United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air and Radiation
(ANR-443)
Washington, DC 20460
400-R-92-006
March 1992
Air
Transportation Control Measure
Information Documents
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Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Mobile Sources
March 1992
Transportation Control Measure
Information Documents
Prepared by
Cambridge Systematics, Inc.
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TRANSPORTATION CONTROL MEASURE
INFORMATION DOCUMENTS
Contract No. 68-D9-0073
Work Assignment No. II-8
Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Mobile Sources
by
Cambridge Systematic^, Inc.
222 Third Street
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
with
Comsis Corp.
K.T. Analytics, Inc.
Deakin, Harvey, Skabardonis
March 1992
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Preface
The Environmental Protection Agency is required under Section 108(f) of the Clean Air
Act, as amended in 1990, to prepare information "regarding the formulation and emis-
sion reduction potential of transportation control measures related to criteria pollutants
and their precursors." These information documents have been developed "in consulta-
tion with the Secretary of Transportation, and after providing public notice and oppor-
tunity for comment."
This report constitutes information documents for the following sixteen categories of
transportation control measures:
1. Trip Reduction Ordinances
2. Employer-Based Transportation Management Programs
3. Work Schedule Changes
4. Area-wide Rideshare Incentives
5. Improved Public Transit
6. High Occupancy Vehicle Facilities
7. Traffic Flow Improvements
8. Parking Management
9. Park-and-Ride/Fringe Parking
10. Bicycle and Pedestrian Programs
11. Special Events
12. Vehicle Use Limitations/Restrictions
13. Accelerated Retirement of Vehicles
14. Activity Centers
15. Extended Vehicle Idling
16. Extreme Low-Temperature Cold Starts
This Preface is immediately followed by a table identifying examples of the kinds of
transportation control measures that can be included in each of the sixteen categories.
The report then follows with a Summary section that includes a discussion of imple-
mentation experience with transportation control measures, along with summaries of
each of the individual TCMs. A Transportation/ Air Quality Background Information
Preface 1
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chapter then summarizes pertinent background information on the relationships
between transportation and air quality. This section defines basic technical consid-
erations important to the development, analysis, and evaluation of transportation
control measures.
Each individual transportation control measure is described using the following basic
structure:
1. Definition and major variations of measure.
2. Summary description of pertinent examples.
3. Transportation, emissions, and air quality impacts. This discussion is quantitative in
nature whenever possible, and identifies key factors that determine the magnitude of
expected impacts.
4. An estimate of expected capital and operating costs, other important impacts, and
principal travel markets affected. Major areas of uncertainty also are identified.
5. Requirements to achieve effective implementation, including an assessment of major
institutional and political considerations and a discussion of factors affecting the
transferability of findings among urban areas.
6. Bibliography of selected references.
The trip reduction ordinance information document contains, in addition, a model or-
dinance that can be used as the basis for developing area-specific regulations.
Several individuals and organizations have contributed to the development of these
documents, including the following:
Cambridge Systematics, Inc.
John H. Suhrbier
Samuel T. Lawton
Susan Jones Moses
Robert A. Lepore
Samuel N. Seskin
David B. Reinke
Lance R. Grenzeback
Deborah A. Dagang
Joseph A. Moriarty
Comsis Corporation
EricN.Schreffler
Deakin, Harvey, Skabardonis
Elizabeth A. Deakin
K.T. Analytics, Inc.
Kiran Bhatt
Thomas J. Higgins
Georgia Institute of Technology
Michael D. Meyer
Direction from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has been provided by Mark
Simons, and initially by Gary Hawthorn. The information document on Accelerated
Retirement of Vehicles was prepared by Will Schroeer of EPA's Office of Policy, Plan-
ning and Evaluation.
