EIA Technical Review Guidelines
Tourism-Related Projects
Volume I
Regional Document prepared under the CAFTA DR Environmental Cooperation
Program to Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Reviews
Prepared by CAFTA-DR and U.S. Country EIA and Tourism Experts with support from:
USAID
FROM THE AMERICAN '•; . «-\ \
USAID ENVIRONMENT AND LABOR
EXCELLENCE FOR CAFTA-DR PROGRAM
O • CCAD
^^H^^ COMKSidN CENTKQAMBttCVtA =* AMVEISTt V DE1ASROUG
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This document is the result of a regional collaboration under the environmental cooperation
agreements undertaken as part of the Central America and Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreements
with the United States. Regional experts participated in the preparation of this document; however, the
guidelines do not necessarily represent the policies, practices or requirements of their governments or
organizations.
Reproduction of this document in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit
purposes may be made without special permission from the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (U.S. EPA), Agency for International Development (U.S. AID), and/or the Central American
Commission on Environment and Development (CCAD) provided acknowledgement of the source is
included.
EPA/315R11003 August 2011
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EIA Technical Review Guidelines:
Tourism-Related Projects
Volume I
The EIA Technical Review Guidelines for Tourism-Related Projects were developed as part of a regional
collaboration to better ensure proposed tourism-related projects undergoing review by government
officials, non-governmental organizations and the general public successfully identify, avoid, prevent
and/or mitigate potential adverse impacts and enhance potential beneficial impacts throughout the life
of the projects. The guidelines are part of a broader program to strengthen environmental impact
assessment (EIA) review under environmental cooperation agreements associated with the "CAFTA-DR"
free trade agreement between the United States and five countries in Central America and the
Dominican Republic.
The guidelines and example terms of reference were prepared by regional experts from the CAFTA-DR
countries and the United States in government organizations responsible for the environment and
tourism and leading academic institutions, designated by the respective Ministers, supported by the U.S.
Agency for International Development (U.S. AID) contract for the Environment and Labor Excellence
Program and a grant with the Central America Commission for Environment and Development (CCAD).
The guidelines draw upon existing materials from CAFTA-DR countries, other countries outside the
region, and international organizations. The guidelines do not represent the policies, practices or
requirements of any one country or organization.
The guidelines are available in English and Spanish on the international websites of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), the International Network for Environmental Compliance
and Enforcement (INECE), and the Central American Commission on Environment and Development
(CCAD): www.epa.gov/oita/ www.inece.org/ www.sica.int/ccad/ Volume 1 contains the
guidelines with a glossary and references which track with internationally recognized elements of
environmental impact assessment; Volume 2 contains Appendices with detailed information on tourism,
requirements and standards, predictive tools, and international codes; and Volume 1 Part 2 contains
example Terms of Reference cross-linked to Volumes 1 and 2 for resort/hotel/condo developments,
concessions, and coastal and marine projects respectively for use by the countries as they prepare their
own EIA program requirements.
USAID
FROM THE AMERICAN PEOPLE
USAID ENVIRONMENT AND LABOR
EXCELLENCE FOR CAFTA-DR PROGRAM
* CCAD
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Volume I- EIA Technical Review Guidelines: TABLE OF CONTENTS
Tourism
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. INTRODUCTION 1
1 BACKGROUND 1
2 APPROACH 2
3 OBJECTIVES OF PRIORITY SECTOR EIA GUIDELINES FOR TOURISM 3
4 SCOPE AND CONTENTS OF TOURISM GUIDELINES 3
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4
B. EIA PROCESS AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 7
1 EIA PROCEDURES 7
1.1 Project Proponents: From Project Initiation to the EIA Application 7
1.2 EIA Application, Screening and Categorization 7
1.3 Scoping of EIA and Terms of Reference 9
1.4 Public Participation throughout the Process 9
1.5 Preparation and Submission of the EIA Document 10
1.6 EIA Document Review 10
1.7 Decision on Project 11
1.8 Commitment Language for Environmental Measures 11
1.9 Implementation of Environmental Measures 11
1.10 Auditing, Monitoring and Follow-up Enforcement of Commitments 11
2 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Requirements for Public Participation 12
2.3 Methods for Identifying and Engaging Affected and Interested Public 13
2.4 Reporting on and Responsiveness to Public Comments 15
C. PROJECT AND ALTERNATIVES DESCRIPTION 17
1 INTRODUCTION 17
2 DOCUMENTATION OF PURPOSE AND NEED 18
3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION 18
3.1 General Information 19
3.2 Overall Project Description Information 19
3.3 Project Scope: All Project Phases and Related or Connected Actions 21
3.4 Project Details 21
3.5 Maps, Diagrams, Site Design and Plan 22
3.6 Details on Construction Procedures 23
3.7 Transportation: Roads, Pathways, Air Strips, and Boat Facilities 26
3.8 Hotel, Resort and Restaurant Facilities 28
3.9 Marine and Coastal 33
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4 EXPECTED RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEMANDS ON RESOURCES 35
4.1 Water and Sanitation Facilities 35
4.2 Solid and Hazardous Waste 37
5 PROJECT ALTERNATIVES 40
5.1 Identification and Assessment 41
5.2 Types of Alternatives for Tourism Development 41
5.3 Alternative Environmental Management and Control 44
6 MANPOWER AND LOCAL PURCHASES 47
7 CLOSURE 47
D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 49
1 INTRODUCTION 49
2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 52
2.1 Geology and Soils 52
2.2 Water Resources 53
2.3 Air and Climate 56
2.4 Noise and Vibration 57
2.5 Aesthetic Resources 58
2.6 Risk Assessment from Natural Hazards 58
3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 58
3.1 Flora 59
3.2 Fauna 60
3.3 Ecosystems 60
3.4 Endangered or Threatened Species and Habitats 62
3.5 Protected Areas and Sensitive Ecosystems 63
3.6 Base Line and Monitoring Reef for the countries of the CAFTA-DR 64
4 SOCIAL-ECONOMIC-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT 65
4.1 Socio-Economic Conditions and Resources 65
4.2 Infrastructure Systems and Equipment 66
4.3 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources 69
4.4 Land Use 70
E. POTENTIAL IMPACTS 73
1 INTRODUCTION 73
2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 74
2.1 Geology, Soils and Ocean Topography 74
2.2 Water Resources 77
2.3 Air Resources 78
2.4 Noise and Vibration 79
2.5 Aesthetic Resources 80
3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 80
3.1 Terrestrial Species and Associated Ecosystems 82
3.2 Aquatic Ecosystems 83
3.3 Marine/Coastal Species and Associated Ecosystems 84
3.4 Endangered or Threatened Species and Habitats and Protected Areas 86
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4 SOCIAL-ECONOMIC-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT 86
4.1 Vulnerable Populations 87
4.2 Infrastructure: Systems, Equipment, Capacity, Performance 88
4.3 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources 88
4.4 Land Use 90
5 IDENTIFYING CUMULATIVE IMPACTS 90
5.1 Identifying Resources that Have Potential for Cumulative Impacts 91
5.2 Regional, Sectoral or Strategic Assessment 92
F. ASSESSING IMPACTS: PREDICTIVE TOOLS AND CONSIDERATIONS 95
1 OVERVIEW OF USING PREDICTIVE TOOLS FOR AN EIA 95
1.1 Ground Rules: Basic Considerations for Predicting Impacts 95
1.2 Geographic Boundaries for Assessment of Impacts 96
1.3 Baseline 99
1.4 Evaluation of the Significance of Impacts 99
1.5 Data Requirements and Sources 105
2 GENERALAPPROACHES FOR PREDICTION OF IMPACTS 105
2.1 Predictive Tools 105
2.2 Geographic Information Systems and Visualization Tools 106
2.3 Selecting and Applying Quantitative Predictive Tools 106
3 SOILS AND GEOLOGY IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 108
3.1 Soil Loss and Erosion Potential 108
3.2 Beach Erosion 109
3.3 Geologic Resources and Hazards 110
3.4 Dredge and Fill Operations and Their Impacts Ill
4 WATER RESOURCES IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 112
4.1 Surface Water Impact Assessment Tools 112
4.2 Groundwater Impact Assessment Tools 119
4.3 Coastal Waters Resource Impact Assessment Tools 121
5 AIR RESOURCES IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 129
6 NOISE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 131
7 AESTHETIC/VISUAL RESOURCE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 132
8 FLORA, FAUNA, ECOSYSTEMS AND PROTECTED AREAS IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 133
8.1 Terrestrial Resources Impact Assessment Tools 135
8.2 Aquatic Resources Impact Assessment Tools 135
9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC-CONDITIONS, INFRASTRUCTURE AND LAND USE 136
10 CULTURAL, ARCHEOLOGICAL, CEREMONIAL AND HISTORIC RESOURCES 138
11 VULNERABLE POPULATIONS 138
12 HEALTH AND SAFETY IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS 138
12.1 Health Impact Assessment Tools 138
12.2 Public Safety Impact Assessment Tools 139
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13 CUMULATIVE IMPACTS ASSESSMENT METHODS 140
13.1 Resource and Ecosystem Components 141
13.2 Geographic Boundaries and Time Period 141
13.3 Describing the Condition of the Environment 142
13.4 Using Thresholds to Assess Resource Degradation 143
14 CARRYING CAPACITY 146
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES 151
1 INTRODUCTION 151
2 GENERAL MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES 153
3 SPECIFIC MITIGATION MEASURES 180
3.1 Seismic Events 181
3.2 Process and Wastewater Discharges 181
3.3 Noise 183
4 PROJECT SPECIFIC MITIGATION MEASURES 185
4.1 Golf Courses (Table G-8) 185
4.2 Cruise Ships (Table G-ll) 189
5 MONITORING AND OVERSIGHT 191
6 FINANCIAL ASSURANCE 193
6.1 Financial Guarantees for Mitigation and Monitoring Measures and Restoration 193
7 AUDITABLE AND ENFORCEABLE COMMITMENT LANGUAGE 194
7.1 Construction Practices 195
7.2 Flow Releases and Monitoring 197
7.3 Endangered Species Management 197
H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN 199
/. GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES 207
1 GLOSSARY 207
2 REFERENCES 223
2.1 Cited References 223
2.2 Additional References 227
J. EXAMPLE TERMS OF REFERENCE (TOR) 233
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure A-1: CAFTA-DR countries 1
Figure B-1: The environmental impact assessment process 8
Figure C-1: Infrastructure to store solid waste 45
Figure E-1: Identifying potential cumulative effects issues related to proposed action 93
Figure F-1: Asian Development Bank rapid environmental assessment checklist-general 102
Figure F- 2: Sample page from the Leopold Matrix 103
Figure F- 3: Complex Coastal Processes 122
Figure F- 4: Hazus-MH 5-step risk assessment 123
Figure F- 5: FEMA flood plain mapping model suite 124
Figure F- 6: Conceptual framework to assess ecosystem services 135
LIST OF TABLES
Table B-l: "Responsibility" in the EIA process 9
Table C-l: Information to be included in the EIA for the construction phase 24
Table C-2: Project detail Information for transportation needs 27
Table C-3: Project description information for hotel and resort projects 29
Table C-4: Project details for concessions 31
Table C-5: Project details for marine/coastal developments 33
Table C-6: Water consumption per guest per night (in liters) 35
Table C-7: Water consumption and wastewater generation in Hotels in the United States 36
Table C-8: Project details for water and sanitation 37
Table C-9: Project details for waste management 38
Table C-10: Large passenger cruise ship waste generation and disposal 39
Table C-ll: Project details for energy facilities 40
Table E-1: Potential impacts on geology and soil resources from tourism development 76
Table E- 2: Potential impacts on water resources from tourism development 78
Table E- 3: Potential impacts on air resources from tourism development 79
Table E- 4: Potential impacts noise and vibration from tourism development 80
Table E- 5: Potential impacts on biological environment from tourism development 81
Table E- 6: Social-economic impacts that may occur from tourism projects 86
Table E- 7: Impacts to existing infrastructure 88
Table E- 8: Impacts to cultural-architectural-ceremonial-historic resources 89
Table F-1: Dredge and fill models Ill
Table F- 2: Surface water models 116
Table F- 3: Groundwater and geochemical computer models 120
Table F- 4: Hazards analysis and coastal models 125
Table F- 5: Air pollution models 130
Table F- 6: Visual impact analysis tools 133
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Table F- 7: Ease of spread of a range of diseases which can be transmitted from travelers to hosts and their level of
impact on the host individual 139
Table F- 8: Primary and special methods for analyzing cumulative impacts 145
Table F- 9: Carrying capacity models 149
Table G-1: Mitigation and monitoring measures for physical and biological impacts common to construction of
most tourism projects 154
Table G- 2: Mitigation and monitoring measures for physical and biological impacts common to the operation of
most tourism projects 172
Table G- 3: Mitigation and monitoring measures for physical and biological impacts common to most the
decommissioning of tourism projects 178
Table G- 4: Mitigation measures for impacts to the social-economic-cultural environment 179
Table G- 5: Legally-binding effluent limits defined in the LBS Protocol 182
Table G- 6: Compliance timeline as defined in the LBS Protocol 183
Table G- 7: Noise level guidelines 184
Table G- 8: Specific mitigation measures for hotels, resorts, restaurants and attractions 185
Table G- 9: Specific mitigation measures for restaurants 187
Table G-10: Specific mitigation measures for golf courses 188
Table G-ll: Specific mitigation measures for cruise ships 189
Table G-12: Marine development impacts, management and mitigation 190
Table G-13: NGO recommendations for financial guarantees 194
Table H-1: Components of an environmental management plan: program and plan elements 199
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VOLUME II APPENDICES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPENDIX A. WHAT IS TOURISM?. 1
1 TYPES OF TOURISM 1
1.1 Leisure Tourism 1
1.2 Other Forms of Tourism 1
2 COMPONENTS OF TOURISM 2
APPENDIX B. OVERVIEW Of TOURISM ACTIVITIES IN CAFTA-DR COUNTRIES 3
1 INTRODUCTION 3
2 REGIONAL OVERVIEW 3
2.1 Economic Importance of Tourism 3
2.2 Tourism and the Environment 5
2.3 Regional Institutions 7
3 CAFTA-DR COUNTRY OVERVIEWS 9
3.1 Costa Rica 9
3.2 Dominican Republic 11
3.3 El Salvador 13
3.4 Guatemala 15
3.5 Honduras 17
3.6 Nicaragua 19
APPENDIX C. REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS APPLICABLE WITHIN CAFTA-DR COUNTRIES, OTHER
COUNTRIES AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 21
1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS, STANDARDS, AND REQUIREMENTS 22
2 AMBIENT STANDARDS FOR AIR AND WATER QUALITY 25
3 HOTEL AND RESORT PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: 38
3.1 Hotel and ResortWater Discharge/ Effluent Limits 38
3.2 Supplemental U.S. Water Discharge/ Effluent Limits 41
3.3 Hotel and Resort Storm Water Discharge Performance Requirements 41
3.4 Hotels and Resorts Air Emission Limits 42
4 MARINE AND OTHER WATER VESSEL PERFORMANCE STANDARS: 43
4.1 Water Discharge/ Effluent Limits for Vessels 43
4.2 Marine and Other Water Vessel: Air Emission Limits 45
4.3 Marine and Other Vessel: Solid Waste 56
5 BIODIVERSITY/ECOSYSTEMS 58
5.1 Protection of Coral Reefs 58
5.2 Specially Protected Areas 60
5.3 Aquatic Invasive Species 60
6 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS 60
7 TOURISM SECTOR WEBSITE REFERENCES 63
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APPENDIX D. RULES OF THUMB FOR EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION CONTROL 65
APPENDIX E. SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS PLAN 79
1 INTRODUCTION 79
1.1 Site Name or Sampling Area 79
1.2 Site or Sampling Area Location 79
1.3 Responsible Organization 79
1.4 Project Organization 79
1.5 Statement of the Specific Problem 80
2 BACKGROUND 80
2.1 Site or Sampling Area Description [Fill in the blanks.] 80
2.2 Operational History 80
2.3 Previous Investigations/Regulatory Involvement 81
2.4 Geological Information 81
2.5 Environmental and/or Human Impact 81
3 PROJECT DATA QUALITY OBJECTIVES 81
3.1 Project Task and Problem Definition 81
3.2 Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) 81
3.3 Data Quality Indicators (DQIs) 81
3.4 Data Review and Validation 82
3.5 Data Management 83
3.6 Assessment Oversight 83
4 SAMPLING RATIONALE 83
4.1 Soil Sampling 83
4.2 Sediment Sampling 83
4.3 Water Sampling 84
4.4 Biological Sampling 84
5 REQUEST FOR ANALYSES 84
5.1 Analyses Narrative 85
5.2 Analytical Laboratory 85
6 FIELD METHODS AND PROCEDURES 85
6.1 Field Equipment 85
6.2 Field Screening 85
6.3 Soil 86
6.4 Sediment Sampling 88
6.5 Water Sampling 88
6.6 Biological Sampling 92
6.7 Decontamination Procedures 92
7 SAMPLE CONTAINERS, PRESERVATION AND STORAGE 93
7.1 Soil Samples 94
7.2 Sediment Samples 94
7.3 Water Samples 95
7.4 Biological Samples 96
8 DISPOSAL OF RESIDUAL MATERIALS 96
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9 SAMPLE DOCUMENTATION AND SHIPMENT 98
9.1 Field Notes 98
9.2 Labeling 99
9.3 Sample Chain-Of-Custody Forms and Custody Seals 99
9.4 Packaging and Shipment 100
10 QUALITY CONTROL 101
10.1 Field Quality Control Samples 101
10.2 Laboratory Quality Control Samples 106
11 FIELD VARIANCES 107
12 FIELD HEALTH AND SAFETY PROCEDURES 108
APPENDIX F. COMPENSATORY MITIGATION FOR LOSSES OF AQUATIC RESOURCES 109
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A. INTRODUCTION
A. INTRODUCTION
Figure A-1: CAFTA-DR countries
onduras
Guatemala
El Salvador
Dominican Republic
'^-Nicaragua
Costa Rica
These regional Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA)
Technical Review Guidelines and
associated Example Terms of
Reference for tourism-related
projects were developed as an
outgrowth of the Environmental
Cooperation Agreement
developed in conjunction with
the free trade agreements
between the United States, the
Central American countries of
Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, and
Nicaragua and the Dominican
Republic (CAFTA-DR). Developed
by designated experts from all of
the countries, it can be used as a
basis for country-specific
adaptation to their EIA programs.
1 BACKGROUND
The CAFTA-DR "Program to Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Review" was initiated as
a priority for environmental cooperation undertaken and funded in conjunction with the free trade
agreements. Designed to build on related references developed for the region or for individual
countries, the Program included: a) sustainable training to build skills in the preparation and review of
EIA documents and processes for all participants in the process, including government officials,
consultants, industry project proponents, academic institutions, NGOs and the public; b) development
of EIA Technical Review Guidelines and Terms of Reference for priority sectors: mining, energy, and
tourism; c) country-specific consultation to provide tools and reforms to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of EIA, including deployment of EPA's GIS-based analytical tool to support EIA project
screening and administrative tracking systems; d) recommendations for strengthening EIA procedures,
and where necessary, regional and country EIA legal frameworks; and e) regional meetings among EIA
Directors to direct and support these activities and share experiences. Work programs developed by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID),
were designed to complement other work which had been undertaken with the Central American
Commission for Sustainable Development (CCAD) and the Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
under a grant from the government of Sweden, which focused on small scale and moderate sized tourist
developments, excluding marinas, piers and cruise line operations.
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2 APPROACH
The guidelines were developed through a collaborative process consisting of two regional expert
meetings for discussion followed by several rounds of review and comment on draft documents, and
also benefitted from the overall guidance and active involvement of country EIA Directors. The work
was supported by USAID and their consultants under the Environment and Labor Excellence Program
(ELE). The overall approach to the development of the Tourism Sector EIA Review Guidelines and Terms
of Reference was:
a. Creation of an expert team including the designation of senior experts by the Ministers of the
Environment and for the Tourism Sector from each of the CAFTA-DR countries and the U.S.
(drawn from U.S. EPA's senior expert EIA Reviewers and sector experts from within USEPA, the
Department of the Interior's National Park Service, the Department of Commerce's National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration particularly the national marine fishery service, the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Puerto Rico's Tourism Company, Environmental Quality Board
and Department of Natural and Environmental Resources)
b. Organization of two regional expert meetings to review and guide all work products drafted with
the assistance of a USAID's Environment and Labor Excellence contractor, Chemonics
International
c. Identification of existing resource materials, standards, practices, laws and guidelines related to
assessing the environmental impacts from tourism-related projects with particular emphasis on
ensuring that we drew from guidelines developed for the CAFTA-DR region through CCAD, IUCN
and USAID on tourism best practices and from international agreements, including in particular
the Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol, 1999)
under the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the
Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention, 1983), the International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL, 1973/1978), and the Convention on the
Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention,
1972)
d. Development of baseline information on current practice, anticipated growth, existing standards
and guidance, norms, permits and mitigation requirements related to tourism in the CAFTA-DR
countries and use this to assess the likely impact of adoption of the regional guidelines
e. Development of information on alternatives for pollution control and environmental protection
drawn from benchmark organizations, development banks and countries including international
practices established by industry, the World Bank, the Inter American Development Bank, the
U.S., the European Union and other countries identified by the team of experts as being most
relevant
f. Development of options to achieve the benefits of requiring siting, design, construction,
operation, closure/reclamation, and site reuse approaches which eliminate, reduce, and/or
mitigate the adverse direct, indirect and/or cumulative adverse environmental impacts related
to tourism based on best international practice through EIA Review Guidelines and Terms of
Reference
g. Adaptation of these Guidelines following regional training workshops to be held by the CCAD
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3 OBJECTIVES OF PRIORITY SECTOR EIA GUIDELINES FOR TOURISM
Specific objectives of these Guidelines include:
a. Improve environmental performance in the sector
b. Improve EIA document quality and quality of EIA decision-making for the tourism sector
c. Improve efficiency and effectiveness of the EIA process for the tourism sector by clarifying
expectations, providing detailed guidelines and aligning document preparation and review
d. Tailor guidelines to needs of CAFTA-DR countries
e. Provide technical guidelines for the identification of environmental, social and economic
impacts of the tourism sector activities
f. Identify potential for avoidance and mitigation for adverse environmental, social and economic
impacts from the tourism sector in relation to established requirements of law and industry best
practice to empower options for consideration by industry and government officials
g. Encourage public participation throughout the process, a specific priority and request of CAFTA-
DR country officials
4 SCOPE AND CONTENTS OF TOURISM GUIDELINES
The Guidelines address:
• Three groups of tourist related projects: a) hotel/resort development for the housing, care and
feeding of tourists, b) concessions to support tourist recreational/adventure/specialty activities
related to natural and cultural/historic sites and areas, and c) coastal and marine related
projects such as marina operations, beach management, and cruise ship activities. It does not
address highly specialized types of tourism such as "medical tourism". This guideline builds
upon the work of IUCN tourism guideline which focuses on small and medium scale tourist
developments. It also draws heavily upon the work of the International Network for
Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE) tourism support document.
• The full scope of tourism-related projects, including site assessments, selection of a preferred
site, site preparation, mitigation plan to protect valuable and sensitive resources, construction,
operation and maintenance, monitoring and site management, closure/reclamation, post-
closure care, and foreseeable and related off-site activities
• Documentation of the proposed project and its alternatives to support impact assessment and
improve decision making
• Identifying and evaluating potential environmental social, cultural and economic impacts
• Evaluating the full range of sustainable environmental measures to prevent, reduce and/or
mitigate impacts
• The need for enforceable and auditable commitment language in an EIA to ensure that
promised actions will be taken by a project proponent and that their adequacy can be
determined overtime and altered, as needed, to protect sensitive and valuable resources
• Example terms of reference for development of tourism related ElAs that are cross-linked to the
details provided in the Guidelines
The Guidelines are organized around each aspect of what is typically required in an EIA document. The
guidelines are divided into ten sections with accompanying appendices. The sections include:
A. Introduction
B. EIA Procedures and Public Participation
C. Project and Alternatives Description
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D. Environmental Setting
E. Potential Impacts
F. Assessing Impacts
G. Mitigation and Monitoring Measures
H. Environmental Management Plans
I. References and Glossary of Terms
J. Example Terms of Reference for Tourism development, concessions, and coastal and marine
related tourist projects (published in a separate Volume 1 Part 2)
The accompanying appendices (published in a separate Volume 2) include:
Appendix A: What is Tourism?
Appendix B: Overview of Tourism Activities in CAFTA-DR Countries
Appendix C: Requirements and Standards: CAFTA-DR Countries, US and Other Countries and
International organizations
Appendix D: Rules of Thumb for Erosion and Sedimentation Control Measures
Appendix E: Sampling and Analysis Plan
Appendix F: Compensatory Mitigation for Losses of Aquatic Resources
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The EIA Technical Review Guidelines for Tourism-Related Projects and associated Terms of Reference
were developed by experts designated by their Ministers from the environmental and sector agencies of
the United States and countries in Central America and the Dominican Republic that are parties to the
CAFTA-DR Free Trade Agreements. Following development of the regional EIA tourism documents, the
CCAD will host workshops in each of the CAFTA-DR countries and they can adapt these guidelines for
their own use.
USEPA- USAID/ Program for Environment and Labor Excellence ELE -CCAD
CAFTA-DR Program Team to Strengthen EIA Review
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)
• Ruben Aleman, Contracting Officer Technical Representative, COTR, US AID Regional
Program
• Orlando Altamirano, CAFTA-DR Regional Environmental Specialist
• Walter Jokisch, Consultant for ELE/Chemonics International, Inc.
• Phil Brown, Lead Expert Consultant for ELE/Chemonics International, Inc.
• Lane Krahl, Senior EIA Advisor for ELE/Chemonics International, Inc.
• Jennifer Myton, Consultant for ELE/Chemonics International, Inc.
Central American Commission for Sustainable Development (CCAD)
• Ricardo Aguilar, CCAD, CAFTA-DR program coordinator
• Judith Panameno, CCAD, CAFTA-DR, EPA program coordinator
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
• Orlando Gonzalez, coordinator, CAFTA-DR Office of International and Tribal Affairs
• Cheryl Wasserman, Associate Director for Policy Analysis, Office of Federal Activities, Office
of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance, Manager of the CAFTA-DR Program to
Strengthen EIA Review
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Regional Expert Team
UNITED STATES
Cheryl Wasserman, Associate Director for Policy Analysis, U.S. EPA, Office of Federal Activities, and
Brittany Ericksen, legal intern
Teresa Kubo, Senior EIA Reviewer, US. EPA Region X, Seattle, Washington
Maria Clark, Senior EIA Reviewer for Puerto Rico, U.S. EPA Region II, New York, New York
Pam Teel, former coordinator, CAFTA-DR program and Shereen Kandil, on public participation
Patrick Cotter, coordinator for international marine treaties and the Wider Caribbean Region, and Sean
Carpenter, intern, U.S. EPA, Office of International and Tribal Affairs
Darryl Brown, U.S. EPA Office of Water, Oceans and Wetlands Division
Jocelyn Adkins, U.S. EPA Office of General Counsel
Kerri Cahill and Jim Bacon, National Park Service
Ralph Cantral and Patience Whitten, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Thomas Ferdette and Ty Wamsley, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environment and Tourism Officials
from Puerto Rico
Experts from the Government of Puerto Rico:
Hilda Ortiz and William Pitre, Puerto Rico Tourism Company
Ernesto Dfaz Velazquez and Vicente Quevedo, Puerto Rico Department of Natural and
Environmental Resources
Oneida Delgado, and-Lcda. Blanch Gonzalez, Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board
Sra. Marfa Negron, Office of General Permits and Enforcement, OGPE
COSTA RICA
Jhaury Pizarro Obando
Roberto Esquivel Benavides
Alberto Lopez Chaves
Francisco Fernandez Vargas
Gustavo Alvarado Chavez
DOMINCAN REPUBLIC
Dominga Concepcion Polanco de Gomez
Francis Ivette Chahede Calderon
Maribel Villalona
El SALVADOR
Evelyn Canjura Saravia
Walter Noel Rojas Orellana
Hector Cardoza Leiva
Hector Galdamez Mancfa
GUATEMALA
Dra. Eugenia Castro, Directora de EIA, MARN
Luisa Marfa Fernandez Lujan, Asesora Ambiental, MARN
Jorge Mario Samayoa
HONDURAS
Dennys Edgardo Canales
Maria de los Angeles Valle
Xenia Cardona Lezama
Juan Antonio Meza
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NICARAGUA
Suyen Gabriela Perez Aburto
Lie. Raquel Quesada
Mario Rodriguez
Nubia Rosa Aragon Miranda
COUNTRY EIA DIRECTORS
MSc. Uriel Juarez Baltodano, SETENA, Costa Rica
Lina del Carmen Beriguette Segura, MA, Dominican Republic
Ing. Hernan Romero, MARN El Salvador
Dra. Eugenia Castro, MARN, Guatemala
Julio E. Eguigure, SERNA, Honduras
Hilda Espinoza, MARENA, Nicaragua
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B. EIA PROCESS AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
This section describes the general process and practices common to EIA procedures in CAFTA-DR
countries, along with likely trends future directions of those programs as part of the evolution of the EIA
process that has been seen internationally. Because these Guidelines and Terms of Reference were
developed as regional products of designated experts from the CAFTA-DR countries they can be adapted
to the unique features in each country's EIA laws and procedures.
1 EIA PROCEDURES
No work may begin, that is no site clearing, site preparation or construction, before the EIA process is
complete and government agencies have either approved or provided conditioned approval of a
proposed project. Early and frequent consultation with government agencies is highly desirable. All too
often conflict is created when developers have gotten fairly far down the road with their project
planning without appropriate consultation. Early consultation could have avoided many of those
problems.
1.1 Project Proponents: From Project Initiation to the EIA Application
As illustrated in Figure B-l, a project proponent initiates the idea for a project based on a purpose and
need for the action; in this instance some anticipated market for a particular tourist destination and
expected profits from the. Between the idea and the application for EIA to the government for approval
as defined in Table B-l ("Responsibility" in the EIA Process), the project proponent will be exploring
alternatives to meet the purpose and need of the project, as well as the economic and technical
feasibility of the project and securing property rights if it is not already in their possession. It is during
this early stage that environmental, social and economic impacts should be introduced, and alternatives
developed - even before an application is made for EIA. Many problems can be avoided through wise
selection of the project location, site and operations design, and anticipation of issues such as closure
taking the whole of the environmental setting into account early in the process. If environmental
consultants or environmental impact expertise are brought in late in the process, at the stage when the
proponent needs to prepare an application and an EIA document for approval, it limits the opportunities
to build environmental, social and economic considerations into the project proposal as an integral part
of developing project feasibility. This is universally considered to be a short sighted practice. Projects
which require substantial financing often will have fatal flaw analyses of all sorts performed, including
environmental. Some of the outcomes of such analyses also feed the narrative on project alternatives
and why some of the alternatives were rejected.
1.2 EIA Application, Screening and Categorization
Each CAFTA-DR country has established its own EIA regulations and guidelines defining different
circumstances and procedures for particular types of projects and situations. These regulations
distinguish the size and nature of proposed projects or the types of projected impacts for which the full
environmental impact assessment procedure and which types of projects or impacts might justify a
streamlined procedure based on anticipated lower level of impact and nature of the proposed activity.
Projects usually fall within one of three categories, some of which are further subdivided: A usually is
high impact, Bl and B2, medium impact and C low impact but this varies by country. Screening is the
process used by government officials to review an application for EIA to determine the appropriate
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categorization. For the most part, most but not all tourist related activities are usually considered
among those projects with potentially high or high medium impact.
Figure B-l: The environmental impact assessment process
THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS
91
Monitor and
Follow-up
PROJECT
IMPLEMENTATION
site preparation
construction
operation
monitor mitigation activities
monitor environmental impact
review policy/program
Purpose and Need
(for project plan,
policy, program)
EIA Policies/
Requirements/
Exclusions
Decision
Making
on alternatives
and
mitigation
Record of
Decision
Review and
Comment
Revise
EIA Document
Decision to
Proceed
with
EIA
Prepare
EIA Document
EIA ANALYSIS AND DOCUMENTATION
SCOPING
-govt
public
Identify
ALTERNATIVES
Collect and Compile
DATA
Identify
MITIGATION
approaches
iflenbfy prediction forecasting approach
select and appty prediction forecasting
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Source: Principles of Environmental Impact Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992.
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Table B-l: "Responsibility" in the EIA process
4 Public Participation throughout
Project Proponent
1 Initiate Project
2 Prepare EIA Application
3 Scope EIA Issues
5a Prepare and Submit EIA Document
5b Correct deficiencies and respond to comments
9 Implementation of project, environmental
measures and financial assurance
10 Correct violations
Government
2 Screening: Review EIA Application and
Categorization
3 Prepare Terms of Reference and Scope EIA
issues
6 Review EIA Document
7 Decision on Project
8 Incorporate commitments into legal
agreements
10 Auditing, compliance monitoring and
enforcement
Source: Wasserman, Cheryl, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
1.3 Scoping of EIA and Terms of Reference
Scoping is a process used to identify the important issues on which the EIA analysis should focus and
those on which it would not be informative to focus. Although any preparer of an EIA would have to
engage in a scoping process, the term often is used to describe a process of consultation with interested
and affected stakeholders in the project, in the area and infrastructure potentially affected by the
project and in the potentially affected resources. In CAFTA-DR countries of Central America and the
Dominican Republic, government officials issue a Terms of Reference to help guide the preparation of an
EIA document, in essence a form of scoping which usually includes a requirement for the project
proponent to engage the public and stakeholders, including local governments and NGOs and tribal
leaders, before proceeding to prepare the EIA document just for this purpose. In guidelines issued by
the International Finance Corporation and as a practice in the U.S. and some CAFTA-DR countries, the
project proponent would carry out public scoping early in the process for the most significant types of
projects, presumably to be able to influence alternative project concept, design, operation and/or
closure and influence the Terms of Reference for undertaking the EIA. Section B2 in this section of the
guideline expands on public participation during the scoping process.
1.4 Public Participation throughout the Process
EIA is intended to be a transparent process with the opportunity for public involvement from the
earliest stages of project development. It is customary for the Terms of Reference to include
requirements for the project proponent to engage the public and to document the results of this
outreach process in the EIA document. Countries should require a scoping meeting and will usually
provide a formal opportunity for a public hearing after the EIA document is reviewed by government
staff and determined to be complete. The Model Terms of Reference included in this guideline
emphasizes the importance of involving the public as early as possible to ensure that opportunities for
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reconciling economic, social and environmental concerns can be considered. A special section on Public
Participation is included in this guideline under Section B2.
1.5 Preparation and Submission of the EIA Document
The structure of EIA documentation of analysis has been fairly standardized over the many years it has
been adopted as a practice. It includes:
• Cover sheet
• Executive Summary
• Table of Contents
• Project Description, Purpose and Need
• Alternatives, including the proposed action
• Environmental Setting
• Assessment of Impacts
• Mitigation and Monitoring Measures
• Commitment Document: Environmental Management Plan, which contains a facility-wide
monitoring plan and a facility-wide mitigation plan, which addresses mitigation for
environmental and socio-economic resources
• List of preparers
• List of Agencies, Organizations, and persons to whom copies of the statement are sent
• Index
• Appendices
In countries in Central America and the Dominican Republic, deficiencies in an EIA document are usually
addressed through additional supplemental submissions of Annexes and correspondence. If deficiencies
are sufficiently significant an EIA document might be rejected and the project proponent would restart
the entire process. In the U.S. a draft EIA document is submitted for both government and public review
and a final document is then submitted which includes the response to comments and any additional
analysis that is needed. A Record of Decision follows the final EIA to inform the government and
interested parties what alternative has been selected and that the project is moving forward.
1.6 EIA Document Review
Government EIA Reviewers have an independent review function to determine if an EIA submitted by a
project proponent:
a. Complies with minimum requirements under country laws, regulations, and procedures,
b. Is complete
c. Is accurate
d. Is adequate for decision makers to be able to make informed decisions and choices, including
alternatives that might serve to avoid adverse impacts, and reasonable commitments to
mitigation for adverse impacts that cannot be avoided
e. Distinguishes what may be a significant concern from those that are less significant
f. Provides a sufficient basis for assuring that commitments to environmental measures will be
met, taking into account not only the EIA but any additional supporting documents such as:
• Environmental Management Plan
• Mitigation measures which are integrated in the project design, operations and closure,
and their maintenance
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• Monitoring and reporting measures
• Pollution control measures and their maintenance
• Infrastructure investments
1.7 Decision on Project
In the decision making process which is informed by the EIA analysis, the actual decision on the project
and its rationale are important, particularly if the EIA analysis is not just to be a paper exercise. It
therefore is very important that the consideration of alternatives, impacts and their mitigation be
written in a clear and accessible manner to the range of stakeholders who are making decisions related
to the project. Part of the decision process is engagement of stakeholders within and outside
government in a timely and constructive manner, allowing for the type of give and take needed to
address and find acceptable solutions to diverse interests.
1.8 Commitment Language for Environmental Measures
Countries differ on the vehicles they use to establish and hold project proponents accountable for
commitments made during the EIA process, ranging from reliance on the EIA document itself to a
document from the government establishing project environmental feasibility which highlights
commitments, the environmental management plan, a mitigation plan, an environmental permit,
concession and/or contract.
1.9 Implementation of Environmental Measures
The EIA process objectives can only be achieved if promises and assumptions made in an approved EIA
document are followed in practice. Commitments are usually secured with financial guarantees. The
commitment to implement environmental measures runs throughout the process from site preparation
to closure. It is the responsibility of the project proponent to implement measures unless the
commitments are assigned and agreed to by other parties such as might be the case in the provision of
adequate infrastructure to address needs to treat liquid and solid waste from a site, or to construct a
road.
1.10 Auditing, Monitoring and Follow-up Enforcement of Commitments
Countries employ a mix of mechanisms to ensure that commitments in the EIA document are followed,
including: including short and long term monitoring and reporting in the commitments by project
proponents; creating and certifying third party auditors and defining their roles in the process;
government inspection; and sometimes monitoring by the community or NGOs to assure compliance. It
is not sufficient to monitor compliance with commitments, and failure to meet commitments should be
followed by enforcement for failure to comply in order to compel actions needed to protect
environmental, socio-economic and cultural interests. For this system to work, commitments in the EIA
should be written in a manner which clearly provides the basis for an independent audit and also clarity
for the project proponent to ensure it is clear what they will be undertaking and when. Special attention
should be paid to monitoring and necessary actions to protect human health; sensitive biological,
watershed or coastal resources; and sensitive cultural, historic or archaeological resources.
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2 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
2.1 Introduction
Public participation and stakeholder
involvement is an essential and integral part of
the EIA process and CAFTA-DR countries have
Section B2 addresses requirements for public
participation. Included in this chapter are:
1. Requirements for participation;
2. Methods for identifying and engaging affected
adopted policies, regulations and procedures and interested Publics; and
... , , , .-,. 3. Reporting on and responsiveness to public
to require that this occurs throughout the EIA
comments.
process. Reviewers should ensure that
minimum requirements are met, that key
stakeholders and important issues have not been ignored or under-represented, and that opportunities
for effectively resolving underlying conflicts are provided. The process for engaging the public and other
stakeholders fails if it is undertaken as an afterthought or poorly implemented or viewed as a one-time
event. Opening up real opportunities for engagement by the public, local governments, and interested
and affected institutions requires a degree of openness and disclosure which can be uncomfortable for
some who fear that it might open the door to unnecessary complication, higher costs and loss of
control. However, the clear lessons from failed public participation processes are just the reverse: if the
public is engaged early, and in an open and transparent manner, the process can help to avoid both
unnecessary conflict and potential financial hardship due to project delays and occasionally even permit
denial. This chapter will refer to public and stakeholder involvement interchangeably, but requirements
for and the timing of participation for different subgroups may vary.
2.2 Requirements for Public Participation
Public participation requirements of individual countries should be identified and followed. Because
there is no easy formula for describing what is required to be successful in a given situation, legal
requirements for public participation are formulated as minimum requirements of law, and generally do
not reflect best practices designed to meet the full goals of public participation as an ongoing process.
To address the need to tailor a public participation plan to the circumstances some CAFTA DR countries
require that the project proponent develop and implement such a plan. The EIA should document the
steps taken to meet requirements and overall goals of public participation including: when, who was
involved, what the comments were and how they were considered.
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Public participation requirements may include:
General Requirements to include the public in the EIA process
Public Notification: Rules about the use of media to announce the EIA process and the points of
participation for the public and requirements for the Ministry or the owner/developer to announce the
public consultations in national and local media. Public participation and consultation ideally should be
initiated at the scoping stage of the EIA process, before steps are taken to prepare the EIA document. This
can be accomplished through a public notice of intent to prepare an EIA for a specific action. Such a notice
of intent should include a description of the proposal and describe how the public may participate in the
process
Public Consultation: Rules about the consultations and observations that the public presents
Public Disclosure: Requirements that the Ministry or the owner/developer publish the EIA for review
during the public consultations
Public Written Comment: Requirements for the public to have the opportunity to submit written
comments to the Ministry and the owner/developer in addition to the consultations. Requirements may
specify whether solicitation of comments from the public must take place in formal public hearings, or may
allow or encourage informal workshops or information sessions
Public Hearings: Most laws on public participation provide for the opportunity for a public hearing. This is
a formal legal process with little opportunity, if at all, for give and take discussion on options, alternatives
and assumptions. It is for that reason it is considered by most experts on public participation to be the
least effective means for actual public involvement
Consideration of Public Comments: Requirements for public comments to be considered in the review by
the government if they have a sound basis
Allocation of Costs: Rules about who needs to pay, i.e. the owner/developer generally must pay for the
consultations with some exception where the Ministry pays.
Reviewers should carefully examine:
• Were requirements for public participation identified and complied with?
• Was timing of public notice sufficient to allow meaningful comment?
• What documents and information were disclosed and when?
• Are there obvious concerned public groups that were not involved and consulted?
• Were opportunities to address public concerns and information overlooked?
2.3 Methods for Identifying and Engaging Affected and Interested Public
Successful public participation processes are built upon plans developed and tailored to a specific
project or program. This section addresses: (1) the identification of stakeholders, taking into account
the goals and objectives of the specific project or program that is being analyzed in the assessment and
the potential issues of concern; and (2) methods, or the tools and techniques to engage the identified
stakeholders, when those tools are employed, including roles and responsibilities.
2.3.1 Stakeholder Identification
Project proponents and their consultants should make a diligent effort to identify and engage individuals
and groups both within and outside of government who might either be affected by or interested in a
proposed project and its potential impacts. The geographic scope should include the areas in and
around the project, from the perspective of both political and natural resource boundaries, in other
words, the full geographic scope of each of the natural and human resources potentially affected by the
proposed action. Identifying the specific issues presented by a proposed project or program will help to
reveal the key stakeholders, and the stakeholders also will help to identify issues for analysis. Additional
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Potential stakeholders to be considered:
• Persons living and working in the vicinity of the project
o individual citizens with specific interests
o local residents and property owners
o local businesses and schools
• Local, provincial, tribal, and national governmental agencies,
including regulators and those responsible for infrastructure such as
roads, water, solid waste
• Citizen, civic, or religious groups representing affected communities
• NGOs with specific interests
• Environmentalists and conservation groups interested in protection
and management of sensitive ecosystems and protected areas
• Recreational users and organizations
• Farmers, fishermen, and others who utilize a potentially affected
resource
• Industry groups such as fisheries, forestry, and mining
• Technical experts
• Low income, minority, people who may be disproportionately
affected
• Indigenous peoples
stakeholders will be discovered
throughout the entire
assessment process and should
be included in subsequent public
participation activities.
2.3.2 Engagement Methods and
Timing
A variety of tools and techniques
can be utilized during the public
process depending upon the level
of public participation sought,
which can range from merely
providing information to working
in a collaborative relationship.
Although laws and regulations
might only require a formal
public hearing, "talking at the
public" is not a substitute for
active listening. That is why
public hearings are historically poor ways to engage the public, and it is best to augment formal
procedures with other processes to enable the give and take of dialogue and discussion. Cultural
nuances may make other types of outreach helpful and informative, such as home visits with elders or
people who do not trust public meetings.
Three consistent lessons learned for effective public participation process are to:
• Adapt the process to meet the needs of the circumstances
• Reach out to and understand the audience
• Start early in the EIA process
To be effective, public participation should be tailored to the particular audiences and meet the goals of
the specific public engagement or communication, and those goals should be clear. Communications
which are early, clear and responsive both to information provided and concerns raised are essential to
build trust. The selection and timing of methods used to engage stakeholders and the broader public
should result in: a) encouragement to offer information important to assessing impacts and developing
alternatives, b) transparency about what is proposed, its potential impacts and means of addressing
them, and c) a clear message to all members of the public that their input is important and useful
throughout the EIA process.
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Scoping occurs early in the EIA process
to identify key issues, and to focus and
specify the assessment process. Many of
the CAFTA-DR countries require project
proponents and their consultants to
engage the public during this phase,
before beginning work on the EIA.
Scoping typically is conducted in a
meeting or series of meetings involving
the project proponent, the public, and
the responsible government agencies.
The structure of the meetings may vary
depending on the nature and complexity
of the proposed action and on the
number of interested participants.
Small-scale scoping meetings might be
conducted like business conferences,
with participants contributing in informal
discussions of the issues. Large-scale
scoping meetings might require a more
formal atmosphere, like that of a public
hearing, where interested parties are
afforded the opportunity to present
testimony.
Other types of scoping meetings could
include "workshops," with participants in
small work groups exploring different
alternatives and designs. Meetings may
need to include interpreters to translate
information for people who do not speak
the language in which the meeting is being conducted, as is the case with all procedural and analytical
stages of the EIA process.
2.4 Reporting on and Responsiveness to Public Comments
Public input should be reflected in changes in the assessment, the project or program, or to
commitments for mitigation. Project proponents should document specific steps taken to engage the
public and other stakeholders, and the timing of those engagements, both before preparing the EIA and
during its development. Included in the annexes of the EIA should be a summary of public outreach
activities, audience, number of persons, organizations involved, concerns raised, responses to
comments and, if required, actual copies of written comments received. Reporting on comments
obtained through any of the methods identified above should be sufficiently clear to enable an EIA
reviewer and the public to assess responsiveness to comments, including whether they were
understood, whether they were found to be appropriate or not and why, and if appropriate, what
actions were taken to respond to them and whether those actions are sufficient to fully address the
concerns. Several approaches might be acceptable to summarize or include actual transcripts and
Public participation tools often used in an EIA process:
• Public meetings
• Public hearings
• Small group meetings or workshops
• Community advisory panels
• News releases, newsletters with public comment forms,
fact sheet, flyers
• Media - feature stories, interviews, public service
announcements
• Project/program web sites
• Public comment periods soliciting written comment letters
• Information repositories or clearinghouses
• Speakers bureaus
• Surveys
• Mailing lists
• Briefings by and for public officials
• Use of social networking such as Facebook, Twitter, etc.
There are several guidelines that have been developed by the
CAFTA DR countries (e.g. Guatemala) and international
organizations concerning the planning and implementation of
public participation which are noted in the reference list.
Public Participation Tool Kits are available from EPA in
different languages at
http://www.epa.gov/international/toolkit and from the
International Association for Public Participation at
http://iap2.affiniscape.com/associations/4748/files/06Dec T
oolbox.pdf Also see
http://www.epa.gov/care/librarv/community culture.pdf
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copies of oral and written comments and to demonstrate responsiveness through narrative, tables and
cross-references to specific changes.
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C. PROJECT AND ALTERNATIVES DESCRIPTION
C. PROJECT AND ALTERNATIVES DESCRIPTION
1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental Impact Assessment starts with the
description of the proposed project with sufficient
detail to support a credible assessment of impacts
for both the proposed actions and reasonable and
feasible alternatives. This section contains some of
the most important information in the EIA since it
provides the core data for forecasting potential
environmental impacts, and for reducing,
eliminating, mitigating or in limited circumstances
compensating for those impacts.
The main elements of the description of the
proposed project and alternatives should include:
• Purpose and need: A clear statement with
supporting information on the project
objectives and justification on the project
objectives and justification (See C-2)
• Description of the proposed project
detailing:
o How it meets the purpose and need
(See C- 2)
o Facility, site and engineering design in
sufficient detail to support an accurate
identification and assessment of
impacts (See C- 3)
o Coverage of all phases of the project
both in chronological time from site
PROJECT DESIGN
Whether a resort, hotel, marina, dock, or
concession, the appropriate environmental
practices for construction and operation begin with
appropriate facility, engineering and site designs.
This design takes into account:
• Type of facilities, size and capacity
• Location (Siting) and site plan
• Erosion control and drainage plans
• Construction and area of disturbance
• Size of the project footprint
• Transportation and site access
• Emissions, effluents and other wastes resulting
from construction and operations
• Support facilities and services required
• Use of local infrastructure and manpower
• Closure and restoration plans, if applicable
• Projected use and demand on local tourist
attractions
The ultimate goal of the design is to provide a
blueprint for the construction and operation of an
environmentally and economically desirable
project, from start to finish.
Maps and plan views must be developed to show
the layout of the project and proximity of sensitive
receptors of environmental impacts. The design
must also describe size and capacity as well as
demands on resources and for infrastructure.
preparation to construction to operation to completion to monitoring and site management
and also phases if there are plans to increase the capacity or add facilities and amenities at
later points in time (seeC-4)
o Expected releases into the environment (See C-4)
o Expected demands on resources (e.g. water, energy, disturbed and permanent changes to
land cover) and infrastructure (e.g. transportation, drinking water treatment and delivery,
solid waste, waste water collection and treatment, energy and communications
infrastructure) (See C-4)
Alternatives: an identification of alternatives for meeting the purpose and need which are
economically and technically feasible, and sufficient detail for the most appropriate alternatives
to permit comparative assessment of impacts. This can include modifications to the proposed
project, its design, location, site configuration, scope and/or operations, or entirely different
projects to meet the purpose and need. (See C- 5)
Documentation of the economic viability of the proposed project.
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2 DOCUMENTATION OF PURPOSE AND NEED
The description of a proposed project begins with description and supporting analysis of the underlying
purpose and need for the project, sometimes referred to as the objectives and justification for the
project. In describing the underlying purpose and need, the EIA should be more specific than assertions
that more tourism and economic development might be needed. The assessment of impacts will be
different based on the responses to several questions that need to be made clear in the EIA:
• What is drawing tourist activity to the proposed location?
• Who is served by the tourism-related project(s) and for what purpose(s)?
• What are the demographics of the target tourists and sources of information?
• Where is the tourism-related activity needed and what form must it take?
• How does the proposed project advance national and local policies and plans for attracting
tourist activity and/or protecting sensitive ecosystems and cultural resources?
• How much support for tourism is needed and when are different quantities and quality of
experience needed?
• What are the levels of uncertainty in the assessment of needs?
• Will local residents be displaced by the tourism development?
The purpose and need description also should help to explain whether the proposed project is a new
project, an expansion or a replacement/maintenance of an existing project; whether, how and why the
project might be phased in over time. It should also identify who is the intended audience, i.e. will it be
for local use or for visitors coming to the area? Will it be used domestically or serve those traveling from
other countries? Finally, as noted above in the questions, the project justification should elaborate on
the consistency of the proposed project with any national, regional or local land use or economic
development plans and related tourism sector incentives.
The purpose and need for the project will help to define the scope for purposes of the EIA. For example,
if a harbor is being built, it is not necessarily a tourism project, but if a harbor is being expanded or relied
upon for cruise ships which will be a means of access to the tourist destination, then its impact would be
included in the tourism-related EIA preparation.
3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
Information on the proposed project and alternatives should be sufficient not only to describe how it
meets the purpose and need but as a basis for identifying and assessing its impacts. This project
description should include the nature sizes and type of project and all related facilities and activities, its
design, construction, operation, site design and land area, subsequent anticipated expansion and
decommissioning or future use as well as the profile of direct releases into the environment,
employment, resource and waste streams, related transportation and the like and usage of surrounding
tourist attractions which are elaborated below for tourism facilities and activities.
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3.1 General Information
The proposed project, general information will typically include:
• Project proponents
• Project team, including those financing, constructing and operating the project as well as the
team preparing the EIA document
o Names, contact information
o Professions and experience/certifications
o Experience with this type of project
o Demonstrate the appropriate interdisciplinary makeup of the EIA team
• Legal and regulatory frameworks: information should include details about:
o Land ownership (including if appropriate, any government authorizations, permits, leases,
and maps showing the area boundaries)
o Applicable laws (including land use requirements demonstrating conformity and compliance
with applicable land use plans, applicable tourism strategies and plans
o Applicable environmental standards, norms and requirements set forth at the international,
national, regional and/or local levelsln
o Required regulatory approvals and/or permits for all stages and their status
o Applicable land use requirements (demonstrate conformity and compliance with applicable
plans)
o Applicable tourism strategies and plans - national, regional, and local
o Applicable natural resource management or protected area management plans and
responsible agency(ies) (demonstrate conformity and compliance with all applicable plans)
• Voluntary certification programs related to best practices for which the project will be designed
to comply with requirements for certification and plans for doing so
• Financial viability of the project
3.2 Overall Project Description Information
The overview of the proposed activities should include a general description of background information
to place the proposed tourism project in context. Typically by the time an EIA is started much of the
preliminary design work has been completed by the project proponent to prove economic feasibility and
support bankability of the project. The designs and construction plans may not be entirely complete but
most if not all of the details required for environmental impact assessment as noted above should be
available.
The project should be described in terms of its location, size, layout, basic activities, and project lifecycle
schedule (design, construction, operation, and closure stages) and pre-construction land uses with
actions that will be taken to convert from a previous to a new land use. Overview information includes:
• Project location and access (shown on an overview map)
• A general description of the overall project including project type
• Identification of each component including support facilities and infrastructure with site layout,
site plan, and schematic drawings
• Initial construction sequencing, monitoring and management assessment, and life of the
operation through closure
• Project Facilities description, including:
o Size
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o Plan-view or blue print drawings of buildings to be constructed, their dimensions and
building materials
o How each will be built, manpower, sources of materials, storage on or off site
o Employment for the project, where it will be coming from, level of skills
o Access rights
o Dimensions and land area affected
o Design on the site with maps and geospatial information (longitude and latitude)
• Project Operations: The description should elaborate:
o Energy (fuel and renewable) sources
o Processing of energy sources to produce electricity as appropriate
o Technologies employed and their profile of air and water releases and waste streams
o Infrastructure plans to manage water, air and waste and resulting levels of release into the
environment
o Emissions, effluents, wastes and other physical factors resulting from construction and
operation of the power plant or transmission line
• Initial construction sequencing should be presented, including the scheduling of construction for
the various components of the tourism project. This should include construction of:
o Roads
o Repair shops
o Warehouses and other support facilities
o Power sources
o Pollution reduction and control systems
o Transmission lines to be accessed or built
o Water sources and conveyances
o Material handling systems
o Quantitative and qualitative information on the degree of site clearing and vegetation
removed from the site at any point in time, plans for sequencing site clearing and resulting
changes in plant cover, collection, storage and disposal of resulting debris
o Protection of sensitive habitats and biological resources
o Protection of cultural, historical, or archaeological resources
o Extent and location of disturbed areas and any non-permeable surfaces throughout the
project
• The project and its geographic, ecological, social, and temporal context includes any offsite
investments that may be required, for example:
o Dedicated and shared pipelines
o Roads, airstrips or airports, water access, parking lots, and power generation facilities for
the operation, including properly designed dredging plans and properly located dredged
material disposal sites
o Water supply, including drinking water treatment systems and drinking water treatment
systems, and if necessary, desalination of seawater and discharge of the desalination brine
o Housing
o Raw material and product storage facilities
o Wastewater collection and treatment, location of wastewater discharges into any water
bodies as well as potential wastewater reuse opportunities on the site (i.e., landscaping, golf
course, toilets, etc.)
o Stormwater and nonpoint source runoff controls
o Waste management, including any plans to reduce, reuse, recycle and/or reduce solid
waste and any plans for waste that could become marine debris
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o Storage of fuels and hazardous materials
o Resettlement plan or indigenous peoples development plan
• Detailed maps with site design and detailed topographical and special mapping relating the
proposed project to the geology of the project area: This will of course be an important element
of the "Environmental Setting" section of the EIA. Information presented should include, but
not necessarily be limited to:
o Local and regional geology
o Soil characterizations
o Geotechnical zone
o Terrestrial, watershed, coastal, and marine habitats, including sensitive habitats that may be
essential to endangered or threatened species, or nursery areas for terrestrial or aquatic
species
This information will be critical for superimposing on the baseline environment later to
estimate or predict the net environmental and socio-economic impact, which may ultimately be
positive, negative or neutral.
• Transportation Information including the mode of transport location and the intensity of
transport from automobiles, bus, boat, rail,, ships, etc., including
o Transport of raw materials and supplies
o Transport of the tourists
o Transport of the employees during construction and operations
• Details on architectural and engineering design
3.3 Project Scope: All Project Phases and Related or Connected Actions
All tourism projects include the following phases:
• Site location
• Site preparation
• Construction
• Operations and Maintenance
• Closure: restoration, abandonment or reuse
All phases and details about them should be provided.
All related or connected actions should be addressed in the EIA. There may be different entities and
project proponents responsible for different aspects of proposed projects and alternatives. Even if there
are different entities involved the test is whether a proposed tourism project X would still be proposed if
another project Y were not also proposed. For example, a resort is proposed for a location near the
coast with no beach and includes plans for creating a pocket beach. The pocket beach will be supplied
with sand by dredging an adjacent beach. So, the two projects should be assessed at the same time
either by cross referencing in separate EIA documents or within a single, integrated document.
3.4 Project Details
Project details should be provided for the proposed project and the alternatives that are included in the
EIA. The project details should furnish sufficient detail to give a brief but clear picture of the elements
and main activities that will take place during each stage in the project lifecycle, and should contain the
following information on the proposed project and alternatives (see Section C.5):
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• The location of the project should be presented using maps showing general location and
specific location, elevation plan, project boundary, and project "area of influence.
• Each project component should be described, and shown on a diagram and/or map, including
project layout, permanent and temporary structures, and major on-site and off-site project
elements such as access roads, power and water supply, staff housing, storage facilities, etc.
• Detail of size of each component, including temporary structures and support facilities, of the
proposed development should be provided. As above, these may best be described on diagrams
and maps, with short written descriptions that refer to the visual aids.
• Description of standard best practices to be incorporated into the project. This should be
consistently carried through in the calculations of environmental releases, resource and
infrastructure demands and impact assessment and the environmental management plan and
can be a more detailed and activity-specific discussion of the background information provided
above.
• Expected resource use during construction and operation, including raw material inputs,
emissions, and waste discharges. This should be provided for permanent, temporary, and
support features.
• Proposed schedule for approval of all required permits, and for construction and project
implementation.
• Relationships among the technical, economic, social, and environmental features of the
proposal.
• Expected visitation and use of the proposed facilities and resources and expected seasonal
fluctuations should be described. The demand may be determined by guest rooms if the
development is primarily a hotel; but if it provides other amenities, a discussion of daily use and
other types of patronage should be included. If the carrying capacity is expected to fluctuate by
season, this should be described, and numbers of visitors estimated.
The above information should be provided in enough detail for impact prediction and for mitigation
measures to be understood or additional measures to be developed. Not all the detailed engineering
information developed for the project needs to be included in the ElA's project description. The amount
of detail is dependent on the extent of the development, and the information that is needed to conduct
an accurate environmental review. More detail should be provided on those key aspects likely to cause
environmental impacts as well as parameters that will guide the analysis of the nature, significance and
extent of impacts.
If there is need for any resettlement, it should be explained and described. This should be linked to the
information on land use, land ownership, resettlement policy).
3.5 Maps, Diagrams, Site Design and Plan
Wherever appropriate, maps, flow diagrams, and other visual aids should be used to summarize
information, and to keep descriptions concise. Schematic representations of drawings from the
feasibility study may be reproduced, but they should be drawings that will contribute to EIA reviewers'
understanding of the project and potential environmental impacts.
The actual number largely depends on the size, extent, and magnitude of the project. The description of
the project ((a) above), should include at least an overview map and a detailed site plan.
• The general location of the development should be presented on an overview map, with
detailed plan view drawings of the property which places the activity in its geographic context.
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A short description of the location should complement the map. On the same map, the specific
location, elevations, project boundary, and project "area of influence" may be shown. (Note,
Section F defines area of influence).
• A site plan—a detailed diagram, or for smaller scale developments, a hand drawn schematic
could do—should be used as the basis for describing the overall activity: project components,
access points, and ancillary features. If there is no existing site plan, one should be prepared
which shows the layout of the development and important features. If this is an expansion of an
existing tourism development/facility, this should clearly be noted, and existing structures and
proposed structures should be shown on the plan. Depending on the size and components of
the project, one site plan may suffice or, for larger developments several will be needed to
adequately display project components.
The overview map and the site plan should be presented at a scale that allows the reviewer to
understand each component in relationship to the other components. The overview map and the site
plan should show natural features such as topography, existing structures and communities, water
bodies, wetlands, flood plains. This context helps in assessing the placement of proposed facilities and
potential alternatives.
Especially for larger scale developments, a summary table showing the type, quantity, and size of each
component can also be useful for understanding the general layout, footprint, and context of the
development.
3.6 Details on Construction Procedures
The Project Description should present a condensed description of the construction phase. This section
should describe when, how, and by whom the facilities are to be constructed. A construction schedule
and construction sequencing should be included in the Project Description; this is important for
determining the extent of environmental impacts. Elaboration of construction details and site
preparation are particularly important to anticipate and address issues related to loss of habitat,
mudslides, erosion, contamination of stream and river segments, negative impacts to endangered or
threatened species and their habitats, and negative impacts to sensitive ecosystems.
Information on the construction phase should contain a brief description of construction plans for all
physical features to be constructed or renovated, including temporary, ancillary, and permanent
structures and their location relative to key natural features on and off-site. It should include:
• The type of construction material to be used.
• The type of machinery required and where it will be housed and how the site will be accessed.
• Locations from which fill material will be sourced.
• Locations where fill material will be placed on-site.
• Locations where fill and other construction material will be temporarily stockpiled/stored.
• Key areas (related to environmental sensitivity/importance) that will remain undisturbed during
construction (waterways, wetlands, forested areas and other "green space," etc.).
• Temporary diversions for waterways, erosion control barriers, and other best
practice/mitigation measures.
