatic and
marine biology based on changes to chemistry, environmental effects of trace metal loading,
contaminant transport, sedimentation and deposition, changes to flood plains, flooding characteristic,
and others. Table F-l presents a list of models which are commonly used to assess a) watershed,
b) water quality, c) water flow, d) standards for regulating water flow to protect aquatic resources
aquatic ecosystem resources, e) aquatic ecosystem resources and habitat impacts. Most of these
models are available for down load on the web pages indicated in the following table.
Table F-1: Surface water models
Model
Link
Description
Watershed models
BASINS
http://water.epa.gov/scitech/datai
t/models/basins/index.cfm
The Watershed Model System software is comprehensive
for both point and non-point sources, a multi-purpose
environmental analysis system that integrates a
geographical information system (GIS), national watershed
data, and state-of-the-art environmental assessment and
modeling tools into one convenient package
WMS
Watershed
Modeling Software
http://www.aquaveo.eom/w
ms
A comprehensive graphical modeling environment for all
phases of watershed hydrology and hydraulics. The WMS
software includes powerful tools to automate modeling
processes such as automated basin delineation, geometric
parameter calculations; GIS overlay computations (CN,
rainfall depth, roughness coefficients, etc.), cross-section
extraction from terrain data, and other. Hydraulic models
supported in the WMS software include HEC-RAS and CE
QUALW2.
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Model
Link
Description
Surface Water Quality Models
HSCTM2D
Hydrodynamic,
Sediment and
Contaminant
Transport Model
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/swa
ter/hsctm2d
Finite element modeling system for simulating two-
dimensional, vertically-integrated, surface water flow
(typically riverine or estuarine hydrodynamics), sediment
transport, and contaminant transport. Used to simulate
both short term (less than 1 year) and long term scour
and/or sedimentation rates and contaminant transport and
fate in vertically well mixed bodies of water.
HSPF
Hydrological
Simulation Program
- FORTRAN
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/swa
ter/hspf
Simulation of watershed hydrology and water quality for
both conventional and toxic organic pollutants.
Incorporates both Agricultural Runoff Management and
Non-Point Source models. The only comprehensive model
of watershed hydrology and water quality that allows the
integrated simulation of land and soil contaminant runoff
processes with in-stream hydraulic and sediment-chemical
interactions.
MARS
Model for the
Assessment and
Remediation of
Sediments
http://my.epri.eom/portal/s
erver.pt?space=CommunityP
age&cached=true&parentna
me=ObiMgr&parentid=2&co
ntrol=SetCommunity&Comm
unitylD=404&RaiseDoclD=00
0000000001008884&Ra ise D
ocType=Abstract id
Models contaminated surface water sediments. Consists of
three interconnected hydrodynamic, sediment, and
chemical fate and transport models. Together, these
models simulate the fate and transport of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons - hydrophobic organic
contaminants that absorb strongly onto sediment particles.
QUAL2K
www.epa.gov/athens/wwqts
c/html/qual2k.html
River and stream water quality model that is intended to
represent a modernized version of the QUAL2E (or Q2E)
model. A one-dimensional, steady state hydraulic model
that can simulate point and nonpoint loads.
Visual Plumes
http://www.epa.gov/ceamp
ubl/swater/vplume/
Windows-based software application for simulating surface
water jets and plumes. It also assists in the preparation of
mixing zone analyses, Total Maximum Daily Loads, and
other water quality applications.
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Model
Link
Description
Flow Models
HEC-ResSim
Hydrologic
Engineering Center
Reservoir System
Simulation
http://www.hec.usace.army.
mil/software/hec-ressim/
A software package designed to model reservoir
operations at one or more reservoirs whose operations are
defined by a variety of operational goals and constraints.
GSFLOW
Groundwater and
Surface-water Flow
model
http://water.usgs.gov/nrp/gw
softwa re/gsf low/gsf low, html
Based on the USGS Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System
(PRMS) and Modular Ground Water Flow Model
(MODFLOW-2005). Can be used to evaluate the effects of
such factors as land-use change, climate variability, and
groundwater withdrawals on surface and subsurface flow.
Incorporates simulating runoff and infiltration from
precipitation; balancing energy and mass budgets of the
plant canopy, snowpack, and soil zone; and simulating the
interaction of surface water with ground water, in
watersheds.
SMS
Surface Water
Modeling System
http://www.aquaveo.com/sm
s
A comprehensive environment for one-, two-, and three-
dimensional hydrodynamic modeling. A pre- and post-
processor for surface water modeling and design, SMS
includes 2D finite element, 2D finite difference, and 3D
finite element and ID backwater modeling tools. The
model allows for flood analysis, wave analysis, and
hurricane analysis. Interfaces with a wide range of
numerical models for applications including river flow
analysis, contaminant transport, sediment transport,
particle tracking, rural & urban flooding, estuarine, coastal
circulation, inlet and wave modeling.
WMS
Watershed
Modeling Software
http://www.aquaveo.eom/w
ms
A comprehensive graphical modeling environment for all
phases of watershed hydrology and hydraulics. The WMS
software includes powerful tools to automate modeling
processes such as automated basin delineation, geometric
parameter calculations; GIS overlay computations (CN,
rainfall depth, roughness coefficients, etc.), cross-section
extraction from terrain data, and other. Hydraulic models
supported in the WMS software include HEC-RAS and CE
QUALW2.
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Model
Link
Description
Standard Setting Models for Regulating Water Flow levels for aquatic resource protection
Aquatic Base Flow
Method (New
England Method)
http://www.dem.ri.gov/progr
ams/benviron/water/withdra
w/pdf/riabf.pdf
pp. 8-9
Uses the median flow of the most critical low flow month
for a given stream as the recommended minimum flow for
aquatic resource protection. The method is based on the
assumption that fish have been adapted to survive
conditions during the most critical low flow month of the
year, and therefore, the median flow of the most critical
low flow month represents the minimum flow necessary
for fish survival.
R2CROSS Method
http://cwcb.state.co.us/techn
ical-
resources/R2CROSS/Pages/m
Establishes a minimum aquatic resource flow for a reach
based on modeling flow versus depth, velocity, and wetted
perimeter relationships across the shallowest riffle or
riffles within a study reach. The underlying assumption of
R2CROSS is that if a flow provides suitable depths,
velocities, and wetted perimeters across the shallowest
riffle, then the depths, flows, and wetted perimeters will
be suitable in pools, runs, and other habitat-types within a
river reach.
Tennant Method
http://www.homepage.mont
ana.edu/~wwwbi/staff/mcma
hon/Jowett-
instream%20flow%20method
s.pdf
Establishes a minimum flow as a percentage of mean
annual flow. Developed through extensive field study of
streams throughout the northern half of the United States.
The effort involved detailed study of cross-sectional water
widths, depths, and velocities produced at various flows.
The studies showed that in most instances, aquatic habitat
conditions are very similar for streams flowing at similar
percentages of the mean annual flow. The method directs
that first, the mean annual flow be determined for a site.
Once the mean annual flow is determined, percentages of
the mean annual flow are calculated. Aquatic habitat
response is predicted as follows: (1) release of a minimum
flow of 10 percent of the mean annual flow is
recommended for short-term survival of most aquatic life
forms; (2) release of at least 30 percent of the mean
annual flow is recommended for providing "good" survival
habitat; and (3) release of 60 percent of the mean annual
flow is recommended for providing excellent to
outstanding habitat.
Wetted Perimeter
Method
http://www.uri.edu/cels/nrs/
whl/Teaching/nrs592/2009/CI
ass0/o2070/o20Case%20Studv0/o
20Rl0/o20(Methods)/Gippel%2
Owetted%20perimeter%20an
d%20sustainable%20flows%2
01998.pdf
Establishes a minimum flow based on the assumption that
fish population size is directly related to aquatic insect
production, which is directly related to the amount of
wetted perimeter along a cross-section through a
representative riffle. Measurements of flow and wetted
perimeter are obtained and plotted. The inflection or
break point in the slope of the curve is the recommended
minimum flow release.
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Model
Link
Description
Aquatic ecosystem Incremental Models
EXAMS
Exposure Analysis
Modeling System
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/swa
ter/exams
Interactive software application for formulating aquatic
ecosystem models and rapidly evaluating the fate,
transport, and exposure concentrations of synthetic
organic chemicals including pesticides, industrial materials,
and leachates from disposal sites.
PHABSIM
Physical Habitat
Simulation System
http://www.fort.usgs.gov/Pro
ducts/Software/PHABSIM/
http://www.fort.usgs.gov/pro
ducts/Publications/15000/ch
a pterl. htm Itfoverview
A collection of hydraulic and habitat models used to
determine the relative value of a targeted habitat for a
particular fish species or other aquatic organism over a
range of flows. PHABSIM is a component of the larger IFIM
(Instream Flow Incremental Methodology), which is a
problem-solving process for addressing water resource
issues. Field data to input into the models include
measurements of flow, velocity, and depth; substrate
composition; and visual habitat use observations of
targeted fish species.
SNTEMP
Stream Network
and Stream
Temperature Model
http://www.fort.usgs.gov/Pro
ducts/Software/SNTEMP/
Simulates steady-state stream temperatures throughout a
dendritic stream network handling multiple time periods
per year. Helps formulate instream flow
recommendations, assess the effects of altered stream
flow regimes, assess the effects of habitat improvement
projects, and assist in negotiating releases from existing
storage projects.
WASP7
Water Quality
Analysis Simulation
Program, Version 7
www.epa.gov/athens/wwqts
c/html/wasp.html
Multi-dimensional model that helps users interpret and
predict water quality responses to natural phenomena and
manmade pollution for various pollution management
decisions. WASP is a dynamic compartment-modeling
program for aquatic systems, including both the water
column and the underlying benthos.
5.2 Groundwater Impact Assessment Tools
If groundwater is extracted for use in the power plant then a thorough understanding of the site
hydrogeology is required to adequately characterize and evaluate potential impacts. Aquifer pump tests
and drawdown tests of wells need to be conducted under steady-state or transient conditions to
determine aquifer characteristics. If possible, it is important that these tests be performed at the
pumping rates that would be used by a power plant for durations adequate to determine regional
impacts from drawdown and potential changes in flow direction. These tests require prior installation of
an appropriate network of observation wells. Transmissivities, storage coefficients and vertical and
horizontal hydraulic conductivities can be calculated from properly designed pump tests. These
measurements are necessary to determine the volume and rate of groundwater discharge expected
during operation of a thermal power plant to evaluate environmental impacts. Tests should be
performed for all aquifers that could be affected by the project to ensure adequate characterization of
the relationships between hydrostratigraphic units (U.S. EPA, 2003).
Characterization studies should define the relationships between groundwater and surface water,
including identifying springs and seeps. Significant sources or sinks to the surface water system also
need to be identified. Hydrogeological characterizations should include geologic descriptions of the site
and the region. Descriptions of rock types, intensity and depth of weathering, and the abundance and
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orientation of faults, fractures, and joints provide a basis for impact analysis and monitoring. Although
difficult to evaluate, the hydrological effects of fractures, joints, and faults are especially important to
distinguish. Water moves more easily through faults, fractures and dissolution zones, collectively
termed secondary permeability, than through rock matrices. Secondary permeability can present
significant problems for certain power generation projects because it can result in a greater amount of
groundwater discharge than originally predicted. For example, faults that juxtapose rocks with greatly
different hydrogeological properties can cause abrupt changes in flow characteristics that need to be
incorporated into facility designs.
5.2.1 Analytical Approach
A common method to analyze groundwater in relation to a power project that uses substantial amounts
of water relies on a simple analytical solution in which the power plant operation is approximated as a
well. This method uses the constant-head Jacob-Lowman (1952) equation to calculate flow rates.
Although not as sophisticated as a numerical (modeling) solution, this method gives a good
approximation of the rate of water inflow to a proposed power project. It generally yields a
conservative overestimate of the pumping rates required to satisfy cooling requirements (Hanna et al.,
1994). In addition, an understanding of groundwater can be gained by developing a water balance for
the site as described above. Finally, implications of the effects of groundwater quality can be gained
based on field studies.
5.2.2 Numerical Approach
The use of computer models has increased the accuracy of hydrogeological analyses and impact
predictions and speeded solution of the complex mathematical relations through use of numerical
solution methods. However, computer modeling has not changed the fundamental analytical equations
used to characterize aquifers and determine groundwater quantities. Models are used to determine
drawdown in the aquifer due to consumptive use, contaminate transport, surface water quality, and
other factors. Table F-2 presents a brief description of groundwater models used to assess impacts of
discharges and consumptive water use that are available through the public domain and commercially.
Table F- 2: Groundwater and geochemical computer models
Model
GMS
Groundwater
Modeling System
GW Vistas
HYDROGEOCHEM
Link
http://www.aquaveo.eom/g
rns
http://groundwater-
vistas.com/gwv/product inf
o.phpPproducts id=43
http://www.scisoftware.co
m/environmental software
/product info.phpPproduct
s id=44
Description
Provides software tools for every phase of a groundwater
simulation including site characterization, model
development, calibration, post-processing, and visualization.
GMS supports both finite-difference and finite-element
models in 2D and 3D including MODFLOW 2005, MODPATH,
MT3DMS/RT3D, SEAM3D, ART3D, UTCHEM, FEMWATER,
PEST, UCODE, MODAEM and SEEP2D.
Commercial software for 3D groundwater flow and
contaminant transport modeling, calibration and
optimization using the MODFLOW suite of codes. The
advanced version of Groundwater Vistas provides the ideal
groundwater risk assessment tool.
A commercial coupled model of hydrologic transport and
geochemical reaction in saturated-unsaturated media. It is
designed to simulate transient and/or steady-state
transport of Na, aqueous components and transient and/or
steady-state mass balance of Ns adsorbent components and
ion-exchange sites.
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Model
Link
Description
MODFLOW-2005
http://water.usgs.goV/nrp/g
wsoftware/modflow.html
MODFLOW is a finite-difference code developed by the
United States Geological Survey. MODFLOW is a widely
accepted numerical flow modeling code and has been used
around the world to evaluate the impacts of activities that
may result in disturbance of large surface areas. Originally
conceived solely as a groundwater-flow simulation code, it
has evolved a family of MODFLOW-related programs so that
it now includes capabilities to simulate coupled
groundwater/surface-water systems, solute transport,
variable-density and unsaturated-zone flow, aquifer-system
compaction and land subsidence, parameter estimation, and
groundwater management.
MT3D
Model Transport in
3D
http://www.epa.gov/ada/cs
mos/models/mt3d.html
A 3D solute transport model for simulation of advection,
dispersion, and chemical reactions of dissolved constituents
in ground-water systems. The model uses a modular
structure similar to that implemented in MODFLOW.
Typically the flow domain using MODFLOW is linked to
MT3D, which then simulates contaminant transport using
dispersion and chemical reactions.
Visual MODFLOW
http://www.swstechnology.
com/spanish/software pro
duct.php?ID=88
Commercial software that interfaces with MODFLOW, MT3D
and other models to produce 3D visual modeling of
groundwater flow and contaminant transport. Utilizes an
easy to use graphical user interface.
PHREEQ
http://wwwbrr.cr.usgs.gov/
projects/GWC coupled/phr
eeqc/index.html
An updated version of USGS computer program PHREEQE,
designed to model geochemical reactions. Based on an ion
pairing aqueous model, PHREEQE can calculate pH, redox
potential, and mass transfer as a function of the reaction
process. The composition of solutions in equilibrium with
multiple phases can also be calculated in PHREEQE. The
aqueous model, including elements, aqueous species, and
mineral phases is exterior to the computer code and is
completely user-definable.
PRZM3
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/g
water/przm3
Modeling system that links two subordinate models, PRZM
and VADOFT, in order to predict pesticide transport and
transformation down through the crop root and
unsaturated zone.
6 AIR RESOURCES IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
In evaluating the potential impacts of a power generation or transmission project on ambient air quality,
prediction should be made to determine the extent to which ambient air quality standards may be
compromised. The predictions should assess the likelihood of air pollution from the plant, dumps, and
materials storage and handling facilities, identify the areas of maximum impact, and assess the extent of
the impacts at these sites. Although analytical approaches can be used, international experience
indicates that numeric modeling is the most appropriate method to evaluate the impacts of a power
generation or transmission project on air resources. Quantitative models can be used to calculate
contaminants in air and to compare the results to numerical air quality standards.
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At the facility level, impacts should be estimated through qualitative or quantitative assessments by the
use of baseline air quality assessments and atmospheric dispersion models to assess potential ground
level concentrations. Local atmospheric, climatic and air quality data should be applied when modeling
dispersion.
Initially, the Gaussian analytical model was developed in the 1930's and still is the most commonly used
model type. It assumes that the air pollutant dispersion has a Gaussian distribution, meaning that the
pollutant distribution has a normal probability distribution. Gaussian models are most often used for
predicting the dispersion of continuous, buoyant air pollution plumes originating from ground-level or
elevated sources. Gaussian models may also be used for predicting the dispersion of non-continuous air
pollution plumes (called puff models). The primary algorithm used in Gaussian modeling is the
Generalized Dispersion Equation for a Continuous Point-Source Plume and can be found in Turner
(1994).
Over time, other numeric air dispersion models have been developed. These include screening models
for single source evaluations (SCREENS or AERSCREEN), as well as more complex and refined models
(AERMOD or ADMS-3). Model selection is dependent on the complexity and geomorphology of the
project site (e.g., mountainous terrain, urban or rural area). Table F-3 presents a list of commonly used
models. Note that models are continuously updated and improved. Also note that certain models are
appropriate for specific applications, such as in complex terrain, shoreline environments, for point, area,
line and or mobile sources, and for specific pollutants (e.g., gases, particles, heavier than air gases). A
general summary of appropriate applications is provided in the "Description" column of Table F-3. Most
of these models are free to the public, readily available and can be downloaded following the links
presented in the "Link" column.
Table F- 3: Air quality models
Model
Link
Description
ADMS-3
Atmospheric
Dispersion Modeling
System
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/scr
am/dispersion alt.htmtfad
ms3
An advanced dispersion model for calculating
concentrations of pollutants emitted both continuously
from point, line, volume and area sources, or discretely
from point sources. The model includes algorithms
which take account of the following: effects of main
site building; complex terrain; wet deposition,
gravitational settling and dry deposition; short term
fluctuations in concentration; chemical reactions;
radioactive decay and gamma-dose; plume rise as a
function of distance; jets and directional releases;
averaging time ranging from very short to annual;
condensed plume visibility; meteorological
preprocessor.
AERMOD
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A steady-state plume model that incorporates air
dispersion based on planetary boundary layer
turbulence structure and scaling concepts, including
treatment of both surface and elevated sources, and
both simple and complex terrain.
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Model
Link
Description
AERSCREEN
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/scr
am/dispersion screening.ht
m#aerscreen
A screening model based on AERMOD. The model will
produce estimates of "worst-case" 1-hour
concentrations for a single source, without the need for
hourly meteorological data, and also includes
conversion factors to estimate "worst-case" 3-hour, 8-
hour, 24-hour, and annual concentrations.
BLP
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A Gaussian plume dispersion model designed to handle
unique modeling problems associated with aluminum
reduction plants, and other industrial sources where
plume rise and downwash effects from stationary line
sources are important.
CAL3QHC/
CAL3QHCR
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A CALINE3 based CO model with queuing and hot spot
calculations and with a traffic model to calculate delays
and queues that occur at signalized intersections;
CAL3QHCR is a more refined version based on CAL3QHC
that requires local meteorological data.
CALINE3
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A steady-state Gaussian dispersion model designed to
determine air pollution concentrations at receptor
locations downwind of highways located in relatively
uncomplicated terrain.
CALPUFF
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A non-steady-state puff dispersion model that
simulates the effects of time- and space-varying
meteorological conditions on pollution transport,
transformation, and removal. CALPUFF can be applied
for long-range transport and for complex terrain.
CTDMPLUS
Complex Terrain
Dispersion Model
Plus Algorithms for
Unstable Situations
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A refined point source Gaussian air quality model for
use in all stability conditions for complex terrain. The
model contains, in its entirety, the technology of CTDM
for stable and neutral conditions.
ISC3
Industrial Source
Complex Model
http://www.epa.gov/ttncat
cl/cica/9904e.html (In
Spanish)
A steady-state Gaussian plume model which can be
used to assess pollutant concentrations from a wide
variety of sources associated with an industrial
complex. ISC3 operates in both long-term and short-
term modes.
PCRAMMET
http://www.epa.gov/ttncat
cl/cica/9904e.html (in
Spanish)
A preprocessor for meteorological data that is used
with the Industrial Source Complex 3 (ISC3) regulatory
model and other U.S. EPA models.
SCREENS
http://www.epa.gov/ttncat
cl/cica/9904e.html (in
Spanish)
SCREENS is a single source Gaussian plume model
which provides maximum ground-level concentrations
for point, area, flare, and volume sources.
Note: Other models are used for vehicle emissions, e.g. MODAL, and complex pollutant interactions and photochemical reactions.
Estimates of greenhouse gas emissions for fossil fuel generation has been well documented, however
methods are more complex for to accounting for greenhouse gas emissions from bioenergy and other
biogenic sources. U.S. EPA has initiated a process for developing reference methods and protocols by
soliciting comments on the underlying science that should inform possible accounting approaches.
Greenhouse gas emissions from bioenergy and other biogenic sources are those generated during
combustion or decomposition of biologically-based material, and include sources such as, but not
limited to, utilization of forest or agricultural products for energy, wastewater treatment and livestock
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management facilities, landfills, and fermentation processes for ethanol production. Although
unavailable at the time this guideline was prepared those interested can search the U.S. EPA website for
this information at www.epa.gov.
7 NOISE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
According to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration OSHA (2006) exposure to high levels of
noise for long durations may lead to hearing loss, create physical and psychological stress, reduce
productivity, interfere with communication, and contribute to accidents and injuries by making it
difficult to hear warning signals. To estimate noise emissions during construction and operation of a
power project, baseline monitoring and operational monitoring is necessary. This information can be
analyzed using empirical or numerical modeling technique. Point source propagation can be analyzed
using basic analytical equations based on attenuation of sound energy as the inverse of the square of
the distance from the noise source. Numerical modeling techniques have also been developed for the
additive effect of multiple sources. The results of the models are then compared to the appropriate
standards. For instance, the maximum permissible occupational noise exposure limit in the range of 90-
85 A-weighted decibels (dBA) Leq for 8 hour per day (40 hour per week). The A-weighted decibel scale
approximates the sensitivity of the human ear to various frequencies from 32 to 20,000 Hertz (Hz).
Most advanced models provide graphic outputs of noise impacts (isophons), which can then be overlaid
on maps of critical receptors. Noise standards are typically expressed as dBA - however, it is advisable
to produce impacts based octave bands as well, as dBA are based on a weighted summation of all bands,
and knowledge of the octave band analysis fro specific sources is useful in devising the proper noise
control strategy. Octave band sound pressure level data is typically available from manufacturers of
most power plant equipment, e.g., turbines (gas, oil, steam, water and wind), generators, fans and
blowers, and transformers.
Just as there are many types and sources of noise, there are many noise models. The most broadly
applicable noise model is the Computer Aided Noise Abatement (CadnaA) model.
http://www.datakustik.com/en/products/cadnaa There are also simpler models based on the sound
pressure levels (SPL) measured at known distances and at known directions from a noise source, with
subsequent calculation of attenuation as a function of distance from the noise source. Traffic-specific
models are also available, for example the US Federal Highway Administration Traffic Noise Model
(TNM) http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/tnm/index.htm
8 AESTHETIC AND VISUAL RESOURCES IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
It is recommended that a project be graphically superimposed on baseline panoramic views of the
proposed project site from different potential viewpoints such as communities, roads, and designated
scenic viewing areas, to provide a better understanding of potential visual impacts as a function of
direction, distance and time of day.
For Thermal/Combustion projects the potential for visibility impacts should be assessed using
appropriate air quality models presented in Table F-3.
Zone of Visual Influence (ZVI) maps show the extent of visibility of a proposed development from the
surrounding landscape. They can also be used to assess the cumulative visual impact of similar
developments within an area. Wireframe views give an outline image of the contours of the land from a
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selected viewpoint. This gives a picture of the proposed development without obstruction from
surrounding buildings and vegetation Photomontages are computer aided 'photographs' of a proposed
development, showing a picture of how a development will appear after construction. An image of the
proposed development is superimposed onto the photograph (http://www.fehilvtimoney.ie/expertise-
services/visual-impact-assessment-zvi-maps-wireframe-views.html). The color photomontage is
probably the most frequently used technique. Such a technique has the advantage of accurately
portraying the landscape in a meaningful and easily recognizable form. In video montage techniques
have been developed to demonstrate the important effects of movement. This is basically a video
record of a site over which a computer-generated animated photomontage is superimposed (Thomas,
1996.) Computer programs such as GIS, CAD, Autodesk 3DS Max, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator
software and other specialized software, used to model the visual impact of developments. These
models are described in Table F-4.
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Table F- 4: Visual impact analysis tools (based on Cox, 2003)
Tool
Description
ArcView GIS
A GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating and
displaying geographically referenced data. A GIS can provide powerful tools
whereby layers of data on a variety of topics can be collated, sieved, selected
or superimposed.
AutoCad
In computer-aided design (CAD), users employ interactive graphics to design
components and systems of mechanical, electrical, electromechanical, and
electronic devices, including structures such as buildings, automobile bodies,
airplane and ship hulls, very large-scale integrated (VLSI) chips, and telephone
and computer networks. CAD has been around since the early 1960's, its use
facilitates the design of objects through computers. Early CAD software
packages only worked in wire frame (simple line models) on a 2D plane,
nowadays they can operate in 3D using various shading techniques to produce
realistic rendered images.
Autodest 3DS Max, Maya, Bryce
(Corel Corporation, 2002), Vue
D'Esprit (E-on Software, 2002)
and Lightwave (NewTek, 2002),
3D modeling and animation applications such as 3DS Max differ to CAD in that
they have the ability to create realistic environments by means of complex
animations, lighting and shadows, detailed surface
texturing, reflective surfaces, environmental effects such as fog and rain and
many other functions.
Photoshop (Adobe Systems Inc.,
2003), PaintShop Pro (Jasc
Software, 2002), CorelDRAW
(Corel Corporation, 2002) and
Mattisand Kimball's GIMP
(GIMP, 2002),
Image editing software applications are used to create and edit images. These
software package allow the user to develop photomontage and visualization of
future projects.
9 FLORA, FAUNA, ECOSYSTEMS AND PROTECTED AREAS IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
As with soils and geology, biological impact assessment is based on studies, literature review and
professional judgment. As described in Section D Environmental Setting. Results of soil, water, air, and
noise impact modeling or other means of quantification should be overlaid on maps showing location of
flora, fauna, ecosystems, threatened and endangered species habitats, and protected areas, to
determine the possibility of adverse impacts. In addition, some computer models are available to help
predict habitat impacts for aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna. These are discussed at the end of this
subsection.
Beyond looking at these components individually, an EIA needs to be integrated, so that it addresses the
relationships between biophysical, social and economic aspects in assessing project impacts (IAIA 1999).
Addressing these relationships relies on an integrating the Environmental Setting with the impact
assessment. This approach is called an Ecosystem Services Approach.
An ecosystem services approach recognizes the intrinsic and complex relationships between biophysical
and socio-economic environments. It integrates these aspects by explicitly linking ecosystem services
(the benefits people derive from ecosystems), their contribution to human well-being, and the ways in
which people impact ecosystems' capacity to provide those services. The approach relies on a suite of
tools such as a conceptual framework linking drivers of change, ecosystems and biodiversity, ecosystem
services, and human well-being (MA 2005); guidelines for private sector companies to assess risks and
opportunities related to ecosystem services (Hanson et al. 2008), and manual for conducting ecosystem
services assessments (Ash et al. 2010).
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In the context of environmental impact assessments, the ecosystem services approach provides a more
systematic and integrated assessment of project impacts and dependencies on ecosystem services and
the consequence for the people who benefit from these services. It helps EIA practitioners to go beyond
biodiversity and ecosystems to identify and understand the ways natural and human environment
interrelates. This holistic understanding, from description of the Environmental Setting to the impact
assessment, will lead the EIA practitioner through a new set of questions organized around the
conceptual framework shown below:
• What are the ecosystem services important for local communities?
o Which services will the project potentially impact in a significant way?
o How does the impact on one ecosystem service affect the supply and use of other
ecosystem services?
• What is the underlying level of biodiversity and the current capacity of the ecosystems to
continue to provide ecosystem services?
• What are the consequences of these ecosystem service impacts on human well-being, for
example what are the effects on livelihoods, income, and security?
• What are the direct and indirect drivers of ecosystem change affecting the supply and use of
ecosystem services? How will the project contribute to these direct and indirect drivers of
change?
Systematically examining all the boxes in the framework presented in Figure F-3 carries the following
promises:
• Since ecosystem services by definition are linked to different beneficiaries, any ecosystem
service changes can then be explicitly translated into a gain or loss of human well-being.
• It will highlight the impact on all important ecosystem services provided by the area such as
erosion control, pollination, water regulation, and pollutant removal.
• It will ensure that the EIA accounts for the effects of the project on existing direct and indirect
drivers of ecosystem change that in turn could impact the ecosystem services provided by the
area.
• It will improve the project's management of risks and opportunities arising from ecosystem
services.