Preface
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Preliminary drafts of these Section 108(f) information documents were reviewed by the
Transportation Control Measure Panel of the National Association of Regional Council's
Clean Air Project. The following individuals participated in this review and are re-
sponsible for many of the changes incorporated in this March, 1992 publication:
Sarah Siwek, Chair
Chris Brittle
Ray Ruggieri
Charles Goodman
Jon Williams
William Blackmer
Charles Howard
Martin Robins
Richard Roberts
Karen Kudebeh
Wallace Krawitzky
Larry Filler
Michael Morris
William Knight
John Amberger
Andrew Plummer
Susan Pultz
Ron Roggenburk
Mark Howard
Los Angeles County Transportation Commission
Metropolitan Transportation Commission
New York Metropolitan Transportation Council
Baltimore Regional Council of Governments
Washington, D.C. Council of Governments
California Department of Transportation
Washington State Department of Transportation
New Jersey Transit
Port Authority TransHudson (PATH)
Colorado Department of Health
New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation
Transit Center (New York)
North Central Texas Council of Governments
Toledo Metropolitan Area Council of Govern-
ments
Southeast Michigan Council of Governments
Chicago Area Transportation Study
Metropolitan Transportation Commission
Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission
National Association of Regional Councils
Manager, Clear Air Project
Preface
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Transportation Control Measure (TCM)
Typology
I. Trip Reduction Ordinances
A. Special Use Permits
6. Negotiated Agreements
C. Trip Reduction Goals
D. Mandated Ridesharing and Activity Programs
E. Transportation Management Funds and Districts
F. Requirements for Adequate Public Facilities
G. Conditions of Approval for New Construction
H. Applicability
1. New Development versus Existing Employers
2. Variation by Employment Size
3. Phase-In-Provisions
n. Employer-Based Transportation Management Programs
A. On-site Employer Transportation Coordinator
B. Transit/Rideshare Services
1. Provide HOV Shuttle Services Between Company Facilities
2. Centralized Vanpool/Carpool Matching Service
3. Rideshare/Transit Marketing/Information Programs
4. Designated Transportation Coordinator
5. HOV Priority Parking
6. Vanpool/Subscription Bus Financing
7. Subscription Buses or Buspooling
8. Midday and Park-and-Ride Shuttles
9. Guaranteed Ride Home
C. Bicycle and Walking
D. Employee Financial Incentives
1. Subsidize Transit Use
2. Transportation Allowances
3. Eliminate Employee Parking Subsidies
4. Charge for Drive-Alone Parking
HI. Work Schedule Changes
A. Telecommuting
1. Home
2. Satellite Work Center
3. Neighborhood Work Center
Transportation Control Measure (TCM) Typology
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B. Flextime
1. Daily Start/End Time
2. Number of Hours Worked
a. Per Day
b. Per Week
c. Per Pay Period
C. Compressed Work Week
1. 4 Day Week, 10 Hour Work Day
2. 5/4-9 Plan (80 Hours in 9 Days)
D. Staggered Work Hours
IV. Area-wide Rideshare Incentives
A. Areawide Commute Management Organizations (Third Party Brokerage)
1. Carpool Matching Programs
2. Vanpool Programs
3. Shared Ride Taxi
4. Guaranteed Ride Home
B. Transportation Management Associations (TMAs)
1. Operation of Ridesharing and Other Transportation Management
Programs
2. Education
3. Informational Materials
4. Advocacy
5. Transportation Service Coordinators
6. Employee Surveys
7. Organization
a. Independent, Non-Profit Corporations
b. Existing Business Organizations
C. Tax Incentives and Subsidy Programs
1. State/Local Tax Exemptions for Vanpool or Transit Subsidies
2. Exemption of Ridesharing Vehicles from "Common Carrier" Status
3. Safety Regulations for Vanpools, Buspools, Subscription Buses
4. Insurance Coverage
5. Liability Responsibility
6. Accelerated Depreciation Allowance for Employer-Provided Vanpools
and Bicycle Facilities
7. State/Local Gas Tax Exemptions for Provision of Vanpool Benefits
V. Improved Public Transit
A. System/Service Expansion
1. Fixed Guideway Transit
2. Fixed Route and Express Bus Services
3. Circumferential and Local Bus Service
4. Paratransit Programs
Transportation Control Measure (TCM) Typology
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B. System/Service Operational Improvements
1. Feeder Bus Service
2. Express Bus Service
3. Bus Route and Schedule Modifications
4. Improved Transfers
5. Schedule Coordination
6. Bus Traffic Signal Preemption