• For temporary structures (storage areas, construction employee housing including water,
sewage, and power connections, water diversions, erosion control barriers, temporary access
roadways), the decommissioning process, including measures for returning the area to pre-
construction features.
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• Disposal, recycling or disposition of debris, i.e. vegetation or other materials removed from the
site to prepare for construction.
• New or existing roads, or alternative transportation to transport construction material, to
dispose of construction debris, and/or transport construction workers (elaboration in section
3.7).
Often components of tourism development (or any construction project) are described as having a
"footprint." A construction footprint, in terms of an EIA, is the area of disturbance. For example, a
roadway may be only 4 meters wide, but the entire area disturbed may be 8 meters wide. A footprint
can be described in terms of temporary (short-term) disturbance and permanent disturbance.
Temporary disturbance is usually the area disturbed during the construction phase, some of which may
be returned to pre-construction features once construction is complete. The permanent footprint is the
area that has been permanently converted to its new use, usually a subset of the temporary footprint.
Both of these are important for impact assessment and prediction, and should be clearly described in
the Project Description section. Measures for restoring pre-construction contour, soil, vegetation, and
other natural features should be described. A summary of details required for the construction phase of
a project is provided in Table C-l.
Table C-l: Information to be included in the EIA for the construction phase
COMPONENT
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
Site Clearing
Land area cleared and location of any clearance activity
Protection of sensitive terrestrial, aquatic or marine habitats and species resources
Protection of cultural, historical or archaeological sites
Equipment to be used and man-power requirement
Storage, removal and disposition of debris
Sediment and
Water-Control Facility
Description sediment and stormwater control practices to be incorporated into the project.
Temporary diversions for waterways
Erosion control barriers
Stormwater and nonpoint source runoff control
Temporary Ponds and
Permanent
Impoundments
• Location
• Design criteria
• Spillway and inlet designs
• Constructed wetlands for wastewater or nonpoint source water management
Culverts, Dikes and
Diversions
Location
Size
Design criteria
Groundwater
Management
Number of wells
Location
Design
Pumping rates
Drawdown
Potential for saltwater intrusion
Landscaping:
Hardscaping or
Vegetation
• Green spaces/landscaping
• Vegetation types
• Avoid non-native invasive species
• Vegetative management
• Irrigation (including grey water systems if applicable)
• Fertilization
• Pest control
• Fencing
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COMPONENT
Construction Camp
Fuel and Chemical
Storage
Construction Material
and Supplies Storage
Worker Housing
Worker Parking
Excavations
Equipment Storage
and Maintenance
Construction Waste
Management
Environmentally
Sound Sources and
Suppliers
Dredging
Construction
Techniques
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
Description of the camp including but not limited to:
• A map showing all facilities at a legible scale appropriate to the size of the project
o Buildings by type (use) and size
o Roads
o Electrical transmission lines and/or substation
o Drainage
• Water supply and distribution
o Distribution system
o Use (m3/day)
o Rights
o Sources
• Include an inventory of chemical, toxic or hazardous substances, active elements, sites and storage
means, safety aspects regarding transportation and handling and any other relevant information
• Give a complete list of the raw materials and construction materials to be used, indicating the
amounts per day, month, and the storage means
Number of rooms by:
• Structure (if more than one structure will house rooms)
o Number and types of beds (single or double occupancy beds)
o In-room or shared bath/toilet facilities
o Other in-room facilities (kitchens, kitchenettes, pools, Jacuzzis, etc.)
• Locations, sizes and types of common bath/toilet facilities
• Cafeteria
• Energy generation and use requirements
• Closure or transition from construction camp to onsite employee housing
• Sanitation
• Location, size, surface, transportation requirements
• Locations from which fill material will be sourced
• Size and depth of excavations
• Locations where fill material will be placed on-site and transported
• Locations where fill and other construction material will be temporarily stockpiled/stored
• Borrow and spoil disposal
• Preservation of ground water resources
• Transportation mobilization and mobilization frequency
• Machinery and equipment mobilization routes to be used, as well as the features of the ways on
which they will be transported, including a map of routes, as applicable, and mobilization
• Location
• Distance to landfill
• Trucking requirements
• Traffic control
• Excavation material
• Locations from which fill material will be sourced
• Locations where fill material will be placed on-site
• Locations where fill and other construction material will be temporarily stockpiled/stored
• Dredging operations and dredged material disposal sites
• Location (on-land or off shore)
• Description of disposal site (new or existing, approved site)
• Quantity of materials dredged and methods used
• Location, capacity and distance to landfill or disposal site
• Transportation requirements
• Location of pylons - quantity and location for buildings, docks, and piers
• Use of techniques for climate change adaption such as stilts
• Use of "Green" construction techniques
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COMPONENT
Small Harbor or
Marina
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
• Oceanographic conditions, water circulation and tidal flushing in the harbor/marina
• Port reception facilities for wastes (oil, trash, hazmat, etc.)
• Recycling facilities for waste
• Location of sensitive marine or coastal habitats
• Actions to be taken to avoid damage to groundwater resources
• Oil spill plans
3.7 Transportation: Roads, Pathways, Air Strips, and Boat Facilities
Transportation to resorts can be via land, sea or air. Details in the EIA should be given the proposed
locations, methods of transportation, and facilities. Of primary importance are roads. Access roads and
internal roads are to be included in the site plans submitted with the EIA, and if access roads need to be
constructed or rehabilitated, details are needed on the materials, methods and designs. In some cases,
the tourism development may include an internal roadway system. For roads to constructed, the
engineering design should include maps and specific design information including:
• Timing of construction
• Road surface and shoulder width and barriers
• Grade specifications
• Construction methods including clearing and grubbing
• Construction materials (if waste rock will be used, include geochemical specifications it must
meet, e.g., net neutralizing potential to acid generating potential must be at least 3:1)
• Compaction specifications
• Stream crossings and associated designs
• Sedimentation and erosion prevention structures and practices
• Stabilization methods for cuts and fills
• Operations program with traffic volume, operating speeds and trip times
Typical elevations should be provided for each type and situation of road displaying construction
materials, levels of compaction and erosion and sedimentation features. This section should also
include the following general information about the road system:
• Dust control measures for construction and operation
• Maintenance measures
• Roster for construction and maintenance equipment, specifying type and quantity by: size,
motor size, and fuel requirements for each type of equipment
The extent of information needed is affected by the type of environment the road traverses. However,
even temporary roadways can create significant and permanent environmental damage. In already built
or otherwise already disturbed areas, this section would be less detailed than for road rehabilitation or
construction in areas that are undisturbed or that contain important environmental features. However,
truck noise and use of roads may have adverse effects on their structure and on the nearby
communities, so this detail is important. A summary of information required for other modes of
transportation is provided in Table C-2.
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Table C-2: Project detail Information for transportation needs
COMPONENT
General
On-site Walkways
Public Roads
Upgrades
Rail Expansion with
Feeder line
Air Service
Upgrades
Waterways
Upgrades
On-Site
Transportation
Hubs Construction
Parking Lots
Taxi/Bus Stops or
Transfer Stations
Fuel Stations
Rental Car Lots
Airport or Air Strip
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
• Site clearing
• Protection of sensitive terrestrial, aquatic or marine habitats and species resources
• Protection of cultural, historical or archaeological sites
• Equipment to be used and man-power requirement
• Storage, removal and disposition of debris
• Sediment and water-control facility
• Temporary ponds and permanent impoundments
• Location and design information
• Provision for beach access
• Location and design information
• Primary material of construction (wood, brick, stone, etc.), layout and dimensions.
• Design drawings should be provided for each facility, including: Plan (overhead view)
• Elevations (front view), Profiles (side view) and Sections.
• Routes
• Traffic control
• Utilities
• Design
• Widths and layout
• Surface material
• Lighting (if applicable)
• Erosion control
• Identify all new and existing waterways to be used (including filled and closed canals and other
waterways that will be reopened, if applicable), traffic volume, boat or barge (e.g. disposal of dredge
material, operating speeds and trip times, closed waterway that will be reopened
• Detailed information on any access, on-site and recreational activity waterways to be constructed or
upgraded: Location, timing of construction, construction methods including clearing and grubbing,
dredging and associated designs, animal crossings, disposal of dredged materials, sedimentation and
erosion prevention structures and practices, location and size (area and volume of material) of canals
and waterways, lighting (where applicable), operation, closure plan (if applicable)
• Maintenance
• Tightest curves
• Track construction materials
• Turnouts and sidings
• Railroad communications and signaling
• Locations
• Sizes
• Lighting
• Storm water management
• Location, design, construction and operation of docks
• Rosters of boats, specifying type and quantity by: size, motor size, and fuel requirements
• Maintenance and Dredging schedules
• Breakwater needs
• Storm water management
• Fuel storage tanks and leak prevention plans
• Spill and oil containment
• Locations
• Sizes
• Lighting
• Storm water management
• Fight numbers , schedules, seasonal fluctuations
• Locations
• Sizes and capacity
• Design
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COMPONENT
Small Harbor or
Marina
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
• Oceanographic conditions, water circulation and tidal flushing in the harbor/marina, port reception
facilities for wastes (oil, trash, hazmat, etc.), recycling facilities for waste, location of sensitive marine
or coastal habitats, avoidance of damage to groundwater resources, oil spill plans
3.8 Hotel, Resort and Restaurant Facilities
According to the ILJCN (2009), most of the impact that tourism businesses have on biodiversity occur
during the company's operations phase. The EIA should present a complete description of the operation
of the hotel/resort and management of inland and coastal activities and developments designed to
protect not only biodiversity but also the coastal and inland environment.
3.8.1 Hotel and Resort Operations
The following gives a brief description of information that should be included during the operation
phase of the project:
• Description of how the project would operate (seasonally, monthly, daily, hourly, as
appropriate)
• Operation information
o Roster of equipment and machinery to be used during operation, specifying type
and quantity by size, weight, motor size, and fuel requirements for each activity
o Operation plans and conservation methods to be used for water, solid waste
management including recycling, and energy
o Labor during operation
• Number and type of employees (by local hire and non-local hire) by field of
expertise
• Days per week
• Hours per day
• Shifts per day
o Raw materials to be used for operation
• List of the raw materials to be used, indicating the amounts per day, month, and
the storage means
• Inventory of chemical, toxic or hazardous substances, active elements, sites and
storage means, safety aspects regarding transportation and handling and any
other relevant information
Additional project description information typically required for hotels and associated land-based
facilities are presented in Table C-3.
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Table C-3: Project description information for hotel and resort projects
COMPONENT
General
Hotels and Lodges
Swimming Pools
Golf Courses
Athletic Complexes
(Tennis, Basketball,
Soccer, etc.)
Restaurants
Boutiques and Shopping
Areas
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
• Estimate and locations of disturbed acreage
• Detailed site map
• Expected life of operations
• Anticipated usage - seasonal, monthly
• Location and design information for principal
project facilities
o Primary material of construction (wood,
brick, stone, etc.)
o Layout and dimensions
o Design drawings should be provided for each
facility, including: Plan (overhead view),
Elevations (front view), Profiles (side view)
and Sections
• Number of rooms by:
o Locations
o Sizes
o Drinking water usage
o Types of bath/toilet facilities (common or
private, components)
o Wastewater treatment and water reuse for
landscaping
• Reception area
• Hallways, causeways, stairs, elevators, etc
• Size (dimensions, water capacity)
• Water treatment
• Bath/toilet facilities
• Number of holes
• Length, width and layout of each fairway
(included maintained ruff)
• Size and location of each tee, green and hazard
• Vegetation (tees, fairways, roughs, greens,
landscaping, undisturbed [natural])
• Cart paths
• Vegetative management (irrigation, fertilization,
pest control, etc.)
• On-site support facilities (clubhouse, cart storage,
cart repair, equipment storage, toilets)
• Water reuse for irrigation and landscaping
• Types, numbers and sizes
• Surface material
• Fences
• Seating capacity
• Hours of service
• Kitchen facilities
• Quantities of raw materials and waste
• Wastewater treatment, grease removal, and
discharge
• Methods of transportation to be used for delivery
of raw materials and collection of waste
• Number and size of stores or booths
• Locations and sizes of toilet facilities
• Hallways, causeways, stairs, elevators, etc.
INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS
• Flood plain maps
• Maps showing locations of sensitive
habitats, cultural/historical/
archaeological resources
• Erosion and sediment control plans
• Drainages
• Depth to groundwater
• Seasonal variation in climate
• Water sources and wastewater discharge
facilities
• Stormwater management
• Maps showing runoff control and
sediment control
• Use of vegetation (lawns and gardens)
• Maps showing pathways and roads
• Water sources and waste water
management
• Stormwater management
• Sensitive area protection
• Drainage
• Erosion and sediment control
• Stormwater management
• Wastewater management
• Water supply
• Stormwater management
• Water supply
• Wastewater management
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COMPONENT
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS
Outdoor Venues -
Theatre, Concert,
Wedding, etc.
• Seating Capacity
• Parking
• Toilet facilities
• Support concessions
• Waste/Litter Management
• Daily/Peak Usage estimates
• Parking Requirements
• Stormwater management
• Water supply
• Wastewater management
Laundry and
Housekeeping
• Quantity of water, water conservation, energy,
and supplies required
• On- or off-site service
• Upgrade requirements
• Sewerage (location, design, piping size)
o Type
o Discharge quantity and location
o Pretreatment and grease removal
Stormwater management
Water supply
Wastewater management
Employee Housing
Number of rooms by:
o Structure (if more than one structure will
house rooms)
o Number and types of beds (single or double
occupancy beds)
o In-room or shared bath/toilet facilities
o Other in-room facilities (kitchens,
kitchenettes, pools, Jacuzzis, etc.)
Locations, sizes and types of common bath/toilet
facilities cafeteria
Stormwater management
Maps showing runoff control and
sediment control
Use of vegetation (lawns and gardens)
Maps showing pathways and roads
Support (maintenance,
shop and chemical
management)
Shop design and placement
Location, size, and number of machines
Chemical storage
Spill control
Stormwater management
Wastewater management
3.8.2 Golf Course Operations
Golf course descriptions need to include:
• Site clearing
• Plantings and species that will be used
• Water demands or wastewater reuse for watering
• Source of water for water holes, means of supply, and habitat maintenance
• Maintenance, including watering, proper use of fertilizers, chemical pesticides and herbicides
• Support facilities such as club houses
• Golf cart storage and maintenance
• Energy requirements, supply of electricity for charging batteries of golf carts
• Alteration to topography
• Drainage and erosion controls
Should a golf course be constructed, details will be particularly important on water usage requirements
for irrigation and other requirements. Golf courses can consume more water than the rest of the
facilities combined.
3.8.3 Support for Activities/Concessions
Concessions: For the operation of a concession much of the same information presented above for
hotels and restaurants is required. Additional information should also be presented.
• Hours and seasons of use, limitations on access, expected capacity and demand
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• Maintenance procedures and schedules for trails, golf courses, campgrounds, and sanitation
facilities
• Educational brochures, programs, and handout to be given to hikers, golfers, as well as workers
to protect biodiversity and the environment
• Remediation measures to take place if a natural disaster occurs such as a flood, fire, hurricane,
volcano, or earthquake/tsunami
• Penalties to be enforced should operational rules of a golf course, hiking area, off-road vehicle
use, campground or other facility be broken
• Litter and solid waste control measures -any plans to reduce, reuse, recycle
Information requirements for concessions are summarized in Table C-4.
Table C-4: Project details for concessions
COMPONENT
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
General Considerations for
all Concessions and Smaller
Facilities
Location and design
o Primary material of construction (wood, brick, stone, etc.)
o Layout and dimensions
o Design drawings should be provided for each facility, including: Plan (overhead view),
Elevations (front view), Profiles (side view) and Sections Storage areas and warehouses
Parking lots
Repair shops
Fuel stations
Electrical energy
Water supply
Waste handling and disposal
o Sewers
o Wastewater treatment and disposal
o Solid waste collection, treatment and disposal
o Stormwater and nonpoint source runoff treatment and disposal
Roads
Trails
• Target group
• Widths and layout
• Surface material (natural, groomed, and surfacing)
• Erosion control
• Daily/peak usage estimates
• Parking Requirements
• Protection of sensitive terrestrial and aquatic habitat
• Protection of sensitive cultural, historical, or archaeological resources
Ziplines
• Start point, end point and route (for canopy walks)
• End point
• Toilet facilities
• Daily/peak usage estimates
• Parking requirements
Campgrounds, Cabins and
Trail Huts
Number, type (tent or recreational vehicle) and sizes of sites
Site amenities (tables, benches, barbeque, fire pits, electrical hookups, etc.]
Common facilities, including wastewater and greywater facilities
Number, locations, capacity per location and layout
Site amenities (tables, benches, barbeque, fire pits, etc.)
Bath/toilet facilities
Water taps
Solid waste management
Daily/peak usage estimates
Parking requirements
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COMPONENT
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
Remote Concession Activity
Areas
Description of activity
Site facility needs (storage, vendor office, toilets, water supply, parking, waste management,
etc.)
Size and amount of materials offered and waste generated
Delivery of supplies, means, access, frequency
Guided Tours Points of
Origin
Description of activity
Site facility needs (storage, vendor office, toilets, water supply, parking, waste management,
etc.)
Kayak/Canoe/Raft Garages
and Put in Points
• Put in and take out locations and related equipment/facilities
• Camping or picnicking sites
• Toilet facilities
• Daily/peak usage estimates
• Parking Requirements
Horseback Riding
Trails (Widths and layout, Surface material, Erosion control)
Stables (Location, Dimensions, Animal waste management, Toilet facilities)
Pastures (Location, Dimensions, Feed sources)
Daily/Peak Usage estimates
Parking Requirements
Off Road Vehicles
• Types, number, sizes and fuels of vehicles
• Trails (Widths and layout, Surface material, Erosion control)
• Vehicle storage
• Vehicle fueling and repair facilities
• Toilet facilities
• Daily/Peak Usage estimates
• Parking Requirements
Lake Based Recreation
Types of uses
Dock
Developed beach
On-site facilities (equipment storage, toilets, etc.)
Sport Fishing
• Types of services and equipment provided
• Facilities
Water Sports
Diving operations controls to protect sensitive coastal and marine habitats:
o Depths
o Instructor or certified guides
o Locations of dives
o Transportation to dive sites to prevent damage to sensitive coral reef habitat from
improper diver activities
Controls to protect sensitive coastal and marine habitats such as beaches, seagrass beds,
coral reefs, lagoons and fish/shellfish nursery areas
Controls to protect shoreline and underwater cultural, historical and archaeological
resources
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3.9 Marine and Coastal
Again much of the same information as presented above is required to be presented for the operation
of marine and coastal development. In addition, the following information is to be presented.
• Marina and port management procedures, operational rules, and requirements
• Penalties to be assessed should operational rules such as "no wake" zones be broken
• Maintenance and management procedures for docks, marinas, navigation channels, and
associated facilities
• Remediation measures which will be taken should a natural disaster occurs
• No discharge zones for sewage or ship-generated trash
• Port reception facilities for wastes of all kinds
• Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Information requirements for marine and coastal tourism developments are summarized in Table C-5.
Table C-5: Project details for marine/coastal developments
COMPONENT
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
General
• If needed, breakwaters and shoreline erosion protection needs
• Substrate, adjacent protected areas
• Dredging schedules and disposal area requirements
• Protection of sensitive terrestrial, aquatic or marine habitats and resources
• Protection of sensitive cultural, historical, or archaeological resources
Water Sports
Nature and kind of water sports
Water supply and toilet facilities
Daily/peak usage estimates
Parking Requirements
Put in and take out locations and related equipment/facilities
Camping or picnicking sites
Types of services (life guard stations, etc.)
Cruise Ship Ports
Ship sizes drafts, etc.
Daily usage/schedules
Passenger disembarkments
Support facilities
Solid waste management facilities
Water supply facilities
Wastewater disposal facilities
Marinas
• Ship sizes drafts, etc.
• Slip numbers and sizes
• Daily usage/schedules
• Passenger disembarkments
• Support facility needs (fueling needs, repair shops, chandlery, grocery, etc.]
• Solid waste management facilities
• Water supply facilities
• Wastewater disposal facilities
Developed Beaches
• Beach uses
• On-beach structures
• Beach access for local residents
• Legal source of local sand
• Protected habitat areas
• Solid waste management facilities
• Water supply facilities
• Wastewater disposal facilities
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COMPONENT
Over water Villas and
Cottages
Beach-based Clubhouse Bars
and Restaurants
Arenas and Entertainment
Venues (Indoor and Outdoor)
General
Cruise Ship Ports
Marinas
Docks
Water Sports
Developed Beaches
Over water Villas and
Cottages
Beach-based Clubhouse Bars
and Restaurants
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
• Number of rooms
• Locations, sizes and types of common bath/toilet facilities
• Pilings and other special construction
• Solid waste management facilities
• Water supply facilities
• Wastewater disposal facilities
• Seating capacity
• Hours of service
• Kitchen facilities
• Solid waste management facilities
• Water supply facilities
• Wastewater disposal facilities
• Size and seating capacity
• Locations and sizes of toilet facilities
• If needed, breakwaters and shoreline erosion protection needs
• Substrate, adjacent protected areas
• Dredging schedules and disposal area requirements
• Protection of sensitive terrestrial, aquatic or marine habitats and resources
• Ship sizes drafts, etc.
• Daily usage/schedules
• Passenger disembarkments
• Support facility needs
• Ship sizes drafts, etc.
• Slip numbers and sizes
• Daily usage/schedules
• Passenger disembarkments
• Support facility needs (fueling needs, repair shops, chandlery, grocery, etc.)
• Water circulation assessment to prevent anoxic conditions from developing in the marina.
• Types of Dock uses
• On-site facilities (equipment storage, toilets concessions)
• Numbers and types of support facilities including toilets and wastewater facilities
• Solid waste management facilities
• Types of boats to be uses (motorized or non-motorized)
• Fueling facilities with spill prevention and control
• Delineated diving areas
• Location of sensitive coastal and marine habitats such as beaches, seagrass beds, coral
reefs, lagoons and fish/shellfish nursery areas
• Location of shoreline and underwater cultural, historical and archaeological resources
• Beach uses
• On-beach structures
• Beach access for local residents
• Legal source of local sand
• Protected habitat areas, including avoidance of smothering of sensitive nearshore marine
habitat if beach nourishment is required.
• Number of rooms by:
• Locations, sizes and types of common bath/toilet facilities
• Pilings and other special construction
• Seating capacity
• Hours of service
• Kitchen facilities
• Wastewater management
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4 EXPECTED RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEMANDS ON RESOURCES
Project details should lead to credible and well supported estimates of the releases to water, air, and
land, to generation of demand for water and other raw materials, transportation, energy,
communications and public health infrastructure and to impacts stemming from site design and location
and to local socio-economic-cultural impacts related, for example, to changes in employment, land use,
and access.
4.1 Water and Sanitation Facilities
The Environmental Setting section should include descriptions of:
• Existing capacity for drinking water (use, treatment, delivery, desalination)
• Water conservation and reuse
• Wastewater collection, treatment, and discharge
• Water needs and plans for: landscaping, fountains, swimming pools, watersport/vehicle
washing, laundry, and fire fighting
• Management of nonpoint source runoff generated by the project during construction and the
life of the project.
The Project Description needs to address the demands for these services or resources, how it was
calculated and plans for providing them for the tourism project.
The quantity of water consumed by the proposed project depends on the type of infrastructure
installed, as well as the practices implemented during the operations phase. Water consumption in
hotels around the world ranges between 200-1000 liters per guest per night. Table C-6 shows the
international benchmark for hotels (shown as the "GOOD" category). This reference is based on actual
data gathered in hotels.
Table C 6: Water consumption per guest per night (in liters)
HOTEL SIZE
< 50 rooms
50-150 rooms
> 150 rooms
GOOD
<439
<583
<666
ACCEPTABLE
439-507
583-678
666-856
REGULAR
507-583
678 - 806
856 - 980
POOR
>583
>806
>980
Source: IUCN Tourism Guideline International Hotels Environmental Initiative, Water
Efficiency Benchmarks
For wastewater management purposes, in the United States it is assumed that estimated that at least 90
percent of the water consumed in guest rooms, restaurants and bars is returned as wastewater. Table
C-7 shows average hotel daily water consumption and wastewater generation in hotels in the United
States.
In contrast, in Europe, consumption varies between 500 liters per guest per night in Denmark and 200 in
the Netherlands. European youth hostels average between 93 and 200 liters, while bed and breakfast
accommodations consume between 100 and 200 liters (FEMATOUR). The quantity of water
requirements will vary according to the type of hotel and its policies.
As above, the detail needed about proposed water and sanitation facilities is commensurate with the
magnitude of the development. For smaller-scale tourism developments that are connecting directly to
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existing water or sewer systems, a drawing and short description of pipelines; areas of temporary and
permanent disturbance; and measures for restoring disturbed areas to pre-construction features may be
adequate (if a permit requirement exists, the status of the application should be included).
Table C-7: Water consumption and wastewater generation in Hotels in the United States
Source
Room (double occupancy)
• In-room use only
• Including laundry
Golf course
Pool
Restaurant:
• Restrooms and kitchen
• Bar
Water Consumption
(liters/ guest /day)
40
230
400
40
40
6
Wastewater Generation
(liters/ guest /day)
36
207
Minimal (only from on-
course restrooms if any)
Not Available
36
5
Source: IUCN Tourism Guideline Architectural Graphic Standards, by Charles George
Ramsey, John Ray, Jr. Hoke, ISBN 9780471348160
For larger-scale developments that are connecting to existing lines, a discussion of any required permits
should accompany information on construction methods; temporary and permanent areas of
disturbance; measures for returning disturbed areas to pre-construction features; contingency plans and
emergency response measures in case the existing system malfunctions. If there is no formal permit
application procedure, information should be provided on the capacity of existing water and sewage
treatment systems to ensure it is adequate for the additional input.
If water or sanitation facilities will be provided on a temporary basis for construction staff, these should
also be described. The process for decommissioning should be included.
For tourism developments that will construct their own water or sanitation systems, the following
information should be provided in the "Proposed Design" chapter:
• Drawing of water and sewer lines, connections, and treatment facilities
• Planned use, treatment and reuse of gray water
• Location, size, and capacity of each structure, including type of treatment
• Construction method including temporary placement of fill
• Areas that will be temporarily disturbed during construction and measures to reclaim these
areas
• Water use budget and plan
• Use of groundwater vs. use of supplied water
• Water conservation plan
• Ground water resources and potential contamination concerns
• Emergency response and containment measures for leaks
• Monitoring and maintenance plans
If an on-site well will be constructed to provide water for the tourism development, information on any
permit requirements should be provided. The information needed for the "Proposed Design" section
will depend on the existence and the extent of any other permit required. In general, information on
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depth to groundwater, projected drawdowns, monitoring and maintenance should be provided for the
EIA.
Information requirements for water management are presented in Table C-8.
Table C-8: Project details for water and sanitation
COMPONENT
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
Uses
Requirements (m3/day), including conservation measures, and storage needs for:
• Rooms
• Restaurants/bars
• Toilet facilities
• Firefighting
• Vehicle washing
• Landscaping
• Pools
• Fountains
• Other non-potable uses
On-site Water Supply
• Water Rights
• Sources (surface/groundwater)
• Treatment (including desalination plant if proposed)
• Distribution Wells
Public/Community Water
Supply
Source
Treatment plant capacity, expansion or upgrade requirement
Conveyance system upgrade and expansion requirements
Pipe line location, constructions management and size
Wastewater Treatment
• Requirements (m3/day), including conservation measures
• Sources
• Pretreatment, including grease removal from kitchen and food resources
• Conveyance system upgrade and expansion requirements
• Treatment system
• Treatment plant capacity, expansion or upgrade requirement
• Discharge point
• Reuse of wastewater for irrigation, golf courses, landscaping toilet flushing, etc.
• Constructions management
4.2 Solid and Hazardous Waste
4.2.1 General
Tourism projects and use of resources generate solid waste that needs to be collected and disposed of.
Some, such as vehicle maintenance, storage areas, power generation, and fueling facilities, may
generate hazardous wastes including solvents, lubricants, hydraulic fluids, anti-freeze, spent tires, and
wash water. Others, such as warehouses, storage buildings and fueling stations may store hazardous
products (fuels and chemicals). As presented in Table C-9, in the EIA detailed solid and hazardous waste
management plans including spill prevention and containment plans are required. This includes a
detailed description of kind and quantities of wastes. These wastes are not only generated from hotels
and restaurants but also include spoils dredged material from keeping harbors free of sediment, the
maintenance of golf courses, and visiting cruise liners.
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Table C-9: Project details for waste management
COMPONENT
Solid Waste
Hazardous Waste
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
• Quantity (kg/day and ms/day), including waste reduction measures
• Collection
• Separation (if any)
• Disposal
• Recycling
• Dredge material disposal and disposal site management
• Prevention of marine debris from land-based and ocean-based
sources and nonpoint sources of pollution
• Facilities Support (Maintenance, shop and chemical management)
• Disposal method
• Spill control, response, and prevention
• Golf course waste management
A review of like facilities built and operated elsewhere is often the best tool to forecast waste
production and impacts for solid, liquid and hazardous wastes. Once in operation, environmental audits
to track actual waste general are useful tools in the Environmental Management scheme.
Solid waste generated during construction and operation will depend on what is built and where, and
subsequently what wastes are generated as a result of operation. The hospitality industry directed
towards western foreigners as patrons is notorious for the volumes of solid waste generated per capita
compared to local residents. Large resort complexes, transportation hubs (airports, cruise ship docks,
marinas, etc.) and theme parks can overwhelm the capabilities of local solid waste facilities. Accurate
estimations of the solid waste volumes and categories are essential to assess impacts. Waste
generation calculators can assist in forecasting needs and thus impacts of solid wastes. Benchmarking
can be used to measure waste management against desired "best in the industry" norms. The World
Wildlife Federation-UK and the International Business Leaders' Forum have developed international
environmental best practice benchmarks for the hospitality industry (WWF-UK and IBLF, 2005).)
The "Proposed Project Design" should describe how wastes will be managed, recycled, and disposed. It
will include containment designs and emergency response provisions for all facilities in which hazardous
substances will be stored and handled as well as those that may generate hazardous wastes.
4.2.2 Dredging Waste
Dredging operations and sediment placement is the excavation of material from the bed of a sea, river
or lake bed and the placement of the excavated material elsewhere. For tourism projects it is associated
with improving the navigable depths in ports, harbors and shipping channels. The management of
dredging site plans, dredging site operations, dredge material dredged material disposal and dredged
material disposal sites are extremely important to protect terrestrial, aquatic, and marine habitats.
Careful evaluation should be made of the dredging project and appropriate project management and
environmental protection made clear to the project managers. The evaluation of dredged material
disposal sites and alternatives should also be considered as part of the overall EIA process in order to
select sites with minimal adverse environmental impact. These investigations should include
alternatives for the beneficial reuse of the sediment such as for beach nourishment or habitat creation.
Disposal site selection in the open sea beyond the baseline of the territorial sea needs to be considered
in light of the London Protocol or the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNLOS),
international treaties to which many nations are signatory.
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The final dredging project plan should include:
• Quantities and quality of dredge materials to be excavated
• Location of dredging project
• Proximity of the dredging project to sensitive areas
• Location of disposal sites
• Proximity of the disposal areas to flood plains, sensitive areas (biologic and
cultural/historic/archeological
• Proximity of disposal areas to population centers
• Sediment to prevent problems from occurring during the project and after the project has been
constructed, including risk assessments biological, physical, geological, chemical, and disposal
operations.
• Site clearing, including protection of sensitive terrestrial and aquatic biological resources
4.2.3 Cruise Ship Waste
If the project is a cruise ship terminal or cruise ship access is part of a proposed tourism project or as a
source of patrons of concessions might include the following information as relevant:
• Number and size of cruise ship capacity
• Capacity of ships anticipated for terminal in terms of number of rooms and tourists
• Number of employees
The project description should include plans for collecting, storing, and disposing of solid and hazardous
wastes. Table C-10 includes a list of the types of waste materials generated by large passenger cruise
ships. Management of these wastes both on-shore and near-shore is important to reduce the
environmental impact to sensitive ecosystems. Organic wastes such as food stuffs may be disposed at
sea depending on regulatory authorities while other wastes can be disposed on shore in a regulated
landfill or by incineration.
Table C-10: Large passenger cruise ship waste generation and disposal
Medical waste
Oily waste
Oil filters
Dry cleaning solvents
Used sand or bead blasting
residue
Plastics
Photographic processing
chemicals
Batteries
Swimming pool chemicals
Miscellaneous spray cans
Cardboard and paper products
Printer cartridges and e-Waste
Oil sludge and slops
Used oil
Incinerator residue and air emissions from ship stacks
Paint and solvents
Food wastes
Scrap metals
Fluorescent light bulbs
Glassware, bottles, and crockery
Cleaning agents
Expired medicines/drugs
Miscellaneous garbage
Insecticides
Source: A California Task Force (2003) on evaluating solid waste and hazardous wastes from vessels
4.2.4 Restaurants
Descriptions of restaurants included in the proposed project:
• Assumptions about meals that would be eaten on-site or in existing local establishments
• Seating capacity
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• Assumptions and plans for access for deliveries of food and supplies and means of
transportation
• Plans for collection and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes as well as organic food wastes
• Water and energy sources and demand
4.2.5 Other Support Facilities
Support facilities and activities may include power generation and transmission facilities. These may be
located on or off-site. Information needs are described in Table C-ll. If it becomes clear that closure
will be required, or when the project nears the end of its service life, the project operator shall contact
the proper regulatory agency(ies) to obtain the environmental guidelines to carry out the closure or
decommissioning. The project description shall include at least a general.
Table C-ll: Project details for energy facilities
COMPONENT
Power Supply
Electricity Demand, Supply Conservation
Other Energy Demand, Supply, Conservation
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INFORMATION
• Locations
• Sizes
• Lighting
• Spill prevention and control
• Emergency power needs for critical site operations
Locations
Sizes
Lighting
Storm water management
Office Location and size
Rest rooms
Consumption, including energy conservation measures
Source- offsite
o Transmission lines (if necessary)
o Substation (if necessary)
On-site power generation power
o Type
o Emissions and noise controls (if applicable)
On-site distribution (routes, overhead or buried)
Fueling stations with spill prevention and control
5 PROJECT ALTERNATIVES
The Project and Alternatives Description section of the EIA should provide Information on the proposed
project and alternatives sufficient not only to describe how they meet the purpose and need but as a
basis for identifying and assessing their impact(s). This project description should include the nature,
size and type of project and all related facilities and activities, its overall design, construction, operation,
site design and land area, subsequent anticipated expansion and closure as well as the profile of direct
releases into the environment, employment, resource and waste streams, related transportation,
energy, communications, public health and safety infrastructure and the like, which are elaborated
below. Additional detail on tourism projects is provided in Appendix A.
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Analyzing alternatives is important to exploring
opportunities to avoid environmental, social and
economic concerns rather than just mitigate them
for a specific proposal. Alternatives are particularly
important given the significant potential impacts of
tourism projects. Alternatives should include:
• No action alternative: what happens in
absence of the proposed actions
• Alternative Project
o Alternative project at another location
• Modified project
o Alternative size
o Alternative Timing and sequencing of the
project
o Alternative location/sites
o Alternative site design/facility design or use
o Alternative water, wastewater
5.1 Identification and Assessment
Consideration of alternatives is the "heart" of
the EIA process and is a requirement of many
country EIA laws and procedures to foster
sustainable development and improved
decision making to reconcile economic,
environmental and social concerns. This
requirement to consider alternatives only
pertains to economically and technically
feasible alternatives and usually only a subset
of alternatives considered would be taken to
full analysis of impacts as needed to address
identified issues. No Action On-going activities
in the analysis area would continue to affect
the environment. Project alternatives offer
opportunities to avoid or reduce adverse
environmental, social and economic impacts of
the project. Given the public participation requirements of the EIA process, it is also important for the
project proponent to solicit public comment on the proposed alternatives analysis.
There are several issues to consider in determining the scope of alternatives that will need to be
addressed. All ElAs for tourism projects should include:
• No Action Alternative: the analysis of the no-action alternative which represents the reasonable
impacts, projected into the future, of not taking the proposed action. What would happen in
the future if the proposed project or action is not approved or withdrawn?
• Reasonable technically and economically feasible project options that would reduce potential
adverse environmental and socioeconomic impacts such as alternative designs, technology, site
design and facility design options for the project location including proposals by stakeholders,
for modifications or new project options posing lower impact.
Project descriptions for alternatives should be of sufficient detail to assess relative impact on the
environment and support any conclusions about why the alternative may have been selected or rejected
and the project proponent and government reviewer has had the opportunity to consider whether
feasible alternatives can achieve the purpose and need in a manner which better achieves sustainable
development goals.
5.2 Types of Alternatives for Tourism Development
5.2.1 No Action Alternative
This alternative provides the baseline against which impacts of the other analyzed alternatives are
compared. It can mean either doing nothing or maintaining the status quo. For a proposed new facility
or project it means that the proposed activity would not take place. It can also mean phasing out
certain activities. There may be more than one version of a no action alternative. A no action
alternative may or may not be a reasonable result of the EIA process. This could also pertain to specific
aspects of a proposed project.
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5.2.2 Alternate Project Site
Alternative site locations should be considered while continuing to realize the objectives of the tourist
activity, particularly sites which avoid or minimize adverse impacts on physical, biological and social-
economic-cultural resources. This will require an understanding of land ownership, proximity to
attractions, and other economic considerations. In doing so, concern should be given to
environmentally sensitive areas. An alternative site might also prove to be beneficial to better utilize
existing infrastructure or to avoid increasing risks of marine or river bank flooding related to climate
change.
5.2.3 Alternative Site Configuration Design
Resorts and associated developments are usually classified as high impact (IUCN,2009). They usually
involved large areas of land that may or may not have environmentally sensitive areas. Alternatives may
include changes to the site configuration or layout of a site to protect wildlife habitat, mangroves,
waterways, and other sensitive areas so that buffer zones can be developed or areas can be protected
to reduce or eliminate potential adverse impacts, for example, from erosion, mudslides, flooding
threats. Different site configurations may address concerns of the local population over issues like
visual, light and noise impacts. Proposed development of manmade beaches, such as "pocket" beaches,
may have alternative locations and configurations which can minimize impact on beach sand deposition
or erosion. In the EIA, such alternatives should be evaluated. As described in Section F, various
configurations can be evaluated using computer simulations.
In addition, various alternatives for
harbor and port design are to be
evaluated for the EIA. These include but
not limited to:
• Use Alternatives to use of jetties
and breakwaters.
• Channel Alternatives to any
proposed channel design and
dredging requirements
• Use Alternatives to the use of
fishing piers
• Alternative locations of
concessions
• Mooring alternatives and
alternative mooring docking areas
• Alternatives for proposed canals
• Debarkation Alternatives for
embarkation areas - accessibility
for physically disabled
• Location of parking lots, office,
and toilets
• Alternative use dry stacking to
store boats
• Considerations for protection
from storms
GREEN BUILDING
Green building (also known as green construction or
sustainable building) refers to a structure and using
process that is environmentally responsible and resource-
efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting to
design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation,
and demolition. This practice expands and complements
the classical building design concerns of economy, utility,
durability, and comfort. Although new technologies are
constantly being developed to complement current
practices in creating greener structures, the common
objective is that green buildings are designed to reduce
the overall impact of the built environment on human
health and the natural environment by:
• Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
• Protecting occupant health and improving employee
productivity
• Reducing waste, pollution and environmental
degradation.
A similar concept is natural building which is usually on a
smaller scale and tends to focus on the use of natural
materials that are available locally. Other related topics
include sustainable design and green architecture.
Sustainability may be defined as meeting the needs of
present generations without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their needs.
Source: US EPA (2009) and Hopkins (2002) extracted from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green building
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• Alternative locations for pathways, trails, and off-road vehicle use
• Alternative design, locations, and construction of concession stands
5.2.4 Construction Materials and Methods
In the EIA, the selection of building materials is to be discussed in detailed. As potential alternatives
discussed include:
• Green building concepts
• Not using chemically treated wood
• Use of porous materials for surfacing parking lots
• Minimization of land disturbance for quarrying aggregate
• Use of wood that is in abundant supply and from rapidly growing trees (bamboo)
5.2.5 Smaller Scaled Project
An alternate to the preferred alternative may be to build a similar facility only smaller - less active beach
front, fewer rooms, fewer amenities such as the number of pools and golf courses, smaller parking lots,
use of satellite parking, etc. Smaller developments with smaller hotels, smaller parking lots, and other
facilities might be also considered as an alternative.
5.2.6 Construction Sequencing
Initial construction sequencing should be presented, including the scheduling of construction for the
various components of the project including roads, repair shops, warehouses and other support
facilities, power sources and transmission lines, water sources and conveyances etc. Best practice
alternatives should be presented to minimize impact to near-by residents, wildlife (in terms of noise,
light, and obstruction). It should also be done in regard of seasonal fluctuations (rainy and dry season)
with most work being completed if possible during drier months.
5.2.7 Non-Structural Alternatives
Many Structural alternatives are often proposed for addressing flood risks and beach erosion, however,
there are often non-structural alternatives which are not only less costly but also potentially more
effective. For sensitive ecosystems such as wetlands, floodplains, mangroves, and beaches in coastal
areas, structural changes can have cascading impacts which can even exacerbate or undermine the
purpose for which structural changes were introduced. For example, many resorts are built in
relationship to ocean front areas and beaches play a critical role in offering recreational activities. In the
EIA, alternatives are to be discussed as to ways that beach developed in a safe and environmentally
sound manner including access to the beaches protection of sand dunes, and sensitive areas with
stabilizing vegetation, and protection of near shore, aquatic or marine habitats (i.e., seagrass beds,
lagoons, river/estuaries, patch reefs or fringing reefs in shallow water, mangrove forests, etc.), such as
sea grasses.
On occasion, beaches are constructed with sand hauled in from other locations or removal of existing
landscape to provide improved access to the beach. These are sometimes referred to as "pocket
beaches." For any such beach side tourism development, various alternatives for the following should
be discussed in detail as appropriate:
• Alternatives to proposals for new beach construction (use of "pocket beaches") and potential
impact on existing aquatic or marine habitats that are sensitive to smothering by beach erosion
• Alternatives to any proposed dredging for sand to develop beaches
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• Alternatives to proposals for shoreline protection (use of piers, jetties, etc.) should be
considered and planned carefully after a geological evaluation of the proposed project because
the construction may disturb the "river of sand" and affect up coast or down coast beach areas
or sensitive near shore habitats through erosion, accretion, or smothering by sand
• Alternatives to methods of dredging
• Alternatives to shoreline protection (use of piers, jetties, etc.)
• Alternative methods for sand dune protection (fencing, vegetation, etc.)
• Alternatives to golf design and location, such as golf course development near ocean front
beaches
• Alternatives to any proposals for dredging, solid waste, debris, and trash control and removal
5.3 Alternative Environmental Management and Control
5.3.1 Wastewater Management
As stated in ILJCN (2009), a tourist business' wastewater consists of the effluent from toilets, showers,
and washstands, as well as kitchen and laundry facilities. Toilet effluents are called sewage, while the
others are called gray or soapy water. Sewage contains bacteria that are harmful for health, while gray
waters contain soap, detergent, chlorine, fat, and food residues. Both need treatment; however, many
companies do not treat gray waters properly. Moreover, pool water contains chlorine, and water from
green areas may contain pesticides and fertilizers.
One alternative is for a tourist development is for it to "hook-up" to available wastewater treatment
systems such as a city's. This is not without an impact for sewerage pipelines would be developed to
meet main trunk lines producing potential impacts due to construction activities. More often than not a
resort would develop its own system. The design of a system could be simple or complex but should be
designed to prevent harmful bacteria (pathogens), nutrients, and unwanted chemicals from entering
groundwater or waterways. In the EIA, alternative wastewater treatment should be considered. These
alternatives include:
• Removing fats, oils, grease, and other food residues from the gray water using a trap.
• Having the waters flow into a tank where the solids sink to the bottom (septic tank).
• Using sealed processes (anaerobic treatment) or aerated processes (aerobic treatment) in the
water, make biogas generator bio-digesters for the organic matter.
• Filtering.
• Primary settling in an oxidation pond.
• A series of lagoon treatment ponds, and filtering through a constructed wetland before
discharge to the ocean.
• More sophisticated methods using secondary treatment with chlorine/dechlorination, ozone, or
some other process killing any remaining bacteria or viruses.
According to ILJCN (2009), the main decision to be made during the design stage is about the type of
water treatment needed. Whenever there is an absence of municipal water treatment, the company
would generally need to build its own treatment plant, both for sewage and gray waters depending
upon the size and location of the project. For large projects, two options are available: aerobic or
anaerobic plants. Aerobic plants require an oxidation pond with either air or oxygen injection, and with
constant energy consumption of about 1 KW or more. Large anaerobic plants may use a process known
in Central America as UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor), which does not require
electricity; in addition, this process produces methane gas that may be used as fuel itself or utilized in
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order to generate electricity. The operation costs of anaerobic plants are lower in tropical climates than
aerobic plants, and they produce only a fourth of the sludge. The quality of a UASB plant effluent tends
to be better than that of aerobic plants. The design and construction of a treatment plant requires the
services of experts. For more information, visit www.uasb.org/index.htmtfTOC or
www.monografias.com/trabaioslO/tratami/tratami.shtml.
5.3.2 Solid waste management
Waste reduction is an important aspect of solid waste management. In addition, recycling items such as
news papers, aluminum cans, bottles, plastic, and other materials can go a long way in reducing costs. If
possible, it is also good to reuse items such as soft drink bottles by returning them. Finally, organic
waste can be composted and turned into fertilizer with biogas as a by-product with could be used for
energy production.
In the development of an EIA, several alternatives need to be evaluated. These include:
• Waste reduction (recycling, reuse, etc.)
• Construction of on-site landfill (with evaluation of several site locations and strict management
to prevent stormwater and nonpoint source runoff of solid waste or fluids.)
• Transport to an off-site municipal landfill site
• Site litter management (locations of receptacles, etc.) and cleanup of marine debris
• Pet waste control
An example of a structure which can be used to manage solid waste is presented in Figure C-l.
Figure C-l: Infrastructure to store solid waste
Mesh
Metal mesh
cover
Metal
structure
Source: Astorga, Allan (2006), "Guia ambiental centroamericana para el sector de desarrollo de infraestructura urbana",
UICN/ORMA, San Jose, Costa Rica.
5.3.3 Hazardous Waste Management
According to ILJCN (2009), resorts, marinas, ports, and other tourism activities although minimal
produce toxic and hazardous substances such as paint, insecticides, pesticides, wood preservatives,
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swimming pool disinfectants, and fuel (as well as their containers), in addition to computer monitors
and circuits, fluorescent bulbs, and nickel-cadmium batteries (NiCd or NiCad), and automobile batteries
are all toxic wastes requiring special storing and pickup systems. Unfortunately, this type of service is
not available in many parts of the region. Alternatives should be developed for the management,
storage and placement of material with spill prevention and control plans in place. These alternatives
should have emergency measures in place with proper personnel protection for employees.
5.3.4 Noise and Light Management
Excessive light and noise can disturb neighbors, patrons, and wildlife (ILJNC). Alternatives should be
developed in the EIA to limit the impact of such disturbances. These alternatives can include:
• The placement of restaurants, discos, party areas, etc. away from protective areas and guests
• Use of sound proof buildings
• Shield lighting systems
• Use of light reduction curtains in rooms
• Limiting hours of operation , perhaps with the use of timers
5.3.5 Water Drainage and Stormwater Management
Managing stormwater properly can reduce erosion and inflow of sediment and chemicals into
waterways. Since stormwater management is a cross-cutting issue for construction and operation of a
resort and other tourist facility information on the project design should provide alternatives for design,
construction and maintenance of appropriate water-control measures including protection of natural
streams, rivers, aquifers, and other waterbodies; collection ditches, sedimentation ponds, diversions,
and culverts; and activities that would minimize erosion and sedimentation. The design should address
run-on, runoff and seepage. The type of information that should be provided for each type of facility is
detailed in each subsection.
5.3.6 Sediment and Water-Control Facilities
• Location of all facilities - alternatives to protect sensitive areas and be environmentally friendly
• An analysis showing that the smallest amount of land as possible will be disturbed at one time
and potential alternatives
• Alternative methods to reduce runoff, run-on, sedimentation and erosion - use of natural and
constructed methods to reduce runoff
• Alternative methods of retaining sediment
• Alternative methods for diverting runoff from the disturbed areas
• Alternative methods for diverting surface water, including stormwater, around the disturbed
area
• Alternative methods for preventing seepage
• Alternative methods for treating and maintaining roads for reducing runoff, erosion, and dust
• All supporting engineering designs, methodology and justification for selecting the appropriate
methodology over alternatives
• Alternative methods for closure and restoration
• Monitoring and maintenance plans
5.3.7 Temporary Ponds and Permanent Impoundments
• Number of each type of impoundment showing alternative locations
• Location, size and capacity of each structure evaluating potential alternatives
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• Alternative materials to be used, and its source
• Alternative designs with design criteria and justification
• Alternatives for water discharge treatment facilities
• Alternative methods for closure and restoration
• Monitoring and maintenance programs
5.3.8 Culverts, Dikes and Diversions
• Number of each type of structure with alternatives
• Location and size of each structure
• Alternative methods for design
• Alternative construction methods: cuts, fills, materials and their sources, compaction
• Timing of construction
• Alternative methods for closure and restoration
• Monitoring and maintenance programs
5.3.9 Groundwater Management
• Alternative well locations (away from the sea and sensitive areas)
• Alternative methods to reduce pumping rates (water conservation, well field management)
• Alternative well placement or depth to improve water chemistry and reduce water treatment
requirements
• Use of well field management tools to optimize well placement - groundwater model and
projected draw-downs
• Monitoring and maintenance programs
6 Manpower and Local Purchases
The project description should present information on the number and type of employees that will be
hired by the project, during all phases of its life, and the level at which the project will be relying upon
local businesses to provide goods and services. This information is necessary for assessing the social
impacts of the proposed project. For both construction and operation, this information should include:
• Number and type of employees (by local hire and non-local hire) by field of expertise, skilled and
unskilled
• Days per week
• Hours per day
• Shifts per day
Inventory of needed construction materials and their available, local, licensed quarries, gravel pits and
other material suppliers should be itemized. If employee housing will be provided, this should be
described as part of the discussion on ancillary/support features. This information is necessary for
assessing the social impacts of the proposed development.
7 Closure
The project description should include at least a general closure and decommissioning plan describing
the plan for closing, restoration, abandonment or reuse of the projector facilities, the machinery and
structures, and restoring the land surface. The plan should contain a commitment to contact the proper
regulatory agency(ies) before the time of closure to obtain the environmental applicable guidelines to
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carry out the closure or decommissioning, recognizing that terms of closure may be very different when
this phase approaches.
Restoration, Reuse and Closure Plan, recognizing that terms of closure may be very different when this
phase approaches. The description of restoration measures should include the size of the area to be
restored as well as concurrent, temporary and final restoration measures to be used and their
schedules. For each measure include:
• Area to be addressed
• Timing and schedule for executing measures
• Equipment and structure removal or conversion
• Remedial measures, including success indicators and contingency measures if initial efforts are
unsuccessful
• Plans for reuse of all or parts of the proposed project. The description of plans for reuse should
include the size of the area to be reused (the whole or partially) as well as concurrent,
temporary and final restoration (if applies) measures to be used and their schedules and a
restoration and closure plan in case the reuse alternative no longer applies. For each probable
reuse include:
o Area to be addressed
o Possible entities interested in the property
o Narrative of each possible use
o Timing of which the area might remain inactive while waiting for the definitive reuse plans
o Commitment to perform restoration and closure plan if the initial efforts for reuse are
unsuccessful
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D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
1 INTRODUCTION
A detailed description of the
Environmental Setting for a tourism
project is an important aspect of an
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). It
provides an environmental, socioeconomic
and cultural baseline for assessment of
impacts by describing the existing
conditions and those that are predicted for
the future in the absence of the proposed
project. The information presented in the
Environmental Setting should not be
encyclopedic, but rather should include
the specific, detailed information that is
necessary to predict impacts and
ultimately against which to monitor
impacts. This section should include an
environmental baseline of what would
exist in the absence of the proposed
project for the physical, biological and
social-economic-cultural environments
that could be affected by the alternatives
under consideration, taking into account
both the current situation and important
trends. What is included in each of these three environments is summarized in Table D-l. The scope of
the specific information required to describe each type of environment will vary with type and setting of
the project as well as the typical types of impacts with which it is associated with each type of project.
This baseline aids in focusing attention on the critical environmental and socioeconomic factors, how
the project might affect them, and how best to avoid or mitigate potential problems. In addition, the
description of both the current environment and predicted conditions in the absence of the proposed
project aids in the determination of potential cumulative environmental impacts that might occur
should there be other impact causing activities to those same resources.
Any new collection of data for a baseline environmental setting requires theinvolvement of appropriate
experts following scientifically accepted methods and specifically designed sampling and monitoring
plans. This process should be documented in the EIA. In some instances plans for countries may require
that monitoring may requireand specific sampling plans undergo review and approval by EIA review
officials prior to execution. It is a cautionary note to project proponents and consultants preparing an
EIA that the need for any such monitoring be established and agreed to by the EIA reviewing authority
well in advance so as not to create delays in developing the EIA.
ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
In order to predict potential impacts of a tourism project it is
important to have detailed information on the Environmental
Setting to provide baseline conditions for the:
• Physical environment,
• Biological environment, and
• Socioeconomic and cultural environment.
The details on how each of these is addressed in the EIA are
dependent on the complexity of the area, the nature of the
operation (small or large, in an urban environment or rural,
land or water, concessionaire or fixed-base, etc.), social issues
and regulatory requirements. The period of baseline data
collection for water resources, air, climate, and ecosystems
(flora, fauna, wildlife, etc.) must be significant enough so that
determination of long-term impacts can be made and may
require data to be collected over a period of one to five years.
Special emphasis for baseline studies depends on the nature
of the proposed project. For example a proposed resort with a
golf course would evaluate archeological resources more
thoroughly than a proposed pier for a small diving concession
due to the nature and extent of the ground-disturbing
activities.
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D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
Table D-l: Elements of the physical biological and social-economic cultural environments
01
E
CD
Geology and Soils
• Topopgraphy and slopes
• Soil quality, stability (includes erosion hazards susceptibility to landslideslandslides)
• Seismology/volcanology and susceptibility to earthquakes, development of faults, cracks,
or ground movement from seismic events and volcanic eruptions
• Mineral and contruction material types and sources
• Paleontological resources
• Unique geological formations
Freshwater Resources
Surface Water (and flood potential)
Watersheds
Groundwater (water levels, aquifer characteristics, recharge zones, flow direction, etc.)
Water Quality
Water Quantity
Marine Water Resources
• Physical oceanography
• Geological oceanography
• Marine water quality in relation to: contact recreation, noncontact recreation, and baseline
water chemistry (total N, total P, biological oxygen demand, suspended solids and
sediment, pH, E. coli, Enterococcus sp., and faecal coliform bacteria concentrations)
Air and Climate
• Meteorology (includes regional and local.and susceptability to storms and tidal surges)
• Ambient Air Quality (includes levels, visibility and deposition patterns)
• Existing Emissions (includes: onshore vehicles; recreational vessels, commercial vessels,
and cruise ships; onshore diesel generators at the facility; cooking facilities; wastewater
treatment facilities; nearby recreational, commercial or industrial facilities; acid rain; and
crop burning)
Noise and Vibration
Aesthetic Resources
Risk assessment related to natural disasters (including floods, landslides, erosion, hurricaines,
drought, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, and other trends and dangers related to climatic
change)
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D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
01
E
CD
_U
'5b
_o
o
5
Terrestrial and marine flora (especially mangrove forests and seagrass beds)
Terrestrial and marine fauna (especially all types of coral reefs (e.g., fringing, patch, bank,
barrier, etc,), shellfish beds, nursery areas for fisheries, local fishing areas)
Ecosystems (terrestrial, wetlands, aquatic, and marine)
• Key trends in structure and functions not captured under Flora and Fauna
• Sensitive Ecosystems
• Ecosystem Services
Endangered or Threatened Species, Species of Concern, and Habitats
Protected Areas
01
E
LLJ
"CD
E
o
c
o
u
CD
O
to
Socioeconomic Condition and Resources
• Population
• Economy
• Social Characteristics
• Health
• Safety and emergency response (e.g., range of natural disasters, oil or hazardous material
spills, beach cleanup and debris removal, dangerous ocean currents, dangerous river
currents, underwater obstructions that may affect boating, known contaminated areas on
land or in aquatic or marine areas)
• Education
• Vulnerable Populations (indigenous peoples, minority and low income populations)
Infrastructure
• Transportation
• Public Health (potable water supply, water and wastewater treatment, solid and hazardous
waste management)
• Communications
• Energy
Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources
• World Heritage and cultural sites
• Historic and archeological sites (Land and underwater sites)
Land Use (Actual and potential land use)
Agriculture, forested lands, watersheds, wetlands)
Recreation and tourism (recreational boating areas; swimming, diving and snorkeling areas;
beach areas; hiking and trail areas; shipwrecks and underwater archaeological or historical
sites; etc.)
Housing
o Commercial and industrial developmentPopulation centersScientific research and
educational use areas
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D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Geology and Soils
Documentation of geology, soils and topography at the tourism site should be presented in the
Environmental Setting in narrative and tabular form, cross-sections, and on maps on which
potential impacts can be overlaid. Information on geology, soils and topography is typically
available from the responsible ministries and academia. A site-specific soil survey and test may
be required if such data is not reliable, adequate or readily available. Some of the specific areas
that should be included are:
• Regional geology should be addressed in terms of and paleontological resources.
• Identification and characterization of geological, geophysical and stratigraphic profiles, faults,
and structures. A preliminary level to characterize the seismic conditions.
• Characterize surface features and morphogenic processes operating in the study area.
• Topographical characterization
• Summary table of soil properties estimating quantities, depth, area and type of soil removal
and/or recommended replacement material. Include mechanical properties of soils. Identify the
available sources of materials used.
• Characterize and map represent land units representing the study area. Analyze current and
potential uses of soil in the study. Carry out preliminary agrological quality soil for areas of
study.
• Methodology of sampling and tests and their respective depths. Conclusions and
recommendations specific to the project in engineering terms, load capacity of the land.
2.1.1 Topography and Slopes
It is important to a a thorough understanding of the topography and slope stability of a tourism site. This
is important in terms of predicting runoff characteristics of rainfall events, in the identification of
geologic hazards, and the stability of buildings should an event such as an earthquake occur.
2.1.2 Soil Quality and Erosion Potential
Soil quality is important in both as a potential factor in agricultural productivity and potential function in
its stability characteristics for supporting the construction of new facilities. Many tourism projects have
the potential to modify runoff and sedimentation, so it is important that enough soil data are provided
so that runoff and sediment transport models can provide meaningful results.
During baseline data collection, it is important to collect information on the erosion potential of the
soils, the chemical composition of each soil type, and the availability and suitability of soils for use
during restoration and revegetation. If a soil survey is necessary, it should include:
• Soil type
• Grain size distribution,
• Engineering properties including stability
• Depth of various horizons
• Permeability
• Erosion and sedimentation potential
• Current land uses
• Soil map units representing the study area
• Current and potential uses of soil in the study areas
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• Preliminary agricultural soil quality: fertility, vegetative growth potential, etc.
Particular care should be given to studying tropical soil structure and chemistry since such soils are very
sensitive to degradation.
2.1.3 Geologic Hazards
Tourism activities can often take place in regions prone to natural hazards. Seismic activity, including
frequency and intensity of earthquakes and tremors, should be included in this subsection, particularly
for projects that include large structures. If the tourism site or right-of-way is located within a radius of
30 km from an active volcanic emission center, information should also be presented on the general
volcanic features of the area near the site, historical eruptions, and period of recurrence, type of
eruptions, and areas most likely to be affected by eruptions.
In addition, tsunamis caused by earthquakes even several thousand kilometers away can generate
waves that can cause severe damage to beaches, infrastructure, dwellings, and buildings. In the
planning process consideration should be given in defining those area which are prone to be affected by
large waves and potentially affected areas should be delineated.
2.1.4 Beaches and Coastal Areas
Beaches are a major attraction for tourist activities and can vary greatly in quality of the sand, roughness
of the surf, seasonal erosion of the sand and trends, whether they are rocky and difficult to access or
easy to access. The seasonal wave direction and trends in beach erosion are tied to meteorological
disturbances and seasonal changes in ocean currents as well as the natural contours of the ocean floor
(including coral reefs or sandy areas) below the surface. This information should be clearly presented,
and in appropriate detail for projects which will utilize this resource and in particular for those projects
that include proposals for the development of any dredging operations, jetties, piles, docks, marinas etc
which can alter coastal ocean current patterns. If any structural activities are proposed for shore
stabilitization it is important that the EIA also explore non-structural shore stabilization measures
because of the experience of such structures creating their own beach erosion and destabilization in
adjacent and nearby locations.
For the marine-coastal environment project, the bathymetry and substrate conditions are critical to
construction and operations and for assessing impacts. Additionally, seasonal currents and wave
patterns should be accounted for in design and affect the in-water, over-water and near shore land-
based construction.
2.1.5 Unique Geological Formations
Unique geological geological formations should be identified in terms of their biological, historic or
future destination by tourists and particular sensitivities for sustaining their integrity and values. Among
these are underwater and above ground caves, geothermal sources which have provided the source of
hot water saunas and bathes, as well as energy, and the types of coral reefs (fringing, patch, bank or
barrier) and their associated ecosystem components.
2.2 Water Resources
2.2.1 Surface Water
The Environmental Setting section should include an evaluation of surface water resources in the area of
influence of the project. Area of influence is defined further in Chapter F, Assessing Impacts. This
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should include the analysis of the watershed characteristics including water quality, flow characteristics,
soils, vegetation, and impervious cover (see box below). This information should be shown on
topographic maps which should include all surface water resources and floodplains in the area of
influence overlaid with the proposed project facilities including all monitoring stations and discharge
points. In addition this analysis should take into account likely climate change impacts, e.g., sea level
rise, which should be considered in evaluating water resources. See e.g.,
http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/adaptation.html.