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Figure F- 3: Conceptual framework to assess ecosystem services
7 Existing relations between natural and human environment
> Project impacts and dependencies on ecosystem services
HUMAN WELL-BEING
Basic material for good life
Health
Good social relations
Security
Freedom of choice
INDIRECT DRIVERS OF
ECOSYSTEM CHANGE
Demographic
^Economic
Sociopolitical
Cultural and religious
Science and technology
Contribution of project to
drivers of ecosystem
change
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Provisioning services
Regulating services
Cultural services
Supporting services
Dependency of project
on ecosystem services
DIRECT DRIVERS OF
ECOSYSTEM CHANGE
Change in local land use/ cover
Xi Climate change
Pollution
Invasive species
Over use
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
Ecosystem type and extent
Species diversity and numbers
Source: Adapted from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, MA 2005
9.1 Terrestrial Resources
Habitat-based approaches are commonly used to predict the impact of energy development on
terrestrial habitats. A habitat-based approach provides the ability to identify, document, predict, and
compare anticipated changes in wildlife habitat for various development actions or alternatives. An
example of a habitat-based approach is the Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP) developed by the US
Fish and Wildlife Service. HEP provides a mechanism for predicting changes in quality and quantity of
wildlife habitat for selected wildlife species over time under alternative future scenarios and for
comparing environmental measures options. HEP relies on habitat suitability models that use
measurements of important characteristics to rate habitat quality on a scale of 0 (unsuitable) to 1
(optimal). The index value is multiplied by the area of available habitat to determine habitat units under
baseline and other scenarios. The HEP handbook is available online at
http://www.fws.gov/policv/ESMindex.html.
Predicted impacts on air and water quality, mechanical impacts on flora and fauna, and impacts of noise
and light should then be graphically overlaid on the documented domains and ranges of plants and
animals to assure that impacts are not likely to exceed those which might interfere with the long term
health of impacted populations.
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9.2 Aquatic Resources
Development of analytical models for assessment of aquatic resource impacts has primarily been
focused toward establishing relationships between river flow and fish habitat quantity. Flow versus fish
habitat models have generally been applied in situations of proposals for seasonal water storage and
release associated with flood control or hydroelectric operation, and water diversions for irrigation,
hydroelectric generation, and other water uses.
The models generally come in two types: incremental and standard setting. Incremental models predict
a range of conditions for a range of inputs. Incremental models tend to be site-specific and of relatively
high effort and cost to calibrate. They are analogous to the water quality models presented in Table F-l.
Standard setting models follow a fixed rule to address a defined question (e.g., How much base flow is
required to maintain an aquatic ecosystem?) and therefore provide a single answer or "standard."
Standard setting models tend to be relatively generic (i.e., not site-specific) and quick, and require low
effort and cost.
Table F-l includes the most commonly used analytical models used in assessment of aquatic resource
impacts.
10 SOCIO-ECONOMIC-CULTURAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
10.1 Socio-Economic Conditions, Infrastructure and Land Use
When an activity, such as development or expansion of a power project, or extension or upgrading of
power transmission, is expected to accelerate social change at the local level, it is necessary to have
detailed (sometimes household level) socio-economic and cultural data from the directly affected
communities for the baseline, and to develop trend data to assess whether potential impacts will
continue or alter those trends in a significant way.
Social impacts cannot usually be assessed through secondary data on infrastructure and social services.
The results from detailed family level surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews,
participant observation, stakeholder consultations, secondary data, and other direct data collection
methods should be analyzed carefully (Joyce, 2001).
As data are collected, trends based on gender, age groups, economic status, proximity to the projects
should be analyzed. This analysis can be accomplished using statistical models or, as what has been
found more recently to be effective, the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS). According to
Joyce et. al. (2001), the problem with using a strictly qualitative approach has issues:
• There is a greater difficulty of predicting social behavior and response as compared to impacts
on the biophysical or biological elements, such as water or animals.
• The fact that social impacts are as much to do with the perceptions people or groups have about
an activity as they are to do with the actual facts and substantive reality of a situation, and
• The fabric of social interactions and social well-being (today being recognized and labeled as
"social capital", which are in the end where many social impacts take place, can only be
measured or evaluated through qualitative and participatory processes.
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• As the causation gets more distant, it is less clear how directly responsible a given project or
activity is for that impact and required environmental measures, and less clear how effective
environmental measures taken by one player would be.
Again, according to Joyce, the measure of significance is the most difficult/critical part of socioeconomic
impact assessment. Impacts should be described in terms of the level of intensity of an impact, the
directionality (positive or negative), the duration, and its geographic extension. Significance is
necessarily defined using professional judgment. Towards this end, categories of impacts are defined
and a determination can be made as to what constitutes a short, medium and long term impact, and the
reasons for the designation. This is where participation by locals becomes important in determining
what is significant to them. Based on the significance of the impact(s) conclusions can be drawn and
environmental measures can be designed.
Other socioeconomic impacts which should be assessed include:
• Land Use - A power project or transmission corridor if not restored properly can change the land
use of an area forever. To understand the impacts of power and transmission projects on land
use, it is important to be able to visualize and calculate potential changes which may occur. This
can be done by developing maps which show pre-construction, operational and post-closure
land use. In many countries, GIS is used extensively for this purpose. GIS captures, stores,
analyzes, manages, and presents data that is linked to location. GIS applications are tools that
allow users to create interactive queries (user created searches), analyze spatial information,
edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations. A GIS includes mapping
software and its application with remote sensing, land surveying, aerial photography,
mathematics, photogrammetry, geography, and other tools.
• Population and Housing - The key to understanding the potential impact to the local population
and housing is having a good understanding the work force required for the operation. Simple
calculations can then be made to determine changes in demographics over the life of the
project.
• Infrastructure Capacity - Simple calculations comparing demands on roads, hospitals,
wastewater treatment, water supply and waste management against capacity. However, these
calculations should take into account direct demands from the project for every phase of the
project including construction, operation and closure, demands from anticipated induced
growth as an indirect impact of the proposed project and demands into the future in the
absence of the project.
• Employment - Again having a good understanding of the work force required for each phase
(construction, operation and closure) of a power or transmission line project is required to
determine what additional labor may be required for schools, hospitals, support industries, etc.
• Transportation - Transportation studies are required to determine impacts on traffic and roads
due to commuting and the hauling of construction materials to the project site, delivery of fuel
and removal of wastes if by rail, water or road, and increases in traffic associated with the work
force servicing the project and providing support to that work force.
10.2 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources Impact Assessment Tools
Impacts are usually defined as direct or indirect alterations to characteristics of a cultural archeological,
ceremonial or historic site or traditional use of a resource. Effects are adverse when the integrity is
affected or the quality diminished. Impact assessment begins with overlaying all project activities on the
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map of cultural archeological, ceremonial or historic site sites developed for the Environmental Setting,
to identify all sites that may be directly impacted. In addition noise, vibration and visibility (of and from
the sites) impacts need to be estimated, using the results of the noise, vibration and visibility
assessments discussed above. Impacts to historical and archeological sites and cultural resources are
evaluated with respect to their magnitude and significance. For cultural resources, it is important to
consider impacts that may affect the transmission and retention of local values. These potential impacts
to the transmission and retention of local values may be caused by impacts to plants, animals, fish,
geology and water resources that may be used for cultural purposes by certain populations for
traditional purposes, as well as visual impacts.
10.3 Assessing Disproportionate Environmental Impacts on Vulnerable Populations
Concerns are introduced in Chapter E section 4.5 of potential disproportionate high and adverse effects
on certain populations, typically indigenous, minority and/or low income populations. Economic effects
and cultural impacts are analyzed as part of the socioeconomic assessment and would include topics
such as employment, revenue, economic development, etc. Environmental impacts are addressed in
the environmental sections of the EIA. In the Impacts section of an EIA, the impacts that would most
affect this population are acknowledged. Generally, adverse impacts are more intense for vulnerable
populations, and the economic effects are usually greater.
There are two types of sources of what are considered specialized impacts on vulnerable populations,
i.e. "environmental justice" impacts. The first type of impact derives from the differences in life style
that might typically be found among indigenous peoples and minority groups. For example, these
groups might rely more heavily on the affected environment for sustenance or have greater access to
the environment which may increase their exposure to harmful substances where those are identified in
the environmental impact assessment. Another context in which the environmental justice analysis may
be appropriate is to address minority and low income populations whose life styles or low income status
may make them more vulnerable to adverse impacts. If they start with poor health or poor access to
medical care, the impacts of adverse environmental impacts may fall more heavily on them. Often
these populations live in locations in which many polluting sources may be co-located. They may lack
the language or political access to represent their interests before the government. These populations
are generally less resilient than the larger population's in the surrounding environment because of their
economic circumstances in their ability to mitigate adverse impacts using their own resources.
10.4 Health and Safety Impact Assessment Tools
Power plant construction and operation and transmission line installation and maintenance always pose
an inherent risk to human health and safety. Analysis of the impacts is accomplished by inventorying
the opportunities for:
• Exposure to dust, noise, and chemicals
• Handling of chemicals
• Accidents while working with heavy or other equipment
• Exposure to high pressure liquids or gases
• Exposure to high voltage transformers and transmission lines
• Failure of water retention structures and potential impacts on downstream life and property
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This assessment may take in to account proposed measures to reduce risks, but if that is done then the
measures used to minimize or eliminate risk should be included in the environmental measures section
in terms which reflect commitment of the project operator to carry them out effectively.
Impacts on health and safety are identified in regulations that are in place to minimize the effects to
workers and people in surrounding areas. Laws and regulations are a large factor in determining the
policies and procedures that will be implemented to ensure that risk is minimized and that the project is
in compliance with applicable requirements.
Other aspects that may be associated with power and transmission projects, depending on project type
and location, and which may impact human health and safety include:
• Blasting - Impacts from blasting should be inventoried and addressed. Some of the potential
impacts result from noise, vibration, dust, and explosives handling and storage.
• Transportation - Impacts from transportation may result from vehicular or aircraft accidents.
• Natural Hazards - Natural hazards that should be addressed include working in extreme
temperatures, flash flooding and dangerous wildlife such as poisonous snakes.
• Solid, Liquid and Hazardous Waste - Solid, liquid and hazardous waste may also pose hazards to
health and safety.
• Even with regulations, policies, procedures, reporting, training and monitoring in place,
accidents may happen. Having emergency response plans in place that address accidents and
catastrophic releases will reduce the area and seriousness of impacts.
11 CUMULATIVE IMPACTS ASSESSMENT METHODS
Predictive tools and methods used for cumulative impact assessment are similar to those used to predict
impacts generally, but the input parameters are different in that they include all past, present and
predicted future actions affecting the resource. The analysis is focused and applied where it is most
useful through a process of identifying which resources may be significantly affected and applying more
detailed assessments to those resources for which cumulative impact assessment is most important.
Three general steps, are recommended to ensure the proper assessment of cumulative impacts.
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Step 1. Determination of the extent of
cumulative impacts
a. Identify potentially significant
cumulative impacts associated with
the proposed activity;
b. Establish the geographic scope of
the assessment;
c. Identify other activities affecting the
environmental resources of the
area; and
d. Define the goals of the assessment.
Step 3. Assessment of cumulative impacts
a. An identification of the important
cause-and-impact relationships
between proposed activity and the
environmental resources;
b. A determination of the magnitude
and significance of cumulative
impacts; and
c. The modification, or addition, of
alternatives to avoid, minimize or
mitigate significant cumulative
impacts.
Step 2. Description of the affected
environment
a. Characterize the identified
environmental resources in terms of
their response to change and
capacity to withstand stress;
b. Characterize the stresses affecting
these environmental resources and
their relation to regulatory
thresholds; and
c. Define a baseline condition that
provides a measuring point for the
impacts to the environmental
resources.
In reviewing cumulative impacts analysis, U.S. EPA reviewers focus on the specific resources and
ecological components that can be affected by the incremental effects of the proposed project and
other actions in the same geographic area (U.S. EPA, 1999). In general, reviewers focus on four main
aspects. These include:
1) Resource and Ecosystem Components
2) Geographic Boundaries and Time Period
3) Past, Present, And Reasonably Foreseeable Actions
4) Using Thresholds to Assess Resource Degradation
The following presents a brief description of these.
11.1 Resource and Ecosystem Components
An EIA analysis should identify the resources and ecosystem components cumulatively impacted by the
proposed action and other actions. In general, the reviewer determines which resources are
cumulatively affected by considering:
1) Whether the resource is especially vulnerable to incremental effects;
2) Whether the proposed action is one of several similar actions in the same geographic area;
3) Whether other activities in the area have similar effects on the resource;
4) Whether these effects have been historically significant for this resource; and
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5) Whether other analyses in the area have identified a cumulative effects concern.
The analysis should be expanded for only those resources that are significantly affected. In similar
fashion, ecosystem components should be considered when they are significantly affected by
cumulative impacts. The measure of cumulative effects is any change to the function of these
ecosystem components. Therefore, EIA documents should consider only a limited number of resources
that may be potentially affected by cumulative impacts.
To ensure the inclusion of the resources that may be most susceptible, cumulative impacts can be
anticipated by considering where cumulative effects are likely to occur and what actions would most
likely produce cumulative effects.
The EIA document should identify which resources or ecosystem components of concern might be
affected by the proposed action or its alternatives within the project area. Once these resources have
been identified, consideration should be given to the ecological requirements needed to sustain the
resources. It is important that the EIA document consider these broader ecological requirements when
assessing how the project and other actions may cumulatively affect the resources of concern. Often
these ecological requirements may extend beyond the boundaries of the project area, but reasonable
limits should be made to the scope of the analysis.
11.2 Geographic Boundaries and Time Period
With the resources identified, the EIA will need to identify the appropriate geographic and temporal
scope of analysis for those resources. Without spatial boundaries (geographic), a cumulative effects
assessment would be global, and while this may be appropriate for some issues such as global climate
change, it is not appropriate for most other issues. The EIA should briefly describe how those resources
might be cumulatively affected and explain the geographic scope of analysis.
To determine spatial boundaries, consideration should be given to the distance the effect can travel in
the context of resource effects from other activities that might affect a wide area. Specifically, the EIA
should:
• Describe how it determined the area(s) that will be affected by the proposed action (impact
zone)
• List the cumulative effects resources within that area that could be affected by the proposed
action
• Determine the geographic area outside of the impact zone that is occupied by those resources
• Consider the management plans and jurisdictions of other agencies for the cumulatively
affected resource
The EIA should:
• Discuss the location of other projects and major developmental activities within the area
• Include a schematic diagram of these developments and/or list them in a table
• Briefly describe how the proposed project interacts, affects, or is affected by, these other
resource developments
The length of discussion should reflect the significance of the interaction. Include details of the effects
of these interactions in the Anticipated Impacts section.
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11.3 Describing the Condition of the Environment
The EIA analysis should establish the magnitude and significance of cumulative impacts by comparing
the environment in its naturally occurring state with the expected impacts of the proposed action when
combined with the impacts of other actions. Use of a "benchmark" or "baseline" for purposes of
comparing conditions is an essential part of any environmental analysis. If it is not possible to establish
the "naturally occurring" condition, a description of a modified but ecologically sustainable condition
can be used in the analysis. In this context, ecologically sustainable means the system supports
biological processes, maintains its level of biological productivity, functions with minimal external
management, and repairs itself when stressed.
While a description of past environmental conditions is usually included in EIA documents, it is seldom
used to fully assess how the system has changed from previous conditions. The comparison of the
environmental condition and expected environmental impacts can be incorporated into the Anticipated
Impacts section of EIA documents. EIA reviewers should determine whether the EIA analysis accurately
depicts the condition of the environment used to assess cumulative impacts. In addition, reviewers
should determine whether EIA documents incorporate the cumulative effects of all relevant past
activities into the Anticipated Impacts section. For the evaluation of the environmental consequences
to be useful, it is important that the analysis also incorporate the degree that the existing ecosystem will
change overtime under each alternative.
Different methods of depicting the environmental condition are acceptable. The condition of the
environment should, however, address one or more of the following:
1) How the affected environment functions naturally and whether it has been significantly
degraded;
2) The specific characteristics of the affected environment and the extent of change, if any, that
has occurred in that environment; and
3) A description of the natural condition of the environment or, if that is not available, some
modified, but ecologically sustainable, condition to serve as a benchmark.
Two practical methods for depicting the environmental condition include use of the no-action
alternative and an environmental reference point. Historically, the no-action alternative (as reflecting
existing conditions) has usually been used as a benchmark for comparing the proposed action and
alternatives to existing conditions. The no-action alternative can be an effective benchmark if it
incorporates the cumulative effects of past activities and accurately depicts the condition of the
environment.
Another approach for describing the environmental condition is to use an environmental reference
point that would be incorporated into the Anticipated Impacts section of the document. The natural
condition of the ecosystem, or some modified but sustainable ecosystem condition, can be described as
the environmental reference point. In analyzing environmental impacts, this environmental reference
point would not necessarily be an alternative. Instead, it would serve as a benchmark in assessing the
environmental impacts associated with each of the alternatives. Specifically, the analysis would
evaluate the degree of degradation from the environmental reference point (i.e., natural ecosystem
condition) that has resulted from past actions. Then the relative difference among alternatives would
be determined for not only changes compared to the existing condition but also changes critical to
maintaining or restoring the desired, sustainable condition.
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Determining what environmental condition to use in the assessment may not be immediately clear.
Choosing and describing a condition should be based on the specific characteristics of the area. In
addition, the choice of condition can be constrained by limited resources and information. For these
reasons, the environmental condition described by the environmental reference point or no-action
alternative should be constructed on a case-by-case basis so that it represents an ecosystem able to
sustain itself in the larger context of activities in the region. In this respect, there is no predetermined
point in time that automatically should represent the environmental condition. In addition, it may not
be practical to use a pristine condition in many situations.
Depending on whether the information is reasonably obtainable, the environmental condition chosen
may be a pristine environment, or at the very least, minimally functioning ecosystems that will not
further degrade. The use of the environmental condition to compare alternatives is not an academic
exercise, but one that can most effectively modify alternatives and help decision making. Examples of
conditions might include before project, before "substantial" development, or a reference ecosystem
that is comparable to the project area. Selecting the best environmental condition for comparative
purposes can be based on the following:
1) Consider what the environment would look like or how it would behave without serious human
alteration;
2) Factor in the dynamic nature of the environment;
3) Define the distinct characteristics and attributes of the environment that best represent that
particular type of environment (focus on characteristics and attributes that have to do with
function); and
4) Use available or reasonably obtainable information.
11.4 Using Thresholds to Assess Resource Degradation
Qualitative and quantitative thresholds can be used to indicate whether a resource(s) of concern has
been degraded and whether the combination of the action's impacts with other impacts will result in a
serious deterioration of environmental functions. In the context of U.S. EPA reviews, thresholds can be
used to determine if the cumulative impacts of an action will be significant and if the resource will be
degraded to unacceptable levels. EIA reviewers should determine whether the analysis included specific
thresholds required under law or by agency regulations or otherwise used by the agency. In the absence
of specific thresholds, the analysis should include a description of whether or not the resource is
significantly affected and how that determination was made.
Since cumulative impacts often occur at the landscape or regional level, thresholds should be developed
at similar scales whenever possible. Indicators at a landscape level can be used to develop thresholds as
well as assess the condition of the environment. Using the following landscape indicators, thresholds
can be crafted by determining the levels, percentages, or amount of each that indicate a significant
impact for a particular area. Examples of thresholds include:
The total change in land cover is a simple indicator of biotic integrity; thresholds for areas with high
alterations would generally be lower than areas that are not as degraded; if open space or pristine areas
are a management goal then the threshold would be a small percentage change in land cover.
Patch size distribution and distances between patches are important indicators of species change and
level of disturbance. Thresholds would be set to determine the characteristics of an area needed to
support a given plant or animal species.
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Estimates of fragmentation and connectivity can reveal the magnitude of disturbance, ability of species
to survive in an area, and ecological integrity. Thresholds would indicate a decrease in cover pattern,
loss of connectivity, or amount of fragmentation that would significantly degrade an area.
Determining a threshold beyond which cumulative effects significantly degrade a resource, ecosystem,
or human community is sometimes very difficult because of a lack of data. Without a definitive
threshold, the EIA practitioner should compare the cumulative effects of multiple actions with
appropriate national, regional, state, or community goals to determine whether the total effect is
significant. These desired conditions can best be defined by the cooperative efforts of agency officials,
project proponents, environmental analysts, non-governmental organizations, and the public through
the EIA process. The integrity of historical districts is an example of a threshold that is goal related.
These districts, especially residential and commercial historic districts in urban areas, are particularly
vulnerable to clearance programs carried out by local governments, usually with use of federal funds.
Though individual structures of particular architectural distinction are often present, such districts are
important because they are a collection of structures that relate to one another visually and spatially;
the primary importance of each building is the contribution that it makes to a greater whole. Often in
conjunction with code enforcement programs to remove blighting influences and /or hazards to public
safety, local governments condemn and demolish properties. Viewed in isolation as an individual action,
such demolition of an individual structure does not significantly diminish the historic and architectural
character of the district and indeed may be beneficial to the overall stability of the district. But the
cumulative effect of a whole series of such demolitions can significantly erode the district. Continued
loss of historic structures, often with resultant vacant lots and incompatible new construction, can reach
a point where the visual integrity of the district is lost. Once this threshold is passed, subsequent
demolitions become increasingly difficult to resist and ultimately the qualities of the historic district are
lost.
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Table F-1: Primary and Special Methods for Analyzing Cumulative Impacts
Primary Methods
1 Questionnaires,
interviews, and
panels
2 Checklists
3 Matrices
4 Networks and
System Diagrams
5 Modeling
Description
Questionnaires, interviews and panels are
useful for gathering the wide range of
information on multiple actions and resources
needed to address cumulative effects.
Brainstorming sessions, interviews with
knowledgeable individuals, and group
consensus building activities can help identify
the important cumulative effects issues in the
region.
Checklists help identify potential cumulative
effects by providing a list of common or likely
effects and juxtaposing multiple actions and
resources; potentially dangerous for the analyst
that uses them as a shortcut to thorough
scoping and conceptualization of cumulative
effects problems.
Matrices use the familiar tabular format to
organize and quantify the interactions between
human activities and resources of concern.
Once even relatively complex numerical data
are obtained, matrices are well-suited to
combining the values in individual cells of the
matrix (through matrix algebra) to evaluate the
cumulative effects of multiple actions on
individual resources, ecosystems, and human
communities.
Networks and system diagrams are an excellent
method for delineating the cause-and-effect
relationships resulting in cumulative effects;
they allow the user to analyze the multiple,
subsidiary effects of various actions and trace
indirect effects to resources that accumulate
from direct effects on other resources.
Modeling is a powerful technique for
quantifying the cause-and-effect relationships
leading to cumulative effects, can take the form
of mathematical equations describing
cumulative n processes such as soil erosion, or
may constitute an expert system that computes
the effect of various project scenarios based on
a program of logical decisions.
Strengths
• Flexible
• Can deal with
subjective
information
• Systematic
• Concise
• Comprehensive
presentation
• Comparison of
alternatives
• Address
multiple
projects
• Facilitate
conceptualizati
on
• Address cause-
effect
relationships
• identify indirect
effects
• Can give
unequivocal
results
• Addresses
cause -effect
relationships
• Quantification
• Can integrate
time and space
Weaknesses
• Cannot quantify
• Comparison of
alternatives is
subjective
• Can be
inflexible
• Do not address
interactions or
cause-effect
relationships
• Do not address
space or time
• Can be
cumbersome
• Do not address
cause-effect
relationships
• No likelihood
for secondary
effects
• Problem of
comparable
units
• Do not address.
n space or time
• Need a lot of
data
• Can be
expensive
• Intractable with
many
interactions
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Primary Methods
6 Trends Analysis
7 Overlay Mapping
8 Carrying Capacity
9 Ecosystem
Analysis
Description
Trends analysis assesses the status of a
resource, ecosystem, and human community
over time and usually results in a graphical
projection of past or future conditions.
Changes in the occurrence or intensity of
stressors over the same time period can also be
determined. Trends can help the analyst
identify cumulative effects problems, establish
appropriate environmental baselines, or project
future cumulative effects.
Overlay mapping and GIS incorporate location
information into cumulative effects analysis
and help set the boundaries of the analysis,
analyze landscape parameters, and identify
areas where effects will be greatest. Map
overlays can be based on either the
accumulation of stresses in certain areas or on
the suitability of each land unit for
development.
Carrying capacity analysis identifies thresholds
(as constraints on development) and provides
mechanisms to monitor the incremental use of
unused capacity. Carrying capacity in the
ecological context is defined as the threshold of
stress below which populations and ecosystem
functions can be sustained. In the social
context, the carrying capacity of a region is
measured by the level of services (including
ecological services) desired by the populace.
Ecosystem analysis explicitly addresses
biodiversity and ecosystem sustainability. The
ecosystem approach uses natural boundaries
(such as watersheds and ecoregions) and
applies new ecological indicators (such as
indices of biotic integrity and landscape
pattern). Ecosystem analysis entails the broad
regional perspective and holistic thinking that
are required for successful cumulative effects
analysis.
Strengths
• Addresses
accumulation
overtime
• Problem
identification
• Baseline
determination
• Addresses
spatial pattern
and proximity
of effects
• Effective visual
presentation
• Can optimize
development
options
• True measure
of cumulative
effects against
threshold
• Addresses
effects in
system context
• Addresses time
factors
• Uses regional
scale and full
range of
components
and
interactions
• Addresses
space and time
• Addresses
ecosystem
sustainability
Weaknesses
• Need a lot of
data in relevant
system
• Extrapolation of
system
thresholds is
still largely
subjective
• Limited to
effects based
on location
• Do not
explicitly
address indirect
effects
• Difficult to
address
magnitude of
effects
• Rarely can
measure
capacity
directly
• May be
multiple
thresholds
• Requisite
regional data
are often
absent
• Limited to
natural systems
• Often requires
species
surrogates for
system
• Data intensive
• Landscape
ecosystem
indicators still
under
development
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Primary Methods
10 Economic
Impact Analysis
11 Social Impact
Analysis
Description
Economic impact analysis is an important
component of analyzing cumulative effects
because the economic well-being of a local
community depends on many different actions.
The three primary steps in conducting an
economic impact analysis are (1) establishing
the region of influence, (2) modeling the
economic effects, and (3) determining the
significance of the effects. Economic models
play an important role in these impact
assessments and range from simple to
sophisticated.
Social impact analysis addresses cumulative
effects related to the sustainability of human
communities by (1) focusing on key social
variables such as population characteristics,
community and institutional structures, political
and social resources, individual and family
changes, and community resources; and (2)
projecting future effects using social analysis
techniques such as linear trend projections,
population multiplier methods, scenarios,
expert testimony, and simulation modeling.
Strengths
• Addresses
economic
issues
• Models provide
definitive
quantified
results
• Addresses
social issues
• Models provide
definitive,
quantified
results
Weaknesses
• Utility and
accuracy of
results
dependent on
data quality
and model
assumptions
• Usually do not
address
nonmarket
values
• Utility and
accuracy of
results
dependent on
data quality
and model
assumptions
• Social values
are highly
variable
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G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
1 INTRODUCTION
Mitigation and monitoring measures, sometimes referred to as "environmental measures/' are actions
that can be taken to avoid, minimize, prevent and/or compensate for the impacts caused by energy
generation and transmission projects. They can, among other actions, involve applying pollution control
or prevention technologies, the replacement or relocation of impacted resources and the relocation of
displaced persons.
However defined, one of the important outcomes of the EIA process is the commitment made to
implement measures to avoid or otherwise mitigate adverse impacts and to ensure that they are carried
out effectively is. The particular language used to define and commit to implementing environmental
measures, to achieving reasonably anticipated effectiveness and with appropriate timing is critical to
successful outcomes, as are accompanying requirements for monitoring, reporting and record keeping.
They should be auditable, and something those governments inspectors can confirm are in compliance.
Countries vary as to whether it is the EIA document itself that includes the commitments for which
project proponents are accountable or whether they are included in accompanying documents related
to the EIA process, or incorporated into legally binding permits or licenses. Regardless of the vehicle, if
the commitments are unclear or the basis for ensuring their effectiveness difficult to establish, the
beneficial outcomes of the EIA process will not be secured.
To elaborate on some of the basic concepts behind mitigation or environmental measures:
Avoidance: Project proponents should be encouraged to avoid adverse impacts through good
choice of location, site planning and engineering design and to focus mitigation measures on
those adverse impacts that are otherwise unavoidable. Such environmental measures should be
clearly explained early in the EIA process, and should include operational, monitoring and
response plans should unexpected impacts occur.
Mitigation: The consideration of mitigation of the impacts is necessary for all phases of
construction, operation and closure in which adverse impacts cannot be avoided. It is important
that the EIA identify and define all mitigation measures for a specific project. A mitigation
measure could be the selection of a project site or design option that avoids a sensitive
resource, different pollution control measures or processes or even resizing or phasing in
construction in a different manner that may reduce, minimize or prevent impacts. To the extent
that this may not be feasible, mitigation may also include measures to compensate for damages,
losses or reduced value of resources. Results of monitoring may trigger further mitigation
action if these results indicate there are problems that were not anticipated in the EIA.
Justification: The EIA should identify, define, quantitatively assess and provide technical and
financial bases for all environmental measures proposed, particularly if there is a concern about
the site or proposed measures are less than best available practices.