7. Road Operational Changes
8. Operations Monitoring
9. Maintenance Improvements
10. Park/Ride Service
11. Subscription Bus Service
C. Demand/Market Strategies
1. Employer Offered Incentives
2. Marketing and Information Programs
3. Peak/Off-peak Transit Fares
4. Simplified Fare Collection
5. Reduced Fares
6. Monthly Passes
7. Uniticket Programs
8. Passenger Amenities
9. Joint Development Activities
VI. High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes
A. Freeways
1. Exclusive, in a separate right of way
2. Barrier or buffer-separated
3. Concurrent-flow (no physical separation)
4. Centra-flow
5. Queue bypass
B. Arterials
1. Concurrent-flow
2. Contra-flow
3. Median
4. Bus Street
5. Bus Tunnel
C. Entrance Ramp Priority
D. Parking Facilities
. E. Applicability
1. Buses
2. Carpools
a. 2+ occupants
b. 3+ occupants
3. Vanpools
4. Other
5. Time Periods
a. Peak Periods
b. Entire Day
Transportation Control Measure (TCM) Typology
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VII. Traffic Flow Improvements
A. Traffic Signalization
1. Local Intersection Signal Improvements
2. Interconnected Arterial Signal System
3. Area Signal System
4. Equipment or Software Updating
5. Eliminate Unnecessary Signals and Stop Signs
B. Traffic Operations
1. Intersection and Roadway Widening
2. One-Way Streets
3. Turn Lane Installation
4. Turning Movement and Lane Use Restrictions
5. Reversible Lane System
6. Strengthen Curb Cut Controls
C. Enforcement and Management
1. New Freeway Lane Using Shoulders or Reduced Lane Widths
2. Incident Management Systems
3. Freeway Diversion and Advisory Signing
4. Ramp Metering
5. Surveillance and Control
6. Enforcement
D. Intelligent Vehicle and Highway Systems (TVHS)
Parking Management
A. Preferential Parking for High Occupancy Vehicles
1. Garages and Lots
2. Metered Spaces
B. Public Sector Parking Pricing
1. Alter Rates
2. Long vs. Short Term Parking
3. Impose New Prices
4. Tax the Provision of Free Private Parking
C. Parking Requirements in Zoning Codes
1. Revise Maximum and Minimum Requirements
2. Allow Reductions in Minimum Requirements for Traffic
Mitigation Actions
D. On-Street Parking Controls
1. Curb Parking Restrictions
2. Residential Parking Controls
3. Peak Hour Parking Ban and Enforcement
4. Reduced Legal Parking Spaces in High Congestion Areas
5. Increase Meter Fees
6. Increased Enforcement and Towing
E. Commercial Vehicles
1. On-Street Loading Zones
2. Off-Street Loading Areas
3. Peak Hour On-Street Loading Prohibition
Transportation Control Measure (TCM) Typology
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F. Control of Parking Supply
1. Limit Construction of New Parking Facilities in Areas Served by Mass
Transit
2. Limit Number of On- and Off-Street Parking Spaces in Designated Areas
3. Use of Zoning and Parking Regulations to Limit Capacity
IX. Park-and-Ride/Fringe Parking
A. Construct New/Enlarged Dedicated Facilities on Public Property
B. Use of Direct Ramps to Connect Park-and-Ride Lot with Freeway System
C. Locate Personal Business Support Services at Park-and-Ride Lots including
Day-Care Centers, Financial Services, Convenience Stores, and Dry
Cleaners
D. Joint Use of Theater, Shopping Center, Church, Stadium Parking Facilities,
as Available
E. Parking at all Major Transit Stations
F. Locate Fringe Parking to Serve Major Highway Facilities/Interchanges Near
Central Business District
G. Provide Transit/Shuttle Services to Park and Ride/Fringe Parking
H. Priority Parking for HOV's at Major Parking Facilities
I. Provide Bicycle Lockers/Storage at Parking Facilities
X. Bicycle and Pedestrian Programs
A. Bicycle Facilities
1. Bicycle Routes, Lanes, and Paths
2. Bicycle Plans and Maps
3. Bicycle Coordinators
4. Lockers, Racks, and Other Storage Facilities
5. Showers and Clothing Lockers
6. Integration with Transit
7. Ordinances
8. Education
9. Media and Promotion
B. Pedestrian Facilities and Programs
1. Sidewalks and Walkways
2. Safe Facilities
a. Crosswalks
b. Walk Signals
c. Median Strips
d. Speed Ramps
e. Lighting
f. Clear Sight Lines
3. Sidewalk Environment/Furniture
a. Benches
b. Street Level Shops
c. Amenities
4. Connections with Transit
5. Education
Transportation Control Measure (TCM) Typology
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XI. Special Events
1. Remote Parking with Shuttle Service
2. Public Transportation
3. Highway Improvements
4. Signage, Communication and Public Education/Information
5. Traffic Flow Improvements
6. Parking Management
7. Pedestrian Access/Circulation
8. Public and Private Coordination Committee