All rivers, streams, wetlands, lakes, bays, coastal reaches, and other water bodies should be identified as
well as the current uses of the water within the area of influence (See Chapter F for definition). All
existing historic surface water flow data in the area of influence should be collected, compiled and
analyzed to present information on:
• Average daily, monthly and annual flows in cubic meters per second (m3/s)
• Maximum monthly flows in m3/s
• Minimum monthly flow in m3/s
• The river network and geomorphological characteristics of the streams
• Inter-relationships with tidal fluctuations in ocean areas
• Wetlands and their relatiionship with streams
• 2-, 10-, 25-, 50- and 100-year flood and storm runoff events and associated floodplains for
streams and rivers
• Seasonal fluctuations in area and volume of wetlands, lakes and reservoirs
WATERSHED APPROACH
It is important to evaluate impacts of a tourism project in relation to the entire watershed. Watershed
management involves both the quantity of water (surface and ground water) available and the quality of these
waters. Understanding the impact of the project on both the quantity and quality of water should take into
account the cumulative impacts of other activities in the same watershed.
A watershed-based impact assessment approach involves the following 10 steps:
1. Identify and map the boundaries of the watershed in which the project is located and place the project
boundaries on the map
2. Identify the drainage pattern and runoff characteristics in the watershed
3. Identify the downstream rivers, streams, wetlands, lakes, bays, seas, and other water bodies
4. Determine the current and projected consumptive and non-consumptive uses of the water in these
resources
• Drinking water
• Irrigation
• Aquaculture
• Industry
• Recreation
• Support of aquatic life
• Navigation
5. Estimate the impact of the project on the consumptive and non-consumptive use of water
6. Determine the existing quality of the water in these resources
7. Determine the nature and extent of pollutants discharged throughout the watershed
8. Determine the anticipated additional pollutant discharge from the proposed activity
9. Identify other anticipated additional developments planned or projected for the watershed
10. Identify stakeholders involved in watershed and encourage their participation in project design
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An important aspect of an EIA is the development and presentation of baseline surface water quality
monitoring data, which should be collected prior to disturbance. Monitoring of baseline conditions
should take place for at least a year so that seasonal fluctuations in flow and water quality can be
determined. All existing historic water quality data for the area of influence should be compiled to help
define the baseline, and the need for additional monitoring defined in terms of its duration, location,
frequency and methods to be used. The need for additional monitoring should be established with
sufficient lead time to include necessary information within the EIA. Any new monitoring that is
performed to obtain additional information should be carried out by appropriate professionals following
and documenting scientifically accepted and replicable procedures.
Prior to implementing any baseline monitoring program, a "Sampling and Analysis Plan" should be
developed. This plan would define sample locations, sampling techniques, chemical parameters, and
analytical methods. Sample locations should be located upstream and immediately downstream of
potential pollutant sources. The selection of chemical parameters to be monitored is dependent on the
nature of the pollutants to be discharged to surface water. Monitored parameters may include: field
parameters (pH, specific conductance, temperature, dissolved oxygen, etc.) and laboratory analyzed
parameters (total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, selected trace metals, major cations/anions,
Biological Oxygen Demand, nitrate, Phosphate, oil and grease, total and fecal coliform, turbidity), and
perhaps other parameters depending on the nature of the operation. The plan should be coordinated
with the EIA reviewing authority or the governmental agency responsible for managing water resources
to ensure that the information will be acceptable to the government when the EIA is evaluated.
Tourism projects vary widely and the potential sources of water pollution are equally diverse. A golf
course operation can strain the water supply and have the potential of nutrient loading to both surface
and ground waters from irrigation,fertilization practices and the application of pesticides, herbicides and
fungicides; transportation hubs have the potential for chemical contamination from fuels, oils and air
emission depositions; and onsite wastewater septic systems can pollute surface or ground waters with
bacteria and nutrients. For tourism projects that have these identifiable associated risks, data should be
augmented by the results of a site specific surface water (or as relevant groundwater) quality monitoring
program conducted at specific locations within the project area.
2.2.2 Marine Waters
The quality (total suspended solids, BOD5, pH, oil and grease, bacteria, floatables, etc.) and physical
characteristics (temperature, salinity, transmissivity, sediments, currents, wave characteristics, etc.) of
the marine waters are important to define as they may impact potential uses at the tourism facility. In
regard to the water environment, instances of oil and other organic, inorganic, and bacteriological
contaminants should be noted along with seasonal trends. Changes in temperature, salinity, water
clarity, and ocean currents during levels of high and low tide will affect the flora and fauna described in
the biological environment. The location and status of coral reefs should be noted as well. Section 3
includes examples of methods for characterizing the health of coral reefs.
2.2.3 Groundwater
The extent of the characterization of the baseline groundwater resources necessary for tourism projects
varies greatly with the type of project. Many Concession projects have little potential for impacts to
groundwater, so may not require baseline information on groundwater. Those with on-site septic
systems may have percolation tests, depth to groundwater and other limited added investigations.
Other projects may have impacts on groundwater quality or quantity or both, and therefore require
more information on groundwater conditions. The primary potential impacts to groundwater resources
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commonly associated with tourism activities and facilities include: hardscaping such as buildings and
parking lots on large development projects can diminish recharge of aquifers; wastewater systems and
septic fields could contaminate springs and wells; and handling of chemicals, fuels and hazardous
wastes have the potential for contaminating groundwater sources.
For those projects that can impact groundwater quantity, the Environmental Setting section should
include descriptions of aquifers (bedrock and alluvial) including their geology, aquifer characteristics
(hydraulic characteristics), and the flow regime/direction for each aquifer. The influences of geologic
structures (faults, contacts, bedrock fracturing, etc) and surface water bodies on the aquifers should also
be mapped or determined.
All wells and springs in the area should be mapped and information should be provided on their flows,
water levels and uses. These maps should be overlaid with the topography and should cover the area of
influence. For wells, depth and construction information should be presented. The EIA should also
indicate which ones have been monitored and which ones will be monitored during and after
operations. This information can then be used, along with the locations of potential recharge and
contaminant sources, to determine potential impacts.
For those projects that can impact groundwater quantity quantityor quality, the information on vadose
zone and aquifer characteristics should include sufficient data on the parameters to allow aquifer and
vadose zone modeling, as necessary. The necessary parameters will depend on the type modeling that
will be required, which should be selected based on the nature of the potential impacts. Any model
used requires valid validdata to make realistic predictions. The baseline information should make it
possible to determine whether there is any danger of salt water intrusion on fresh water sources
because of draw down.
As with surface water, an important aspect of the EIA is the development and presentation of baseline
water monitoring data, collected prior to project-induced disturbance. All existing data on quantity and
quality of water from springs and wells in the vicinity of the project area should be collected and
reported in the EIA to help define the baseline. For projects that can potentially have impacts on
groundwater quality, if data for existing wells and springs are not available, a "Sampling and Analysis
Plan" should be prepared and a sampling program implemented. The sampling should include water
levels and flow rates as well as other parameters such as pH, temperature, and specific conductance.
The selection of chemical parameters to be monitored is dependent on the nature of the activity and its
potential to contaminate the aquifer.
2.2.4 Special Water Resources
In the context of tourism the EIA should highlight water resources that have particular significance for
tourism as an attraction or historical use. Trends in these special sources in terms of quality and use
should be described.
2.3 Air and Climate
2.3.1 Climate and Meteorology
Understanding climate and meteorology in the project area is important for the design of a long-term air
monitoring program (as necessary for large tourism complexes where significant transportation-related
emission increases are likely), developing a water balance for the site, and designing water/erosion
control structures and public safety. During the baseline data collection period, climatic data from local
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weather stations should be gathered and analyzed. This data should include at least historic data such
as:
• Rainfall (monthy, total, intensity, and duration)
• Wind direction and speed (by month)
• Solar radiation (monthly)
• Evaporation rates (monthly)
• Barometric pressure (monthly)
• Temperature (maximum, minimum, average by month)
• Tropical weather systems such as hurricane frequency and magnitude.
For large projects, if no data are available near the site, a weather station should be established and
baseline data should be collected for at least one year to reflect the seasonal changes at the site. All
sampling site and weather station locations should be depicted on a map in the EIA. In addition,
potential risks and risk management programs should be identified for hurricanes, tropical storms and
tsunamis. Changing climatic patterns due to climate change should be factored into this analysis.
2.3.2 Ambient Air Quality and Existing Emissions
If the tourism project includes a large increase in transportation services, collection of baseline air
emission data is advised. Transportation emissions affect not only air quality, but also greenhouse gases
contributing to global climate change; and emission deposition can effect surface water quality.
Many areas attractive to tourists lack air quality data because their environmental issues have primarily
related to other concerns or their have not been funds to monitor air quality; however, baseline
emissions and ambient air quality information can be important, particularly where tourist activities may
cause increases in emissions as a result of burning dirty fuels and vehicular traffic or project site
clearance activities may increase levels of particulates via suspension of dust and open burning of
debris.
2.4 Noise and Vibration
Baseline noise measurements should be taken at representative points of reception prior to start of
construction, for comparison to expected noise levels during construction and operation, and
comparison to applicable noise standards. Noise levels in and around sensitive habitats and areas of
human habitation should also be taken if possible impact is suspected.
A point of reception or receptor may be defined as any point on or near the premises occupied by
persons or animals where extraneous noise and/or vibration are received. Examples of receptor
locations include: permanent or seasonal residences; hotels/motels; schools and daycare facilities;
hospitals and nursing homes; places of worship; parks and campgrounds; sensitive habitats such as
breeding, birthing or nesting areas. Beyond "point of reception", the physical setting should also be
described. Noise travels and dissipates over terrain differently; water, open lands, vegetated strips,
urban settings and elevation changes can affect the resultant noise impact at the "point of reception".
At waterside outdoor tourism locales (beaches, restaurants, bars, music venues, etc,.), the receptors
across the waterwayshould also be given consideration.
Noise monitoring programs should be designed and conducted by trained specialists. The monitoring
periods should be sufficient for statistical analysis and may last 48 hours or cover differing time periods
within several days, including weekday and weekend workdays. Noise monitoring should be carried out
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using Type 1 or 2 sound level meters meeting all appropriate IEC standards and capable of logging the
type of data required by the design (continuously over the monitoring period, or hourly, or more
frequently, as appropriate). Monitors should be located approximately 1.5 meters above the ground.
2.5 Aesthetic Resources
Baseline information on views and vistas that could be impacted by the proposed project should be
identified in the Environmental Setting. Vistas and views include, but are not limited to mountains,
waterfalls, skylines (including sunrises and sunsets), beaches,), and cultural, archeological, and historical
structures. Narrative descriptions of existing visual assets are also useful as the specific importance of a
view may not be obvious to a non-local viewer. In addition, this subsection should present information
on existing visibility in the project area. This subsection should present panoramic photos of the
proposed facility site from potential viewpoints such as communities, roads, and designated scenic
viewing areas. These photos can be used to establish the views without the facility and provide a
baseline on which the facility can be overlaid.
Information should also be presented in the subsection on light pollution from existing sources in the
project area, including communities, factories, street lights, etc. Where objective measurement is
desired, light levels can be quantified by field measurement or mathematical modeling, with results
typically displayed as an isophote map or light contour map.
2.6 Risk Assessment from Natural Hazards
Many sources of risk to the biological and socio-economic-cultural environments are contained within
the descirption of the physical enviornment. To provide an adequate basis for impact assessment for
the proposed project and alternatives as well as form the basis for mitigation, monitoring and
contingency plans for addressing residual risk, it is important that the various risks be adequately
portrayed and assessed both statistically and in geo-spatial terms so that they can be related to the
proposed project. Chapter F describes scenarios for bounding risks that may have a great deal of
uncertainty related to them. For purposes of the EIA, risks should be reasonably foreseeable, but should
attempt to take into account known risks which have low probability but high risk. These risks as
portrayed in the EIA should be readily related to descriptions of the biological and socio-economic-
cultural impact sections as well as to the proposed project and alternatives. Any plans for climate
adaptation should be identified and taken into account.
3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
The Environmental Setting information for biological resources should include information on:
• Terrestrial and Marine Flora
• Terrestrial and Marine Fauna
• Ecosystems: terrestrial, wetland/mangroves , aquatic and marine ecosystems
• Threatened or endangered Species and habitats
• Protected Areas, artificial reefs, and sensitive ecosystems
In evaluating baseline conditions of terrestrial, wetland/mangrove, aquatic and marine ecosystems, the
following steps should be taken:
• Obtain readily available information on biodiversity through review of maps, reports and
publications available from government agencies, universities, NGOs or online.
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• Produce maps of all habitats and key species locations, protected areas, migration corridors,
seasonal use areas (mating, nesting,, etc.)
• Describe timing of important seasonal activities (nesting, breeding, migration, etc.) for species
that could be affected by the tourism project activities.
• Determine the following ecological characteristics of the project area:
o Size of each habitat and buffer areas needed to protect sensitive habitats
o Existing condition of each habitat and its value
o Speciesvalue of species/habitat richness
o Fragility of the ecosystem
o Population size for important species or species of concern
o Rarity of any species or habitat
• Identify whether the site or surrounding area falls within a protected area - e.g., a natural area
designated by the government as having special protection (National Park, National Forest,
Wildlife Reserve, Marine Protected Area, etc.).
• Identify whether the site or surrounding area is not currently protected but has been identified
by governments or other stakeholders as having a high biodiversity conservation priority.
• Identify whether the site or surrounding area has particular species that may be under threat.
• Review and summarize relevant legal provisions relating to biodiversity, species protection and
protected area management (including requirements of any management plans that exist for
designated protected areas).
• Elicit the views of stakeholders and recognized experts within the country (inside and outside of
government) on whether the site or surrounding area has rare, threatened, or culturally
important species.
The evaluation of any ecosystem whether terrestrial, wetland/mangrove, aquatic or marine, is
dependent upon professional judgment and requires the involvement of experts in the technical area
appropriate for the type of resource and their use by the local population. In areas where there is little
or no information available, considerable field work may be required to collect the information listed
above and should be collected and assessed by appropriate experts and generally accepted methods
and under a replicable sampling plan. Different techniques and sampling plans to establish biodiversity
may be appropriate for flora and fauna in the area of influence.
3.1 Flora
An inventory of terrestrial, aquatic, and marine flora within the project boundaries and project area of
influence should be conducted during the collection of baseline information for the Environmental
Setting. The best sources of data on local flora are local peoples, relevant ministries (forestry,
agriculture and environment), and academia. The results of the inventory should be presented as
vegetation maps of the area which usually will also serve to provide a map of the relevant ecosystems.
Narrative descriptions of vegetation types should also be included, identifying species endemism,
keystone species (species that play a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological
community and whose impact on the community is greater than would be expected based on its relative
abundance or total biomass) and species rarity including identification of those that may be threatened
or endangered. Areas of special interest may include canopies, mangroves, types of corals, and
seagrasses.
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3.2 Fauna
An inventory of terrestrial, aquatic, and marine fauna within the project boundaries and project area of
influence should also be conducted during the collection of baseline information for the Environmental
Setting. The best sources of data on local fauna are local peoples, relevant ministries (forestry,
agriculture and environment), and academia.
The results of the inventory should present information on the status (i.e. endemic, migratory, exotic,
endangered, threatened, keystone, etc.) and life history characteristics (mating and brooding seasons,
migratory patterns, etc.) of the species identified as residing in the area. For terrestrial species, maps
should be included identifying:
• Breeding areas
• Nesting and calving areas
• Migratory corridors (if applicable)
Information on fish, mussel, macroinvertibrate and other aquatic species should incude:
• Spatial and temporal distribution
• Species life stage composition
• Standing crop
• Age and growth data
• Spawning timing run
• Maps of coral reef areas, including fringing reefs, patch reefs, bank reefs, or barrier reefs
There are often native species or groups of fauna that are extremely popular and a draw for tourism
(e.g.: birds, primates, butterflies, turtles, coral reefs, marine mammals, marine reptiles, etc.) These may
or may not be protected. Particular attention should be given to these fauna resources if their habitats
are expected to be independent tourist destinations from either resorts, cruise ship day-trippers, or
from guided tours. If any of these are present, special studies inventorying the numbers and the health
of the population and habitat may be required.
3.3 Ecosystems
Beyond looking at flora and fauna separately, an EIA needs to be integrated, fromfrom an ecosystems
perspective and organized in a manner which facilitates examination of the interinterrelationships
between biophysical, social and economic aspects in assessing project impacts (IAIA 1999). Addressing
these relationships relies on an integrated description of the Environmental Setting as well as integrated
impact assessment (see box on the ecosystem services approach). Methodologies for describing
ecosystem interactions are evolving and describing complex interactions between flora and fauna,
physical and human threats, and key trends in the structure and functions of the ecosystems is difficult
because of the complex nature of their relationships.
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ECOSYSTEM SERVICES APPROACH: PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER
An ecosystem services approach recognizes the intrinsic and complex relationships between biophysical and socio-
economic environments. It integrates these aspects by explicitly linking ecosystem services (the benefits people
derive from ecosystems), their contribution to human well-being, and the ways in which people impact ecosystems'
capacity to provide those services. The approach relies on a suite of tools, such as: a conceptual framework linking
drivers of change, ecosystems and biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being (MA 2005); guidelines for
private sector companies to assess risks and opportunities related to ecosystem services (Hanson et al. 2008); and a
manual for conducting ecosystem services assessments (UNEP to be published).
In the context of environmental impact assessments, the ecosystem services approach provides a more systematic
and integrated assessment of project impacts and dependencies on ecosystem services and the consequence for the
people who benefit from these services. It helps EIA practitioners to go beyond biodiversity and ecosystems to
identify and understand the ways natural and human environment interrelates. This holistic understanding, from
description of the Environmental Setting to the impact assessment, will lead the EIA practitioner through a new set
of questions organized around the conceptual framework shown below:
• What are the ecosystem services important for local communities? Which services will the project potentially
impact in a significant way? How does the impact on one ecosystem service affect the supply and use of other
ecosystem services?
• What is the underlying level of biodiversity and the current capacity of the ecosystems to continue to provide
ecosystem services?
• What are the consequences of these ecosystem service impacts on human well-being, for example what are
the effects on livelihoods, income, and security?
• What are the direct and indirect drivers of ecosystem change affecting the supply and use of ecosystem
services? How will the project contribute to these direct and indirect drivers of change?
^ Exiting relations between natural and human environment
) Project impacts and dependencies on ecosystem services
HUMAN WELL-BEING
Basic material for good life
Health
Good social relations
Security
Freedom of choice
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Provisioning services
Regulating services
Cultural services
Supporting services
^Contribuljon of project to
drivers o~
change
i
i
Dependency of project
on ecosystem services
DIRECT DRIVERS OF
ECOSYSTEM CHANGE
Change In local land use/ cover
""Of Climate change
Pollution
inv,!:vvi- species
Over USB
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
•"Ecosystem type and extent
Species diversity and numbers
Source: Conceptual framework to assess ecosystem services (Adapted from the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, MA 2005)
Examining all the boxes in this framework systematically as part of an environmental assessment of project impacts
carries the following promises:
• Since ecosystem services by definition are linked to different beneficiaries, any ecosystem service changes
can then be explicitly translated into a gain or loss of human well-being.
• It will highlight the impact on all important ecosystem services provided by the area such as erosion
control, pollination, water regulation, and pollutant removal.
• It will ensure that the EIA accounts for the effects of the project on existing direct and indirect drivers of
ecosystem change that in turn could impact the ecosystem services provided by the area.
• It will improve the project's management of risks and opportunities arising from ecosystem services.
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Ecosystems are generally divided into terrestrial, wetlands/mangroves, aquatic and marine but there are
various ways to delineate important community systems of plants and animals. Terrestrial ecosystems
are defined by species which may occur only on land or within a specific watershed, including mammals,
birds, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, trees, shrubs, forbs, grasses, fungi, mosses and microbes.
Native vegetation can be divided into upland and lowland communities. Upland communities consist of
forests, shrublands and grasslands. Lowland vegetation occurring within drainages forms riparian
(streamside) communities.
Aquatic -freshwater ecosystems are dependent on watershed characteristics and may include
mammals, reptiles, fish and benthic macro invertebrates that live in an aquatic environment.
Phytoplankton and other life forms can also be considered, depending on the aquatic habitat along with
vegetation/plants which grow underwater.
LOS MANGLARES
"THE MANGROVE"
El manglar esfruto del enamoramiento
entre el rio y el mar
cuando el rio viene besar el mar nace el
manglar
"The mangrove is the fruit of the love
between the river and the sea.
When the river comes to kiss the sea the
mangrove is born"
Dra. Clarice Maria Neves Panitz
Wetlands including mangrove forests are defined by plants
and animals that inhabit a partially inundated and partially
above ground existence. The delineation of wetlands is of
particular importance with respect to hydrology as these are
sensitive habitats and quite important with respect to
cleaning of water passing through the wetlands and
mangroves as well as serving as buffers against flooding
elsewhere in the hydrological basin. Already identified in
surface water subsection, in this subsection the ecological
characteristics should be presented.
Marine/coastal ecosystems are typified by organisms that
live in a brackish or salt water aquatic environments. Where
applicable, the delineation of coastal ecosystems should
identify the transitional boundaries from saltwater to brackish water to freshwater. These should be
mapped and described, and the tidal influences documented. When assessing marine and coastal
ecosystems, primary considertation should be given to habitats, such as coral reefs and seagrass beds,
and the need for buffer areas that may be affected by the development of tourism facilities and coastal
infrastructure.
3.4 Endangered or Threatened Species and Habitats
These guidelines suggest that the endangered and threatened species and habitats be covered
separately under flora and fauna, and then summarized in an integrated section to highlight particularly
sensitive areas of concern in evaluating impacts. This separate section is not intended to duplicate the
information under Flora and Fauna, but rather to pull it together in an integrated manner.
Threatened and endangered flora and fauna are a subset of the complete inventory of flora and
faunafaun for a project and its area of impact. This involves:
• Review of local, national, regional and global literature on the range and domain of endangered
or threatened species.
• Consultation with local and national government agencies, NGOs and academic institutions to
determine what species may be in the project area.
• Cross-referencing this list with national lists of threatened and endangered species as well as the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (http://www.iucnredlist.org).
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• Conducting a thorough physical survey of the project area and inquiring of local residents and
authorities to determine if those species are present.
3.5 Protected Areas and Sensitive Ecosystems
Protected areas, including officially designated parks, preserves, marine areas, shipwrecks, cultural
areas, archeological areas, historical areas, and the like should be highlighted in the EIA as areas which
have already been identified as significant and needing special protection. One of the challenges in
preparing the EIA that boundaries of protected areas may be imprecise on available maps. Given the
area of influence of the project's potential impact, it may be important to carry out specific steps to
better define these boundaries to ensure that the proposed project will not encroach on or be
inconsistent with the intended level of protection of habitat and species.
The EIA should address vulnerable flora and fauna and their habitats regardless of legal designation. So,
it will be important to identify areas that have been officially designated for protections and what those
protections are, as well as those areas that have been identified for potential future protection. Often
in the absence of clear protective designations. This involves looking at a range of criteria to determine
whether the site or biological resource is of local, regional, national or international importance.
Some particularly vulnerable natural areas include (Source: ILJCN, 2009):
• Coral reefs
• The Mesoamerican Reef, in the Caribbean from Mexico's Yucatan to the north of Nicaragua,
especially the cays in Belize and the islands in the Bay of Honduras.
• The islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean of Panama, and the southern zone of Costa Rica
• Bodies of fresh water in Peten, Guatemala, and Belize, because of the porous limestone soils
around them.
• To a lesser degree, the bodies of water in the rest of the Central American isthmus
• Tropical rainforests in all countries, except El Salvador
• Dry forests along the isthmus' coasts on the Pacific Cloud forests in the highlands
• High, treeless plains or paramos on top of hills and volcanoes
• Mangroves
• Turtle nesting beaches Natural protected areas
• Limited scope ecosystems out of protected areas (e.g., the coastline mountain range in southern
Costa Rica)
• Islands, because of their water scarcity and sparse natural habitats
• Endemic areas (where species unique to the area are found)
• Live molluscs that inhabit shells (bivales or gastropods)
• Shipwrecks and artificial reefs
• Submerged historical sites, similar to Port Royal, Jamaica
• Sites with submerged historical, cultural, or archeological artifacts around coastal towns, cities,
settlements, historical piers and anchorages (e.g., old bottles; cannon balls; military, nautical, or
other valuable items; etc.)
For these protected areas and sensitive ecosystems within the area of influence of the proposed project,
the EIA should indicate whether there is a current management plan, or any other planning tool or study
that the country uses, and whether the management plan accommodates the current and future use of
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protected area, whether the protected area quality and use has deteriorated or been maintained, and
trends in capacity and use in the absence of the proposed project over the anticipated life of the project.
Various methodologies have been developed to
characterize the health of coral reefs and trends
over time. One such methodology is the
Simplified Integrated Reef Health Index
developed for Meso-America, which takes into
account coral cover, algal cover and fish
abundance described in the accompanying text
box.
3.6 Base Line and Monitoring Reef for the
countries of the CAFTA-DR
SIMPLIFIED INTEGRATED REEF HEALTH INDEX
Coral cover is a measure of the proportion of reef surface
covered by live stony corals, which form the
reef's three-dimensional framework. It is the most widely
measured indicator.
• Fleshy macro algae cover is a measure of the
proportion of reef surface covered by fleshy algae or
• "seaweed". It is widely collected data along the same
transects as coral cover
• Herbivorous fish abundance measures the biomass
(total weight offish per unit area) of surgeonfish and
• parrotfish, the most important fish grazers on plants
that could overgrow the reef.
• Commercial fish abundance measures the biomass
(total weight offish per unit area).
Source: Healthy Reefs, 2010
Several methodologies of qualitative order exist
to establish a base line and subsequent
monitoring. Some of the most utilized in the
Caribbean are:
1. Atlantic and Gulf Rapid reef Assessment
(AGRRA)
2. Synoptic monitoring of the Meso-
America Reef System Reef (SAM)
3. Caribbean Coastal and Marine Productivity Program (CARICOMP)
Of these three, the most utilized in the Caribbean are AGRRA and CARICOMP.
These two methodologies have advantages and disadvantages. AGRRA is a fast evaluation of reefs,
which utilizes lineal transects to determine the condition of the reef through points of intersection. On
the other hand, CARICOMP utilizes permanent transects that allow it to gather trends over several
years, also utilizing lineal transects. CARICOMP is more precise that AGRRA, but the efforts of time and
cost are a lot greater.
AGRRA is being utilized for long-term monitoring with good results. The primary difference is ease of
use; the user of AGRRA may obtain technical support through its website to analyze the data collected in
the field. Data is sent to the website and is analyzed and returned to the collector. Thus, the analysis is
standardized and the results the can be compared between 800 places throughout the Caribbean.
To access the AGGRA monitoring tool and to request training assistance, see www.agrra.org. To access
the CARICOMP monitoring tool, see www.unesco.org/csi/act/caricomp/ecosystem.htm.
For more information on the different protocols of monitoring reef:
www.icran.org/pdf/Methods Ecological Monitoring.pdf
The protocol utilized to establish a base line can vary, but the indicators to be measured should at least
include the following: (Adapted from www.healthyreef.org)
• "Cover of Choir" is a measure of the proportion of the surface of the reef cover by alive stone
choirs, that are the ones that form the three-dimensional framework of the reef. This is the
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indicator that is most frequently measured.
• A fleshy macro algae cover is a measure of the percentage of surface of the reef that is covered
by fleshy algae or for which is known simply as "algae". This data is obtained in the same
transects utilized to determine the cover of choir
• Abundance of herbivorous fish measures the biomass (total weight of fish by unit of area) of
fish surgeon and fish parrot, the fish that are known for foraging in the plants that cover the
reef.
• Abundance of commercial fish measures the biomass (total weight of fish by unit of area) of
significant commercial fish defined in the method of AGRRA. (www.healthyreefs.org)
Once the values of the previous indicators have been obtained, they can be compared with the
following "Thresholds of Health" table presented by the Initiative Healthy Reefs (www.healthyreefs.org).
INDEX/ INDICATOR
Coral Index
Coral cover (%}
Coral disease prevalence{%)
Coral recruitment (m"*)
Reef Biota Index
Fleshy Macroalgal Index
Herbivorous fish abundance (g-100nV;)
Commercial fish abundance (g-TOOm"*)
Diadema abundance (m"1)
VERY GOOD (5) GOOD (4)
>40 20.0-39.9
<1 1.1-1.9
£lO 5-O-9-9
28oo 21OO-2799
>2.5 (and <~j) 1.1-2.5
FAIR<3)
10.0-19.9
2.0-3,9
3-0-4-9
zo-39
2400-3599
1400-2099
0.5-1.0
POOR (2)
5.0-9-9
4.0-6,0
2-2.9
40-59
1200-2399
700-1399
0.25-0.49
CRITICAL (1)
<5
>6
<2
£60
<12OO
<7OO
<0.25
Healthy Reefs for Healthy People
4 SOCIAL -ECONOMIC-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Socio-Economic Conditions and Resources
Economic and social data address relationships between the project and the communities it may affect.
The objective of this information is to establish the relationship between alternatives with the socio-
economic conditions defined by the size and precise demographic indicators of the vulnerabilities for
the range of alternations. This baseline information should include demographics, employment,
income, and fiscal information that includes various types of payments to governments.
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This subsection should include descriptive and quantitative information for the area surrounding the
project site on:
• Population, including age, gender, ethnic
composition, religions, languages spoken and
educational level
• CrimeCrime ratesLiteracy rates
• Community organizations
• Employment and unemployment, with mix of types
and levels of jobs and key trends
• Public Health and Safety
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY
Rapid urban appraisal using techniques
such as windshield observations of the
project area and communities; structured
and semi-structured interviews with
stakeholders; and desk research to
investigate the socio economic aspects of
the project area:
• Population and settlement
characteristics
• Land uses and livelihoods
• Social infrastructure
• Community perceptions
Public health and ddiseases in the project area
(including the sources of data and the
methodology used to collect and analyze the
data)
Existing practice for assessment of
occupational and public health
Public safety conditions and resources
Economic activities include industrial and commercial activities, employers, employment, incomes and
distribution of income, tax base and skills, services and goods availability in the communities. This may
need more emphasis for tourism projects that may include an influx of large numbers of affluent
foreigners.
Indigenous, minority and low income populations should be indentified for the geographic region
relative to the environmental setting or impact type. It should be considered whether the populations
rely on specific natural resources for living or rely on areas for cultural, religious or economic reasons
and whethere proposed tourist development might create displacement of the population or threats to
their way of life.
4.2 Infrastructure Systems and Equipment
This section should include the current and future planned infrastructure and equipment, its current
capacity and trends throughout the life of the proposed project in terms of quality, and demand in the
absence of the proposed project in the following areas:
• Transportation
• Public Health
• Communications
• Energy/Utilities
• Emergency Response
It should not repeat the information provided in the project and alternatives description unless
necessary for clarity. Baseline information may be cross referenced, as needed.
The adequacy of this infrastructure into the future under the no-action alternative without the proposed
project should consider climate change that may create new or changing infrastructure demands. See
e.g., http://www.rff.org/rff/documents/RFF-IB-09-15.pdf
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4.2.1 Transportation Infrastructure
The information on the transportation infrastructure should address baseline conditions of
transportation and traffic patterns on existing roads. This should include:
• Maps showing the location of all existing roads and evacuation routes, if applicable
• Whether tourists are expected to arrive at the destination via private automobile, rental, tour
bus, public bus
• Conditio
• Surface materials
• Erosion and sediment problems and controls
• Maintenance programs (what, when and whom)
• Description of anticipated third-party improvements (government or entity other than the
proponent)
• Traffic patterns and densities on roads which may experience significant increased use during
construction or operation of the project. Traffic Studies/models may be warranted for larger
tourism projects
• Safety levels and current circulation issues, and capacity
• Available Fueling Stations - gas, marine, jet
Other forms of transportation for tourists and materials required by the project that are expected to
utilize the proposed project should be identified commensurate with the locations and countries from
which tourists are likely to be drawn, including, but not limited to:
• Water transport—recreational boats, diving operations, cruise ships, other recreational water
craft
• Railroads,
• Air strips,
• Airports and heliports
• Pipelines for fuel, water etc.
In addition, cruise ships and other kinds of boats, such as cruisers and sailboats, are also expected to
carry tourists to destinations. It is therefore important to have similar information of ports and marinas.
This information should also include:
• Design features
• Fueling facilities
• Moorings for port and marinas
• Mooring floats (e.g., NOAA's Anchors Away Program, or the PADI Dive Site Mooring Program)
placed at dive sites to reduce anchor damage on sensitive marine habitats.
• Safety protocols for tourism activities (e.g., scuba diving and snorkeling, hiking, boating, flying,
motor vehicle operation, sightseeing, etc.)
• Medical response capabilities (e.g., recompression chamber, medical assessment of diving
accidents, medical emergency or trauma center, medivac system, etc.)
• Capacity
• Imbarkation and debarkation areas
• Maintenance programs
• Parking facilities
• Dry docks and waste handling facilities
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• Port or marina reception facilities to handle garbage or other wastes generated aboard boats
and ships
4.2.2 Public Health Infrastructure
The information presented on the public health infrastructure includes information on the existing
drinking water, wastewater and solid waste management systems. The Environmental Setting should
provide maps and quantitative information on the existing infrastructure for these systems, their
capacities and any plans for expansion or change in technology or management of the systems.
Information should be presented on maps as well as in narrative and tabular forms. This information
should also include existing problems, constraints, capacities of facilities, and compliance with
international norms.
4.2.2.1. Water System
• Sources of water
• Quality (before and after treatment)
• Access
• Trends in availability of potable water
• Maps, distances and distribution system information (pump stations specifications and
transmission pipe sizes)
• Elevation changes form project site to tie-in point
• Issues, problems, constraints with these facilities - Is the Water Safe to Drink?
4.2.2.2. Wastewater System
• Quantity (inflow and
discharges)
• Treatment type/level
• Sludge disposal, if applicable
• Discharge points designed to
avoid health effects in
contact recreation areas and
contamination or negative
impacts on sensitive
biological areas
• Trends
• Maps, distances and
distribution system
information (pump stations
specifications and
transmission pipe sizes)
• Elevation changes form
project site to tie-in point
• Issues, problems,
constraints with these
facilities
WHAT ARE WASTES AND WHAT TYPES OF WASTES SHOULD BE
CONSIDERED?
A waste is any solid, liquid, or contained gaseous material that is
being discarded by disposal, recycling, burning, or incineration. It can
be byproduct of a manufacturing process or an obsolete commercial
product that can no longer be used for intended purpose and
requires disposal.
Solid (non-hazardous) wastes generally include any garbage, refuse.
Examples of such waste include domestic trash and garbage; inert
construction / demolition materials; refuse, such as metal scrap and
empty containers (except those previously used to contain
hazardous materials which should, in principle, be managed as a
hazardous waste); and residual waste from industrial operations,
such as boiler slag, clinker, and fly ash.
Hazardous waste shares the properties of a hazardous material (e.g.
ignitability, corrosively, reactivity, or toxicity), or other physical,
chemical, or biological characteristics that may pose a potential risk
to human health or the environment if improperly managed. Wastes
may also be defined as "hazardous" by local regulations or
international conventions, based on the origin of the waste and its
inclusion on hazardous waste lists, or based on its characteristics.
Sludge from a waste treatment plant, water supply treatment plant,
or air pollution control facility, and other discarded material,
including solid, liquid, semisolid, or contained gaseous material
resulting from industrial operations should be evaluated on a case-
by-case basis to establish whether it constitutes a hazardous or a
non-hazardous waste.
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4.2.2.3. Waste Management System
• Quantity (daily quantities generated, collected and disposed of)
• Collection systems
• Recycling programs
• Disposal facilities (locations, sizes and management)
• Availability of chemical and hazardous waste management and disposal services
• Issues, problems, constraints with these facilities
• Port or marina reception facilities to handle garbage or other wastes generated aboard boats
and ships
4.2.3 Communications Infrastructure
• Telephones: landlines, cell phone coverage
• WiFi
• Access
• Issues, problems, constraints with these facilities
• Television and radio stations
• Emergency communication network
4.2.4 Energy Infrastructure
• Sources of energy generation
• Energy transmission and distribution
• Substations
• Capacity
• Trends
• Issues, problems, constraints with these facilities
• Emergency power generation during a natural disaster
4.2.5 Additional Infrastructure
• Water for landscaping and grounds management
• Water for irrigation of golf courses
• Desalination plant for drinking water
• Water for firefighting activities
4.3 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources
This section should include information on all cultural, archeological, ceremonial and historical resources
in the project area. This information should include the existence in the area of pre-Hispanic
settlements and preliminary archaeological surveys of the area, if they exist. For large projects, an
archaeological survey may be necessary if it does not exist.
Some cultural, archeological, ceremonial or historic sites may need to be kept confidential due to the
sensitivity of the resource and possible disturbance from disclosure. Project planners should consult
with governmental managers for these resources to ensure that the sites are not disturbed or affected
negatively by disclosure of their locations. These resources may be found in terrestrial, aquatic and
marine locations.
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In addition, this section will identify customs and cultural aspects of the population and identify any
indigenous communities or sites used by indigenous people.
4.3.1 Within the Impact Zone
All cultural, archeological, ceremonial and historic resources within the project boundaries and within
the area of direct impact should be inventoried and mapped. Excellent sources of information on
location of such assets usually include federal ministries responsible for such assets, local religious
institutions and scholars, and the UNESCO World Heritage Site (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list). During
the preparation of the EIA, views should be solicited from stakeholders on whether there are any sites
or surrounding areas have important traditional or cultural value. This subsection should also include
information on any indigenous people or other traditional cultures in the project area.
4.3.2 At Tourist Destinations
Within the broad spectrum of tourism activities, impacts expand past the project boundaries and area of
direct impact to areas that are visited by those staying at the resort or campground or cruise ship,
including underwater sites. These may be concession-run areas or unregulated areas that have the
potential to be access and damaged. As above, the cultural, architectural, ceremonial, historic and
natural resource areas that are currently utilized or propose to be utilized as tourist destinations should
be mapped and inventoried. The carrying capacity of each should be assessed and the percent of
current utilization and projected utilization should be estimated.
4.4 Land Use
Qualitative and quantative information is
provided in this section concerning land
ownership, existing land uses and general
features. Land use patterns should be evaluated
by watershed. In addition marine use patterns
should be evaluated, including vessel traffic
lanes, navigation channels, anchoring areas, and
particularly sensitive sea areas where anchoring
and vessel traffic are restricted. Included in the
land use description would be a map that would
show the various uses, such as residential,
commerical, mining, agricultural areas, airstrips,
boundaries, rivers and lakes. Also, land uses or
marine uses proposed by the project such as
roads, facilities, trails, navigation channels,
artificial reefs, mooring floats, and docks should
be provided.
LOCAL LAND USE REGULATIONS
Before the project starts, it is imperative that the
applicable land use regulations be determined. In
some places, construction is forbidden (e.g., the first
50 meters from the high tide mark in Costa Rica). In
others, constructing certain building types or making
modifications to existing buildings is highly restricted
(e.g., Antigua in Guatemala). Usually, local land use
planning status provide for the allowable soil
coverage, the minimum lot size, the maximum height,
etc. Technical aspects regarding earthworks are
described in detail in the Guide for Infrastructure: An
Environmental Management Instrument. In order to
build in some coastal areas, islands, and protected
areas, it is necessary to obtain a concession.
Source: UICN: Guide for Tourism: An Environmental and
Social Management Instrument
4.4.1 Proposed Project Site
The baseline of environmental information should include information on actual and potential land use
on the proposed project site. This will include the current state of the project property and any
associated marine area. Describe the property as urban or rural, vacant land or existing structures to be
demolished, etc. For marine construction sites, existing or planned aquatic structures should have
detailed examination. Such features as docks, breakwaters, bridge abutments, etc. not only pose
impediments in the project footprint, but also affect local currents,sand movements, and potential
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D. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
smothering of nearshore areas which have to be factored into the designs and operations. Likewise,
there are setbacks and restrictions to construction and operations around those features. Proximity to
navigable channels pose another concern to construction and operations at an aquatic tourism project.
Navigation channels generallyhave to be dredged initially and periodically over the life of the project to
maintain the stated draft depths. There again are off-sets and restrictions that apply to construction
and operations adjacent to navigable channels, as well as proper designation and monitoring of dredged
material disposal sites.
4.4.2 Surrounding Lands
The baseline of Environmental Setting information should include information on actual and potential
land use and marine areas around the proposed project. It should indicate trends in land/marine use
and patterns of land/marine use. The information should be presented as a land/marine use map
showing location, size and proximity of:
• Agricultural lands
• Forested lands
• Flood plains and water bodies
• Coastal zones
• Urban zones
• Protected areas
• Marine ecosystems
• Environmentally sensitive areas (not in protected areas)
• Culturally sensitive areas
• Population centers including the number and density of dwelling units
• Commercial and industrial areas
• Other land uses as appropriate
This subsection also should include descriptive and quantitative information as well as maps one the
social, tourism and recreation. The information on the social infrastructure includes the numbers, sizes
and locations and proximity to the project area with some indication of quiet zones which may include:
• Schools
• Cemeteries
• Churches
• Other public buildings
• Existing recreation and tourism opportunities
• Housing
• Educational Institutions
• Employment (mix of sources)
The information on the tourism and recreation infrastructure includes the numbers, sizes and locations
of recreation facilities and eco-cultural-tourist locations. The subsection on socioeconomic conditions
and resources also should include information on the current and projected future employment
opportunities associated with tourism based on natural or cultural resources.
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E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
E. POTENTIAL IMPACTS
1 INTRODUCTION
The impacts section of the EIA examines
the potential impacts on the physical,
biological and socio-economic-cultural
environments that may result from the
construction, operation and closure of
the proposed project or its alternatives.
Section E of this Guideline introduces the
types of impacts generally associated
with tourism projects. Section F
identifies ways to assess and, wherever
possible to quantify, the impacts, their
magnitude, duration, extent and their
significance for a proposal and location.
The impact assessment should account
for all of the primary and support
structures and related elements and
activities involved in the project as
described in the Project and Alternatives
Description for the full range of direct,
indirect and cumulative impacts:
• Direct impacts are due to a
specific project-related activity
in the same place and time as
the project.
• Indirect impacts are due to
actions resulting from the
specific project, and are later in
time or farther removed in
distance, but still are reasonably
foreseeable. Indirect impacts
may include growth inducing
impacts and other impacts
related to induced changes in
the pattern of land use,
population density, or growth
rate, and related impacts on air
and water and other natural
systems, including ecosystems.
POTENTIAL IMPACTS FROM TOURISM
By its very nature tourism is the attraction of people who do
not live in an area to take advantage of its physical, biological
and/or socio-cultural attributes for the enjoyment of the
visitor. Because of the potential economic benefits to tourist
destinations, it is often an active policy of governments and
individuals to compete for the potential positive economic
benefits to local employment and development.
Nevertheless, tourism can result in four basic types of adverse
impacts:
• Seasonal and intensive increases in population density
that increase the burden on and stress existing local
infrastructure, resources, food production, and cultural
practices.
• Destruction or restructuring of the natural environment,
land and water resources and sensitive cultural, historic or
architectural values due to tourism-related development,
which may compromise habitat and species survival and
damage socially important sites.
• Contamination of land and water resources because of
the generation of waste and pollution from tourism
activities.
• Direct environmental harm caused by tourists' activities,
often within fragile ecosystems. Examples include damage
caused by walking on coral reefs or using off-road vehicles
in deserts.
When natural systems such as the natural barriers provided by
wetlands and mangroves fail or deliver reduced services,
serious threats to public health safety, and the environment
can occur through flooding, and erosion, and possible
saltwater intrusion to the drinking water supply.
Tourism that is poorly managed can damage the resources
that attract tourists, so the tourism industry should be
sensitive to changes in environmental quality. The biological
concept of carrying capacity, particularly in sensitive
ecosystems, suggests that beyond a certain level, areas cannot
absorb additional tourism activity without significant
deterioration of the environment. Strategic planning, and
cautious development and implementation of environmental
controls, are required to achieve environmentally sustainable
tourism and economic growth.
Source: (INECE), 1995
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• Cumulative impacts are the incremental impacts of the proposed project when added to past,
present, and reasonably foreseeable future activities, regardless of what entity undertakes such
other actions. Cumulative impacts can result from individually minor but collectively significant
actions taking place over a period of time. Impacts are site-specific and are determined by the
geology, soils, hydrology, hydrogeology, climate, ecosystems and human populations in the
vicinity of the project. The impacts may be positive or negative. Positive impacts can result, for
instance, if a tourism activity or facility restores or protects an environmental or heritage
resource, thus resulting in net improvement in conditions.
Impacts associated with tourism can result from many different types of activities, ranging from large
hotels or resorts or cruise ship terminal construction, to relatively small concessions focused on a
particular activity, such as scuba diving or zip line adventure tours. In all cases the EIA will serve to
identify and assess individually and as a whole the impacts of all of these actions as they may be
involved at the proposed project through site preparation, construction, operations and closure stages.
The guideline is structured around impacts to each type of environment: the physical environment, the
biological environment, and the socio-economic-cultural environment. These subsections are followed
by a subsection that presents methods for identifying cumulative impacts.
2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Geology, Soils and Ocean Topography
Tourism projects generally may include construction and management activities that may impact
geology, soils and the marine substrate, including:
• Land clearing for site preparation and access routes
• Earth moving and terrain shaping including excavation and filling, involving earth moving
equipment and occasionally blasting
• Disposal of cleared material (vegetation, soil, stones, dredged material) removed during these
activities and construction debris
• Use and possible storage of lubricants, fuels and other chemical products
• Closure, involving further terrain shaping, debris disposal and use of lubricants, fuels and other
chemical products
Land clearing, earth moving, and terrain shaping at the project site as well as at the sites where material
for project construction will be collected (quarries, borrow pits, etc.) will remove vegetative cover and
change the topography of the affected area, which can cause increased soil compaction, erosion and
associated sedimentation. Changing the topography of the site can also create the potential for
landslides or slope failure, depending on the soil types and magnitude of the change.
Changing the topography will change the drainage patterns and in combination with removal of
vegetative cover can lead to erosion, the magnitude and extent of which will in part be determined by
the resulting gradients, soil types, rainfall, and local hydrology. Exposing bare soil during these activities
can also increase wind erosion. These impacts can be short-term, if proper soil erosion and slope
stability controls are used or installed, although they may often exist through the completion of
construction of onsite facilities, structures and buildings, access roads and transmission line
connections, as these activities also disturb soil. Construction planning should take into account the
seasonal rains that are common in the Central American and Caribbean region to manage erosion of
exposed soil.
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In the coastal and marine environment or for inland waterways, construction in and near the water may
require dredging and/or filling activity which can significantly affect water flow, wave action/dissipation,
which in turn can have impacts on, erosion and sedimentation. In the marine and coastal environment,
dredging and disposal activities for the construction of docks, moorings, jetties, marinas, structures on
piles, terminals for cruise ships, new hotel land, and beach nourishment can radically change the
topography of the ocean bottoms and alter wave action to increase erosion and sediment at the site or
farther along the shore.
Tourism development in coastal areas (including hotel, resort, airport and road construction) is of
increasing concern worldwide. This can lead to sand mining, beach erosion and land degradation.
Coastal construction can remove stabilizing beach vegetation and change the coastal structure and
along-shore wave movement, causing undesirable erosion and deposition patterns. This can trigger
requirements for additional construction components to correct/alleviate those problems (breakwaters,
revetments, shoreline armoring, etc.) These constructed fixes often increase the natural environmental
disturbances and can require additional mitigation efforts.
Some fixed-base tourism activities have fueling depots and other chemical storage areas that contain
hazardous substances, including fuels, fertilizers, pesticides, cleaning products, etc. If these substances
leak, they can contaminate soil.
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Table E-l presents various impacts which could be caused to geology and soil resources as well
oceanography and beaches due to tourism development.
Table E-1: Potential impacts on geology and soil resources from tourism development
ACTIVITY
Land clearing, earthmoving, terrain shaping
(leveling, drainage, etc.) and associated
activities (e.g., borrow pits, quarries and other
off-site sources of materials)
Construction and landscaping of onsite
facilities, structures and buildings
Construction and/or upgrade of access roads
and power lines
Wastewater
Hazardous wastes and fuels
Solid waste disposal
Dredging and filling
Dredging material disposal
Beach development
Development of docks, moorings, marinas,
jetties, breakwaters, etc
Hiking and camping
Off-road biking and touring
Closure/Decommissioning
POTENTIAL IMPACT
• Landslide hazards (creation of unstable slopes)
• Erosion and sediment production
• Soil compaction
• Soil contamination from spills and fuel leaks
• Disposal of cleared debris
• Soil compaction
• Soil contamination from spills and fuel leaks
• Disposal of construction wastes, including potentially hazardous wastes
• Off-site earth material sources (sand, marl, rock soil, aggregate, wood, etc.)
Need to see they come from legitimate sources
• Soil contamination
• Soil contamination
• Erosion and sediment production from construction of land fills
• Contamination of soils
• Changes in stream or ocean bottom topography
• Beach erosion
• Sedimentation and aggregation
• Creation of new land areas causing erosion in other places
• Changes in stream or ocean bottom topography
• Erosion and sediment production
• Soil contamination
• Impacts of sediment mounding (changes to wave climate, vessel depth
limitations)
• Increase beach erosion
• Disturbance for bottom areas including ocean topography
• Alter beach erosion and aggregation areas
• Modify ocean topography
• Erosion and sediment production
• Soil compaction
• Erosion and sediment production
• Soil compaction
• Beach erosion
• Erosion
• Soil compaction
• Spills and fuel leaks
• Disposal of construction wastes, including potentially hazardous wastes
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2.2 Water Resources
As discussed in the previous subsection on Geology and Soil, nearly all tourism projects involve land
clearing for site preparation and access routes and earth moving and terrain shaping, which may change
the drainage patterns and increase runoff and associated soil erosion and sedimentation.
Runoff can carry sediments and other
contaminants, either attached to the sediment or
in solution, including soil nutrients and lubricants,
fuels and chemicals that may be spilled at the
sites. Any source of soil contamination identified
in the previous subsection, can be carried in
runoff. If agricultural chemicals are used on farms
or forests associated with biomass production, or
if herbicides are used during land clearing or to
manage vegetation in right-of-ways, they can also
become components of runoff. Depending on the
local conditions and the distance to surface water,
these contaminants can impact water quality in
the surface waters that receive drainage from the
affected areas.
Freshwater availability for competing agricultural,
industrial, household and other uses is rapidly
becoming one of the most critical natural resource
issues in many countries and regions. Rapid
expansion of the tourism industry, which tends to
be extremely water-intensive, can exacerbate this
problem by placing considerable pressure on scarce
water supply in many destinations. Water scarcity
can pose a serious limitation to future tourism
development in many low-lying coastal areas and
small islands that have limited possibility for surface
water use and storage, and whose groundwater
may be contaminated by saltwater intrusion.
Source: Neto (2002)
Construction or upgrading of access roads to the facility site or to the right-of-way, in the case of
transmission projects, may also require construction across wetlands or streams, which can disrupt
watercourses and wetland flow regimes, directly impacting water quality and cause bank erosion.
Another potential water quality impact can occur when construction takes place on marine floors
causing increased disturbances of sediments, increased turbidity and subsequent damage to habitats.
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Table E-2 identifies potential impacts to water resources from various activities.
Table E- 2: Potential impacts on water resources from tourism development
ACTIVITY
Land clearing, earthmoving, terrain shaping
(leveling, drainage, etc.) and associated
activities (e.g., borrow pits, quarries and other
off-site sources of materials)
Construction of onsite facilities, structures
and buildings
Construction and/or upgrade of access roads
and power lines
Landscaping
Generation, collection, treatment, disposal of:
Wastewater
Water supply development
Hazardous wastes and fuels
Solid waste disposal
Development of docks, moorings, marinas,
jetties, breakwaters, etc.
Dredging and filling
Dredging material disposal
Hiking and camping
Off-road biking and touring
Scuba diving and snorkeling
Closure/Decommissioning
POTENTIAL IMPACT
• Modification of drainage patterns
• Erosion and sediment contaminating surface water
• Water contamination from spills and fuel leaks
• Disposal of cleared debris
• Modification of streams and rivers
• Modification of drainage patterns
• Erosion and sediment contaminating surface water
• Water contamination from spills and fuel leaks
• Disposal of construction wastes, including potentially hazardous wastes can
contaminate surface and ground water
• Increased runoff due to soil compaction and changes in vegetation cover
• Water needs for construction, such as cement mixing and dust control
• Potentially high water consumption butting strain on water resources
• Runoff of pesticides, fertilizers contaminating surface and ground water
• Erosion and sedimentation
• Increased runoff
• Surface and ground water contamination
• Depletion of nearby water resources
• Surface and groundwater contamination
• Increase sediment from construction
• Surface and ground water contamination
• Modification of drainage patterns
• Increased runoff due to soil compaction and changes in vegetative cover
• Modification of streams and rivers due to crossings
• Run-off carrying sediments and associated contaminants
• Spills and fuel leaks
• Mobilization of contaminants that may occur in existing sediments
• Surface and ground water contamination if dredge material are deposited
on shore.
• Spills and leaks contaminating ground and surface water
• Increase turbidity
• Disposal of potential hazardous substances contaminating surface and
groundwater
• Changes in tidal exchange (between the ocean and bay or river) and
associated changes in salinity regime
• Erosion and sediment production contaminating surface water
• Erosion and sediment production contaminating surface water
• Erosion and sediment production contaminating surface water
• Erosion and sedimentation at points of entry
• Erosion and sediment contaminating surface water
• Spills and fuel leaks contaminating surface and ground water
• Disposal of construction wastes, including potentially hazardous wastes
contaminating surface and ground water
2.3 Air Resources
Air contamination at tourism projects arise primarily from dust and equipment emissions during
construction and increased transportation-related emissions during both construction and operations.
Dust is generated at all tourism projects during land clearing, earth moving, terrain shaping,
construction and decommissioning activities. Despite the best attempts to control dust, there can be
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areas and times when elevated dust concentrations can occur during these activities. A large portion of
dust is made up of large particles, with diameters greater than 10 microns. This coarse dust usually
settles gravitationally within a few hundred meters of the source. The smaller particle size fractions
(PM10), however, can be carried by wind in dust clouds for great distances and may be deposited on or
near populated areas. Dust from land clearing and construction, however, is a short-term impact.
During site preparation and construction, the project can also generate particulate and gaseous air
pollutant emissions from burning of cleared debris andvehicle and construction equipment exhaust.
Particulate emissions (including PM10 emissions), carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons (volatile
organic compounds), nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide result from fuel combustion in vehicles, heavy
equipment, and generators associated with land clearing and construction. If asphalt batch plants will
be used during these activities, then there can also be emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
During operation of the tourism project air emissions may be associated with power generation and
from cruise ship emissions. Cruise ships burn high sulfur fuels that can contribute to raised levels of
asthma. Recent efforts to control these sources highlight the contributions that they are making.
Table E- 3: Potential impacts on air resources from tourism development
ACTIVITY
Land clearing, earthmoving, terrain shaping, and
construction of onsite facilities, structures and
buildings and construction and/or upgrade of access
roads and power lines
Generation, collection, treatment and disposal of:
Wastewater
Hazardous wastes and fuels
Solid waste
Dredging and filling
Energy production
Motor boats
Cruise
Airplanes and airports
POTENTIAL IMPACT
(i.e. public health, visibility, acid rain resource impacts
from air pollution)
• Emissions from vehicles
• Fugitive dust
• Smoke from debris burning
• Fumes and volatile organics from asphalt batch plants
• Odors
• Fumes
• Emission from vehicles and heavy equipment
• Emissions for dredgers
• Emissions from generators
• Emission from motors
• Stack emission from burning high sulfur fuel near-shore
• Acid rain from high sulfur emissions
• Emissions from airplanes and vehicles
2.4 Noise and Vibration
Noise and vibration at tourism projects are generated during construction and decommissioning
activities from blasting, construction equipment, and the transport of equipment and materials and
from increased tourism - related traffic during operations. Marine construction always involves pile
driving or specialized foundations which result in both noise and vibrations.
Any tourism activity can increase human traffic and thus noise. Fixed -base construction noise and
operations and concessionaire tours/activities in natural areas can introduce noises and vibrations not
native to the fauna. Marine activities such as motorized boats and jet skis can increase noise and
vibration to sea creatures. . Table E-4 presents a brief summary of activities and potential impacts.
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Table E- 4: Potential impacts noise and vibration from tourism development
ACTIVITY
Land clearing, earthmoving, terrain shaping, and
construction of onsite facilities, structures and buildings
and construction and/or upgrade of access roads and
power lines
Solid waste disposal
Dredging and filling
Energy Production
Motor boats, jet skiis
Cruise/Rail/Plane
POTENTIAL IMPACT
• Noise and vibration from heavy equipment, on-site machinery
(crushers, batch plants, etc.) and transport of materials and
machinery to site
• Noise from the use onsite of tools
• Noise and vibration from blasting affecting wildlife and
property
• Noise from garbage trucks
• Noise and vibration from landfill development and operation
• Engine noise
• Generator noise
• Engine noise from motors
• Engine noise
• Track noise
• Whistle noise
2.5 Aesthetic Resources
Impacts of tourism projects on landscape and aesthetic resources can include:
• Impacts on visual resources
• Impacts on panoramic landscapes (including cultural resources)
• Impacts on visibility (air contamination projects only)
• Increases in light contamination
Visual impacts of tourism projects are highly variable, depending on the project type, location, lines of
sight, and scenic vistas that may exist in the project area. Visual impacts are generally new facilities and
road construction. New construction can introduce building heights uncommon to the surroundings.
Road constructions can mar a formerly pristine view shed. New construction can add might time lights
in areas where there formerly were none, again disturbing the formerly pristine view shed.
Light pollution that is excessive or obtrusive artificial light can be a problem at large fixed -base
facilities. Light pollution is a broad term that refers to multiple problems, all of which are caused by
inefficient, unappealing, or (arguably) unnecessary use of artificial light. Light pollution sources from
Tourism projects include:
• Lights used during construction to enable work at night or during low light conditions
• Building and structure exterior and interior lighting
• Nighttime security lighting
• On-site streetlights
• Vehicular lighting associated with traffic to and from the site
3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
The primary pathways of impacts on the biological environment are contamination of soil, water and air
and alteration of flow in surface water or ocean currents. However, biological resourcesalso can be
affected by land use conversions, increased human activity in the vicinity of the project, and increased
pressure on natural resources in the area of influence due to human population increases associated
with the project activities. Ecosystems are complex webs and relationships among plant and animal
species and their physical environment. Some order this information by Flora and Fauna, and in the
process of describing them describe their associated ecosystem. Ecosystems can be described flora and
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fauna within freshwater, terrestrial, and coastal/marine ecosystems. Table E-5 presents a brief
summary of how various activities can impact the biological environment.
Table E- 5: Potential impacts on biological environment from tourism development
ACTIVITY
Land Clearing,
Earthmoving,
Terrain Shaping,
and Construction
Activities
Construction
Camp
Dredging and
Filling
Beach
Nourishment
Operations
Development of
docks, moorings,
marinas, jetties,
breakwaters, etc.
Solid and
Hazardous Waste
Discharge of
polluted or
treated
wastewater
Fuel Storage
RESOURCE
Terrestrial Flora
and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial and
Aquatic Fauna,
and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Flora
and Fauna
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial and
Aquatic Fauna and
associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Flora
and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial and
Aquatic Fauna and
associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Flora
and associated
Ecosystems
POTENTIAL IMPACT
• Spread of invasive species and/or loss of indigenous species
• Ecosystem loss due to swamp draining, wetland infill, etc. Loss of habitat forever.
• Wildfire
• Disruption and dislocation (via noise, vibration, lights and human presence,
flooding or coastal erosion) of local and/or migratory wildlife, including
disturbance of migratory corridors and breeding, nesting and calving areas
• Wildfire
• Run-off carrying sediments and associated contaminants
• Wave and current control structures (jetties, breakwaters, groynes, etc.) directly
destroy habitat
• Water quality impacts such as increased sediment disturbance can indirectly
affect habitat health
• Animals attracted to garbage and food waste
• Disruption and dislocation (via noise, vibration, lights and human presence) of
local and/or migratory wildlife, including disturbance of migratory corridors and
breeding, spawning, nesting and calving areas
• Degradation of ecosystems from fuel wood gathering
• Increased collecting, hunting and fishing (food for workers)
• Loss of habitat if dredged material is disposed of on land
• Direct degradation or destruction of benthic communities, coral reefs and other
aquatic habitats
• Degradation or destruction of habitat from disposal of dredged material in water
bodies
• Breaching of protective reefs, leading to degradation or destruction of habitat
• Disturbance of species during sensitive life history stages
• Mobilization of contaminants from sediment causing water contamination and
potential species poisoning
• Disturbance for bottom vegetation areas including ocean topography
• Degradation or destruction of habitat
• Direct loss of habitat
• Degradation of habitat caused by shading of plants (seagrass, mangroves, marsh
species, coralline algae)
• Attraction of pests and vectors
• Contaminated runoff and water discharges can cause fish kills and poison wildlife
• Solid waste collection, storage and disposal sites affect wildlife migration patterns
• Litter in stream, lakes, and the ocean adversely impacts aquatic life
• Runoff from golf courses that is contaminated with pesticides and herbicides can
poison aquatic life and wildlife
• Hazardous substances in runoff can kill vegetation
• Uncontrolled spills and leakage of fuelscan poison aquatic life and wildlife
• Uncontrolled spills and leakage of fuels can kill vegetation
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ACTIVITY
Tourist Activities
RESOURCE
Terrestrial Flora
and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species
and Ecosystems
POTENTIAL IMPACT
• Camping and Hiking
• Increase trampling and compaction
• Introduce foreign weeds, invasive species,
• Increase wildfire risk
• Misuse of natural resources
• Destruction, modification or fragmentation of habitat
• Disruption of behavior including: feeding, migration, breeding, nesting, and
calving
• Poisoning from chemicals and wastes
• Increased human access increases e harvesting by collection and hunting
• Same as terrestrial flora and fauna
• Boat anchoring and wakes can cause direct damage
• Overharvesting by sport fishing
3.1 Terrestrial Species and Associated Ecosystems
Impacts on terrestrial species and the ecosystems associated with them can include:
• Destruction, modification or fragmentation of habitat
• Disruption of behavior, including feeding, migration, breeding, nesting, and calving
• Direct impacts
• Poisoning from direct contact with hazardous substances or contamination of watering holes
• Increased collection and hunting
Destruction or fragmentation of terrestrial ecosystems is largely associated with physical disruption
during construction (land clearing, earthmoving and terrain shaping at the facility site) and along access
roads and right-of-ways, or operational activities (hiking, zip lines, ATV /Jeep tours) which bring intense
human activity that may intersect normal migratory paths or habitats. Excessive collection of fuel wood
by workers during construction or operation can also lead to deforestation. Destruction of ecosystems
can also be caused indirectly if emissions kill or reduce productivity of vegetation downwind from the
tourism activity.