Performance Standards: In the development of an EIA it is important that, wherever possible,
quantitative performance standards are established. These standards should be clearly
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presented in the EIA. Environmental standards with which compliance is to be demonstrated
should be based on local standards and in the absence of such standards, should be based on
international norms. Examples of performance standards and requirements for countries and
international organizations are presented in Appendix C to Volume 2 of these Guidelines.
Monitoring and Reporting should occur to assure compliance with expectations and
requirements presented in the EIA and agreed to in the approval process. To support this
requirement an environmental monitoring plan should be developed by the project proponent
and approved by the government agency and other organizations having jurisdiction over
project performance. The scope and extent of monitoring depends upon various aspects of the
construction, operation and decommissioning of the project and resultant impacts. Monitoring
plans include an outline of objectives, a plan to meet the stated objectives, criteria for
evaluation, a response plan to be executed should monitoring results fail to meet the accepted
criteria. Monitoring plans are addressed in detail in subsection G-3, Monitoring and Oversight.
It should be clear that results of compliance monitoring and reporting may trigger further action
if results indicate there are problems that were not anticipated in the EIA. For example,
monitoring may show that the environmental impacts are greater than the estimates in the EIA
or that the mitigation measures were not as effective as anticipated.
Financial Assurance of ability to sustain environmental measures and to implement corrective
measures in the event of impacts in excess of those allowed also may need to be demonstrated
depending upon the requirements of the country or institution.
Contingency Plans: The identification and development of plans to address risks is an important
part of the EIA process. Three types of contingency plans are identified including plans to
respond to monitoring results which demonstrate that a standard or quantitative performance
limit has been exceeded; response to natural disasters such as risks of flooding, mudslides,
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, fires, spills, hurricanes, tsunamis and the like; and response
to other types of risks.
Best Practices/Sustainable Development Standards: Best practices have been developed by
various international and domestic organizations to both avoid and minimize adverse impacts.
Governments may already require some of these practices but often they are voluntary.
Increasingly social and economic pressure is favoring such established practices. In the context
of EIA, some or all of these best practices might be integrated in project proposals and
alternatives under consideration. The information on mitigation measures includes but is not
limited to best practices.
Mitigation measures are presented in the following three tables.
• Table G-l presents a comprehensive list of mitigation measures for impacts to the physical and
biological environment that are appropriate for nearly all power generation and transmission
projects is presented in. The table is organized by impacted environments.
• Table G-2 presents additional mitigation measures for impacts to the physical and biological
environment that are applicable to specific power generation and transmission technologies.
• Table G-3 presents mitigation measures for impacts on the social-economic-cultural
environment.
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It is unlikely that all of these measures will be applicable to a specific proposed facility. The proposed
facility technology, location and design, in addition any regulatory agency requirement, will determine
the appropriate measures for a particular project. The tables are followed by subsections that provide
background information for several of the mitigation presented in the tables.
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Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Affected
Environment
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
Land clearing,
earthmoving,
terrain shaping
(leveling,
drainage, etc.)
and associated
activities (e.g.,
borrow pits,
quarries)
Geology
Soil
Landslide Hazards
• Identify and avoid unstable slopes and factors that can cause
slope instability (groundwater conditions, precipitation, seismic
activity, slope angles, and geologic structure).
Erosion and Soil Compaction
• Minimize the amount of land to be disturbed and vegetation to
be removed.
• Avoid locating facilities on steep slopes, in alluvial fans and other
areas prone to erosion, landslides or flash floods.
• Minimize design changes to existing topography.
• Design runoff control features to minimize soil erosion.
• Use special construction techniques in areas of steep slopes and
erodible soils.
Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
• Prepare a comprehensive list of all hazardous materials to be
used, stored, transported, or disposed of during all phases of
activity.
• Design containment for storage, handling and dispensing of
hazardous materials, including fuels, oils, greases, solvents and
residues.
• Prepare a Spill Prevention and Response Plan for storage, use
and transfer of fuel and hazardous materials.
Disposal of Cleared Debris
Landslide Hazards
• Avoid creating excessive slopes during excavation and
blasting operations.
• Obtain borrow material only from authorized and
permitted sites.
Erosion and Soil Compaction
• Schedule land disturbing activities to avoid periods of
heavy rainfall and reduce or halt operations during
heavy rainfall episodes.
• Remove, store and reuse topsoil to reclaim disturbed
areas.
• Contour exposed slopes.
• Reestablish the original grade and drainage pattern to
the extent practicable.
• Restore or apply protective covering on disturbed soils
as quickly as possible.
o Mulch or cover exposed areas.
o Promptly revegetate exposed areas with fast
growing indigenous grasses.
Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
• Train workers on the Spill Prevention and Response Plan
• Provide onsite portable spill management, control and
cleanup equipment and materials.
• Containerize and periodically remove wastes for
disposal at appropriate off-site permitted disposal
facilities, if available.
• Document accidental releases as to cause, corrective
actions taken, and resulting environmental or health
and safety impacts.
Disposal of Cleared Debris
• Dispose of cleared debris at an existing, approved
disposal site or onsite in accordance with regulatory
requirements.
• Where allowed, lop or chip and scatter vegetative
material and use as mulch to help control erosion and
return nutrients to the soil.
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Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Affected
Environment
Water Quality
Air Quality
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Modification of Drainage Patterns
Increased Runoff and Sedimentation
Same measures as Soil Erosion plus:
• Properly direct (via channels, culverts and swales) and or
impound run-off, and install energy dissipation devices where
water velocities may be high enough to cause erosion or
scouring.
• Separate clean and sediment laden run-off flows so as to
minimize the volume of water that will be treated.
Water Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Dust
• Minimize disturbed areas.
• Surface access roads and on-site roads with aggregate materials,
wherever appropriate.
Equipment Emissions
• Consider fuel efficiency, types of fuels, and emissions controls in
the selection of equipment.
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
Modification of Drainage Patterns
Increased Runoff and Sedimentation
Same measures as Soil Erosion plus:
• Install drainage structures, check dams and silt fences to
prevent or reduce offsite run-off if high rainfall periods
cannot be avoided.
• Clean and maintain drainage ditches and catch basins
regularly.
• Line deep channels and steep slopes with stabilizing
materials.
• Provide sanitary latrines.
Water Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks
Dust
• Use dust abatement techniques on unpaved and
unvegetated surfaces to minimize airborne dust during
earthmoving and blasting activities and prior to
clearing, excavating, backfilling, compacting and
grading.
• Use blast blankets to reduce fly rock and dust
emissions.
• Keep soil moist and below the freeboard while loading
into dump trucks.
• Tighten gate seals and on dump trucks and cover dump
trucks before traveling on public roads.
• Cover construction materials and stockpiled soils if they
are a source of fugitive dust.
• Train workers to handle construction materials and
debris to reduce fugitive emissions.
• Post and enforce speed limits to reduce airborne
fugitive dust from vehicular traffic.
• Reestablish vegetation of disturbed areas as soon as
possible after disturbance with timeframes set in the
EIA.
Equipment Emissions
• Assure proper tuning and carburetion of engines.
• Check fuel supplies for impurities or adulteration.
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G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Affected
Environment
Noise and Vibration
Aesthetics
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Other
Locate facilities more than 0.8 km from sensitive noise receptors
(e.g., quiet recreation, churches, medical care facilities, schools,
child care facilities, parks, residences, wildlife areas).
Acquire lands to serve as noise buffers around the proposed
facilities.
Route the movement of heavy equipment and construction
materials as far as possible away from residences and other
sensitive receptors.
Prepare a Noise Monitoring and Mitigation Plan.
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
• Avoid locating structures on ridgelines, summits or other
locations where they would be silhouetted against the sky from
important viewing locations.
• Locate linear features to follow natural land contours rather
than straight lines, particularly up slopes.
• Locate facilities to take advantage of both topography and
vegetation as screening devices to restrict views of projects from
visually sensitive areas.
• Design and locate structures and roads to minimize and balance
cuts and fills.
Light Pollution
• Avoid to the extent practicable locations valued for unspoiled
dark skies.
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
Other
• Prohibit uncontrolled burning of any type.
Train workers in Noise Monitoring and Mitigation Plan.
Limit noisy activities (e.g., use of heavy equipment and
blasting) to the least noise-sensitive times of day
(weekdays only between 8 a.m. and 7 p.m.).
Use barriers and shields during blasting and operation
of pneumatic equipment such as jackhammers.
Equip engines with properly designed and installed
mufflers.
Notify nearby residents in advance when blasting or
other noisy activities are required.
Whenever feasible, schedule different noisy activities
(e.g., blasting and earthmoving) to occur at the same
time.
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
Light Pollution
• Limit night-time lighting to avoid spill onto nearby
residences.
• Use outdoor lighting fixtures endorsed by the
International Dark-Sky Association (IDA)
www.darksky.org.
• Incorporate IDA lighting ordinances as appropriate.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Affected
Environment
Terrestrial Flora and
associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and
associated
Ecosystems
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Habitat Degradation and Destruction
• Use existing facilities (e.g., access roads, parking lots, graded
areas) and site new structures on previously disturbed lands to
minimize new disturbance.
• Minimize the amount of land to be disturbed and vegetation to
be removed.
• Locate facilities away from important ecological resources (e.g.,
wetlands, unique habitats, wildlife corridors, sensitive species
populations).
• Determine the need for and/or feasibility of conducting
translocation of threatened or endangered species.
• Locate facilities to minimize habitat fragmentation.
• Avoid creating favorable conditions for nuisance or invasive
species
Wildfire
Behavioral Disruption
• Locate and/or design facilities to minimize disturbance of
migratory and connectivity corridors, and breeding, nesting and
calving areas, and interference with access to watering holes.
• Establish protective buffers to exclude unintentional disturbance
of important resources.
Accidental Poisoning
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Wetland Destruction
• Locate facilities away from important ecological resources (e.g.,
wetlands, unique habitats, wildlife corridors, sensitive species
populations).
Degradation of Aquatic Ecosystems
Same measures as those for Water Quality
Accidental Poisoning
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
Habitat Degradation and Destruction
• Clean vehicles before entering the project area to
mitigate the introduction of invasive, exotic species.
• Monitor emergence of invasive, exotic species and
respond appropriately.
• Use of certified weed-free mulching and prohibit use of
fill materials from areas with known invasive species
problems.
Wildfire
• Prohibit uncontrolled burning of any type.
Behavioral Disruption
• Schedule activities to avoid disturbance of wildlife
during critical periods of the day (e.g., night) or year
(e.g., breeding or nesting season).
• Implement a program to instruct employees,
contractors, and site visitors to avoid harassment and
disturbance of wildlife, especially during reproductive
(e.g., courtship, nesting) seasons.
Accidental Poisoning
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks
Wetland Destruction
• Prohibit use of nearby wetlands for washing or waste
disposal.
Degradation of Aquatic Ecosystems
Same measures as those for Water Quality
Accidental Poisoning
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Construction and
landscaping of
onsite facilities,
structures and
buildings
Affected
Environment
Threatened and
Endangered Species
and Habitats
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Habitat Degradation and Destruction
Same measures as Terrestrial and Aquatic Species.
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
Habitat Degradation and Destruction
Same measures as Terrestrial and Aquatic Species.
Same measures as land clearing, earthmoving and terrain shaping with the addition of the following:
Soil
Water Quantity
Air Quality
Noise and Vibration
Erosion and Soil Compaction
Disposal of Construction Debris
Water Needs for Construction
• Secure necessary water rights.
Dust
Well Drilling (if applicable)
Erosion and Soil Compaction
• Landscaping to avoid wind erosion.
Disposal of Construction Debris
• Reuse or recycle construction where practicable.
• Dispose of non-recyclable/reusable construction debris
at an existing, approved disposal site or onsite in
accordance with regulatory requirements.
• Segregate hazardous wastes from the waste stream and
dispose of in an approved hazardous waste disposal
site, or in accordance with regulations.
Water Needs for Construction
• Use water conservation practices.
Dust
• Use covered or enclosed drop and material transfer
points for onsite stone crushing and batch plants,
operated at slight negative pressure if possible.
• Employ water injection or rotoclones on all drills used in
well development.
Well Drilling (if applicable)
• Restricted hours of operation if drilling is in a populated
area.
• Use noise barriers during drilling near sensitive
receptors.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Affected
Environment
Aesthetics
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
• Low-profile structures should be chosen whenever possible to
reduce their visibility.
• Minimize the profile of all structures located within 0.4 km of
scenic highways so that views from the highway are preserved.
• Minimize the number of structures and co-locate structures
where possible to minimize the need for additional pads, fences,
access roads, lighting and other project features.
• Design facilities, structures, roads and other project elements to
match and repeat the form, line, color and texture of the
existing landscape.
• Design natural-looking earthwork berms and vegetative or
architectural screening where screening topography and
vegetation are absent.
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
• Paint grouped structures the same color to reduce
visual complexity and color contrast.
• Plant vegetative screens to block views of facilities and
right-of-ways.
Construction
and/or upgrade
of access roads
Same as Construction and landscaping of onsite facilities, structures and buildings with the addition of the following:
Soil
Water Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated
Ecosystems
Erosion
• Use existing roads wherever possible.
• Design roads to meet the appropriate standards and be no
larger than necessary to accommodate their intended functions.
• Place access roads to follow natural topography, and avoid or
minimize side hill cuts.
• Design roads to avoid excessive grades on roads, road
embankments, ditches, and drainages, especially in areas with
erodible soils.
• Avoid going straight up grades in excess of 10%.
• Use appropriate structures at culvert outlets to prevent erosion.
Modification of Streams and Rivers Due to Crossings
• Locate roads to minimize river and wetland crossings.
• Design bridges to minimize impacts on rivers during construction
and to maintain river bank integrity, using free span bridges for
water crossings wherever possible.
• Design wetland crossings to maintain flows and functions within
the wetland.
Erosion
• Provide regularly scheduled maintenance to clean
drainage structures, maintain road surface, and ensure
adequate slope stabilization.
Modification of Streams and Rivers Due to Crossings
• Restrict in-stream activities to periods of low water
level, and during non-critical times with respect to
lifecycles of flora and fauna.
• Use special construction techniques in areas of stream
crossings.
• For in-stream works, isolate the work area using berms
or diversions to flow.
• Revegetate disturbed riparian zones with species
appropriate to the native habitats and species.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Affected
Environment
Biological
Environment
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Increased Access to Remote Areas
• Locate roads to avoid increasing access to remote areas.
• Limit the overall addition roads.
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
Increased Access to Remote Areas
• Where roads are not public, use locked gates or other
barriers to restrict access to authorized personnel.
• Patrol or support local patrols to control illegal hunting
and fishing.
• Permanently close and stabilize unnecessary roads to
reduce overall road density and impacts from
fragmentation.
CONSTRUCTION CAMP AND ONSITE HOUSING ACTIVITIES (construction of camps and housing has the same impacts as identified above for other facilities)
Camp
management
Solid and human
waste disposal
Terrestrial and
Aquatic Fauna and
associated
Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated
Ecosystems
Animals Attracted to Garbage and Food Waste
Behavioral Disruption
• Locate and/or design camp to minimize disturbance of migratory
and connectivity corridors, and breeding, nesting and calving
areas, and interference with access to watering holes.
Collection, Hunting and Fishing
Degradation of Soil and Water Quality
• Use existing, authorized wastewater treatment and solid waste
disposal facilities if available.
• Provide sufficient and sanitary latrines, bathrooms and showers
and treat wastewater or discharge to a sanitary sewer system.
• Design no- or low-water use human waste disposal systems.
• Locate facilities to minimize impacts.
• Line facilities where groundwater contamination is an issue.
• Prepare a solid waste management plan for proper collection,
storage, transport and disposal.
Animals Attracted to Garbage and Food Waste
• Dispose of garbage and food waste in animal proof
containers.
Behavioral Disruption
• Implement a program to instruct employees,
contractors, and site visitors to avoid harassment and
disturbance of wildlife, especially during reproductive
(e.g., courtship, nesting) seasons.
• Control pets to avoid harassment and disturbance of
wildlife.
Collection, Hunting and Fishing
• Limit fuel wood collection to dead and down wood.
• Prohibit hunting and fishing by employees in
construction camps.
• Allow only legal hunting and fishing by employees living
onsite at facilities.
Degradation of Soil and Water Quality
• Apply water conservation (e.g., reduce, reuse and
recycle) measures to reduce water use and wastewater
generation.
• Implement a solid waste reduce, reuse and recycle
program.
• Prohibit use of nearby water bodies or wetlands for
washing or waste disposal.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Water supply
Fuel and
chemical storage
and handling
Energy
production
Transportation
Affected
Environment
Terrestrial Fauna
Water Quantity
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and
associated
Ecosystems
Air Quality
Water Quality
Air Quality
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Attraction of Wildlife and Pests to Solid Waste Disposal Sites
• Design sites to meet sanitary requirements.
Water Needs
• Secure necessary water rights.
Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks for
Land Clearing activities
Generator Emissions
• Consider fuel efficiency, types of fuels, and emissions controls in
the selection of equipment.
Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks for
Land Clearing activities
Vehicle Emissions
Same measures as Generator Emissions
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
Attraction of Wildlife and Pests to Solid Waste Disposal
Sites
• Fence sites.
• Apply and compact daily cover.
Water Needs
• Use water conservation practices.
Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks for Land Clearing activities
Generator Emissions
• Assure proper tuning and carburetion of engines.
• Check fuel supplies for impurities or adulteration.
Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks for Land Clearing activities
Vehicle Emissions
Same measures as Generator Emissions
OPERATIONS
Solid and human
waste disposal
Fuel and/or
chemical storage
and handling
Existence of
structures
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and
associated
Ecosystems
Water Quality
Air Quality
Degradation of Soil and Water Quality
Same measures as Degradation of Soil and Water Quality for
Construction Camp and Onsite Housing
Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks for
Land Clearing activities
Accidental Releases of Insulating Fluids
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks for
Land Clearing activities
Accidental Releases of Insulating Gases
Degradation of Soil and Water Quality
Same measures as Degradation of Soil and Water Quality for
Construction Camp and Onsite Housing
Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks for Land Clearing activities
Accidental Releases of Insulating Fluids
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks for Land Clearing activities
Accidental Releases of Insulating Gases
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Affected
Environment
Noise and Vibration
Aesthetics
Terrestrial Fauna
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Noise from Substations
• Locate all stationary equipment as far as practicable from nearby
residences and other sensitive receptors.
• Locate facilities to take advantage of the natural topography as a
noise buffer.
• Select equipment with lower sound power levels.
• Use noise absorbing blocks and other forms of noise insulation
for buildings housing transformers and switches.
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
Location and design issues are dealt with during construction.
Light Pollution
• Prepare a Lighting Plan including actions to minimize the need
for and amount of lighting on structures. Project developers
should design and commit to install all permanent exterior
lighting such that:
1. Light fixtures do not cause spill light beyond the project
site
2. Lighting does not cause reflected glare
3. Direct lighting does not illuminate the nighttime sky
4. Illumination of the project and its immediate vicinity is
minimized by including use of motion detectors or other
controls to have lights turned off unless needed for
security or safety
5. Lighting complies with local policies and ordinances
6. Lighting meets International Dark Sky Association
standards, when feasible.
Behavioral Disruption
Same measures as Behavioral Disruption from Land Clearing
activities plus:
• Design facility lighting to prevent side casting of light towards
wildlife habitat and prevent skyward projection of lighting that
may disorient night migrating birds.
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
Noise from Substations
• Ensure that substation mounting hardware is
periodically tightened.
• Implement noise monitoring to verifying operational
phase noise levels.
• Develop a mechanism to record and respond to
complaints.
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
• Maintain the site during operation of the project.
Inoperative equipment and poor housekeeping, creates
a poor image of the project in the eyes of the public.
• Paint grouped structures the same color to reduce
visual complexity and color contrast.
• Maintain vegetative screens.
• Prohibit the use of commercial symbols.
Light Pollution
Behavioral Disruption
Same measures as Behavioral Disruption from Land Clearing
activities.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-1: Mitigation measures for physical and biological impacts common to most energy generation and transmission projects
Activity
Affected
Environment
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Accidental Poisoning
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
from Land Clearing activities.
Electrocution
• Design facilities to minimize accidental electrocution of wildlife.
Operational, Best Practices and Monitoring
Accidental Poisoning
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks from Land Clearing activities.
Electrocution
• Install spikes or sonic repellent devices to discourage
roosting and nesting on facilities.
DECOMISSIONING
Same measures as Construction of Facilities with the addition of the following:
General
Removal and
transport of
machinery and
equipment
Removal or
decommissioning
of structures and
buildings
Restoration of
terrain and
vegetation
Noise and Vibration
Soil
Water Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated
Ecosystems
Soil
Aesthetics
Terrestrial Flora and
associated
Ecosystems
• Engage in planning that involves the community and possible
commercial users, to assure optimal reclamation and use.
• Develop and implement a decommissioning program that
includes removal or reconditioning of all structures and
reclamation of the site.
• Route the movement of heavy equipment and construction
materials as far as possible away from residences and other
sensitive receptors.
• Prepare a Noise Monitoring and Mitigation Plan.
Soil Contamination by Storage and Use of Hazardous Materials an
Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
from Land Clearing plus:
• Conduct soil sampling if deemed necessary, based on types of
materials stored or handled.
• Prepare a reclamation plan to treat contaminated soils to the
extent required for subsequent proposed use.
• Prepare a management plan for reclamation or proper disposal
of hazardous materials such as oils, greases, solvents, caustics
and acids, and other materials that may have been left behind.
• Prepare contingency plans for handling and disposal of
contaminated materials if discovered during decommissioning.
• Return access roads and the project site to as near natural
contours as feasible.
• Revegetate all disturbed areas with plant species appropriate to
the site.
Same measures as Noise and Vibration from Land Clearing
Soil Contamination by Storage and Use of Hazardous
Materials an Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks from Land Clearing plus:
• Implement procedures in the reclamation plan.
• Establish secure storage facilities for potentially
hazardous materials.
• Remove and properly dispose of potentially hazardous
materials such as asbestos and certain metals from
structures prior to demolition.
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G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G- 2: Additional mitigation measures for impacts to physical and biological environments common to specific energy
generation and transmission technologies
Activity
Affected Environment
01
3
u.
'w
°
Biomass/Biofuel
Hydropower
•O
C
i
1_
IS
o
I/)
Geothermal
Transmission
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
SITE INVESTIGATION
Access to
sites
Soil and
geologic
borings
Exploratory
drilling
Soil
Terrestrial Fauna
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Soil
Water Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Terrestrial Flora
Noise and Vibration
P
P
X
X
X
Access and Off-Road Vehicle Use
• Develop an off-road vehicle use plan.
• Conduct pre-disturbance surveys.
Access and Off-Road Vehicle Use
• Use minimally invasive exploratory
measures, close any roads installed and
restore the site to its original condition
• Avoid disturbance of sensitive vegetation
and minimize overall disturbance by
staying on roads, especially during wet
periods and rainy seasons.
• Avoid sensitive specific areas during
breeding season for species of interest.
• Properly treat and dispose of drilling mud
and fluid.
• Properly treat and dispose of drilling mud
and fluid.
• Properly plug drill holes.
• Revegetate disturbed areas with plant
species appropriate to the site.
• Restricted hours of operation if exploration
is in a populated area.
• Use noise barriers during drilling near
sensitive receptors.
CONSTRUCTION
Well drilling
Soil
Water Quality
Air Quality
P
P
P
P
p
p
X
X
X
X
Well blowouts and pipeline failures
Dust
• Properly treat and dispose of drilling mud
and fluid.
Well blowouts and pipeline failures
Dust
• Employ water injection or rotoclones on all
drills.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Installing
marine floor
cables
Affected Environment
Noise and Vibrations
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
01
3
u.
'w
°
Biomass/Biofuel
Hydropower
X
•O
c
i
OPERATION
Dams
(including
dams for
cooling
ponds)
Geology
Water Quantity
Water Quality
P
P
P
P
X
P
X
p
1_
IS
o
I/)
p
p
Geothermal
X
Transmission
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
• Survey cable route to identify presence of
aquatic species and associated habitats.
• Plan the route to avoid sensitive aquatic
species and habitats to the extent possible.
• Bury cables under sea floor to avoid sensitive
aquatic species habitats.
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
• Restricted hours of operation if exploration
is in a populated area.
• Use noise barriers during drilling near
sensitive receptors.
• Install cables when sensitive species are
not present to the extent practicable.
• If timing of installation cannot be done to
avoid sensitive species, implement species
detection measures and temporarily halt
installation until species pass to a safe
distance.
P
P
Dam Failure
Raising Water Tables
Downstream Flow and Streambed Changes
• In order to verify adequate stream flow
releases, a guaranteed priority stream
maintenance flow device should be
incorporated into the diversion/intake
structure.
• Design intake to draw water from certain
reservoir depths to pass water of desired
temperature.
Dam Failure
• Inspect projects periodically for dam
stability and provide public safety plans.
Raising Water Tables
Downstream Flow and Streambed Changes
• Alter the rate of water flow through
turbines (ramping rate) to ameliorate
sudden rise or fall in downstream water
levels and associated impacts on stream
bank stability, tourism, aesthetics, aquatic
ecosystems, etc.
• Release minimum downstream flows to
preserve aquatic habitats.
• Operate in a run-of-river mode (i.e., flow
releases approximate inflow at any point in
time).
• Monitor water temperature and other
water parameters in outflow and adjust
operations as necessary.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Affected Environment
Terrestrial Flora and
associated Ecosystems
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
01
3
u.
'w
°
p
p
Biomass/Biofuel
P
P
Hydropower
X
X
X
X
p
X
•O
c
i
i_
IS
o
I/)
p
p
Geothermal
P
P
Transmission
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Destruction of Ecosystems by Inundation
• Locate or design project to avoid sensitive
species and habitats.
Alteration of Downstream Ecosystems from
Seepage and Changed Flows
• Design project to consider important habitat
and species that may be affected by seepage
and flow changes
Alteration of Downstream Ecosystems
Same measures as Downstream Flow
Barrier to Upstream or Downstream Migration
• Install fish ladders, fishways, fish lifts or
elevators, or other fish passage devices to
allow upstream or downstream passage of
fish.
Aquatic Weed Proliferation
Intake/Turbine Injury or Entrapment
• Install screen or grates, and sonic or visual
(e.g., strobe lights) repelling systems at water
intakes to deter fish from entering turbines.
• Entrainment may be reduced by using smaller
spaced trash racks and bypass facilities if
appropriate.
• Consider designing intake such that the
velocity in front of the intake's trash rack is
not higher than the fish's swimming speed.
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Destruction of Ecosystems by Inundation
• Limit the size of the reservoir fluctuation
zone to reduce impacts on shoreline
habitat.
Alteration of Downstream Ecosystems from
Seepage and Changed Flows
• Monitor important habitat
• Establish similar habitat elsewhere
Alteration of Downstream Ecosystems
Same measures as Downstream Flow
Barrier to Upstream or Downstream
Migration
• Release attraction flows so fish can find
passage facility.
• Monitor effectiveness of fish passage
facility.
Aquatic Weed Proliferation
• Monitor weeds and mitigate as
appropriate.
• Seasonally draw down reservoir to
desiccate plants
Intake/Turbine Injury or Entrapment
• Cease powerhouse operations during
migration to prevent entrapment.
• Route some portion of downstream flows
away from powerhouse (e.g., over spillway
or through gate) in order to facilitate
downstream passage.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Diversions
Cooling
systems
Affected Environment
Water Quantity
Terrestrial Flora and
Fauna
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Soil
01
3
u.
'w
°
p
Biomass/Biofuel
P
Hydropower
X
X
X
X
•O
c
i
i_
IS
o
I/)
p
Geothermal
X
Transmission
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Alteration of gravel transport
Alteration of Ecosystems in Bypass Stretches
Same measures as Water Quantity
Intake/Turbine Injury or Entrapment
Same as measures for Dams
Disposal of Dredged and Precipitated Material
• Design disposal site that meets regulatory
requirements.
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Alteration of Gravel Transport
• Release periodic flushing flows to move
sediment and gravel downstream or
periodically add sediment and/or gravel
downstream.
Alteration of Ecosystems in Bypass Stretches
Same measures as Water Quantity
Intake/Turbine Injury or Entrapment
Same as measures for Dams
Disposal of Dredged and Precipitated
Material
• Assure proper dewatering of material.
• Minimize the use of hazardous materials to
reduce residual pollutants.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Affected Environment
Water Quality
Water Quantity
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
01
3
u.
'w
°
p
p
p
p
Biomass/Biofuel
P
P
P
P
Hydropower
•O
C
i
i_
IS
o
I/)
p
p
p
p
Geothermal
X
X
X
X
X
Transmission
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Disposal of Dredged and Precipitated Material
• Design the project to minimize wastewater
discharges.
• Design treatment systems so that discharges
do not exceed water quality standards in
receiving surface water outside a scientifically
established mixing zone.
• Use settling lagoons or ponds to precipitate
out pollutants and cool water before
discharging.
• Line lagoons and ponds in areas where water
is scarce or groundwater contamination is an
issue.
• Consider dry cooling technologies or the use
of several concentration cycles for cooling
water to reduce water withdrawals.
• Secure water rights
Poisoning by Cooling Water
• Fence and net lagoons and ponds if water
quality poses threat to wildlife.