9. Operations Response Teams
10. Alternate Travel Schedules
11. Rescheduling of Truck Travel
XII. Vehicle Use Limitations/Restrictions
A. Route Diversion
1. Auto Restricted Zones
2. Pedestrian Malls
3. Traffic Controls
B. No-Drive Days
1. Voluntary
2. Required (e.g., License Plate)
C. Control of Truck Movements
1. Designated Truck Routes
2. Truck Management Strategies
a. Sign Placement
b. Variable Message Signs
c. Speed Restrictions
d. Additional Lanes
e. Lane Restrictions
f. Mobile Safety Inspection Teams
3. Scheduling of Shipping/Receiving
4. Peak Period Truck Bans on Freeways or Major Arterials
5. Freight and Delivery Consolidation
Xin. Accelerated Retirement of Vehicles
A. Vehicle Eligibility
B. Dollar Value of Payment
C. Program Duration
1. Length of Buy-Back Period
2. One Time Program
3. Sequential Program
D. Limitations on Number of Vehicles Bought
1. None
2. Maximum Number
E. Retirement vs. Tune Up
F. Administration
1. Public Sector
2. Private Sector
3. Use of Credits in Emissions Banking and Trading
Transportation Control Measure (TCM) Typology
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XIV. Activity Centers
A. Design Guidelines/Regulations
1. Transit
2. Carpooling and Vanpooling
3. Pedestrian
4. Bicycling
8. Parking Regulations and Standards
C. Mixed Use Development Ordinances and Zones
D. Site Plan Review Ordinances
XV. Extended Vehicle Idling
A. Controls on Drive-Through Facilities
1. New Facilities
2. Existing Facilities
B. Limitations on Idling of Heavy-Duty Vehicles
1. Trucks
2. Buses
3. Locomotives and Other Mobile Sources
C. Vehicle Modifications
XVI. Extreme Low-Temperature Cold Starts
A. Vehicle Modifications
1. Block Heaters
2. Intake Manifold Heaters
3. Monolithic Catalysts
4. Start or Warm-up Catalysts
5. Multipoint Fuel Injection Systems
B. Parking Facility Electrical Outlets
1. Public Facilities
2. Private Employers
C. Transit Use Incentives
D. No-Drive Days
E. Vehicle Fleet Operations
Transportation Control Measure (TCM) Typology
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Summary
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Summary
Purpose
This report contains the transportation control measure information documents pre-
pared under Section 108(f) of the Clean Air Act. Each of the sixteen measures identified
in Table 1 is described in terms of its objectives, variations in the ways it may be applied,
representative examples of actual usage, expected transportation and emissions impacts,
other potentially important considerations, and a set of implementation guidelines that
can be followed by state, regional, and local agencies.
The term "transportation control measure" or TCM encompasses elements of both
"transportation system management" (TSM) and "transportation demand management"
(TDM). Transportation system management strategies generally refer to the use of low
capital intensive transportation improvements to increase the efficiency of trans-
portation facilities and services. These can include carpool and vanpool programs,
parking management, traffic flow improvements, high occupancy vehicle lanes, and
park-and-ride lots. The TSM term also is applied to techniques used to reduce the
demand for travel within an area. Transportation demand management generally refers
to policies, programs, and actions that are directed towards increasing the use of high
occupancy vehicles (transit, carpooling, and vanpooling) and the use of bicycling and
walking. TDM also can include activities that encourage commuting outside the
congested peak period, and that encourage telecommuting as an alternative to driving.
In practice, there is considerable overlap among these three concepts and the terms
TCM, TSM, and TDM often are used interchangeably.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 were strongly influenced by a recognition that
mobile sources are major contributions to air quality problems in nonattainment areas.
The substantial reductions in tailpipe emissions achieved during the 1970s and 1980s,
largely through catalytic converters and improvements in fuel efficiency, were rendered
less effective in their net impact by increases in vehicle trips and vehicle miles traveled
(VMT). Changes in demographics and employment patterns during the 70s and 80s
have resulted to increases in vehicle ownership and VMT that are higher than growth
rates in population. As a result, net emissions reductions from mobile sources generally
have been lower than originally anticipated despite significant technological advances.