Wildfires are another source of ecosystem destruction. Facility construction and operation increases the
number of humans in its vicinity, which increases the possibility of human caused wildfires. This is also
true along access routes and right-of-ways. If vegetative management of right-of-ways allow for the
build-up of fire fuels, such as slash, this can increase the intensity of fires in the right-of-ways.
Riverbed scouring caused by construction in or adjacent riparian zones can cause stream bed erosion,
which can lower water availability in riparian zones in the area of the scouring, causing die-off of
vegetation.
The construction of access roads and right-of-ways can fragment existing ecosystems and interrupt
migratory corridors. Access roads and right-of-ways can also open to human activities areas that had
previously been relatively wild, disturbing the species in those areas and creating opportunities for
increased collection or harvest of plant life and collection or hunting of animals.
Some ecosystem areas are more critical to species survival than other areas. These include migratory
routes or corridors, watering holes, salt licks, and breeding, nesting and calving areas. These areas
should have been identified in the preparation of the Environmental Setting. Any impacts in these areas
should receive special attention.
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Modification of habitat can be associated with right-of-way management as well as with releases of
noxious or invasive species. Excessive vegetation maintenance in right-of-ways may remove
unnecessary amounts of vegetation resulting in disrupting succession and increasing the likelihood of
the establishment of non-native invasive species.
Alteration of terrestrial habitat for construction of transmission and distribution projects may also yield
benefits for wildlife such as the creation of protective nesting, rearing, and foraging habitat for certain
species; the establishment of travel and foraging corridors for ungulates and other large mammals; and
nesting and perching opportunities for large bird species atop transmission towers and associated
infrastructures.
Tourism projects can disrupt animal behavior in several ways. If the project involves a construction
camp or onsite housing during operation, animals can be attracted to garbage and food waste thus
changing their feeding habits and their interactions with humans. Regular maintenance of right-of-ways
to control vegetation may involve the use of mechanical methods, such as mowing or pruning
machinery, in addition to manual hand clearing and herbicide use, all of which can disrupt wildlife and
their habitats. Noise, vibration, illumination, and vehicular movement can disrupt animal activities.
These are particularly of concern if animals are disrupted in sensitive habitats, such as migratory routes
or corridors, watering holes, salt licks, and breeding, nesting and calving areas.
Light pollution poses a serious threat to wildlife, and can havee negative impacts on plant and animal
physiology. Light pollution can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change
predator-prey relations, and cause physiological harm. The rhythm of life is orchestrated by the natural
diurnal patterns of light and dark, so disruption to these patterns impacts the ecological dynamics.
Inland Natural Area Tourism like camping, hiking, and auto/Jeep/ ATV tours have direct impact to
wildlife. Off trail excursion can trample, compact, denude areas which can increase erosion, disrupt
migrations pathways, decrease the food supply and directly impact the health of an ecosystem? Direct
impacts to wildlife can be caused by increase hunting, improper solid or liquid waste disposal and direct
contact by animals with project components. Increased collection and hunting can be stimulated by
increased human activity in the area by workers and the population that grows to meet those workers
needs. Improper waste disposal can bring animals into direct contact with hazardous substances or
poison watering holes.
3.2 Aquatic Ecosystems
Changes in water quality affect aquatic resources by increasing the loading of sediment, nutrients, or
toxic/hazardous materials (metals) to streams and water bodies, decreasing the oxygen in the water,
and/or changing ambient environmental conditions. Physical modifications in the resources can also
impact aquatic habitats, such as modifying shade, pool and riffle sequences, flow of ephemeral,
intermittent, or perennial streams due to contaminated runoff from parking lots, paths, roads, and other
surfaces disrupting flows into or the size of wetlands or other water bodies. Impacts may result in
changes to relative abundance of species or biological diversity.
Tourism activities can also impact aquatic ecosystems if increased resource demands (such as
overfishing) or the introduction of other secondary impacts (such as clothing washing, recreational use,
or lighting from coastal facilities) displace species or disrupt habitats.
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3.2.1 Wetlands and Mangrove Forests
Wetlands and riparian areas are
usually the most productive and
diverse vegetation types within an
ecosystem. Impacts to wetlands due
to tourism operations may occur
directly or indirectly.
Direct impacts can include wetland
destruction through removal for
development of resorts, over
pumping groundwater or changes in
stream flow or aquifer conditions, or
filling as a result of construction
activities. Some of these activities
can result in saltwater intrusion
which is destructive to fresh water
wetlands. Sedimentation can also
impact wetland resources as a result
of uncontrolled runoff and erosion
from the construction sites or
scouring and head cutting from
poorly designed stream diversions or
discharge outfalls.
Indirect impacts on riparian and wetland resources can occur from increased human activities in those
habitats, including recreation and gathering of plant materials for food, construction, fuel or medicinal
uses.
3.3 Marine/Coastal Species and Associated Ecosystems
MANGROVES
A general name for several species of halophyte belonging to
different families of plants (including trees, shrubs, a palm tree and
a ground fern) occurring in intertidal zones of tropical and
subtropical sheltered coastlines and exceeding one half meter in
height. The term is applied to both the individual and the
ecosystem, the latter of which is termed mangal. Mangroves
provide protected nursery areas for juvenile reef fishes,
crustaceans, and mollusks. They also provide a feeding ground for a
multitude of marine species. Many organisms find shelter either in
the roots or branches of mangroves. Mangrove branches are
nesting areas for several species of coastal birds. The root systems
harbor organisms that trap and cycle nutrients, organic materials
and other important chemicals. Mangroves also contribute to
higher water quality by stabilizing bottom sediments, filtering
water and protecting shorelines from erosion. They protect reefs
from land runoff sedimentation. Conversely, coral reefs protect
mangroves and seagrasses from erosion during heavy storms and
strong wave action. Sediment, contaminated stormwater runoff
and other pollutant can damage ecosystems associated with
mangrove ecosystems.
Source: NOAA
Marine/Coastal species are those species that
may live in the water or near the shorelines of
seas, oceans, or great lakes. They include species
that live in marine water as well as freshwater.
Impacts that can affect aquatic species and the
ecosystems associated with them include:
• Water contamination
• Changes in water flows or water levels in
surface water
• Direct aquatic habitat alteration
• Injury or mortality from direct contact
with in-water technologies, increased
collection or fishing, habitat avoidance
due to noise or visual disturbances.
Rapid expansion of coastal and ocean tourism
activities, such as snorkeling, scuba diving and sport
fishing, can threaten coral reefs and other marine
resources. Disturbance to marine aquatic life can
also be caused by the intensive use of thrill craft,
such as jet skis, frequent boat tours and boat
anchors. Anchor damage is now regarded as one of
the most serious threats to coral reefs in the
Caribbean Sea, in view of the growing number of
both small boats and large cruise ships sailing in the
region. Severe damage to coral reefs and other
marine resources may, in turn, not only discourage
further tourism and threaten the future of local
tourist industries, but also damage local fisheries.
Source: Neto, 2002
Coastal and Marine Tourism includes
construction, operations and concessions associated with ports, marinas, docks and seaside resorts.
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Hotels and resorts can cause decreased water quality resulting from raw and improperly treated
wastewater discharges and fertilizer runoff. An increase in solid and hazardous wastes, as well as noise
and vibrations can disturb ecosystems. Marinas, docks and boating activities increase the potential for
spillage or disposal of oil and fuels, lubricants, and anti-fouling chemicals, which can directly harm
wildlife or indirectly impair it through diminished water quality. In adequate port reception facilities for
wastes and garbage may cause such materials to be discharged in the ocean from commercial vessels or
recreational vessels. Additionally anchors and wakes can directly cause physical damage. Boats allow
tourists the ability to access previously inaccessible marine and coastal areas. There they can directly
impact habitats through: trampling, collecting souvenirs/coral/shells/etc., over fishing, disturbing
nesting birds and turtles, littering, and starting wildfires.
Impacts on aquatic ecosystems caused by water contamination and water flows are derived directly
from the water quantity and quality impacts identified in subsection 2.2, Water Resources. If the project
can impact water quality or quantity in surface water, then it has the potential to impact the aquatic
species in those waters. For example, discharges with elevated temperature and chemical contaminants
can affect phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, crustaceans, shellfish, and many other forms of aquatic life.
Similar ecosystem and species composition impacts can occur if the amount of flow is reduced or if the
project introduces large variances in flow rates. These types of ecosystem changes can often lead to
invasion by non-native species. These impacts and others caused by changes in water quality and
quantity should be investigated and characterized.
Direct aquatic habitat alteration can occur during construction or upgrading of access roads and right-of-
ways. If such activities require construction across wetlands or streams; on the borders of ponds or
lakes estuaries; or on coastlines, they can disrupt watercourses and wetland flow regimes, impact water
quality and cause bank erosion all of which impact aquatic habitats. Any dredging or construction on
marine floors can disrupt marine habitat including intertidal vegetation (e.g. eelgrass), coral reefs, and
marine life.
TOURISM IMPACTS TO CORAL REEFS AND MARINE HABITATS
Development of marinas and breakwaters can cause changes in currents and coastlines. Furthermore,
extraction of building materials such as sand affects coral reefs, mangroves, and hinterland forests, leading
to erosion and destruction of habitats. Mining of coral for resort building materials has damaged fragile
coral reefs and depleted the fisheries that sustain local people and attract tourists.
Overbuilding and extensive paving of shorelines can result in destruction of habitats and disruption of land-
sea connections (such as sea-turtle nesting spots). Coral reefs are especially fragile marine ecosystems and
are suffering worldwide from reef-based tourism developments. Evidence suggests a variety of impacts to
coral result from shoreline development, increased sediments in the water, trampling by tourists and
divers, ship groundings, pollution from sewage, overfishing, and fishing with poisons and explosives that
destroy coral habitat.
Development of marinas and breakwaters can cause changes in currents and coastlines. Furthermore,
extraction of building materials such as sand affects coral reefs, mangroves, and hinterland forests, leading
to erosion and destruction of habitats. Mining of coral for resort building materials has damaged fragile
coral reefs and depleted the fisheries that sustain local people and attract tourists.
Overbuilding and extensive paving of shorelines can result in destruction of habitats and disruption of land-
sea connections (such as sea-turtle nesting spots). Coral reefs are especially fragile marine ecosystems and
are suffering worldwide from reef-based tourism developments. Evidence suggests a variety of impacts to
coral result from shoreline development, increased sediments in the water, trampling by tourists and
divers, ship groundings, pollution from sewage, overfishing, and fishing with poisons and explosives that
destroy coral habitat.
Source: UNEP(2001)
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3.4 Endangered or Threatened Species and Habitats and Protected Areas
It is imperative that no endangered or threatened species or designated protected areas be adversely
impacted by tourism projects. These species should receive particular attention during the assessment
of impacts on flora and fauna, striving for no net loss. All activities proposed for the project should be
overlaid on maps of the habitats for endangered and threatened species as well a protected areas, to
identify any potential impacts.
4 SOCIAL-ECONOMIC-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
Socioeconomic impacts of tourism projects are highly variable and dependent on the project type,
project size, project footprint, energy source(s), existing land use and ground cover patterns, proximity
of population, local livelihoods, presence of cultural and religious assets, and the area of primary and
secondary impact. Further, different types of impactsmay occur during project preparation,
construction, operation and decommissioning. Nonetheless, there are sets of impacts on the social-
economic-cultural environment that are common to nearly all tourism projects. These are summarized
in Table E-6.
Table E- 6: Social-economic impacts that may occur from tourism projects
RESOURCE
Economic
Social
Public Health
Public Safety and Physical Risk
Worker Health and Safety
POTENTIAL IMPACT
Increase or decrease in individual incomes
Direct employment at the project
Indirect employment generated by project activities
Increased purchases from local businesses
Other economic activities stimulated in the community as a result of the project
Employment opportunities for local residents (short- and long-term)
Increased tax base
Commitment to community development support from the project company
Displacement and relocation of current settlements, residents or community
resources
Displacement or disruption of people's livelihoods (e.g., fishing, hunting, grazing,
farming, forestry and tourism) related to disrupted access or resource loss
Public finance requirements - will more infrastructure or services be needed to
meet the demands of increase population in the areas (e.g., public education,
policing, fire protection, water, sanitation, roads)
Reduction in quality of life for residents from visual and noise impacts
Increased crime (drugs, alcohol, prostitution, etc.)
Change in population
Change in character of community
Change in religious, ethnic or cultural makeup of community
Change in housing market (during construction and operation and after closure)
Increase exposure to disease due to an influx of tourists and workers from other
locations
Increase burden on public health system
Increase burden on public officials to provide services during emergencies such as
floods, volcanic eruptions, etc.
Risk of loss of life from increased flooding potential
Increase in sexually transmitted diseases among workers
Increase in on the job injury
Increase in occupational diseases due to exposure to dust and other project
related activities such as handling of explosives, solvents, petroleum products, etc.
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Social and economic impacts of tourism projects can be both positive and negative. Socio-economic
impacts can vary by location and size of the project, length of the project from construction to closure,
manpower requirements, the opportunities the company has for the local community employment and
involvement, and the existing character and structure of the nearby communities. Some of these
communities have opted to participate in tourism in a controlled fashion, thus deriving substantial
economic benefits. Others have been subjected to forms of tourism which are denigrating, yield few
benefits, and operate without the community's consent.
The tourism business actively supports initiatives for positive social and infrastructural development.
One of the primary socio-economic concerns is displacement of people through: involuntary or forced
taking of land, relocation or loss of shelter, loss of assets (farmlands, forests, fisheries, etc.), and/or loss
of income sources or means of livelihood. This is an especially crucial consideration for indigenous
people and projects, like hydroelectric dams, that can impact vast areas. Development bank experience
indicates that involuntary resettlement under development projects, if unmitigated, often gives rise to
severe economic, social and environmental risks arising from a chain of actions following displacement.
Production systems are dismantled and people face impoverishment. People are relocated to
environments where their productive skills may be less applicable and the competition for resources
greater. Community institutions and social networks are weakened. Kin groups are dispersed. Cultural
identity, traditional authority and the potential for mutual help are diminished or lost.
The impacts on public health can vary with the type of project. Any projects that create water bodies
can create habitats for mosquitoes. If dengue fever or malaria is prevalent in the area, these
impoundments could increase the population of mosquitoes that carry these diseases. Emissions from
thermal/combustion projects can impact health in downwind communities, depending upon the
concentrations and the distance to the communities. Table E-10 presents a summary of potential socio-
economic impacts as well as to public health and safety due to tourism activities.
4.1 Vulnerable Populations
Impact analysis and policy considerations that may be valid for the general population may not
adequately capture important impacts on subsets of society. For these vulnerable populations, efforts
to protect their environmental health and wellbeing requires further investigation into their special
relationship to the environment to assess whether predicted impacts may fall disproportionately
heavily. Impacts that may not be considered significant for the general population may overlook
potentially significant impacts on these populations without this special focus. In the context of the
United States, the populations which may be disproportionately affected are referred to as
"environmental justice communities." Whether these impacts can be anticipated from proposed
tourism projects depends upon the area of influence of the impacts of the proposed project and the use
of the affected resources by populations which may be disproportionately affected typically indigenous
peoples, minority or low-income groups.
Traditional indigenous communities are particularly vulnerable to cultural changes because of the lack of
concern and carelessness of some tourist operators with regard to the communities' wishes and
interests. Some of these communities have opted to participate in tourism in a controlled fashion, thus
deriving substantial economic benefits. Others have been subjected to forms of tourism which are
denigrating, yield few benefits, and operate without the community's consent. Tourism development
can:
• Push farming onto lands that may be more prone to erosion or lack suitable water supplies
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• Relocate people to homes and structures that may be more vulnerable to natural disasters
including flooding, volcanic activity, and fire
• Limit access to beach areas or the seas by local fishermen affecting their livelihoods
• Change dietary habits due to the availability of foods provided to tourist or limited access to
seafood, fish, and wildlife which are important aspects to local population diets
• Pressure cultural survival by being influenced by tourist
• Modify or deprive traditional use of land and natural resources.
4.2 Infrastructure: Systems, Equipment, Capacity, Performance
As presented in Table E-7, the impacts on infrastructure of tourism projects can be neutral, positive or
negative, varying with the location and size of the project, manpower requirements, economic benefits
to the community, impact on availability of public funds and the existing infrastructure.
Table E- 7: Potential Impacts to existing infrastructure
TYPE
Transportation
Public Health Infrastructure
Energy Infrastructure
Communications Infrastructure
FACILITY OR FEATURE THAT MAY BE AFFECTED
(e.g. cost, capacity, pollution impacts, demands for infrastructure)
• Existing roads-Potential changes to traffic patterns, densities, and
traffic safety issues or deterioration in area affected by project
• Associated structures (bridges, tunnels, traffic controls, etc.)
• Marinas, boats, and mooring activities
• Landing strips and airports
• Bus terminals
• Drinking water supplies and treatment
• Wastewater treatment and management
• Solid and hazardous waste management and treatment
• Increased demand for energy creating potential black outs
• Alterations to distribution system and reach
• Cost of energy
• Increased need for communications infrastructure
• Alterations to distribution system and reach
For all of these types of infrastructure, the question for the EIA is do they have the capacity to meet the
demands the project may create, or will they have to be altered, improved or expanded? Additionally,
the EIA should determine if the project will alter the condition of the infrastructure. If the infrastructure
will not meet the demand of the project, or if the project will impact the condition of the infrastructure,
then the project has an impact on infrastructure.
For transportation infrastructure, this subsectionaddresses impacts of transportation and traffic
patterns on existing roads. It should identify any anticipated changes in traffic patterns, densities, and
traffic safety. If such changes are identified, the EIA should also estimate their impact on traffic
accidents, congestion and noise.
4.3 Cultural, Archeological, Ceremonial and Historic Resources
Impacts on cultural, archeological, ceremonial and historic resources include any direct or indirect
alteration of sites, structures, views, landmarks or traditional cultural lifestyles and resources associated
with those lifestyles. Cultural, archeological, ceremonial and historic resources include: archeological
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sites (on land or underwater), historic buildings, burial grounds, sacred or ceremonial sites, areas used
for the collection of materials used in ceremonies or traditional lifestyles, and sites that are important
because of their roles in traditional stories. Tourism activities inherently provide more access to
heritage areas, bringing more man-induced impacts. Tourism does bring the opportunity to generate
funds to preserve sites and implement management strategies that can have positive impacts.
LAND ACQUISITION WITHIN INDIGENOUS
PEOPLE'S COMMUNITIES
A recurring complaint in conversations with members of
indigenous peoples where there is tourism is that some
tour operators use the communal lands without the
community's consent. The acquisition or construction of
any type of infrastructure in communal lands have
construction of any type of infrastructure in communal
lands has the clear prior and informed consent of the
community, which is also entitled not to grant such
consent. This is a legal obligation in the countries that
have ratified Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal
Peoples of the International Labor Organization (Costa
Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras). Furthermore, the
indigenous peoples of Panama, Nicaragua, and Belize
have different degrees of legal autonomy, which requires
that developers to undergo a similar process.
Something similar happens in farming and fishing
communities in many areas of Central America where
there are no clear property titles. There are cases in
which the local population was displaced to build a beach
hotel because they lacked land titles. The de facto
owners in places with no clear property titles should be
compensated adequately and should be free to reject the
displacement proposal.
Examples of adverse effects to cultural and
historical resources from tourism projects
may include:
• Destruction during construction
• Damage and alteration
• Removal from historic location
• Introduction of visual or audible
elements that diminish integrity
• Neglect that causes deterioration
• Loss of medicinal plants
• Loss of access to traditional use areas
• Impacts to previously inaccessible
areas from
development/improvement of roads
• Visual changes on a sacred horizon
• Removal of submerged artifacts
Impacts to cultural and historic sites are often
a two edged sword with the possibility of
both negative and positive benefits.
Archeological sites are vulnerable not only to
plundering, but also to the construction of
tourist infrastructure that harms and
deteriorates these heritage sites due to
uncontrolled visitation. On the other hand, the presence of tourism may finance archeological research
and bring a halt to pillage in isolated sites. Similarly, tourism in historic sites may either aid to conserve
their heritage through sustainable tourism, or can actually hasten their destruction through
uncontrolled building (ILJCN). Table E-8 presents a brief overview of potential impacts from tourism
development to cultural, architectural, ceremonial and historic resources.
Table E- 8: Impacts to cultural-architectural-ceremonial-historic resources
RESOURCE
Cultural, Archeological, Historical and Ceremonial
POTENTIAL IMPACT
Destruction or alteration of physical structures during construction
Removal of artifacts from historic location during construction and
operation
Introduction of visual or audible elements that diminish integrity of
structures or sites
Visual changes on a sacred horizon
Additional resources and impetus to restore and protect
Changes to community cohesion and traditions
Introduction of competing culture and practices effecting lifestyles of
local and indigenous peoples
Changes in diet, health and livelihood of indigenous groups
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4.4 Land Use
Tourism projects can impact local land use. Clearly, land use on the project site itself will be modified
for the life of the project. This impact, however, varies greatly with the size of the facility site. A small
concessionaire activity may have little impact whereas a large resort complex will have a greater impact.
Other long-term impacts can include those associated with roads, rails and other ancillary facilities that
may stay in place and be used for many years, possibly even after the project's life.
Projects can impact land use on properties adjacent to the facilities as well as properties through which
roads and right-of-ways may pass. Demand for products consumed by the project may also result in a
change in land use, particularly if the products can be produced on land currently in other uses. Land
use in these areas can be affected by visibility, noise, odor, air pollution, and water contamination. The
development of new roads also may open up previously inaccessible areas to development.
Changes in land use should be described by the type; and location of the change as well as the area (size
in hectares) of the change. Changes land use caused by changes in demand for social infrastructure
(schools, cemeteries, churches, other public buildings, tourist facilities and housing) should also be
assessed.
5 IDENTIFYING CUMULATIVE IMPACTS
Cumulative effects are those effects on the environment that result from the incremental effect of the
action when added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of what
a project proponent undertakes. Cumulative effects can result from individually minor, but collectively
significant actions, taking place over a period of time.
Tourism projects can contribute to cumulative effects when their effects overlap with those of other
activities in space, or time, or both. Effects can be either direct or indirect. Direct effects are those that
occur in the same place and at the same time and are a direct result of the proposed action. For
example, indirect effects can occur at a distance from the proposed action, or the effects may appear
some time after the proposed action
occurs. For example, an upstream timber
harvest area and upstream water sewage
treatment plant may affect water quality,
in addition to the effects on water quality
from the proposed action. If water
resources are diverted away from current
uses such as agriculture, then impacts to
those previously managed agricultural
lands should be considered. These land
disturbed by agricultural activities, now
left unmanaged, to return to nature can be
vulnerable to erosion, landslides, invasive
species and perhaps undesirable
replacement habitat.
Although required of ElAs the cumulative
impact assessment is often overlooked
EXAMPLES OF CUMULATIVE EFFECTS
• Incremental loss of wetlands
• Degradation of rangeland from multiple grazing
allotments and the invasion of exotic weeds
• Population declines in nesting birds from multiple
tree harvests within the same land unit
• Increased regional acidic deposition from emissions
and changing climate patterns
• Cumulative commercial and residential development
and highway construction associated with
encroaching development outside of urban areas
• Increased soil erosion and stream sedimentation from
multiple logging operations in the same watershed
• Change in neighborhood social-cultural character
resulting from ongoing local development including
construction
• Degraded recreational experience from overcrowding
and reduced visibility
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Over-consumption by many tourist facilities -
notably large hotel resorts and golf courses - can
limit current supplies available to farmers and
local populations in water-scarce regions and
thus lead to serious shortages and price rises. In
addition, pollution of available freshwater
sources, some of which may be associated with
tourism-related activities, can exacerbate local
shortages.
Source Neto, 2002
because many of the actions that need to be taken into account are not within the control of the project
proponent, or because methods for cumulative impact assessment may not be apparent.
Cumulative impacts may be positive or negative. In summary, additive or cumulative impacts of the
project with those of existing, planned or future activities should be accounted for. This is typically done
by adding predicted impacts to existing conditions.
5.1 Identifying Resources that Have Potential for Cumulative Impacts
Resources which may require the analysis of
cumulative effects described be identified through
the results of any scoping meetings, site visit, public
interest in a particular resource; and consultation
with the agencies and governmental organizations
(NGOs) familiar with or responsible for those
resources. Additional guidance on defining
cumulative analysis resources can be found in
"Considering Cumulative Effects Under the National
Environmental Policy Act" (Council on
Environmental Quality, 1997). This document is
available on the web at
http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/ccenepa/ccenepa.htm.
An example of the affected environment, or a resource, where operations may cause a cumulative and
additive impact would be groundwater usage. In the project area there already may exist wells that are
tapping the same aquifer for irrigation, industrial, and municipal uses. Pumping water from that same
aquifer may produce a cumulative impact. These uses, when evaluated separately, may not produce a
noticeable or measurable decline in the groundwater elevation. However, if these usages are modeled
together with the estimated volumes per year of each use and over the time period of planned use, the
model may show a cumulative impact of widespread and significant decline in groundwater elevation. A
cumulative impact for groundwater, widespread and significant decline in water elevation, then may
produce an impact to surface water elevation by lowering stream levels and base flows in nearby
streams if there is a hydrologic connection between the aquifer and streams. Declines in groundwater
elevations, causing declines in base flows in neighboring streams may produce an impact to habitat
critical to wildlife or vegetation therefore impacting certain species of wildlife and vegetation. If in the
coastal zone, groundwater depletion has the potential to cause saltwater intrusion into freshwater
supplies.
The effect of large scale or even small tourism development can have widespread impact on the local
community and the environment. For instance if development pushes farmers away from prime
farmland to areas that less suitable for farming that may be more prone to erosion, the resulting
sedimentation into waterways would be considered an part of the cumulative impact of a project.
Another examples would be increases in algal blooms in water bodies due increases in nutrient loading
from sewerage, nutrient runoff from golf courses or landscaping, and seepage from landfills. Increased
dredging in numerous locations can increase:
• Changes in tidal exchanges between the ocean and bays or rivers.
• Changes in salinity regime
• Breaching of protective reefs
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• Direct loss of habitats
• Disturbance of species during sensitive life history stages
5.2 Regional, Sectoral or Strategic Assessment
Regional, sectoral, or strategic social and environmental assessment may be available to provide the
additional perspective in addition to the social and environmental impact assessment. Regional
assessment is conducted when a project or series of projects are expected to have a significant regional
impact or influence regional development (e.g., an urban area, a watershed, or a coastal zone), and is
also appropriate where the region of influence spans two or more countries or where impacts are likely
to occur beyond the host country. Sectoral assessment is useful where several projects are proposed in
the same or related sector (e.g., power, transport, or agriculture) in the same country, either by the
client alone or by the client and others. Strategic assessment examines impacts and risks associated
with a particular strategy, policy, plan, or program, often involving both the public and private sectors.
Regional, sectoral, or strategic assessment may be necessary to evaluate and compare the impact of
alternative development options, assess legal and institutional aspects relevant to the potential impacts
and risks, and recommend broad measures for future social and environmental management. Particular
attention is paid to potential cumulative impacts of multiple activities. These assessments are typically
carried out by the public sector, though they may be called for in some complex and high risks private
sector projects. These analyses will come into play when establishing setting "carrying capacities" for
heritage sites and natural resource areas. The following text box presents some basic questions that
should be answered in such assessments.
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Figure E-1: Identifying potential cumulative effects issues related to proposed action
1. What is the value of the affected resource or ecosystem? Is it:
• Protected by legislation or planning goals?
• Ecologically important?
• Culturally important?
• Economically important?
• Important to the well-being of a human community?
• Important to the well-being of the world community?
2. Is the proposed action one of several similar past, present, or future actions in the same geographic area?
3. Do other activities (whether governmental or private) in the region have environmental effects similar to
those of the proposed action?
4. Will the proposed action (in combination with other planned activities) affect any natural resources;
cultural resources; social or economic units; or ecosystems of regional, national, or global public concern?
Examples: release of chlorofluorocarbons to the atmosphere; conversion of wetland habitat to farmland
located in a migratory waterfowl flyway.
5. Have any recent or ongoing EIA analyses of similar actions or nearby actions identified important adverse
or beneficial cumulative effect issues?
6. Has the impact been historically significant, such that the importance of the resource is defined by past
loss, past gain, or investments to restore resources?
7. Might the proposed action involve any of the following cumulative effects issues?
• Long range transport of air pollutants resulting in ecosystem acidification or eutrophication
• Air emissions resulting in degradation of regional air quality
• Release of greenhouse gases resulting in climate modification
• Loading large water bodies with discharges of sediment, thermal, and toxic pollutants
• Reduction or contamination of groundwater supplies
• Changes in hydrological regimes of major rivers and estuaries
• Long-term containment and disposal of hazardous wastes,
• Mobilization of persistent or bio accumulated substances through the food chain
• Decreases in the quantity and quality of soils
• Loss of natural habitats or historic character through residential, commercial, and industrial
development
• Social, economic, or cultural effects on low-income or minority communities resulting from ongoing
development
• Habitat fragmentation from infrastructure construction or changes in land use
• Habitat degradation from grazing, timber harvesting, and other consumptive uses
• Disruption of migrating fish and wildlife populations
• Loss of biological diversity
Source: Adapted from Table 2.1, Council on Environmental Quality, Considering Cumulative Effects under the
NEPA Policy Act, January 1997
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F. ASSESSING IMPACTS
F. ASSESSING IMPACTS: PREDICTIVE TOOLS AND CONSIDERATIONS
1 OVERVIEW OF USING PREDICTIVE TOOLS FOR AN EIA
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) employs
predictive tools to determine the locations,
magnitude, duration, extent and significance of
potential impacts on the natural and human
environment. Tourism sector projects involve a wide
range of activities project size, complexity of
components and diversity of impacts. Generally
accepted scientific practices should be used to
estimate potential impacts. Many of these practices
are presented in this section of the guidelines.
TOOLS FOR ASSESSING THE IMPACTS OF
TOURISM PROJECTS
Predictive tools can be quantitative - as in the
case of analytical or numerical air and water
models, semi-quantitative based on the results
of surveys used to evaluate socio-economic
impacts, or qualitative based on professional
judgment or comparisons with known impacts of
similar projects and environmental settings.
1.1 Ground Rules: Basic Considerations for Predicting Impacts
The EIA should assess as appropriate the direct, indirect and cumulative impacts for the proposed
project including alternatives and for every phase of the project: site selection, site preparation and
construction, operation, maintenance and closure.
Ground rules for prediction impacts:
1. Generally accepted scientific practices should be used to estimate potential impacts.
2. Greater detail and analysis should be included for those impacts which are potentially
significant.
3. It will be important to identify uncertainties to lay the groundwork for decisions about the
project, proposed environmental measures, monitoring and contingency plans.
4. The assessment of impacts builds on and indeed depends on both a complete and accurate
description of the project, alternatives, and related activities, and the information on the
environmental setting. The assessment may take into account proposed environmental
measures incorporated into the siting, design and processes and procedures, but to the extent
that this is done in the assessment of impacts, those actions should be included in the
Environmental Management section of the EIA which describes the commitments of the project
developer to environmental measures activities. In other words, you cannot assume for
purposes of analysis that the impact is half of what it would otherwise be because of a control
device and fail to include that control device in the environmental measures that are committed
to for the project. Control technologies proposed are also often part of the project alternatives
addressed - balancing cost against benefits.
5. Key assumptions should be explicit in the EIA. Because prediction is only as good as the
assumptions and the appropriateness of the tools, information required should be explicitly
spelled out in the EIA for the reviewer and decision maker. A range of predictive tools may be
available, and the user should justify and validate or qualify the tools and data used based on
the site location and situation. Topography, meteorology, hydrology, land use and ground
cover, energy input types and rates, and conditions that may be unique to the project site
should also be considered.
6. Cumulative Impacts should not be ignored. Impacts of project construction and operation
should be added to existing and other predicted impacts (other projects already planned or
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under development), as the overall net impacts should be addressed. This applies not only to
the project, but also impacts to water resources, noise levels, air resources, biologic resources,
concessions areas, and if appropriate marine and coastal resources.
7. To employ predictive tools it usually is necessary to calculate intermediary factors such as the
resulting direct emissions or releases into the environment from a given set of activities, or, the
area and type of land disturbance, number of employees that may be required during
construction phases, and other factors. By applying these intermediary factors to what is known
about the environmental setting, predictive tools provide quantitative and qualitative
information on the impacts based upon known or anticipated relationships.
1.2 Geographic Boundaries for Assessment of Impacts
The geographic boundaries for assessment of impacts are an important factor in correct assessment of
impacts. It is often called the "area of influence". Determining the geographic boundaries depends on
the characteristics of the resources affected, the magnitude and scale of the project's potential impacts,
the timing of the source of impacts, the duration of the impacts themselves and the environmental
setting. In practice, a combination of natural and institutional boundaries may be required to adequately
consider both potential impacts and possible environmental measures. Ultimately, the scope of the
analysis will depend on an understanding of how the effects are occurring in the assessment area.
1.2.1 Project Footprint
Development of process flow diagrams and associated plot plans is essential to understanding the
"footprint" of a project, and potential impacts. Sources, pollutant transport mechanisms and potential
impacts within the project boundary and within the area of influence can be more easily understood and
addressed if the assessment starts with such graphic overviews of the project. Outputs of numerical
predictive models can also be overlaid on plot plans and maps of surrounding areas. Both the footprint
of the disturbed area, adjacent areas for temporary storage of equipment, or debris and the final site
plan for the project need to be considered in the footprint.
1.2.2 Area of Influence
Determining the area of influence for a project can be complex. It is rarely limited to the project
boundary or a uniform radius around the project site, and may include sensitive and protected areas at
greater distances than may be normally thought of as being within the area of influence. Defining the
area of influence is often, if not always, variable and dependent on the affected resource, including
human health and welfare; the phase of development; the duration of the impacts; and the type of
impacts (direct, indirect and cumulative).
Area of influence considerations based on type of resource include:
• Shorelines and Beaches: Tourism development in-water and at water's edge haveve potential
impacts well beyond the project footprint. Coastal processes are complex; the forces of wind,
waves, storms, sea level changes, and other natural processes move the sediments that shape
and reshape the coastlines and beaches. Coastal development projects often changes currents,
scour potential, sand deposition, etc. not only at the project site but on adjacent areas. Most
shoreline development requires complex analyses of a wide range of conditions just to protect
the tourism facilities. Hazards evaluations are always required. These same analyses can be
extended to forecast potential impacts.
• Ecosystems and watersheds: The boundaries of coastal development projects should be based
on watershed units, the resources of concern and the characteristics of the specific area to be
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assessed. In many cases, the analysis should use an ecological region boundary that focuses on
the natural units that constitute the resources of concern and watershed areas that sustain the
resources of concern. Importantly, the geographical boundaries should not be extended to the
point that the analysis becomes unwieldy and useless for decision-making. In practice, the areas
for several target species or components of the ecosystem can often be captured by a single
eco-region or watershed.
• Biological Resources: The area of influence for biological resources is defined by the presence of
flora and fauna and key habitat areas for terrestrial, freshwater, or marine species. The area of
influence can be complicated by the presence of migratory species that are not present year-
round and ecosystems which are sensitive and unique. Thus, areas that are a great distance
away from the project can be influenced by the project.
• Soils and Geology: The area of influence for impacts on soil is usually localized and restricted to
the project footprint and disturbed area, and its immediate surroundings. However, evaluation
of geologic hazards should consider the area of potential impact of geologic risks.
• Water Resources: The area of influence related to releases of pollutants to a water body will
depend on the nature of the watershed, type of water body (e.g., stream, river, lake, or coastal
ocean area), the volume and flow of that water body, the nature of the pollutant, and the
chemical characteristics of the water body. For water releases, the area of influence can be
limited to a single river or stream, but could extend many miles downstream to groundwater
and even feeding other areas of the watershed. The area of influence related to use of water
will depend upon the water source (e.g., surface water body, groundwater, captured
wastewater), the volume of water required, and competing uses for the water.
• Estuaries: Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and ocean
environments and are subject to both marine and riverine influences. Estuaries are very
productive natural habitats. Development activities from dredging and construction may alter
water circulation and wave patterns causing changes in salinity, water quality, turbidity, and
sedimentation, both at the project site and elsewhere in the estuary. Estuaries often have
complex substrates and construction and dredging activities can adversely affect bottom
dwelling and benthic communities. Wetlands, vegetated shallows and mud flats are very
productive habitats that can be particularly vulnerable to development activities.
• Coastal Waters and Open Ocean: Waters that extend from the high water line out to sea may
also be influenced by coastal developments. Similar to estuaries, development activities from
dredging and construction may alter water circulation and wave patterns causing changes in
salinity, water quality, turbidity, and sedimentation both at the project site and at more distant
locations in the regional system. Construction in the littoral zone may interrupt the flow of
sediments resulting in unwanted accretion or excessive erosion. Bottom dwelling and benthic
communities in these waters may also be impacted. Vegetated shallows and coral reefs in these
areas are also vulnerable to development activities.
• Air Quality: The area of influence for air emissions will be influenced by prevailing winds,
weather patterns, terrain, and the nature of the pollutant being considered. Sophisticated air
dispersion models can predict spatial patterns of air dispersion and deposition for various
chemicals and allow for close delineation of the area of influence. Local, regional and global air
quality impacts should be considered.
• Land Use and Socioeconomics: The area of influence will depend on regional socioeconomic
conditions and the extent to which the proposed project and associated activities may alter the
essential character of the area and its population, existing or planned land use. The geographic
boundary appropriate for analysis can be quite different in rural as opposed to urban
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environments. The area of influence can be localized and restricted to the project footprint and
immediate surroundings, but because of induced indirect impacts it can be far reaching.
• Noise: The area of influence may take several forms for noise. Visitors to undeveloped areas
can disturb animal mating, breeding and communications. The operational noise of everyday
facility operations (air conditioners, water-based and road-based transportation noise, etc.) and
the intermittent noise from outdoor entertainment venues (music or sports crowds, patron
noise, car park noise, etc.) and transportation of supplies and visitors. These can have differing
areas of influence, analysis and mitigation.
• Political boundaries: In the realm of standards, policies, plans and programs and socio-
economic-cultural impacts there are not only natural boundaries, but also political boundaries
including international borders, regional and local governments with varying requirements,
values, and practices.
1.2.3 Area of Influence Considerations Based on Project Phase and Duration of Impacts
• Site Characterization: The area of influence is usually limited to the immediate area of activities.
In the case of Coastal Development, the area of influence tends to be larger than land based
because of the complex coastal systems of currents, winds, and waves.
• Construction: The area of influence includes the project footprint and immediate surroundings,
and the socioeconomic regions supplying workers. Again, special attention should be directed
to coastal construction, both in-water and land -based.
• Operations: The area of influence includes the project footprint and surroundings areas affected
activities, and the socioeconomic regions supplying workers. Coastal development may have
additional operational components such as maintenance dredging of navigational channels,
dock areas and marinas, beach re nourishment activities, upkeep of coastal engineering
structures designed to protect the tourism complex, etc.
• Closure: The area of influence includes the project footprint and immediate surroundings, and
the socioeconomic regions supplying workers.
• Duration of impacts: Determining the temporal scope requires estimating the length of time
the impacts of the proposed action will last. More specifically, this length of time extends as
long as the impacts may singly, or in combination with other potentialpotential impacts, be
significant on the resources of concern.
1.2.4 Area of Influence Considerations Based on Type of Impact
A project's direct, indirect and cumulative impacts may affect the area of influence. Generally, the
scope of analysis for assessing cumulative impacts will be broader than the scope of analysis used in
assessing direct or indirect effects. Spatial and temporal boundaries should not be overly restricted in
cumulative impact analysis. However, to avoid extending data and analytical requirements beyond
those relevant to decision making, the cumulative impact assessment can stop at the point where the
contribution of effects of the action, or combination of all actions, to the cumulative impact is not
significant. The important factor in determining cumulative impact is the condition of the resource (i.e.,
to what extent it is degraded). An appropriate spatial scope of the cumulative impact analysis can be
made by considering how the resources are being affected. This determination involves two basic steps:
1. Identifying a geographic area that includes resources potentially affected by the proposed
project.
2. Extending that area, when necessary, to include the same and other resources affected,
positively or negatively, by the combined impacts of the project and other actions.
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1.3 Baseline
Impacts are always assessed against a baseline. The baseline used in an EIA is the "no action
alternative". This is a description of the environment in the absence of the proposed project but
including consideration of other changes predicted to take place over time in the absence of the
proposed project. The baseline for assessing impacts is different from existing conditions as it does
consider other changes that may occur in future but independent of the project, e.g., other project
start-ups, closures or major modifications. The geographic and political boundaries for assessing project
impacts will depend upon the affected resource and the nature of the potential impacts and may also be
influenced by the distances specified by the organization responsible for EIA review, likely specified in
the Terms of Reference and/or EIA application form.
Section D, Environmental Setting, goes into considerable detail on baseline data requirements.
Acquisition or development of accurate baseline data is very important in assessing the environmental
impacts of a Tourism project.
1.4 Evaluation of the Significance of Impacts
In assessing the environmental impacts of a Tourism project one should determine the magnitude,
location and significance of the impact.
1.4.1 Quantitative Thresholds
• If regulatory criteria and standards exist (e.g., air quality standards, water quality standards,
radiation exposure standards), these can serve as benchmarks against which impacts can
beassesseded.assessed Exceeding the standards definitely would be considered
significant.Some of the CAFTA-DR countries may lack certain standards that might be used for
criteria for determining the significance of an impact. In Appendix C this guideline provides a
range of standards used internationally and for a range of countries that may be used for this
purpose in lieu of in the absence of country standards in the absence of regulatory performance
standards.
• If adequate data and analytical procedures are available, specific thresholds that indicate
degradation of the resources of concern should be included in the EIA analysis. The thresholds
should be practical, scientifically defensible, and fit the scale of the analysis. Thresholds may be
set as specific numerical standards (e.g., dissolved oxygen content to assess water quality,
particulate matter levels to assess air quality, etc.), qualitative standards that consider biological
components of an ecosystem (e.g., riparian condition and presence of particular biophysical
attributes), and/or desired management goals (e.g., open space or unaltered habitat).
Thresholds should be represented by a measurement that will report the change in resource
condition in meaningful units. This change is then evaluated in terms of both the total threshold
beyond which the resource degrades to unacceptable levels and the incremental contribution of
the proposed action to reaching that threshold. The measurement should be scientifically
based.
1.4.2 Professional Judgment
Establishing criteria for insignificant and significant impacts may also rely on professional judgment, but
these should be well-defined in the assessment. Criteria often need to be established separately for
each resource. The idea of direct and indirect, or secondary impactsshould also be considered, whereas
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loss of jobs by persons and industries that depend on the forest or other systems depend on the forest
would be a secondary or indirect impact.
• Area of Influence: Discussed in subsection 1.2.
• Percentage of Resource Affected: This can include habitat, land use, and water resources.
• Persistence of Impacts: Permanent or long-term changes are usually more significant than
temporary ones. The ability of the resource to recover after the activities are complete is
related to this effect.
• Sensitivity of Resources: Impacts to sensitive resources are usually more significant than
impacts to those that are relatively resilient to impacts.
• Status of Resources: Impacts to rare or limited resources are usually considered more significant
than impacts to common or abundant resources.
• Regulatory Status: Impacts to resources that are protected (e.g., endangered species, wetlands,
air quality, cultural resources, water quality) typically are considered more significant than
impacts to those without regulatory status. Note that many resources with regulatory status
are rare or limited.
• Societal Value: Some resources have societal value, such as sacred sites, traditional subsistence
resources, and recreational area
1.4.3 For some purposes qualitative assessment criteria may be used such as:
• None: No discernible or quantifiable impacts.
• Small: Environmental effects are at the lower limits of detection or are so minor that they will
neither destabilize nor noticeably alter any important attribute of the resource.
• Moderate: Environmental effects are sufficient to noticeably alter important attributes of the
resource but not to destabilize them.
• Large: Environmental effects are clearly noticeable and are sufficient to destabilize the resource.
Parameter assumptions and the experience of the modeler.
The results of the predictions of impacts are often reported in summary tables and matrices to facilitate
comparisons across different alternatives.
1.4.4 Checklists and Matrices
Checklists and matrices do not constitute methods for actually assessing the significance of impacts but
rather, are used to facilitate the characterization of the significance of impacts. Checklists and matrices
can be used to assist in the identification of possible impacts, categorization of a project or valuation of
the significance of impacts across a wide spectrum of potential sources and impacts. The use of
checklists for identifying and, to a limited extent, characterizing, environmental impacts is very common
throughout existing EIA processes. A checklist forces the assessment to consider a standardized set of
activities or effects for each proposed action, thus bringing uniformity to the assessment process.
Checklists can be used to determine environmental impact thresholds, thus indicating whether a full-
scale EIA is needed for a particular project or whether a finding of no significant impact might be issued.
The evolution from checklist to matrix is intuitively and easily accomplished. A checklist can be viewed
as a single-column summary of a proposed action, with only a coarse characterization of the nature and
magnitude of potential environmental impacts provided. An EIA matrix provides a finer degree of
impact characterization by associating a set of columns (actions) with each row (environmental
attribute) of the matrix and assigning some value to the effect.
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Matrices are very likely the most popular and widely used EIA methodology. One common application is
in the comparison of alternative actions. Alternative actions (measures, projects, sites, designs) are
listed as column headings, while the rows are the criteria that should determine the choice of
alternative. In each cell of the matrix, a conclusion can be listed indicating whether the alternative
action is likely to have a positive or negative effect relative to the indicated criterion. Very often, the
conclusion is stated as a numerical value or symbol indicating the level of intensity of the effect. There
is an opportunity, moreover, to apply relative weighting to the various criteria when evaluating the
completed matrix.
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) Rapid Environmental Assessment (REA) checklists, Leopold Matrix
approach, and the valuation matrix used by Costa Rica to assess environmental feasibility are discussed
in the following sections.
1.4.3.1. Rapid Environmental Assessment Checklists
Rapid Environmental Assessment (REA) checklists allow a rapid, initial assessment of environmental
impacts developed and used by the World Bank and regional development banks. The Asian
Development Bank (ADB) REA checklist approach is an excellent means by which the possible
environmental and social impacts of any given project can be initially assessed. The approach assists in
assuring that from the start there are no serious errors or omissions with respect to possible impacts.
The approach is also useful in comparing possible environmental and socio-economic impacts of
alternative projects and/or of the same project on different sites. Figure F-l presents the contents of
the ADB REA checklist for projects in general. Appendix F in Volume 2 of these guidelines presents the
ADB REA checklists for energy projects (Hydropower, Power Transmission, Solar Energy, Thermal Power
Plants, and Wind Energy).
1.4.3.2. Leopold Matrix
The Leopold Matrix is a qualitative EIA method pioneered in 1971 by the United States Geological Survey
(Leopold et. al., 1971). It is used to identify the potential impact of a project on the environment. The
system consists of a matrix with columns representing the various activities of the project, and rows
representing the various environmental attributes or factors to be considered.
The original Leopold Matrix consisted of 100 columns representing examples of causative actions, and
88 rows representing environmental components and characteristics (a portion of the matrix is
presented in Figure F-2). As a first step, the columns that correspond with the nature of the proposed
action are checked off. Then, for each column that is marked, the cells corresponding to environmental
effects are examined. Two scores (on a scale from 1 to 10) are listed in each cell, separated by a slash
(/); the first score represents the magnitude of the possible impact, while the second score represents
the importance of the possible impact. Beneficial impacts are indicated by a plus (+) sign and negative
impacts with a minus (-) sign. The interpretation of the matrix is based on the professional judgment of
those individuals performing the EIA.
Measurements of magnitude and importance tend to be related, but do not necessarily directly
correlate. Magnitude can be measured fairly explicitly, in terms of how much area is affected by the
development and how adversely, but importance is a more subjective measurement. While a proposed
development may have a large impact in terms of magnitude, the effects it causes may not actually
significantly affect the environment as a whole.
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F. ASSESSING IMPACTS
Figure F-l: Asian Development Bank rapid environmental assessment checklist -general
SCREENING QUESTIONS
A. Project Siting
Is the project area adjacent to or within any of the following
environmentally sensitive areas?
• Cultural heritage site
• Legally protected area (core zone or buffer zone)
• Wetland
• Mangrove
• Estuarine
• Special area for protecting biodiversity
B. Potential Environmental Impacts
Will the project cause
• Impairment of historical/cultural areas; disfiguration of landscape or
potential loss/damage to physical cultural resources?
• Disturbance to precious ecology (e.g. Sensitive or protected areas)?
• Alteration of surface water hydrology of waterways resulting in
increased sediment in streams affected by increased soil erosion at
construction site?
• Deterioration of surface water quality due to silt runoff and sanitary
wastes from worker-based camps and chemicals used in
construction?
• Increased air pollution due to project construction and operation?
• Noise and vibration due to project construction or operation?
• Involuntary resettlement of people? (physical displacement and/or
economic displacement)
• Disproportionate impacts on the poor, women and children,
Indigenous Peoples or other vulnerable groups?
• Poor sanitation and solid waste disposal in construction camps and
work sites, and possible transmission of communicable diseases
(such as STI's and HIV/AIDS) from workers to local populations?
• Creation of temporary breeding habitats for diseases such as those
transmitted by mosquitoes and rodents?
• Social conflicts if workers from other regions or countries are hired?
• Large population influx during project construction and operation
that causes increased burden on social infrastructure and services
(such as water supply and sanitation systems)?
• Risks and vulnerabilities related to occupational health and safety
due to physical, chemical, biological, and radiological hazards during
project construction and operation?
• Risks to community health and safety due to the transport, storage,
and use and/or disposal of materials such as explosives, fuel and
other chemicals during construction and operation?
• Community safety risks due to both accidental and natural causes,
especially where the structural elements or components of the
project are accessible to members of the affected community or
where their failure could result in injury to the community
throughout project construction, operation and decommissioning?
• Generation of solid waste and/or hazardous waste?
• Use of chemicals?
• Generation of wastewater during construction or operation?
YES
NO
REMARKS
Source: Asian Development Bank,
http://www.adb.org/documents/Guidelines/Environmental Assessment/eaguidelines002.asp
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F. ASSESSING IMPACTS
Figure F- 2: Sample page from the Leopold Matrix
Environmental / Social Conditions
Evaluation Method
(Rate + or-and Score 1-10)
Magnitude ^ ^ .«— -— -""""""""^
^ -— — -— ""^ Importance
(D
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Fauna
Eco-systems
Patrimony Land Uses
'i
to
Soil Quality
Erosion
Geomorphology
Rivers
Coastal Zone
Subsurface Water
Sea Quality
Air Quality
Odors
Noise
Forests
Crops
Wetlands
Sea-Grasses
River Flora
Mammals
Birds
Fish
Other vertebrates
Invertebrates
Ecosystems Quality
Ecosystems Destruction
Rural
Fisheries
Urban
Industrial
Recreational Uses
Landscape
Historical /Cultural
Heritage
Wilderness Quality
Population Density
Employment
Hazards
Action
Raw Material
Production
Total
Building
Operations
Water
Supply
Energy
Supply
Raw Material
Preparation
Industrial
Processes
Gaseous
Emissions
Liquid
Effluents
Cooling
Water
Discharges
Solid Wastes
Treatment
Transportation
Total
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1.4.3.3. Valuation Matrix in Use in Costa Rica
Several variants of the Leopold Matrix have been prepared. One such variant is the matrix required for
use in the preparation of ElAs in Costa Rica, the Matriz de Importancia de Impacto Ambiental (MIIA).1
The MIIA is used to calculate a numeric value for the environmental significance of impacts. As with the
Leopold Matrix, the MIIA uses activities as the headings for the columns in the matrix and
environmental factors as headings for the rows. For each box in the matrix a score for each of 10
variables is assigned by the team and a value for the overall significance is calculated using the following
formula:
I = ± [3IN + 2 EX + MO + PE + RV + SI + AC + EF + PR + MC]
Where: I = Significance
IN = Intensity (Level of destruction scored as 1 [low] - 12 [very high])
EX = Extension (Size of area of influence scored as 1 [local] - 8 [extremely extensive])
MO = Moment of Impact (Time of impact relative to action scored as 1 [5 or more years
after action] - 4 [immediate] and can be raised to 8 [an additional 4 points] if the
impact is considered critical)
PE = Persistence (Length of time the impact will be felt scored as 1 [<1 year] - 4 [>5
years])
RV = Reversibility (Ability of impacted resource to naturally return to pre-activity
condition scored as 1 [<1 year] - 4 [>5 years])
SI = Synergy (Level of synergetic effects scored as 1 [no synergies] - 4 [highly
synergetic])
AC = Cumulative Effects (Are the effects of the impact cumulative? scored as 1 [no] or 4
[yes])
EF = Effect (Is the impact direct or indirect? scored as 1 [indirect] or 4 [direct])
PR = Periodicity (scored as 1 [irregular], 2 [periodic], or 4 [continuous])
MC = Recoverability (Ability of human actions to restore the impacted resource to its
pre-activity condition scored as 1 [immediately and easily] - 8 [not possible])
The resulting score is evaluated as follows:
Less than 25 = acceptable
From 25 through 50 = moderate
From 50 through 75 = severe
More than 75 = critical
1 A full description of the matrix can be found in Annex 2 of Decree No. 32966 of the Ministry of the Environment
and Energy (MINEA) for Costa Rica at:
http://www.setena.go.cr/documentos/Normativa/32966%20Guia%20para%20elaboracion%20de%20instrumento
s%20EIA%20(MIT%20IV).doc
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1.5 Data Requirements and Sources
Data requirements are determined by the types and locations of impacts to be predicted, and by the
model and other tools to be used. Sources include direct measurement and monitoring, existing
literature, field studies, surveys. As with any numerical modeling exercise, the validity of the output is
governed by the appropriateness of model selection, quality of data used, and the experience of the
modeler. When data are of unconfirmed quality, of insufficient quantity, are from surrogate operations
and locations, or are extrapolated from other studies then results should be duly caveat.
Countries which lack some of the data required by experts or to run models for impact assessment can
use the approach of "the Best Available Data (BAD)" to substitute simplified evaluation criteria for
estimating potential impacts in terms of risk rather than a modeled estimate of tons/acre,
Further, some countries have built in adaptive management and monitoring to overcome these
uncertainties during project implementation, but this should be done only where there is a basic
confidence that significant adverse impacts are unlikely to occur or that required levels of performance
can be met.
Finally, in some circumstances unlikely scenarios from accidents and natural disasters pose risks that
may be beyond existing baseline and trend data but need to be assessed to bound potential impacts and
to avoid and/or prepare for adequate response. The Text Box below describes approaches to bind the
risks by developing scenarios for these circumstances.
2 GENERAL APPROACHES FOR PREDICTION OF IMPACTS
2.1 Predictive Tools
Prediction of impacts on physical, biological and social-economic-cultural resources is accomplished by
using a variety of predictive techniques, with results compared to accepted criteria, to evaluate the
significance of an impact. There are a range of predictive techniques that can be used including
• Experts/professional judgment
• Extrapolation from past trends/statistical models
• Scenarios based upon risks and potential hazards not captured by past trends
• Measured resource responses in other similar geographic areas
• Modeling of the resource
• Geographic information systems
For any of these prediction methods, data requirements are determined by the types and locations of
impacts to be predicted, and by the conceptual or quantitative model to be used. As with any numerical
modeling exercise, the validity of the output is governed by the appropriateness of model selection,
quality of data used, parameter assumptions. When data are of unconfirmed quality, of insufficient
quantity, are from surrogate operations and locations, or are extrapolated from other studies then
results should be duly caveated.
The remainder of this section of the guidelines identifies quantitative models for assessing impacts as
examples of scientifically accepted practices, but criteria for applying a specific methodology in any
given circumstances should be carefully assessed and justified, data sources and assumptions made
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clear and any resulting uncertainties identified. It is important in the development of an EIA that models
are used wisely and that the results are not accepted without strenuous review. Quantitative models,
calibrated to particular settings and circumstances, are particularly useful to assess impacts to air and
water resources as well as potential risks to humans and biota, and may even be required as a
consistent and objective approach to evaluating impacts where those models are validated for use in the
particular circumstances. One other advantage of using models is that sensitivity analyses can be
performed and "what-if" scenarios can be modeled to identify the nature and extent of impacts and
identify which variables contribute to impacts as well as uncertainty of the results.
2.2 Geographic Information Systems and Visualization Tools
To understand the potential impacts of a project, it is important to be able to visualize and calculate
changes which may occur. This can be done by developing maps which show pre-project and post-
project conditions. In many countries, geographic information systems (GIS) are used extensively for
this purpose. GIS captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data that is linked to location. GIS
applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user created searches), analyze
spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations. A GIS includes
mapping software and its application with remote sensing, land surveying, aerial photography,
mathematics, photogrammetry, geography, and other tools.
U.S. EPA's NEPAssist tool was developed to provide a new generation of GIS applications to assist with
EIA screening which has the features of a) instantaneous web-based access to distributed sources of
information, b) spatial integration with easily turned on and off data layers, and c) instantaneous
analysis using pre-set yes/no questions in an environment which allows the user to change assumptions
and buffers for quantitative screening for information on key features, their proximity. Information
sources are annotated using metadata which enables the user to determine who collected the
information, how up to date it is and the like. This tool has been shared with all of the CAFTA DR
countries with their own interfaces, data sources, and analytical questions.
2.3 Selecting and Applying Quantitative Predictive Tools
Models of the existing environment, calibrated to local conditions, are used to introduce new
assumptions and predict future conditions. Models provide a discipline forcing the user to identify and
justify key assumptions and ranges of uncertainty in the capacity of the model to predict accurately
under a range of conditions.
It is important in the development of an EIA that models are used wisely and that the results are not
accepted without strenuous review. Needless to say, the advantage of using quantitative models is that
sensitivity analyses can be performed and "what-if" scenarios can be modeled to identify the nature and
extent of impacts and identify which variables contribute to impacts as well as uncertainty of the results.
When limited baseline data are available or the exact nature of the project is not known, impact
determinations using models should be based on a number of assumptions. Each of the assumptions
has some uncertainty associated with it. To compensate for these uncertainties, conservative
assumptions are usually made to ensure that impacts are not underestimated. Even with conservative
assumptions, impacts that are poorly understood (e.g., the response of resources to the environmental
changes brought about by the project is not known) can be underestimated or improperly characterized.
Conservative assumptions can result in greatly overestimating impacts and unnecessary costs for a
project if environmental measures are not properly directed and scaled to the impact.
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Different countries may also require or accept certain models. It is imperative that such requirements
or preferences be determined well in advance of performance of modeling. This will assure that
adequate time is allowed to collect input data required by the model(s) and that results are accepted by
organizations that should approve the EIA.
The following subsections present a brief overview of how these analytical methods can be used in
assessing impacts of proposed power generation and transmission projects.
ANALYZING AND PREPARING FOR POTENTIAL RISK: USE OF BOUNDING SCENARIOS
ElAs tourism projects should include an analysis of risks. The analysis should represent the range of
potential impacts of potential accidents and destructive natural events, including those from likely
scenarios as well as those from low-probability, high-consequence scenarios. (The latter are
sometimes referred to as "worst case scenarios" but this term can be misleading.) The analysis of risk
should be considered in the design of all structures as well as in the development of spill and
catastrophic failure contingency plans. Modern tourism projects utilize state-of-the-art models to
predict the potential environmental impacts to water, air, and other resources as well as potential
exposures to populations at risk. To avoid under-predicting impacts, models use conservative
assumptions and analyze potential accidents or natural disasters with the most severe consequences
reasonably foreseeable to occur. These analyses enable the identification of controls to protect
human health and the environment even under these unlikely but foreseeable situations. This
analytical approach ensures that the risk analyses in the EIA "bound" the potential risks. That is, the
analysis represents the full range of risks and will not under-predict the most severe consequences.
There are understandably policy decisions that are inherent in carrying out this type of analysis as to
the threshold for defining a reasonable set of assumptions in developing these scenarios.
This approach has been used to design control technologies, for natural resource protection (wetlands
and sensitive habitats), created habitats (beaches, etc.) as well as facilities. In the case of unforeseen
weather events, hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other events, contingency plans
should be applied to:
• Emergency notification and evacuation
• Fire control
• Spill cleanup - it is recommended that spill kits are kept at strategic locations throughout
fixed facility tourism sites
• Warning systems
• Medical support
• Other items dealing with the health and safety of the workers and the local community
In addition, a program should be developed to train personnel how to react to emergency situations.
In evaluating these scenarios, the regulator should be aware of the environmental and socio-economic
setting to ensure that the conservative assumptions made to develop the scenarios are reasonable.
For instance, water management experts reviewing an EIA risk analysis often require that
impoundments be designed to handle runoff from a maximum probable rainfall event. The calculation
of such an event is based on many years of data. These data may not be available for a particular
drainage and information should be gathered from other similar areas if available. In addition,
"climate change" may increase the frequency of large storm events possibly making historic data less
reliable for predictive purposes. It takes professional judgment to ensure that the right approach is
taken. It is also important for the reviewers to ensure that in case of a disaster or emergency that
contingency plans are in place.
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3 SOILS AND GEOLOGY IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
Evaluation of impacts due to construction of a tourism facility on soils and geology is usually based on
professional judgment as well as on existing literature, field studies, surveys, trend analysis or measured
resource responses in other geographic areas. Tools such as GIS overlaying activities on maps of soils
and geology and graphics generated from comprehensive databases are useful toward visualization and
determination of the magnitude of potential impacts.
3.1 Soil Loss and Erosion Potential
For soils, it is important to understand the potential for soil loss due to wind and water erosion. The US
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS-ARC undated) developed the wind erosion equation
(WEQ) expressed in function form as:
E = f(l, K,C, L,V)
Where: E = the potential average annual soil loss
I = the soil erodibility index
K = the soil ridge roughness factor
C = the climate factor
L = unsheltered distance across a field
V = the equivalent vegetative cover
Because field erodibility varies with field conditions, a procedure to solve WEQ for periods of less than
one year was devised. In this procedure, a series of factor values are selected to describe successive
management periods in which both management factors and vegetative covers are nearly constant.