Alteration of Ecosystems by Discharges
Same measures as Water Quality
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Disposal of Dredged and Precipitated
Material
• Apply water conservation (e.g., reduce,
reuse and recycle) measures to reduce
water use and wastewater generation.
• Minimize the use of hazardous materials to
reduce the load of pollutants requiring
treatment.
• Monitor surface water quality if there are
discharges.
• Monitor groundwater quality at nearby
wells.
• Inject liquid wastes or redissolved solids
back into a porous stratum of a geothermal
well.
• Apply water conservation (e.g., reduce,
reuse and recycle) measures to reduce
water use and wastewater generation.
• Monitor groundwater levels at nearby
wells if groundwater is withdrawn for
cooling uses.
Poisoning by Cooling Water
• Maintain fencing and netting.
Alteration of Ecosystems by Discharges
Same measures as Water Quality
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Volume I - EIA Technical Review Guidelines:
Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Turbines
On-site
equipment
Affected Environment
Fauna-Fish
Fauna -Birds and bats
Aesthetics
01
3
'w
u.
01
.5
Biomass/Bio
Hydropower
X
c
i
X
X
IS
O
I/)
Geothermal
Transmissior
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
• Placement to avoid migration patterns and
disruption offish travel
• Use of certain colors to avoid attracting
insects, to minimize attraction of insect-
eating birds and bats.
• placement to avoid bat and bird migration
pathways
• Use horizontal axis wind turbines rather than
vertical axis turbines, or shorter vertical axis
turbines.
• Use turbines of the same size and type and
space them uniformly.
• Use aerodynamically efficient designs to
reduce noise and improve efficiency.
• Use appropriate setbacks from nearby
residences to avoid shadow flicker.
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
• altering turbine speed
• seasonal adjustment to operations
• monitoring of impacts to aquatic species
• ultrasonic devices may be effective in
alerting and/or frightening bats from
within the operating area
• altering wind turbine cut-in speeds may
reduce impacts from barotrauma to bats
• monitoring bird and bat fatalities
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Affected Environment
Noise
Terrestrial Fauna
01
3
u.
'w
°
X
p
p
p
X
Biomass/Biofuel
X
P
P
P
X
Hydropower
X
P
•O
C
i
X
X
i_
IS
o
i/i
P
P
P
P
Geothermal
X
P
X
Transmission
X
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
• Share right-of-ways and corridors with
existing infrastructure (transmission lines,
pipelines, rail lines and roadways
• Design a variety of poles to minimize impacts
at specific locations.
• Modify the form, color, or texture of poles
and lines to minimize aesthetic impacts.
• Bury cables in sensitive view areas.
• Locate all stationary equipment as far as
practicable from nearby residences and other
sensitive receptors.
• Locate facilities to take advantage of the
natural topography as a noise buffer.
• Select equipment with lower sound power
levels.
• Use noise absorbing blocks and other forms
of noise insulation for buildings housing
equipment.
• Install acoustic barriers without gaps and with
a continuous minimum surface density of 10
kg/m2.
Boilers, pumps, precipitators, cooling towers, fans
and ductwork, compressors, condensers,
precipitators, piping and valves
Engines
Emission control equipment
Steam flashing and venting
Behavioral Disruption
Same measures as for Noise.
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
• Leave the right-of-way in a natural state at
road crossings.
• Create curved or wavy right-of-way
boundaries and prune trees to create a
feathered effect.
• Ensure that sound-control devices
provided on the original equipment are
operational.
• Install and maintain silencers for fans and
mufflers on engine exhausts and
compressor components.
• Install reciprocating and turbine
machinery and other mechanical
equipment on vibration absorbing mounts.
• Implement noise monitoring to verifying
operational phase noise levels.
• Develop a mechanism to record and
respond to complaints.
• Minimize project traffic through
community areas.
Behavioral Disruption
Same measures as for Noise.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Affected Environment
01
3
u.
'w
°
Biomass/Biofuel
Hydropower
•O
C
i
1_
IS
o
I/)
Geothermal
Transmission
X
X
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Alteration of Ecosystems
• Share right-of-ways and corridors with
existing infrastructure (transmission lines,
pipelines, rail lines and roadways.
• Avoid placing transmission lines through
wetlands.
• Span wetlands wherever possible.
Bird Electrocution on Transmission Lines
• Design to provide conductor separation of 150
centimeters between energized conductors
and grounded hardware, or cover energized
parts and hardware if such spacing is not
possible.
• Site structures and transmission lines reduce
the likelihood of collisions.
• Install visibility enhancement devices on lines
to reduce the risk of collision, such as marker
balls, bird diverters, or other line visibility
devices.
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Alteration of Ecosystems
• Providing nesting platforms on top of
transmission poles.
• Seed right-of-ways with species favored
for forage by wildlife.
• Maintain tree and plant growth at a level
that does not negatively affect habitat or
the transmission infrastructure.
• Maintain the right-of-way with low-
growing natural vegetation that requires
minimal maintenance and that is
consistent with local vegetation.
• Adjusting pole placement and span length
to minimize the need for tree removal and
trimming along forest edges
• Limit pesticide use to non-persistent,
immobile pesticides and apply in
accordance with label and application
permit directions and stipulations for
terrestrial and aquatic applications.
• Use mats and wide-track vehicles when
crossing wetlands is unavoidable.
Bird Electrocution on Transmission Lines
• Provide safe alternative locations for
perching or nesting.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Maintenance
Affected Environment
Soil
Water Quality
Water Quantity
Terrestrial Flora and
associated Ecosystems
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
01
3
u.
'w
°
X
p
Biomass/Biofuel
X
P
Hydropower
P
•O
C
i
X
i_
IS
o
i/i
X
X
p
Geothermal
P
X
P
Transmission
P
X
X
P
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Bird and Bat Collisions with Wind Turbine Blades
• Site wind turbines to minimize potential for
strikes/collisions with turbine components.
• Lighting on hubs and possible coloration of
blade tips to improve visibility
Bird Incineration
• Install flashing or strobing lights to divert birds
from solar heliostat towers.
Disposal of geothermal depositions in open-loop
plants
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality for
Cooling Systems plus:
• Consider using closed-loop systems
Right-of-Way Management Practices
• Secure water rights.
Right-of-Way Management Practices
Behavioral Disruption
Alteration of Ecosystems by Water
Contamination
Same measures as Water Quality
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Bird and Bat Collisions with Wind Turbine
Blades
Bird Incineration
Disposal of geothermal depositions in open-
loop plants
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality for
Cooling Systems
Right-of-Way Management Practices
• Apply water conservation (e.g., reduce,
reuse and recycle) measures to reduce
water use and wastewater generation.
Right-of-Way Management Practices
Behavioral Disruption
• Schedule activities to avoid disturbance of
wildlife during critical periods of the day
(e.g., night) or year (e.g., breeding or
nesting season).
• Implement a program to instruct
employees and contractors to avoid
harassment and disturbance of wildlife,
especially during reproductive (e.g.,
courtship, nesting) seasons.
• Control private access roads with locked
gates or other barriers.
Alteration of Ecosystems by Water
Contamination
Same measures as Water Quality
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Volume I - EIA Technical Review Guidelines:
Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Storage and
handling of
heat transfer
substances
Geothermal
withdrawals
Affected Environment
Soil
Water Quality
Air Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Geology
01
3
'w
u.
01
.5
Biomass/Bio
Hydropower
c
i
IS
O
I/)
p
p
p
Geothermal
P
P
X
Transmissior
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Contamination from Spills Leaks
• Design containment for storage, handling and
dispensing of heat transfer fluids.
• Prepare a Spill Prevention and Response Plan.
Releases of Gaseous Substances
• Prepare a Spill Prevention and Response Plan.
Alteration of Ecosystems by Spills and Leaks
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality
Subsidence
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Contamination from Spills and Leaks
• Train workers on the Spill Prevention and
Response Plan.
• Provide onsite portable spill management,
control and cleanup equipment and
materials.
• Containerize and periodically remove
wastes for disposal at appropriate off-site
permitted disposal facilities, if available.
• Document accidental releases as to cause,
corrective actions taken, and resulting
environmental or health and safety
impacts.
Releases of Gaseous Substances
• Train workers on the Spill Prevention and
Response Plan.
• Document accidental releases as to cause,
corrective actions taken, and resulting
environmental or health and safety
impacts.
Alteration of Ecosystems by Spills and Leaks
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality
Subsidence
• Conduct periodic monitoring of well head
surface elevations at nearby wells.
• Implementing procedures for evaluating
and compensating for any damage.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Production
of biomass
(activities on
farms and
forests)
Fuel washing
and
preparation
Affected Environment
Water Quality
(groundwater)
Air Quality
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Flora and
associated Ecosystems
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
01
3
u.
'w
°
p
Biomass/Biofuel
X
P
P
P
Hydropower
•O
C
i
i_
IS
o
I/)
Geothermal
X
P
X
X
Transmission
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Stimulate Seismic Activity
• Install a micro-earthquake network.
Reinjection of Spent Geothermal Fluids
Well Blowouts and Pipeline Failures
Off-Gassing of Geothermal Water and Steam
• Consider using closed-loop systems
Alteration of Ecosystems by Wood Harvest
Same as Soil and Water Quality
Alteration of Ecosystems by Farm and Forest
Management Practices
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality
Contamination from Residue Disposal
Same measures as Water Quality for Cooling
Systems
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Stimulate Seismic Activity
• Instituting procedures for mitigating
emerging seismic events up to complete
shutdown, if necessary.
• Provide public awareness materials and
presentations on seismic potential.
• Monitor and report operational data and
events recorded on the micro-earthquake
network.
• Implementing procedures for evaluating
and compensating for any damage.
Reinjection of Spent Geothermal Fluids
• Monitor groundwater quality at nearby
wells.
Well Blowouts and Pipeline Failures
Off-Gassing of Geothermal Water and Steam
• Use low-impact sustainable agricultural
and forest management practices to grow
biomass.
Alteration of Ecosystems by Wood Harvest
Same as Soil and Water Quality
Alteration of Ecosystems by Farm and Forest
Management Practices
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality
Contamination from Residue Disposal
Same measures as Water Quality for Cooling
Systems
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Volume I - EIA Technical Review Guidelines:
Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Fuel storage
Fuel
combustion
Affected Environment
Air Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
Air Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
Soil
Water Quality
01
3
u.
'w
°
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
X
p
Biomass/Biofuel
P
P
P
P
P
P
X
P
Hydropower
•O
C
i
i_
IS
o
I/)
Geothermal
Transmission
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Dust from Solid Fuels Processing
• Use natural terrain to block wind or design
vegetative or engineered wind blocks.
Alteration of Ecosystems by Spills and Leaks
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality
Spills and Leaks
Same measures as Storage and Handling of Heat
Transfer Substances
Dust from Solid Fuels Storage
Same measures as for Fuel Washing and
Preparation
Alteration of Ecosystems by Spills and Leaks
Same measures as Storage and Handling of Heat
Transfer Substances
Ash and Sludge Disposal
Same as Disposal of Dredged and Precipitated
Material for Cooling Systems
Spills and Leaks of Catalysts
Same measures as Storage and Handling of Heat
Transfer Substances
Downwind Soil Deposition
Same measures as Air Quality
Spills and Leaks of Catalysts
Same measures as Storage and Handling of Heat
Transfer Substances
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Dust from Solid Fuels Processing
• Use dust abatement techniques.
• Cover materials and conveyors if they are
a source of fugitive dust.
• Train workers to handle fuel materials and
debris to reduce fugitive emissions.
• Use covered or enclosed drop and
material transfer points, operated at slight
negative pressure if possible.
Alteration of Ecosystems by Spills and Leaks
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality
Spills and Leaks
Same measures as Storage and Handling of
Heat Transfer Substances
Dust from Solid Fuels Storage
Same measures as for Fuel Washing and
Preparation
Alteration of Ecosystems by Spills and Leaks
Same measures as Storage and Handling of
Heat Transfer Substances
Ash and Sludge Disposal
Same as Disposal of Dredged and Precipitated
Material for Cooling Systems
Spills and Leaks of Catalysts
Same measures as Storage and Handling of
Heat Transfer Substances
Downwind Soil Deposition
Same measures as Air Quality
Spills and Leaks of Catalysts
Same measures as Storage and Handling of
Heat Transfer Substances
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Affected Environment
Air Quality
Aesthetics
Terrestrial Flora and
associated Ecosystems
Aquatic Species and
associated Ecosystems
01
3
u.
'w
°
X
p
X
p
Biomass/Biofuel
X
P
X
p
Hydropower
•O
C
i
i_
IS
o
I/)
Geothermal
Transmission
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Ash and Sludge Disposal
• Design the project to minimize wastewater
discharges.
• Design storage and treatment systems so that
discharges do not exceed water quality
standards in receiving surface water outside a
scientifically established mixing zone.
• Line pits and lagoons into which wastes are
discharged.
Stack and Exhaust Pipe Emissions
• Use an alternative fuel with lower pollutant
emissions.
• Design a control system that uses fuel
treatments, combustion modifications, post-
combustion controls or an appropriate mix of
them to reduce particulate matter, S02, and
NOX emissions.
• Design and use carbon capture and
sequestration technologies to reduce C02
emissions.
• Purchase or otherwise provide for a carbon
offset for the greenhouse gas emissions of the
proposed facility.
Same measures as Air Quality
Alterations of Downwind Ecosystems
Same measures as Air Quality
Alterations of Ecosystems by Spills and Leaks and
Ash and Sludge Disposal
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Ash and Sludge Disposal
• Assure proper dewatering of material.
• Assure that ash storage areas are lined and
covered, and that run-off is directed to
settling ponds.
• Monitor surface water quality if there are
discharges.
• Monitor groundwater quality at nearby
wells.
Stack and Exhaust Pipe Emissions
• Maintain burners and air delivery systems
to function at optimal levels to reduce
particulate matter emissions.
• Use coal cleaning processes where
applicable and feasible to reduce S02
emissions.
• Alter heavy oils with water and emulsifying
agents to reduce emissions of CO, NOX and
particulate matter.
• Improve oil atomization and combustion
aerodynamics to reduce NOX and
particulate matter emissions.
• Inject steam or water into natural gas
combustion chambers to reduce NOX
emissions.
• Use advanced natural gas combustor
design to suppress NOX and CO.
Same measures as Air Quality
Alterations of Downwind Ecosystems
Same measures as Air Quality
Alterations of Ecosystems by Spills and Leaks
and Ash and Sludge Disposal
Same measures as Soil and Water Quality
DECOMMISSIONING
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Activity
Decommissio
ning and
disposal of
damaged or
obsolete
equipment
Affected Environment
Soil
01
3
u.
'w
°
Biomass/Biofuel
Hydropower
•O
C
i
1_
IS
o
I/)
P
Geothermal
Transmission
Potential Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Disposal of Material from Photovoltaic Cells
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Disposal of Material from Photovoltaic Cells
Key
X = Associated with a technology
P = Possible association with the technology, depending on the specific type of technology, associated facilities and the location
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G- 3: Mitigation measures for impacts to the social-economic-cultural environment
Affected
Environment
Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Socio-Economic
Conditions
Displacement and Relocation
• Locate facilities to avoid displacement and relocation.
• Develop a compensation plan for land owners.
• Develop a compensation plan for displaced and
relocated people.
Displacement and Relocation
• Assure that new locations are
culturally compatible
• Assure that proper training and job
opportunities are available or are
created.
• Provide counseling to assist in
adaptation to the new surroundings.
Changes in Character of the Community and Crime Rates
• Locate construction camps away from local
communities.
Changes in Character of the Community
and Crime Rates
• Implement a program to instruct
employees, contractors, and site
visitors to avoid harassment and
disturbance of local residents.
• Ensure adequate security to protect
residents from construction camp
workers, and to protect the
construction camp workers from
themselves.
Public Health
• Limit stray voltage from transmission lines by grounding,
installation or, if necessary, isolation.
• Route transmission lines to avoid residential areas.
• Place line conductors closer together to lower EMF.
Public Health
• Assure proper clearance of area to be
inundated before beginning reservoir
filling.
• Restrict of access to project facilities,
especially high risk areas, through use
of signs, fences and communication of
risk to the local community.
• Avoid creation of standing, stagnate
water.
Worker Health and Safety
• To the extent practicable locate the proposed project
site relative to fire hazard severity zones.
• Conduct a safety assessment to describe potential safety
issues (e.g., site access, construction, work practices,
security, emergency procedures, and fire control and
management).
• Develop a worker safety program to address all of the
safety issues identified in the assessment and all
applicable safety standards set forth by local
governments and the relevant safety and health
administration.
Worker Health and Safety
• Implement worker safety program.
• Require periodic safety inspections of
all vehicles
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Affected
Environment
Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Infrastructure
Transportation Infrastructure
Roads
• Consult with local planning authorities regarding traffic,
in general and specific issues (such as school bus routes).
• Develop a Traffic Management Plan for site access roads
and for use of main public roads to mitigate impacts of
the project on traffic.
• Provide for safe ingress and egress to/from the proposed
project site.
Aviation
• Avoid locating any portion of a facility within a
designated airport safety zone, airport influence area or
airport referral area.
• Avoid introducing a thermal plume, visible plume, glare,
or electrical interference into navigable airspace on or
near an airport.
• Limit structure height to less than 61 meters above
ground level.
• Limit the height of objects in the vicinity of the runways.
• Bury transmission lines near runways, if necessary for
safety.
Transportation Infrastructure
Roads
• Limit traffic to roads indicated
specifically for the project.
• Instruct and require all personnel and
contractors to adhere to speed limits
to ensure safe and efficient traffic
flow.
Public health infrastructure
• Locate facilities so as not to directly impact or disturb
activities at public infrastructure.
Public health infrastructure
Communications Infrastructure
• Locate facilities so as not to directly impact or disturb
activities at communications infrastructure.
• Design the project to reduce electromagnetic
interference (e.g., impacts to radar, microwave,
television, and radio transmissions) and comply with any
applicable regulations.
• Signal strength studies should be conducted when
proposed locations have the potential to interfere with
public safety communication systems.
Communications Infrastructure
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Energy Generation and Transmission
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Affected
Environment
Mitigation Measures
Location and Design
Operational, Best Practices and
Monitoring
Cultural,
Archeological,
Ceremonial and
Historic
Resources
Use existing roads to the maximum extent feasible to
avoid additional surface disturbance.
Locate facilities to avoid significant cultural,
archeological, ceremonial and historic resources.
Prepare a Cultural Resources Management Plan, if
cultural resources are present in the project area.
If avoidance is not possible, conduct
appropriate cultural resource recovery
operations or alternate mitigations.
During all phases of the project, keep
equipment and vehicles within the
limits of the initially disturbed areas.
Educate workers on identification of
cultural, archeological, ceremonial and
historic resources.
Stop work in the area of an
unexpected discovery of a cultural,
archeological, ceremonial and historic
resource during any phase of the
project until the resource can be
evaluated by a professional
archaeologist and an appropriate
response undertaken.
Educate workers and the public on the
consequences of unauthorized
collection of artifacts.
Periodically monitor the condition of
significant resources in the vicinity of
the project and associated roads and
right-of-ways and report to authorities
on any degradation, looting and
vandalism.
Land Use
Contact local stakeholders early in the process to identify
sensitive land uses, issues and local plans and
ordinances.
Avoid the conversion of unique farmland or farmland of
national importance.
Compensate farmers and ranchers for crop or forage
losses.
Work with agricultural landowners to determine optimal
pole heights, pole locations, and other significant land
use issues.
Use larger structures with longer spans to cross
agricultural fields.
Use single poles where conflicts with land use are
significant.
Orient multiple-pole structures with the plowing pattern.
Keep guy wires outside crop land and have highly visible
shield guards.
Locate the line along fence lines or adjacent to roads
Use shorter poles with markers on the shield wires in
areas where aerial spraying and seeding are common.
Restrict work on rights-of-way to dry
season and fallow periods in
agricultural areas.
Mitigate windbreak damages by
trimming windbreaks selectively,
replanting lower-growing trees and
brushes beneath the line, or creating a
new windbreak elsewhere.
Tourism and Recreation
• Locate facilities so as not to directly impact or disturb
activities at tourism or recreation areas or facilities.
• Design recreational facilities into creation of new
reservoirs.
Tourism and Recreation Infrastructure
• Coordinate with local authorities to
manage recreational use of new
reservoirs.
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2 SPECIFIC MITIGATION MEASURES
The following subsections provide additional information on some mitigation measures, for which the
information in Tables G-l through G-3 may not be sufficient. The measures elaborated upon include:
• Seismic events associated with geothermal developments
• Process and wastewater discharges
• Air emissions from fossil fuel- and biomass-fired plants
• Noise
• Transmission lines
The elaboration on these mitigation measures in no way indicates that they are more important than
the other measures in Tables G-l through G-3. They are elaborated upon here only because the EIA
reviewer may need more information than is provided in the Tables to understand the application of the
measures.
2.1 Seismic Events Associated with Geothermal Developments
Geothermal developments have been identified as inducing seismic events. Induced seismicity, can be
mitigated, if not overcome, using modern geoscientific methods to thoroughly characterize potential
reservoir target areas before drilling and stimulation begin. With current technology, it appears feasible
that the number and magnitude of these induced events can be managed by undertaking the following
actions:
• Collect stress data, background seismicity, and geology data prior to actual field stimulation
• Enter this data into predictive stimulation models to estimate and forecast potential induced
seismicity magnitude and potential radius of seismicity
• Install ground motion sensors
• Create public awareness of seismic potential
• Monitoring and reporting of operational data and events
• Instituting procedures for mitigating emerging seismic events up to complete shutdown, if
necessary
• Implement procedures for evaluating and compensating for any damage
2.2 Process and Wastewater Discharges
Project-specific performance levels for wastewater effluents should be set prior to designing
wastewater treatment systems. The standards should comply with national standards, if they exist, and
take into consideration the quality and volume of the receiving waters. Additional considerations that
should be included in the setting of project-specific performance levels for wastewater effluents include:
• Process wastewater treatment standards should be consistent with applicable requirements for
a specific industry or, where there are no industry-specific guidelines, should reference the
effluent quality guidelines of an industry sector with suitably analogous processes and effluents
• Compliance with national or local standards for sanitary wastewater discharges or, in their
absence, indicative guideline values applicable to sanitary wastewater discharges as shown in
Table G-4 or developed from standards presented for a range of countries and international
organizations in Volume II, Appendix C
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• Temperature of wastewater prior to discharge does not result in an increase greater than 3 C of
ambient temperature at the edge of a scientifically established mixing zone which takes into
account ambient water quality, receiving water use and assimilative capacity among other
considerations
In the context of their overall environmental health and safety management system, facilities should:
• Understand the quality, quantity, frequency and sources of liquid effluents in its installations.
This includes knowledge about the locations, routes and integrity of internal drainage systems
and discharge points.
• Assess compliance of their wastewater discharges with the applicable: (i) discharge standard (if
the wastewater is discharged to a surface water or sewer) and (ii) water quality standard for a
specific reuse (e.g., if the wastewater is reused for irrigation)
Table G- 4: Indicative Values for Treated Sanitary Sewage Discharges1
Pollutants
pH
BOD
COD
Total nitrogen
Total phosphorus
Oil and grease
Total suspended solids
Total coliform bacteria
Units
PH
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
MPN2/100ml
Guideline Value
6-9
30
125
10
2
10
50
4001
Notes:
*Not applicable to centralized, municipal, wastewater treatment systems which are included in EHS Guidelines for
Water and Sanitation
2MPN = Most Probable Number
Source: World Bank Group. 2007. Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines: General EHS Guidelines.
pg. 30. (Guias sobre media ambiente, salud y seguhdad: Guias Generates, pg. 35)
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainabilitv.nsf/AttachmentsBvTitle/Rui EHSGuidelines2007 GeneralEHS/$FILE/Final
+-+General+EHS+Guidelines.pdf English
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainabilitv.nsf/AttachmentsBvTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 GeneralEHS Spanish/$F
ILE/General+EHS+-+Spanish+-+Final+rev+cc.pdf Spanish
2.3 Air Emissions from Fossil Fuel- and Biomass-Fired Plants
Thermal/combustion projects can be significant sources of air emissions with the potential for significant
impacts to ambient air quality. These projects should prevent or minimize impacts by ensuring that:
• Emissions do not result in pollutant concentrations that reach or exceed relevant ambient
quality guidelines and standards by applying national legislated standards, or in their absence,
standards from other internationally recognized sources. Appendix C identifies some of the
current parameters and requirements in place in CAFTA DR countries, the United States, other
countries and international organizations as a point of reference in the absence of local criteria
other recognized criteria.
• Emissions do not contribute a significant portion to the attainment of relevant ambient air
quality guidelines or standards. Countries may wish to consider not allowing the project to
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consume all the potential for air emissions in the airshed, so as to allow additional, future
sustainable development in the same airshed.
Facilities or projects located within poor quality air sheds, and within or next to areas established as
ecologically sensitive (e.g., national parks), should ensure that any increase in pollution levels is as small
as feasible, and amounts to a fraction of the applicable short-term and annual average air quality
guidelines or standards as established in the project-specific environmental assessment. Suitable
measures may also include the relocation of significant sources of emissions outside the air shed in
question, use of cleaner fuels or technologies, application of comprehensive pollution control measures,
offset activities at installations controlled by the project sponsor or other facilities within the same air
shed, and buy-down of emissions within the same air shed. Specific provisions for minimizing emissions
and their impacts in poor air quality or ecologically sensitive air sheds should be established on a
project-by-project or industry-specific basis. Offset provisions outside the immediate control of the
project sponsor or buy-downs should be monitored and enforced by the local agency responsible for
granting and monitoring emission permits. Such provisions should be in place prior to final
commissioning of the facility / project.
Where possible, facilities and projects should avoid, minimize, and control adverse impacts to human
health, safety, and the environment from air emissions through a combination of:
• Energy use efficiency
• Process modification
• Selection of fuels or other materials, the processing of which may result in less polluting
emissions
• Application of emissions control techniques.
The selected prevention and control techniques may include one or more methods of treatment
depending on:
• Regulatory requirements
• Significance of the source
• Location of the emitting facility relative to other sources
• Location of sensitive receptors
• Existing ambient air quality, and potential for degradation of the air shed from a proposed
project
• Technical feasibility and cost effectiveness of the available options for prevention, control, and
release of emissions.
The main pollutants from thermal/combustion projects are particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen oxides (NOX) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Control techniques for these pollutants generally fall
into three broad categories:
• Fuel substitution/treatment: burning a cleaner fuel.
• Combustion modification: any physical or operational change in the furnace or boiler and is
applied primarily for NOX control purposes, although for small units, some reduction in PM
emissions may be available through improved combustion practice.
• Post-combustion control: a device placed after the combustion of the fuel to control emissions
of PM, SO2, and NOX.
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Fuel substitution involves burning a cleaner fuel. Among the fossil fuels, the cleanest burning fuel is
natural gas, followed by diesel then oil and then by coal. The emissions of concern from natural gas and
are primarily NOX and CO2. In the generation of power, natural gas is used almost exclusively for
powering of gas turbines.
The following subsections discuss the mitigation measures for reducing emissions via combustion
modification and post-combustion control for each of the pollutants of concern.
2.3.1 Particulate Matter
Particulate matter can be a problem at coal-, biomass- and oil-fired plants as well as with diesel engines.
The principal control techniques for PM are combustion modifications (applicable to small stoker-fired
boilers) and post-combustion methods (applicable to most boiler types and sizes).
2.3.1.1 Combustion Modifications
PM emissions from coal- and biomass-fired plants can be reduced by employing good combustion
practices such as operating within the recommended load ranges, controlling the rate of load changes,
and ensuring steady, uniform fuel feed. Proper design and operation of the combustion air delivery
systems can also minimize PM emissions. For biomass more advanced combustion modifications, such
as the whole-tree burner (which has three successive combustion stages) and the gasifier/combustion
turbine combination, should generate much lower emissions, perhaps comparable to those of power
plants fueled by natural gas.
Control of PM emissions from oil-fired plants is accomplished by improving burner servicing and
improving oil atomization and combustion aerodynamics. Optimization of combustion aerodynamics
using a flame retention device, swirl, and/or recirculation is considered effective toward achieving the
triple goals of low PM emissions, low NOX emissions and high thermal efficiency.
Large utility boilers are generally well-designed and well-maintained so that soot and condensable
organic compound emissions are minimized. Particulate matter emissions are more a result of emitted
fly ash with a carbon component in such units. Therefore, post-combustion controls may be used to
reduce PM emissions from these sources.
2.3.1.2 Post-Combustion Controls
Post-combustion control of PM emissions from coal-, biomass- and oil-fired plants can be accomplished
by using one or more or the following particulate control devices:
• Electrostatic precipitator
• Fabric filter (or baghouse)
• Wet scrubber
• Cyclone or multiclone collector
• Side stream separator (only one not mentioned by previous version as applying to biomass)
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) are commonly used in oil-fired power plants. Older precipitators,
usually small, typically remove 40 to 60 percent of the emitted PM. Because of the low ash content of
the oil, greater collection efficiency may not be required. Currently, new or rebuilt ESPs can achieve
collection efficiencies of up to 90 percent.