This report provides basic information on transportation control measures for local
elected officials, private employers and other public and private sector decision-makers
who will need to assess the applicability of different strategies for solving the mobile
source emission problem in their area. These information documents also provide
Suntinory
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Table 1. Section 108(f) Transportation Control Measure
Information Documents
1. Trip Reduction Ordinances
2. Employer-Based Transportation Management Programs
3. Work Schedule Changes
4. Area-wide Rideshare Incentives
5. Improved Public Transit
6. High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes
7. Traffic Flow Improvements
8. Parking Management
9. Park-and-Ride/Fringe Parking
10. Bicycle and Pedestrian Measures
11. Special Events
12. Vehicle Use Limitations/Restrictions
13. Accelerated Retirement of Vehicles
14. Activity Centers
15. Extended Vehicle Idling
16. Extreme Low-Temperature Cold Starts
Summary
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information to non-transportation professionals who wish to gain a greater under-
standing of the potential impacts of TCM strategies.
The report begins with a general discussion of the interrelationships between trans-
portation and air quality, providing basic background information that is important in
understanding the manner in which transportation activities can effect emissions. For
the person who already has an extensive background in transportation air quality, this
chapter may not be necessary reading. For the person who is relatively new to the field,
however, this chapter provides background that is not contained in the subsequent in-
dividual TCM chapters.
This summary consists of two parts. This first part summarizes important transpor-
tation related provisions of the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act, and synthesizes
the extensive national experience in implementing TCM type programs. The second
section provides a brief introduction to each of the Section 108(f) transportation control
measures, including examples, key issues, and implementation considerations.
Transportation Provisions of the 1990 Clean Air Act
The 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act add significantly to the potential importance
of transportation measures both as elements of a state implementation plan and as
potential contingency measures. In reviewing these TCM information documents and
assessing the potential implementation of TCM programs, it is important to have a
sound understanding of both the many transportation-related requirements now con-
tained in the Clean Air Act and the air quality-related provisions of the Intermodal
Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991. The following is a very brief summary of
some of the more important of these provisions. Amplification and important details,
however, are not provided in the interest of conciseness. A careful reading of the rele-
vant sections of the Clean Air Act and the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency
Act is recommended.
An implementation plan is to include enforceable control measures, including time
schedules and compliance procedures (Section 110(a)(2)). These control measures
can include economic incentives.
Plans should provide for the implementation of all reasonably available control
measures as expeditiously as practical (Section 172(cğ.
Sixteen categories of transportation control measures are identified (Section 108(f)).
Severe and extreme ozone areas must adopt specific and enforceable transportation
control strategies as necessary to demonstrate attainment (Section 182(d)(l)(Ağ. A
parallel requirement exists for serious carbon monoxide nonattainment areas. (Sec-
tion 187(b)(2)).
Summary
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Reasonable further progress is required in the achievement of air quality deadlines.
Specifically, annual incremental reductions in emissions as may reasonably be re-
quired for ensuring attainment of the standard by the applicable date must be de-
monstrated (Section 171(1)).
Ozone nonattainment areas classified as moderate and above must submit imple-
mentation plan revisions that demonstrate a 15 percent reduction in VOC emissions
by November 15, 19% (Section 182(b)(D).
Severe and above ozone areas must utilize transportation strategies to offset the
growth in emissions due to growth in vehicle miles of travel and vehicle trips (Sec-
tion 182(d)(D(A)).
Employers with 100 or more employees in severe ozone nonattainment areas are
required to implement trip reduction programs designed to reduce commute-related
VMT and vehicle trips by employees sufficiently that the average vehicle occupan-
cy of employee work trips is at least 25 percent above the area average (Section
Nonattainment areas that fail to demonstrate compliance or to meet a milestone must
implement additional control measures from an approved contingency plan. These
additional measures can include transportation control measures, or economic in-
centives implemented in conjunction with transportation control measures (Section
Serious CO nonattainment areas failing to meet a milestone are required to im-
plement a transportation control program (Section 187(d)).
Serious ozone nonattainment areas are to conduct a monitoring program to demon-
strate whether current aggregate vehicle mileage, vehicle emissions, and congestion
levels are consistent with those assumed for the area's demonstration of attainment
(Section 182(c)(5)). Where these criteria are found to be in exceedance, a plan re-
vision must be developed that contains transportation control measures drawn from
but not limited to the Section 108(f) list.
In summary, transportation control measures must be systematically considered and
evaluated in the development of implementation plan revisions. These TCM in-
formation documents provide a starting point for these evaluations. Final decisions,
though, should be based on the results of local consultation and a determination of what
is reasonably available, effective, and feasible within the context of an area's transpor-
tation system and the ongoing transportation planning/programming process.