Erosive wind energy distribution is used to derive a weighted soil loss for each period. Soil losses for
individual periods are summed to estimate annual erosion. Soil loss from the periods also can be
summed for multi-year rotations, and the loss divided by the number of years to obtain an average,
annual estimate.
The NRCS has also developed the Wind Erosion Prediction System (WEPS) that incorporates this new
technology and is designed to be a replacement for the WEQ. Unlike WEQ WEPS is a process-based,
continuous, daily time-step model that simulates weather, field conditions, and erosion. It is a user
friendly program that has the capability of simulating spatial and temporal variability of field conditions
and soil loss/deposition within a field. WEPS can also simulate complex field shapes, barriers not on the
field boundaries, and complex topographies. The saltation, creep, suspension, and PM10 components
of eroding materials can also be reported separately by direction in WEPS. WEPS is designed to be used
under a wide range of conditions in the U.S. and easily adapted to other parts of the world.
For soil loss due to water erosion, estimation can be done using RUSLE described in the box below.
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SOIL LOSS
Predicting soil loss and sediment due to rainfall erosion is an important aspect in assessing the impacts of
activities that may cause disturbance of large surface areas. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is
an empirical equation developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA, 1997) that predicts annual
erosion (tons/acre/yr) resulting from sheet and rill erosion in croplands
(http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=5971). The RUSLE employs a series of factors, each
quantifying one or more of the important soil loss processes and their interactions, combined to yield an overall
estimate of soil loss. The equation is (USDA, 1997):
A = R*K*(LS}*C*P
Where: A = Annual soil loss (tons/acre) resulting from sheet and rill erosion
R = Rainfall-runoff erosivity factor measuring the effect of rainfall on erosion. The R factor is computed
using the rainfall energy and the maximum 30 minutes intensity (EI30);
K = Soil erodibility factor measuring the resistance of the soil to detachment and transportation by
raindrop impact and surface runoff. Soil erodibility is a function of the inherent soil properties,
including organic matter content, particle size, permeability, etc. In the USDA soils data sets, two K
factors are given, Kw and Kf. Soil erodibility factors (Kw) and (Kf) quantify soil detachment by
runoff and raindrop impact. These erodibility factors are indexes used to predict the long-term
average soil loss, from sheet and rill erosion under crop systems and conservation techniques.
Factor Kw applies to the whole soil, and Kf applies only the fine-earth fraction, which is the <2.0
mm fraction (USDA, 1997).
L = Slope length factor accounting for the effects of slope length on the rate of erosion;
5 = Slope steepness factor accounting for the effects of slope angle on erosion rates.
C = Cover management factor accounting for the influence of soil and cover management, such as
tillage practices, cropping types, crop rotation, fallow, etc., on soil erosion rates. The C-factor is
derived from land-use/land-cover types.
P = Erosion control factor accounting for the influence of support practices such as contouring, strip
cropping, terracing, etc.
Source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=5971
3.2 Beach Erosion
Impacts from and on beach erosion can be significant. The construction of tourism facilities on or near
the beach may be impacted by beach erosion, and when not carefully planned and designed, can
exacerbate erosion at the project site and even over the broader coastal region. Shores erode, accrete,
or remain stable, depending on the rates at which sediment is supplied and removed from the shore.
Construction along the coast can interrupt the supply of sediment that moves along the coast, resulting
in increased deposition or erosion. Increased erosion may be experienced far from the project site.
Excessive erosion or accretion may endanger the structural integrity or functional usefulness of a beach,
nearby tourism facilities, or other coastal structures. A regional characterization of coastal and riverine
sediment transport rates and magnitudes, as well as the engineering activities within the region
(dredging and placement of littoral resources), is a basic component in designing and evaluating the
response of projects within the watershed. The regional sediment budget is a quantification of these
natural sediment transport processes and anthropogenic activities and is a valuable tool in assessing
beach impacts. The Sediment Budget Analysis System (SBAS) is a PC-based application for calculating
and displaying local and regional sediment budgets.
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The beach constantly adjusts its profile to provide in response to winds, waves, and water levels.
Sediments move in both along the shore and across the near shore and beach in response to the
environmental forcing. Natural protective dunes are formed by winds that blow over the beach and
vegetation often grows on the dunes. The dune system provides a levee against sea attack and provides
a reservoir of sand. The resilience of a beach from excessive erosion and as a line of protection for
coastal infrastructure Impacts from and on beach erosion can be significant. The resilience of a beach
from disturbance depends greatly on the presence of features such as dunes and vegetation. Beach
nourishment is widely adopted to maintain a wide beach and dune system for a developed coastal
community if a suitable beachfill is available in the vicinity of an eroding beach.
Predictive tools are available to augment professional judgment to take into account the changes that
may occur in the beach system in response to waves and water levels as well as any changes that may
occur due to the construction of proposed tourism projects. These tools can also be applied to design
beach nourishment projects.
Coastal process models such as GENESIS and SBEACH can be applied to predict the response of the
beach to the construction of tourism facilities and other coastal structures as well assist in the design of
beach nourishment projects. The GENESIS model provides estimates of long-term shoreline change and
the SBEACH model calculates the response of the beach profile to storm events. The GENESIS model
includes a simple representation of wave transformation across the near shore region or can employ
results from a more sophisticated wave transformation model such as STWAVE. The Beach-fx model
combines the results of these models in an event-driven Monte Carlo approach that can incorporate
beach profile response to storms, shoreline change driven by long-term coastal processes, and beach
management activities. Beach-fx is a planning level tool that can evaluate proposed project alternatives
in comparison with a without project condition. The model is capable of quantifying, with uncertainty
the damages prevented or induced by a project. Links to these models and brief descriptions are
provided in Table F-4.
3.3 Geologic Resources and Hazards
It is important to have a thorough understanding of the geologic hazards that are or could be at the site.
These include:
• Landslide hazards: Types of movements and depths, such as shallow or deep-seated,
translational or rotational landslides, slumps, debris flows, earth flows, mass wasting, etc. It is
important that the project does not increase the potential the hazards on and off site.
Analytical and numerical approaches should be used to analyze this potential problem.
• Seismic hazards: Potential for strong ground shaking, surface rupture, fault creep, and/or
liquefaction. Deterministic seismic hazard analysis methods should be used to estimate most
expected seismic hazards.
• Volcanic hazards: Potential for molten rock, rock fragments being propelled great distances,
dust, gases, ash fall, fumaroles, landslides and mudflows. Potential for volcanic activity in the
area should be assessed by a literature search.
• Other geologic hazards (e.g., subsidence, rock fall): In some localities, hazard areas have been
identified in the process of developing local critical or sensitive area ordinances. Contact the
appropriate local planning departments to obtain the most current information. In some
localities, hazard areas are not delineated on maps, but are defined in terms of landscape
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characteristics (e.g., slope, geologic unit, field indicators). In these instances, hazard areas
should be mapped by identifying where the defining characteristics apply to the project area.
3.4 Dredge and Fill Operations and Their Impacts
Dredging and the management of dredged materials can have significant environmental impacts.
During dredging operations, sediments are released into the water column creating turbid conditions
which may have environmental consequences. Some of the tools available to assess the release of
sediment from dredging operations are presented in Table F-l.
Table F-1: Dredge and fill models
MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
DREDGE
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/pro
ducts.cfm?Topic=model&Type=dr
emat
DREDGE estimates the mass rate at which bottom
sediments become suspended into the water column as
the result of hydraulic and mechanical dredging operations
and the resulting suspended sediment concentrations.
These are combined with information about site
conditions to simulate the size and extent of the resulting
suspended sediment plume.
STFATE
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/pro
ducts.cfm?Topic=model&Type=dr
emat
The STFATE (Short-Term FATE of dredged material disposal
in open water) model estimates the release of sediment
during discrete discharges from barges and hoppers.
Models also exist to estimate the fate of dredged material
during and after they are placed.
LTFATE
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/pro
ducts.cfm?Topic=model&Type=dr
emat
LTFATE is a site evaluation tool that estimates the
dispersion characteristics of a dredged material placement
site over long periods of time, ranging from days for storm
events to a year or more for ambient conditions.
Simulations are based on the use of local wave and current
condition input.
PTM
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/dot
s/doer/ptm.html
PTM (Particle Tracking Model) can also be applied to
determine the fate of sediment. PTM is a Lagrangian
particle tracker designed to determine the fate of multiple
constituents (sediment, chemicals, debris, biota, etc)
released from local sources (dredges, placement sites,
outfalls, propeller wash, etc) in complex hydrodynamic
and wave environments. Each local source is defined
independently and may have several constituents. Model
results include the fate of each constituent from each local
source. PTM simulates particle transport using pre-
calculated, periodically saved hydrodynamic (and wave)
model output from state of the art models.
If dredging is to be done in the vicinity of a shoreline, the impact of removing sediment from the near
shore region on adjacent shorelines should be evaluated. When a pit or channel is dredged in the
vicinity of a shoreline, there is a potential for changes in wave transformation and, therefore, changes in
shoreline accretion and erosion patterns. These analyses can be conducted with models such as
STWAVE and GENESIS (see Table F-4).
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4 WATER RESOURCES IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
4.1 Surface Water Impact Assessment Tools
When assessing surface water impacts, two initial questions should be asked:
1) Will the project alter surface water flow in the catchment?
2) Will the project affect surface water quality in the catchment and if there is conflict over water
use, among others?
3) Will the project alter the flow of the water?
4) Will there be any conflicts in use of the water?
If the answer to one or both questions is yes, an effort should be made to determine the magnitude and
nature of the impact. This includes but is not limited to:
An estimate of volume of water used and volume of water consumed.
Impacts of discharges of polluted water on the receiving water body.
Estimates of discharge volumes and quality characteristics.
Characterization of existing quantity, quality and performance of the receiving body.
Changes in these characterizations projected from receiving the discharges.
Long- and short-term effects of water diversions and impoundments on the river or streams
including its flood plain characteristics and its structural stability as well as effects on the water table.
Effects on flood characteristics in the watershed.
For surface water, a useful way to organize this analysis is to take a watershed approach, as presented in
the box below.
Impacts on surface water quality will depend largely on the assimilative capacity of the receiving water.
The assimilative capacity of the receiving water body depends on numerous factors including, but not
limited to:
• the total volume of water,
• flow rate,
• flushing rate of the water body, and
• the loading of pollutants from other effluent sources.
Wastewater and water quality baseline measurements of water quality should be taken to assure that
receiving waters are able to assimilate the waste stream and that incremental effluents will not cause
water quality violate applicable standards.
Based on the results of the analyses, indicators of water quality and quantity are used to set thresholds.
For water quality, specific concentrations and levels of pH, oily wastes, additives, turbidity, dissolved
oxygen, and temperature can be used. The intended uses of the water body will influence the setting of
threshold levels. The WHO guidelines for recreational use are an example of health based guideline
values for receiving waters based on intended use.
http://www.who.int/water sanitation health/dwq/guidelines/en/index.html.
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WATERSHED APPROACH
It is important to evaluate impacts of an energy generation and/or transmission project in relation to the
entire watershed. Watershed management involves both the quantity of water (surface and ground water)
available and the quality of these waters. Understanding the impact of the project on both the quantity and
quality of water should take into account the cumulative impacts of other activities in the same watershed.
A watershed-based impact assessment approach involves the following 10 steps:
1. Identify and map the boundaries of the watershed in which the project is located and place the
project boundaries on the map
2. Identify the drainage pattern and runoff characteristics in the watershed
3. Identify the downstream rivers, streams, wetlands, lakes and other water bodies
4. Determine the current and projected consumptive and non-consumptive uses of the water in these
resources
• Drinking water
• Irrigation
• Aquaculture
• Industry
• Recreation
• Support of aquatic life
• Navigation
5. Estimate the impact of the project on the consumptive and non-consumptive use of water
6. Determine the existing quality of the water in these resources
7. Determine the nature and extent of pollutants discharged throughout the watershed
8. Determine the anticipated additional pollutants discharge from the proposed activity
9. Identify other anticipated additional developments planned or projected for the watershed
10. Identify stakeholders involved in watershed and encourage their participation in project design
Appendix C identifies some of the current parameters and requirements in place in CAFTA DR countries,
the United States, other countries and international organizations as a point of reference in the absence
of local criteria other recognized criteria. It also includes water quality standard setting models as
examples of the procedures for setting effluent limits for particular water bodies and watersheds.
Numerical standards for dissolved oxygen and water temperature could be used to determine
significance of impacts to coldwater fisheries. Prescribed standards for stream condition would be used
to determine thresholds for successful fish spawning or other defined uses. This information can also be
used to determine potential impacts to downstream water supplies.
Thresholds for a decline in water quality can also take the form of the presence and distribution of larval
and adult macroinvertebrates and fish species or bioassays performed on indicator species in the
laboratory. They may also be set as the size and amount of riparian buffer zones. Condition of riparian
zones and changes in percent of buffer areas can indicate a decline in water quality due to soil erosion,
sediment loading, and contaminant runoff.
The assessment of impacts to surface water can be done analytically or using numerical models.
Analytical approaches include the development of water balance or using accepted formulas. More
sophisticated numerical models can also be used within the constraints as outlined above for air
pollution models.
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4.1.1 Temperature
Many governments, including several States, do not have regulatory criteria for temperature. In the
absence of numerical criteria, one might suggest the use of inferential criteria related to the resource
potentially affected. A surrogate for temperature is dissolved oxygen wherein the higher the
temperature the less oxygen can be dissolved in the water.
4.1.2 Water Balance
An accurate understanding of the site water balance is necessary to successfully manage storm runoff,
stream flows, and point and non-point source pollutant discharges from a tourist facility site. Natural
system waters are fed to the site through rainfall, seeps and springs, groundwater and surface water.
Water is lost from the system through surface water runoff, infiltration, and evaporation. Each of these
factors is quite variable and difficult to predict. Process and cooling water use is reasonably constant
and predictable. Water is lost from the system water through evaporation; facilities such as cooling
towers and sedimentation or cooling ponds may result in significant evaporative losses. Spreadsheets
are a common way to evaluate water balances on the site. What-if scenarios can be easily run based on
probabilities of rainfall events occurring and changeable weather patterns such as those associated with
climate change.
4.1.3 Analytical Approach
The following methods are used to determine changes in runoff characteristics and sediment yield due
to surface disturbances, primarily during construction. The method described by the SCS (1972) and
updated in SCS, 1985 - Natural Engineering Handbook, Section 4, Hydrology, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D. C., March, 1985 is the most common technique
for estimating the volume of excess precipitation (i.e., runoff) after losses to infiltration and surface
storage. The method involves estimating soil-types within a watershed and applying an appropriate
runoff curve number to calculate the volume of excess precipitation for that soil and vegetation cover
type. This method was developed for agricultural uses and can be used for tourism sites if sufficient
data is available to estimate curve numbers. Curve numbers are approximate values that do not
adequately distinguish the hydrologic conditions that occur on different range and forest sites and
across different land uses for these sites. (You may also be able to order printed copies from the
National Technical Information Service or by calling 1-800-553-6847. Request document number PB86-
180494)
A more appropriate technique for developing and analyzing runoff at some sites utilizes the unit
hydrograph approach as defined in detail at
http://www.nohrsc.noaa.gov/technology/gis/uhg manual.html. A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph of
runoff resulting from a unit of rainfall excess that is distributed uniformly over a watershed or sub-basin
in a specified duration of time (Barfield et al., 1981). Unit hydrographs are used to represent the runoff
characteristics for particular basins. They are identified by the duration of precipitation excess that was
used to generate them; for example, a 1-hour or a 20-minute unit hydrograph. The duration of excess
precipitation, calculated from actual precipitation events or from design storms, is applied to a unit
hydrograph to produce a runoff hydrograph representing a storm of that duration. For example, 2 hours
of precipitation excess could be applied to a 2-hour unit hydrograph to produce an actual runoff
hydrograph. This runoff volume can be used as input to route flows down a channel and through an
outlet or for direct input to the design of a structure.
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Common methods to develop and use unit hydrographs are described by Snyder (1938), Clark (1945),
and SCS (1972). Unit hydrographs or average hydrographs can also be developed from actual stream
flow runoff records for basins or sub-basins. The SCS (1972) method is perhaps the most commonly
applied method to develop unit hydrographs and produce runoff hydrographs. The SCS (1972)
publication recommended using the SCS Type I, Type I-A or Type II curves for creating design storms and
using the curve number method to determine precipitation excess. Another technique to determine
runoff from basins or sub-basins is the Kinematic Wave Method. This method applies the kinematic
wave interpretation of the equations for motion (Linsley et al., 1975) to provide estimates of runoff from
basins. If applied correctly, the method can provide more accurate estimates of runoff than many of the
unit hydrograph procedures described above, depending on the data available for the site. The method,
however, requires detailed site knowledge and the use of several assumptions and good professional
judgment in its application.
As previously indicated, only peak runoff rates at a given frequency of occurrence are used to design
many smaller hydrologic facilities, such as conveyance features, road culverts or diversion ditches. The
hydrograph methods listed above can be used to obtain peak runoff rates, but other methods are often
employed to provide quick, simple estimates of these values. A common method to estimate peak
runoff rates is the Rational Method. This method uses a formula to estimate peak runoff from a basin or
watershed:
Q = C / A
Where: Q = the peak runoff rate as cubic feet per second
C = the run-off coefficient
/ = the rainfall intensity as inches per hour
A = the drainage area of the basin expressed as acres
A comprehensive description of the method is given by the Water Pollution Control Federation (1969).
The coefficient C is termed the runoff coefficient and is designed to represent factors such as
interception, infiltration, surface detention, and antecedent soil moisture conditions. Use of a single
coefficient to represent all of these dynamic and interrelated processes produces a result that can only
be used as an approximation. Importantly, the method makes several inappropriate assumptions that
do not apply to large basins or watersheds, including: (1) rainfall occurs uniformly over a drainage area,
(2) the peak rate of runoff can be determined by averaging rainfall intensity over a time period equal to
the time of concentration (tc), where tc is the time required for precipitation excess from the most
remote point of the watershed to contribute to runoff at the measured point, and (3) the frequency of
runoff is the same as the frequency of the rainfall used in the equation (i.e., no consideration is made for
storage considerations or flow routing through a watershed) (Barfield et al., 1981). A detailed discussion
of the potential problems and assumptions made by using this method has been outlined by McPherson
(1969).
Other methods commonly used to estimate peak runoff are the SCS TR-20 (SCS, 1972) and SCS TR-55
methods (SCS, 1975). Like the Rational Method, these techniques are commonly used because of their
simplicity. The SCS TR-55 method was primarily derived for use in urban situations and for the design of
small detention basins. A major assumption of the method is that only runoff curve numbers are used
to calculate excess precipitation. In effect, the watershed or sub-basin is represented by a uniform land
use, soil type, and cover, which generally may not be true for most watersheds or sub-basins.
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The Rational Method and the SCS methods generally lack the level of accuracy required to design most
structures and compute a water balance. This is because they employ a number of assumptions that are
not well suited to large watersheds with variable conditions. However, these methods are commonly
used because they are simple to apply and both Barfield et al. (1981) and Van Zyl et al. (1988) suggest
that they are suitable for the design of small road culverts or non-critical catchments. Van Zyl et al.
(1988) suggested that the Rational Method can be used to design catchments of less than 5 to 10 acres.
It is important that the design engineer and the hydrologist exercise good professional judgment when
choosing a method for determining runoff as discussed above. Techniques should be sufficiently robust
to match the particular design criteria. It is particularly important that critical structures not be
designed using runoff input estimates made by extrapolating an approximation, such as that produced
by the Rational Method, to areas or situations where it is not appropriate. Robust methods that employ
a site specific unit hydrograph or the Kinematic Wave Method will produce more accurate hydrological
designs, but requires more expertise, time and expense.
4.1.4 Numerical Models
There are several numeric and analytical computer models that are available both in the public domain
and commercially that can be used to estimate impacts to surface water from tourist operations. These
models have been used to assess impacts of disturbance of local soils and geology to aquatic and marine
biology based on changes to chemistry, environmental effects of trace metal loading, contaminant
transport, sedimentation and deposition, changes to flood plains, flooding characteristic, and others.
Table F-2 presents a list of models which are commonly used. Most of these models are available for
down load on the web pages indicated in the following table.
Table F- 2: Surface water models
MODEL
CORMIX
Cornell Mixing
Zone Expert
System
EXAMS
HSCTM2D
HSPF
LINK
http://www.epa.gov/waterscienc
e/models/cormix.html
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/swater/
exams
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/swater/
hsctm2d
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/swater/
hspf
DESCRIPTION
Water quality modeling and decision support system
designed for environmental impact assessment of mixing
zones resulting from wastewater discharge from point
sources. The system emphasizes the role of boundary
interaction to predict plume geometry and dilution in
relation to regulatory mixing zone requirements. As an
expert system, CORMIX is a user-friendly application which
guides the water quality analysts in simulating a site-
specific discharge configuration. To facilitate its use,
ample instructions are provided, suggestions for improving
dilution characteristics are included, and warning
messages are displayed when undesirable or uncommon
flow conditions occur
Aquatic biology, assessment, biology, chemistry,
compliance, environmental effects, metals, NPS related,
permits, pesticides, point source(s), rivers, streams,
surface water, test/analysis
Hydrology, sediment, contaminant, transport, finite
element model, river, estuary
Assessment, biology, compliance, deposition, discharge,
environmental effects, estuaries, hydrology, lakes, metals,
monitoring, NPS related, NPDES, nutrients, permits,
pesticides, point source(s), rivers, sediment, streams,
surface water, test/analysis, TMDL related, toxicity
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MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
HSPF Toolkit
www.epa.gov/athens/research/m
odeling/ftable
Assessment, compliance, discharge, environmental
effects, hydrology, permits, rivers, sediment, streams,
surface water, TMDL related, toxicity
PRZM3
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/gwater/
przmS
Assessment, discharge, environmental effects, hydrology,
land use management, metals, pesticides, surface water,
test/analysis
QUAL2K
www.epa.gov/athens/wwqtsc/ht
ml/qual2k.html
Aquatic biology, assessment, compliance, discharge,
environmental effects, hydrology, NPS related, point
source(s), surface water, test/analysis, TMDL related
SERAFM
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/swater/
serafm
Exposure, assessment, mercury, hg, surface water, pond,
stream, river
Visual Plumes
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/swater/
vplume
Surface, water, jet, plume, model, quality, contaminant,
TMDL
WASP
www.epa.gov/athens/wwqtsc/ht
ml/wasp.html
Aquatic biology, assessment, compliance, discharge,
environmental effects, hydrology, metals, NPS related,
point source(s), surface water, test/analysis, TMDL related
HEC-RAS
http://www.hec.usace.army.miI/s
oftware/hec-ras/
The Hydrologic Engineering Centers River Analysis System
(HEC-RAS) is a computer program that models steady flow,
unsteady flow, sediment transport/mobile bed
computations, and water temperature through natural
rivers and other channels. The program is one-
dimensional, meaning that there is no direct modeling of
the hydraulic effect of cross-section shape changes, bends,
and other two- and three-dimensional aspects of flow
HEC-ResSim
http://www.hec.usace.army.miI/s
oftware/hec-ressim/
Hydrologic Engineering Center Reservoir System
Simulation program, to model reservoir operations at one
or more reservoirs whose operations are defined by a
variety of operational goals and constraints
GSFLOW
http://water.usgs.gov/software/li
sts/surface water
Groundwater and surface-water flow model. It can be
used to evaluate the effects of such factors as land-use
change, climate variability, and groundwater withdrawals
on surface and subsurface flow. Incorporates simulating
runoff and infiltration from precipitation; balancing energy
and mass budgets of the plant canopy, snowpack, and soil
zone; and simulating the interaction of surface water with
ground water, in watersheds
SMS (Surface
Water Modeling
System)
www.ems-i.com. (available in
Spanish)
The Surface Water Modeling System (SMS) is a
comprehensive environment for one-, two-, and three-
dimensional hydrodynamic modeling. A pre- and post-
processor for surface water modeling and design, SMS
includes 2D finite element, 2D finite difference, and 3D
finite element and ID backwater modeling tools. The
model allows for flood analysis, wave analysis, and
hurricane analysis. SMS also includes a generic model
interface, which can be used to support other models
which have not been officially incorporated into the
system
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MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
Watershed
Modeling
Software
(WMS)
www.ems-i.com.(available in
Spanish)
The Watershed Modeling System software is a
comprehensive graphical modeling environment for all
phases of watershed hydrology and hydraulics. The WMS
software includes powerful tools to automate modeling
processes such as automated basin delineation, geometric
parameter calculations; GIS overlay computations (CM,
rainfall depth, roughness coefficients, etc.), cross-section
extraction from terrain data, and other. Hydraulic models
supported in the WMS software include HEC-RAS and CE
QUALW2
IBM In-stream
Flow
Assessment
http://my.epri.com/portal/server.
pt?space=CommunityPage&cache
d=true&parentname=ObjMgr&pa
rentid=2&control=SetCommunity
&CommunitylD=404&RaiseDoclD
=TR
Habitat based modeling for fisheries. Individual-based
Stream Fish Models can improve the cost-effectiveness
conduction in-stream flow assessment traditionally
conducted using IFIM
PHABSIM
http://www.fort.usgs.gov/Produc
ts/Software/PHABSIM/
http://www.fort.usgs.gov/produc
ts/Publications/15000/chapterl.h
tmltfoverview
PHABSIM is a collection of hydraulic and habitat models
used to determine the relative value of a targeted habitat
for a particular fish species or other aquatic organism over
a range of flows. PHABSIM is a component of the larger
IFIM (Instream Flow Incremental Methodology), which is a
problem-solving process for addressing water resource
issues. Field data to input into the models include
measurements of flow, velocity, and depth; substrate
composition; and visual habitat use observations of
targeted fish species
MARS
http://my.epri.com/portal/server.
pt?space=CommunityPage&cache
d=true&parentname=ObjMgr&pa
rentid=2&control=SetCommunity
&CommunitylD=404&RaiseDoclD
=000000000001008490&RaiseDo
cType=Abstract id
Models contaminated surface water sediments. Three
interconnected hydrodynamic, sediment, and chemical
fate and transport models simulate the fate and transport
of organic compounds, while allowing evaluation of site
remediation alternatives such as natural attenuation,
dredging, and capping
SNTEMP
http://www.fort.usgs.gov/Produc
ts/Software/SNTEMP/
Stream Network and Stream Temperature Model
simulates steady-state stream temperatures throughout a
dendritic stream network handling multiple time periods
per year. Helps formulate instream flow
recommendations, assess the effects of altered stream
flow regimes, assess the effects of habitat improvement
projects, and assist in negotiating releases from existing
storage projects
BASINS
http://water.epa.gov/scitech/dat
ait/models/basins/index.cfm
The Watershed Model System software is comprehensive
for both point and non-point sources, a multi-purpose
environmental analysis system that integrates a
geographical information system (GIS), national watershed
data, and state-of-the-art environmental assessment and
modeling tools into one convenient package
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4.2 Groundwater Impact Assessment Tools
If groundwater is extracted for use in facility then a thorough understanding of the site hydrogeology is
required to adequately characterize and evaluate potential impacts. Aquifer pump tests and drawdown
tests of wells need to be conducted under steady-state or transient conditions to determine aquifer
characteristics. If possible, it is important that these tests be performed at the pumping rates that
would be used by a tourist activity for durations adequate to determine regional impacts from
drawdown and potential changes in flow direction. These tests require prior installation of an
appropriate network of observation wells. Transmissivities, storage coefficients and vertical and
horizontal hydraulic conductivities can be calculated from properly designed pump tests. These
measurements are necessary to determine the volume and rate of groundwater discharge expected
during operations at a facility to evaluate environmental impacts (need to mention example - large
water user tourist project like a swim park or golf course could result in salt water intrusion in the
coastal setting). Tests should be performed for all aquifers that could be affected by the project to
ensure adequate characterization of the relationships between hydrostratigraphic units (US EPA, 2003).
Characterization studies should define the relationships between groundwater and surface water,
including identifying springs and seeps. Significant sources or sinks to the surface water system also
need to be identified. Hydrogeological characterizations should include geologic descriptions of the site
and the region. Descriptions of rock types, intensity and depth of weathering, and the abundance and
orientation of faults, fractures, and joints provide a basis for impact analysis and monitoring. Although
difficult to evaluate, the hydrological effects of fractures, joints, and faults are especially important to
distinguish. Water moves more easily through faults, fractures and dissolution zones, collectively
termed secondary permeability, than through rock matrices. Secondary permeability can present
significant problems for some projects because it can result in a greater amount of groundwater
discharge than originally predicted. For example, faults that juxtapose rocks with greatly different
hydrogeological properties can cause abrupt changes in flow characteristics that need to be
incorporated into facility designs.
As with air and surface water resources, there analytical and numerical approaches can be used in
assessing groundwater.
4.2.1 Analytical Approach
A common method to analyze groundwater in relation to a project that uses substantial amounts of
water relies on a simple analytical solution in which the facility operation is approximated as a well. This
method uses the constant-head Jacob-Lowman (1952) equation to calculate flow rates. It generally
yields a conservative overestimate of the pumping rates required to satisfy cooling requirements (Hanna
et al., 1994). In addition, an understanding of groundwater can be gained by developing a water
balance for the site as described above. Finally, implications of the effects of groundwater quality can
be gained based on field studies.
4.2.2 Numerical Approach
The use of computer models has increased the accuracy of hydrogeological analyses and impact
predictions and speeded solution of the complex mathematical relations through use of numerical
solution methods. However, computer modeling has not changed the fundamental analytical equations
used to characterize aquifers and determine groundwater quantities. Models are used to determine
drawdown in the aquifer due to consumptive use, contaminate transport, surface water quality, and
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other factors. Table F-3 presents a brief description of groundwater models used to assess impacts of
discharges and consumptive water use that are available through the public domain and commercially.
Table F- 3: Groundwater and geochemical computer models
MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
MODFLOW
http://water.usgs.gov/soft
ware/lists/groundwater
MODFLOW is a finite-difference code developed by the
United States Geological Survey (McDonald and Harbaugh,
1988). MODFLOW is a widely accepted numerical flow
modeling code and has been used around the world to
evaluate the impacts of activities that may result in
disturbance of large surface areas. MODFLOW translates
conceptual model(s) of the site into numerical models using
discretization of space and time. Discretization of the
spatial domain is done by constructing a grid designating
cells of specified width, length, and thickness.
MT3D
http://water.usgs.gov/soft
ware/lists/groundwater
MT3D is a solute transport code also linked to the
MODFLOW base model. The flow domain using MODFLOW
is linked to MT3D, which then simulates contaminant
transport using dispersion and chemical reactions.
Visual MODFLOW
www.visual-modflow.com.
(available in Spanish)
Allows for applications in 3D groundwater flow and
contaminant transport modeling utilizing an easy to use
graphical user interface. Information is available for this
package through Scientific Software Group.
GW Vistas
www.esinternational.com/g
roundwater-vistas.html
(classes are available in
Spanish)
This software is for 3D groundwater flow and contaminant
transport modeling, calibration and optimization using the
MODFLOW suite of codes. The advanced version of
Groundwater Vistas provides the ideal groundwater risk
assessment tool. Information of this software is available
through ESI Lt.
QMS (Groundwater
Modeling System)
www.ems-i.com
QMS provides software tools for every phase of a
groundwater simulation including site characterization,
model development, calibration, post-processing, and
visualization. QMS supports both finite-difference and
finite-element models in 2D and 3D including MODFLOW
2000, MODPATH, MT3DMS/RT3D, SEAM3D, ART3D,
UTCHEM, FEMWATER, PEST, UCODE, MODAEM and SEEP2D.
Information is available through Environmental Monitoring
Systems, Inc.
HYDROGEOCHEM
http://www.scisoftware.co
m/products/hydrogeochem
overview/hydrogeochem
overview.html
HYDROGEOCHEM is a coupled model of hydrologic transport
and geochemical reaction in saturated-unsaturated media.
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MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
MIKE SHE
http://www.crwr.utexas.ed
u/gis/gishyd98/dhi/mikeshe
/Mshemain.htm
MIKE SHE is an advanced integrated hydrological modeling
system. It simulates water flow in the entire land based
phase of the hydrological cycle from rainfall to river flow, via
various flow processes such as, overland flow, infiltration
into soils, evapotranspiration from vegetation, and
groundwater flow. MIKE SHE has been applied in a large
number of studies world-wide focusing on e.g. conjunctive
use of surface water and ground water for domestic and
industrial consumption and irrigation, dynamics in wetlands,
and water quality studies in connection with point and non-
point pollution.
SEAWAT
http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/
seawat/
This a combined version of MODFLOW and MT3DMS, is
used to simulate the variable-density flow patterns due to
saltwater intrusion. It is designed to simulate three-
dimensional variable-density groundwater flow coupled
with multi-species solute and heat transport. The program
has been used for a wide variety of groundwater studies
including those focused on brine migration in continental
aquifers as well as those focused on saltwater intrusion in
coastal aquifers.
4.3 Coastal Waters Resource Impact Assessment Tools
Coastal development is difficult since it is construction on a dynamic foundation. Natural processes of
wind, wave, currents, etc. are constantly changing the contours of the development site. (See diagram
below). Not only the facility, but also measures taken to stabilize the site should be analyzed for
impacts. For example, a breakwater designed to protect a dock or marina may cause sand deposition in
an area containing cultural artifacts or natural aesthetics for snorkeling. Any water or near water
construction may impact the natural processes at the shoreline.
One comprehensive document which covers all aspects of coastal engineering is the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Manual (CEM) (EM 1110-2-1100) which provides a single, comprehensive
technical document that incorporates tools and procedures to plan, design, construct, and maintain
coastal projects. It can be downloaded for free at http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/cem. This engineering
manual includes the basic principles of coastal processes, methods for computing coastal planning and
design parameters, and guidance on how to formulate and conduct studies in support of coastal
flooding, shore protection, and navigation projects. Additional sections are being added on navigation
and harbor design, dredging and disposal, structure repair and rehabilitation, wetland and low-energy
shore protection, risk analysis, field instrumentation, numerical simulation, the engineering process, and
other topics.
Many coastal resorts incorporate a beachfront area. In-water supporting construction (dock,
breakwaters, etc.) often alter the sand deposition patterns and beach nourishment is required. The
guidance document "Shore Protection Assessment - Beach Nourishment" can be found at
http://chl.erdc.usace.armv.miI/Media/7/4/7/HowBeachNourishmentWorks.pdf. It explains the normal
coastal processes and provides guidance on best management practices. It can be useful in predicting
impacts of various construction layouts and methodologies.
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Figure F-3 Complex coastal processes
Complex coastal processes, which vary in intensity and significance, determine how sediment moves
oves
i dunes.
Profile A: Baacn shaped by
normal wave acton
1— 3111 water taw)
Profit* E: initial attack
of storm waves
— —. — ~..r . V
Profile C: Attack of storm
plus derm surgfl
• Tktes-whose rise and fall depend
on local physical conditions and the
gravitational effects of the sun, moon,
and earth - generate currents.
• Currents near the beach are formed
through a combination of wind, tides,
waves, and the shape of adjacent sand
bars. Currents can move targe volumes
of sediment along the beach or to deep
water offshore.
• Waves that break du ring calm weather
cause turbulence, which stirs up sediment
from the shore bottom. This sediment
can be deposited onshore and offshore,
parallel or perpendicular to the beach.
> Accretion and erosion refer to changes
in sediment volume In a coastal area.
Shoreline recession and shorelne
advance refer to a change in position
of the shoreline, farther landward and
farther seaward, respectively.
• Sea level rise exposes areas farther
inland to ttie coastal processes that
move sediment
Source: USAGE , 2007 "Shoreline Assessment- Beach Nourishment"
Hazards Vulnerability. Another layer of concern for coastal development is that tourism activities often
take place in regions prone to natural hazards. The hazard potential needs to be assessed when
planning tourism projects so that projects can have appropriate layout and structural designs and
evacuation planning and routes are factored in for the large non-native populous. Some of these
hazards include:
• Tropical Weather Systems
• Hurricanes
• Storm Surges
• Earthquakes/Tsunamis
• Volcanic Eruptions
• Electrical Storms and Forest Fires
• Floods and Landslides
• Sea Level Rise
The United States' Federal Emergency Management Agency's (FEMA) Hazus-MH model combines
science, engineering and mathematical modeling with GIS technology to estimate losses of life and
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property and shows those losses on a map (Figure F-4). Hazus estimates impacts to the physical, social,
and economic vitality of a community from earthquakes, hurricane winds, and floods. It creates
customized maps and graphics to show buildings, roads, rivers, coastlines, and infrastructure damages.
Visualizing the hazard risk compels planners to recognize the need for mitigation and emergency
planning.
Figure F- 4: Hazus-MH 5-step risk assessment
Hazus-MH 5-Step Risk
Assessment Data Report
HAZUS-MH Capabilities
Earthquake
Ground Shaking
Ground Failure
Flood
Frequency Depth
Discharge Velocity
Hurricane
Pressure | Missile | Ram
Direct Damage
Indirect Losses
Surntv Shortages
Sales Decline
Opportunity Costs
Economic Loss
Source: http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/hazus/hz overview.shtm
Both tourism development impacts assessment and hazards analyses can be and often are aided by the
use of physical, analytical, numerical and statistical models. Some of the models available are listed in
the table below. These include models for storm surges, hurricanes, wind and pressure fields, scour
around bridge abutments, etc. Additional, coastal, hydraulic, hydrologic and statistical models which
may be useful are listed on the FEMA website http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/fhm/en coast.shtm.
Models are often linked together to analyze a situation. For example, FEMA routinely utilizes models to
perform Hazard Analysis and Mapping for their National Flood Insurance Program. For a floodplain-
mapping project FEMA used a suite of state-of-the-art numerical wind, wave, and surge models to
compute still water elevations along the coast. The model suite (Figure F-5) consists of the Hurricane
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Boundary Layer (HBL) wind model for tropical storms (hurricanes) and Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL)
model for extra-tropical storms; the wave-field model Simulating Waves Nearshore (SWAN), and the
storm surge and tidal model ADvanced CIRCulation for Model for Oceanic, Coastal and Estuarine Waters
(ADCIRC). FEMA also uses the offshore wave model WAM and the nearshore wave transformation
model STWAVE for flood mapping projects.
Figure F- 5: FEMA flood plain mapping model suite
Storm Surge Modeling System
ADCIRC Coastal Circulation
and Storm Surge Model
Wind and Pressure Fields
TC96 PBL Hurricane Model
OWI Extratropical Reconstructions
Waves/ Radiation Stress
SWAN
Basin to Coastal Scale Waves
Radiation Stress
Source: FEMA http://www.r3coastal.com/home/storm-surge-studv/numerical-model-setup
These sophisticated modeling systems are capable of assessing the storm damage reduction potential of
natural features such as wetlands and barrier islands. For more information see Wamsley et al. 2009
and Wamsley et al. 2010.
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Table F- 4: Hazards analysis and coastal models
MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
SMS Surface Water
Modeling System
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.rn
il/sms
The Surface Water Modeling System (SMS) is a
comprehensive environment for one-, two-, and three-
dimensional hydrodynamic modeling. A pre- and post-
processor for surface water modeling design, SMS
includes 2D finite element, 2D finite difference, 3D
finite element and ID backwater modeling tools. The
numeric models supported in SMS compute a variety
of information applicable to surface water modeling.
Supported models include the USACE-ERDC supported
TABS-MD (GFGEN, RMA2, RMA4, SED2D-WES),
ADCIRC, ADH, CGWAVE, CMS-Flow (formally M2D) and
CMS-Wave, STWAVE, and PTM models. Primary
applications of the models include calculation of water
surface elevations and flow velocities for shallow
water flow problems, for both steady-state or dynamic
conditions. Additional applications include the
modeling of contaminant migration, salinity intrusion,
sediment transport (scour and deposition), wave
energy dispersion, wave properties (directions,
magnitudes and amplitudes) and others.
RMA2
http://chl.erdc.usace.armv.rn
il/rma2
RMA2 is a two dimensional depth averaged finite
element hydrodynamic numerical model. It computes
water surface elevations and horizontal velocity
components for subcritical, free-surface flow in two
dimensional flow fields. RMA2 computes a finite
element solution of the Reynolds form of the Navier-
Stokes equations for turbulent flows. Friction is
calculated with the Manning's or Chezy equation, and
eddy viscosity coefficients are used to define
turbulence characteristics. Both steady and unsteady
state (dynamic) problems can be analyzed. The
program has been applied to calculate water levels
and flow distribution around islands; flow at bridges
having one or more relief openings, in contracting and
expanding reaches, into and out of off-channel
hydropower plants, at river junctions, and into and out
of pumping plant channels; circulation and transport in
water bodies with wetlands; and general water levels
and flow patterns in rivers, reservoirs, and estuaries.
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MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
BOUSS-2D
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.rn
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=SOFTWAR
E;23
BOUSS-2D is a comprehensive numerical model for
simulating the propagation and transformation of
waves in coastal regions and harbors based on a time-
domain solution of Boussinesq-type equations. The
governing equations are uniformly valid from deep to
shallow water and can simulate most of the
phenomena of interest in the near shore zone and
harbor basins including shoaling/ refraction over
variable topography, reflection/diffraction near
structures, energy dissipation due to wave breaking
and bottom friction, cross-spectral energy transfer due
to nonlinear wave-wave interactions, breaking-
induced long shore and rip currents, wave-current
interaction and wave interaction with porous
structures. Many processes at inlets and harbors can
be studied using BOUSS-2D. BOUSS-2D can be applied
to a wide variety of coastal and ocean engineering
problems, including complex wave transformation
over small coastal regions (1-5 km), wave agitation and
harbor resonance studies, wave breaking over
submerged obstacles, breaking-induced near shore
circulation patterns, wave-current interaction near
tidal inlets, infra-gravity wave generation by groups of
short waves, and wave transformation around artificial
islands.
WAM - Wave
Prediction Model
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.nl
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=SOFTWAR
E;8
The global ocean Wave prediction Model called WAM
is a third generation wave model. WAM predicts
directional spectra as well as wave properties such as
significant wave height, mean wave direction and
frequency, swell wave height and mean direction, and
wind stress fields corrected by including the wave
induced stress and the drag coefficient at each grid
point at chosen output times. The model is continually
updated to incorporate the latest results of research.
The verification has been carried out in three areas
where National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) moored buoys are available on
the Global Telecommunications System (GTS). It is
hoped that the buoys chosen will allow the
identification of both successes and failures in WAM
model physics and will minimize shortcomings due to
sub-grid scale effects.
Model Assumptions:
• Time dependent wave action balance equation.
• Wave growth based on sea surface roughness and
wind characteristics.
• Nonlinear wave and wave interaction by Discrete
Interaction Approximation (DIA).
• Free form of spectral shape.
• High dissipation rate to short waves.
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MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
ADCIRC-The
Advanced
Circulation Model
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.nl
il/adcirc
The ADvanced CIRCulation model (ADCIRC), is a two-
dimensional, depth-integrated, barotropic time-
dependent long wave, hydrodynamic circulation
model. ADCIRC can be applied to computational
domains encompassing the deep ocean, continental
shelves, coastal seas, and small-scale estuarine
systems for simulations that require months to years'
time. In a single simulation, ADCIRC can provide tide
and storm surge elevations and velocities
corresponding to each node over a very large domain
encompassing regional domains such as the western
North Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf
of Mexico.
CGWAVE
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.nl
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=SOFTWAR
E;21
CGWAVE is a general-purpose wave prediction model
for simulating the propagation and transformation of
ocean waves in coastal regions and harbors, and
appropriate for modeling the most significant physical
processes in channels, inlets and harbors, open coastal
regions, around islands and structures.
WISWAVE
http://chl.erdc.usace.armv.rn
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=SOFTWAR
The WISWAVE is a second generation wave model
developed under the WIS. The model predicts
directional spectra as well as integrated wave
properties such as significant wave height, peak wave
period, vector mean wave direction, and sea and swell
components according to atmosphere wind input.
Wave Information Studies provides a national resource
of long-term wavefield climatologies for U.S. coastal
waters that synthesizes observations, multi-decade
hindcasts and storm event archives to meet
tomorrow's coastal engineering needs today.
STWAVE (Steady
State spectral
WAVE)
http://chl.erdc.usace.armv.rn
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=SOFTWAR
E;9
STWAVE is an easy-to-apply, flexible, robust, half-
plane model for nearshore wind-wave growth and
propagation. STWAVE simulates depth-induced wave
refraction and shoaling, current-induced refraction
and shoaling, depth- and steepness-induced wave
breaking, diffraction, parametric wave growth because
of wind input, and wave-wave interaction and white
capping that redistribute and dissipate energy in a
growing wave field. STWAVE is being extended from a
half-plane model to a full-plane model (including
propagation and generation from all directions).
SED2D
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.nl
il/sed2d
SED 2D a two-dimensional numerical model for depth-
averaged transport of cohesive or a representative
grain size of non cohesive sediments and their
deposition, erosion, and formation of bed deposits.
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MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
SWAN Model
Delft University of
Technology, The
Netherlands.
http://www.citg.tudelft.nl/liv
e/pagina.jsp?id=f928097d-
81bb-4042-971b-
e028cOOe3326
SWAN is a third-generation wave model that computes
random, short-crested wind-generated waves in
coastal regions and inland waters. The current version
of SWAN is 40.81.
• Wave propagation in time and space, shoaling,
refraction due to current and depth, frequency
shifting due to currents and non-stationary depth.
• Wave generation by wind.
• Three- and four-wave interactions.
• White capping, bottom friction and depth-induced
breaking.
• Dissipation due to vegetation.
• Wave-induced set-up.
• Propagation from laboratory up to global scales.
• Transmission through and reflection (specular and
diffuse) against obstacles.
• Diffraction.
Empirical Simulation
Technique (EST)
http://chl.erdc.usace.armv.rn
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=SOFTWAR
E;27
Empirical Simulation Technique (EST) is a statistical
model to compute site-specific stage versus frequency
relationships for site specific locations. EST is a
statistical procedure for simulating life-cycle risk
analysis of events such as storms and their
corresponding environmental impacts. The EST is
based on a "bootstrap" resampling-with-replacement,
interpolation, and subsequent smoothing of observed
and/or computed site-specific historical events.
GENESIS
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.nl
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=SOFTWAR
E;34&g=14
GENESIS (GENEralized Model for simulating Shoreline
Change) - simulates the long-term platform evolution
of the beach in response to imposed wave conditions,
coastal structures, and other engineering activity (e.g.,
beach nourishment).
SHARP
http://water.usgs.gov/softw
are/SHARP/
A quasi-three-dimensional, numerical finite-difference
model to simulate freshwater and saltwater flow
separated by a sharp interface in layered coastal
aquifer systems.
SEAWAT Version 4
http://water.usgs.gOV/ogw/s
eawat/
SEAWAT is a generic MODFLOW/MTSDMS-based
computer program designed to simulate three-
dimensional variable-density groundwater flow
coupled with multi-species solute and heat transport.
The program has been used for a wide variety of
groundwater studies including those focused on brine
migration in continental aquifers as well as those
focused on saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers.
SEAWAT uses the familiar structure of MODFLOW and
MT3DMS.
SBEACH
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.rn
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=Software;
31
SBEACH (Storm-induced BEAch CHange Model) -
simulates cross-shore beach, berm, and dune erosion
produced by storm waves and water levels. The latest
version allows simulation of dune erosion in the
presence of a hard bottom.
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MODEL
Beach-fx
LINK
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.rn
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=PUBLICATI
ONSI461
DESCRIPTION
Beach-fx is a comprehensive new analytical framework
for evaluating the physical performance and economic
benefits and costs of shore-protection projects,
particularly, beach nourishment along sandy shores.
The model has been implemented as an event-based
Monte Carlo life cycle simulation tool that is run on
desktop computers.
5 AIR RESOURCES IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
In evaluating the potential impacts of a tourist project on ambient air quality, prediction should be made
to determine the extent to which ambient air quality standards may be compromised. The predictions
should assess the likelihood of air pollution from the facility, transportation to and from the area (land-
based and water-based), dumps, and materials storage and handling facilities, identify the areas of
maximum impact, and assess the extent of the impacts at these sites. Although analytical approaches
can be used, international experience indicates that numeric modeling is the most appropriate method
to evaluate the impacts of a tourism project on air resources. Quantitative models can be used to
calculate the contaminants in air and to compare the results to numerical air quality standards.
At the facility level, impacts should be estimated through qualitative or quantitative assessments by the
use of baseline air quality assessments and atmospheric dispersion models to assess potential ground
level concentrations. Local atmospheric, climatic and air quality data should be applied when modeling
dispersion.
Initially, the Gaussian analytical model was developed in the 1930's and still is the most commonly used
model type. It assumes that the air pollutant dispersion has a Gaussian distribution, meaning that the
pollutant distribution has a normal probability distribution. Gaussian models are most often used for
predicting the dispersion of continuous, buoyant air pollution plumes originating from ground-level or
elevated sources. Gaussian models may also be used for predicting the dispersion of non-continuous air
pollution plumes (called puff models). The primary algorithm used in Gaussian modeling is the
Generalized Dispersion Equation for a Continuous Point-Source Plume and can be found in Turner
(1994).
Over time, other numeric air dispersion models have been developed. These include screening models
for single source evaluations (SCREENS or AIRSCREEN), as well as more complex and refined models
(AERMOD or ADMS). Model selection is dependent on the complexity and geomorphology of the
project site (e.g. mountainous terrain, urban or rural area). Table F-5 presents a list of commonly used
models. Note that models are continuously updated and improved. Also note that certain models are
appropriate for specific applications, such as in complex terrain, shoreline environments, for point, area,
line and or mobile sources, and for specific pollutants (e.g., gases, particles, heavier than air gases). A
general summary of appropriate applications is provided in the "Description" column of Table F-4. Most
of these models are free to the public, readily available on the US EPA APTIC Website and can be down
loaded following the links presented in the "Link" column.
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Table F- 5: Air pollution models
MODEL
LINK
DESCRIPTION
AERMOD
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A steady-state plume model that incorporates air
dispersion based on planetary boundary layer
turbulence structure and scaling concepts, including
treatment of both surface and elevated sources, and
both simple and complex terrain.
CALPUFF
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A non-steady-state puff dispersion model that
simulates the effects of time- and space-varying
meteorological conditions on pollution transport,
transformation, and removal. CALPUFF can be applied
for long-range transport and for complex terrain.
BLP
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A Gaussian plume dispersion model designed to handle
unique modeling problems associated with aluminum
reduction plants, and other industrial sources where
plume rise and downwash effects from stationary line
sources are important.
CALINE3
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
A steady-state Gaussian dispersion model designed to
determine air pollution concentrations at receptor
locations downwind of highways located in relatively
uncomplicated terrain.
CAL3QHC/
CAL3QHCR
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
CAL3QHC is a CALINE3 based CO model with queuing
and hot spot calculations and with a traffic model to
calculate delays and queues that occur at signalized
intersections; CAL3QHCR is a more refined version
based on CAL3QHC that requires local meteorological
data.
CTDMPLUS
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion prefrec.htm
#rec
Complex Terrain Dispersion Model Plus Algorithms for
Unstable Situations (CTDMPLUS) is a refined point
source Gaussian air quality model for use in all stability
conditions for complex terrain. The model contains, in
its entirety, the technology of CTDM for stable and
neutral conditions.
ISC3
http://www.epa.gov/ttncat
cl/cica/9904e.html (In
Spanish)
The Industrial Source Complex Model (ISC3) is a steady-
state Gaussian plume model which can be used to
assess pollutant concentrations from a wide variety of
sources associated with an industrial complex. ISC3
operates in both long-term and short-term modes.
SCREENS
http://www.epa.gov/ttncat
cl/cica/9904e.html (in
Spanish)
SCREENS is a single source Gaussian plume model
which provides maximum ground-level concentrations
for point, area, flare, and volume sources.
PCRAMMET
http://www.epa.gov/ttncat
cl/cica/9904e.html (in
Spanish)
PCRAMMET is a preprocessor for meteorological data
that is used with the Industrial Source Complex 3 (ISC3)
regulatory model and other EPA models.
Note: Other models used for vehicle emissions ,e.g.
photochemical reactions.
MODAL, and complex pollutant interactions and
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6 NOISE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
BENCHMARKS FOR NOISE
Activity/Object
Quiet Bedroom
Daytime levels in quiet residential area
Conversation at 1 meter
Busy central office
Lawn mower at 15 meters
Jack hammer at 1 meter
Jet aircraft taking off at 25 meters
dB(A)
20-30
35-45
50
50-60
70
100
140
According to the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration OSHA (2006) exposure to high
levels of noise for long durations may lead to
hearing loss, create physical and psychological
stress, reduce productivity, interfere with
communication, and contribute to accidents and
injuries by making it difficult to hear warning
signals. To estimate noise emissions during
construction and operation of a tourism facility,
baseline monitoring and operational monitoring
may be necessary. This information can be
analyzed using empirical or numerical modeling technique. Point source propagation can be analyzed
using basic analytical equations based on attenuation of sound energy as the inverse of the square of
the distance from the noise source. Numerical modeling techniques have also been developed for the
additive effect of multiple sources. The results of the models are then compared to the appropriate
standards. For instance, the maximum permissible occupational noise exposure limit in the range of 90-
85 A-weighted decibels (dB(A)) Leq for 8 hour per day (40 hour per week). The A-weighted decibel scale
approximates the sensitivity of the human ear to various frequencies from 32 to 20,000 Hertz (Hz).
Most advanced models provide graphic outputs of noise impacts (isophons), which can then be overlaid
on maps of critical receptors. Noise standards are typically expressed as dB(A) - however, it is advisable
to produce impacts based octave bands as well, as dB(A) are based on a weighted summation of all
bands, and knowledge of the octave band analysis from specific sources is useful in devising the proper
noise control strategy.
Just as there are many types and sources of noise, there are many noise models. The most broadly
applicable noise model is the Computer Aided Noise Abatement (CadnaA) model.
http://www.datakustik.com/en/products/cadnaa There are also simpler models based on the sound
pressure levels (SPL) measured at known distances and at known directions from a noise source, with
subsequent calculation of attenuation as a function of distance from the noise source. Traffic-specific
models are also available, for example the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Traffic Noise
Model (TNM) http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/tnm/index.htm
Outdoor Entertainment Venues: Noise from live performances and entertainment venues can disturb
household activities, disrupt sleep and interfere with business activities. If the noise is particularly loud,
penetrating or prolonged, the impacts can cause irritation and annoyance. It is essential that noise from
live music and entertainment venues is managed in a way that promotes and ensures a balance
between the use and enjoyment of music venues and the protection of amenity for surrounding
businesses and neighboring households.
Patron Noise: Noise from patrons approaching or leaving entertainment venues is a frequent cause of
complaint. Planning authorities should consider the impact of patron noise and other behavior on the
amenity valueamenity value of the locality when assessing proposals to develop tourism entertainment
venues.
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Car Park Noise: Car parks associated with entertainment venues tend to be a gathering place for patrons
as they arrive at or leave the venue. Venue patrons often have little regard for the amenity of residents
in properties adjacent the car park. The noise of slamming car doors, revving car engines and squealing
tires can be disturbing.
7 AESTHETIC /VISUAL RESOURCE IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
It is recommended that a project be graphically superimposed on baseline panoramic views of the
proposed project site from different potential viewpoints such as communities, roads, and designated
scenic viewing areas, to provide a better understanding of potential visual impacts as a function of
direction, distance and time of day.
Zone of Visual Influence (ZVI) maps show the extent of visibility of a proposed development from the
surrounding landscape. They can also be used to assess the cumulative visual impact of similar
developments within an area. Wireframe views give an outline image of the contours of the land from a
selected viewpoint. This gives a picture of the proposed development without obstruction from
surrounding buildings and vegetation Photomontages are computer aided 'photographs' of a proposed
development, showing a picture of how a development will appear after construction. An image of the
proposed development is superimposed onto the photograph (http://www.fehilytimoney.ie/expertise-
services/visual-impact-assessment-zvi-maps-wireframe-views.html). The color photomontage is
probably the most frequently used technique. Such a technique has the advantage of accurately
portraying the landscape in a meaningful and easily recognizable form. In video montage techniques
have been developed to demonstrate the important effects of movement. This is basically a video
record of a site over which a computer-generated animated photomontage is superimposed (Thomas
1996). Computer programs such as GIS, CAD, Autodesk 3DS Max, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator
software and other specialized software, used to model the visual impact of developments. These
models are described in Table F-6.
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Table F- 6: Visual impact analysis tools
TOOL
DESCRIPTION
ArcGIS
Arc GIS is a suite of GIS tools (ArcView, ArcGIS Server, etc.) for working with
maps and geographic information. It is used for assembling, storing,
manipulating and displaying geographically referenced data. ArcGIS is a
powerful tool whereby layers of data on a variety of topics can be collated,
sieved, selected or superimposed.
U.S. EPA has developed an application for screening projects for EIA which uses
the off the shelf software of ArcGIS Server to create instantaneous access to
distributed sources of data, integrate the data spatially, and provide an analysis
of key relationships of environment and social-economic-cultural features in
both a standardized and flexible manner. This tool has been adapted for use in
CAFTA-DR countries and deployed throughout the region.
AutoCad
In computer-aided design (CAD), users employ interactive graphics to design
components and systems of mechanical, electrical, electromechanical, and
electronic devices, including structures such as buildings, automobile bodies,
airplane and ship hulls, very large-scale integrated (VLSI) chips, and telephone
and computer networks. CAD has been around since the early 1960's; its use
facilitates the design of objects through computers. Early CAD software
packages only worked in wire frame (simple line models) on a 2D plane,
nowadays they can operate in 3D using various shading techniques to produce
realistic rendered images.
Autodesk 3DS Max, Maya, Bryce
(Corel Corporation, 2002), Vue
D'Esprit (E-on Software, 2002)
and Lightwave (NewTek, 2002)
3D modeling and animation applications such as 3DS Max differ to CAD in that
they have the ability to create realistic environments by means of complex
animations, lighting and shadows, detailed surface texturing, reflective
surfaces, environmental effects such as fog and rain and many other functions.
Photoshop (Adobe Systems Inc.,
2011), Paint Shop Pro X3 (Corel
2010), CorelDRAW X5 (Corel
Corporation, 2010) and Mattis
and Kimball's (GIMP, 2010)
Image editing software applications are used to create and edit images. These
software packages allow the user to develop photomontage and visualization
of future projects.
Source: Based on Cox, 2003
8 FLORA, FAUNA, ECOSYSTEMS AND PROTECTED AREAS IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
As with soils and geology, biological impact assessment is based on studies, literature review and
professional judgment. As to provide an understanding of the criticality of habitat and ecosystems and
the sensitive life stages. A described in Section D, Environmental Setting. Results of soil, water, air, and
noise impact modeling or other means of quantification should be overlaid on maps showing location of
flora, fauna, ecosystems, threatened and endangered species habitats, and protected areas, to
determine the possibility of adverse impacts. In addition, some computer models are available to help
predict habitat impacts for aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna. These are discussed at the end of this
subsection. The design of the proposed project design also should be reviewed as to whether it will
alter access to light (shade impacts), water, food sources and whether critical habitat will be
fragmented.
Beyond looking at these components individually, an EIA needs to be integrated, i.e. to address the
relationships between biophysical, social and economic aspects in assessing project impacts (IAIA 1999).
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Addressing these relationships relies on an integrating the Environmental Setting with the impact
assessment. This approach is called an Ecosystem Services Approach.
An ecosystem services approach recognizes the intrinsic and complex relationships between biophysical
and socio-economic environments. It integrates these aspects by explicitly linking ecosystem services
(the benefits people derive from ecosystems), their contribution to human well-being, and the ways in
which people impact ecosystems' capacity to provide those services. The approach relies on a suite of
tools such as a conceptual framework linking drivers of change, ecosystems and biodiversity, ecosystem
services, and human well-being (MA 2005); guidelines for private sector companies to assess risks and
opportunities related to ecosystem services (Hanson et al. 2008), and manual for conducting ecosystem
services assessments (UNEP to be published).
In the context of environmental impact assessments, the ecosystem services approach provides a more
systematic and integrated assessment of project impacts and dependencies on ecosystem services and
the consequence for the people who benefit from these services. It helps EIA practitioners to go beyond
biodiversity and ecosystems to identify and understand the ways natural and human environment
interrelates. This holistic understanding, from description of the Environmental Setting to the impact
assessment, will lead the EIA practitioner through a new set of questions organized around the
conceptual framework shown below:
• What are the ecosystem services important for local communities?
o Which services will the project potentially impact in a significant way?
o How does the impact on one ecosystem service affect the supply and use of other
ecosystem services?
• What are the underlying level of biodiversity and the current capacity of the ecosystems to
continue to provide ecosystem services?
• What are the consequences of these ecosystem service impacts on human well-being, for
example what are the effects on livelihoods, income, and security?
• What are the direct and indirect drivers of ecosystem change affecting the supply and use of
ecosystem services? How will the project contribute to these direct and indirect drivers of
change?
Systematically examining all the boxes in the framework presented in Figure F-6 carries the following
promises:
• Since ecosystem services by definition are linked to different beneficiaries, any ecosystem
service changes can then be explicitly translated into a gain or loss of human well-being.
• It will highlight the impact on all important ecosystem services provided by the area such as
erosion control, pollination, water regulation, and pollutant removal.
• It will ensure that the EIA accounts for the effects of the project on existing direct and indirect
drivers of ecosystem change that in turn could impact the ecosystem services provided by the
area.
• It will improve the project's management of risks and opportunities arising from ecosystem
services.
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Figure F-6: Conceptual framework to assess ecosystem services
^ Existing relations between natural and human environment
> Project impacts and dependencies on ecosystem services
HUMAN WELL-BEING
Basic material for good life
Health
Good social relations
Security
Freedom of choice
Contribution of project to
drivers of ecosystem
change
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Provisioning services
Regulating services
Cultural services
Supporting services
Dependency of project
on ecosystem services
INDIRECT DRIVERS OF
ECOSYSTEM CHANGE
Demographic
^Economic
Sociopolitical
Cultural and religious
Science and technology
DIRECT DRIVERS OF
ECOSYSTEM CHANGE
Change in local land use/ cover
Climate change
Pollution
Invasive species
Over use
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
Ecosystem type and extent
Species diversity and numbers
Source: Adapted from the Millennium Ecosystems Assessment, MA 2005
8.1 Terrestrial Resources Impact Assessment Tools
Habitat-based approaches are commonly used to predict the impact of tourism development on
terrestrial habitats. A habitat-based approach provides the ability to identify, document, predict, and
compare potentialpotential changes in wildlife habitat for various development actions or alternatives.