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Electrostatic precipitation technology is applicable to a variety of combustion sources. Because of their
modular design, ESPs can be applied to a wide range of system sizes and should have no adverse effect
on combustion system performance. The operating parameters that influence ESP performance include
fly ash mass loading, particle size distribution, fly ash electrical resistivity, and precipitator voltage and
current. Other factors that determine ESP collection efficiency are collection plate area, gas flow
velocity, and cleaning cycle. Data for ESPs applied to coal-fired sources show fractional collection
efficiencies greater than 99 percent for fine (less than 0.1 micrometer) and coarse particles (greater than
10 micrometers). These data show a reduction in collection efficiency for particle diameters between
0.1 and 10 micrometers. New ESPs can achieve collection efficiencies of up to 90 percent for oil-fired
plants. The efficiency is lower because of the low ash content of the oil, so that an ESP operating at 90%
efficiency at an oil-fired plant is still emitting less PM than one operating at 99% efficiency at a coal-fired
plant.
In fabric filtration, a number of filtering elements (bags) along with a bag cleaning system are contained
in a main shell structure incorporating dust hoppers. The particulate removal efficiency of fabric filters
is dependent on a variety of particle and operational characteristics. Particle characteristics that affect
the collection efficiency include particle size distribution, particle cohesion characteristics, and particle
electrical resistivity. Operational parameters that affect fabric filter collection efficiency include air-to-
cloth ratio, operating pressure loss, cleaning sequence, interval between cleanings, cleaning method,
and cleaning intensity. The structure of the fabric filter, filter composition, and bag properties also
affect collection efficiency. Collection efficiencies of baghouses may be more than 99 percent.
Wet scrubbers, including Venturi and flooded disc scrubbers, tray or tower units, turbulent contact
absorbers, or high-pressure spray impingement scrubbers are applicable for PM as well as SO2 control
on oil-, coal- and biomass fired plants. Scrubber collection efficiency depends on particle size
distribution, gas side pressure drop through the scrubber, and water (or scrubbing liquor) pressure, and
can range between 95 and 99 percent for a 2-micron particle.
Cyclone separators can be installed singly, in series, or grouped as in a multicyclone or multiclone
collector. These devices are referred to as mechanical collectors and are often used as a precollector
upstream of an ESP, fabric filter, or wet scrubber so that these devices can be specified for lower particle
loadings to reduce capital and/or operating costs. The collection efficiency of a mechanical collector
depends strongly on the effective aerodynamic particle diameter. Although these devices will reduce
PM emissions from coal combustion, they are relatively ineffective for collection of particles less than 10
micron (PM10). The typical overall collection efficiency for mechanical collectors ranges from 90 to 95
percent.
In oil-fired plants, cyclones are primarily useful in controlling particulate matter generated during soot
blowing, during upset conditions, or when very dirty heavy oil is fired. For these situations, high-
efficiency cyclonic collectors can achieve up to 85 percent control of particulate. Under normal firing
conditions, or when clean oil is combusted, cyclonic collectors are not nearly so effective because of the
high percentage of small particles (less than 3 micrometers in diameter) emitted.
The side-stream separator combines a multicyclone and a small pulse-jet baghouse to more efficiently
collect small-diameter particles that are difficult to capture by a mechanical collector alone. Most
applications to date for side-stream separators have been on small stoker coal-fired boilers.
Atmospheric fluidized bed combustion (AFBC) coal-fired boilers may tax conventional particulate control
systems. The particulate mass concentration exiting AFBC boilers is typically 2 to 4 times higher than
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pulverized coal boilers. AFBC particles are also, on average, smaller in size, and irregularly shaped with
higher surface area and porosity relative to pulverized coal ashes. The effect is a higher pressure drop.
The AFBC ash is more difficult to collect in ESPs than pulverized coal ash because AFBC ash has a higher
electrical resistivity and the use of multiclones for recycling, inherent with the AFBC process, tends to
reduce exit gas stream particulate size.
2.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide Control
Fuel treatment is possible with coal to reduce SO2. It involves using physical, chemical, or biological
processes to wash the coal before it is burned.
All other control technologies for SO2 are post-combustion technologies. Post-combustion flue gas
desulfurization (FGD) techniques can remove SO2 formed during combustion by using an alkaline
reagent to absorb in the flue gas and produce a sodium or a calcium sulfate compound. These solid
sulfate compounds are then removed in downstream equipment. FGD technologies are categorized as
wet, semi-dry, or dry depending on the state of the reagent as it leaves the absorber vessel. These
processes are either regenerable (such that the reagent material can be treated and reused) or non-
regenerable (in which case all waste streams are de-watered and discarded).
Wet regenerable FGD processes are attractive because they have the potential for better than
95 percent sulfur removal efficiency, have minimal waste water discharges, and produce a saleable
sulfur product. Some of the current non-regenerable calcium-based processes can, however, produce a
saleable gypsum product.
To date, wet systems are the most commonly applied. Wet systems generally use alkali slurries as the
SO2 absorbent medium and can be designed to remove greater than 90 percent of the incoming SO2.
Lime/limestone scrubbers, sodium scrubbers, and dual alkali scrubbers are among the commercially
proven wet FGD systems.
The effectiveness of these devices depends not only on control device design but also on operating
variables. Particulate reduction of more than 99 percent is possible with wet scrubbers, but fly ash is
often collected by upstream ESPs or baghouses, to avoid erosion of the desulfurization equipment and
possible interference with FGD process reactions. Also, the volume of scrubber sludge is reduced with
separate fly ash removal, and contamination of the reagents and by-products is prevented.
The lime and limestone wet scrubbing process uses a slurry of calcium oxide or limestone to absorb SO2
in a wet scrubber. Control efficiencies in excess of 91 percent for lime and 94 percent for limestone
over extended periods are possible. Sodium scrubbing processes generally employ a wet scrubbing
solution of sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate to absorb SO2 from the flue gas. Sodium scrubbers
are generally limited to smaller sources because of high reagent costs and can have SO2 removal
efficiencies of up to 96.2 percent. The double or dual alkali system uses a clear sodium alkali solution
for SO2 removal followed by a regeneration step using lime or limestone to recover the sodium alkali
and produce a calcium sulfite and sulfate sludge. SO2 removal efficiencies of 90 to 96 percent are
possible.
2.3.3 Nitrogen Oxide Controls
Fuel alteration of oil for NOX reduction includes mixing water and heavy oil using emulsifying agents for
better atomization and lower combustion temperatures. In controlled tests, a mixture of 9 percent
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water in No. 6 oil with a petroleum based emulsifying agent reduced NOX emissions by 36 percent on a
Btu basis or 41 percent on a volume basis, compared with the same fuel in unaltered form. T he
reduction appears to be due primarily to improved atomization with a corresponding reduction of
excess combustion air, with lower flame temperature contributing slightly to the reduction. Under
some conditions, emissions of NOX, CO, and PM may be reduced significantly.
2.3.3.1 Combustion Modifications
There are three generic types of emission controls in use for natural gas turbines, wet controls using
steam or water injection to reduce combustion temperatures for NOX control, dry controls using
advanced combustor design to suppress NOX formation and/or promote CO burnout, and post-
combustion catalytic control to selectively reduce NOX and/or oxidize CO emission from the turbine.
Control measures to date for diesel are primarily directed at limiting NOX and CO emissions since they
are the primary pollutants from these engines. From a NOX control viewpoint, the most important
distinction between different engine models and types of reciprocating engines is whether they are rich-
burn or lean-burn. Rich-burn engines have an air-to-fuel ratio operating range that is near
stoichiometric or fuel-rich of stoichiometric and as a result the exhaust gas has little or no excess
oxygen. A lean-burn engine has an air-to-fuel operating range that is fuel-lean; therefore, the exhaust
from these engines is characterized by medium to high levels of O2. The most common NOX control
technique for diesel and dual fuel engines focuses on modifying the combustion process. However,
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and nonselective catalytic reduction (NSCR) which are post-
combustion techniques are becoming available. Controls for CO have been partly adapted from mobile
sources.
Other combustion modifications used for diesel include injection timing retard (ITR), pre-ignition
chamber combustion (PCC), air-to-fuel ratio, and derating. Injection of fuel into the cylinder of an
internal combustion engine initiates the combustion process. Retarding the timing of the diesel fuel
injection causes the combustion process to occur later in the power stroke when the piston is in the
downward motion and combustion chamber volume is increasing. By increasing the volume, the
combustion temperature and pressure are lowered, thereby lowering NOX formation. ITR reduces NOX
from all diesel engines; however, the effectiveness is specific to each engine model. The amount of NOX
reduction with ITR diminishes with increasing levels of retard.
Improved swirl patterns promote thorough air and fuel mixing and may include a PCC. A PCC is an
antechamber that ignites a fuel-rich mixture that propagates to the main combustion chamber. The
high exit velocity from the PCC results in improved mixing and complete combustion of the lean air/fuel
mixture which lowers combustion temperature, thereby reducing NOX emissions.
The air-to-fuel ratio for each cylinder can be adjusted by controlling the amount of fuel that enters each
cylinder. At air-to-fuel ratios less than stoichiometric (fuel-rich), combustion occurs under conditions of
insufficient oxygen which causes NOX to decrease because of lower oxygen and lower temperatures.
Derating involves restricting engine operation to lower than normal levels of power production for the
given application. Derating reduces cylinder pressures and temperatures thereby lowering NOX
formation rates.
In boilers fired on crude oil or residual oil, the control of fuel NOX is very important in achieving the
desired degree of NOX reduction since fuel NOX typically accounts for 60 to 80 percent of the total NOX
formed. Fuel nitrogen conversion to NOX is highly dependent on the fuel-to-air ratio in the combustion
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zone and, in contrast to thermal NOX formation, is relatively insensitive to small changes in combustion
zone temperature. In general, increased mixing of fuel and air increases nitrogen conversion which, in
turn, increases fuel NOX. Thus, to reduce fuel NOX formation, the most common combustion
modification technique is to suppress combustion air levels below the theoretical amount required for
complete combustion. The lack of oxygen creates reducing conditions that, given sufficient time at high
temperatures, cause volatile fuel nitrogen to convert to N2 rather than NO.
Combustion controls are the most widely used method of controlling NOX formation in all types of
boilers and include:
• Operating at low excess air
• Burners out of service
• Biased-burner firing
• Flue gas recirculation
• Over fire air
• Low-NOX burners
• Reburn
Operating at low excess air involves reducing the amount of combustion air to the lowest possible level
while maintaining efficient and environmentally compliant boiler operation. NOX formation is inhibited
because less oxygen is available in the combustion zone.
Burners out of service involve withholding fuel flow to all or part of the top row of burners so that only
air is allowed to pass through. This method simulates air staging, or over fire air conditions, and limits
NOX formation by lowering the oxygen level in the burner area.
Biased-burner firing involves firing the lower rows of burners more fuel rich than the upper row of
burners. This method provides a form of air staging and limits NOX formation by limiting the amount of
oxygen in the firing zone. These methods may change the normal operation of the boiler and the
effectiveness is boiler-specific. Implementation of these techniques may also reduce operational
flexibility; however, they may reduce NOX by 10 to 20 percent from uncontrolled levels.
Flue gas recirculation involves extracting a portion of the flue gas from the economizer section or air
heater outlet and readmitting it to the furnace through the furnace hopper, the burner windbox, or
both. This method reduces the concentration of oxygen in the combustion zone and may reduce NOX by
as much as 40 to 50 percent in some boilers.
Over fire air is a technique in which a percentage of the total combustion air is diverted from the
burners and injected through ports above the top burner level. Over fire air limits NOX by: 1)
suppressing thermal NOX by partially delaying and extending the combustion process resulting in less
intense combustion and cooler flame temperatures; 2) suppressing fuel NOX formation by reducing the
concentration of air in the combustion zone where volatile fuel nitrogen is evolved. Over fir air can be
applied for various boiler types including tangential and wall-fired, turbo, and stoker boilers and can
reduce NOX by 20 to 30 percent from uncontrolled levels.
Low NOX burners limit NOX formation by controlling the stoichiometric and temperature profiles of the
combustion process in each burner zone. The unique design features of low NOX burners may create: 1)
a reduced oxygen level in the combustion zone to limit fuel NOX formation, 2) a reduced flame external
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combustion temperature that limits thermal NOX formation, and/or 3) a reduced residence time at peak
temperature which also limits thermal NOX formation. Low NOX burners are applicable to tangential and
wall-fired boilers of various sizes. They have been used as a retrofit NOX control for existing boilers and
can achieve approximately 35 to 55 percent reduction from uncontrolled levels. They are also used in
new boilers to meet NSPS limits. Low NOX burners can be combined with over fire air to achieve even
greater NOX reduction (40 to 60 percent reduction from uncontrolled levels).
Reburn is a combustion hardware modification in which the NOX produced in the main combustion zone
is reduced in a second combustion zone downstream. This technique involves withholding up to 40
percent (at full load) of the heat input to the main combustion zone and introducing that heat input
above the top row of burners to create a reburn zone. Reburn fuel (natural gas, oil, or pulverized coal) is
injected with either air or flue gas to create a fuel-rich zone that reduces the NOX created in the main
combustion zone to nitrogen and water vapor. The fuel-rich combustion gases from the reburn zone are
completely combusted by injecting over fire air above the reburn zone. Reburn may be applicable to
many boiler types firing coal as the primary fuel, including tangential, wall-fired, and cyclone boilers.
However, the application and effectiveness are site-specific because each boiler is originally designed to
achieve specific steam conditions and capacity which may be altered due to reburn. Commercial
experience is limited; however, this limited experience does indicate NOX reduction of 50 to 60 percent
from uncontrolled levels may be achieved.
2.3.3.2 Post-Combustion Controls
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) is a post-combustion technique that involves injecting ammonia
(NH3) or urea into specific temperature zones in the upper furnace or convective pass. The NH3 or urea
reacts with NOX in the flue gas to produce nitrogen, CO2 and water. The effectiveness of SNCR depends
on the temperature where reagents are injected; mixing of the reagent in the flue gas; residence time of
the reagent within the required temperature window; ratio of reagent to NOX; and the sulfur content of
the fuel that may create sulfur compounds that deposit in downstream equipment. There is not as
much commercial experience to base effectiveness on a wide range of boiler types; however, in limited
applications, NOX reductions of 25 to 40 percent have been achieved.
SCR is an add-on NOX control placed in the exhaust stream following the engine and involves injecting
NH3 into the flue gas. The NH3 reacts with the NOX in the presence of a catalyst to form water and
nitrogen. The SCR reactor can be located at various positions in the process including before an air
heater and particulate control device, or downstream of the air heater, particulate control device, and
flue gas desulfurization systems. The performance of SCR is influenced by flue gas temperature, fuel
sulfur content, NH3 to NOX ratio, inlet NOX concentration, space velocity, and catalyst condition. NOX
emission reductions of 75 to 85 percent have been achieved through the use of SCR on oil-fired boilers
operating in the U.S. Although there is currently very limited application of SCR in the U.S. on coal-fired
boilers, NOX reductions of 75 to 86 percent have been realized on a few pilot systems. In diesel engines,
the effectiveness of SCR depends on fuel quality and engine duty cycle (load fluctuations).
Contaminants in the fuel may poison or mask the catalyst surface causing a reduction or termination in
catalyst activity. Load fluctuations can cause variations in exhaust temperature and NOX concentration
which can create problems with the effectiveness of the SCR system.
2.3.4 CO2 Control
Mitigation measures for CO2 are focused on carbon capture and sequestration technologies.
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Carbon capture may involve either pre-combustion or post-combustion separation of CO2 from emission
sources. Pre-combustion CO2 capture typically involves gasification processes, such as integrated
gasification combined cycle (IGCC) technology, where coal or biomass is converted into gaseous
components by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam. IGCC plants may be designed so
that concentrated CO2 at a high pressure can be captured from the synthesis gas that emerges from the
gasification reactor before it is mixed with air in a combustion turbine. Because CO2 is present at much
higher concentrations in synthesis gas than in post-combustion flue gas, IGCC systems currently appear
to be the economic choice for new plants.
Post-combustion CO2 capture involves physical and chemical processes to separate CO2 from the
exhaust flue gas. These systems might be applicable to retrofits of conventional coal or biomass energy
plants, and also might be applicable to other thermal/combustion energy production technologies.
However, such systems are challenging and, currently, costly because the low pressure and dilute CO2
concentrations dictate a high actual volume of gas to be treated. Further, trace impurities in the flue gas
tend to reduce the effectiveness of the CO2 adsorbing processes, and compressing captured CO2 from
atmospheric pressure to pipeline pressure represents a large parasitic load. One technological option,
oxygen combustion (oxy-combustion), combusts coal in an enriched oxygen environment using pure
oxygen diluted with recycled CO2 or water. This process enables a relatively concentrated stream of CO2
to be captured by condensing the water in the exhaust stream. Oxy-combustion offers several potential
benefits for existing coal- and biomass-fired plants.
After the CO2 emissions have been collected/captured, the CO2 should be sequestered (immobilized or
removed), either geologically (e.g., saline aquifers) or via enhanced oil recovery. In the U.S., significant
research is ongoing to demonstrate the feasibility of geologic sequestration in saline aquifers and to
overcome implementation barriers, such as concerns about safety, effectiveness, liability, and public
acceptance.
Another potential type of CO2 sequestration is CO2-enhanced oil recovery, a commercially proven
technology that has been used extensively in the United States to increase oil production at diminished
wells. In CO2-enhanced oil recovery, compressed CO2 is injected into an oil reservoir near the
production well site, forcing the oil toward the production well and increasing yield. Several planned
IGCC plants in the U.S. expect to derive a substantial economic benefit through the sale of their CO2 for
CO2-enhanced oil recovery.
2.3.5 Monitoring
Airborne emissions should be monitored and reported, and these reports should include PM, SO2, NOX
(as appropriate for the facility), and CO2. Some companies already report greenhouse gas emissions as a
part of their annual sustainability reports. Industry is not so forthcoming with air emission data on other
contaminants. Monitoring and reporting would assist in the mitigation of impacts if they occur.
2.4 Noise
Noise prevention and environmental measures should be applied where predicted or measured noise
impacts from a project facility or operations exceed the applicable noise level guideline at the most
sensitive point of reception. The preferred method for controlling noise from stationary sources is to
implement noise control measures at the source. Methods for prevention and control of sources of
noise emissions depend on the source and proximity of receptors. Noise reduction options that should
be considered include:
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• Selecting equipment with lower sound power levels
• Installing silencers for fans
• Installing suitable mufflers on engine exhausts and compressor components
• Installing acoustic enclosures for equipment casing radiating noise
• Improving the acoustic performance of constructed buildings, apply sound insulation
• Installing acoustic barriers without gaps and with a continuous minimum surface density of 10
kg/m2 in order to minimize the transmission of sound through the powerhouse walls,
transformer bays or other enclosures within which a noise source may be operated
At the design stage of a project, equipment manufacturers should provide design or construction
specifications in the form of "Insertion Loss Performance" for silencers and mufflers, and "Transmission
Loss Performance" for acoustic enclosures and upgraded building construction. Barriers should be
located close to the source or to the receptor location to be effective. Noise control measures may
include:
• Installing vibration isolation for mechanical equipment
• Limiting the hours of operation for specific pieces of equipment or operations, especially mobile
sources operating through community areas
• Relocating noise sources to less sensitive areas to take advantage of distance and shielding
• Siting permanent facilities away from community areas
• Taking advantage of the natural topography as a noise buffer during facility design
• Reducing project traffic routing through community areas
• Planning flight routes, timing, and altitude for aircraft (airplane and helicopter) flying over
community areas
• Developing a mechanism to record and respond to complaints
Noise impacts should not exceed the levels presented in Table G-5, or result in a maximum increase in
background levels of 3 A-weighted decibels (dBA) at the nearest receptor location off-site. dB readings
are weighted for varying frequencies. A-weighting is most commonly used and is intended to
approximate the frequency response of the human hearing system. It weights lower frequencies as less
important than mid- and higher-frequency sounds. Highly intrusive noises, such as noise from aircraft
flyovers and passing trains, should not be included when establishing background noise levels.
Noise monitoring programs should be designed and conducted by trained specialists. Typical monitoring
periods should be sufficient for statistical analysis and may last 48 hours with the use of noise monitors
that should be capable of logging data continuously over this time period, or hourly, or more frequently,
as appropriate (or else cover differing time periods within several days, including weekday and weekend
workdays). The type of acoustic indices recorded depends on the type of noise being monitored, as
established by a noise expert. Monitors should be located approximately 1.5 meters above the ground
and no closer than 3 meters to the source being monitored. Noise monitoring should be carried out
using a Type 1 or 2 sound level meters meeting all appropriate IEC standards. To any reflecting surface
(e.g., wall). In general, the noise level limit is represented by the background or ambient noise levels
that would be present in the absence of the facility or noise source(s) under investigation.
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Table G- 5: Noise Level Guidelines Table
Specific Environment
Outdoor living area
Dwelling, indoors
Inside bedrooms
Outside bedrooms
School classrooms and
preschools, indoors
Preschool bedrooms,
indoors
School playground,
outdoors
Hospital ward rooms,
indoors
Hospitals treatment
rooms, indoors
Industrial, commercial,
shopping and traffic
areas, indoors and
outdoors
Outdoors in parkland
and conservation areas
Critical Health Effect(s)
Serious annoyance, daytime and evening
Moderate annoyance, daytime and evening
Speech intelligibility and moderate annoyance,
daytime and evening
Sleep disturbance, night-time
Sleep disturbance, window open (outdoor values)
Speech intelligibility, disturbance of information
extraction, message communication
Sleep disturbance
Annoyance (external source)
Sleep disturbance, night-time
Sleep disturbance, daytime and evenings
Interference with rest and recovery
Hearing impairment
Disruption of tranquility
LAeq1
[dBA]
55
50
35
30
45
35
30
55
30
30
As low as
possible
70
t
Time2
base
[hours]
16
16
16
8
8
During
class
Sleeping
time
During
play
8
16
24
LAmax3
fast
[dBA]
;
-
45
60
-
45
-
40
110
Notes:
Equivalent continuous sound pressure level. Usually expressed as the sum of the total sound energy over some
time period (T), thus giving the average sound energy over that period. Such average levels are usually based
on integration of A-weighted levels.
2The time period (T) for the LAeq calculation.
3Maximum noise level.
tExisting quiet outdoor areas should be preserved and the ratio of intruding noise to natural background sound
should be kept low.
Source: Berglund, Birgitta, Thomas Lindvall, and Dietrich H Schwela. 1999. Guidelines for Community Noise.
World Health Organization, Washington, pg. 65 http://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/guidelines2.html
2.5 Transmission Lines
One way to reduce the potential impacts of an energy transmission project during the design stage is to
replace or double-circuit an existing line rather than building a new line. The environmental advantages
of double-circuiting an existing line are:
• Little or no additional right-of-way clearing, if the new line can be placed in the center of the
existing right-of-way
• Land use patterns may have already adapted to the existing right-of-way
• Electric and magnetic fields (EMF) may be reduced because new structure designs place line
conductors closer together resulting in lower EMF
However, upgrading an existing transmission line from single-circuit to double-circuit can increase the
cost by 130 percent or more, depending on the choice of structures and the size of the line. Using an
existing transmission line right-of-way may also not be the best choice when:
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• The existing right-of-way is in a poor location
• New residential areas have been built around the existing line
• Electricity use has grown more in other areas, so using the existing right-of-way reduces the
efficiency of the new line and increases costs
• A wider right-of-way is needed because the size of the new line is much greater than the existing
line
Another common method for mitigating impacts is corridor sharing. Transmission line right-of-ways can
be shared with urban or rural roads, highways, railroads, or natural gas pipelines. Corridor sharing with
existing facilities is usually encouraged because it minimizes impacts by:
• Reducing the amount of new right-of-way required
• Concentrating linear land uses and reducing the number of new corridors
• Creating an incremental, rather than a new impact
A common method to reduce EMF is to bring the lines closer together. This causes the fields created by
each of the three conductors to interfere with each other and produce a reduced total magnetic field.
Magnetic fields generated by double-circuit lines are less than those generated by single-circuit lines
because the magnetic fields interact and produce a lower total magnetic field. In addition, double
circuit poles are often taller resulting in less of a magnetic field at ground level.
Underground transmission lines can be used as an environmental measure in areas where overhead
lines create undesirable impacts. It is a common practice in residential areas to place low-voltage
distribution lines underground. However, placing high-voltage transmission lines underground is less
common and can cost two to ten times more than building an overhead line. While this practice may
reduce aesthetic and other impacts, it may increase others.
Underground transmission lines can be a reasonable alternative:
• In urban areas where an overhead line can NOT be installed with appropriate clearances
• When it allows for a shorter route than overhead
• When aesthetic impacts would be significant
Underground transmission lines can have the following disadvantages:
• An increase in soil disturbance
• A complete removal of small trees and brush along the transmission right-of-way
• Increased construction and repair costs
• Oil-filled underground lines can leak, contaminating surrounding soils
Underground cables should be well insulated to be safe and achieve meaningful power flow. This is
achieved by encapsulating the aluminum or copper power line, with an insulator. This insulator can take
several forms; from fluids (most common, i.e., insulating oil) to solids (non-conducting dielectric
polymer) to gas (sulfur hexafluoride - SF6). Each has characteristic benefits and flaws. One of the most
common insulating systems is High Pressure Fluid Filled (HPFF) underground transmission systems with
system voltages of 69kV to 345kV, which have been in commercial operation for over 70 years. HPFF
cable systems with rated system voltages up to and including 765kV are commercially available and
have passed long-term qualification tests.
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3 MONITORING AND OVERSIGHT
Monitoring plans for the affected resources are necessary to assure that methods used and results
obtained can be used to assure that criteria established in the Environmental Measures plan are being
met. The plan should address all phases of the power generation or transmission project: siting,
construction, operation, closure and site reclamation. The scope of monitoring depends on the location,
complexity of the operation and the severity of the potential impacts. Monitoring results can determine
if:
• Environmental measures are performing as required and results are as predicted, thus triggering
release of financial assurance by the regulatory authority.
• Environmental measures need to be adjusted to reach the criteria goals.
• Enforcement is needed.
As such, the monitoring plan should be designed to meet the following objectives:
• To demonstrate compliance with the approved exploration, operations, and reclamation plan or
plans and other national and local environmental laws and regulations.
• To provide early detection of potential problems.
• To supply information that can assist in directing corrective actions should they become
necessary, including after the power plant or transmission line is decommissioned.
Where applicable, the monitoring should include:
• Details on type and location of monitoring devices.
• Sampling parameters and frequency.
• Analytical methods and detection limits.
• Quality assurance and quality control procedures.
• Reporting procedures (to whom, how often, etc.).
• Who will conduct and pay for monitoring.
• Procedures to respond to adverse monitoring results.
One of the values of a monitoring program is the early detection of potential problems. A good way to
mitigate air or water quality impacts, for example, is to detect trends in samples and take early
corrective action before violations of the performance standards occur. The monitoring plan should be
tied to the environmental measures plan so that, if monitoring indicates problems (e.g., if air or water
quality standards are violated or are about to be violated), specific corrective action procedures will be
implemented by the owner/operator. It should not be left vague (e.g., "the company will work with the
ministry to resolve the problem" is too vague).
The plan should also include the standards and criteria that should be met. Examples of monitoring
programs which may be necessary include:
• Air quality
• Surface and ground water quality and quantity
• Revegetation success
• Noise levels
• Visual impacts
• Wildlife mortality and other wildlife impacts
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Financial assurances may be required to ensure adequate funds will be available to implement the
monitoring plan and mitigate detected problems if any, both during and after the generation and
transmission projects. Some problems may not become evident for many years (e.g., groundwater
contamination), so in some cases monitoring may need to be conducted for the duration of the project
and even after closure. How long the funds are held can vary based on the type of operation and the
modeling predictions.
4 FINANCIAL ASSURANCE
Financial assurance is usually required of mine operations because of the long term nature of post-
closure environmental measures and the economic uncertainties that can accompany mining given the
markets for non-metal and metal minerals. Their application to energy generation and transmission will
depend upon the nature of the project and country practices. In such cases a financial guarantee may
be required as a component of ongoing mitigation or monitoring measures and post-closure process to
cover the costs of closure or operation of critical equipment for monitoring and treatment should the
project owner be unable to do so. Since these costs are the responsibility of the power plant owner,
these costs are not included in the budgets of regulatory agencies, nor should they be. In addition, if
monitoring, maintenance, and/or treatment activities will be required after power plant closure over a
long-term (decades or even in perpetuity), a long-term trust fund should be established at the start of
the project to ensure funds will be available as long as they are needed to conduct this work.
4.1 Financial Guarantees for Mitigation and Monitoring Measures and Restoration
Government agencies need financial sureties that are readily available to ensure that environmental
measures and site restoration occur, if needed. Should the project owner default on environmental
measures or restoration commitments, funds may be required immediately for an outside contractor to
operate and maintain key facilities such as water treatment plants. Restoration and post-closure
activities conducted by an outside contractor cost more than activities conducted by the owner because
the contractor or the government itself will have mobilization and other costs that the company did not
have while it was operating the plant. Therefore, the cost estimate upon which the surety is based
should be calculated to include the costs of a third party conducting the work. It should also be accurate
and up to date. Unfortunately, errors in these calculations have required millions of dollars of taxpayer
subsidy to close bankrupt operations.
Governments have employed a number of financial vehicles to meet surety requirements. These
vehicles generally take two forms: independently guaranteed sureties and sureties guaranteed by power
generation companies. Because power companies can and do go bankrupt, NGOs and governments
favor sureties that are independent of the company operating the project, usually in the form of a bond,
irrevocable letter of credit, cash deposit or some combination of these instruments. Where a financial
surety is guaranteed by the energy project operator through corporate guarantee, governments should
assess the additional risks posed by relying on these instruments since they would be unavailable should
the company go bankrupt.