The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA) represents
landmark transportation legislation with potentially far reaching implications for
helping to achieve the objectives of the Clean Air Act. The Act provides significantly
increased funding flexibility with respect to how monies can be used for highway,
transit, and other transportation improvements. A $6 billion Congestion Mitigation and
Air Quality Improvement Program is created to help implement projects and programs
Summary
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that will contribute to achieving attainment of the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards. Eligible projects include Clean Air Act Section 108(0 transportation control
measures and projects contained in a State Implementation Plan (SIP). Urbanized areas
over 200,000 population are designated as Transportation Management Areas. Each
such area is to have a congestion management system that provides for "use of travel
demand reduction and operational management strategies." The long-range transpor-
tation plan for metropolitan areas which are nonattaiiunent for either ozone or carbon
monoxide is to be coordinated with the process for developing transportation control
measures for the Clean Air Act's State Implementation Plan (SIP).
The Intennodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act requires coordination between the
transportation and air quality planning processes, with flexible funding being provided
to help states and urban areas develop and implement the transportation portions of a
State Implementation Plan.
TCM Implementation Experience
There is extensive experience throughout the country in planning, designing, and
implementing the kinds of transportation control measures identified in Section 108(f)
and listed in Table 1. The following paragraphs synthesize this experience into a series
of overall conclusions regarding the status of transportation control measures.
The majority of TCMs, but not all, are being routinely implemented across the country
for a wide variety of objectives, many as part of corridor and regional congestion man-
agement plans. These kinds of measures should not be considered as being either con-
troversial or even innovative, but as being feasible and routinely available.
The implementation of TCMs most often requires a cooperative process involving state,
regional, and local agencies. In addition, experience has shown the critical role that
employers have in increasing the effectiveness of an overall TCM program.
While some TCMs can be planned and implemented over a relatively short time period,
many require 3 to 5 years to be effectively developed and implemented. Others such as
rail transit programs should be considered as long range, in terms of both their planning
requirements and their expected benefit period.
Area-wide effectiveness (whether VMT or emissions) is critically dependent upon the
size of the market segment affected. Many TCMs may be directed only at peak period
or work trips, or to a particular geographic area. Such measures may be highly effective
within their target market, but have only a limited impact when expressed in overall
regional terms. Work trips, for example, typically constitute only about 30 percent of
total travel. However, work trips are the most amenable to control since they constitute
the most regular set of trips. In addition, employers can exert considerable influence
over work trip modes. The peak periods also represent the highest concentration of
Summary
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mobile source emissions and therefore remain an important control target. Additional
benefits accrue to the region because work trips taken by alternative modes result in
vehicles being left at home (or in park-and-ride lots) where they are unavailable for mid-
day trips. Furthermore, reductions in peak period trips have added benefits in elimi-
nating congestion-related emissions.
In many nonattainment areas, analyses have shown that additional stationary, area, and
non-TCM mobile sources will not be sufficient to achieve attainment of the air quality
standards within the legislatively mandated time schedules. In these cases, it is not a
question of whether or not to use TCMs, but what TCMs are needed in addition to these
other measures.
TCMs can be thought of in three broad categories: voluntary or incentives, regulatory,
and market based (or pricing). Ideally, a TCM program should contain incentives as
well as disincentives, and elements of all three categories. Programs consisting only of
voluntary incentives consistently have been shown to have lower levels of effectiveness
than when combined with mandatory requirements and pricing measures.
Section 182(g)(4) of the new Clean Air Act discusses economic incentive programs and
states that such programs may include emission fees along with incentives and dis-
incentives to reduce vehicle emissions and vehicle miles of travel. Pricing incentives
include employer subsidized transit passes and provision of various ridesharing
services. Other possible employer-based pricing strategies include elimination of free or
low cost parking for employees, or the provision of a transportation benefit that an
employee can choose to use for parking, ridesharing, or transit. These Clean Air Act
provisions are supported by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of
1991 which creates a $25 million per year Congestion Pricing Pilot Program.
The potential transportation impacts of TCMs include changes in vehicle miles of travel,
the number of trips, vehicle speed, the time of day in which a trip occurs, the destination
of auto trips, and even the number and type of automobiles which a household chooses
to own. For example, trip reductions in the range of 15 to 20 percent as result of
employer-based transportation management programs are not uncommon. The impacts
of TCM measures and programs are sufficiently large to consider worthwhile and worth
the effort.
VMT should not be relied upon exclusively, or even primarily, as a transportation proxy
for emissions reductions. It is important that changes in vehicle trips and operating
speed also be examined. Analyses have shown that cold start and the various evapora-
tive emissions are more significant than previously thought, and need to be explicitly
considered in a transportation emissions analysis. An objective, therefore, should be to
reduce vehicle trips, rather than just to reduce VMT.