An example of a habitat-based approach is the Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP) developed by the US
Fish and Wildlife Service. HEP provides a mechanism for predicting changes in quality and quantity of
wildlife habitat for selected wildlife species over time under alternative future scenarios and for
comparing environmental measures options. HEP relies on habitat suitability models that use
measurements of important characteristics to rate habitat quality on a scale of 0 (unsuitable) to 1
(optimal). The index value is multiplied by the area of available habitat to determine habitat units under
baseline and other scenarios. The HEP handbook is available online at
http://www.fws.gov/policv/ESMindex.html
Predicted impacts on air and water quality, mechanical impacts on flora and fauna, and impacts of noise
and light should then be graphically overlaid on the documented domains and ranges of plants and
animals to assure that impacts are not likely to exceed those which might interfere with the long term
health of impacted populations.
8.2 Aquatic Resources Impact Assessment Tools
The US Fish and Wildlife HEP approach can also be used for aquatic habitats. Development of other
analytical models for assessment of aquatic resource impacts has primarily focused on establishing
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relationships between river flow and fish habitat quantity. Flow versus fish habitat models have
generally been applied in situations of proposals for seasonal water storage and release associated with
flood control or hydroelectric operation, and water diversions for irrigation, hydroelectric generation,
and other water uses.
The models generally come in two types: standard setting and incremental. A standard setting model
follows a fixed rule, and therefore, provides a single answer or "standard." Standard setting models tend
to be relatively generic (i.e., not site-specific), quick, and of low effort and cost. Incremental models
predict a range of conditions for a range of inputs. Incremental models tend to be site-specific and of
relatively high effort and cost to calibrate. Because incremental models provide a range of outputs, such
models are useful where negotiations are desired or necessary. The need to evaluate the potential
impacts to aquatic life of a tourism project is dependent of its proximity to rivers, lakes and other bodies
of water. It is also dependent on if fishing or other water sports will be promoted in area. It may or may
not be necessary to model the potential impacts depending on these factors. Table F-2 includes the
most commonly used analytical models for assessment of aquatic resource impacts.
9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC-CONDITIONS, INFRASTRUCTURE AND LAND USE
When an activity, such as development or expansion of a tourism project is expected to accelerate social
change at the local level, it is necessary to have detailed (sometimes household level) socio-economic
and cultural data from the directly affected communities for the baseline, and to develop trend data to
assess whether potentialpotential impacts will continue or alter those trends in a significant way.
Social impacts cannot usually be assessed solely through secondary data on infrastructure and social
services. The results from detailed family level surveys, focus group discussions and key informant
interviews, participant observation, stakeholder consultations, secondary data, and other direct data
collection methods should be analyzed carefully (Joyce, 2001).
As data are collected, trends based on gender, age groups, economic status, proximity to the projects
should be analyzed. This analysis can be accomplished using statistical models or, as what has been
found more recently to be effective, the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS). According to
Joyce et al. (2001), the problem with using a strictly qualitative approach has issues:
• There is a greater difficulty of predicting social behavior and response as compared to impacts
on the biophysical or biological elements, such as water or animals.
• The fact that social impacts are as much to do with the perceptions people or groups have about
an activity as they are to do with the actual facts and substantive reality of a situation, and
• The fabric of social interactions and social well-being (today being recognized and labeled as
"social capital", which are in the end where many social impacts take place, can only be
measured or evaluated through qualitative and participatory processes.
• As the causation gets more distant, it is less clear how directly responsible a given project or
activity is for that impact and required environmental measures, and less clear how effective
environmental measures taken by one player would be.
Again, according to Joyce, the measure of significance is the most difficult/critical part of socioeconomic
impact assessment. Potential impactsishould be described in terms of the level of intensity of an
impact, the directionality (positive or negative), the duration, and its geographic extension. Significance
is necessarily defined using professional judgment. Towards this end, categories of impactscan be
defined and a determination can be made as to what constitutes a short, medium and long term impact,
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and the reasons for the designation. This is where participation by the local population becomes
important in determining what is significant to them particularly for socio-economic-cultural impacts.
Section B.2 of these guidelines provide guidance on public participation and Appendix G includes
example guidelines from the Dominican Republic on social impact assessment and the important role of
public participation and consultation in that process.
Based on the significance of the impact(s) conclusions can be drawn and mitigation measures can be
designed.
Other socioeconomic impacts which should be assessed include:
• Land Use -A tourism site if not restored properly can change the land use of an area forever. To
understand thepotential impacts of development of tourism projects on land use, it is
important to be able to visualize and calculate potential changes which may occur. This can be
done by developing maps which show pre-construction, operational and post-closure land use.
In many countries, geographic information systems (GIS) are used extensively for this purpose.
GIS captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data that is linked to location. GIS
applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user created searches),
analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations. A
GIS includes mapping software and its application with remote sensing, land surveying, aerial
photography, mathematics, photogrammetry, geography, and other tools.
• Population and Housing - The key to understanding the potential impact to the local population
and housing is having a good understanding the work force required for the operation. Simple
calculations can then be made to determine changes in demographics over the life of the
project.
• Infrastructure Capacity - Simple calculations comparing demands on roads, hospitals,
wastewater treatment, water supply and waste management against capacity. However, these
calculations should take into account direct demands from the project for every phase of the
project including construction, operation and closure, demands from potentialpotential induced
growth as an indirect impact of the proposed project and demands into the future in the
absence of the project,
• Employment - Again having a good understanding of the work force required for each phase
(construction, operation and closure) of a tourism project is required to determine what
additional labor may be required for schools, hospitals, support industries, etc.
• Transportation - Transportation studies are required to determine potential impacts on traffic
and roads due to commuting and the hauling of construction materials to the project site,
delivery of fuel and removal of wastes if by rail, water or road, and increases in traffic associated
with the work force servicing the project and providing support to that work force.
• Public Health - The potential for tourism project to impact communities is well documented in
the literature. Tourism spread diseases to locals and visa or versa. Understanding the general
health of community is important. In addition, the addition of tourist may stress local health
services in an area.
• Public Safety - Additional traffic, construction activities, and other activities such as boating can
impact public safety. In emergency situations such as earthquakes, tsunamis, or a volcanic
eruption, the presence of tourist may impact the ability of a community to react.
• Education - Increase in worker population and their family may cause overcrowding of schools
and impact education.
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10 CULTURAL, ARCHEOLOGICAL, CEREMONIAL AND HISTORIC RESOURCES
Impacts are usually defined as direct or indirect alterations to characteristics of a cultural archeological,
ceremonial or historic site or traditional use of a resource. Effects are adverse when the integrity is
affected or the quality diminished. Impact assessment begins with overlaying all project activities on the
map of cultural archeological, ceremonial or historic sites developed for the Environmental Setting, to
identify all sites that may be directly impacted. In addition, noise, vibration and visibility (of and from
the sites) impacts need to be estimated, using the results of the noise, vibration and visibility
assessments discussed above. Impacts to historical and archeological sites and cultural resources are
evaluated with respect to their magnitude and significance. For cultural resources, it is important to
consider potential impacts that may affect the transmission and retention of local values. These
potential impacts to the transmission and retention of local values may be caused by impacts to plants,
animals, fish, geology and water resources that may be used for cultural purposes by certain populations
for traditional purposes, as well as visual impacts.
11 VULNERABLE POPULATIONS
Vulnerable populations concerns are introduced in Chapter E section 4.5 as the potential of
disproportionate high and adverse effects on certain populations, typically indigenous, minority and/or
low income populations. Economic effects and cultural impacts are analyzed as part of the
socioeconomic assessment and would include topics such as employment, revenue, economic
development, etc. Environmental impacts are addressed in the environmental sections of the EIA.
Special attention needs to be given to impacts thatcould most affect vulnerable populations and should
be acknowledged. Generally, adverse impacts are more intense to the vulnerable populations, and the
economic effects are usually greater.
There are two types of sources of impacts of concern related to vulnerable populations. The first type of
impact derives from the differences in life style that might typically be found among indigenous peoples
and minority groups. For example, these groups might rely more heavily on the affected environment
for sustenance or have greater access to the environment which may increase their exposure to harmful
substances where those are identified in the environmental impact assessment. Another context in
which the analysis may be appropriate is to address minority and low income populations whose life
styles or low income status may make them more vulnerable to adverse impacts. If they start with poor
health or poor access to medical care, the impacts of adverse environmental impacts may fall more
heavily on them. Often these populations live in locations in which many polluting sources may be co-
located. They may lack the language or political access to represent their interests before the
government. These populations are generally less resilient than the larger population's in the
surrounding environment because of their economic circumstances in their ability to mitigate adverse
impacts using their own resources.
12 HEALTH AND SAFETY IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOLS
12.1 Health Impact Assessment Tools
Many studies have been done that link disease to the spread of diseases from tourists and workers to
local communities. Table F-7 presents a partial list of such diseases that are commonly spread. The
potential for the spread of disease can impact the basic health and vitality of a community. Tools which
can be used to assess this potential impact include surveys which access the potential health of a
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community and its ability to cope with an outbreak do to the interaction of the local population with
tourists. Such an assessment may take in to account proposed measures to reduce risks, but if that is
done then the measures used to minimize or eliminate risk should be included in the mitigation
measures section in terms that reflect commitment of the project operator to carry them out
effectively. In addition, as mentioned earlier, dietary changes may occur to the local community due to
the influence of tourists and outside workers. This potential also should be evaluated.
Table F- 7: Ease of spread of a range of diseases which can be transmitted from travelers to hosts and
their level of impact on the host individual
EASE OF SPREAD
High
Medium
Low
IMPACT ON HOST INDIVIDUAL*
Minor to Serious
Minor to Serious
Medium to Serious
Serious
Medium
Medium to Serious
DISEASES
• Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
• Gastro-intestinal Infections
• Upper Respiratory Infections
• Other Viral Infections
• Worm Infections (roundworms, tapeworms)
• Cholera
• Malaria
• Dengue Fever
• Yellow Fever
• Filariasis
• Leishmaniasis
• Onchocerciasis
• Oropouche Fever
• AIDS
• Other Viral Infections
• Myiasis
• Worm Infections (flukes)
*Key: Minor: acute illness with usually no complications, no or little temporary incapacitation, complete recovery
Medium: acute or chronic illness affecting an individual's ability to pursue the usual activities, complete
recovery, no permanent incapacitation
Serious: acute or chronic illness with high possibility of serious or fatal complications, permanent
incapacitation or disfiguration
Source: Bauer, 1999
12.2 Public Safety Impact Assessment Tools
Many of the models outlined above can be used to access the potential impacts to public safety.
Hydrologic models can access the potential for flooding. Geologic models can determine the risk of
landslide due to construction activities and transportation models can be used determine hazard from
increase traffic due to resort development. Because emergency situations due to earthquakes,
tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and others can occur at any time, an assessment should be made to
determine the communities and resorts ability to cope with a disaster.
Because worker safety during construction and operation of a resort is also a concern, safety evaluations
should be completed on a regular basis to ensure that the operation is in compliance with national
regulations. These assessments should include not limited to factors leading to:
• Exposure to dust, noise, and chemicals
• Handling of chemicals
• Accidents while working with heavy or other equipment
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13 CUMULATIVE IMPACTS ASSESSMENT METHODS
Predictive tools and methods used for cumulative impact assessment are similar to those used to predict
impacts generally, but the input parameters are different in that they include all past, present and
predicted future actions affecting the resource. The analysis is focused and applied where it is most
useful through a process of identifying which resources may be significantly affected and applying more
detailed assessments to those resources for which cumulative impact assessment is most important.
Three general steps, are recommended to ensure the proper assessment of cumulative impacts.
Step 1. Determination of the extent of
cumulative impacts
a. Identify potentially significant
cumulative impacts associated with
the proposed activity;
b. Establish the geographic scope of
the assessment;
c. Identify other activities affecting the
environmental resources of the
area; and
d. Define the goals of the assessment.
Step 3. Assessment of cumulative impacts
a. An identification of the important
cause-and-impact relationships
between proposed activity and the
environmental resources;
b. A determination of the magnitude
and significance of cumulative
impacts; and
c. The modification, or addition, of
alternatives to avoid, minimize or
mitigate significant cumulative
impacts.
Step 2. Description of the affected
environment
a. Characterize the identified
environmental resources in terms of
their response to change and
capacity to withstand stress;
b. Characterize the stresses affecting
these environmental resources and
their relation to regulatory
thresholds; and
c. Define a baseline condition that
provides a measuring point for the
impacts to the environmental
resources.
In reviewing cumulative impacts analysis, the United States EPA reviewers focus on the specific
resources and ecological components that can be affected by the incremental effects of the proposed
project and other actions in the same geographic area (USEPA, 1999). In general, reviewers focus on
four main aspects. These include:
1. Resource and Ecosystem Components
2. Geographic Boundaries and Time Period
3. Past, Present, And Reasonably Foreseeable Actions
4. Using Thresholds to Assess Resource Degradation
The following presents a brief description of these.
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13.1 Resource and Ecosystem Components
An EIA analysis should identify the resources and ecosystem components cumulatively impacted by the
proposed action and other actions. In general, the reviewer determines which resources are
cumulatively affected by considering:
1. Whether the resource is especially vulnerable to incremental effects;
2. Whether the proposed action is one of several similar actions in the same geographic area;
3. Whether other activities in the area have similar effects on the resource;
4. Whether these effects have been historically significant for this resource; and
5. Whether other analyses in the area have identified a cumulative effects concern.
The analysis should be expanded for only those resources that are significantly affected. In similar
fashion, ecosystem components should be considered when they are significantly affected by
cumulative impacts. The measure of cumulative effects is any change to the function of these
ecosystem components. Therefore, EIA documents should consider only a limited number of resources
that may be potentially affected by cumulative impacts.
To ensure the inclusion of the resources that may be most susceptible, cumulative impacts can be
anticipated by considering where cumulative effects are likely to occur and what actions would most
likely produce cumulative effects.
The EIA document should identify which resources or ecosystem components of concern might be
affected by the proposed action or its alternatives within the project area. Once these resources have
been identified, consideration should be given to the ecological requirements needed to sustain the
resources. It is important that the EIA document consider these broader ecological requirements when
assessing how the project and other actions may cumulatively affect the resources of concern. Often
these ecological requirements may extend beyond the boundaries of the project area, but reasonable
limits should be made to the scope of the analysis.
13.2 Geographic Boundaries and Time Period
With the resources identified, the EIA should need to identify the appropriate geographic and temporal
scope of analysis for those resources. Without spatial boundaries (geographic), a cumulative effects
assessment would be global, and while this may be appropriate for some issues such as global climate
change, it is not appropriate for most other issues. The EIA should briefly describe how those resources
might be cumulatively affected and explain the geographic scope of analysis.
To determine spatial boundaries, consideration should be given to the distance the effect can travel in
the context of resource effects from other activities that might affect a wide area. Specifically, the EIA
should:
• Describe how it determined the area(s) that will be affected by the proposed action (impact
zone).
• List the cumulative effects resources within that area that could be affected by the proposed
action.
• Determine the geographic area outside of the impact zone that is occupied by those resources.
• Consider the management plans and jurisdictions of other agencies for the cumulatively
affected resource.
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The EIA should:
• Discuss the location of other projects and major developmental activities within the area.
• Include a schematic diagram of these developments and/or list them in a table.
• Briefly describe how the proposed project interacts, affects, or is affected by, these other
resource developments.
The length of discussion should reflect the significance of the interaction. Include details of the effects
of these interactions in the Impacts section.
13.3 Describing the Condition of the Environment
The EIA analysis should establish the magnitude and significance of cumulative impacts by comparing
the environment in its naturally occurring state with the expected impacts of the proposed action when
combined with the impacts of other actions. Use of a "benchmark" or "baseline" for purposes of
comparing conditions is an essential part of any environmental analysis. If it is not possible to establish
the "naturally occurring" condition, a description of a modified but ecologically sustainable condition
can be used in the analysis. In this context, ecologically sustainable means the system supports
biological processes, maintains its level of biological productivity, functions with minimal external
management, and repairs itself when stressed.
While a description of past environmental conditions is usually included in EIA documents, it is seldom
used to fully assess how the system has changed from previous conditions. The comparison of the
environmental condition and expected environmental impacts can be incorporated into the Impacts
section of EIA documents. EIA reviewers should determine whether the EIA analysis accurately depicts
the condition of the environment used to assess cumulative impacts. In addition, reviewers should
determine whether EIA documents incorporate the cumulative effects of all relevant past activities into
the Impacts section. For the evaluation of the environmental consequences to be useful, it is important
that the analysis also incorporate the degree that the existing ecosystem may change over time under
each alternative.
Different methods of depicting the environmental condition are acceptable. The condition of the
environment should, however, address one or more of the following:
1. How the affected environment functions naturally and whether it has been significantly
degraded;
2. The specific characteristics of the affected environment and the extent of change, if any, that
has occurred in that environment; and
3. A description of the natural condition of the environment or, if that is not available, some
modified, but ecologically sustainable, condition to serve as a benchmark.
Two practical methods for depicting the environmental condition include use of the no-action
alternative and an environmental reference point. Historically, the no-action alternative (as reflecting
existing conditions) has usually been used as a benchmark for comparing the proposed action and
alternatives to existing conditions. The no-action alternative can be an effective benchmark if it
incorporates the cumulative effects of past activities and accurately depicts the condition of the
environment.
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Another approach for describing the environmental condition is to use an environmental reference
point that would be incorporated into the Impacts section of the document. The natural condition of
the ecosystem, or some modified but sustainable ecosystem condition, can be described as the
environmental reference point. In analyzing environmental impacts, this environmental reference point
would not necessarily be an alternative. Instead, it would serve as a benchmark in assessing the
environmental impacts associated with each of the alternatives. Specifically, the analysis would
evaluate the degree of degradation from the environmental reference point (i.e., natural ecosystem
condition) that has resulted from past actions. Then the relative difference among alternatives would
be determined for not only changes compared to the existing condition but also changes critical to
maintaining or restoring the desired, sustainable condition.
Determining what environmental condition to use in the assessment may not be immediately clear.
Choosing and describing a condition should be based on the specific characteristics of the area. In
addition, the choice of condition can be constrained by limited resources and information. For these
reasons, the environmental condition described by the environmental reference point or no-action
alternative should be constructed on a case-by-case basis so that it represents an ecosystem able to
sustain itself in the larger context of activities in the region. In this respect, there is no predetermined
point in time that automatically should represent the environmental condition. In addition, it may not
be practical to use a pristine condition in many situations.
Depending on whether the information is reasonably obtainable, the environmental condition chosen
may be a pristine environment, or at the very least, a minimally functioning ecosystem that will not
further degrade. The use of the environmental condition to compare alternatives is not an academic
exercise, but one that can most effectively modify alternatives and help decision making. Examples of
conditions might include before project, before "substantial" development, or a reference ecosystem
that is comparable to the project area. Selecting the best environmental condition for comparative
purposes can be based on the following:
1. Consider what the environment would look like or how it would behave without serious human
alteration;
2. Factor in the dynamic nature of the environment;
3. Define the distinct characteristics and attributes of the environment that best represent that
particular type of environment (focus on characteristics and attributes that have to do with
function); and
4. Use available or reasonably obtainable information.
13.4 Using Thresholds to Assess Resource Degradation
Qualitative and quantitative thresholds can be used to indicate whether a resource(s) of concern has
been degraded and whether the combination of the action's impacts with other impacts may result in a
serious deterioration of environmental functions. In the context of EPA reviews, thresholds can be used
to determine if the cumulative impacts of an action could be significant and if the resourcecould be
degraded to unacceptable levels. EIA reviewers should determine whether the analysis included specific
thresholds required under law or by agency regulations or otherwise used by the agency. In the absence
of specific thresholds, the analysis should include a description of whether or not the resource is
significantly affected and how that determination was made.
Since cumulative impacts often occur at the landscape or regional level, thresholds should be developed
at similar scales whenever possible. Indicators at a landscape level can be used to develop thresholds as
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well as assess the condition of the environment. Using the following landscape indicators, thresholds
can be crafted by determining the levels, percentages, or amount of each that indicate a significant
impact for a particular area. Examples of thresholds include:
The total change in land cover is a simple indicator of biotic integrity; thresholds for areas with high
alterations would generally be lower than areas that are not as degraded; if open space or pristine areas
are a management goal then the threshold would be a small percentage change in land cover.
Patch size distribution and distances between patches are important indicators of species change and
level of disturbance. Thresholds would be set to determine the characteristics of an area needed to
support a given plant or animal species.
Estimates of fragmentation and connectivity can reveal the magnitude of disturbance, ability of species
to survive in an area, and ecological integrity. Thresholds would indicate a decrease in cover pattern,
loss of connectivity, or amount of fragmentation that would significantly degrade an area.
Determining a threshold beyond which cumulative effects significantly degrade a resource, ecosystem,
or human community is sometimes very difficult because of a lack of data. Without a definitive
threshold, the EIA practitioner should compare the cumulative effects of multiple actions with
appropriate national, regional, state, or community goals to determine whether the total effect is
significant. These desired conditions can best be defined by the cooperative efforts of agency officials,
project proponents, environmental analysts, non-governmental organizations, and the public through
the EIA process. The integrity of historical districts is an example of a threshold that is goal related.
These districts, especially residential and commercial historic districts in urban areas, are particularly
vulnerable to clearance programs carried out by local governments, usually with use of federal funds.
Though individual structures of particular architectural distinction are often present, such districts are
important because they are a collection of structures that relate to one another visually and spatially;
the primary importance of each building is the contribution that it makes to a greater whole. Often in
conjunction with code enforcement programs to remove blighting influences and /or hazards to public
safety, local governments condemn and demolish properties. Viewed in isolation as an individual action,
such demolition of an individual structure does not significantly diminish the historic and architectural
character of the district and indeed may be beneficial to the overall stability of the district. But the
cumulative effect of a whole series of such demolitions can significantly erode the district. Continued
loss of historic structures, often with resultant vacant lots and incompatible new construction, can reach
a point where the visual integrity of the district is lost. Once this threshold is passed, subsequent
demolitions become increasingly difficult to resist and ultimately the qualities of the historic district are
lost.
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Table F- 8: Primary and special methods for analyzing cumulative impacts
PRIMARY METHODS
1 Questionnaires,
interviews, and panels
2 Checklists
3 Matrices
4 Networks and System
Diagrams
5 Modeling
6 Trends Analysis
DESCRIPTION
Questionnaires, interviews and panels are useful
for gathering the wide range of information on
multiple actions and resources needed to address
cumulative effects. Brainstorming sessions,
interviews with knowledgeable individuals, and
group consensus building activities can help
identify the important cumulative effects issues in
the region.
Checklists help identify potential cumulative
effects by providing a list of common or likely
effects and juxtaposing multiple actions and
resources; potentially dangerous for the analyst
that uses them as a shortcut to thorough scoping
and conceptualization of cumulative effects
problems.
Matrices use the familiar tabular format to
organize and quantify the interactions between
human activities and resources of concern. Once
even relatively complex numerical data are
obtained, matrices are well-suited to combining
the values in individual cells of the matrix (through
matrix algebra) to evaluate the cumulative effects
of multiple actions on individual resources,
ecosystems, and human communities.
Networks and system diagrams are an excellent
method for delineating the cause-and-effect
relationships resulting in cumulative effects; they
allow the user to analyze the multiple, subsidiary
effects of various actions and trace indirect effects
to resources that accumulate from direct effects
on other resources.
Modeling is a powerful technique for quantifying,
the cause-and-effect relationships leading to
cumulative effects, can take the form of
mathematical equations describing cumulative n
processes such as soil erosion, or may constitute
an expert system that computes the effect of
various project scenarios based on a program of
logical decisions.
Trends analysis assesses the status of a resource,
ecosystem, and human community over time and
usually results in a graphical projection of past or
future conditions. Changes in the occurrence or
intensity of stressors over the same time period
can also be determined. Trends can help the
analyst identify cumulative effects problems,
establish appropriate environmental baselines, or
project future cumulative effects.
STRENGTHS
• Flexible
• Can deal with
subjective
information
• Systematic
• Concise
• Comprehensive
presentation
• Comparison of
alternatives
• Address multiple
projects projects
• Facilitate-
conceptualization
• Address cause -
effect
relationships
• identify indirect
effects
• Can give
unequivocal
results
• Addresses cause -
effect
relationships
• Quantification
• Can integrate
time and space
• Addresses
accumulation
overtime
• Problem
identification
• Baseline
determination
WEAKNESSES
• Cannot quantify
• Comparison of
alternatives is
subjective
• Can be inflexible
• Do not address-
interactions or
cause- effect
relationships
• Do not address
space or time
• Can be
cumbersome
• Do not address
cause-effect
relationships
• No likelihood for
secondary effects
• Problem of
comparable units
• Do not address
space or time
• Need a lot of data
• Can be expensive
• Intractable with
many interactions
• Need a lot of data
in relevant system
• Extrapolation of
system thresholds
is still largely
subjective
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PRIMARY METHODS
7 Overlay Mapping
8 Ecosystem Analysis
9 Economic Impact
Analysis
10 Social Impact Analysis
DESCRIPTION
Overlay mapping and geographic information
systems (GIS) incorporate location information
into cumulative effects analysis and help set the
boundaries of the analysis, analyze landscape
parameters, and identify areas where effects will
be greatest. Map overlays can be based on either
on either the accumulation of stresses in certain
areas or on the suitability of each land unit for
development.
Ecosystem analysis explicitly addresses biodiversity
and ecosystem sustainability. The ecosystem
approach uses natural boundaries (such as
watersheds and eco-regions) and applies new
ecological indicators (such as indices of biotic
integrity and landscape pattern). Ecosystem
analysis entails the broad perspective and holistic
thinking that are required for successful
cumulative successful cumulative effects analysis.
Economic impact analysis is an important
component of analyzing cumulative effects
because the economic well-being of a local
community depends on many different actions.
The three primary steps in conducting an
economic impact analysis are (1) establishing the
region of influence, (2) modeling the economic
effects, and (3) determining the significance of the
effects. Economic models play an important role
in these impact assessments and range from
simple to sophisticated.
Social impact analysis addresses cumulative effects
related to the sustainability of human
communities by (1) focusing on key social variables
such as population characteristics, community and
institutional structures, political and social
resources, individual and family changes, and
community resources; and (2) projecting future
effects using social analysis techniques such as
linear trend projections, population multiplier
methods, scenarios, expert testimony, and
simulation modeling.
STRENGTHS
• Addresses spatial
pattern and
proximity of
effects
• Effective visual
presentation
• Can optimize
development
options
• Uses regional
scale and full
range of
components and
interactions
• Addresses space
and time
• Addresses
ecosystem
sustainability
• Addresses
economic issues
• Models provide
definitive
quantified results
• Addresses social
issues
• Models provide
definitive,
quantified results
WEAKNESSES
• Limited to effects
based on location
• Do not explicitly
address indirect
effects
• Difficult to
address
magnitude of
effects
• Limited to natural
systems
• Often requires
species surrogates
for system=
• Data intensive
• Landscape
ecosystem
indicators still
under
development
• Utility and
accuracy of results
dependent on
data quality and
model
assumptions
• Usually do not
address
nonmarket values
• Utility and
accuracy of results
dependent on
data quality and
model
assumptions
• Social values are
highly variable
14 CARRYING CAPACITY
Carrying capacity broadly refers to limits of levels of activity or tolerances beyond which a resource
cannot sustain its intended use. In the context of tourism it is often used to refer to the type and level
of visitor use that can be accommodated while sustaining the desired resource and social conditions
that complement the purpose of concession, park, coastal area, or a sensitive ecosystem area.
There are no standard, scientifically available models for defining carrying capacity and the process
relies heavily on professional judgment and individual circumstances. The overall process involves:
1. Examination of the needs and goals with an interdisciplinary team
2. Examination of the changes in use patterns
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3. Assessment of the problems and threats facing the resource and proposed new activities
4. Identification of the most limiting variable to define limits
5. Identification of the greatest vulnerabilities, both specially and temporally.
At least in concept, carrying capacity is an important aspect of determining environmental impact of a
tourism development. According to Cole (2005) of the United States National Park Service, it is
important to have an understanding of the temporal and spatial distribution of visitor use as well as
having an understanding of distributions optimal not only to enhance visitor experience, but also to
provide protection to the resource and the environment. To meet these objectives it is important to
develop methodologies not only to predict impacts but also to define indicators that are specific,
measurable physical, ecological and social variables that reflect the overall condition of an area and can
be used to access the impacts of visitors to a site. These in turn can be used to determine the carrying
capacity of a specific area. However, data are often limited in terms of use, lengths of stay in various
areas, crowding, underused or overused facilities, and other factors related to the health and wellbeing
of an ecosystem, habitat, and/or species. And, regardless of how effectively carrying capacity may be
assessed, there is general agreement that it is a dynamic process, requiring monitoring of impacts and
adjustment of acceptable visitation and use.
Literature on carrying capacity is quite extensive. But determining how much decline or change is
appropriate to sustain a viable touristic resource is a challenge in determining carrying capacity. This is
particularly true where a sensitive ecological area has not been formally designated as a park or
wilderness area and therefore there are no goals adopted for maintaining the ecosystem. One such
measure which has been developed for public parks is known as "limits of acceptable change" (LAC)
which is fundamental to addressing carrying capacity (USNPS, 1997) The basic logic of the of the LAC
process according the US National Park Service is:
• Identification of goals in conflict. These goals may be protection of the environment conflicted
by unrestricted access to a resource for recreational use. Two goals are often evaluated at a
time.
• Establish how goals can be compromised. Determine if one or both goals can be compromised
to meet objectives.
• Determine which goal may ultimately constrain the other. The goal of protecting the
environment may almost always constrain unrestricted access.
• Develop LAC standards that express minimally acceptable conditions for the environment and
for visitors.
• Compromise goals until standards are reached. Allow the environmental conditions and visitor
experiences to degrade only to an acceptable standard.
• Compromise only to a point. Once standards for environmental conditions are met and visitor
experiences are reach allow no more degradation.
Such an approach is viable if there is an on-going project or park where data can be collected and
analyzed. However, problems do occur where sensitive areas are in the process of being developed in
which case this dynamic approach has more limited applicability to prediction of impacts.
In most instances, sophisticated models are not employed, but rather professional judgment and
assessment of the life cycles and threats to particular species are used to identify the most sensitive
species and activities in both time and space. This can then be used to determine what activities; both
temporally and specially may be supported.
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Nevertheless, models have been developed to evaluate "carrying capacity" of wilderness areas as well
as other touristic attractions. According to Cole (2005), the challenge of simulation modeling is to
capture the essential behavior of the system being modeled. In outdoor recreation, this means
capturing and representing the characteristics of the physical environment (for example, a system of
trails, roads, waterways, and/or facilities), the biological environment (the species most sensitive to
noise, activity, etc. mating and breeding season information, and modeling the behavior of visitors as
they interact with the environment and with each other. Again according to Cole (2005), models have
three components: (1) input variables that describe the system being modeled, (2) software and
associated modeling approaches designed to process these input variables, and (3) output variables that
are useful to planners, managers, and scientists. Models available are presented in Table F-9.
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Table F- 9: Carrying capacity models
MODEL TYPE
DESCRIPTION
DESIGN FEATURES
Trace, Probabilistic and
Rule-Based Agent
simulations
Trace simulations directly simulate travel
itineraries collected in the field. Visitor arrival, trip
itineraries, and duration of stay at destinations are
simulated directly from survey data rather than
using probability distributions or random
numbers. These simulations are useful for
examining existing pattern of use.
Probabilistic simulation models are based
on a representative sample of visitor trip
itineraries. Probability models are the
standard method for modeling baseline
conditions. Probabilistic simulation
assumes that the distribution of trip
itineraries in the future will remain similar
to the distribution today, regardless of
how the system changes. Decision may
be based due attractions such as scenic
views, interpretive centers, picnic areas,
or playfields, and detractors such as
hazardous areas, extreme weather
events, or other environmental factors
that would constrain movement or cause
visitors to avoid an area.
Terminating and Steady-
State Simulations
A second important choice in simulation modeling
approaches is whether to design simulations to be
terminating or non -terminating (steady-state).
Terminating simulations model events that have a
specified length, while a steady-state simulation
models situations in which there is no natural
event to specify the length of a simulation run. A
terminating simulation has a known initial state
(usually zero) and a known ending state. For day
use issues, it is clearly appropriate to use
terminating simulations to describe what happens
over a given day.
This type of situation might be modeled
using a steady-state simulation. A
simulation is called steady-state because
the simulation, after an initial "warm up"
period, is designed to replicate system
behavior over the long run at a given level
of production or capacity. Steady-state
simulations are more challenging to
conduct and analyze. They should be run
over long periods to get a reliable average
measure of system behavior that is not
biased by short-term effects of random
variables and auto-correlation.
General Purpose Simulation
Software and Special
Purpose Simulators:
Commercially available general purpose
simulation software packages are usually
developed with business, industry, and
government applications in mind. However, it is
possible to use this general software to model
outdoor recreation behavior. Commercially
available general purpose simulation software
packages are usually developed with business,
industry, and government applications in mind.
However, it is possible to use this general software
to model outdoor recreation behavior.
Several of the case studies described in
the next chapter have adapted the
simulation software; Extend developed by
Imagine That, Inc., to recreational
applications. Special purpose simulators,
however, are developed specifically to
handle specialized applications. Special-
purpose Simulators have been designed
to build simulations of recreation
behavior on linear networks. Special-
purpose simulators will have more
automated features specific to the
application of concern. General-purpose
simulation software can also be modified
to include automated features specific to
the application of concern (modeling
outdoor recreation.)
Source: Based on Cole 2005
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Tourism
G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
1 INTRODUCTION
Mitigation measures, sometimes referred to as "environmental measures/' are actions that can be taken
to avoid, minimize, prevent and/or compensate for the potential impacts caused by Tourism projects.
They can, among other actions, involve applying pollution control or prevention technologies, the
replacement or relocation of impacted resources and the relocation of displaced persons. To elaborate
on some of the basic concepts behind mitigation or environmental measures:
• Avoidance: Project proponents should be encouraged to avoid adverse impacts through good
choice of location, site planning and engineering design and to focus mitigation measures on
those adverse impacts that are otherwise unavoidable. Such environmental measures should be
clearly explained early in the EIA process, and should include operational, monitoring and
response plans should unexpected impacts occur.
• Mitigation: The consideration of mitigation of the impacts is necessary for all phases of
construction, operation and closure in which adverse impacts cannot be avoided. It is important
that the EIA identify and define all mitigation measures for a specific project. A mitigation
measure could be the selection of a project site or design option that avoids a sensitive
resource, different pollution control measures or processes or even resizing or phasing in
construction in a different manner that may reduce, minimize or prevent impacts. To the extent
that this may not be feasible, mitigation may also include measures to compensate for damages,
losses or reduced value of resources. Results of monitoring may trigger further mitigation
action if these results indicate there are problems that were not anticipated in the EIA.
• Compensation: In some circumstances compensation may be an acceptable means of
addressing negative impacts. For socio-economic-cultural impacts such measures are used to
compensate for economic loss or for the physical relocation of a population whether intended
or incidental to the consequences of a proposed project in the form of remuneration for loss of
income by farmers or fishermen , stipends for physical relocation, land swaps or actual provision
of alternative housing. For physical resources such mitigation measures might also include land
swaps or access to alternative water supplies. For biological resources compensation is a more
complex undertaking, requiring a scientifically based likelihood of success and equal or more
ecological value Compensation is usually considered a last resort because the intrinsic values of
human communities, cultures and ecosystem functions are not entirely fungible and there has
had limited success in reconstructing habitat and relocating flora and fauna. Progress has been
made in identifying the factors which can lead to success in compensation schemes but all
require careful assessment and ongoing management.
• Justification: The EIA should identify, define, quantitatively assess and provide technical and
financial bases for all environmental measures proposed, particularly if there is a concern about
the site or proposed measures are less than best available practices.
• Performance Standards: In the development of an EIA it is important that, wherever possible,
quantitative performance standards are established. These standards should be clearly
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presented in the EIA. Environmental standards with which compliance is to be demonstrated
should be based on local standards and in the absence of such standards, should be based on
international norms. Examples of performance standards and requirements for countries and
international organizations are presented in Appendix C to Volume 2 of these Guidelines.
• Financial Assurance of ability to sustain environmental measures and to implement corrective
measures in the event of impacts in excess of those allowed also may need to be demonstrated
depending upon the requirements of the country or institution.
• Contingency Plans: The identification and development of plans to address risks is an important
part of the EIA process. Three types of contingency plans are identified including plans to
respond to monitoring results which demonstrate that a standard or quantitative performance
limit has been exceeded; response to natural disasters such as risks of flooding, mudslides,
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, fires, spills, hurricanes, tsunamis and the like; and response
to other types of risks.
• Best Practices/Sustainable Development Standards: Best practices have been developed by
various international and domestic organizations to both avoid and minimize adverse impacts.
In the realm of tourism, they are often accompanied by industry certification programs that can
attract tourists to environmentally and socially responsible" tourist developments (Appendix C).
Governments may already require some of these practices but often they are voluntary.
Increasingly social and economic pressure is favoring such establishments. In the context of EIA,
some or all of these best practices might be integrated in project proposals and alternatives
under consideration. The information on mitigation measures includes but is not limited to best
practices.
However defined, one of the important outcomes of the EIA process is the commitment made to
implement measures to avoid or otherwise mitigate adverse impacts and to ensure that they are carried
out effectively. The particular language used to define and commit to implementing environmental
measures, to achieving reasonably anticipated effectiveness and with appropriate timing is critical to
successful outcomes, as are accompanying requirements for monitoring, reporting and record keeping.
Mitigation measures should be auditable, and something government inspectors can confirm is in
compliance. Countries vary as to whether it is the EIA document itself that includes the commitments
for which project proponents are accountable or whether they are included in accompanying
documents related to the EIA process, or incorporated into legally binding permits or licenses.
Regardless of the vehicle, if the commitments are unclear or the basis for ensuring their effectiveness
difficult to establish, the beneficial outcomes of the EIA process may not be secured.
Monitoring, and associated reporting, in the context of the EIA process, may be carried out to establish
an appropriate baseline for impact assessment and/or for providing assurance that the mitigation
measures are effective in achieving the level of performance attributed to them in the EIA. To support
this requirement an environmental monitoring plan should be developed by the project proponent and
approved by the government agency and other organizations having jurisdiction over project
performance. Whether this is part of the mitigation chapter of the EIA or developed as part of a
separate environmental management plan will depend on the specific country requirements.
The scope and extent of monitoring depends upon various aspects of the construction, operation and
closure of the project and resultant impacts. The monitoring plan should clarify, in the form contingency
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plans, that results of compliance monitoring and reporting may trigger further action if results indicate
there are problems that were not anticipated in the EIA. For example, monitoring may show that the
environmental impacts are greater than the estimates in the EIA or that the mitigation measures were
not as effective as anticipated. Monitoring plans are addressed in detail in subsection G.6, Monitoring
and Oversight.
2 GENERAL MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
This subsection presents several mitigation and monitoring measures that may be generally applicable
for tourism projects. It is unlikely that all of these measures presented here will be applicable to a
specific proposed facility. The proposed facility technology, location and design, in addition any
regulatory agency requirement, will determine the appropriate measures for a particular project.
Mitigation measures including practices, goals, and policies for various activities as well as monitoring
practices to ensure that development is done in an environmentally sound basis are presented in Tables
G-l through G-4. Tables G-l through G-3 present a comprehensive list of mitigation and monitoring
measures for impacts to the physical and biological environment common to the construction (G-l),
operation (G-2) and decommissioning (G-3) of tourism projects. Table G-4 presents general mitigation
measures for socio-economic impacts of tourism projects.
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Table G-l: Mitigation and monitoring measures for physical and biological impacts common to construction of most tourism projects
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
SITE PREPARATION AND CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
Land
clearing,
earthmov-
ing, terrain
shaping
(leveling,
drainage,
etc.) and
associated
activities
(e.g.,
borrow pits,
quarries)
Geology
Oceanography
Landslide Hazards
• Identify and avoid unstable slopes and factors that can
cause slope instability (groundwater conditions,
precipitation, seismic activity, slope angles, and geologic
structure).
• Avoid creating excessive slopes during excavation and
blasting operations.
Obtain borrow material only from authorized and permitted
sites.
Disturbance to Shoreline Structure
• Map impact areas and adjust accordingly
• Minimize removal of shoreline stabilizing beach
vegetation
• Design without knowledge of shoreline processes can
result in undesirable erosion and deposition patterns
• Perform regular site inspections to ensure that landslide areas are
being avoided
• Perform regular site inspections
• Monitor test plots which prevent entry compared vegetative cover to
accessible areas
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AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Soil
Erosion and Soil Compaction
• Minimize the amount of land to be disturbed and
vegetation to be removed.
• Avoid locating facilities on steep slopes, in alluvial fans
and other areas prone to erosion, landslides or flash
floods.
• Minimize design changes to existing topography.
• Design runoff control features to minimize soil erosion.
• Use special construction techniques in areas of steep
slopes and erodible soils
• Stage site clearance work so as to minimize the area of
soil exposed at any time
• Schedule land disturbing activities to avoid periods of
heavy rainfall and reduce or halt operations during heavy
rainfall episodes.
• Remove, store and reuse topsoil to reclaim disturbed
areas.
• Contour exposed slopes.
• Reestablish the original grade and drainage pattern to the
extent practicable.
• Restore or apply protective covering on disturbed soils as
quickly as possible.
o Mulch or cover exposed areas.
o Promptly revegetate exposed areas with fast growing
indigenous grasses.
o Temporarily berm exposed soil and redirect flows
from heavy runoff areas that threaten to erode or
result in substantial turbid surface runoff to adjacent
fresh or marine waters.
Monitor areas of exposed soil during periods of heavy rainfall
throughout construction phase to ensure that any incidents of erosion
are quickly controlled
Monitor surface water periodically for turbidity and total suspended
solids
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
• Prepare a comprehensive list of all hazardous materials to
be used, stored, transported, or disposed of during all
phases of construction activity.
• Design containment for storage, handling and dispensing
of hazardous materials, including fuels, oils, greases,
solvents and residues.
• Prepare a Spill Prevention and Response Plan for storage,
use and transfer of fuel and hazardous materials.
• Train workers on the Spill Prevention and Response Plan
• Provide onsite portable spill management, control and
cleanup equipment and materials.
• Containerize and periodically remove wastes for disposal
at appropriate off-site permitted disposal facilities, if
available.
• Document accidental releases as to cause, corrective
actions taken, and resulting environmental or health and
safety impacts.
Perform site inspection to identify drums that are leaking, oil sheen on
puddled water, and organics in water
Disposal of Cleared Debris
• Require contractor to designate debris management
areas; separating natural materials from those requiring
licensed disposal
• Ban burning of debris on-site
• Dispose of cleared debris at an existing, approved disposal
site or onsite in accordance with regulatory requirements.
• Where allowed, lop or chip and scatter vegetative
material and use as mulch to help control erosion and
return nutrients to the soil.
Perform routine inspections
Monitor air quality for particulate matter using high volume samplers.
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ENVIRONMENT
Water Quality
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Modification of Drainage Patterns
Increased Runoff and Sedimentation
Same measures as Soil Erosion plus:
• Properly direct (via channels, culverts and swales) and or
impound run-off, and install energy dissipation devices
where water velocities may be high enough to cause
erosion or scouring.
• Separate clean and sediment laden run-off flows so as to
minimize the volume of water that will be treated.
• Install drainage structures, check dams and silt fences to
prevent or reduce offsite run-off if high rainfall periods
cannot be avoided.
• Clean and maintain drainage ditches and catch basins
regularly.
• Line deep channels and steep slopes with stabilizing
materials.
• Provide sanitary latrines.
Water Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks
POTENTIAL MONITORING
• Perform a routine site inspection identifying areas of erosion and
sedimentation.
• Monitor turbidity and total suspended solids in surface water
• Same as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
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AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Air Quality
Dust
Monitor air quality for particulates using high volume samplers
Minimize disturbed areas.
Surface access roads and on-site roads with aggregate
materials, wherever appropriate.
Use dust abatement techniques on unpaved and
unvegetated surfaces to minimize airborne dust during
earthmoving and blasting activities and prior to clearing,
excavating, backfilling, compacting and grading.
Use blast blankets to reduce fly rock and dust emissions.
Keep soil moist and below the freeboard while loading
into dump trucks.
Tighten gate seals and on dump trucks and cover dump
trucks before traveling on public roads.
Cover construction materials and stockpiled soils if they
are a source of fugitive dust.
Train workers to handle construction materials and debris
to reduce fugitive emissions.
Post and enforce speed limits to reduce airborne fugitive
dust from vehicular traffic.
Reestablish vegetation of disturbed areas as soon as
possible after disturbance with timeframes set in the EIA.
Equipment Emissions
• Consider fuel efficiency, types of fuels, and emissions
controls in the selection of equipment.
• Assure proper tuning and carburetion of engines.
» Check fuel supplies for impurities or adulteration.
Monitor air quality for NOx, C02, and other parameters
Other
• Place signs and placards about wildfire conditions
• Penalized people living near or on protective for burning
slash and garbage
» Prohibit uncontrolled burning of any type.
• Perform routine site inspections
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AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Noise and
Vibration
• Locate facilities more than 0.8km from sensitive noise
receptors (e.g., quiet recreation, churches, medical care
facilities, schools, child care facilities, parks, residences,
wildlife areas).
• Locate facilities to take advantage of the natural
topography as a noise buffer.
• Acquire lands to serve as noise buffers around the
proposed facilities.
Use noise absorbing vegetative walls or physical barriers and
other forms of noise insulation
• Use barriers and shields during blasting or pile driving and
operation of pneumatic equipment such as jackhammers.
• Route the movement of heavy equipment and
construction materials as far as possible away from
residences and other sensitive receptors.
• Identify pile driving areas
• Prepare a Noise Monitoring and Mitigation Plan.
• Train workers in Noise Monitoring and Mitigation Plan.
Equip and train workers with personal noise protection
• Limit noisy activities (e.g., use of heavy equipment and
blasting) to the least noise-sensitive times of day
(weekdays only between 8 a.m. and 7 p.m.).
• Equip engines with properly designed and installed
mufflers.
• Notify nearby residents in advance when blasting or other
noisy activities are required.
• Whenever feasible, schedule different noisy activities
(e.g., blasting and earthmoving) to occur at the same
time.
Implement noise monitoring to verifying construction phase noise
levels
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AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Aesthetics
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
• Avoid locating structures on ridgelines, summits or other
locations where they would be silhouetted against the sky
from important viewing locations.
• Locate linear features to follow natural land contours
rather than straight lines, particularly up slopes.
• Locate facilities to take advantage of both topography and
vegetation as screening devices to restrict views of
projects from visually sensitive areas.
• Design and locate structures and roads to minimize and
balance cuts and fills. Minimize ground disturbance and
control erosion by avoiding steep slopes and by
minimizing the amount of surface disturbance needed for
infrastructure (e.g., roads, electrical lines).
• Keep equipment and vehicles within the limits of the
initially disturbed areas.
• Restore disturbed surfaces as closely as possible to their
original contour and revegetate them immediately after
or contemporaneously with disturbance activities.
• Use dust suppression techniques to minimize impacts of
vehicular traffic and wind on roads and exposed soils.
• Maintain the right-of-way with low-growing natural
vegetation that requires minimal maintenance and that is
consistent with local vegetation.
• Maintain the site during operation of the project.
Inoperative equipment and poor housekeeping, in
general, creates a poor image of the activity in the eyes of
the public.
• Depending on the situation, consider minimizing the
amount of vehicular traffic and human activity.
• Develop and implement a decommissioning program that
includes the removal of all aboveground facilities and full
restoration of the site.
• Return access roads and the project site to as near natural
contours as feasible.
• Revegetate all disturbed areas with plant species
appropriate to the site.
Perform routine site inspections of all sites
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AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Light Pollution
• Avoid to the extent practicable locations valued for
unspoiled dark skies.
• Design with down-lighting down lighting for security and
construction activities
o Minimize lighted signage and advertising
• Use outdoor lighting fixtures endorsed by the
International Dark-Sky Association (IDA)
www.darkskv.org.
• Comply with local lighting policies and ordinances
» Incorporate IDA lighting ordinances as appropriate.
Perform routine site inspections
Monitor light pollution
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Terrestrial Flora
and associated
Ecosystems
Habitat Degradation and Destruction
• Use existing facilities (e.g., access roads, parking lots,
graded areas) and site new structures on previously
disturbed lands to minimize new disturbance.
• Devise Landscaping Plan .Minimize the amount of land to
be disturbed and vegetation to be removed. Inventory
existing plants and determine which are salvageable for
re-use. Document them and detail how they should be
correctly remove, stored and maintained until they can be
transplanted back. Protect existing mature trees as much
as possible, marking and protecting them. Include in
contractor specifications - punitive penalties for violations
of tree protection plan.
• Landscape with native plants that encourage birds and
butterflies. Ban use of imported or invasive species.
• Select plantings suited to the environs, coastal plantings,
alpine plantings, etc.
• Locate facilities away from important ecological resources
(e.g., wetlands, unique habitats, wildlife corridors,
sensitive species populations).
• Determine the need for and/or feasibility of conducting
translocation of threatened or endangered species.
• Locate facilities to minimize habitat fragmentation.
• Avoid creating favorable conditions for nuisance or
invasive species.
• Use of certified weed-free mulching and prohibit use of
fill materials from areas with known invasive species
problems.
• Clean vehicles before entering the project area to mitigate
the introduction of invasive, exotic species.
Monitor emergence of invasive, exotic species and respond
appropriately.
Perform routine inspections of the site.
Forest Resource Depletions
• Use of local timber should be kept to a minimum and
sources should be sought through the local Forestry
Department
• Steele scaffolding should be used in preference to timber
• Contractor should ensure that sufficient quantities of
prefab steel scaffolding are available for hire during the
construction period.
Track the amount of timber used on site.
Perform site inspection especially to prevent unnecessary depletion of
forests.
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AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Terrestrial
Fauna
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Wildfire
• Provide for construction worker housing so that illegal
camps and campfires do not become established
• Prohibit uncontrolled burning of any type.
Behavioral Disruption and Loss of Diversity
• Locate and/or design facilities to minimize disturbance of
migratory and connectivity corridors, and breeding,
nesting and calving areas, and interference with access to
watering holes.
• Establish protective buffers to exclude unintentional
disturbance of important resources.
• Schedule activities to avoid disturbance of wildlife during
critical periods of the day (e.g., night) or year (e.g.,
breeding or nesting season).
• Implement a program to instruct employees, contractors,
and site visitors to avoid harassment and disturbance of
wildlife, especially during.
Accidental Poisoning
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks
Wetland Destruction
• Locate facilities away from important ecological resources
(e.g., wetlands, unique habitats, wildlife corridors,
sensitive species populations).
• Prohibit use of nearby wetlands for washing or waste
disposal.
Degradation of Aquatic Ecosystems
• Assess needs for sand and aggregate during construction;
ensuring licensed borrow facilities are available.
• Prohibit indiscriminant sand mining, require proof of
source. Required contractor to have available at the site
sources/quarries and copies of the relevant license for
inspection.
• Prohibit removal of sand from or adjacent protected areas
and habitats.
Accidental Poisoning
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks
POTENTIAL MONITORING
• Perform routine site inspections
• Monitor fauna reproductive (e.g., courtship, nesting) seasons.
• Same as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
• Perform routine site inspections
• Monitor fish population for species diversity, habitat, and quantities.
• Same as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
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ACTIVITY
Construc-
tion and
landscaping
of onsite
facilities,
structures
and
buildings
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Threatened and
Endangered
Species and
Habitats
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Habitat Degradation and Destruction
Same measures as Terrestrial and Aquatic Species
POTENTIAL MONITORING
• Same as Terrestrial and Aquatic Species
Same measures as land clearing, earthmoving and terrain shaping with the addition of the following:
Geology
Soil
Water Quantity
Seismic Events
• Construct all facilities to withstand a minimum magnitude
event based on the seismicity of the area
• Develop plans evacuation, protection and safety of guest
should an event occur
Erosion and Soil Compaction
• Same measure as site preparation
• Landscaping to avoid wind erosion.
Disposal of Construction Debris
• Ban on-site debris burning.
• Develop a Debris Management Plan with designated areas
for various types of debris Reuse or recycle construction
where practicable.
• Dispose of non-recyclable/reusable construction debris at
an existing, approved disposal site or onsite in accordance
with regulatory requirements.
• Segregate hazardous wastes from the waste stream and
dispose of in an approved hazardous waste disposal site,
or in accordance with regulations.
Water Needs for Construction
• Secure necessary water rights.
• Develop water quality needs estimate for construction
activities such as dust control, on-site batch cement
operations, sanitation.
• Designate source of construction water.
• Use water conservation practices.
• Recycle water to the degree possible.
• Perform routine site inspections
• Perform routine site inspection
• Monitor levels in wells
• Monitor flows in nearby streams.
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ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Water Quality
Increased Runoff due to Compaction and Changes in
Vegetative Cover
Runoff Carrying Sediment and associated contaminants
• Design utilizing pervious paving and landscaping to the
extent possible.
• Use non-structural runoff abatement techniques (swales,
pervious paving materials, gentle slopes, etc.)
• Develop construction stormwater management plans.
• Develop an erosion control plan tailored to the site. All
erosion controls should be inspected routinely, especially
during and immediately following significant rain events,
to ensure no impacts to nearby surface waters and
aquatic habitat. Immediate corrective action should be
taken if erosion or sedimentation is observed.
• Maintain a naturally vegetated buffer (preferably 100 feet
or greater) adjacent to any ditches or drainages to reduce
erosion and protect water quality.
• Immediately revegetate any disturbed areas with a native
species or an annual grass.
• To the extent feasible, complete any work that results in
exposed earth during periods when significant rainfall is
not predicted.
• Conduct any work that involves clearing large tracts of
land in phases, where practicable, with rapid revegetation
upon completion of each phase.
• If possible, locate all work at least 100 feet from any
nearby intermittent or permanent streams to reduce
sediment runoff and subsequent turbidity in the stream
and downstream.
• Use silt curtains and other stormwater BMPS.
Perform routine site inspections
Monitor turbidity and total suspended solids in streams.
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ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Sediment Disturbances and Turbidity During Aquatic Area
Constructions (pile driving, revetment construction and
repair, construction of docs and marinas, etc.)
• Utilize numerical models to predict probable degree of
problem
• Develop Management Plan to reduce problem
• Utilize engineering controls to protect natural and cultural
resources (coral reefs, archeological artifacts etc.)
Utilize aquatic construction BMPs (PBS&J 2008)
Use spill prevention during construction near water (CSWQA
2003)
Perform routine site inspections
Monitor total suspended solids and turbidity in nearby streams
Pipelines
• Avoid placement of water mains in the floodplain or
riparian zone to help protect water quality.
• If wetlands or tributaries must be spanned by the
pipeline, attach the pipeline to existing bridges or
directionally drill under these water bodies.
Perform routine site inspections
Air Quality
Dust
• Monitor particulates
Cover delivery loads of loose construction material
Utilize water trucks for dust control
Use covered or enclosed drop and material transfer points
for onsite stone crushing and batch plants, operated at
slight negative pressure if possible
Develop an air quality monitoring program that including
high volume sampling for particulates
Emissions
• Map wind patterns for dead zones
• Evaluate fuel choices for construction vehicles
• Minimize idling of vehicles
• Check adjacent occupied off-site structures for fresh air
intakes, plan construction activities to avoid these areas
• Monitor air for NOx, C02, and other parameters
Noise and
Vibration
• Well Drilling (if applicable)
• Pile Driving (if applicable)
• Restricted hours of operation if drilling is in a populated
area.
Use noise barriers during drilling near sensitive receptors.
Implement noise monitoring to verifying construction phase noise
levels
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
/\s Sin sties
Terrestrial Flora
and Associated
Ecosystems
Land Resource
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
• Low-profile structures should be chosen whenever
possible to reduce their visibility.
• Minimize the profile of all structures located within 0.4
km of scenic highways so that views from the highway are
preserved.
• Minimize the number of structures and co-locate
structures where possible to minimize the need for
additional pads, fences, access roads, lighting and other
project features.
• Design facilities, structures, roads and other project
elements to match and repeat the form, line, color and
texture of the existing landscape.
• Design natural-looking earthwork berms and vegetative or
architectural screening where screening topography and
vegetation are absent.
• Paint grouped structures the same color to reduce visual
complexity and color contrast.
• Plant vegetative screens to block views of facilities and
right-of-ways.
Loss of Habitats -ecosystems loss due to swamp draining,
wetland infilling, etc.
• Prohibit land expansion by wetland infilling or swamp
draining
POTENTIAL MONITORING
• Perform routine site inspections
• Perform routine site inspections
• Periodically evaluate ecosystems in the direct vicinity of the site
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Aquatic Species
and Associated
Ecosystems
Runoff Carrying Sediment and associated contaminants
• Employ designs that divert runoff from landscaping
Dredging (channel and lagoon deepening) and substrate
preparation
• Develop dredging and substrate disturbance plans to
avoid /protect sensitive areas
• Develop dredged material management plans
• Develop long term dredge material plans that include
maintenance dredging schedules, locations for dredge
material disposal, sampling plans for sampling and
analysis of dredged sediments from contaminants (most
marinas and docks have sediments contaminated with
heavy metals from algaecides, etc.(availability of
maintenance dredging equipment
Wave and Current Control Structures
• Modify designs to lessen impacts based upon dation of
determination of direct and indirect habitat impacts from
changes in current and sediment deposition patterns
Perform routine site inspections
Monitor water for turbidity and total suspended solids
Construc-
tion and/or
upgrade of
access
roads
Same as Construction and landscaping of onsite facilities, structures and buildings with the addition of the following:
Soil
Erosion
• Use existing roads wherever possible.
• Design roads to meet the appropriate standards and be
no larger than necessary to accommodate their intended
functions.
• Place access roads to follow natural topography, and
avoid or minimize side hill cuts.
• Design roads to avoid excessive grades on roads, road
embankments, ditches, and drainages, especially in areas
with erodible soils.
• Avoid going straight up grades in excess of 10%.
• Use appropriate structures at culvert outlets to prevent
erosion.
• Provide regularly scheduled maintenance to clean
drainage structures, maintain road surface, and ensure
adequate slope stabilization.
Perform routine site inspections.
Monitor surface water periodically for total suspended solids
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Water Quality
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Modification of Streams and Rivers Due to Crossings
• Locate roads to minimize river and wetland crossings.
• Design bridges to minimize impacts on rivers during
construction and to maintain river bank integrity, using
free span bridges for water crossings wherever possible.
• Design wetland crossings to maintain flows and functions
within the wetland.
• Restrict in-stream activities to periods of low water level,
and during non-critical times with respect to lifecycles of
flora and fauna.
• Use special construction techniques in areas of stream
crossings.
• For in-stream works, isolate the work area using berms or
diversions to flow.
• Revegetate disturbed riparian zones with species
appropriate to the native habitats and species.
Perform routine site inspections
Biological
Environment
Increased Access to Remote Areas
• Locate roads to avoid increasing access to remote areas.
• Limit the overall addition roads.
• Where roads are not public, use locked gates or other
barriers to restrict access to authorized personnel.
• Patrol or support local patrols to control illegal hunting
and fishing.
• Permanently close and stabilize unnecessary roads to
reduce overall road density and impacts from
fragmentation.
• Use cameras and other remote sensing devices to monitor traffic.
CONSTRUCTION CAMP AND ONSITE HOUSING ACTIVITIES (construction of camps and housing has the same impacts as identified above for other facilities)
Camp
manage-
ment
Terrestrial and
Aquatic Fauna
and associated
Ecosystems
Animals Attracted to Garbage and Food Waste
Dispose of garbage and food waste in animal proof containers
Behavioral Disruption
• Locate and/or design camp to minimize disturbance of
migratory and connectivity corridors, and breeding,
nesting and calving areas, and interference with access to
watering holes.
• Implement a program to instruct employees, contractors,
and site visitors to avoid harassment and disturbance of
wildlife, especially during reproductive (e.g., courtship,
nesting) seasons.
• Control pets to avoid harassment and disturbance of
wildlife.
• Perform routine site inspections.
Monitor terrestrial and aquatic fauna periodically throughout the
year to track seasonal and spatial changes
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ACTIVITY
Solid and
human
waste
disposal
Water
supply
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Soil
Water Quality
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial
Fauna
Water Quantity
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Collection, Hunting and Fishing
• Limit fuel wood collection to dead and down wood.
• Prohibit hunting and fishing by employees in construction
camps.
Allow only legal hunting and fishing by employees living
onsite at facilities
Degradation of Soil and Water Quality
• Use existing, authorized wastewater treatment and solid
waste disposal facilities if available.
• Provide sufficient and sanitary latrines, bathrooms and
showers and treat wastewater or discharge to a sanitary
sewer system.
• Design no- or low-water use human waste disposal
systems.
• Locate facilities to minimize impacts.
• Line facilities where groundwater contamination is an
issue.
• Prepare a solid waste management plan for proper
collection, storage, transport and disposal. Include map
with locations of collections site and include collection
schedules
• Apply water conservation (e.g., reduce, reuse and recycle)
measures to reduce water use and wastewater
generation.
• Implement a solid waste reduce, reuse and recycle
program. Review carefully feasibility of recycling markets
and transportation costs particularly from islands and
remote areas.
• Prohibit use of nearby water bodies or wetlands for
washing or waste disposal.
Attraction of Wildlife and Pests to Solid Waste Disposal Sites
• Design sites to meet sanitary requirements.
• Fence sites.
• Apply and compact daily cover.
Water Needs
• Secure necessary water rights.
• Use water conservation practices.
POTENTIAL MONITORING
• Use cameras or other remote sensing devices to monitor activity
• Monitor surface water for turbidity and total suspended solids
• Perform routine site inspections
• Monitor groundwater levels and surface water flows
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ACTIVITY
Fuel and
chemical
storage and
handling
Energy
Production
Transporta-
tion
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial
Fauna
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Air Quality
Water Quality
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks for Land Clearing activities
Vehicle and Generator Emissions
• Consider fuel efficiency, types of fuels, and emissions
controls in the selection of equipment.
• Assure proper tuning and carburetion of engines.
• Check fuel supplies for impurities or adulteration.
Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel
Leaks for Land Clearing activities
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Same as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks for Land Clearing
activities
• Monitor air quality of NOx, C02, and other pollutants
Same as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks for Land Clearing
activities
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G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-2: Mitigation and monitoring measures for physical and biological impacts common to the operation of most tourism projects
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Water
Supply
Infrastruc-
ture
Water Quantity
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Water Needs
• Accurate estimate of water needs, firming of water rights, expansion of supply
lines
• Implement water use reduction strategies - low flow fixtures, aerators and
restrictors on all taps, auto cut-off switches, hospitality industry strategies to
reduce laundering, etc.
• Educate staff and visitors to the water supply problems of the area and measure
that they can voluntarily apply to reduce water use and wastewater production
• Implement grey water re-use systems where appropriate for landscape irrigation
• Landscape areas with native vegetation that require less supplemental water.
• Plan for adequate supplies so that aquifers do not get stressed and saltwater
intrusion is not exacerbated
• Provide adequate water storage facilities to ensure adequate supplies for the
facility (provide for emergency conditions as well)
• Install gutters and collect rainwater from roofs and store for irrigation.
Monitor surface water flow and groundwater
levels.
Wastewater
Systems
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Degradation of Soil and Water Quality
• Accurate estimate of wastewater projected, expansion of sewers and wastewater
treatment plants.
• Implement wastewater generation reduction strategies - low flow fixtures, auto
cut-off switches, hospitality industry strategies to reduce laundering, etc.
• Provide remote area sanitation and regularly schedule pump-out and
maintenance.
• On-site treatment systems are problematic
• Design septic systems to protect groundwater or surface water.
• Operate packaged plants within normal compliance objectives.
• Develop a training manual and Operations Manual for operations staff.
• Train in effective operations and maintenance of the wastewater systems.
• Develop a site specific monitoring plan for the system monitoring, effluent
discharge monitoring and affected environment monitoring.
• Choose a qualified contract laboratory for monitoring sample analysis
• Train wastewater staff annually in monitoring of wastewater systems: record
keeping, tolerance bounds, equipment maintenance schedule, environmental
sampling, etc.
• Implement a strict inspection routine to assure operations are functioning
properly
Perform routine system inspections
Monitor wastewater discharges for salinity,
BODS, COD, coliforms and other potential
pollutants
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Solid Waste
Services
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Degradation of Soil and Water Quality
• Aggressively manage litter and food waste daily
• Develop site specific waste management plans
• Set strict time schedules for waste pickup
• Train employees to the waste management plan
• Educate visitors and school children on proper waste reduction
Perform routine site inspections
Energy Use
Air Quality
Install timers, photoelectric cells, thermostat, etc. in room blocks and other
facilities.
Institute energy savings plan
Install translucent shades and fluorescent lighting
Pipe insulation, tank lagging and heat recovery systems should be installed
wherever practical
Install sub-meters and real time energy
monitoring equipment in room blocks and
other facilities.
Energy
Production
Air Quality
Generator Emissions
• Consider fuel efficiency, types of fuels, and emissions controls in the selection of
equipment.
• Assure proper tuning and carburetion of engines.
» Check fuel supplies for impurities or adulteration.
Monitor air quality of NOx, C02, and other
pollutants
Fuel and/or
Chemical
Storage and
Handling
Soil
Water Quality
Terrestrial Fauna
Aquatic Species
and associated
Ecosystems
Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
• Design permanent onsite handling facilities for fuels, fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides, and other chemicals
• Segregate chemicals in storage to avoid incompatibility issues
• Develop specific materials management plans for each category of chemicals
• Develop spill plans and train staff to work with local emergency response officials
• Have emergency response available for spills
• Have latest spill containment, oil boom, and other equipment set at convenient
locations on-site including at marinas and port areas
» Use proper sanitation facilities at rest stops
Perform site inspection to identify drums that
are leaking, oil sheen on puddled water, and
organics in water
Monitor surface and ground water for
pollutants of concern
Hotels,
Resorts,
Marinas,
Seaports
and
Attractions
Noise from Air Conditioners and other Fixed Equipment Areas
• Install vibration isolation for mechanical equipment
• Ensure that mechanical equipment mounting hardware is periodically tightened.
» Implement program to record and respond to complaints.
Perform routine system inspections
Implement noise monitoring to verifying
operational phase noise levels.
Noise and
Vibration
Noise from Boats, Jet Skis, ATVs, other transportation equipment
• Restrict hours of operation
• Restrict areas of operations
Noise from Entertainment venues
• Restrict hours of operation
» Restrict areas of operations
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Preserve Natural and Cultural SoundScape ( waterfall, crickets, birds, etc and music
selection)
• Match recreational uses with appropriate natural environments
• Limit external noise
• Select background music appropriate to the setting
• Consolidate generators and other equipment at remote sites, away from natural
areas
• Utilize natural and artificial barriers around equipment
» Train employees and educate visitors that sound is a natural resource
Aesthetics
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
• Maintain the site during operation of the project (inoperative equipment and
poor housekeeping, creates a poor image of the project in the eyes of the public)
• Paint grouped structures the same color to reduce visual complexity and color
contrast.
• Maintain vegetative screens.
• Prohibit the use of commercial symbols.
Perform routine site inspections
Light Pollution
• Limit night-time lighting to avoid spill onto nearby residences.
o Prepare a Lighting Plan including actions to minimize the need for and
amount of lighting on structures.
o Train employees to Lighting Plan
o Minimize illumination of the project and its immediate vicinity by including
use of motion detectors or other controls to have lights turned off unless
needed for security or safety
o Utilize means other than lighting to keep visitors safe
o Educate visitors to the low lighting philosophy
Perform routine site inspections
Have visitors fill out guest questionnaires
o Monitor light pollutions
Terrestrial Fauna
Animals Attracted to Garbage and Food Waste
» Dispose of garbage and food waste in animal proof containers
• Perform routine site inspections.
Terrestrial and
Aquatic Fauna and
associated
Ecosystems
Collection, Hunting and Fishing
• Limit fuel wood collection to dead and down wood
• Prohibit hunting and fishing by employees
• Allow only legal hunting and fishing by guests
• Ban collection of coral reef souvenirs
Use cameras or other remote sensing devices to
monitor activity.
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Behavioral Disruption
• Implement a program to instruct employees, contractors, and site visitors to avoid
harassment and disturbance of wildlife, especially during reproductive (e.g.,
courtship, nesting) seasons.
• Control pets to avoid harassment and disturbance of wildlife.
• Where appropriate, design endangered species protection plans, for example:
• Enhance turtle nesting by providing planted shaded areas at the top of the beach
that are protected from trampling and direct lighting
• Implement turtle watch programs with local schools and promote turtle nesting as
an attraction
• Provide educational and environmental sensitization material on coral reefs tor
guests and hotel staff
• Install boat mooring buoys at sites for use of dive boats, and ban boat anchoring
on coral substrate
Perform routine site inspections
Monitor terrestrial fauna periodically
throughout the year to track seasonal and
spatial changes
Monitor light pollutions
Accidental Poisoning
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills
and Fuel Leaks
Golf
Courses
Water Quantity
Use native, naturalized or specialized drought-tolerant plant materials
Implement grey water re-use systems for irrigation when available, economically
feasible and agronomically and environmentally acceptable
Develop Water Management Plan
o Plan irrigation patterns and/or program irrigation control systems to meet
the needs of the plant materials in order to minimize overwatering
o Water at appropriate times to minimize evaporation and reduce the
potential for disease
o Manage water use effectively to prevent unnecessary depletion of local water
resources
o Train and require staff to implement Water Management Plan
Periodic inspections of grey water systems
Monitor surface water flow and groundwater
levels
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Water Quality
Terrestrial and
Aquatic Flora and
Fauna and
associated
Ecosystems
Preserve and develop native plant buffer zones that are no entry to golfers
Educate visitors to the natural areas management strategy
Leave grass clippings and other organic materials in place whenever agronomically
possible. If clippings are removed, compost and, if possible, recycle them.
Use nutrient products and practices that reduce the potential for contamination
of groundwater and surface water. Strategies include: use of slow-release
fertilizers, selected organic products, and/or fertilization.
Test and monitor soil conditions regularly and modify practices accordingly.
Choose nutrient products and time applications to meet, not exceed, the needs of
the turfgrass.
Develop Integrated Pest Management Plan
o Employ the principles of integrated pest management, a system for preventing
and controlling pests (e.g., weeds, diseases, insects) in which non-chemical
control measures should focus on practices such as the introduction of natural
pest enemies (e.g., parasites and predators), utilizing syringing techniques,
improving air movement, soil aeration techniques, and mechanical traps. The
selection of chemical control strategies should be utilized.
o Store and handle all pest control and nutrient products in a manner that
minimizes worker exposure and/or the potential for point or non-point source
pollution. Employ proper chemical storage practices and use suitable personal
protective equipment and handling techniques.
All plant protecting products should only be applied by or under the supervision of
a trained, licensed applicator or as dictated by law.
Maintain excellence in the continuing education of applicators (including state
licensing, professional association training and IPM certification). Training for
non-English speaking applicators should be provided in the worker's native
language.
Develop Chemical Management Plan
o Dispose of chemical rinsate in a manner that will not increase the potential for
point or non-point source pollution. Methods include rinsate recycling or
"spraying out" diluted compound in previously untreated areas.
o Dispose of chemical packaging according to label directions (e.g., triple rinsing,
recycling or returning to manufacturer).
o Other waste products, such as used motor oil, electric batteries and unused
solvents, should be recycled or disposed of according to the law and available
community disposal techniques.
o Seek to reduce waste by purchasing products that minimize unnecessary
packaging.
Train and require staff to implement Chemical Management Plan and Pest
Management Plan
Monitor surface and ground water for
pollutants of concern
> Monitor terrestrial flora in terms
diversification, density, and population on a
yearly basis.
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ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Terrestrial Fauna
Habitat for wildlife species that help control pests (e.g., bats, bluebirds, purple
martins, etc.) should be protected. Additional habitat for these beneficial species
should be created whenever feasible and environmentally desirable.
Manage habitat to maintain healthy populations of wildlife and aquatic species.
Species such as skunks, non-migratory Canada geese, and deer, when they become
damaging, should be managed through non harmful means whenever possible.
Non harmful control methods could include dogs, noisemakers, repellents, and
trapping and removal. Managed hunting may be appropriate where legal and safe.
Develop wildlife management plan.
Train and require staff to implement Wildlife Management Plan.
Educate visitors to discourage molesting or feeding wildlife.
Monitor population and diversity of various
species in the area periodically.
Perform habitat evaluations on a yearly basis
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G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-3: Mitigation and monitoring measures for physical and biological impacts common to most the decommissioning of tourism projects
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
POTENTIAL MONITORING
Same measures as Construction of Facilities with the addition of the following:
General
Removal and
transport of
machinery and
equipment
Removal or
decommissioning
of structures and
buildings
Restoration of
terrain and
vegetation
Noise and Vibration
Soil
Water Quality
Aquatic Species and
associated
Ecosystems
Soil
Aesthetics
Terrestrial Flora and
associated
Ecosystems
• Engage in planning that involves the community and possible
commercial users, to assure optimal reclamation and use.
• Develop and implement a decommissioning program that
includes removal or recon
• Minimize maintenance requirements of land in transition
• Provide fencing and other measures for health and safety
concerns to the public
• Control scavenging to ensure safety and safe use of recovered
materials. Conditioning of all structures and reclamation of the
site.
• Route the movement of heavy equipment and construction
materials as far as possible away from residences and other
sensitive receptors.
• Prepare a Noise Monitoring and Mitigation Plan.
Soil Contamination by Storage and Use of Hazardous Materials an
Spills and Fuel Leaks
• Conduct soil sampling if deemed necessary, based on types of
materials stored or handled.
• Prepare a reclamation plan to treat contaminated soils to the
extent required for subsequent proposed use.
• Prepare a management plan for reclamation or proper disposal
of hazardous materials such as oils, greases, solvents, caustics
and acids, and other materials that may have been left behind.
• Prepare contingency plans for handling and disposal of
contaminated materials if discovered during decommissioning.
• Remove and properly dispose of potentially hazardous materials
such as asbestos and certain metals from structures prior to
demolition
• Return access roads and the project site to as near natural
contours as feasible.
• Revegetate all disturbed areas with plant species appropriate to
the site.
• Utilize interim measures for erosion control, dust mitigation,
weed infestation, etc. while land is in transition
Perform routine site inspections
Perform routine site inspections
Perform routine site inspections
Maintain monitoring program that was implemented during
operations
Perform routine site inspections
Maintain monitoring program implemented during
operations
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G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
Table G-4: Mitigation measures for impacts to the social-economic-cultural environment
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
MITIGATION MEASURES
DESIGN PHASE MITIGATION MEASURES
POST DESIGN MEASURES
Socio-Economic
Conditions
Population Displacement and Relocation
• Locate facilities to avoid displacement and relocation
• Develop a compensation plan for land owners
• Develop a compensation plan for displaced and
relocated people
Worker Recruitment and Migration
• Forecast employment needs, fluctuations due to seasons
and cruise ship visitation days
• Estimate available employment pool of trained and
trainable for the construction phase and hospitality
industry
Displacement
• Assure that new locations are culturally
compatible
• Assure that proper training and job
opportunities are available or are
created.
• Provide counseling to assist in
adaptation to the new surroundings.
Worker Recruitment and Migration
• Develop recruitment Plan
• Develop Training Planning
• Discourage Squatting and plan for
worker housing
• Account for seasonal fluctuations in
employment needs
Changes in Character of the Community and Crime Rates
• Locate construction camps away from local
communities.
Changes in Character of the Community
and Crime Rates
• Implement a program to instruct
employees, contractors, and site
visitors to avoid harassment and
disturbance of local residents.
• Ensure adequate security to protect
residents from construction camp
workers, and to protect the
construction camp workers from
themselves.
Health and Safety
• To the extent practicable locate the proposed project
site relative to fire hazard severity zones.
• Conduct a safety assessment to describe potential safety
issues (e.g., site access, construction, work practices,
security, emergency procedures, and fire control and
management).
• Develop a worker safety program to address all of the
safety issues identified in the assessment and all
applicable safety standards set forth by local
governments and the relevant safety and health
administration.
Health and Safety
• Implement safety program.
• Require periodic safety inspections of
all vehicles
• Provide preventive health for the
workers
• Training and introduction of care and
rights
Infrastructure
Transportation Infrastructure
Roads
• Estimate traffic increases from workers, guests and
service vehicles
• Consult with local planning authorities regarding traffic,
in general and specific issues (such as school bus routes).
• Develop a Traffic Management Plan for site access roads
and for use of main public roads to mitigate impacts of
the project on traffic.
• Provide for safe ingress and egress to/from the proposed
project site.
Aviation
• Avoid locating any portion of a facility within a
designated airport safety zone, airport influence area or
airport referral area.
» Estimate projected increase in airport traffic.
Transportation Infrastructure
Roads
• Limit traffic to roads indicated
specifically for the project.
• Instruct and require all personnel and
contractors to adhere to speed limits to
ensure safe and efficient traffic flow.
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G. MITIGATION AND MONITORING MEASURES
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
MITIGATION MEASURES
DESIGN PHASE MITIGATION MEASURES
Public health infrastructure
• Locate facilities so as not to directly impact or disturb
activities at public infrastructure.
• Estimate local public health clinic capacity and ability to
handle increase in tourism workers
Fire and Police Services
• Assess existing capacity and project increased needs
• Assess crime rate and project future
Communications Infrastructure
• Assess current capacity, reliability, emergency backup
Water
• Assess current capacity, reliability, emergency backup
Wastewater
• Assess current capacity, reliability, emergency backup
Solid Waste
» Assess capacity, reliability, emergency backup
POST DESIGN MEASURES
Public health infrastructure
• Have health clinic on site with qualified
personnel
Cultural,
Archeological,
Ceremonial and
Historic
Resources
Inventory and secure areas
Avoid any activities in sensitive areas that would degrade
the resources
If avoidance is not possible, conduct appropriate cultural
resource recovery operations or alternate mitigations.
Forecast daily use and fluctuations (e.g., cruise ship
fluctuations)
Prepare a Cultural Resources Management Plan, if
cultural resources are present in the project area.
Post signs and place labels on sensitive areas
Train contractors and staff to
implement the Cultural Resources
Management Plan
Educate workers and guests on
identification of cultural, archeological,
ceremonial and historic resources.
Educate workers and guests and the
public on the consequences of
unauthorized collection of artifacts.
Provides guides and escorts for all tours
to heritage sites.
Periodically monitor the condition of
significant resources and report to
authorities on any degradation, looting
and vandalism.
Use carrying capacity and other
management strategies to manage
heritage site visitation
Levy taxes and entrance fees to
support management of resources
Land Use
Construction
• Permanent or at least long term commitment of land to
this sole purpose
• Scale down plans
• Phase construction
Citizen
Concerns
Inventory and address citizen concerns: land use, visual
impacts, compatibility, security, traffic, and competition
with existing businesses, positive/negative impacts to
social and economic assets.
Have a public relations personnel
Be aware at all times of public concerns
3 SPECIFIC MITIGATION MEASURES
The following subsections provide additional information on some mitigation measures, for which the
information in Tables G-l through G-4 may not be sufficient. The measures elaborated upon include:
• Seismic events associated with geothermal developments
• Process and wastewater discharges
• Noise
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The elaboration on these mitigation measures in no way indicates that they are more important than
the other measures in Tables G-l through G-4. They are elaborated upon here only because the EIA
reviewer may need more information than is provided in the Tables to understand the application of the
measures.
3.1 Seismic Events
Central America and the Dominican Republic are in highly seismic areas. Hotels and resorts should be
constructed to withstand a minimum magnitude event based on the seismicity of the area. In addition,
plans should be developed for evacuation, protection, and safety of guest should an event occur.
3.2 Process and Wastewater Discharges
Resorts and hotels often have their own waste water treatment plants. In addition, isolated ecotourism
lodges have septic tanks or other treatment facilities. Project-specific performance levels for
wastewater effluents should be set prior to designing wastewater treatment systems. The standards
should comply with national standards, if they exist, and take into consideration the quality and volume
of the receiving waters. Additional considerations that should be included in the setting of project-
specific performance levels for wastewater effluents include:
• Process wastewater treatment standards should be consistent with applicable requirements for
the specific area.
• Compliance with national or local standards for sanitary wastewater discharges or, in their
absence, indicative guideline values applicable to sanitary wastewater discharges as shown in
Appendix C.
In the context of their overall environmental health and safety management system, facilities should:
• Understand the quality, quantity, frequency and sources of liquid effluents in its installations.
This includes knowledge about the locations, routes and integrity of internal drainage systems
and discharge points.
• Assess compliance of their wastewater discharges with the applicable: (i) discharge standard (if
the wastewater is discharged to a surface water or sewer) and (ii) water quality standard for a
specific reuse (e.g., if the wastewater is reused for irrigation).
3.2.1 Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (IBS Protocol, 1999) to the
Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention, 1983)
References for the IBS Protocol:
http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention/lbs-protocol/lbs-protocol-english/view
http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention/lbs-protocol/lbs-protocol-spanish/view
Land and ocean-based sewage pollution is regulated in many different frameworks ranging from
regional legislation, international non-binding and binding agreements, action plans and national
legislation and regulations (UNEP 2006). The most important regional legal framework is the Convention
for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region
(Cartagena Convention). The Convention entered into force in 1986 and is a legally binding, regional
unilateral environmental agreement for the protection and development of the wider Caribbean region.
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The Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (IBS Protocol) of the
Cartagena Convention sets forward general obligations and a legal framework for regional co-operation,
provides a list of priority source categories, activities and associated pollutants of concern and promotes
the establishment of pollution standards and schedules for implementation. Annex III relates directly to
domestic wastewater and establishes specific regional effluent limitations, a time table for the
implementation of wastewater treatment. In addition to effluent limits, Annex III includes obligations
for the each Contracting Party to (1) development of industrial pretreatment programs, (2) implement
measures to ensure that household wastewater treatment systems are constructed operated an
maintained to avoid contamination of surface and ground waters, and (3) ensure that new and existing
domestic wastewater treatment systems are properly managed by trained personnel.
For the purpose of Annex III in the IBS Protocol, effluent limits are divided in two classes, depending on
the water in which they are discharged. Class 1 waters are particularly sensitive to impacts from
pollution while Class 2 waters are less sensitive (see full text on IBS Protocol for more details). The
effluent limits for domestic wastewater in the IBS Protocol are shown in Table G-5.
Table G- 5: Legally-binding effluent limits defined in the IBS Protocol
PARAMETER
Total Suspended Solids*
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)
PH
Fats, Oil and Grease
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
E. coli Bacteria (freshwater)
Entrerococci Bacteria (saline water)
Floatables
CLASS 1 WATERS
30 mg/l
30 mg/l
5-10 pH units
15 mg/l
200 most probable number/100 ml
126 organisms/100 ml
35 organisms/100 ml
Not visible
CLASS 2 WATERS
150 mg/l
150 mg/l
5-10 pH units
50 mg/l
Not applicable
Not applicable
Not applicable
Not visible
*Does not include algae from treatment ponds.
Facilities and communities in each country must comply with the provisions of the IBS Protocol on a
phased basis after the Protocol enters into force for that country. The timeline in Table G-6 is related to
wastewater treatment facilities.
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Table G- 6: Compliance timeline as defined in the IBS Protocol
YEARS AFTER
ENTRY INTO
FORCE
0
10
10
15
20
20
EFFLUENT SOURCES
All new domestic wastewater
Existing domestic wastewater
systems
REQUIRED TO COMPLY WITH STANDARDS
systems - public and private
systems other than community wastewater
Communities with 10,000 - 50,000 inhabitants
Communities with more than
collection systems
Communities with more than
collection systems
All communities except those
systems
50,000 inhabitants already possessing wastewater
50,000 inhabitants not possessing wastewater
relying exclusively on household (e.g. septic tanks)
Source: http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007
GeneralEHS/$FILE/Final+-+General+EHS+Guidelines.pdf (English)
3.3 Noise
Noise prevention and environmental measures should be applied where predicted or measured noise
impacts from a project facility or operations exceed the applicable noise level guideline at the most
sensitive point of reception. The preferred method for controlling noise from stationary sources is to
implement noise control measures at the source. Methods for prevention and control of sources of
noise emissions depend on the source and proximity of receptors. Noise reduction options that should
be considered include:
• Siting
o Siting permanent facilities away from community areas
o Locating noise sources to less sensitive areas to take advantage of distance and shielding
o Taking advantage of the natural topography as a noise buffer during facility design
• Design
• Selecting equipment with lower sound power levels
o Installing vibration isolation for mechanical equipment
• Installing silencers for fans
• Installing suitable mufflers on engine exhausts and compressor components
• Installing acoustic enclosures for equipment casing radiating noise
• Improving the acoustic performance of constructed buildings by applying sound insulation
• Installing acoustic barriers without gaps and with a continuous minimum surface density of 10
kg/m2 in order to minimize the transmission of sound through the powerhouse walls,
transformer bays or other enclosures within which a noise source may be operated
• Management
o Limiting the hours of operation for specific pieces of equipment or operations, especially
mobile sources operating through community areas
o Reducing project traffic routing through community areas
o Planning flight routes, timing, and altitude for aircraft (airplane and helicopter) flying over
community areas
• Developing a mechanism to record and respond to complaints.
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At the design stage of a project, equipment manufacturers should provide design or construction
specifications in the form of "Insertion Loss Performance" for silencers and mufflers, and "Transmission
Loss Performance" for acoustic enclosures and upgraded building construction. Barriers should be
located close to the source or to the receptor location to be effective.
Noise impacts should not exceed the levels presented in Table G-5, or result in a maximum increase in
background levels of 3 A-weighted decibels (dBA) at the nearest receptor location off-site. dB readings
are weighted for varying frequencies. A-weighting is most commonly used and is intended to
approximate the frequency response of the human hearing system. It weights lower frequencies as less
important than mid- and higher-frequency sounds. Highly intrusive noises, such as noise from aircraft
flyovers and passing trains, should not be included when establishing background noise levels.
Table G- 7: Noise level guidelines
SPECIFIC
ENVIRONMENT
Outdoor living area
Dwelling, indoors
Inside bedrooms
Outside bedrooms
School classrooms and
preschools, indoors
Preschool bedrooms,
indoors
School playground,
outdoors
Hospital ward rooms,
indoors
Hospitals treatment
rooms, indoors
Industrial, commercial,
shopping and traffic
areas, indoors and
outdoors
Outdoors in parkland
and conservation areas
CRITICAL HEALTH EFFECT(S)
Serious annoyance, daytime and evening
Moderate annoyance, daytime and evening
Speech intelligibility and moderate annoyance,
daytime and evening
Sleep disturbance, night-time
Sleep disturbance, window open (outdoor values)
Speech intelligibility, disturbance of information
extraction, message communication
Sleep disturbance
Annoyance (external source)
Sleep disturbance, night-time
Sleep disturbance, daytime and evenings
Interference with rest and recovery
Hearing impairment
Disruption of tranquility
LAeq1
[dBA]
55
50
35
30
45
35
30
55
30
30
As low as
possible
70
t
TIME2
BASE
[hours]
16
16
16
8
8
During
class
Sleeping
time
During
play
8
16
24
LAmax3
FAST
[dBA]
-
-
45
60
-
45
-
40
110
Notes:
Equivalent continuous sound pressure level. Usually expressed as the sum of the total sound energy over some
time period (T), thus giving the average sound energy over that period. Such average levels are usually based
on integration of A-weighted levels.
2The time period (T) for the LAeq calculation.
3Maximum noise level.
tExisting quiet outdoor areas should be preserved and the ratio of intruding noise to natural background sound
should be kept low.
Source: Berglund, Birgitta, Thomas Lindvall, and Dietrich H Schwela. 1999. Guidelines for Community Noise. World
Health Organization, Washington, pg. 65 http://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/guidelines2.html
Noise monitoring programs should be designed and conducted by trained specialists. Typical monitoring
periods should be sufficient for statistical analysis and may last 48 hours with the use of noise monitors
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that should be capable of logging data continuously over this time period, or hourly, or more frequently,
as appropriate (or else cover differing time periods within several days, including weekday and weekend
workdays). The type of acoustic indices recorded depends on the type of noise being monitored, as
established by a noise expert. Monitors should be located approximately 1.5 meters above the ground
and no closer than 3 meters to the source being monitored. Noise monitoring should be carried out
using a Type 1 or 2 sound level meters meeting all appropriate IEC standards. To any reflecting surface
(e.g., wall). In general, the noise level limit is represented by the background or ambient noise levels
that would be present in the absence of the facility or noise source(s) under investigation.
4 PROJECT SPECIFIC MITIGATION MEASURES
This subsection provides tables with additional mitigation measures for specific project types, for which
the information in Tables G-l through G-4 and subsection G.3 may not be sufficient. The types of
projects included in these tables are:
• Hotels, Resorts and Attractions (Table G-6)
• Restaurants and Bars (Table G-7)
4.1 Golf Courses (Table G-8)
Table G- 8: Specific mitigation measures for hotels, resorts, restaurants and attractions
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Noise and Vibration
Aesthetics
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Noise from Air Conditioners and other Fixed Equipment Areas
• Install vibration isolation for mechanical equipment
• Ensure that mechanical equipment mounting hardware is periodically tightened.
• Implement program to record and respond to complaints
Noise from Boats, Jet Skis, ATVs, other transportation equipment
• Restrict hours of operation
• Restrict areas of operations
Noise from Entertainment venues
• Restrict hours of operation
• Restrict areas of operations
Preserve Natural and Cultural SoundScape ( waterfall, crickets, birds, etc and music selection)
• Match recreational uses with appropriate natural environments
• Limit external noise
• Select background music appropriate to the setting
• Consolidate generators and other equipment at remote sites, away from natural areas
• Utilize natural and artificial barriers around equipment
• Train employees and educate visitors that sound is a natural resource
Disruption of Views and Landscapes
• Maintain the site during operation of the project (inoperative equipment and poor housekeeping,
creates a poor image of the project in the eyes of the public)
• Paint grouped structures the same color to reduce visual complexity and color contrast.
• Maintain vegetative screens.
• Prohibit the use of commercial symbols
Light Pollution
• Limit night-time lighting to avoid spill onto nearby residences.
• Prepare a Lighting Plan including actions to minimize the need for and amount of lighting
structures.
• Train employees to Lighting Plan
• Minimize illumination of the project and its immediate vicinity by including use of motion
or other controls to have lights turned off unless needed for security or safety
• Utilize means other than lighting to keep visitors safe
• Educate visitors to the low lighting philosophy
on
detectors
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AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Terrestrial Fauna
Terrestrial and
Aquatic Fauna and
associated
Ecosystems
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Animals Attracted to Garbage and Food Waste
• Dispose of garbage and food waste in animal proof containers
Collection, Hunting and Fishing
• Limit fuel wood collection to dead and down wood
• Prohibit hunting and fishing by employees
• Allow only legal hunting and fishing by guests
• Ban collection of coral reef souvenirs
Behavioral Disruption
• Implement a program to instruct employees, contractors, and site visitors to avoid harassment
and disturbance of wildlife, especially during reproductive (e.g., courtship, nesting) seasons.
• Control pets to avoid harassment and disturbance of wildlife.
• Where appropriate, design endangered species protection plans, for example:
o Enhance turtle nesting by providing planted shaded areas at the top of the beach that are
protected from trampling and direct lighting
o Implement turtle watch programs with local schools and promote turtle nesting as an
attraction
• Provide educational and environmental sensitization material on coral reefs tor guests and hotel
staff
• Install boat mooring buoys at sites for use of dive boats, and ban boat anchoring on coral
substrate
Accidental Poisoning
• Same measures as Soil Contamination from Spills and Fuel Leaks
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Table G- 9: Specific mitigation measures for restaurants
AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Water Quantity
• Install water efficient kitchen, dining room and restroom
equipment
• Serve water only to customers when asked
• Use pressure regulator to reduce volume to dishwater
• Recover water from dishwater rinse cycle for use in new
wash cycle
• Run only full loads in dishwasher
• Maintain equipment and repair leaks
• Monitor bills for spikes or leaks.
Train staff in water conservation
Soil
Water Quality
Solid Waste Management
• Discourage use of disposable utensils, plates and cups
• Use biodegradable or recyclable take - out containers
Compost food wastes
• Recycle - glass, plastics, metal, cardboard, and aluminum
• Purchase goods in returnable, reusable or recyclable
containers
Wastewater Management
• Minimize use of garbage disposals
• Use non-toxic cleaning supplies for dishes, linens, tables,
floors, etc.
Properly maintain grease traps and hoods to prevent overflows
and emissions
Air Quality
Energy Consumption/ Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• Install high efficiency equipment
. Use CFL or LED lights
• Use motion detectors for lights and fans in restrooms
• Use programmable thermostats for HVAC controls for
different days/ times weeks
• Install controllers to schedule on/off kitchen equipment
cycles
• Keep entrance doors closed or use double doors
• Keep condenser coils clean of dust and vapor coils free of
frost
Use locally grown food foods to reduce transport distances
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Table G-10: Specific mitigation measures for golf courses
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Water Quantity
Reduce Water Demand
• Use native, naturalized or specialized drought-tolerant plant materials wherever possible
• For greens, tees and fairways use plant materials that: are well-adapted to local environmental
conditions; can be efficiently managed; and provide the desired playing characteristic
• Implement grey water re-use systems for irrigationwhen available, economically feasible and
agronomically and environmentally acceptable
• Develop Water Management Plan
o Managing water use effectively to prevent unnecessary depletion of local water resources
o Plan irrigation patterns and/or program irrigation control systems to meet the needs of the plant
materials in order to minimize overwatering
o When feasible, use modern irrigation technologies that provide highly efficient water usage
o Water at appropriate times to minimize evaporation and reduce the potential for disease
o Manage water use effectively to prevent unnecessary depletion of local water resources
• Train and require staff to implement Water Management Plan
• Inspect irrigation system regularly for leaks and monitor water usage
Use Grey Water Systems
• Use grey water irrigation systems when available, economically feasible and agronomically and
environmentally acceptable
(NOTE: Water reuse may not be feasible on some sites that drain into high quality wetlands or
sensitive surface waters. Suitable soils, climatic conditions, groundwater hydrology, vegetative cover,
adequate storage for treated effluent and other factors will all influence the feasibility of water
reuse.)
• Regularly monitor system to insure that the recycled water meets applicable health and environmental
standards
Water Quality
Terrestrial and
Aquatic Flora
and Fauna and
associated
Ecosystems
Protect Native Vegetation
• Preserve and develop native plant buffer zones that are no entry to golfers
• Educate visitors to the natural areas management strategy
Manage Nutrient
• Leave grass clippings and other organic materials in place whenever agronomically possible. If clippings
are removed, compost and, if possible, recycle them.
• Use nutrient products and practices that reduce the potential for contamination of groundwater and
surface water. Strategies include: use of slow-release fertilizers, selected organic products, and/or
fertilization.
• Test and monitor soil conditions regularly and modify practices accordingly. Choose nutrient products
and time applications to meet, not exceed, the needs of the turfgrass.
Use Integrated Pest Management Plan
• Employ the principles of integrated pest management, a system for preventing and controlling pests
(e.g., weeds, diseases, insects) in which non-chemical control measures should focus on practices such
as:
o Introduction of natural pest enemies (e.g., parasites and predators
o Utilization of syringing techniques
o Improving air movement
o Soil aeration techniques
o Mechanical traps
• Select and use chemical pest control as supplement to nonchemical control
• Treat problems at the proper time and under the proper conditions to maximize effectiveness with
minimal environmental impact
• Use spot treatments, rather than broadcast treatments, for early, effective control of problems before
damage thresholds are reached
• All plant protecting products should only be applied by or under the supervision of a trained, licensed
applicator or as dictated by law.
• Maintain excellence in the continuing education of applicators.
Develop Chemical Management Plan
• Store and handle all pest control and nutrient products in a manner that minimizes worker exposure
and/or the potential for point or non-point source pollution
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AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Employ proper chemical storage practices and use suitable personal protective equipment and handling
techniques
Inform golfers and guests about golf course chemical applications. Common methods include
permanent signs on the first and tenth tee boxes and/or notices posted in golf shops and locker rooms
Dispose of chemical rinsate in a manner that will not increase the potential for point or non-point source
pollution. Methods include rinsate recycling or "spraying out" diluted compound in previously untreated
areas
Dispose of chemical packaging according to label directions (e.g., triple rinsing, recycling or returning to
manufacturer
Other waste products, such as used motor oil, electric batteries and unused solvents, should be recycled
or disposed of according to the law and available community disposal techniques
Seek to reduce waste by purchasing products that minimize unnecessary packaging
Train and require staff to implement Chemical Management Plan and Pest Management Plan
Terrestrial
Fauna
Habitat for wildlife species that help control pests (e.g., bats, bluebirds, purple martins, etc.) should be
protected. Additional habitat for these beneficial species should be created whenever feasible and
environmentally desirable.
Manage habitat to maintain healthy populations of wildlife and aquatic species.
Species such as skunks, non-migratory Canada geese, and deer, when they become damaging, should be
managed through non harmful means whenever possible. Non harmful control methods could include
dogs, noisemakers, repellents, and trapping and removal. Managed hunting may be appropriate where
legal and safe.
Develop wildlife management plan.
Train and require staff to implement Wildlife Management Plan.
Educate visitors to discourage molesting or feeding wildlife.
Source: Beyond Pesticides 1996
4.2 Cruise Ships (Table G-ll)
Table G-11: Specific mitigation measures for cruise ships
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIAL MITIGATION MEASURES
Water Quality
Aquatic Fauna
and associated
Ecosystems
Wastewater Discharges (black water, grey water, swimming pools, kitchens, laundry, ship maintenance
and deck washing)
• Establish treatment criteria for Marine Sanitation Devices (MSDs)
• Establish discharge prohibition zones in coastal areas
o Restrict discharges to be at least 1 nautical mile from coast, at speeds of at least 6 knots
• Train staff on treatment and discharge requirements
• Monitor discharges
Ballast Water
• Establish Ballast Water Management
• Ensure that ballast water meets required standards before discharging
Solid Waste
• Separate recyclables from waste stream and dispose of responsibly at portside
• Do not discharge of plastic or rubber within 3 miles of coast
» Do not discharge any waste, food, or macerated waste into any marine sanctuary
Air Quality
Establish and comply with exhaust emission standards
Establish Speed Reduction Zones
Use cleaner fuels
Use of electrical power dockside rather than shipboard diesel
Do not burn or incinerate waste in coastal waters
Source: California Cruise Ship Environmental Task Force 2003
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Table G-12: Marine development impacts, management and mitigation
ACTIVITY
POTENTIAL IMPACTS
MANAGEMENT AND MITIGATION
Coastal tourism development
Population pressures
Construction of
tourism developments
Increased pressure on services such as
sewage, transport, electricity
Impacts on social values and amenity
Effects on catchment water quality
Regional planning taking into account
cumulative impacts
Environmental impact assessment;
Best-practice construction techniques;
Monitoring (see Table Gl)
Tourism infrastructure (island-based)
Marina/ harbor
development
Sewage discharge
Construction
Tourism activities
Local, on affected reef area
Water quality (antifoulants)
Introduced pests
Impacts on social values and amenity
Depends on treatment level
Elevated nutrients and turbidity
Freshwater input
Vegetation damage
Loss of wildlife habitat
Sediment runoff
Focus for motorised and nonmotorised
vessels and marine
activities
Environmental impact assessment;
Engineering design;
Reactive monitoring; Water quality
monitoring
Requirements for discharge levels;
Water quality monitoring; Tertiary
treatment; Land irrigation
Environmental impact assessment;
Best-practice
construction techniques; Water quality
monitoring
As discussed below
Tourism infrastructure (marine-based)
Pontoons
Moorings
Fish feeding
Shading of benthos
Dragging of moorings
Focus for tourist activities
Local damage to benthos
Reduce impacts from anchors
Focus offish aggregations
Permit required; Appropriate design;
Careful
selection of location; Transplant
susceptible biota
away from site
Encouraged to reduce anchor damage;
Appropriate design; Liability and safety
issues
Activity limited by permit; Best-practice
for fish
feeding
Boat-induced damage
Anchoring
Ship groundings
Litter
Waste discharge
Vessel strike/
disturbance to wildlife
Local coral damage, oil spills
Cumulative impacts
Damage to reef structure
Local benthos damaged
Anti-fouling paint on reef
Risk of oil or chemical spills
Potential harm to wildlife
Aesthetics
Local nutrient enhancement
Potential water pollution
Injury/death and/or disruption to
social bonds
Installation of private and public
moorings; Codes of practice in other
areas; Anchor over sand; Spill Control
and Prevention Plan in place, Spill
control equipment nearby; education
program
Education of private and charter users;
Anchor over sand; Spill Control and
Prevention Plan in place, Spill control
equipment nearby
Education program; Penalties
Education program; Penalties; Storage
tanks in
boats
Education program; Penalties; Speeds
limits, especially in shallow seagrass
areas
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ACTIVITY
POTENTIAL IMPACTS
MANAGEMENT AND MITIGATION
Water-based activities
Diving
Snorkeling
Reef walking
Fishing
Local damage to fragile corals
Local damage to fragile corals
Coral breakage
Small relative to recreational and
commercial
Education program; Industry code-of-
practice; Dive briefings; Site selection
for inexperienced
divers
Education program; Industry code-of-
practice; Provision of resting buoys and
flotation; Briefings
Education program; Industry code-of-
practice; Walking trails to focus
damage
Zoning requirements; Industry code-of-
practice
Wildlife Interactions
Seabirds
Turtle-watching
Whale-watching
Fish feeding by divers
Close contact can damage nesting sites
and breeding
Uncontrolled access can affect
breeding success
Potential for whales to be disturbed by
uncontrolled contacts
Wrong diet; disease and enhanced
capture risk; fish dependency; human;
danger
Legislation; Education program;
Industry code code-of-
practice; Limited access to breeding
sites; Briefings
Education program; Industry code-of-
practice; Briefings; Trained guides;
Limit access to key breeding sites
Legislation; Education program;
Industry code of-practice; Trained
guides; Limit entry for 'dedicated'
operators
Education program; Legislation;
Guidelines; Briefings; Permit conditions
Source: Harriott, VJ. 2002. Marine tourism impacts and their management on the Great Barrier Reef. CRC Reef
Research Centre Technical Report No 46. CRC Reef Research Centre, Townsville.
5 MONITORING AND OVERSIGHT
Monitoring plans for the affected resources are necessary to assure that methods used and results
obtained can be used to:
• Confirm the implementation of mitigation measures and other aspects of project design as
proposed in the EIA
• Confirm that the mitigation measures are performing to the level assumed in the EIA
• Confirm that the project is meeting a country's regulations and standards
• Establish the need for additional mitigation measures where there was uncertainly about
whether some additional actions may be necessary assure that criteria established in the EIA are
met.
The monitoring plan should address all phases of the Tourism project: siting, construction, operation,
closure and site reclamation. Monitoring plans should include a clear statement of purpose; the
methods, frequency and location of monitoring; criteria for evaluation of results; and any required
reporting of results. Methods used should be carried out by competent professionals following
scientifically accepted methods. The monitoring plan should also include contingency plans identifying
actions that will be taken should monitoring results indicate that a performance limit has been
exceeded.
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The scope of monitoring depends on the location, complexity of the operation and the severity of the
potential impacts. Monitoring resultscan determine if:
• Environmental measures are performing as required and results are as predicted, thus triggering
release of financial assurance by the regulatory authority.
• Environmental measures need to be adjusted to reach the criteria goals.
• Enforcement is needed.
As such, the monitoring plan should be designed to meet the following objectives:
• To demonstrate compliance with the standards in the approved EIA and other national and local
environmental laws and regulations
• To provide early detection of potential problems
• To supply information that cancan assist in directing corrective actions should they become
necessary, including after the Tourism facility is closed
Where applicable, the monitoring should include:
• Details on type and location of monitoring devices.
• Sampling parameters and frequency.
• Analytical methods and detection limits.
• Quality assurance and quality control procedures.
• Reporting procedures (to whom, how often, etc.).
• Who will conduct and pay for monitoring.
• Procedures to respond to adverse monitoring results.
One of the values of a monitoring program is the early detection of potential problems. A good way to
mitigate air or water quality impacts, for example, is to detect trends in samples and take early
corrective action before violations of the performance standards occur. The monitoring plan should be
tied to the environmental measures plan so that, if monitoring indicates problems (e.g., if air or water
quality standards are violated or are about to be violated), specific corrective action procedures will be
implemented by the owner/operator. It should not be left vague (e.g., "the company will work with the
ministry to resolve the problem" is too vague).
The plan should also include the standards and criteria that should be met. Examples of monitoring
programs which may be necessary include:
• Air quality
• Surface and ground water quality and quantity
• Revegetation success
• Noise levels
• Visual impacts
• Wildlife mortality and other wildlife impacts
Financial assurances may be required to ensure adequate funds will be available to implement the
monitoring plan and mitigate detected problems if any, both during and after the generation and
transmission projects. Some problems may not become evident for many years (e.g., groundwater
contamination), so in some cases monitoring may need to be conducted for the duration of the project
and even after closure. How long the funds are held can vary based on the type of operation and the
modeling predictions.
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6 FINANCIAL ASSURANCE
Financial assurance is usually required of mine operations because of the long term nature of post-
closure environmental measures and the economic uncertainties that can accompany mining given the
markets for non-metal and metal minerals. Their application to tourism projects will depend upon the
nature of the project and country practices. In such cases a financial guarantee may be required as a
component of ongoing mitigation or monitoring measures and post-closure process to cover the costs of
closure or operation of critical equipment for monitoring and treatment should the project owner be
unable to do so. Since these costs are the responsibility of the project owner/operator, these costs are
not included in the budgets of regulatory agencies, nor should they be. In addition, if monitoring,
maintenance, and/or treatment activities will be required after power plant closure over a long-term
(decades or even in perpetuity), a long-term trust fund should be established at the start of the project
to ensure funds will be available as long as they are needed to conduct this work.
6.1 Financial Guarantees for Mitigation and Monitoring Measures and Restoration
Government agencies need financial sureties that are readily available to ensure that environmental
measures and site restoration occur, if needed. Should the project owner default on environmental
measures or restoration commitments, funds may be required immediately for an outside contractor to
operate and maintain key facilities such as water treatment plants. Restoration and post-closure
activities conducted by an outside contractor cost more than activities conducted by the owner because
the contractor or the government itself would have mobilization and other costs that the company did
not have while it was operating the development. Therefore, the cost estimate upon which the surety is
based should be calculated to include the costs of a third party conducting the work. It should also be
accurate and up to date. Unfortunately, errors in these calculations have required millions of dollars of
taxpayer subsidy to close bankrupt operations.
Governments have employed a number of financial vehicles to meet surety requirements. These
vehicles generally take two forms: independently guaranteed sureties and sureties guaranteed by power
generation companies. Because tourism companies can and do go bankrupt, NGOs and governments
favor sureties that are independent of the company operating the project, usually in the form of a bond,
irrevocable letter of credit, cash deposit or some combination of these instruments. Where a financial
surety is guaranteed by the tourism project operator through corporate guarantee, governments should
assess the additional risks posed by relying on these instruments since they would be unavailable should
the company go bankrupt.
The financial sector has not developed specific requirements for sureties, although banks risk significant
loss of capital if a company were to declare bankruptcy while still holding outstanding loans. Finally,
considerable information is available on the calculation of the financial surety for any project. Because
of problems encountered with financial sureties some academics and leading NGOs have urged for more
government and public scrutiny, some of their recommendations are presented in Table G-13.
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Table G-13: NGO recommendations for financial guarantees
OPERATIONAL
AND
REGULATORY
MEASURE
DESCRIPTION
Review
Financial sureties should be reviewed and upgraded on a regular basis by the
permitting agency, and the results of the review should be publicly disclosed.
The power generation industry and governments should work more closely
with NGOs to implement realistic review schedules and procedures for
reviewing financial sureties.
Public
Awareness
The public should have the right to comment on the adequacy of the
restoration and closure plan and the long-term post-closure plan, the adequacy
of the financial surety, and completion of restoration activities prior to release
of the financial surety.
Guarantees
Financial surety instruments should be independently guaranteed, reliable, and
readily liquid. Sureties should be regularly evaluated by independent analysts
using accepted accounting methods. Self-bonding or corporate guarantees
should not be permitted.
Release
Financial sureties should not be released until restoration and closure are
complete, all impacts have been mitigated, and cleanup has been shown to be
effective for a sufficient period of time after project closure.
Source: Adopted from Miranda et al. 2005
7 AUDITABLE AND ENFORCEABLE COMMITMENT LANGUAGE
An acceptable EIA document should not merely repeat the list of generic environmental measures listed
in the preceding subsections. The accompanying text describes the level of detail necessary for a
reviewer to assure that the proposed environmental measure meets its intended purpose, that the
environmental measure wouldwould be adequate to address the underlying environmental, economic
or social issues. Auditors and compliance and enforcement authorities require specific and legally
binding language to assure that obligations have been met or to determine whether the project
proponent is fulfilling its responsibility and commitments.
The wording and detail in the EIA document becomes even more critical in the absence of a connected
permit or other means for government to independently craft and/or negotiate commitment language
for proposed environmental measures. Therefore, understanding the extent to which a country
wouldwould rely on the EIA document itself to hold project proponents accountable for environmental
measures is important. This section provides examples of the kinds of detail a reviewer should look for
in determining whether commitment language wouldwould be sufficient to ensure that promised
actions will be taken by a project proponent and that their adequacy can be determined over time.
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The proposed environmental measures should be clear about:
Who: The party responsible for taking action should be clearly assigned.
• Is the project proponent relying on the community to take certain actions?
• What is to happen when the project proponent is gone, after closure?
When: Timing issues are very important. Without a timeframe nothing mightmight happen and
whatever does happen may not be adequate:
• How long after the closure of a resort would the project proponent monitor
emissions and effluents? X years following closure? Until emissions and effluents are
proven to be negligible?
• When would revegetation and re grading take place, if deemed necessary?
• When would remedial action be taken if monitoring indicates there is a problem?
Would it be within days? Weeks? Months? Would the plant or transmission
segment need to modify operations or shut down in the interim? Who would decide
this and what are the penalties of non-compliance?
What: Effectiveness will depend largely on what is being proposed:
• What performance standards will be used to interpret monitoring results?
• What level of treatment/control will be purchased and installed?
• What technology will be used and will it be sufficient to prevent, treat, or control
the kind of contaminants that will be found in the effluent? Or emissions?
• What size wastewater treatment plant or drinking water treatment plant will be
built and will it be sufficient for the expected flow?
• Are the species being used for revegetation indigenous to the area?
How: What resource commitment will be made to ensure that measures will be undertaken at
the levels indicated?
• What financial commitments are made? What financial instrument is being used to
guarantee adequate funds will be available to implement all commitments? How
will financial guarantees be increased if they need to be adjusted during or after
operations?
• Specify the staffing, management and oversight commitments.
• Specify all equipment commitments.
The following subsections present examples of language for financial assurance, water quality
monitoring, restoration, and revegetation that could be used to ensure that the commitment language
in the EIA is reviewable, auditable and enforceable.
7.1 Construction Practices
a. Construction impacts will be confined to the minimum area necessary to complete the project.
b. Alteration or disturbance of the stream banks and existing riparian vegetation will be minimized to
the greatest extent possible.
c. No herbicide application should occur as part of this action. Mechanical removal of undesired
vegetation and root nodes is permitted.
d. All existing vegetation within 45 meters of the edge of bank should be retained to the greatest
extent possible.
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e. Temporary access roads.
i. Steep slopes. Do not build temporary roads mid-slope or on slopes steeper than 30 percent.
ii. Temporary stream crossings.
f. Do not allow equipment in the flowing water portion of the stream channel where equipment
activity could release sediment downstream, except at designated stream crossings.
g. Minimize the number of temporary stream crossings.
h. Design new temporary stream crossings as follows:
i. Survey and map any potential spawning habitat within 90 meters downstream of a proposed
crossing.
ii. Do not place stream crossings at known or suspected spawning areas or within 90 meters
upstream of such areas if spawning areas may be affected.
iii. Design the crossing to provide for foreseeable risks (e.g., flooding and associated bedload and
debris) to prevent the diversion of stream flow out of the channel and down the road if the
crossing fails.
iv. Vehicles and machinery will cross riparian buffer areas and streams at right angles to the main
channel wherever possible.
i. Obliteration. When the project is completed, obliterate all temporary access roads, stabilize the
soil, and revegetate the site. Abandon and restore temporary roads in wet or flooded areas by the
end of the in-water work period.
j. Vehicles. When heavy equipment will be used, the equipment selected will have the least adverse
effects on the environment (e.g., minimally sized, low ground pressure equipment).
k. Site preparation. Conserve native materials for site rehabilitation.
i. If possible, leave native materials where they are found.
ii. If materials are moved, damaged, or destroyed, replace them with a functional equivalent
during site rehabilitation.
iii. Stockpile any large wood, native vegetation, weed-free topsoil, and native channel material
displaced by construction for use during site rehabilitation.
I. Isolation of in-water work area. If adult or juvenile fish are reasonably certain to be present, or if
the work area is less than 300 ft upstream of spawning habitats, completely isolate the work area
from the active flowing stream using inflatable bags, sandbags, sheet pilings, or similar materials.
m. Earthwork. Complete earthwork (including drilling, excavation, dredging, filling, and compacting) as
quickly as possible.
n. Excavation. Material removed during excavation will only be placed in locations where it cannot
enter sensitive aquatic resources. Whenever topsoil is removed, it should be stored and reused on
site to the greatest extent possible. If culvert inlet/outlet protecting riprap is used, it will be class
350 metric or larger, and topsoil will be placed over the rock and planted with native woody
vegetation.
o. Drilling and sampling. If drilling, boring, or jacking is used, the following conditions apply.
i. Isolate drilling activities in wetted stream channels using a steel pile, sleeve, or other
appropriate isolation method to prevent drilling fluids from contacting water.
ii. If it is necessary to drill through a bridge deck, use containment measures to prevent drilling
debris from entering the channel.
iii. If directional drilling is used, the drill, bore, or jack hole will span the channel migration zone
and any associated wetland.
iv. Sampling and directional drill recovery/recycling pits, and any associated waste or spoils, will
be completely isolated from surface waters, off-channel habitats, and wetlands. All drilling
fluids and waste will be recovered and recycled or disposed to prevent entry into flowing
water.
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p. Site stabilization. Stabilize all disturbed areas, including obliteration of temporary roads, following
any break in work, unless construction will resume within 4 days.
7.2 Flow Releases and Monitoring
7.2.1 Wastewater
A detailed monitoring program shall be implemented to ensure that discharges for wastewater
treatment facilities discharges into rivers, streams, groundwater, and ocean bodies meet appropriate
standards.
7.2.2 Air
An air quality monitoring program shall be implemented to ensure that emissions from power plants,
vehicles, and other emitters meet appropriate standards.
7.3 Endangered Species Management
To protect endangered bird species from disturbance, the project shall be constructed and maintained
according to the following schedule:
7.3.1 Construction
a. January 1 through February 28-Operation of heavy equipment is permitted between the hours of
10:00 AM to 4:00 PM. Lightweight passenger vehicles may enter the area and personnel may
conduct activities deemed to be of low-disturbance potential (e.g., install wiring, program
computers, and interior finish work) between the hours of 8:00 AM and 5:00 PM.
b. March 1 through August 31-Blasting/boring of dam is prohibited. Operation of heavy equipment is
permitted only between the hours of 10:00 AM to 4:00 PM. Lightweight passenger vehicles may
enter the area and personnel may conduct activities deemed to be of low-disturbance potential
(e.g., install wiring, program computers, and interior finish work) between the hours of 8:00 AM
and 5:00 PM.
c. In-stream work shall occur during the autumn to avoid temporary disturbance to the prey base
during the nesting season.
7.3.2 Operation
With the exception of safety related emergencies, any maintenance or repairs requiring the use of
blasting or boring equipment shall be scheduled from September 1 to February 28 to avoid the sensitive
nesting season. Maintenance or repairs that require the use of heavy equipment from March 1 through
AugusT 31 shall be limited to the hours of 10:00 AM to 4:00 PM.
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H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
An Environmental Management Plan (BMP) serves to combine elements of environmental management
that are built into the design of the tourism projects or are identified as monitoring and measures. The
BMP, which in some CAFTA-DR countries is referred to as an Environmental Management Program,
consists of a series of components or plans required either as an enforceable component of the
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), an attachment or separate document. As presented in Table H-
1, an EMP includes: plans for water management, vegetation removal, site preparation, construction,
plans for monitoring and mitigation measures, and other components.
Throughout these guidelines, approaches are presented to assist reviewers of these plans to ensure that
they meet the goals of the overall Environmental Impact Assessment process. Table H-l presents inputs
and measures that should be considered in these plans. The basic concepts presented in this table
should be considered when developing environmental management components for various types of
tourism projects adjusted of course by country specific requirements.
An EMP would also include contingency plans to reduce the risk and respond to threats of natural
disasters and accidents. The spill prevention and control plan described in the text box is such a plan.
Table H-1: Components of an environmental management plan: program and plan elements
PLAN
INPUT
General
• Describe measures to be implemented to manage water.
• Identify and assess how to divert natural runoff away from site to prevent pollution of this
water.
Water Use and
Recycling
• Describe methods to be used to minimize the volume of fresh water that is used for
operations and irrigation and to maximize the recycling of water.
• Describe what to avoid or minimize the use of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides that have
the potential to run-off site or percolate to groundwater.
• Describe water conservation methods to be implemented during operations (i.e. low flow
toilets, low volume shower heads, collection of grey water for use in irrigation).
• Describe educational strategies for staff and visitors to reduce water consumption (ie.
Discourage daily linen and towel exchanges, invoke conservation practices for laundry
operations).
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Diversion and
Wastewater Stream
Consolidation
• Define how best to consolidate treatment for all wastewater sources.
• Describe methodologies such as the use of ditches or dikes to divert all clean streams and
drainage runoff away from areas of possible contamination locating these structures on maps.
• Define and locate on maps effluent discharge points and their relationship to environmentally
sensitive areas.
• Show typical ditches and water holding facilities designed for extreme runoff events (100-yr or
maximum probable runoff events).
Water quality
• Predict run-off from fuel storage and impervious ground cover.
• Present timing and conditions during which such run-off may be expected to occur.
• Determine other potentially harmful components in run-off, including fertilizers, herbicides,
pesticides, detergents, oils and greases.
Monitoring
• Provide the design for a water monitoring program indicating the locations on site maps of
potential water and seepage sampling stations on the facility.
• Develop a Sampling and Analysis Plan for water sampling, handling and analyses protocols
(where analyses are completed by outside laboratories, the owner/operator or their
consultants should have copies of the protocols used).
• Develop a database that is updated as sampling is undertaken including hydro-climatological
data including but not limited to rainfall, air temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity,
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H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
PLAN
INPUT
wind direction, speed, evaporation, water levels in wells, stream flow and water quality.
• Provide a methodology to calibrate hydrological models that were used in planning the water
management system.
Erosion and
Sediment Control
Determine site erosion potential and identifying water bodies at risk.
Develop a re-contouring plan designed to reduce the susceptibility of soil to erosion.
Define a program for revegetation and maintenance of buffer zones adjacent to water bodies
for erosion control.
Develop a plan to divert site drainage away from cleared, graded, or excavated areas.
Define how the facility will use and maintain sediment barriers or sediment traps to prevent
or control sedimentation.
Directing surface runoff from erodible areas to a settling pond prior to discharge to the
environment.
Present a monitoring and maintenance program to ensure that erosion and sediment control
measures are effective.
Wastewater
Develop a wastewater treatment plan based on:
• The water management plan.
• The results of prediction of wastewater quality.
• Relevant regulatory requirements for effluent quality.
• Relevant environmental performance indicators, including any water quality objectives.
Domestic
Wastewater and
Sewage Disposal
Develop a plan for sewage or domestic wastewater treatment with the objective of these
facilities is to prevent the contamination of surface water and groundwater, including drinking
water supplies, and to meet all applicable regulatory standards. Sludge from the treatment of
sewage and domestic wastewater should be disposed of in an acceptable manner.
Vegetation Clearing
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Develop a plan to minimize areas to be cleared.
Define on maps buffer zones of natural vegetative cover showing that at least 100 m of natural
buffer zones are retained wherever possible between cleared areas and adjacent bodies of
water.
Provide similar plans for sensitive coastal and aquatic zones.
Present a plan to show that the time between clearing of an area and subsequent
development is minimized.
Prohibit the burning of vegetations, slash and other combustibles on-site.
Revegetation
A revegetation plan should be developed for the tourism facilities and transportation corridors,
taking into consideration the following:
• Re-establishing soil cover on the site with consideration being given to the characteristics of
the soil that will be used as well as the soil requirements of the vegetation to be established
on the site.
• Species used in revegetation and the resulting plant community should be consistent with the
goals of site closure and the intended post-closure use of the site. Species native to the area
around the site should be used for this purpose, and invasive species should never be used.
• Monitoring programs should be designed and implemented during plant or corridor closure to
ensure that closure activities and any associated environmental effects are consistent with
those predicted in the closure plan and to ensure that the objectives of closure plan are being
met.
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H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
PLAN
INPUT
Environmentally
Sensitive Areas
Show on plan view and use of typical drawings that all facilities are located and designed to
avoid land-based and aquatic environmentally sensitive areas. The determination of
environmentally sensitive areas should be undertaken in consultation with appropriate
stakeholders, local communities and government officials.
Determine site erosion potential and identifying water bodies at risk.
Develop a re-contouring plan designed to reduce the susceptibility of soil to erosion.
Define a program for revegetation and maintenance of buffer zones adjacent to water bodies
for erosion control.
Develop a plan to divert site drainage away from cleared, graded, or excavated areas.
Define how the facility will use and maintain sediment barriers or sediment traps to prevent or
control sedimentation.
Directing surface runoff from erodible areas to a settling pond prior to discharge to the
environment.
Present a monitoring and maintenance program to ensure that erosion and sediment control
measures are effective.
Geologic Materials
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Develop a site-specific program for the identification and description of rock and other
geological materials that will be or have been moved or exposed as a result of construction
activity should include, for each material:
o Spatial distribution of the material, as well as the estimated mass of material present.
o Geological characterization of the material, including its mineral and chemical
composition.
o Physical characterization of the material, including grain size, particle size and structural
characteristics including fracturing, faulting and material strength.
Develop an inventory of earth materials that will be needed for construction and operations.
Identify reputable and licensed sources of these materials.
Require the contractor to certify that the materials were obtained from licensed and approved
quarries.
Require that have available for inspection on site copies of the license and manifest for haul
loads.
Construction site management plan should include a materials management plan that includes
a site map which provides for storage of fine - grained materials (sand and marl) in bermed
areas away from shorelines and drainages.
Solid Waste
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Develop a plan for the disposal of solid waste generated by tourist operation. This would
include the location and design of a solid waste landfill and the separation of potentially
hazardous wastes from the disposed of solid waste.
Define a disposal program for on site or in a landfill disposal. Plan for wastes from on-site
kitchen and dining facilities should be disposed of in a manner that does not attract wildlife.
Develop measures that should be put in place to ensure that all food wastes and food
containers are properly disposed of, including those used away from kitchen and dining
facilities.
Define training programs to ensure that all employees and on-site contractors are aware of
the importance of proper disposal of food wastes and the importance of not feeding wildlife
on site.
Construction Management plan should include designated waste storage areas (food, solid,
recyclables, hazardous, etc.), collection and removal schedules, identification of approved
disposal sites and a system for supervision and monitoring.
Likewise the same should be required in the Tourism Operations Plan.
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PLAN
INPUT
Spill Prevention and
Control
Develop a plan to design and construct chemical storage and containment facilities to meet the
appropriate standards, regulations and guidelines of pertinent regulatory agencies and the
owner/operator's environmental policy, objectives and targets. As a minimum, chemical storage
and containment facilities should:
• Site-specific chemical management procedures should be developed and implemented for the
safe transportation, storage, handling, use and disposal of chemicals, fuels and lubricants.
• Be managed to minimize the potential for spills.
• Provide containment in the event of spillage and be managed to minimize opportunities for
spillage.
• Comply with international standards.
• Ensure that incompatible materials are stored in ways to prevent accidental contact and
chemical reactions with other materials.
• Minimize the probability that a spill could have a significant impact on the environment.
• Evaluated periodically to determine possibilities to reduce the quantities of potentially harmful
chemicals used.