The financial sector has not developed specific requirements for sureties, although banks risk significant
loss of capital if a company were to declare bankruptcy while still holding outstanding loans. Finally,
considerable information is available on the calculation of the financial surety for any project. Because
of problems encountered with financial sureties some academics and leading NGOs have urged for more
government and public scrutiny, some of their recommendations are presented in Table G-6.
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Table G- 6: NGO recommendations for financial guarantees.
Operational and
Regulatory
Measure
Description
Review
Financial sureties should be reviewed and upgraded on a regular basis by the
permitting agency, and the results of the review should be publicly disclosed.
The power generation industry and governments should work more closely
with NGOs to implement realistic review schedules and procedures for
reviewing financial sureties.
Public
Awareness
The public should have the right to comment on the adequacy of the
restoration and closure plan and the long-term post-closure plan, the adequacy
of the financial surety, and completion of restoration activities prior to release
of the financial surety.
Guarantees
Financial surety instruments should be independently guaranteed, reliable, and
readily liquid. Sureties should be regularly evaluated by independent analysts
using accepted accounting methods. Self-bonding or corporate guarantees
should not be permitted.
Release
Financial sureties should not be released until restoration and closure are
complete, all impacts have been mitigated, and cleanup has been shown to be
effective for a sufficient period of time after project closure.
Source: Adopted from Miranda, Marta, David Chambers, and Catherine Coumans. 2005. Framework for
Responsible Mining: A Guide to Evolving Standards. Center for Science in Public Participation and World
Wildlife Fund, Washington, pg. xix.
http://www.frameworkforresponsiblemining.org/pubs/Framework 20051018.pdf English
http://www.frameworkforresponsiblemining.org/pubs/Framework ES 20060601.pdf Spanish
5 AUDITABLE AND ENFORCEABLE COMMITMENT LANGUAGE
An acceptable EIA document should not merely repeat the list of generic environmental measures listed
in the preceding subsections. The accompanying text describes the level of detail necessary for a
reviewer to assure that the proposed environmental measure meets its intended purpose, that the
environmental measure will be adequate to address the underlying environmental, economic or social
issues. Auditors and compliance and enforcement authorities require specific and legally binding
language to assure that obligations have been met or to determine whether the project proponent is
fulfilling its responsibility and commitments.
The wording and detail in the EIA document becomes even more critical inn the absence of a connected
permit or other means for government to independently craft and/or negotiate commitment language
for proposed environmental measures. Therefore, understanding the extent to which a country will rely
on the EIA document itself to hold project proponents accountable for environmental measures is
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important. This section provides examples of the kinds of detail a reviewer should look for in
determining whether commitment language will be sufficient to ensure that promised actions will be
taken by a project proponent and that their adequacy can be determined over time.
The proposed environmental measures should be clear about:
Who: The party responsible for taking action should be clearly assigned.
• Is the project proponent relying on the community to take certain actions?
• What is to happen when the project proponent is gone, after closure?
When: Timing issues are very important. Without a timeframe nothing will happen and
whatever does happen may not be adequate:
• How long after power plant or transmission line closure would the project
proponent monitor emissions and effluents? X years following closure? Until
emissions and effluents are proven to be negligible?
• When would revegetation and regrading take place, if deemed necessary?
• When would remedial action be taken if monitoring indicates there is a problem?
Would it be within days? Weeks? Months? Would the plant or transmission
segment need to modify operations or shut down in the interim? Who would decide
this and what are the penalties of non-compliance?
What: Effectiveness will depend largely on what is being proposed:
• What performance standards will be used to interpret monitoring results?
• What level of treatment/control will be purchased and installed?
• What technology will be used and will it be sufficient to prevent, treat, or control
the kind of contaminants that will be found in the effluent? Or emissions?
• What size wastewater treatment plant or drinking water treatment plant will be
built and will it be sufficient for the expected flow?
• Are the species being used for revegetation indigenous to the area?
How: What resource commitment will be made to ensure that measures will be undertaken at
the levels indicated?
• What financial commitments are made? What financial instrument is being used to
guarantee adequate funds will be available to implement all commitments? How
will financial guarantees be increased if they need to be adjusted during or after
operations?
• Specify the staffing, management and oversight commitments.
• Specify all equipment commitments.
The following subsections present examples of language for financial assurance, water quality
monitoring, restoration, and revegetation that could be used to ensure that the commitment language
in the EIA is reviewable, auditable and enforceable.
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5.1 Fossil Fuel Fired Air Emission Limits Example
a. The following numerical emission limits will be met for: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate
matter, Carbon monoxide, sulfuric acid, opacity, mercury and hazardous air pollutants. [LIST
pollutants and LIMITS as concentrations over time and annual totals as appropriate.]
b. Actual performance shall be measured and records maintained on a daily basis.
• Particulate Matter USING METHOD xyz. Assistance with test methods may be found on the U.S.
EPA website at: http://www.epa.gOV/xj/z
• Sulfur Dioxide. USING METHOD xyz. A continuous emission monitoring system (CEMS) should
be installed and operated
• Nitrogen Oxides (NOX). A CEMS should be installed at the boiler exhaust stack
• Carbon Monoxide (CO). A CEMS should be installed at the boiler exhaust stack
• Diluents (CO2 or O2). A CEMS should be installed at the boiler exhaust stack
• Sulfuric acid (H2SO4). USING METHOD Test methods (Method 8) can be found at the U.S. EPA
website or one published by the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc.
available at http://www.ncasi.org
• Sulfur content of fuel. USING METHOD American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Method D4239 or most recent version on the ASTM website shall be used
• Heat content of fuel. USING METHOD ASTM Method D5865 or most recent version on the
ASTM website shall be used
• Visible emissions. USING METHOD xyz (U.S. EPA Method 9 or 22 can be used and are found at
U.S. EPA's website.)
c. A periodic stack test following procedures xyz shall be performed and results documented to verify
the full and accurate performance of the continuous emission monitoring (CEM) systems.
OR
Calculations of emissions shall be made based of fuel source and throughput values using METHOD
xyz. As an alternative to a stack test [FREQUENCY],[STACK?][POLLUTANTS]?
d. At all times, the facility will be operated in a manner consistent with good practices for careful
planning, proper design, operation and maintenance practices;
e. The owner or operator will make timely notification of authorities in the event of an exceedance of
emission limits and document steps taken to minimize emissions and expeditiously repair
malfunctioning equipment in the event of a sudden, short, infrequent, and unavoidable failure of
air pollution control and monitoring equipment, process equipment, or a process to operate in a
normal or usual manner which could not have been prevented and which did not stem from any
activity or event that could have been foreseen and avoided, or planned for nor part of a recurring
pattern indicative of inadequate design, operation, or maintenance.
5.2 Hydropower Example
5.2.1 Construction Practices
a. Construction impacts will be confined to the minimum area necessary to complete the project.
b. Alteration or disturbance of the stream banks and existing riparian vegetation will be minimized to
the greatest extent possible.
c. No herbicide application should occur as part of this action. Mechanical removal of undesired
vegetation and root nodes is permitted.
d. All existing vegetation within 45 meters of the edge of bank should be retained to the greatest
extent possible.
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e. Temporary access roads.
i. Steep slopes. Do not build temporary roads mid-slope or on slopes steeper than 30 percent.
ii. Temporary stream crossings.
f. Do not allow equipment in the flowing water portion of the stream channel where equipment
activity could release sediment downstream, except at designated stream crossings.
g. Minimize the number of temporary stream crossings.
h. Design new temporary stream crossings as follows:
i. Survey and map any potential spawning habitat within 90 meters downstream of a proposed
crossing.
ii. Do not place stream crossings at known or suspected spawning areas or within 90 meters
upstream of such areas if spawning areas may be affected.
iii. Design the crossing to provide for foreseeable risks (e.g., flooding and associated bedload and
debris) to prevent the diversion of stream flow out of the channel and down the road if the
crossing fails.
iv. Vehicles and machinery will cross riparian buffer areas and streams at right angles to the main
channel wherever possible.
i. Obliteration. When the project is completed, obliterate all temporary access roads, stabilize the
soil, and revegetate the site. Abandon and restore temporary roads in wet or flooded areas by the
end of the in-water work period.
j. Vehicles. When heavy equipment will be used, the equipment selected will have the least adverse
effects on the environment (e.g., minimally sized, low ground pressure equipment).
k. Site preparation. Conserve native materials for site rehabilitation.
i. If possible, leave native materials where they are found.
ii. If materials are moved, damaged, or destroyed, replace them with a functional equivalent
during site rehabilitation.
iii. Stockpile any large wood, native vegetation, weed-free topsoil, and native channel material
displaced by construction for use during site rehabilitation.
I. Isolation of in-water work area. If adult or juvenile fish are reasonably certain to be present, or if
the work area is less than 300 ft upstream of spawning habitats, completely isolate the work area
from the active flowing stream using inflatable bags, sandbags, sheet pilings, or similar materials.
m. Earthwork. Complete earthwork (including drilling, excavation, dredging, filling, and compacting) as
quickly as possible.
n. Excavation. Material removed during excavation will only be placed in locations where it cannot
enter sensitive aquatic resources. Whenever topsoil is removed, it should be stored and reused on
site to the greatest extent possible. If culvert inlet/outlet protecting riprap is used, it will be class
350 metric or larger, and topsoil will be placed over the rock and planted with native woody
vegetation.
o. Drilling and sampling. If drilling, boring, or jacking is used, the following conditions apply.
i. Isolate drilling activities in wetted stream channels using a steel pile, sleeve, or other
appropriate isolation method to prevent drilling fluids from contacting water.
ii. If it is necessary to drill through a bridge deck, use containment measures to prevent drilling
debris from entering the channel.
iii. If directional drilling is used, the drill, bore, or jack hole will span the channel migration zone
and any associated wetland.
iv. Sampling and directional drill recovery/recycling pits, and any associated waste or spoils, will
be completely isolated from surface waters, off-channel habitats, and wetlands. All drilling
fluids and waste will be recovered and recycled or disposed to prevent entry into flowing
water.
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p. Site stabilization. Stabilize all disturbed areas, including obliteration of temporary roads, following
any break in work, unless construction will resume within 4 days.
5.2.2 Flow Releases and Monitoring
5.2.2.1 Whitman Creek Minimum Instream Flow
a. A minimum instream flow shall be released from the base of Whitman Lake dam, into lower
Whitman Creek, for the protection and enhancement of fish and wildlife resources, riparian
vegetation, aesthetic resources, and water quality, pursuant to the following schedule, and as
measured at the stream flow gage required below:
November 16 - April 30: 0.17 cubic meters per second (m3/s)
May 1-September 15: 0.23 m3/s
September 16-November 15: 0.31 m3/s
b. These minimum instream flows may be temporarily modified if required by operating emergencies
beyond the control of the applicant, and for short periods upon agreement between the applicant
and the [appropriate agencies]. If the flows are so modified, the applicant shall notify the
[appropriate agencies] within 12 hours of any such incident.
5.2.2.2 Whitman Creek Bypass Channel Maintenance Flows
a. A channel maintenance flow (to reduce silt build-up and maintain the physical characteristics of the
stream channel) of 4.25 m3/s shall be released annually from the Whitman Lake dam into lower
Whitman Creek, as measured at the lower Whitman Creek stream flow gage required below. This
channel maintenance flow shall be released for a single day (24 continuous hours) each year
between June 1 and August 15.
b. The minimum instream flows and channel maintenance flows may be temporarily modified if
required by operating emergencies beyond the control of the applicant, or upon agreement
between the applicant and [appropriate agencies]. If the flow is so modified, the applicant shall
notify the [appropriate agencies] within 12 hours of any such incident.
5.2.2.3 Whitman Creek Stream Gage, Flow Monitoring, and Recording
a. A stream gage shall be installed on lower Whitman Creek downstream of the minimum instream
flow release point, approximately 210 meters downstream from Whitman dam. The gage shall be
constructed in a manner that will document minimum instream flow compliance in Whitman Creek.
The applicant shall be responsible for the maintenance and operation of the gage. All data shall be
recorded at a frequency of not greater than 15-minute intervals and filed with the [appropriate
entity] by April 1st of each year, documenting the previous water year. Copies of the data shall be
provided upon request.
b. Before installing the Whitman Creek stream gage, the applicant shall consult with the [appropriate
agencies] on the appropriate equipment, location, and timing of the installation. The applicant
shall allow a minimum of 30 days for the agencies to comment and to make recommendations
before installing the stream gage.
c. Upon completion of the installation, the applicant shall file a report with [appropriate agencies]
detailing the installation of the stream gage. The applicant shall include with the report
stage/discharge relationships for the gage; documentation of consultation, including copies of
comments and recommendations on the appropriate equipment, location, and timing of the
installations after consultation with the agencies; and specific descriptions of how the comments
were accommodated. If the applicant does not adopt a recommendation, the report shall include
the applicant's reasons, based on project-specific information.
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5.2.3 Endangered Species Management
To protect endangered bird species from disturbance, the project shall be constructed and maintained
according to the following schedule:
5.2.3.1 Construction
a. January 1 through February 28-Operation of heavy equipment is permitted between the hours of
10:00 AM to 4:00 PM. Lightweight passenger vehicles may enter the area and personnel may
conduct activities deemed to be of low-disturbance potential (e.g., install wiring, program
computers, and interior finish work) between the hours of 8:00 AM and 5:00 PM.
b. March 1 through August 31-Blasting/boring of dam is prohibited. Operation of heavy equipment is
permitted only between the hours of 10:00 AM to 4:00 PM. Lightweight passenger vehicles may
enter the area and personnel may conduct activities deemed to be of low-disturbance potential
(e.g., install wiring, program computers, and interior finish work) between the hours of 8:00 AM
and 5:00 PM.
c. In-stream work shall occur during the autumn to avoid temporary disturbance to the prey base
during the nesting season.
5.2.3.2 Operation
a. With the exception of safety related emergencies, any maintenance or repairs requiring the use of
blasting or boring equipment shall be scheduled from September 1 to February 28 to avoid the
sensitive nesting season. Maintenance or repairs that require the use of heavy equipment from
March 1 through August 31 shall be limited to the hours of 10:00 AM to 4:00 PM.
5.3 Transmission Line Example
5.3.1 Alignment/Right-of-Way Location
a. Transmission corridors shall be located to allow reconstruction (reconductoring or rebuilding) of
existing transmission lines to the practical consistent with sound engineering and system reliability
principles.
b. New transmission lines shall parallel existing transmission lines to the extent practical and to the
extent that such actions do not violate sound engineering principles or system reliability criteria.
c. Transmission alignment and associated structures shall be placed to avoid sensitive features, such
as such as riparian areas, water courses, cultural resource sites, and other sensitive resources.
d. The alignment of any new access roads shall be designed to minimize overall impacts, including
ground disturbance and visual impacts. Access roads shall follow the contour of the land to extent
practical rather than a straight line along the right-of-way where steep features could result in
higher erosion potential.
e. Interconnections shall be made to existing substations to the extent practical to avoid impacts to
new areas.
f. New access ways shall be located at least 30 meters, where practical, from rivers, ponds, lakes, and
reservoirs.
g. Stream crossings shall be avoided to the extent practical.
h. Narrow, flood prone areas shall be spanned.
5.3.2 Construction Practice
a. Applicant shall consult this permit authority regarding protocols for conducting pre-construction
surveys to identify biological, cultural, and other resources of concern. Surveys will then be
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conducted in consultation with this permit authority to establish buffer zones, construction time
windows, animal relocation, and other appropriate measures.
b. Wherever possible, power poles, access roads and any other ground-disturbing activities would be
placed to avoid direct impacts to cultural resources. An independent professional archaeologist
shall assist the pole-siting crew in avoiding impacts to archaeological and historic sites. In cases
where avoidance of sites is not feasible, a site specific Treatment Plan and Data Recovery Plan shall
be developed in consultation with this permit authority and any affected tribes. Native groups,
tribes, and communities shall be consulted to determine whether there are effective or practical
ways of addressing impacts on traditional cultural properties and archaeological sites.
c. All construction vehicle movement shall be restricted to the right-of-way, designated access,
contractor-acquired access, or public roads. Widening or upgrading of existing access roads shall be
limited to the minimum required as necessary to implement the selected alternative. New road
construction shall be minimized as practicable.
d. Construction activities shall be limited to the pole construction areas, staging areas, laydown area,
and access described in the EIA, with activity restricted to and confined within those limits. The
applicant shall develop a system of colored identification flags or survey markers to identify
restricted areas such as wildlife zones, archaeological sites, or right-of-way boundaries. The
applicant shall arrange mandatory preconstruction seminars and training sessions to acquaint field
personnel with these provisions. No paint or permanent discoloring agents would be applied to
rocks or vegetation to indicate limits of survey or construction activity.
e. Prior to construction, all construction personnel and heavy equipment operators would be
instructed on the protection of cultural, paleontological, and other sensitive resources.
f. During construction, if any cultural or paleontological resources are discovered, work shall
immediately cease within a 50-foot radius of the discovery. Any artifacts, remains, or fossils
discovered shall not be disturbed and the applicant shall notify this permit authority of the
discovery immediately.
g. In construction areas where recontouring is not required, vegetation shall be left in place wherever
possible and original contour maintained to avoid excessive root damage and allow for resprouting
h. Construction equipment and vehicles that show excessive emissions of exhaust gases due to poor
engine adjustments, or other inefficient operating conditions, would not be operated until repairs
or adjustments are made.
i. Burning or burying waste materials on the right-of-way and plant construction areas shall not be
permitted. All waste materials shall be disposed at permitted waste disposal areas or landfills.
Tree and grubbing residue may be buried on the plant site or in the right-of-way with landowner
approval.
j. In construction areas (e.g., construction yards, tower sites, spur roads from existing access roads)
where ground disturbance is substantial or where recontouring is required, the applicant shall
consult the land owner or this permit authority to determine specific restoration requirements.
The methods of restoration normally would consist of returning disturbed areas to their natural
contour or to blend with adjacent landforms, reseeding (if required), installing cross drains for
erosion control, placing water bars in the road, or filling ditches. These instances shall be reviewed
on a case-by-case basis in consultation with this permit authority and landowner, as appropriate, to
limit access into the area and visual disturbance.
k. Equipment washing, the storage of petroleum products, lubricants, solvents and hazardous
materials, structure sites, and other disturbed areas would be located at least 30 meters, where
practical, from rivers, streams (including ephemeral streams), ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. This
includes construction vehicles and heavy equipment when parked overnight or longer.
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I. If the banks of ephemeral stream crossings are sufficiently high and steep that breaking them down
for a crossing would cause excessive disturbance, culverts would be installed using the same
measures as for culverts on perennial streams.
m. Applicant shall employ practices to prevent introduction or spread of invasive species (e.g., by
cleaning of construction equipment).
n. Clearing for access roads would be limited to only those trees necessary to permit the passage of
equipment. All vegetative materials resulting from clearing operations would either be chipped on
site or stacked in the right-of-way in accordance with the landowner's request, as appropriate.
o. Native shrubs that would not interfere with access or the safe operation of the transmission line
would be allowed to reestablish in the right-of-way.
p. The applicant shall develop an Avian Protection Plan (APP) to minimize impacts to nesting birds, as
well as to minimize the electrocution and collision of migratory and resident bird species. The APP
shall include provisions for adequate distance between conductors and distances between
conductors and grounded surfaces. It shall identify time frames for construction and routine
maintenance to avoid the nesting period of breeding birds. It would also include methods for
minimizing bird collisions during line routing as well as methods for minimizing collisions following
construction. The APP would follow guidelines described at . The applicant, in
coordination with this permit authority and after reviewing the final route alignments, shall
determine where and what kind of line marking devices (i.e., visibility enhancing devices) need to
be applied.
5.3.3 Landowner/ Resident Concerns
a. In addition to alignment/ right-of-way measures described above, the specific location of the right-
of-way shall be aligned to the extent practical to avoid or reduce impacts on residents and
inhabitants nearby.
b. Applicant shall meet and confer with landowners who are within or adjacent to the Route Corridor
and other interested parties in order to develop a plan for specific pole locations that will mitigate
the environmental and visual impact of the Project transmission lines within the Route Corridor.
Applicant shall meet with each landowner together with representatives of this permit authority to
discuss impacts to their particular property, including any issues that a particular landowner has
before finalizing the alignment of the transmission line and the location of access roads. During
such discussions, it is possible that this permit authority will propose locating the transmission line
or access roads outside of the 0.25-mi (0.40-km) wide study corridor that is analyzed in this EIA.
c. Right-of-way shall be purchased through negotiations with each landowner affected by the
proposed Project. Payment would be made of full value for crop damages or other property
damage during construction or maintenance.
d. Fences and gates shall be repaired or replaced to their original condition prior to project
disturbance as required by the landowner or this permit authority if they are damaged or destroyed
by construction activities. Temporary gates would be installed only with the permission of the
landowner or this permit authority.
e. Applicant shall respond to and resolve individual complaints of radio, television, and other
electronic communication interference generated by the transmission line.
f. Applicant shall respond to and eliminate any problems of induced currents and voltages onto
conducive objects sharing a right-of-way to the mutual satisfaction of the parties involved.
g. Watering facilities and other livestock range improvements shall be repaired or replaced if they are
damaged by construction activities to their condition before disturbance.
h. Vegetation shall be replaced at landowner's request. Care shall be used to preserve the natural
landscape and vegetation. Construction operations shall be conducted to prevent, to the extent
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practical, any unnecessary destruction, scarring, or defacing of the natural surroundings,
vegetation, trees, and native shrubbery in the vicinity of the work.
i. When weather and ground conditions permit, all deep ruts that are hazardous to farming
operations and equipment movement shall be eliminated or compensation provided as an
alternative if the landowner desires. Such ruts shall be leveled, filled, and graded, or otherwise
eliminated in an approved manner. Ruts, scars, and compacted soils from construction activities in
hay meadows, agricultural fields, pastures, and cultivated productive lands would be loosened and
leveled by scarifying, harrowing, discing, or other appropriate method. Damage to ditches, tile
drains, terraces, roads, and other land features would be corrected. Land contours and facilities
would be restored as nearly as practical to their original conditions.
j. To avoid nuisance conditions due to construction noise, all internal combustion engines used in
connection with construction activity would be fitted with an approved muffler and spark arrester.
k. Transmission lines shall be designed to minimize noise and other effects from energized
conductors. Audible noise and electric and magnetic fields during construction and operation of
the proposed Project shall be addressed as necessary on a case-by case in consultation with
affected landowners and this permit authority, as appropriate.
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H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
An Environmental Management Plan (BMP) serves to combine elements of environmental management
that are built into the design of the power generation or transmission project or are identified as
mitigation and monitoring measures. The Environmental Management Plan or Program (BMP) consists
of a series of components or plans required either as an enforceable component of the Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA), an attachment or separate document. As presented in Table H-l, an EMP
includes: plans for water management, vegetation removal, site preparation, construction, plans for
monitoring and mitigation measures, and other components. These do not necessarily need to be
separate plans. The important thing is that the project proponent has a set of actions it will take to
implement elements of the project design, mitigation and monitoring critical to providing protections to
the environment and socio-economic-cultural well being that were the bases for approval of the
proposed project and EIA.
Throughout these guidelines, approaches are presented to assist reviewers of these plans to ensure that
they meet the goals of the overall Environmental Impact Assessment process. Table H-l presents inputs
and measures that should be considered in reviewing these plans. The basic concepts presented in this
table should be considered when developing environmental management components for various types
of power generation and transmission projects adjusted of course by country specific requirements and
what may be needed to address adverse impacts in a specific situation.
An EMP would also include contingency plans to reduce the risk and respond to threats of natural
disasters and accidents. The spill prevention and control plan described in the text box is such a plan.
Table H-1: Components of an Environment Management Plan: Program and Plan Elements
PLAN
INPUT
General
• Describe measures to be implemented to manage water.
• Identify and assess how to divert natural runoff away from the power plant
site or transmission corridor to prevent pollution of this water.
Water Use and
Recycling
Describe methods to be used to minimize the volume of fresh water that is
used for fuel cleaning, mirror washing and system cooling and to maximize
the recycling of water.
Describe what to avoid or minimize the use of chemicals that require
treatment prior to effluent discharge.
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Diversion and
Wastewater
Stream
Consolidation
Define how best to consolidate treatment for all wastewater sources.
Describe methodologies such as the use of ditches or dikes to divert all
clean streams and drainage runoff away from areas of possible
contamination locating these structures on maps.
Define and locate on maps effluent discharge points and their relationship
to environmentally sensitive areas.
Show typical ditches and water holding facilities designed for extreme
runoff events (100-yr or maximum probable runoff events).
Water quality
Predict run-off from roads, fuel storage areas and impervious ground cover.
Present timing and conditions during which such run-off may be expected
to occur.
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• Determine other potentially harmful components in run-off, including
processing chemicals, algaecides, oils and greases.
Monitoring
• Provide the design for a water monitoring program indicating the locations
on site maps of potential water and seepage sampling stations on the power
plant facilities.
• Develop a Sampling and Analysis Plan for water sampling, handling and
analyses protocols (where analyses are completed by outside laboratories,
the owner/operator or their consultants should have copies of the protocols
used).
• Develop a database that is updated as sampling is undertaken including
hydro-climatological data including but not limited to rainfall, air
temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, wind direction, speed,
evaporation, water levels in wells, stream flow and water quality.
• Provide a methodology to calibrate hydrological models that were used in
planning the water management system.
Erosion and
Sediment Control
• Determine site erosion potential and identifying water bodies at risk.
• Develop a recontouring plan designed to reduce the susceptibility of soil to
erosion.
• Define a program for revegetation and maintenance of buffer zones adjacent
to water bodies for erosion control.
• Develop a plan to divert site drainage away from cleared, graded, or
excavated areas.
• Define how the facility and roads will use and maintain sediment barriers or
sediment traps to prevent or control sedimentation; directing surface runoff
from erodible areas to a settling pond prior to discharge to the environment.
• Present a monitoring and maintenance program to ensure that erosion and
sediment control measures are effective.
Wastewater
Develop a wastewater treatment plan based on:
• The water management plan.
• The results of prediction of wastewater quality.
• Relevant regulatory requirements for effluent quality.
• Relevant environmental performance indicators, including any water quality
objectives.
Domestic
Wastewater and
Sewage Disposal
• Develop a plan for sewage or domestic wastewater treatment with the
objective of these facilities is to prevent the contamination of surface water
and groundwater, including drinking water supplies, and to meet all
applicable regulatory standards. Sludge from the treatment of sewage and
domestic wastewater should be disposed of in an acceptable manner.
• Define a disposal program for onsite or in a landfill disposal.
• Develop measures that should be put in place to ensure that all food wastes
and food containers are properly disposed of, including those used away
from kitchen and dining facilities.
• Define training programs to ensure that all employees and on-site
contractors are aware of the importance of proper disposal of food wastes
and the importance of not feeding wildlife on site.
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PLAN
INPUT
Vegetation
Clearing
• Develop a plan to minimize areas to be cleared.
• Define on maps buffer zones of natural vegetative cover showing that at
least 100 meters of natural buffer zones are retained wherever possible
between cleared areas and adjacent bodies of water.
• Present a plan to show that the time between clearing of an area and
subsequent development is minimized.
Revegetation
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A revegetation plan should be developed for the plant site or transmission
corridor, taking into consideration the following:
q. Re-establishing soil cover on the site with consideration being given to the
characteristics of the soil that will be used as well as the soil requirements of
the vegetation to be established on the site.
r. Species used in revegetation and the resulting plant community should be
consistent with the goals of power plant site or transmission corridor closure
and the intended post-closure use of the site. Species native to the area
around the site should be used for this purpose, and invasive species should
never be used.
• Monitoring programs should be designed and implemented during plant or
corridor closure to ensure that closure activities and any associated
environmental effects are consistent with those predicted in the closure plan
and to ensure that the objectives of closure plan are being met.
Environmentally
Sensitive Areas
• Show on plan view and use of typical drawings that all facilities are located
and designed to avoid environmentally sensitive areas. The determination of
environmentally sensitive areas should be undertaken in consultation with
appropriate stakeholders, local communities and government officials.
Determine site erosion potential and identifying water bodies at risk.
• Develop a recontouring plan designed to reduce the susceptibility of soil to
erosion.
• Define a program for revegetation and maintenance of buffer zones adjacent
to water bodies for erosion control.
• Develop a plan to divert site drainage away from cleared, graded, or
excavated areas.
• Define how the facility will use and maintain sediment barriers or sediment
traps to prevent or control sedimentation; directing surface runoff from
erodible areas to a settling pond prior to discharge to the environment.
• Present a monitoring and maintenance program to ensure that erosion and
sediment control measures are effective.
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PLAN
INPUT
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Geologic
Materials
Develop a site-specific program for the identification and description of rock
and other geological materials that will be or have been moved or exposed as
a result of construction activity should include, for each material:
. Spatial distribution of the material, as well as the estimated mass of
material present; geological characterization of the material, including its
mineral and chemical composition; physical characterization of the
material, including grain size, particle size and structural characteristics
including fracturing, faulting and material strength.
. Hydraulic conductivity of the material.
» The degree of any oxidation of the material that has taken place.