The non-air quality benefits of TCMs need to be explicitly recognized as part of an air
quality analysis. These include reduced congestion, improved safety, reduced travel
time and cost, and the reduced need for new highway construction. Implementation
decisions in both the public and private sectors are based on a consideration of all
potentially relevant issues, rather than just a single factor such as air quality. When
Summary
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properly calculated, the vast majority of TCMs have been shown to have benefit/cost
ratios greater than one, and frequently as great as ten or higher. Expressed in terms of
cost/effectiveness, this implies a negative cost/ effectiveness ratio since the value of the
non-air quality benefits will exceed program costs.
Developing effective mechanisms for administering, maintaining, and enforcing TCMs is
a critical element of long-term success. Many programs have enjoyed a short-run
effectiveness, only to see their impacts erode after two or three years. Certain programs
have proven difficult to enforce, thereby inviting a high level of violations and generally
leading eventually to abandonment. Developing these mechanisms means involving
those organizations that will be involved in administering, maintaining, or enforcing a
measure in the planning and design of that measure. It also means that adequate staff
and funding resources need to be allocated, and a meaningful array of violation penal-
ties needs to be in place.
Developing a Program of Transportation Control Measures
There is a need for TCM programs that are carefully designed rather than merely
representing a collection of individual measures. This design process needs to consider:
Issues of equity;
Providing area-wide measures such as transportation management associations that
can reinforce more localized measures such as employer-based trip reduction targets;
Enhancing the supply of transit, ridesharing, bicycling, and walking options rather
than just restricting or discouraging the use of drive alone travel;
Incorporating elements of pricing and market-based incentives, with particular
attention paid to the distribution of public and private travel subsidies;
Including marketing, education, and public awareness as well as more traditional
technical activities;
Incorporating longer range, permanent measures as well as short run measures that
are capable of being quickly implemented and producing immediate impacts but
which also may be more temporary in character; and
Assuring adequate intergovernmental involvement, cooperation and commitment.
A carefully designed, inter-related program may include 15 to 20 individual measures
and be three to four times as effective as any of the measures taken individually.
Summary
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Developing an effective monitoring mechanism also is an important element of good
program design. Benefits may take several years to develop, and it is necessary to
monitor the changes in the full array of program impacts over a period of several years.
Monitoring also provides an invaluable evaluation feedback mechanism that can be
used to improve the design of both individual measures and overall programs. Ex-
perience has demonstrated that many TCMs can be improved by "learning while doing."
Despite the best intentions, it is extremely difficult to anticipate all possible conse-
quences of an action. A mechanism, therefore, needs to be built into a program's
administration that allows adjustments and enhancements over time. A cautionary
note, though, is in order. The style of monitoring mat is being recommended is not one
that is oriented primarily to promotion, public relations, and marketing. Rather the
objective is to improve the understanding of program operations and impacts. Ex-
pressed in terms of an area-wide ridesharing organization, information is wanted on the
number of trips and vehicle miles of travel eliminated, not just the number of carpool
matching applications processed.
A systematic process should be followed to identify, screen, evaluate, and develop an
implementation program for potential TCMs. This process should include but not be
limited to the following activities:
Defining local baseline travel conditions for both the current inventory year and a
future target year against which program measures will be designed;
Identifying other available and planned transportation infrastructure that will either
support or serve as a barrier to the development of effective TCMs;
Identification of other local, regional, and state objectives that are compatible with
programs to improve transportation-related air quality;
Develop realistic target levels of effectiveness based on the local baseline travel
conditions;
Estimate capital and operating costs, and necessary administrative requirements;
Determine the availability of funding and other necessary program resources,
considering private as well as traditional public mechanisms; and
Involve business and other community groups, gradually developing an under-
standing of all relevant issues and gaining acceptance of the developed program.
There are variations in the effectiveness of TCMs by urban area, depending upon the
density and distribution of population and employment, the form of existing highway
and transit systems, and population/employment demographics. It is difficult, indeed
dangerous, to apply a single effectiveness number (or even a narrow range) to different
urban areas. This is true for travel measures such as VMT; it is especially true for esti-
mates of emissions which are in addition highly sensitive to temperature and compo-
sition of the vehicle fleet.