• Ensure for maintenance shops that potential contaminants, such as used lubricants, batteries
and other wastes, are properly managed with appropriate disposal mechanisms for these
materials. Stores should be managed such that potentially hazardous materials are handled in
accordance with procedures detailed in the environmental management system for the
facilities.
Access Roads
Define measures that will be designed and implemented to prevent and control erosion from
roads associated with all facilities. These measures should include:
• Providing buffer zones of at least 100 m between roads and water bodies to the extent
practicable.
• Designing road grades and ditches to limit the potential for erosion, including avoiding road
grades exceeding 12% (5% near water bodies).
• Designing and constructing stream crossings for roads in a manner that protects fish and fish
habitat preventing sedimentation of the streams and not obstructing movement of fish.
Pipelines
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8
Provide the routes of pipelines and transmission lines on maps. Routes should be selected so
as to limit risk of harm to aquatic, terrestrial ecosystems and animal migration routes in the
event of a failure.
Show that pipelines will be designed to reduce the risk of failure.
Define measures to limit impacts in the event of a failure.
Develop an inspection plan for pipelines with inspections taking place on a regular basis to
ensure they are in good condition.
Define monitoring systems to alert operators in the event of a potential problem.
Decommissioning
Describe a decommissioning program for the tourism-related facilities showing that any
contamination associated with facility operations, vehicle and equipment operations and
maintenance will be remediated.
State how signs will be posted warning the public of potential dangers associated with the site.
Develop a plan that shows how on-site facilities and equipment that are no longer needed will
be removed and disposed of in a safe manner.
Develop a plan for the rehabilitation of roads, runways or railways that will not be preserved
for post-closure use with bridges, culverts and pipes being removed so that natural stream
flow is restored, and stream banks are stabilized with vegetation or by using rip-rap. In
addition, the plan should show that surfaces, shoulders, escarpments, steep slopes, regular
and irregular benches, etc., are be rehabilitated to prevent erosion with surfaces and
shoulders being scarified, graded into natural contours, and revegetated.
Define a program that shows how infrastructure will be dismantled and removed, except in
cases where this infrastructure is to be preserved for post-closure land use or will be needed
for post-closure monitoring, inspection and maintenance.
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PLAN
INPUT
Emissions Control
Develop site-specific plans to be implemented to minimize releases of air borne emissions,
including greenhouse gases. Plans should describe:
• Potential sources of releases of air borne emissions, including greenhouse gases.
• Factors that may influence releases of air borne emissions, including greenhouse gases.
• Measures to minimize releases of air borne emissions, including greenhouse gases.
• Monitoring and reporting programs for releases of air borne emissions, including greenhouse
gases.
• Mechanisms to incorporate the results of monitoring programs into further improvements to
measures to minimize releases.
• Mechanisms to periodically update the plans.
Particulates
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a
Develop site-specific plans to be implemented to minimize releases of airborne particulate
matter. These plans should describe:
• Potential sources of releases of airborne particulate matter, including specific activities and
specific components of operation.
• Factors that may influence releases of airborne particulate matter, including climate and wind.
• Potential risks to the environment and human health from releases of airborne particulate
matter.
• Measures to minimize releases of airborne particulate matter from the sources identified.
• Monitoring programs for local weather, for consideration in the ongoing management of
releases of airborne particulate matter.
• Monitoring and reporting programs for releases of airborne particulate matter and for
environmental impacts of releases.
• Mechanisms to incorporate the results of monitoring programs into further improvements to
measures to minimize releases.
• Mechanisms to periodically update the plans.
• Consistent with national or international standard for particulate matter (PM), by way of
example in Canada the concentration of particulate matter less than 2.5 microns in size
(PM2.5) should not exceed 15 ig/m3 (24-hour averaging time) outside the boundary of the
facilities.
• Engines in vehicles and stationary equipment should be maintained and operated in a manner
that minimizes emissions of criteria air contaminants, particularly: total particulate matter
(TPM); particulate matter less than or equal to 10 microns (PM10); particulate matter less than
or equal to 2.5 microns (PM2.5); sulphur oxides (SOx); nitrogen oxides (NOx); volatile organic
compounds (VOCs); and carbon monoxide (CO).
Climate Change
(Carbon reduction)
Develop strategies for reducing carbon releases to the atmosphere and how they will be
implemented. The carbon reduction plan should include the use of heavy equipment and
vehicles that are fuel efficient and/or use alternative fuel. Increased thermal or mechanical
efficiencies, reduction of losses of methane, if natural gas is a fuel, and proper stoichiometry of
combustion to reduce formation of N20 are also means of reducing GHG emissions. Sample
methods for reduction in greenhouse gas emissions are as described under the Emission Control
Plan.
General
CD
>
o
•
Define site-specific assessments to be conducted to identify sources, or potential sources of
noise and vibrations, and measures should be implemented to reduce noise levels from these
sources. Such measures should include consideration of:
• Elimination of noise and vibration sources.
• Locate and align activity areas so that noise does not project toward known receptors.
• The purchase of equipment with improved noise characteristics.
• Proper maintenance of equipment.
• Enclosure or shielding of sources of noise.
• Suppression of the noise at source.
• Locating noise sources to allow natural attenuation to reduce levels to potential recipients.
• The operation of noise sources only during hours agreed to in consultation with local
communities. Monitoring should be conducted to assess the effectiveness of these measures
and if national or related International standards are exceeded so that improvements in noise
reduction can be made improvements in noise reduction.
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H. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
PLAN
INPUT
Provide safety protocols that ensure their use during construction blasting operations such as
safety zones to prevent unauthorized entry, warning signals to alarm nearby workers and
residents of impending blasts and all clear signals to note when the area is safe to reenter.
Define the size of explosive charges to minimize vibrations.
Ensure that blasts do not exceed acceptable national or international vibration criteria -by
way of example limit ground vibrations to below 12.5 mm/s (peak particle velocity) and limit
air vibrations to 133 dB.
Allow for natural attenuation to reduce noise and dust or debris at the source and impacts to
nearby residents.
Provide for the enclosure or shield sources of noise including planting vegetative barriers,
construction of berms and walls.
Ensure that piling operations do not impact nesting, breeding, calving and other sensitive
aquatic habitats.
Provide for designated areas where Tourism operations known to produce noise and
vibrations (motor boats, jet skis, off-road vehicles.)
Institute "carrying capacity" limits for the same activities in sensitive areas.
Facilities Monitoring
Develop a monitoring program to check and report on the performance, status and safety of
water management facilities.
Define a pipeline inspection program to evaluate flow and hydraulic integrity.
Describe inspection measures for drainage ditches and dikes to evaluate sediment
accumulation and bank erosion and damage.
Provide construction controls, including the use of a construction management program.
Procedures for dust control.
Quality assurance and quality control measures for all aspects of operations, monitoring and
inspections.
Develop a plan to collect data required for modeling.
Describe how to evaluate the effectiveness of measures that have been implemented to
prevent and control potential surface seeps and groundwater contamination.
Develop a plan to identify potential sources of water pollutants and monitor accordingly.
Develop a plan to monitor freshwater source depletion in coastal areas and prevent saltwater
intrusion.
(D
.
i
Temporary and
Long-term Project
Closure
Develop a program that the anticipated costs of site closure are re-evaluated regularly
throughout the project life cycle. The owner/operator should ensure that adequate funds are
available to cover all closure costs, and the amounts of any security deposits should be
adjusted accordingly.
Describe a program for sites where it is determined that long-term monitoring, maintenance
or effluent treatment will be necessary post closure, mechanisms should be identified and
implemented that will ensure that adequate and stable long-term funding is available for
these activities. In determining funding levels required, consideration should be given to
contingency requirements in the event of changes in economic conditions, system failures, or
major repair work post closure.
Develop a plan for the care and maintenance of the site in the event that operations are
suspended. The plan should include continued monitoring and assessment of the
environmental performance of the site, as well as the maintenance of all environmental
controls necessary to ensure continued compliance with relevant regulatory requirements.
The Final closure plan should address the following environmental aspects: surface and ground
water, revegetation, and fauna.
Long-term
Monitoring and
Maintenance
At sites where long-term risks are identified a maintenance plan should be developed and
implemented, as appropriate, to ensure post-closure monitoring and maintenance of these
facilities. This plan should include the following elements:
• Identification of roles and responsibilities of persons to be involved in monitoring and
maintenance.
• Identification of aspects to be monitored and the frequency.
• Identification of routine maintenance activities to be conducted and the frequency.
• Description of contingency plans to address any problems identified during routine
maintenance and monitoring.
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Contingency plans are those put in place to address predicted risks should other mitigation measures in the
environmental management plan fail to be adequate. It assumes that risk identification and risk reduction have been
addressed in other parts of the EIA.
Performance-related
Contingency Plans
5
0.
Plans to describe the steps that will be taken to respond to results that indicate:
• Environmental Standards are not being met.
• Impacts are greater than predicted.
• The mitigation measures and/or rehabilitation are not performing as predicted.
Contingency Plans should include steps to ensure:
• Persons responsible and accountable for response, their roles, contact information.
• Steps to be taken to minimize adverse environmental and socio-economic-cultural harm.
• Timely response.
• Commitment of staff and resources such as equipment on hand or accessible as needed for
response.
• Appropriate notification of officials.
• Appropriate notification of the public.
Contingency Plans
for Risks from
Natural Disasters
For risks identified within the impact assessment, including risks from:
• Hurricanes
• Flooding
• Mudslides
• Seismic activity-earthquakes
• Tsunamis
• Volcanic Activity
Contingency plans should include:
• Persons responsible and accountable for response, their roles, contact information and
alternates.
• Steps to be taken to minimize adverse environmental and socio-economic-cultural harm.
• Coordination with national and local response efforts.
• Equipment on hand and needed for response.
• Relevant training programs.
• Relevant notification requirements for government and the public.
Other Risks
These might include risks that may not be adequately covered in the other elements of the
Environmental Management Plan, such as (but not limited to):
• Storage and management of hazardous or toxic chemicals
• Leaching into groundwater
• Dam or impoundment breaches
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I. GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES
I. GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES
1 GLOSSARY
Accommodation capacity: The measure of accommodation stock at a defined destination. May be
given by various different measures: e.g.number of establishments; number of main units within an
establishment (e.g. rooms, caravan stances); capacity in terms of residents (e.g. bedspaces).
Action: Activity to meet a specific purpose and need, which may have effects on the environment and
may potentially be subject to governmental control or responsibility. For this document, the term
action applies to a specific project.
Adaptive management: A systematic process for continually improving management policies and
practices by learning from the outcomes of operational programs and incorporating new information.
Adventure tourism: A form of tourism in natural areas that incorporates an element of risk, higher
levels of physical exertion, and the need for specialised skills.
Aesthetic quality: A perception of beauty of natural or cultural landscape.
Affected environment: The existing conditions of the human and natural environments in the areas that
could potentially have impacts.
Aesthetic quality: A perception of beauty of natural or cultural landscape.
Alternatives: In an EIA this term refers to options for the project.
Alternative energy: Renewable energy sources such as wind, water, solar, biomass as an alternative to
nonrenewable resources such as oil, gas, and coal.
Alternative tourism: In essence, tourism activities or development that are viewed as non-traditional. It
is often defined in opposition to large-scale mass tourism to represent small-scale sustainable tourism
developments. AT is also presented as an 'ideal type', that is, an improved model of tourism
development that redresses the ills of traditional, mass tourism
Ambient: The environment surrounding a body but undisturbed or unaffected by it. For example,
ambient air is the air surrounding the site.
Aquatic: Growing or living in or near the water.
Aquaculture: Cultivation of fish, mollusks and other aquatic organisms in fresh or salt water for human
use.
Aquifer: A water-bearing rock unit that yields water in a usable quality to a well or spring.
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Archeological site: A discrete location that provides physical evidence of past human use.
Assets: Anything that a business owns that will benefit future operations. Assets can be tangible items
(e.g., buildings, canoes, equipment) or intangible things (e.g., intellectual property in the form of a
patent).
Beach renourishment: A technique used to restore an eroding or lost beach, involving placing
appropriately sourced sand on the shoreline to widen the beach, for the purpose of protecting adjoining
natural and man-made assets.
Bench mark: A fixed point of reference.
Best management practices: A suite of techniques that guide or may be applied to management
actions.
Bioaccumulation: Refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other organic
chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate
greater than that at which the substance is lost.
Bioavailability: Bioavailability refers to the difference between the amount of a substance or chemical,
to which a plant or animal is exposed and the actual dose of the substance the entity receives.
Biodiversity: Refers to the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem. Biodiversity is often used as
a measure of the health of the biological system.
Biofouling: The undesirable settlement and growth of microorganisms, plants, algae, and animals on
submerged structures, especially ships' hulls. Biofouling also occurs on the surfaces of living marine
organisms
Biological diversity (biodiversity): The variety of life forms and genes they contain, and the ecosystems
they form. Biodiversity is usually considered at four levels; genetic diversity, species diversity,
community diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
CadastenA public register showing the details of ownership and value of land; also spelled "cadastre"
Cadastral survey: A survey which creates, marks, defines, retraces or reestablishes the boundaries and
subdivisions of the public land of the United States. It is derived from the word cadastre, meaning a
public record, survey, or map of the value, extent, and ownership of land as a basis of taxation
CAFTA-DR countries: Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.
Capacity management: A process that seeks to ensure that their organisations operate at optimum
capacity whilst maintaining customer satisfaction levels.
Catchment: The area of land that drains to a watercourse or estuary.
Carrying capacity: The amount of visitor activity that a site or destination can sustain.
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Carrying-capacity analysis: Originally a term applied in ecology referring to the maximum number of
animals of a given species that a particular habitat could support. In the context of tourism, it refers to
the maximum number of tourists a destination can support.
Climate change: Changes in climate attributed to the human-induced increase in concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Climate change involves increases in temperature, sea level, and
increased frequency of severe weather events such as storms.
Coastal Action Plan: A plan that identifies strategic directions and objectives for use and development in
a region or part of a region to facilitate recreational use and tourism, and to provide for protection and
enhancement of significant features coast, including the marine environment.
Coastline: Generally where the land meets the sea.
Code of Ethics / Conduct / Practice: Recommended practices based on a system of self regulation
intended to promote environmentally and/or socio-culturally sustainable behaviour.
Collateral: The security given to a bank to ensure that a loan is repaid. Some examples of assets that
may be used as collateral with lenders are buildings, vehicles or boats. Land is often not acceptable as
collateral for loans for ecotourism organizations because it might be difficult to resell.
Community: Community refers to a heterogeneous group of people who share residence in the same
geographic area and access a set of local natural resources. The degree of social cohesion and
differentiation, strength of common beliefs and institutions, cultural diversity and other factors vary
widely within and among communities (Schmink, 1999).*
Community Stakeholder Analysis or Human Context Analysis: This is a study that identifies key
information about communities near an ecotourism site pertinent to ecotourism development within
the community and in the adjacent ecotourism site. It is essential for full implementation of
anEcotourism Management Plan.
Competitive Advantage: The characteristics of an organization that allow it to be more successful in
selling and delivering an ecotourism experience than competing businesses. Examples include exclusive
access to protected areas, the skills of key personnel or having a name that is more widely recognized by
tourists.
Competition Analysis: An analysis performed during business or market planning to determine the
organizations, services or activities that may compete for customers. The analysis should identify the
strengths and weaknesses of potential competitors and help identify positioning strategies that can
differentiate the business.
Concession: An agreement between protected area managers and a private sector business that
authorizes the business to offer ecotourism services such as accommodations, restaurant services or the
sale of souvenirs within a protected area in exchange for a fee or percentage of sales.
Concessionaire: The provider of a concession service.
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Conservation: Can be broadly interpreted as action taken to protect and preserve the natural world
from harmful features of tourism, including pollution and overexploitation of resources.
Conservation Area Planning (CAP): A process developed by The Nature Conservancy that is used to
identify primary conservation targets for a particular conservation site, then determine the major
threats, sources of threats and strategies for mitigating those threats. Previously known as Site
Conservation Planning (SCP).
Coral: A general term used to describe a group of cnidarians; indicates the presence of skeletal material
that is embedded in the living tissue or encloses the animal altogether.
Coral assemblage: A group of corals.
Coral bleaching hotspot: A region of sea surface temperature (SST) that exceeds the climatological
maximum for a region by 1 deg C or more. These conditions may cause sufficient stress to coral reefs to
result in coral bleaching.
Coral growth line: A minute growth line on the outer surfaces of corals that have a calcified outer wall.
The carbonate is produced by zooxanthellae which create a series of diurnal growth increments.
Cultural resources: Remains of human activity, occupation or endeavor as reflected in districts, sites,
buildings, objects, artifacts, ruins, works of art, architecture and natural features important in human
events.
Cumulative impact: The impact on the environment that results from the incremental impact of the
action when added to other past, present and reasonably foreseeable actions.
Day visitors: Visitors who arrive and leave the same day, irrespective of why they are travelling.
Deforestation: The clearance of naturally occurring forests by the processes of logging and/or burning of
trees in a forested area.
Degradation: Any decline in the quality of natural or cultural resources, or the viability of ecosystems,
that is caused directly or indirectly by humans.
Destination: The place to which a traveler is going. In the travel industry, any city, area, or country
which can be marketed as a single entity for tourists.
Direct impact (or effect): This impact is caused by an action that occurs at the same time and same
place as the activity.
Discharge: Outflow of surface water in a stream or canal. Discharge may come from an industrial facility
and may contain pollutants.
Diversification: The process of developing new products for new markets, in order to achieve business
growth.
Diversity: variety: Multiplicity; range; assortment.
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Domestic tourism: Travel within the country of residence.
Drainage: Artificial or natural removal of surface water or groundwater from a certain area.
Drawdown: The decrease in the elevation of the water surface in a well, or local water table or the
pressure head of an artesian well due to the removal of groundwater or decrease in the aquifer's
recharge.
Ebb current (ebb): The movement of a tidal current away from shore or down a tidal river or estuary.
Ebb strength: Phase of the ebb tidal current at the time of maximum speed; also, the speed at this time.
Ebb tide: Period of tide between a high water and the succeeding low water; falling tide.
Ecology: The relationship between the environment and living organisms.
Ephemeral stream: A stream that flows only in direct response to precipitation.
Ecoregion: An area that is defined by its ecology and covers relatively large areas of land or water, and
contains characteristic, geographically distinct assemblages of communities and species.
Ecosystem: A complex system of a community of plants, animals and the system's chemical and physical
environment.
Eosystem Based Management (EBM):EBM integrates knowledge of ecological interrelationships to
manage impacts within an ecosystem. Effective implementation of EBM should: (1) consider ecological
processes that operate both inside and outside ecosystem boundaries, (2) recognize the importance of
species and habitat diversity, and (3) accommodate human uses and associated benefits within the
context of conservation requirements.
Ecotourism: Defined by The International Ecotourism Society as 'responsible travel to natural areas that
conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people'.
Ecotourism Advisory Committee: A group of private and public stakeholders who have an interest,
economic or otherwise, in the efficient and effective functioning of the ecotourism program at the
ecotourism site. They will provide advice and support to the Head of the Ecotourism Program.
Ecotourism Management Plan (EMP): A specific plan directed at guiding the development of ecotourism
in a specific site/protected area. It should follow from larger scale plans such as a General Management
Plan or Site Conservation Plan.
Ecotourism Site: A location, large or small, where ecotourism activity or activities occur. In this
document, may be used interchangeably with "protected area" or "site." However, site usually refers to
a location where the activity is focused and is small in extent.
Effect (or impact): A modification of the existing environment caused by an action of the project. The
effect, or impact, may be direct, indirect or cumulative.
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Effluent: A liquid, partially or completely treated or in its natural state, flowing from a water or sewage
treatment plant.
Emission: Matter discharged into the atmosphere and used as a measure of air quality.
Endangered species: A plant or animal that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant
portion of its range.
Environment:The diverse community activities and cultures of a country's inhabitants, as well as its
scarce and sensitive natural resources.
Environmental auditing: Inspection of a tourism organisation to assess the environmental impact of its
activities.
Environmental education: Formal and informal learning processes that are designed to raise awareness
and teach new values, knowledge and skills, in order to encourage more sustainable behaviour.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): A document prepared to analyze the impacts of a proposed
action and released to the public for review and comment.
Environmental impact: The effects that a community has on the environment as a consequence of its
activities.
Environmental Justice: Fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race,
color, national origin, or income with respect to the enforcement of environmental laws and policies.
Fair treatment means that no group should bear a disproportionate share of negative environmental
consequences.
Environmental management systems: Systems established by tourism organisations with the aim of
mitigating negative environmental impacts.
Environmental scanning: The process of collecting information to carry out a systematic analysis of the
forces effecting the organisation and identifying potential threats and opportunities with view to
generating future strategies.
Erosion: Wearing away of land by water, wind, ice or other geologic agents.
Escort: (1) a person, usually employed or subcontracted by the tour operator who accompanies a tour
from departure to return, acting as a troubleshooter. This term is often incorrectly interchanged with
courier, conductor, host, manager, director, or leader, since each term designates different duties
although they do perform the escort function.
Esturary: The zone where a river meets the sea, influenced by river flows and tides and characterized by
a gradient from fresh to salt water.
Exotic plants: Plants whose genetic stock comes from beyond the area in which they are found.
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Financing: Money raised by an ecotourism business to start or expand the business in a way other than
through sales. Financing can be obtained through traditional means, such as seeking investments or
bank loans, or by pursuing special opportunities that may exist for ecotourism, such as grants from
donor organizations.
FishBase: A repository of available information on the taxonomy, biology, ecology, occurrence and
utilization of fishes. It holds published information on almost all of the estimated 25,000 existing fish
species. The information is arranged in 55 subject tables. It can be accessed through the Internet
(http://www.fishbase.org) or installed on a PC from a CD-ROM. At the heart of FishBase is the
authoritative taxonomic fish classification established by W.N. Eschmeyer (California Academy of
Science). It ensures that all information is assigned to current scientific names, even if a publication uses
an outdated name.
Floodplain: The part of a stream or river valley adjacent to the channel that is built of sediments and
becomes inundated when the stream or river tops its banks.
Foreshore: The coastal fringe; generally the land between the coastal road and the low water mark.
Franchise: the right to market a product or service, often exclusively for a specified area by a
manufacturer, developer, or distributor in return for a fee.
Frequent Independent Traveler: FIT: custom designed, pre-paid tour with many individualized
arrangements. Also used as foreign independent traveler.
Full Site Diagnostic: A phase of the planning process during which planners gather the information
needed to make good decisions regarding, in this case, ecotourism development in the protected
area/ecotourism site.
Gale: A storm with wind speeds between 34 to 40 knots.
Gamefish: A species of fish considered to possess sporting qualities on fishing tackle.
Gap Analysis: A Geographic Information System (GIS) methodology to identify the distribution of
biodiversity over large spatial areas. It was developed in 1988 by the U.S. Geological Survey in an effort
to ensure that regions rich in species diversity are conserved with the hope that this will eliminate the
need to list species as threatened or endangered in the future. The gap analysis approach uses maps of
vegetation and predicted animal distributions to locate centers of species richness outside areas
currently managed for biodiversity protection. These are considered the "gaps" of gap analysis. Thus
far, its use primarily has been in the terrestrial sphere.
General Management Plan (GMP): A planning document that evaluates all the information available for
a given protected area or ecotourism site and defines overall management objectives, goals and
strategies. If ecotourism is identified as a strategy for appropriate management, then an Ecotourism
Management Plan is recommended.
Geographic information system: A system of computer software, hardware, data and applications that
capture, store, edit and analyze and has the capability to graphically display a wide array of geospatial
information.
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Geomorphology: Science of the evolution of landforms and geological formations and the processes
that shape them.
Geologic formation: A distinct rock unit that is distinguished from adjacent rock by a common
characteristic such as its composition, origin, or fossils associated with the unit.
Grassland community: An area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other non-woody
plants. In temperate latitudes, grasslands are dominated by perennial species, whereas in warmer
climates annual species form a greater component of the vegetation.
Green Globe/Green Globe 21: GREEN GLOBE 21 is the worldwide benchmarking and certification
programme which facilitates sustainable travel and tourism for consumers, companies and
communities. It is based on Agenda 21 and principles for Sustainable Development endorsed by 182
governments at the United Nations Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit in 1992. www.greenglobe21.com.
Greenhouse gas: A component of the atmosphere that contributes to the warming of the planet.
Greenhouses gases may include water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur
hexafluoride and chlorofluorocarbons.
Ground water: Underground water that is generally found in the pore space of rocks or sediments and
that can be collected with wells, tunnels, or drainage galleries, or that flows naturally to the earth's
surface via seeps or springs. The term is not applied to water that is percolating or held in the top layers
of the soil, but to that water in the zone of saturation below the water table.
Grubbing: Removing all plants including the roots, stems and trunks in order to clear the land.
Habitat: A set of physical conditions in a geographical area that surrounds a species or group of species
or a large community. With respect to wildlife management, major components of habitat are food,
water, cover and living space.
Habitat Affinity lndex:A index that- defines habitat affinity based on the relative concentration of a
species in a particular habitat, compared with the availability of that habitat in a given study area.
Halophyte: A plant that grows in soils that have a high content of various salts.
Hazardous waste: A discarded material which contains substances known to be toxic, mutagenic,
carcinogenic, orteratogenic to humans or other life; ignitable, corrosive, explosive, or highly reactive
alone or with other materials.
Heritage: Things of value that are inherited which people want to keep. Heritage can be natural,
cultural, tangible, intangible, personal or collective. Natural heritage is often conserved in places such as
reserves and national parks. Cultural heritage practices are often conserved through ongoing traditions
and practices.
Historic Place: Site, building or group of buildings with aesthetic, historic, scientific or social value for
present or future generations.
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Hurricane: An intense tropical cyclone in which winds tend to spiral inward toward a core of low
pressure, with maximum surface wind velocities that equal or exceed 33.5 m/sec (75 mph or 65 knots)
for several minutes or longer at some point.
Hurricane surge: A rise in the sea surface on an open coast, often resulting from a hurricane.
Hydrograph: In surface water hydrology a hydrograph is a time record of the amount of discharge of a
stream, river or watershed outlet. Rainfall is typically the main input to a watershed and the stream
flow is often considered the output of the watershed; a hydrograph is a representation of how a
watershed responds to rainfall overtime.
Hydrology: The science of water, standing or flowing on or beneath the surface of the earth.
Hydrological cycle: The movement of water in all of its phases (gas, liquid, solid) from the Earth to the
atmosphere and back to the Earth.
Impervious cover: Applied to a bed or stratum or artificial material through which water will not move
under ordinary hydrostatic pressure. In hydrology it is applied to a rock that does not admit the
passage.
Impoundment: A naturally formed or artificially created basin that is closed or dammed to retain water,
sediment or waste.
Indirect impact (or effect): An impact caused by the initial action later time or father removed in
distance, but still reasonably foreseeable.
Infrastructure: Physical structures which facilitate use of the coast, such as roads, paths, piers, toilet
blocks.
Impacts: Effects, which may be either positive or negative, felt as a result of tourism-associated activity.
Tourists have at least three kinds of impacts on a destination: economic, sociocultural and
environmental. Tourism also has effects on tourists, in terms of possible attitude and behaviour
changes.
Inbound Tour Operator: A tourism operator who organizes the services provided to a visitor within the
country being visited.
Indigenous people: Indigenous peoples are those who are descendants of the original inhabitants of an
area or region.
Indigenous species: A species that occurs at a place within its historically known natural range, and
forms part of the natural biological diversity of a place.
Industry Analysis: Performed during the early stages of a feasibility study or business plan to determine
the conditions and sales potential of tourism in the region. The analysis will often include a review of
macro elements, such as a region's economic or political situation, and micro elements, such as
programs being offered by local tourism organizations.
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Integrated coastal zone management: A framework that attempts to integrate planning and
management in a region, such as the State of Victoria, across the land and sea interface and the private
and public land interface, to treat the coastal zone (which includes the catchment) as one biophysical
entity.
Interpretation: Revealing the significance and meanings of natural and cultural phenomena to visitors,
usually with the intent of providing a satisfying learning experience and encouraging more sustainable
behavior.
Intertidal zone: Area between low and high tide which is subject to daily changes in physical and
biological conditions from tide movement (also known as littoral zone).
Introduced species: A translocated or alien species found at a place outside its historically known
natural range, as a result of the intentional or accidental dispersal by human activities. Includes
genetically modified organisms.
Invasive species: An animal pest, weed or disease that can adversely affect indigenous species and
ecosystems.
Jetty: A structure extending into the ocean to influence the current or tide in order to protect harbors,
shores, and banks.
Keystone species: Species that plays a critical role in maintaining the structure of an
ecologicalcommunity and whose impact on the community is greater than would be expected based on
its relativeabundance or total biomass.
Knot: The unit of speed used in navigation that is equal to 1 nautical mile (6,076.115 ft or 1,852 m) per
hour.
Landsat Program: The Landsat Program (NASA) provides the world's scientists and application engineers
with a continuing stream of remote sensing data for monitoring and managing the Earth's resources.
Landsat 7 has produced an uninterrupted multispectral record of the Earth's land surface since 1972.
Along with data acquisition and the USGS archival and distribution systems, the program includes the
data processing techniques required to render the Landsat 7 data into a scientifically useful form.
Special emphasis has been placed on periodically refreshing the global data archive, maintaining an
accurate instrument calibration, providing data at reasonable prices, and creating a public domain level
one processing system that creates high level products of superior quality.
Liability: The financial obligations of a business which must be paid over a set period of time. Examples
include debt, such as bank loans, credit from suppliers and taxes owed.
Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC): A methodology for measuring specific visitor impacts by establishing
indicators and standards applicable to specific situations. A standard indicates a specific level beyond
which stakeholders have determined that an impact is unacceptable and management action must be
taken.
Long-term impacts: Effects that substantially remain beyond short-term ground-disturbing activities.
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Mangrove: A general name for several species of halophyte belonging to different families of plants
(including trees, shrubs, a palm tree and a ground fern) occurring in intertidal zones of tropical and
subtropical sheltered coastlines and exceeding one half meter in height. The term is applied to both the
individual and the ecosystem, the latter of which is termed mangal. Mangroves provide protected
nursery areas for juvenile reef fishes, crustaceans, and mollusks. They also provide a feeding ground for
a multitude of marine species. Many organisms find shelter either in the roots or branches of
mangroves. Mangrove branches are nesting areas for several species of coastal birds. The root systems
harbor organisms that trap and cycle nutrients, organic materials and other important chemicals.
Mangroves also contribute to higher water quality by stabilizing bottom sediments, filtering water and
protecting shorelines from erosion. They protect reefs from land runoff sedimentation. Conversely,
coral reefs protect mangroves and seagrasses from erosion during heavy storms and strong wave action.
The nations with the largest mangrove areas include Indonesia (with 21% of global mangroves), Brazil
(9%), Australia (7%), Mexico (5%), and Nigeria (5%).The global area of mangroves - 150 000 square
kilometers - is equivalent to the area of the state of Illinois, or half the area of the Philippines. About
one fifth of all mangroves are thought to have been lost since 1980, and although loss rates are
declining, they are still 3 to 4 times higher than average global forest loss estimates.
Marine debris: Debris composed primarily of plastics, nets, lines, other fishing gear, glass, rubber, metal,
wood and cloth. Sources of debris are people on beaches, storm drains, fishing boats, waste treatment
sites, and industrial facilities. These materials have damaging effects on coral reefs.
Marine Tourism: Those recreational activities that involve travel away from one's place of residence and
which have as their host or focus the marine environment (where the marine environment is defined as
those waters which are saline and tide-affected).
Mitigation: The reduction or abatement of an impact to the environment by (a) avoiding actions or parts
of actions, (b) using construction methods to limit the degree of impacts, (c) restoring an area to its
pre-disturbance condition, (d) preserving or maintaining an area throughout the life of a project, (e)
replacing or providing substitute resources, (f) gathering data on an archeological or paleontological site
prior to disturbance.
Mud: A fine sediment often associated with river discharge and buildup of organic material in areas
sheltered from high-energy waves and currents.
Mud flat: A relatively level area of fine silt along a shore (as in a sheltered estuary) or around an island,
alternately covered and uncovered by the tide, or covered by shallow water.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) is a federal agency within the US Department of Commerce that is dedicated to
predicting and protecting the environment. NOAA's overall mission is to understand and predict
changes in the Earth+s environment, protect life and property, provide decision makers with reliable
scientific information, conserve and manage the Nation+s living marine and coastal resources to meet
our Nation+s economic, social, and environmental needs, and foster global environmental stewardship.
To achieve its mission, NOAA+s focus through 2008 will be on four mission goals:
1. Protect, restore, and manage the use of coastal and ocean resources through ecosystem-based
management
2. Understand climate variability and change to enhance society+s ability to plan and respond
3. Serve society+s needs for weather and water information
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4. Support the Nation+s commerce with information for safe, efficient, and environmentally sound
transportation.
Natural area: Areas that exist in or are formed by nature which are not artificial, and can include cultural
aspects.
Natural attraction: a tourist attraction that has not been made or created by people.
Natural disaster: a destructive force (e.g. earthquake, flood, volcanic eruption).
Nature Tourism: Tourism directed primarily at natural features but that does not necessarily embrace
the concepts of ecotourism: low impact, economic benefits for conservation and local people, and
education.
Negligence: Failing to exercise what is legally considered to be reasonable care.
NPDES: National Pollution Discharge Elimination System. As authorized by the Clean Water Act, the
NPDES permit program controls water pollution by regulating the discharge of pollutants into waters of
the United States.
Oil plume: Underwater globules of oil that do not float to the surface of the ocean. Heavy use of
chemical dispersants, which breaks up surface oil, is said to contribute to the formation of these plumes,
which may pose a threat to the marine ecosystem.
Oil slick: A layer of oil floating on the surface of water.
Oil spill: The accidental release of oil into the environment.
On-site management: Management of visitor impacts and behaviour on-site through the use of signs,
formed tracks or board-walks, barriers and the physical presence of management staff.
Outbound Tour Operator: A tourism operator who organizes tours and transportation for visitors who
are going to another country, and who usually partners with an inbound operator in the destination
country.
Owners: The people or organizations that hold a legal interest in a business. In a sole proprietorship,
the owner is the proprietor. In a corporation or cooperative, the owners are those people who have
purchased shares.
pH: Denotes logarithmically the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.
PM10: Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 10 micrometers. The designation
is useful because the size may outstrip the body's ability to keep them out of cells.
Preliminary Site Evaluation (PSE): A process consisting of a few basic questions by which planners can
determine whether a particular site is appropriate for ecotourism development.
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Promotion: An activity that raises awareness or makes an ecotourism service more attractive to
potential customers. Common promotional activities include: newspaper advertising, listings in travel
directories, an Internet web site, and trade shows. Promotions also include offering discounts or
packaging an ecotourism service as a single product with airfare or transportation expenses.
Protected Area: A large, legally-protected expanse of territory, usually administered by a government
entity with specific conservation objectives, but whose day-to-day management may be delegated to
the private sector or a coalition of government and private interests.
Phytoplankton: An aquatic microorganism that serves as the base of the aquatic food web providing an
essential ecological function for all aquatic life. When present in high enough numbers, they may
appear as a green discoloration of the water due to the presence of chlorophyll within their cells.
Quality: The degree to which a set of inherent characteristics of a product fulfils customer requirements
(ISO, 2000a).
Quarry: An open or surface working usually for the extraction of building materials such as slate and
limestone or sand and gravel.
Recharge: Replenishment of an aquifer by the addition of water through natural or artificial means.
Regulation: Control through formalized processes.
Renewable energy: Energy sources those are practically inexhaustible. For example solar, hydro and
wind energy.
Resort: A hotel, motel or condominium complex located in an area associated with recreation and
leisure, such as the mountains or the seashore. Normally offer facilities for sports and recreational
activities.
Responsibility clause: That section of a brochure that spells out the conditions under which a tour is
sold. The clause should name the party responsible for the tour financially.
Responsible tourism: Type of tourism which is practiced by tourists who make responsible choices when
choosing their holidays. These choices reflect responsible attitudes to the limiting of the extent of the
sociological and environmental impacts their holiday may cause.
Restoration: After mining ceases, bringing the disturbed land back to its original use or condition or to
alternative uses. Restoration activities include removing structures; grading and restabilizing slopes,
roads, and other disturbed areas; covering disturbed areas with growth medium or soil; and
revegetating disturbed areas.
Revegetation: Establishment of a self-sustaining plant cover.
Rill: A very small channel that changes location with each flow event.
Riparian: Usually used to refer to plants of all types that grow around or in bodies of water.
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Run-on: A hydrologic term that refers both to the process whereby surface runoff infiltrates the ground
as it flows, and to the portion of runoff that infiltrates. Run-on is common in arid and semi-arid areas
with patchy vegetation cover and short but intense thunderstorms.
Runoff: The portion of the rainfall that is not absorbed and that may find its way to bodies of water as
surface flow.
Salt water intrusion: The movement of salt from the sea into a fresh water aquifer often due to over
pumping an aquifer.
Sediment: Insoluble material suspended in water that contains mainly particles derived from rock, soil
and organic material.
Sewage: Household and commercial wastewater containing human or trade waste.
Sewerage: The system which facilitates the collection, transport, treatment and discharge of sewage.
Site Plan: A very detailed drawing that locates all significant natural and cultural features of a site where
intensive ecotourism activity will take place and then determines where infrastructure will be located.
Special interest tour: a tour designed to appeal to clients with a curiosity or concern about a specific
subject. Most special interest tours provide an expert tour leader and usually visit places and/or events
only relevant to that interest.
Stakeholders: Social actors who have a direct or indirect involvement in an activity that affects the
biodiversity systems of a site. This involvement may arise from geographical proximity, historical
association, economic activity, institutional mandate, social interest, cultural traditions or a variety of
other reasons.
Stakeholder Analysis: The TNC stakeholder analysis prioritizes stakeholders linked to critical threats and
profiles a number of key characteristics about the activities in which stakeholders are engaged.
Storm Water: Rainwater that runs off streets and gutters, enters drains and waterways and is eventually
discharged to the sea or other water body.
Sustainable Development: Defined by the United Nations Brundtland Report "Our Common Future" as
"Development thatmeets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs."
Sustainable tourism: According to the World Tourism Organization, this is "envisaged as leading to
management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled
with maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity, and life support
systems."
Terrestrial ecosystem: A system of interdependent organisms which live on land and share the same
habitat, functioning together with all of the physical factors of the environment.
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Threshold: A value that is used as a benchmark for data. Thresholds may be set by laws, regulations or
policies for water quality, air quality, noise, etc.
Topsoil: A general term applied to the surface portion of the soil. It is not defined precisely to depth and
productivity except in reference to a particular soil type.
Total dissolved solids: A measurement that describes the quantity of dissolved material in a sample
ofwater.
Total suspended solids: A water quality measurement. It is measured by pouring a determined volume
of water through a filter and weighing the filter before and after to determine the amount of solids.
Tour: Any pre-arranged journey to one or more destinations.
Tourism: The all-embracing term for the movement of people to destinations away from their place of
residence for any reason other than following an occupation, remunerated from within the country
visited, for a period of 24 hours or more.
Tourism Industry: Tourism Industry is an industry that would cease to exist or would continue to exist
only at significantly reduced levels of activity in the absence of tourism.
Tourism infrastructure: Roads, railway lines, harbours, airport runways, water, electricity, other power
supplies, sewerage disposal systems and other utilities to serve not only the local residents but also the
tourist influx (suitable accommodation, restaurants and passenger transport terminals form the
superstructure of the region).
Tour manual: (1) A summary of facts about a company s rules, regulations, and official procedures; (2) a
compendium of facts about a destination, including its attractions, accommodations, geography, and
special events, used by destination marketing organizations to attract tour operators and visitors and
their area.
Urban growth boundary: A management tool used to contain urban areas and limit their expansion. It
divides land that is urban - to be used for housing, shops, factories - from land that is non-urban and to
be used for purposes such as conservation, agriculture, mineral extraction, airports and the like. An
urban growth boundary encourages urban consolidation and protects valued non-urban areas from
urban development.
Value Chain: The chain of organizations that connect ecotourism customers in the target market (such
as in the United States) with the ecotourism experience in the destination country. For example, the
chain could include the U.S. travel agent, U.S. outbound tour operator, the inbound tour operator and
local ecolodge service provider, which each provide value and chargea fee to the customer.
Visitor Site: A relatively small location where intensive useand management occurs within a larger
ecotourism/conservationcontext.
Wake: Waves generated in the water by a moving vessel.
Wall: The reef slope, which may suddenly drop off into deeper water, forming a nearly vertical wall.
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Wash zone: The depth zone in which sediments are disturbed by wave action near the shoreline.
Watershed: The land and water within the confines of a drainage divide.
Wetlands: Vegetation that is adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Examples of wetlands are
marshes, swamps, lakeshores, bogs, wet meadows, estuaries and riparian areas.
World Heritage Area: Land of cultural and/or natural significance inscribed on the World Heritage List.
World heritage site: a site designated by UNESCO as being of special historical, cultural or natural
importance.
Yield Management: "A revenue maximization technique which aims to increase net yield through the
predicted allocation of available ... capacity to predetermined market segments at optimal price"
(Donaghyetal., 1997a).
Zoning: Zoning is a mechanism for assigning overall management objectives and priorities to different
geographic areas (zones) within a protected area or other ecotourism site. By assigning objectives and
priorities to these zones, planners are also defining what uses will or will not be allowed. These
parameters are usually based upon the characteristics of the natural and cultural resource base,
protected area objectives, and other factors.
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2 REFERENCES
2.1 Cited References
Astorga, Allan (2006), "Gufa ambiental centroamericana para el sector de desarrollo de infraestructura
urbana", UICN / ORMA, San Jose, Costa Rica.
Bauer, Irmgard, 1999, The Impact of Tourism in Developing Countries on the Health of the Local Host
Communities: The need for more research, The Journal Of Tourism Studies Vol. 10, No. 1, MAY '99.
http://www.icu.edu.au/business/public/groups/everyone/documents/iournal article/jcudev 01269
7.pdf
Barfield, B. J. Warner,R.C., and Haan, C.T., 1981, Applied Hydrology and Sedimentology for Disturbed
Areas, OklahomaTechnical Press, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
Berglund, Birgitta, Thomas Lindvall, and Dietrich H Schwela. 1999. Guidelines for Community Noise.
World Health Organization, Washington, pg. 65
http://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/guidelines2.html
Beyond Pesticides, 1996, Environmental Principles for Golf Courses in the United States, March 1996,
http://www.beyondpesticides.org/golf/principles/index.htm
Californian Cruise Ship Environmental Task Force, 2003, Report to the Legislature Regulation of Large
Passenger Vessels in California,
http://monterevbay.noaa.gov/resourcepro/resmanissues/pdf/CA cruise%20 ship rept.pdf
California Storm Water Quality Association (CSWQA), 2003, Material Over Water, California Stormwater
BMP Handbook, NS-14. http://www.ci.concord.ca.us/pdf/living/recycle/brochures/material-over-
water.pdf
Clark, C.O., 1945, Storage and the Unit Hydrograph, ASCE Trans. 110, 1419-1446.
Cole, David N (Compiler), 2005, Computer simulation modeling of recreation use: current status, case
studies, and future directions. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-143. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 75 p.
Cox, Christopher, 2003, The Use of Computer Graphics and Virtual Reality for Visual Impact
Assessments, PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham, 351 pp.
http://etheses.nottingham.ac.Uk/38/l/Whole Thesis.pdf
DataKustik, undated, Computer Aided Noise Abatement (CadnaA) model.
http://www.datakustik.com/en/products/cadnaa
Federal Emergency Management Agency, (FEMA), undated, Hazus-MH
http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/hazus/hz overview.shtmffl
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), undated, Storm Surge
http://www.r3coastal.com/home/storm-surge-study/numerical-model-setup
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FEMATOUR, 2009, Feasibility and Market Study for a European Eco-Label for Tourist Accomodations,
CREM Project No.: 00.402 www.pneumaproject.net/cm/retreiveATT?idAtt=3391.
Hanna T.M., Azrag E.A., Atkinson LC.,1994, Use of an analytical solution for preliminary estimates of
groundwater inflow to a pit, Mining Engineering 46(2), 149-152.
Hanson, C., Finisdore, J., Ranganathan, J. and Iceland, C., 2008. The Corporate Ecosystem Services
Review: Guidelines for Identifying Business Risks and Opportunities Arising from Ecosystem Change
(World Resources Institute, Meridian Institute, World Business Council for Sustainable
Development).
Healthy Reefs for Healthy People, 2010, Report Card for the Mesoamerican Reef - An Evaluation of
Ecosystem Health, http://www.healthyreefs.org/
Hopkins, R, 2002, A Natural Way of Building. Transition Culture, http://green-building.co.tv.
International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA), 1999, Prinicple of Environmental Impact
Assessment- Best Practices, http://www.iaia.org/publicdocuments/special-
ublications/Principles%20of%20IA_web.pdf
International Association for Public Participation (IAP2), 2006, Public Participation Toolbox,
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International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE), 1995, Technical Support
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ILJCN, 2009, Tourism Guideline Architectural Graphic Standards, by Charles George Ramsey and John
Ray, Jr. Hoke, ISBN 9780471348160.
ILJCN, 2009, Guide for Tourism an Environmental and Social Management Instrument - Project:
Environmental Impact Assessment in Central America: A Tool for Sustainable Development.
ILJCN, 2009, Red List, http://www.iucnredlist.org.
ILJCN, 2003, Tourism Guideline International Hotels Environmental Initiative, Water Efficiency
Benchmarks.
Jacob, C.E. and S.W. Lohman, 1952, Nonsteady flow to a well of constant drawdown in an extensive
aquifer, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, vol. 33, pp. 559-569.
Joyce, S. A., and MacFarlane, M.,2001, Social impact assessment in the mining industry: Current
situation and future directions. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development, 46. International
Institute for Environment and Development
Kozak, M., 2002, Destination benchmarking, Annals of Tourism Research 29 :497 -519.
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Leon, Yolanda M. 2004. Community impacts of coastal tourism in the Dominican Republic. ETD
Collection for University of Rhode Island. Paper AAI3147809.
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Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) 2005, Millennium Ecosystem and Human Well Being Synthesis,
Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), 2006, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Synthesis Reports.
2006. http://maweb.org/en/Synthesis.aspx.
Miranda, Marta, David Chambers, and Catherine Coumans, 2005, Framework for Responsible Mining: A
Guide to Evolving Standards, Center for Science in Public Participation and World Wildlife Fund,
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Moyini, 2006, Uganda Ecotourism Assessment, Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry/United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Export Development Programme Implemented by
UEPB.
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Neto Frederico, 2002, Sustainable Tourism, Environmental Protection and Natural Resource
Management: Paradise on Earth?, United Nations, February 2002
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http://www.weather.gov/glossary/
PBS&J, 2008, Best Management Practices (BMPs) for Construction, Dredge and Fill and Other Activities
Adjacent to Coral Reefs, Prepared by: PBS&J for The Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative Maritime
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Soil Conservation Service (SCS), 1985, Natural Engineering Handbook, Section 4, Hydrology, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D. C, March, 1985,
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Soil Conservation Services (SCS), 1972, National Engineering Handbook, Section 4, U.S. Department of
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Snyder, F.F., 1938, synthetic Unit Graphs, trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 19, 447-454.
Thomas, Gareth Wyn, 1996, Environmental Assessment of Visual and Cumulative Impacts arising from
Wind farm Developments : A Welsh Planning Policy Perspective, University of Wales, Aberystwyth,
March 1996.
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Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates: An Introduction to Dispersion
Modeling (2nd Edition ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
United Nations Environment Progamme (UNEP), to be published, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A
Manual for Assessment Practitioners.
UNEP, 1995, Environmental Impact Assessment Training Resource Manual, available at:
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United States Army Corps of Engineers (USAGE), 2009, Coastal Engineering Manual (CEM) (EM 1110-2-
1100) http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/cem
United States Army Corps of Engineers (USAGE), 2007, Shoreline Assessment- Beach Nourishment,
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United States Department of Interior - National Parks Service (USDOI, NPS), 1997, The Visitor
Experience and Resource Protection (VERP) Framework -A Handbook for Planners and Managers.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2009, Green Building Basic Information.
Retrieved December 10, 2009, from http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/about.htm
USEPA, 2003, EPA and Hardrock Mining: A Source Book for Industry in the Northwest and Alaska
USEPA, 2002, Community Culture and the Environment: A Guide to Understanding a Sense of Place,
(EPA842-B-01-003), Office of Water, Washington, DC.
http://www.epa.gov/care/librarv/community culture.pdf
USEPA, 1999, Publications on Mining Waste Management in Indian Country.
USEPA, No Date, Public Participation Toolkit, http://www.epa.gov/international/toolkit/
United States Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), 2006, Traffic Noise Model (TNM)
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/tnm/index.htm
United States Fish and Wildlife Service, undated, Habitat Evaluation Procedure Handbook,
http://www.fws.gov/policy/ESMindex.html
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2001, Environmental Impacts of Tourism
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/envi/index.html
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), undated, World Heritage
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USDA, 1997, Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE),
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Wamsley, T.V., Cialone, MA., Smith, J.M., Ebersole, B.A., 2009, Influence of landscape restoration and
degradation on storm surge and waves in southern Louisiana. Journal of Natural Hazards, 51 (1),
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Wamsley, T.V., Cialone, M.A., Smith, J.M., Atkinson, J.H., and Rosati, J.D., 2010, The potential of
wetlands in reducing storm surge, Ocean Engineering 37(1), 59-68.
van Zyl, D.J.A., I.P.G. Hutchinson, and J.E. Kiel, (editors), 1988, Introduction to Evaluation Design and
Operation of Precious Metal Heap Leaching Projects, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and
Exploration, Inc., Littleton, CO.
Water Pollution Control Federation with American Society of Civil Engineer,1969, Design and
Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers.
World Health Organizaition, Guidelines for recreational use are an example of health based guideline
values for receiving waters based on intended use,
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World Bank Group, 2007. Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines: General EHS Guidelines,
pg. 30.
Drumm, A. and Moore, A, 2005, Ecotourism Development - A Manual for Conseration Planners and
Managers, Volumes 1 and 2, USAID, Alex c. Walker Foundaiton and the Nature conservancy
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/t-glossary.html
Orams, Mark, 1999, Marine Tourism, London: Routledge
Victorian Coastal Council, 2008, Victoria Coastal Strategy 2008,
http://www.vcc.vic.gov.au/2008vcs/glossary.htm
NOAA. Coral Reef Information System, http://coris.noaa.gov/
2.2 Additional References
2.2.1 Environmental Justice/Socio Economics
Brandilyn Gordon, Fausto Sarmiento, Ricardo Russo and Jeffrey Jones, undated, Sustainability Education
in Practice: Appropriation of Rurality by the Globalized Migrants of Costa Rica.
Canada, 2010 Tourism in Central America, Social conflict in a new setting in Communications initiative
on economic hange, human mobility, tourism, and territorial governance in Central America, co-
implemented by Fundacion PRISMA and Alba Sud (May 2009-April 2011).
Ferguson, 2010, Tourism as Development Strategy in Central America: Exploring the Impacts on
Women's Lives. University of Sheffield
GLOBAL CODE OF ETHICS FOR TOURISM adopted by resolution A/RES/406(XIII) at the thirteenth WTO
General Assembly (Santiago, Chile, 27 September -1 October 1999)
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Letson and Milon, 2002, Florida Coastal Environmental Resources - A Guide to Economic Valuation And
Impact Analysis. NOAAand Florida Sea Grant College Program, ISBN 0-916287-52-1
Meletis, Zo"e A and Campbell, Lisa M, 2009, Benevolent and Benign? Using Environmental Justice to
Investigate Waste-related Impacts of Ecotourism in Destination Communities.
http://onlinelibrarv.wilev.eom/doi/10.llll/i.1467-8330.2009.00696.x/full.
World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), 2002, The Caribbean - The Impact of Travel and Tourism on
Jobs and the Economy.
2.2.2 Cruise Facilities
CESD, 2006, "Cruise Tourism in Belize: Perceptions of Economic, Social and Environmental Impact",
Center On Ecotourism and Sustainable Development
2.2.3 Coastal Development
CELB,undated, A practical Guide to Good Practice, Managing Environmental Impacts in the Marine
Recreation Sector"
http://www.conservation.org/Documents/CI ecotourism managing environmental impacts marine r
ecreation.pdf
Harriott, VJ. 2002. Marine tourism impacts and their management on the Great Barrier Reef, CRC Reef
Research Centre Technical Report No 46. CRC Reef Research.
Island Resource Foundation, 1996, Tourism and Coastal Resources Degradation in the Wider Caribbean,
United Nations Environment Programme, Caribbean Environment Programme, Regional
Coordinating Unit, Kingston, Jamaica by Island Resources Foundation, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands
December 1996.
2.2.4 Ecolodge
Blangy, S. and Wood, M. (1992). Developing and Implementing Ecotourism Guidelines for wildlands and
Neighbouring Communities. North Bennington:The Ecotourism Society.
CELB, "A Practical Guide to Good Practice, Managing Environmental and Social Issues in the
accommodations Sector"
http://www.conservation.org/Documents/CI ecotourism practical guide good practice.pdf
CELB, "Tourism and Mountains: A Practical Guide to Managing Environmental and Social Impacts of
Mountain Tours"
http://www.conservation.org/Documents/CI ecotourism practical guide to managing the enviro
nmental and social impacts of mountain tours.pdf
Environmentally Sustainable Tourism Project,1997, Ecolodge Development in Egypt, Volume 9 Cairo,
Egypt.
Ernst and Young, 2004, Sustainable Tourism Development Plan - Development Standards and Design
Guidelines.
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Hawkins, D., Wood,M. and Bittman, S. (editors),(1995) The Ecolodge Source Book for Planners and
Developers, North Bennington, The Ecotourism Society.
IFC, 2004, "ECOLODGES: Exploring Opportunities for Sustainable Business", World Bank.
Mehta, H., 2005, Planning, Design and Construction Guidelines for Desert Ecolodges, Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia, August 2005.
Mehta, H, Baez, A and O'Loughlin P,2002, International Ecolodge Guidelines.
Washington DC :The International Ecotourism Society.
Mehta, H.,2000, Best Practices in Ecolodge Planning, Design and Guidelines.
Ecolodge Forum - Red Sea Sustainable Tourism Initiative. Cairo.
Office of National Tourism, 1997, Best Practice Ecotourism: A Guide to Energy and Waste Minimisation.
Canberra, Australia.
Salama, A.,1998, Ecolodges: Meeting the Demand for Sustainable Tourism Development in Egypt.
Working Paper Series. Vol. 108, IASTE: University of California at Berkeley, California.
South Australian Tourism Commission, 1994, Ecotourism: A South Australian Design Guide for
Sustainable Development. Adelaide, Australia.
Tourism Development Authority, 1998, Best Practices for Tourism Center Development Along the Red
Sea Coast. Cairo, Egypt: Policy Management Group.
Tourism Queensland,1999, Volume 1 and 2: Grow Your Ecotourism Business. Brisbane, Queensland.
United States Department of the Interior, 1993, Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design. Denver, CO:
National Park Service.
World Tourism Organization -WTO,1997, Yearbook of Tourism statistics. Madrid, Spain.
2.2.5 Noise
AU -EPA, 2003, EPA Guidelines, Development proposal assessment for venues where music may be
played ", South African Environmental Protection Authority, www.epa.sa.gov.au
Canberra Environmental Protection, 2009, "Live Music and Entertainment Noise", Department of the
Environment, Climate Change, Energy and Water, www.envrionment.act.gov.au.
Lambeth Environmental Health, 2008, Guidance on the Control of Noise at Outdoor Events", Lambeth
Environmetnal Health, Noise and Pollution Control, London.
2.2.6 Solid Waste
Ball and Taleb, 2010, "Benchmarking Waste Disosal in the Egyptian Hotel Industry", Tourism and
Hospitalit Research, (2011) 11.1-18, http://thr.sagepub.com.
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Pott etal. "Recycling for the Hospitality Industry- A Guide for Instituting Recycling Programs in Hotel and
Motel Properties", Clemson University, Extension.
Polansky etalv 2008, "A Quantitative Assessment of the Environmental Resource Impacts of the
Hospitality Sector (Lodging Facilities) in US EPA Region 2", 2008 EPA NNEMS Fellowship Paper
Thomas J. Downing etalv 1999, "Activity Report No. 68No. 68 Solid Waste Audit of Hotels in Dominica,
St. Lucia, and the Dominican Republic (Punta Cana Region), for the Caribbean Alliance for
Sustainable Tourism and the U.S. Agency for International Development, Bureau for Latin America
and the Caribbean under the Hemispheric Free Trade Expansion Initiative and the Caribbean Region
Program. EHP Activity No. 521-CC.
WWF-UK and IBLF, 2005, Why environmental benchmarking will help your hotel. A guide produced by
the International Business Leaders Forum's travel and tourism program and WWF-UK (World
Wildlife Federation-UK and the International Business Leaders' Forum).
2.2.7 Wastewater
United States National Parks Service (USDOI NPS), 2010, Performance Evaluation of Backcountry Solar
Toilets, Rocky Mountain National Park
http://www.americanalpineclub.org/uploads/mce uploads/Files/PDF/Solar Toilet Report.pdf.
2.2.8 Case Studies
Rainforest Alliance, undated, Guide to Best Practices for Sustainable Tourism in Tropical Forests -
Lodging Businesses,http://www.rainforest-alliance.org.
DEAT,2002, Screening, Information Series 5", Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT),
Pretoria,
http://www.environment.gov.za/Services/documents/publications/eia info series impact significa
nee 24062003.html
Inter America Development Bank, 2002, Environmental Management Insertion in Tourism Sector
Policies in the Caribbean", The Sustainable Economic Development Unit (SEDU), University of the
West Indies.
2.2.9 National Parks
Anderson, Lime and Wang, 1998, "Maintaining the Quality of Park Resources and Visitor Experiences - A
Handbook for Managers", University of Minnesota
Ecotourism Development - Volume 1: A Manual for Conservation Planners and Managers, 2002 and
Volume II: The Business of Ecotourism Management and Development, 2004,The Nature
Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA., I.S.B.N.: 1-886765-16-2
Environmental Screening Forum (ESF),2004, http://pepc.nps.gov
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McCool, Stephen F, Clark, Roger N. and Stankey, George, H., 2007. An assessment of frameworks useful
for public land recreation planning, Gen. Tech Rep. PNW-GTR-705. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 125 p.
Lime, Anderson, and Thompson, 2004, Identifying and Monitoring Indicators of Visitor Experience and
Resource Quality: A Handbook for Recreation Resource Managers,
University of Minnesota.
United States Department of the Interior National Parks Service White Papers
• Cultural Resources Intensity Threshold Definitions
• Transportation Related Impact Topics and Examples of Intensity Definitions
• Standard Mitigation Measures for Cultural Resources
• Table 1: User Capacity Indicators and Standards
• MASTER_-_Potential_Visitor_Use_Related_Measures
Whittaker, D.,B. Shelby, R. Manning, D. Cole, and G. Haas. 2010. Capacity Reconsidered: Finding
Consensus and Clarifying Differences. National Association of Recreation Resource Planners,
Marienville,
Pennsylvania, (www.narrp.org)
2.2.10 General
Ball and Taleb, 2011," Benchmarking Waste Disposal in the Egyptian Hotel Industry".
Directorate of Evaluation and Environmental Control (DECA) Department of Natural Resources and
Environment (SERNA), undated, Good Practice Guide Environmental Sub for Tourist Hotel In
Honduras
Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines, "General EHS Guidelines: Environmental Air
Emissions and Ambient Air Quality", The World Bank, April 2007
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsBvTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 General EH
S l-l/$FILE/l-l+Air+Emissions+and+Ambient+Air+Qualitv.pdf
Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines, "General EHS Guidelines: Waste Management", The
World Bank, April 2007
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsBvTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 General EH
S l-6/$FILE/l-6+Waste+Management.pdf
Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines, "General EHS Guidelines: Environmental Noise
Management", The World Bank, April 2007
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsBvTitle/gui EHSGuidelines2007 General EH
S l-7/$FILE/l-7+Noise.pdf
FERC,2008, Preparing Environmental Documents, Guidelines for Applicants, Contractors and Staff,
September 2008 http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/gen-info/guidelines/eaguide.pdf
IFC, Guidance Note 1, Social and Environmental Assessment and Management Systems, July 31, 2007,
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Packwood Lake Hydroelectric Project, FERC Project No. 2244 , USDA Forest Service Gifford Pinchot
National Forest, Existing Information Analysis for Packwood Lake Recreation Resources Prepared by:
Diane Bedell, Recreation Planner December 13, 2004
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands,
http://www.ramsar.org/cda/ramsar/display/main/main.jsp?zn=ramsar&cp=l 4000 0
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2001, Environmental Impacts of Tourism,
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/envi/index.html
United States Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and
National Marine Fisheries Service, 1994 Guidelines and Principles for Social Impact Assessment, The
Interorganizational Committee on Guidelines and Principles for Social Impact Assessment, May
1994.
World Bank, 1999, The World Bank Operations Manual P 4.01, Annex B - Content of an Environmental
Assessment Report for a Category A Project,_January, 1999,
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/EXTPOLICIES/EXTOPMANUAL/0..contentM
DK:20065951~menuPK:64701637~pagePK:64709096~piPK:64709108~theSitePK:502184.00.html
World Bank, 2007. The World Bank Group Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines, April 2007.
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J. EXAMPLE TERMS OF REFERENCE (TOR)
Terms of Reference (TORs) are used by countries to describe both general and specific expectations for
the preparation of an environmental impact assessment, in this instance tailored to proposed projects
for tourism. Volume 1 Part 2 contains example TORs cross-referenced to Volumes 1 and 2 of the "EIA
Technical Review Guideline for Tourism Projects". It is printed separately to facilitate use by countries
as they prepare their own EIA program requirements for tourism-related projects.
Three example TORs are provided in Volume 1 Part 2:
J-l Hotel and Resort Tourism Projects
J-2 Concessions Tourism Projects
J-3 Marine and Coastal Tourism Projects
As appropriate, they may be used in combination depending upon the scope and configuration of a
proposed tourism project.
In each of the example TORs there is an overview section that describes general expectations for the
preparation of an environmental impact assessment. This is followed by sections addressing each
element of the EIA analysis and documentation including details on what should be included in the
description of the proposed project and alternatives; environmental setting; assessment of impacts;
mitigation and monitoring measures; an environmental management plan; a signed commitment
statement; and key supporting materials.
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