Solid Waste
Develop a plan for the disposal of solid waste generated by the power
generation operation. This would include the location and design of a solid
waste landfill and the separation of potentially hazardous wastes from the
disposed of solid waste.
Spill Prevention
and Control
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Develop a plan to design and construct chemical storage and containment
facilities to meet the appropriate standards, regulations and guidelines of
pertinent regulatory agencies and the owner/operator's environmental policy,
objectives and targets. As a minimum, chemical storage and containment
facilities should:
• Site-specific chemical management procedures should be developed and
implemented for the safe transportation, storage, handling, use and disposal
of chemicals, fuels and lubricants.
• Be managed to minimize the potential for spills.
• Provide containment in the event of spillage and be managed to minimize
opportunities for spillage.
• Comply with international standards.
• Ensure that incompatible materials are stored in ways to prevent accidental
contact and chemical reactions with other materials.
• Minimize the probability that a spill could have a significant impact on the
environment.
• Evaluated periodically to determine possibilities to reduce the quantities of
potentially harmful chemicals used.
• Ensure for maintenance shops that potential contaminants, such as used
lubricants, batteries and other wastes, are properly managed with
appropriate disposal mechanisms for these materials. Stores should be
managed such that potentially hazardous materials are handled in
accordance with procedures detailed in the environmental management
system for the power plant.
Access Roads
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Define measures that will be designed and implemented to prevent and
control erosion from roads associated with all facilities. These measures
should include:
• Providing buffer zones of at least 100 m between roads and water bodies to
the extent practicable.
• Designing road grades and ditches to limit the potential for erosion, including
avoiding road grades exceeding 12% (5% near water bodies).
• Designing and constructing stream crossings for roads in a manner that
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INPUT
protects fish and fish habitat preventing sedimentation of the streams and
not obstructing movement offish.
Pipelines
• Provide the routes of pipelines and transmission lines on maps. Routes
should be selected so as to limit risk of harm to aquatic, terrestrial
ecosystems and animal migration routes in the event of a failure.
• Show that pipelines will be designed to reduce the risk of failure.
• Define measures to limit impacts in the event of a failure.
• Develop an inspection plan for pipelines with inspections taking place on a
regular basis to ensure they are in good condition.
• Define monitoring systems to alert operators in the event of a potential
problem.
Decommissioning
• Describe a decommissioning program for power projects showing that any
contamination associated with plant operations, vehicle and equipment
operations and maintenance will be remediated.
• State how signs will be posted warning the public of potential dangers
associated with the site.
• Develop a plan that shows how on-site facilities and equipment that are no
longer needed will be removed and disposed of in a safe manner.
• Develop a plan for the rehabilitation of roads, runways or railways that will
not be preserved for post-closure use with bridges, culverts and pipes being
removed so that natural stream flow is restored, and stream banks are
stabilized with vegetation or by using rip-rap. In addition, the plan should
show that surfaces, shoulders, escarpments, steep slopes, regular and
irregular benches, etc., are be rehabilitated to prevent erosion with surfaces
and shoulders being scarified, graded into natural contours, and revegetated.
• Define a program that shows how electrical infrastructure, including pylons,
electrical cables and transformers, will be dismantled and removed, except
in cases where this infrastructure is to be preserved for post-closure land use
or will be needed for post-closure monitoring, inspection and maintenance
and if polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were used on site, any equipment
and soils contaminated with PCBs should be disposed of in accordance with
relevant regulatory requirements.
Emissions Control
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Develop site-specific plans to be implemented to minimize releases of air
borne emissions, including greenhouse gases. Plans should describe:
• Potential sources of releases of air borne emissions, including greenhouse
gases.
• Factors that may influence releases of air borne emissions, including
greenhouse gases.
• Measures to minimize releases of air borne emissions, including greenhouse
gases.
• Monitoring and reporting programs for releases of air borne emissions,
including greenhouse gases.
• Mechanisms to incorporate the results of monitoring programs into further
improvements to measures to minimize releases.
• Mechanisms to periodically update the plans.
Particulates
Develop site-specific plans to be implemented to minimize releases of airborne
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INPUT
particulate matter. These plans should describe:
• Potential sources of releases of airborne particulate matter, including
specific activities and specific components of power plant operation.
• Factors that may influence releases of airborne particulate matter, including
climate and wind.
• Potential risks to the environment and human health from releases of
airborne particulate matter.
• Measures to minimize releases of airborne particulate matter from the
sources identified.
• Monitoring programs for local weather, for consideration in the ongoing
management of releases of airborne particulate matter.
• Monitoring and reporting programs for releases of airborne particulate
matter and for environmental impacts of releases.
• Mechanisms to incorporate the results of monitoring programs into further
improvements to measures to minimize releases.
• Mechanisms to periodically update the plans.
• Consistent with national or international standard for particulate matter
(PM), by way of example in Canada the concentration of particulate matter
less than 2.5 microns in size (PM2.5) should not exceed 15 ig/m3 (24-hour
averaging time) outside the boundary of the power generation facility.
• Engines in vehicles and stationary equipment should be maintained and
operated in a manner that minimizes emissions of criteria air contaminants,
particularly: total particulate matter; particulate matter less than or equal to
10 microns (PM10); particulate matter less than or equal to 2.5 microns
(PM2.5); sulfur oxides (SOX); nitrogen oxides (NOX); volatile organic
compounds (VOCs); and carbon monoxide (CO).
Climate Change
(Carbon
reduction)
Develop strategies for reducing carbon releases to the atmosphere and how
they will be implemented. The carbon reduction plan should include the use
of heavy equipment and vehicles that are fuel efficient and/or use alternative
fuel. Increased thermal or mechanical efficiencies, reduction of losses of
methane, if natural gas is a fuel, and proper stoichiometry of combustion to
reduce formation of N2O are also means of reducing green house gas
emissions. Sample methods for reduction in greenhouse gas emissions are as
described under the Emission Control Plan.
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INPUT
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Noise
Define site-specific assessments to be conducted to identify sources, or
potential sources, of noise, and measures should be implemented to reduce
noise levels from these sources. Such measures should include
consideration of:
• Elimination of noise sources.
• The purchase of equipment with improved noise characteristics.
• Proper maintenance of equipment.
• Enclosure or shielding of sources of noise.
• Suppression of the noise at source; locating noise sources to allow natural
attenuation to reduce levels to potential recipients.
• The operation of noise sources only during hours agreed to in consultation
with local communities. Monitoring should be conducted to assess the
effectiveness of these measures and if national or related International
standards are exceeded so that improvements in noise reduction can be
made improvements in noise reduction.
Blasting Plan
• Provide safety protocols that ensure their use during construction blasting
operations such as safety zones to prevent unauthorized entry, warning
signals to alarm nearby workers and residents of impending blasts and all
clear signals to note when the area is safe to reenter.
• Define blasting times during hours agreed to in consultation with local
communities.
• Define the size of explosive charges to minimize vibrations.
• Allow for natural attenuation of explosive charges to reduce-noise and dust
or debris at the source and impacts to nearby residents.
• Provide for the enclosure or shield sources of noise from blasting including
the construction of berms around the site.
Ensure that blasts do not exceed acceptable national or international vibration
criteria -by way of example limit ground vibrations to below 12.5 mm/s (peak
particle velocity) and limit air vibrations to 133 dB.
Facilities
Monitoring
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• Develop a monitoring program to check and report on the performance,
status and safety of water management facilities.
• Define a pipeline inspection program to evaluate flow and hydraulic
integrity.
• Describe a water quality and level monitoring program for retention
facilities, such as sedimentation ponds and polishing ponds.
• Describe inspection measures for drainage ditches and dikes to evaluate
sediment accumulation and bank erosion and damage.
• Provide construction controls, including the use of a construction
management program; Procedures for dust control; and Quality assurance
and quality control measures for all aspects of operations, monitoring and
inspections.
• Develop a plan to collect data required for modeling.
• Describe how to evaluate the effectiveness of measures that have been
implemented to prevent and control potential surface seeps and
groundwater contamination.
• Describe how to continually characterize treatment sludge to determine
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H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
PLAN
INPUT
whether there are potential leaching concerns.
• Describe disposal of treatment sludge with potentially acid generating
wastes with continual evaluation sludge disposal facilities insuring that the
sludge will maintain the chemical stable the sludge with a monitoring
program to ensure that wastewater from the sludge is treated to meet
regulatory requirements...
• Develop a plan to identify potential sources of water pollutants and monitor
accordingly.
Temporary and
Long-term
Project Closure
• Develop a program that the anticipated costs of power plant closure are re-
evaluated regularly throughout the project life cycle. The owner/operator
should ensure that adequate funds are available to cover all closure costs,
and the amounts of any security deposits should be adjusted accordingly.
• Describe a program for sites where it is determined that long-term
monitoring, maintenance or effluent treatment will be necessary post
closure, mechanisms should be identified and implemented that will ensure
that adequate and stable long-term funding is available for these activities.
In determining funding levels required, consideration should be given to
contingency requirements in the event of changes in economic conditions,
system failures, or major repair work post closure.
• Develop a plan for the care and maintenance of the power plant site in the
event that operations are suspended. The plan should include continued
monitoring and assessment of the environmental performance of the site, as
well as the maintenance of all environmental controls necessary to ensure
continued compliance with relevant regulatory requirements.
• The Final closure plan should address the following environmental aspects:
sludge disposal areas as well as ongoing sludge disposal requirements, post
closure; water management facilities; landfill and waste disposal facilities;
and structures left in place.
Long-term
Monitoring and
Maintenance
At sites where long-term risks are identified a maintenance plan should be
developed and implemented, as appropriate, to ensure post-closure
monitoring and maintenance of these facilities. This plan should include the
following elements:
• Identification of roles and responsibilities of persons to be involved in
monitoring and maintenance.
• Identification of aspects to be monitored and the frequency.
• Identification of routine maintenance activities to be conducted and the
frequency.
• Description of contingency plans to address any problems identified during
routine maintenance and monitoring.
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H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
Contingency plans are those put in place to address predicted risks should other mitigation
measures in the environmental management plan fail to be adequate. It assumes that risk
identification and risk reduction have been addressed in other parts of the EIA.
Performance-
related
Contingency Plans
to
1
Q_
Plans to describe the steps that will be taken to respond when:
• Environmental Standards are not being met
• Impacts are greater than predicted
• The mitigation measures and/or rehabilitation are not performing as
predicted.
Contingency Plans should include steps to ensure:
• Persons responsible and accountable for response, their roles, contact
information
• Steps to be taken to minimize adverse environmental and socio-economic-
cultural harm
• Timely response
• Commitment of staff and resources such as equipment on hand or accessible
as needed for response
• Appropriate notification of officials
• Appropriate notification of the public
Risks from Natural
Disasters
O
u
For risks identified within the impact assessment, including risks from:
• Hurricanes
• Flooding
• Mudslides
• Seismic activity-earthquakes
• Tsunamis
• Volcanic Activity
Contingency plans should include:
• Persons responsible and accountable for response, their roles, contact
information and alternates
• Steps to be taken to minimize adverse environmental and socio-economic-
cultural harm
• Coordination with national and local response efforts
• Equipment on hand and needed for response
• Relevant training programs
• Relevant notification requirements for government and the public
Other Risks
These might include risks from storage and management of hazardous or toxic
chemicals, leaching into groundwater, dam or impoundment breaches etc.
that may not be adequately covered in the other elements of the
Environmental Management Plan.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
I. REFERENCES AND GLOSSARY
1 CITED REFERENCES
Arnett, Edward B., Manuela M. P. Huso, Micheal R. Schirmacher, and John P Hayes. 2011. "Altering
turbine speed reduces bat mortality at wind-energy facilities." Frontiers in Ecology and
Environment, 9(4): 209-214.
Ash, Neville, Hernan Blanco, Claire Brown, Keisha Garcia, Thomas Henrichs, Nicolas Lucas, Ciara
Raudsepp-Hearne, R. David Simpson, Robert Scholes, Thomas P. Tomich, Bhaskar Vira and Monika
Zurek. 2010. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: a Manual for Assessment Practitioners. Island
Press, Washington. 264 pp. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/eap/pdf/EcosystemsHumanWellbeing.pdf
Barfield, B.J., Warner, R.C., and Haan, C.T., 1981. Applied Hydrology and Sedimentology for Disturbed
Lands, Oklahoma Technical Press, Stillwater, OK, 603 pp.
Berglund, Birgitta, Thomas Lindvall, and Dietrich H Schwela. 1999. Guidelines for Community Noise.
World Health Organization, Washington. 159 pp.
http://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/guidelines2.html
Clark, C. O. 1945. Storage and the Unit Hydrograph. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engr. 110: 1419-1446.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), undated.
CITES Appendices, http://www.cites.org/eng/app/index.shtml
Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). 1997. Considering Cumulative Effects under the NEPA Policy
Act, January 1997. http://nepa.energy.gov/nepa documents/TOOLS/GUIDANCE/Volumel/4-11.1-
ceq-cumulative-effects.pdf
Hanna T.M., Azrag E.A., Atkinson L.C. (1994). Use of an analytical solution for preliminary estimates of
groundwater inflow to a pit. Mining Engineering 46(2), 149-152.
Hanson, Craig, John Finisdore, Janet Ranganathan and Charles Iceland. 2008. The Corporate Ecosystem
Services Review: Guidelines for Identifying Business Risks & Opportunities Arising from Ecosystem
Change. World Resources, Institute Meridian Institute and World Business Council for Sustainable
Development. Washington. 37 pp.
International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA). 1999. Principles of Environmental Impact
Assessment Best Practice. 4 pp.
International Association for Public Participation (IAP2). 2006. IAP2's Public Participation Toolbox (Caja
de Herramientas). International Association for Public Participation. Thorton, Colorado. 15(Eng)
9(Sp) pp. http://iap2.affiniscape.com/associations/4748/files/06Dec Toolbox.pdf English
http://www.iap2.org/associations/4748/files/toolboxsp.pdf Spanish
International Dark-Sky Association and Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. 2010. Model
Outdoor Lighting Ordinance (MLO) with USERS GUIDE. Second Public Review Draft, Board of
Directors Version, June 3, 2010. 40pp. http://docs.darkskv.org/MLO/2010/MLOdraftl9July.pdf
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Energy Generation and Transmission
International Energy Agency (IEA). 2010. Technology Roadmap: Concentrating Solar Power. IEA, Paris.
45pp. http://www.iea.org/papers/2010/csp roadmap.pdf
IEA. 2010. World Energy Outlook 2010, The Electricity Access Database.
http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/database electricity/electricity access database.htm
IEA, country searches, graphics and tables http://www.iea.org/country/index nmc.asp
IEA Bioenergy. 2009. Bioenergy a Sustainable and Reliable Energy: A Review of Status and Prospects.
International Energy Agency, Paris. 108pp. http://www.ieabioenergy.com/Libltem.aspx?id=6479
International Finance Corporation (IFC). 2007. Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines:
General EHS Guidelines. 99 pp. (Gufas sobre media ambiente, saludy seguridad: Gufas Generates.
116pp.) IFC, World Bank Group.
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 General EH
S/$FILE/Final+-+General+EHS+Guidelines.pdf English
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 General EH
S Spanish/$FILE/General+EHS+-+Spanish+-+Final+rev+cc.pdf Spanish
International Union for Conservation of Nature (ILJCN). undated. Red List of the
(http://www.iucnredlist.org) and the species in the appendices of the Jacob, C.E. and S.W. Lowman.
1952. Non-steady Flow to a Well of Constant Drawdown in an Extensive Aquifer. Tran. Amer.
Geophys. Union. V. 33, p. 559-569.
Joyce Susan A. and Magnus MacFarlane. 2001. Social Impact Assessment in the Mining Industry:
Current Situation and Future Directions. Background Document: Mining Minerals and Sustainable
Development Project International Institute for Environment and Development, London, UK. 33 pp.
http://www.oncommonground.ca/publications/SIA.htm English
http://www.oncommonground.ca/publications/SIA span.htm Spanish
Leopold, L.B., E. Clarke, B.B. Hanshaw, and J.B. Balsley. 1971. A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental
Impact. United States Geological Survey Circular 645, United States Geological Survey, Washington,
D.C., USA. 13 pp.
Linsley, R.K., Kohler, M.A., & Paulhus, J.L.H. (1975) Hydrology for Engineers, 2nd edition, 243-245.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Miranda, Marta, David Chambers, and Catherine Coumans. 2005. Framework for Responsible Mining: A
Guide to Evolving Standards. October 19, 2005, Center for Science in Public Participation and
World Wildlife Fund, Washington.
http://www.frameworkforresponsiblemining.org/pubs/Framework 20051018.pdf English
http://www.frameworkforresponsiblemining.org/pubs/Framework ES 20060601.pdf Spanish
Snyder, F. F. 1938. Synthetic Unit Graphs. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union. 19(1): 447-454.
Soil Conservation Service. 1972. National Engineering Handbook, Section 4, Hydrology. Washington,
D.C.: USDA-SCS.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion
modeling (2nd Edition ed.). CRC Press.).
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), undated. World Heritage
List (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list
United States Department of Energy (U.S. DOE) and Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). 1997.
Renewable Energy Technology Characterizations. Topical Report TR-109496, December 1997.
Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. and Office of Utility Technologies, Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington. 283 pp.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/ba/pba/pdfs/entire document.pdf
United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). 1999. Consideration of Cumulative Impacts
in EPA Review of NEPA Documents EPA 315-R-99-002/May 1999.
United States Natural Resources Conservation Service's procedures for "Estimation of Direct Runoff
from Storm Rainfall" is the most common technique for estimating the volume of runoff after a
storm event (National Engineering Handbook, Part 630, Chapter 10
http://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17752.wba
Van Zyl, D., Hutchison, I., and Kiel, J., 1988. Introduction to Evaluation, Design, and Operation of
Precious Metal Heap Leaching Projects, Society of Mining Engineers, Inc., Littleton, CO.
Water Pollution Control Federation. 1969. Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers,
Manual of Practice 9, American Society of Civil Engineers Manual of Engineering Practice No. 37,
Washington, DC. 283 pp.
World Bank, undated. Renewable Energy Toolkit Technology Module, page 3.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRENENERGYTK/Resources/REToolkit Technologies.pdf
World Health Organization (WHO). 2003. Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments:
Volume 1, Coastal and Fresh Waters. Guidelines for recreational use are an example of health based
guideline values for receiving waters based on intended use. WHO, Geneva. 219 pp.
http://www.who.int/water sanitation health/bathing/srwgl.pdf
2 OTHER REFERENCES
2.1 General
Anderson, James R., Ernest E. Hardy, John T. Roach, Richard E.A Whitmer. 1976. Land Use And Land
Cover Classification System For Use With Remote Sensor Data. Geological Survey Professional Paper
964, A revision of the land use classification system as presented in U.S. Geological Survey Circular
671. http://landcover.usgs.gov/pdf/anderson.pdf
Babcock Wilcox "Steam, Its Generation and Use", 41st Edition, 2005
Baerwald, E.F., G.H. D'Amours, B.J. Klug, and R. M. Barclay. 2008. "Barotrauma is a significant cause of
bat fatalities at wind turbines. "Current Biology, 18(16): R695-R696.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
Baerwald et al. "A Large-Scale Mitigation Experiment to Reduce Bat Fatalities at Wind Energy Facilities."
Journal of Wildlife Management, 2009; 73(7): 1077.
Baerwald, Erin; and Barclay, Robert. 2009. Geographic Variation in Activity and Fatality of Migratory Bats
at Wind Energy Facilities. Journal of Mammalogy 90, 1341-1349.
Boyd, James, undated. Financial Responsibility for Environmental Obligations: An Analysis of
Environmental Bonding and Assurance Rules.
Bureau Land Management (BLM). undated. Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS Website.
BLM, United States Department of Interior (U.S. DOI). http://windeis.anl.gov/
BLM Geothermal Resources Leasing Programmatic ElSWebsite. undated. BLM, U.S. DOI.
http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/geothermal/geothermal nationwide.html
California Energy Commission. 2007. California Guidelines for Reducing Impacts to Birds and Bats from
Wind Energy Development. Commission Final Report. California Energy Commission, Renewables
Committee, and Energy Facilities Siting Division, and California Department of Fish and Game,
Resources Management and Policy Division. CEC-700-2007-
California Energy Commission. 2009. Best Management Practices & Guidance Manual: Desert
Renewable Energy Projects. Draft Staff Report, CEC-700-2009-016-SD, October 5, 2009. 91 pp.
http://www.energv.ca.gov/2009publications/CEC-700-2009-016/CEC-700-2009-016-SD.PDF
Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). 2007. Aligning National Environmental Policy Act Processes
with Environmental Management Systems - A Guide for NEPA and EMS Practitioners. April 2007.
CEQ. 2007. Collaboration in NEPA-A Handbook for NEPA Practitioners. October, 2007.
CEQ. 2007. A Citizen's Guide to the NEPA Having your Voice Heard. December, 2007.
CEQ. undated. Regulations for Implementing NEPA
http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/regs/ceq/toc ceq.htm
Cryan, Paul M., and M.R. Barclay. 2009. "Causes of Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines: Hypotheses and
Predications," Journal of Mammalogy, 90(6): 1330-1340.
DHL 2008. Linking Water, Energy & Climate Change: A proposed water and energy policy initiative for
the UN Climate Change Conference, COP15, in Copenhagen 2009. Draft Concept Note, January
2008. http://www.semide.net/media server/files/Y/l/water-energy-climatechange nexus.pdf
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). 2008. Preparing Environmental Documents - Guidelines
for Applicants, Contractors, and Staff. Office of Energy Projects, Division of Hydropower Licensing,
FERC, September 2008. 119 pp. http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/gen-
info/guidelines/eaguide.pdf
Harrelson, C.C., C.L. Rawlins, and J.P. Potyondy. 1994. Stream Channel Reference Sites: An Illustrated
Guide to Field Technique. U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, Fort Collins, CO.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
International Finance Corporation (IFC). 2007. Guidance Note 1, Social and Environmental Assessment
and Management Systems, July 31, 2007.
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/pol GuidanceNote2007 1/$FILE/20
07+Updated+Guidance+Note l.pdfHill, J. .1996. Environmental Considerations in Licensing
Hydropower Projects: Policies and Practices at the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.
American Fisheries Society Symposium 16:190-199.
IFC. 2007. Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines: Wind Energy. 17pp. (Guiassobre
media ambiente, saludy seguridad: Energia Eolica. 21 pp.) IFC, World Bank Group.
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 WindEner
gy/$FILE/Final+-+Wind+Energy.pdf English
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 WindEner
gy Spanish/$FILE/0000199659ESes+Wind+Energv+rev+cc.pdf Spanish
IFC. 2007. Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines: Geothermal Power Generation. 13 pp.
(Gufas sobre media ambiente, salud y seguridad: Generation de Energia Geotermica. 15 pp.) IFC,
World Bank Group.
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 Geotherm
alPowerGen/$FILE/Final+-+Geothermal+Power+Generation.pdf English
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsBvTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 Geotherm
alPowerGen Spanish/$FILE/0000199659ESes+Geothermal+Power+Generation.pdf Spanish
IFC. 2007. Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines: Electric Power Transmission and
Distribution 23 pp. (Guias sobre media ambiente, salud y seguridad: Transmision y Distribution de
Electricidad. 26pp.) IFC, World Bank Group.
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 ElectricTra
nsmission/$FILE/Final+-+Electric+Transmission+and+Distribution.pdf English
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 ElectricTra
nsmission Spanish/$FILE/0000199659ESes+Electric+Power+Transmission+and+Distribution+rev+cc.
pdf Spanish
IFC. 2008. Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines: Thermal Power Plants. 33pp. (Guias
sobre media ambiente, salud y seguridad: Plantas de Energia Termica. 41pp.) IFC, World Bank
Group.
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 ThermalPo
wer/$FILE/FINAL Thermal+Power.pdf English
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 ThermalPo
wer Spanish/$FILE/0000360593ESes.pdf Spanish
Interorganizational Committee for Guidelines and Principles for SIA (ICGP). 1994. Guidelines and
Principles for Social Impact Assessment. U.S. Department Commerce. Reprinted in Burdge, 1998.
Kagel, Alyssa. 2008. The State of Geothermal, Part II Subsurface Technology. Geothermal Energy
Association for U.S. DOE, January 2008 http://www.geo-
energv.org/reports/Geothermal%20Technology%20-%20Part%20ll%20(Surface).pdf
Kruczynski, W.L. 1990,Options to be considered in preparation and evaluation of mitigation plans. In:
Wetland Creation and Restoration: the Status of the Science, J.A. Kusler and M.E. Kenrula (eds.),
Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 555-569.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
Mandelker, D.R. 1992. NEPA Law and Litigation. Second edition. Clark Boardman Callaghan, New York.
Martin, Jeremy. 2010. Central America Energy Integration and the SIEPAC Project: From a Fragmented
Market to a New Reality, paper delivered at the Center for Hemispheric Energy Cooperation,
University of Miami and Security Hemispheric Task Force, May 2010
https://www6.miami.edu/hemispheric-policy/Martin Central America Electric Int.pdf
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). undated. Technology Website - biomass, geothermal,
solar, wind and photovoltaic. NREL, U.S. DOE http://www.nrel.gov/science technology/
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (OEERE). undated. Solar Energy Development
Program EIS Information Center Website. Joint project of the OEERE, U.S. Department of Energy
(U.S. DOE); and the Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior.
http://solareis.anl.gov/index.cfm
Petts, Judith, ed. 1999. Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment-Vol II. Wiley-Blackwell pub.,
960 p.
Platts, W.S., W.F. Megahan, and G.W. Minshall. 1983. Methods for Evaluating Stream, Riparian, and
Biotic Conditions. General Technical Report INT-138, U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest
Service, Ogden, UT.
Public Service Commission of Wisconsin. 2010. Environmental Impacts of Transmission Lines.
http://psc.wi.gov/thelibrary/publications/electric/electriclO.pdf
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, undated. Ramsar Sites Information Service Website.
http://ramsar.wetlands.org/
Soil Conservation Service. 1975. Procedure for Computing Sheet and Rill Erosion on Project, Area,
Technical Release No. 5 1. Soil Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture.
Taylor, Mark A. 2007. The State of Geothermal, Part I Subsurface Technology. Geothermal Energy
Association for United States Department of Energy (U.S. DOE), November 2007 http://www.geo-
energv.org/reports/Geothermal%20Technology%20Part%20l%20-
%20Subsurface%20Technology%20(Nov%202007).pdf
University of Calgary. "Scientists Find Successful Way To Reduce Bat Deaths At Wind Turbines."
ScienceDaily, September 28, 2009.
Union of Concerned Scientists. 2009. Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy Technologies.
United Nations Environment Progamme (UNEP). 1995. Environmental Impact Assessment Training
Resource Manual.
United States Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). 2008. Forest Service Procedures for Implementing
NEPA Procedures. 36 CFR Part 200.6, Forest Service Handbook 1909.15.
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Energy Generation and Transmission
United States Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers. 1987. Corps of Engineers Wetlands
Delineation Manual, Final Technical Report Y-87-1, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental
Laboratory, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
United States Department of Energy (U.S. DOE). 2004. Recommendations for the Preparation of
Environmental Assessments and Environmental Impact Statements, Second Edition. Office of NEPA
Policy and Compliance, Environmental Safety and Health, U.S. DOE.
http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/documents/green book2004 12 30 final.pdf
U.S. DOE. 1997. Environmental Impact Statement Checklist. Office of NEPA Policy and Compliance,
Environmental Safety and Health, U.S. DOE. http://nepa.energy.gov/documents/eischk2.pdf
U.S. DOE. 1994. Environmental Assessment Checklist. Office of NEPA Policy and Compliance,
Environmental Safety and Health, U.S. DOE. http://nepa.energy.gov/documents/iv-7.pdf
United States Department of the Interior (U.S. DOI). 2006. Technology White Papers on Energy
Potential on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf, one each for Wind, Wave, Ocean Current, and Solar.
Minerals Management Service, Renewable Energy and Alternate Use Program, U.S. DOI, May 2006
http://ocsenergy.anl.gov/documents/index.cfm
United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). 1999. Office of Federal Activities,
Considering Ecological Processes in Environmental Impact Assessments, July 1999.
U.S. EPA. 1993. Habitat Evaluation: Guidance for the Review of Environmental Impact Assessment
Documents, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1989. Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams and Rivers: Benthic
Macroinvertebrates and Fish, EPA/440/4-89/001, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1986. Quality Criteria for Water, REPA 440/5-86-001. Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1984. Overview of Solid Waste Generation, Management, and Chemical Characteristics,
Prepared for U.S. EPA under Contract Nos. 68-03-3197, PN 3617-3 by PEI Associates, Inc.
U.S. EPA. undated. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), Basic Information. Environmental and
Health Sciences Group, EPA Contract 68-W4-0030, Work Assignment 7.
United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2011. Draft Land-Based Wind Energy Guidelines:
Recommendations on measures to avoid, minimize, and compensate for effects to fish, wildlife, and
their habitats. USFWS, U.S. DOI
http://www.fws.gov/windenergy/docs/Wind Energy Guidelines 2 15 2011FINAL.pdf
The Wildlife Society. 1980. Wildlife Management Techniques Manual, Fourth Edition: Revised. Sanford
D. Schemnitz (editor), Washington, D.C.
World Bank. 1999. The World Bank Operations Manual P 4.01, Annex B - Content of an Environmental
Assessment Report for a Category A Project, January, 1999.
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/EXTPOLICIES/EXTOPMANUAL/0..contentM
DK:20065951~menuPK:64701637~pagePK:64709096~piPK:64709108~theSitePK:502184.00.html
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Energy Generation and Transmission
2.2 CAFTA-DR Sector and EIA References
2.2.1 Regional
Comision Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo (CCAD) website: http://www.ccad.ws/
ILJCN EIA in Central America website: http://www.eia-centroamerica.org/
2.2.2 Costa Rica
SETENA website:
http://www.minae.go.cr/dependencias/desconcentradas/secretaria tecnica nacional ambiental.html
2.2.3 Dominican Republic
MMARN website: http://www.ambiente.gob.do/
2.2.4 El Salvador
MARN website: http://www.marn.gob.sv/index.php
2.2.5 Guatemala
MARN website: http://www.marn.gob.gt/
2.2.6 Honduras
SERNA website: http://www.serna.gob.hn/
2.2.7 Nicaragua
MARENA website: http://www.marena.gob.ni/
Diagnostico sobre potenciales y restricciones bioffsicas, sociales, institucionales y economicas para el
desarrollo de los biocombustibles en Nicaragua, Ministerio de Energfa y Minas, 2010.
Informe de la Capacitacion sobre la Revision de Estudios de Impacto Ambienta en el Sector de Energfa
Electrica, Marzo 2004.
2.3 United States Sector, EIA and Permitting Internet Resources
2.3.1 United States Environmental Protection Agency:
Regulatory Information for the Energy Sector
English: www.epa.gov/lawsregs/bizsector/energy.html
Power Generator Compliance Assistance
English: www.epa.gov/compliance/assistance/sectors/power.html
Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Industry
English: www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks.html
Non-Hydroelectric Renewable Energy
English: www.epa.gov/cleanenergv/energv-and-vou/affect/non-hydro.html
Hydroelectricity
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English: www.epa.gov/cleanenergv/energv-and-vou/affect/hydro.html
2.3.2 United States Department of Energy
2.3.2.1 Links to Example Environmental Impact Statements
• Electrical transmission lines (http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/finalEIS-0365.htm and
http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/finalEIS-0336.htm and many others);
• Hydropower fish mitigation (http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/documents/EIS-0397FEIS.pdf);
• Advanced coal power demonstration facilities (http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/final-EIS-
0383.htm, http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/final-EIS-0394.htm and others);
• Gas fired electric power generating facilities ( http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/finalEIS-0342.htm,
http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/finalEIS-0354.htmand http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/finalEIS-
0349.htm or http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/finalEIS-0345.htm);
• Wind energy/ electrical interconnection (http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/finalEIS-0333.htm
http://gc.energy.gov/NEPA/nepa documents/EIS/eisQ374/summary.pdf); and
• Biomass-to-energy (draft EIS for a cellulosic ethanol biorefinery)
(http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/1133.htm)
2.3.2.2 Links to Example Environmental Assessments
• LNG project (e.g., http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/documents/EA-1649.pdf)
• Landfill gas electric generation (http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/documents/EA-1649.pdf)
• Dairy farm methane energy (http://gc.energy.gov/NEPA/nepa documents/ea/EA1402/EA-
1402.pdf)
• Biomass cogeneration and other biomass ( http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/documents/EA-
1649.pdf and http://gc.energy.gov/NEPA/nepa documents/ea/EA1475/fonsi.pdf)
• Photovoltaic manufacturing (http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/documents/EA-1638.pdf)
• Other biorefinery (http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/documents/EA-1628.pdf and
http://www.gc.doe.gov/NEPA/eal597.htm)
• Wind farm (http://gc.energy.gov/NEPA/nepa documents/ea/eal521/execsummary.pdf)
• Coal mine waste methane to energy
http://gc.energy.gov/NEPA/nepa documents/ea/EA1416/fonsi.pdf
3 GLOSSARY
Action: Activity to meet a specific purpose and need, which may have effects on the environment and
may potentially be subject to governmental control or responsibility. For this document, the term
action applies to a specific project.
Aesthetic quality: A perception of beauty of natural or cultural landscape.
Affected environment: The existing conditions of the human and natural environments in the areas
that could potentially have impacts.
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Aggradation: The deposition of sediment by running water as in the channel of a stream.
Air quality: A measure of health-related and visual characteristics of the air often derived from
quantitative measurements of concentrations of specific substances.
Airshed: A geographic area where air pollutants from upwind sources or within a discrete atmospheric
area of flow, are present in the air. While watersheds are actual physical features of the landscape,
airsheds are determined using mathematical models of atmospheric deposition.
Alluvium: Sand, gravel, silt or similar material deposited during comparatively recent geologic time by
running water in the bed of a stream, river, floodplain or at the base of a mountain slope.
Alternative energy: Renewable energy sources such as wind, water, solar, biomass as an alternative to
nonrenewable resources such as oil, gas, and coal.
Alternatives: In an EIA this term refers to options to meet the purpose and need for the project
including alternative location, size, process, design, pollution control measures, including not
undertaking the proposed project at all, the no-action alternative.
Ambient environment: The current or existing condition of the environment in a particular location.
For example, ambient air quality is the current quality of the air surrounding the site.
Anion: A negatively charged ion.
Anthropic: Of human origin or man-made.
Aquatic: Growing or living in the water.
Aquifer: A geological formation that stores water in its pores, and that is capable of providing water to
be used. A free or unconfined aquifer is one with a water table at an atmospheric pressure, i.e., one
not limited in its upper level by an impermeable layer. A confined aquifer one under pressure
greater than the atmosphere, caused by a confining layer above the atmosphere which prohibits it
from being in direct contact with atmospheric pressure. A perched aquifer is an unconfined aquifer
with limited spatial distribution.
Archeological site: A discrete location that provides physical evidence of prehistoric human use.
Area of influence: Space or surface that is affected by direct and indirect impacts caused by a project,
works or an activity. For a given project, works, or activity, the area of influence may vary for
different environmental resources.
Ash fall: A rain of airborne volcanic ash falling from an eruption cloud. A deposit of volcanic ash
resulting from such a fall and lying on the surface.
Atmospheric deposition: Deposition, via gravity, of airborne pollution on the ground, surface water or
other surfaces exposed to the atmosphere in precipitation, in dust or as chemical particles.
Baghouse: An enclosed structure that uses filter bags to help remove sulfur dioxide, fly ash, and other
particulates from flue and other exhaust gases.
Base flow: The usual, reliable, background flow in a stream or river, which is contributed by
groundwater, i.e., not reliant upon recent precipitation. Also referred to as ground water flow, or
dry-weather flow.
Baseline: Conditions against which impacts of a proposed action and its alternatives can be compared
considering what would exist in the future in the absence of the proposed project or action.
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Base load: The minimum demands of electricity on a power station over a given period of time; the
amount of electricity required to operate a plant continuously, day and night, all year long.
Bedrock: Any solid geologic formation exposed at the surface of the earth or overlain by unconsolidated
material.
Benchmark: A fixed point of reference.
Berm: A curb, ledge, wall or mound used to contain water, separate materials, and/or prevent the
spread of contaminants.
Best management practices: A suite of techniques that guide or may be applied to management actions
to aid in achieving desired outcomes and help to protect the environmental resources by avoiding or
minimizing impacts of an action.
Bioaccumulation: Refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other organic
chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance at a rate
greater than that at which the substance is lost.
Bioavailability: Bioavailability refers to the difference between the amount of a substance or chemical
to which a plant or animal is exposed and the actual dose of the substance the entity receives.
Biodiversity: Refers to the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem. Biodiversity is often used as
a measure of the health of the biological system.
Biogas: Gas, typically rich in methane, that is produced by the fermentation of organic matter such as
manure under anaerobic conditions.
Biotope: An area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage
of plants and animals. Biotope is almost synonymous with the term habitat, but while the subject of
a habitat is a species or a population, the subject of a biotope is a biological community.
Slowdown: Removal of liquids or solids from a process, a storage vessel, or an evaporative system by
the use of pressure to reduce mineral concentration that can cause scaling.
CAFTA-DR countries: Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.
Catchment: A reservoir to catch and retain surface water.
Cation: An ion having a positive charge.
Coal Combustion Product (CCP): Large-volume, non-hazardous waste products resulting from
combustion of coal at power plants.
Co-firing: The practice of introducing biomass in high-efficiency, coal-fired boilers as a supplemental
energy source.
Compensation measures: Actions that compensate society, nature, or a part of the same, for the
negative environmental impacts or the negative cumulative impact and environmental damages
caused by the execution and operation of an activity, works or project.
Consumptive use (water): A use of water in which the water is withdrawn from a surface or
groundwater source and is consumed by the use and not returned to a water body (either directly or
through a wastewater treatment system). Examples include water used and consumed by
manufacturing, agriculture and food preparation. Contaminant mobility: The movement of a
pollutant through the air, water, soil and biota as wells as its interactions and changes in each of
these media.
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Corrective action: An action undertaken to correct the causes or effects of a noncompliance, flaw or
other similar or undesirable situations that exists.
Cumulative impact: The impact on the environment and a particular resource that results from the
incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present and reasonably foreseeable
actions.
Deforestation: The clearance of trees and other vegetation from a forest.
Decibel (dB): The unit of measurement of sound level calculated by taking ten times the common
logarithm of the ratio of the magnitude of the particular sound pressure to the standard reference
sound pressure of 20 micropascals and its derivatives.
Direct area of influence: Area affected by direct impacts from the actions of a project, works, or an
activity.
Direct impact (or effect): An impact caused by an action that occurs at the same time and same place as
the activity.
Discharge: Outflow of fluid into the environment. For hydroelectric plants, this can be the release of
water back into the environment after it has turned water turbines. For wastewater, this it is the
release of wastewater (treated or untreated) into the environment.
Diversion: A channel, embankment, or other manmade structure used to divert water.
Drainage: Artificial or natural removal of surface water or groundwater from a certain area.
Drawdown: The decrease in the elevation of the water surface in a well, or local water table or the
pressure head of an artesian well due to the removal of groundwater or decrease in the aquifer's
recharge.
Earthworks: Movement of soil material to change topography. The action is performed with
machinery; however, small-scale projects can be done manually.
Ecological balance: The interdependent relation among the elements that constitute the environment
that allows the existence, transformation and development of humans and other living organisms.
The ecological balance between human activities and their environment is met when the pressure
(effect or impact) of the former does not exceed the load capacity of the latter, in such way that that
the activity integrates harmoniously with the natural ecosystem, without one representing a hazard
for the other.
Ecology: The relationship between the environment and living organisms.
Ecoregion: An area that is defined by its ecology and covers relatively large areas of land or water, and
contains characteristic, geographically distinct assemblages of communities and species.
Ecosystem: A complex system of a community of plants, animals and the system's chemical and
physical environment.
Effect (or impact): A modification of the existing environment caused by an action of the project. The
effect, or impact, may be direct, indirect or cumulative, negative or positive.
Emission: Pollution discharged into the atmosphere from smoke stacks, other vent, and surface
areas of commercial or industrial facilities; residential chimneys; and vehicle exhausts. This term
can be used to refer to the discharge itself, or the concentration or rate of discharge.
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Endangered species: A plant or animal that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant
portion of its range.
Environment: All the elements that surround human beings, including: geologic features (rocks and
minerals); atmospheric system (air), water (surface and groundwater), soil, biotic (living organisms),
natural resources, landscapes, cultural resources, and socioeconomic resources and conditions.
Environmental Management System (EMS): Part of the overall management system that includes
organizational structures, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes and
resources for developing, implementing, achieving, reviewing and maintaining the environmental
policy of an organization.
Environmental Monitoring: Monitoring and surveillance of the quality of environmental variables
identified in the Environmental Impact Assessment, during the installation, development and
closure phases of a project.
Ephemeral stream (or intermittent stream): A stream that flows only in direct response to
precipitation.
Erosion: Wearing away of land by water, wind, ice or other geologic agents.
Floodplain: The part of a stream or river valley adjacent to the channel that is built of sediments and
becomes inundated when the stream or river tops its banks.
Flow: Volume of water per time unit.
Flue gas: The air coming out of a chimney or stack after combustion. It can include nitrogen oxides,
carbon oxides, water vapor, sulfur oxides, particles and many chemical pollutants.
Fly ash: Non-combustible residual particles expelled by flue gas.
Forest: A vegetated area that is characterized by the presence of trees with one or more canopies.
Fugitive dust: Particles lifted into the ambient air due to man-made and natural activities such as the
movement of soil, vehicles, equipment, blasting, and wind. This excludes particulate matter emitted
directly from the exhaust of motor vehicles and other internal combustion engines.
Fumarole: A hole in a volcanic region from which gases and vapors issue at high temperature.
Generating capacity: The total amount of electrical power that a utility can produce at any one time,
usually measured in megawatts. Generally expressed in three types of generating capacity: base
load, intermediate load, and peaking capacity.
Geochemistry: The study of the chemical components of the earth's crust and mantle.
Geographic information system: A system of computer software, hardware, data and applications that
capture, store, edit and analyze and has the capability to graphically display a wide array of
geospatial information.
Geologic formation: A distinct rock unit that is distinguished from adjacent rock by a common
characteristic such as its composition, origin or fossils associated with the unit.
Geologic structure: Refers to the disposition of the rock formations, that is, the broad dips, folds, faults
and unconformities at depth.
Gradient (up and down): The inclination of the rate of a regular or graded ascent or descent. A part
(such as a road or pipeline) that slopes upward or downward. A rate of change of a quantity with
distance.
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Grassland community: An area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other non-woody
plants. In temperate latitudes, grasslands are dominated by perennial species, whereas in warmer
climates annual species form a greater component of the vegetation.
Greenhouse gas: A component of the atmosphere that contributes to the warming of the planet.
Greenhouses gases include, but are not limited to, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide,
sulfur hexafluoride and chlorofluorocarbons.
Groundwater: Water found under the terrestrial surface, occupying the empty spaces in the soil,
aggregates or geologic formations. The sole source of water for springs and wells.
Groundwater discharge areas: Areas where the water table intersects the ground surface in such way
that the water is discharged to springs, streams, rivers, lakes, swamps, ponds or the sea.
Groundwater recharge: Replenishment of an aquifer by the addition of water through natural or
artificial means.
Grubbing: Removing all plants including the roots, stems and trunks in order to clear the land.
Habitat: A set of physical conditions in a geographical area that surrounds a species or group of species
or a large community. With respect to wildlife management, major components of habitat are food,
water, cover and living space.
Hazardous substances: Material with one or more of the following attributes: flammable, explosive,
corrosive, reactive or toxic.
Hazardous waste: Wastes that share the properties of a hazardous substance (e.g. flammable,
explosive, corrosive, reactive or toxic).
Head cutting: Erosion where the stream or rill erodes away at the rock and soil at its headwaters in the
opposite direction that it flows.
High volume samplers: Equipment used to collect atmospheric particulate samples.
Historic property: A historical district, site, building or structure of historical significance. It could
include properties of traditional religious or cultural importance.
Hydrochemistry (chemical hydrology): The discipline of hydrology that addresses the chemical
characteristics of water.
Hydroelectric: Related to electric energy produced by moving water (i.e. through a dam on a river that
stores water in a reservoir).
Hydrogeology: The science of groundwater.
Hydrograph: A time record of the amount of discharge of a stream, river or watershed outlet.
Hydrology: The science of water, standing or flowing on or beneath the surface of the earth.
Hydrophilic: Of, relating to, or having a strong affiliation for water.
Impact (or effect): A modification of the existing environment caused by an action of the project. The
effect, or impact, may be direct, indirect or cumulative, negative or beneficial.
Impervious cover: A ground cover of natural or artificial material through which water will not move
under ordinary hydrostatic pressure.
Impoundment: A naturally formed or artificially created basin that is closed or dammed to retain water,
sediment or waste.
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Indirect area of influence: Area affected by indirect impacts from the actions of a project, work or
activity.
Indirect impact (or effect): Impacts caused by the action that are later in time or farther removed in
distance, but are still reasonably foreseeable. Indirect impacts may include growth inducing effects
and other effects related to induced changes in the pattern of land use, population density or
growth rate, and related effects on air and water and other natural systems, including ecosystems.
Infrastructure: The services, equipment and facilities needed for a community or project to function
such as roads, sewers, water and electrical lines.
Interill: Area on a hillside in between rills (small channels that changes location with each flow event)
that experiences sheet flow in response to rainfall.
Intermittent stream (or ephemeral stream): A stream or river that flows only in direct response to
precipitation.
Invasive species: Nonnative plants whose introduction may cause economic or environmental harm.
Isopach map: A map indicating, usually by the means of contour lines, the varying thickness of a
designated stratigraphic unit.
Keystone species: Species that plays a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological
community and whose impact on the community is greater than would be expected based on its
relative abundance or total biomass.
Kilovolt (kV): 1,000 volts. The amount of electric force carried through a high-voltage transmission line
is measured in kilovolts.
Kilowatt (kW): The electrical unit of power that equals one thousand watts.
Kilowatthour (kWh): One thousand watts delivered for one hour.
Leachate: The liquid produced by leaching. If it is produced by waste dumps, it will usually contain
contaminants.
Leaching: The process of removing soluble compounds from rock, sediment, soil, waste dumps, etc.,
through the seepage water.
Megawatt (MW): The electrical unit of power that equals one million watts.
Megawatthour (MWh): One million watts delivered for one hour.
Migration: The movement of populations or individuals of a population from one place to another. For
fauna, it generally refers to seasonal, mass directional movement from one place to another across
different landscapes or seascapes. The journey may be accomplished by individuals or span
generations, such as is the case of the monarch butterfly.
Migratory species: A species that has a regular migration pattern that crosses the area of influence for
the activity, work or project, so that the species resides in the area for only part of the year.
Mitigation: The reduction or abatement of an impact to the environment by (a) avoiding actions or
parts of actions, (b) using construction methods to limit the degree of impacts, (c) restoring an area
to its pre-disturbance condition, (d) preserving or maintaining an area throughout the life of a
project, (e) replacing or providing substitute resources, (f) gathering data on an archeological or
paleontological site prior to disturbance.
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Mitigation measures: Actions to address unavoidable adverse impacts to the physical, biological and
social-economic-cultural environments caused by the execution and operation of an activity, works
or project.
Mobile sources: All means of transportation that use engines powered by combustion processes,
whatever the fuel.
Non-compliance: Failure to comply with a specific requirement.
Nonconsumptive use (water): A water use in which the water used is not consumed. This may be a use
that withdraws water, but returns it to a water body after use (such as water used in a fish hatchery)
or it may an in situ use such as fishing, boating, water-skiing, swimming, and hydroelectric power
generation.
Organochlorines: Class of biocides characterized by the presence of chlorine radicals with an organic
group. They are difficult to degrade.
Organophosphates: A group of pesticides that contain phosphorus. These short-life compounds usually
do not pollute the environment when used properly.
Particulate matter (participates): Tiny particles of solids suspended in the air. Sources of particulate
matter can be man made or natural.
Peaking Capacity: Capacity of generating equipment normally reserved for operation during the hours
of highest daily, weekly or seasonal loads. Some generating equipment may be operated at certain
times as peaking capacity and at other times to serve loads on an around-the-clock basis.
Perennial stream: A stream or river, or parts thereof, that flows continuously and year round.
Persistent pollutant: Pesticides and other chemicals that are not biodegradable and that resist
decomposition by other means, so that they remain in the environment indefinitely.
pH: A measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution, expressed on scale from 0 to 14, with
the neutral point at 7.0. Acid solutions have pH values lower than 7.0, and basic (i.e. alkaline)
solutions have pH values higher than 7.0. Because pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion
(H+) concentration, each unit increase in pH value expresses a change of state of 10 times the
preceding state. Thus, pH 5 is 10 times more acidic than pH 6, and pH 9 is 10 times more alkaline
than pH8.
Photovoltaic: Converting light into electricity. Semiconductor devices that convert sunlight into direct
current electricity (i.e. solar cells).
Physicochemical (physical chemistry): Scientific discipline for the explanation of macroscopic,
microscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of
physical concepts. Most physicochemical properties, such as boiling point, critical point, surface
tension, vapor pressure, etc. (more than 20 in all), can be precisely calculated from chemical
structure.
Phytoplankton: An aquatic microorganism that serves as the base of the aquatic food web providing an
essential ecological function for all aquatic life. When present in high enough numbers, they may
appear as a green discoloration of the water due to the presence of chlorophyll within their cells.
PM10: Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 10 micrometers
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Population center: Geographical space that concentrates a series of diverse human activities and that
contains basic infrastructure, including: houses, water supply, human waste disposal and public
roads.
Preliminary treatment: Removal of debris and large particles of waste water by passing through a sieve
and a settling chamber.
Primary treatment: A wastewater treatment process that physically removes contaminants by
skimming or settling.
Protected Area: An officially designated area of land with a restricted or controlled use, to protect a
given natural resource.
Quarry: An open or surface working usually for the extraction of building materials such as slate and
limestone or sand and gravel.
Receiving (water) body: Any surface water into which wastewater is discharged.
Recharge (groundwater recharge): Replenishment of an aquifer by the addition of water through
natural or artificial means.
Recycling: A method by which waste generated by industry or individuals, is recovered to be used again.
Recovery and processing of waste materials for reuse as raw material.
Restoration and recovery: The process of restoring an area to an acceptable pre-existing condition.
Measures designed to promote or accelerate the post-closure recovery of physical, biological and
social-economic-cultural environments altered by an activity, work or project (e.g., after a power
plant is decommissioned or shut down).
Revegetation: Establishment of a self-sustaining plant cover.
Right-of-way: An easement for a certain purpose over the land of another use, such as a strip of land
used for a transmission line, roadway or pipeline.
Rill: A very small channel that changes location with each flow event.
Riparian: Plants and ecosystems that grow on the banks of surface water bodies.
Runoff: The portion of the rainfall that is not absorbed and flows over the surface of the land towards
bodies of water.
Run-on: A hydrologic term that refers both to the process whereby surface runoff infiltrates the ground
as it flows, and to the portion of runoff that infiltrates. Run-on is common in arid and semi-arid
areas with patchy vegetation cover and short but intense thunderstorms.
Saltation: The jumping and tumbling motion of particles transported by wind erosion.
Scoping: A part of the EIA process that is open to the public early in the preparation of an EIA for
determining the range of issues related to the proposed action and identifying significant issues to
be addressed in the EIA.
Secondary treatment: A wastewater treatment process that follows primary treatment and further
treats the wastewater using biological processes.
Sediment: Particles derived from rock or biological sources that have been transported by water, wind
or gravity.
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Sedimentation: The result when sediment is transported by water, wind, gravity or other means and
deposited in bodies of water or on land. It is also a method of settling solids out of wastewater
during treatment.
Seep: A small spring.
Seepage: The movement of fluid through a porous material without the formation of definite channels
and its emergence on the land surface.
Seismicity: Historical and geographic distribution of earthquakes.
Sheet erosion: Erosion that happens on the general surface between rills (small channels that change
location with each flow event).
Shrubland community: Characterized by vegetation composed largely of shrubs, often including
grasses, herbs, and geophytes (tubers).
Siding: For railroads, a low-speed track section distinct from a through route and used for auxiliary
purposes.
Siltation: Deposition of fine mineral particles (silt) on the beds of streams or lakes.
Sludge: Semisolid material precipitated by wastewater treatment and collected from the bottom of
treatment structures.
Solid waste: Any waste that comes from animal and human activities, which is normally solid and is
discarded as useless or superfluous. Includes domestic garbage, inert construction/demolition
materials, and residual waste from industrial operations, such as boiler slag and fly ash.
Species: All organisms of a given kind; a group of plants or animals that breed together but are not bred
successfully with organisms outside their group.
Spring: A natural discharge of water from a rock or soil to the surface.
Stability analysis (slope stability analysis): The resistance of a structure, bank, or heap from sliding,
overturning, collapsing or failing. These studies are performed to assess the safe and economic
design of manmade or natural slopes such as embankments, roadway cuts and fills, surface mines,
excavations, etc., and the equilibrium conditions.
Stakeholders: Persons, groups and organizations, who affect or can be affected by the project's actions.
Storm water: Runoff water resulting from precipitation.
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA): Environmental Impact Assessment process applied to
policies, plans and programs. Due to its nature and characteristics, this type of process may be
applied also to projects of national, bi-national and regional importance, as provided in current
regulations. Sometimes referred to as a "programmatic" environmental assessment or impact
statement (U.S.).
Subsidence: The lowering of the surface from changes that occur underground. Common causes from
human activity are pumping water, oil and gas or from the collapse of underground mines. Natural
causes include dissolution of limestone (sinkholes).
Subsoil: In a normal and natural situation it is the layer of soil below topsoil (surface soil) that is
compact and has no humus or organic matter. In many cases, as the soil is mobilized by erosion or
human occupation, it is found on the surface.
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Volume I, Part 2 - EIA Technical Review Guidelines: I.REFERENCES AND GLOSSARY
Energy Generation and Transmission
Substation: An assemblage of equipment within a fenced area that switches, changes or regulates
voltage in electric transmission and distribution systems. Among other things, substations are used
to increase the voltage of electricity so that it can be transported efficiently over long distances and
reduce the voltage so that it can be delivered in a practical and economical manner to homes and
businesses.
Surface water: All bodies of water on the surface of the earth and exposed to the atmosphere such as
lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, estuaries and seas.
Suspension: A cloudy mixture of two or more substances, usually small solid particles in a liquid
medium. A suspension will generally settle on standing with the suspended matter forming a layer
at the bottom of a container.
Tectonic: Pertaining to rock structures and topographic features resulting from deformation of the
earth's crust.
Terms of reference (TOR): The list of legal and technical requirements for the development of an
Environmental Impact Assessment tool.
Terrestrial ecosystem: A system of interdependent organisms which live on land and share the same
habitat, functioning together with all of the physical factors of the environment.
Threshold: A value that is used as a benchmark for data. Thresholds may be set by laws, regulations or
policies for water quality, air quality, noise, etc.
Topsoil: A general term applied to the surface portion of the soil, which has organic content.
Total dissolved solids: A measurement that describes the quantity of dissolved material in a sample of
water.
Total suspended solids: A water quality measurement. It is measured by pouring a determined volume
of water through a filter and weighing the filter before and after to determine the amount of solids.
Trace metals: Metals in extremely small quantities, which are needed by plants and animals for survival
but which, if ingested in large quantities, may be toxic. Examples of trace metals are: selenium,
arsenic, iron, molybdenum, etc.
Transformer: A piece of equipment, which is most frequently used in use in power systems to change
voltage levels.
Transmission line: The structures, insulators, conductors and other equipment used to transfer
electrical power from one point to another.
Transmissivity: The rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of the aquifer under a unit
of hydraulic gradient.
Turbidity: The state or condition of having the transparence or translucence disturbed as when
sediment in water is stirred up or when dust, haze and clouds appear in the atmosphere because of
wind or vertical currents.
Vadose zone: The unsaturated zone between the land surface and the saturated zone, extending from
the top of the ground surface to the water table.
Visibility: The distance to which an observer can distinguish objects from their background.
Volt: The unit of voltage or potential difference. It is the electromotive force which, if steadily applied
to a circuit having a resistance of one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere.
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Volume I, Part 2 - EIA Technical Review Guidelines: I.REFERENCES AND GLOSSARY
Energy Generation and Transmission
Voltage: The force which pushes electricity through a wire.
Wastewater: Is water that has been used and whose quality has been modified by the incorporation of
contaminating agents.
Water table: The upper surface of an unconfined aquifer. The level at which water will stand in an
open well in an unconfined aquifer.
Watershed: The land and water within the confines of a drainage divide.
Wetlands: An area of saturated soil and standing water with vegetation that is adapted for life in
saturated soil and shallow water conditions. Examples of wetlands are marshes, swamps,
lakeshores, bogs, wet meadows and estuaries.
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Volume I, Part 2 - EIA Technical Review Guidelines: J.EXAMPLE TERMS OF REFERENCE (TOR)
Energy Generation and Transmission
). EXAMPLE TERMS OF REFERENCE (TOR)
Terms of Reference are used by countries to describe both general and specific expectations for the
preparation of an environmental impact assessment, in this instance tailored to proposed projects for
the generation and transmission of electric power. Volume 1, Part 2 contains example Terms of
Reference (TORs) cross-referenced to Volumes 1 and 2 of the "EIA Technical Review Guideline for
Energy Power Generation and Transmission Projects". It is printed separately to facilitate use by
countries as they prepare their own EIA program requirements for energy generation and/or
distribution projects.
Four example Terms of Reference (TORs) are provided in Volume 1, Part 2:
J-l Thermal/Combustion Power Generation Projects
J-2 Hydroelectric Power Generation Projects
J-3 Other Renewable Energy Generation Projects
J-4 Transmission Lines (electric power distribution).
As appropriate, they may be used in combination depending upon the scope and configuration of a
proposed energy project.
In each of the example TORs there is an overview section that describes general expectations for the
preparation of an environmental impact assessment. This is followed by sections addressing each
element of the EIA analysis and documentation including details on what should be included in the
description of the proposed project and alternatives; environmental setting; assessment of impacts;
mitigation and monitoring measures; an environmental management plan; a signed commitment
statement; and key supporting materials.
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J.EXAMPLE TERMS OF REFERENCE (TOR)
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