Suimnfiry
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It is useful and even necessary, therefore, to quantitatively analyze the effectiveness of
TCM programs. The standard four stage urban transportation analysis process can
serve as a base for this analytical capability, but generally needs to be refined and
extended if it is to be successfully applied for air quality analysis purposes. A variety of
"sketch planning" analysis approaches also are available, and can be considered as
feasible alternatives to use of die full and standard UTPS-style analysis systems. EPA is
preparing separate information on methodologies to analyze changes in travel activity
due to TCMs.
TCM Approval Criteria
Before a program of TCMs can be approved, the program must meet federal State
Implementation Plan (SIP) submittal requirements. The EPA has prepared a SIP
Submittal Completeness Checklist (40 CFR, Part 51, Federal Register, February 15,1990,
p. 5824), to guide the preparation and review of SIP submittals. Where applicable,
TCMs included in a SIP will be subject to these criteria. In addition, at a minimum, the
SIP must provide evidence of adequate financial and human resources for each TCM,
and must describe the process of implementation, enforcement, monitoring and
maintenance of the program. Note that, depending on the measure, some of these
criteria may not be applicable. Also, individual states may have additional criteria, such
as quantifying economic impacts, which must be addressed. In any case, the documen-
tation for a program of TCMs should be discussed with the EPA Regional Office prior to
formal incorporation into a SIP.
Summaries of Individual Transportation Control Measures
The effectiveness of transportation control measures can be enhanced through a con-
sideration of their synergistic effects. In general, an integrated program of TCMs should
be implemented so as to achieve the full travel and emissions reduction potential of the
individual strategies. It is important to understand, therefore, that some TCMs are
mutually supportive, while others are potentially in conflict. For example:
Trip reduction ordinances can be significantly enhanced by offering alternatives to
single-occupant vehicle travel such as improved public transit, bicycle and
pedestrian improvements, and area-wide ridesharing.
Park-and-ride and fringe parking strategies can support the provision of HOV lanes
and improved public transit.
Summary
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Vehicle use limitations/restrictions can be reinforced through parking management
and strategies to address congestion at major activity centers.
At the same time, certain strategies may conflict with one another and still other
strategies may have few, if any, synergbtic or countervailing effects.
Trip Reduction Ordinances
Definition: Requirements designed to encourage use of alternative transportation
modes, rather than single-occupant vehicles. Enacted through local or regional
government regulations or ordinances, such as zoning ordinances or building codes.
Can establish performance goals or limitations on volume of trips generated from
specific employment sites or developments.
Examples: Policies to encourage provision of commute alternatives information and
incentives at workplace; trip reduction requirements through negotiations over re-
zoning; trip reduction activities as quid pro quo for reductions in parking space require-
ments; imposition of impact fees to fund transportation improvements; incorporation of
trip reduction measures as condition of approval of new development; requirements
that development or employers over a specified size develop and implement demand
management programs.
Have been in existence, initially in California municipalities, for over a decade. Ap-
plications have spread in recent years. Currently, at least 60 TROs (in various forms)
exist nationwide.
Key Issues: Allows for systematic management of travel behavior, particularly in areas
experiencing new development; provides a tool to local governments to plan and control
for effects of new development on transportation infrastructure; latitude for TRO design
allows for wide range of options and applications; requirements can be voluntary
and /or mandatory; can be designed to target specific trip types.
Considerations: May be viewed as anti-growth or as imposing added costs to devel-
opment; emphasis should be on encouragement of socially beneficial travel choices
rather than direct control of travel behavior.
Employer-Based Transportation Management Programs
Definition: Various programs implemented by employers to manage the commute and
travel behavior of employees, with the objective of reducing the number of single
occupant automobiles used for commuting.
Examples: Alternative travel modes (such as vanpooling and carpooling, subscription
buses, bicycling, walking, shuttle services, guaranteed rides home), alternative work
Summary % 10
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schedules, financial incentives and disincentives (including transit pass subsidies, sub-
sidized vanpools, transportation allowances), and on-site support (such as on-site sale of
transit passes, transportation coordinators, information dissemination).
Have been used primarily by large employers, those having more than 100 employees at
a single worksite. Examples include the 3M Company in Minneapolis St. Paul; the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission in Montgomery County, Maryland; and public,
private, and non-profit employers in urban areas such as Seattle, Los Angeles, San
Francisco, Washington, Boston, and Hartford. Some programs began as early as the
1920's. Many of the newer programs began with the energy crises of the mid- and late-
1970's. Congestion management currently is an important motivation.
Key Issues: Programs can consist of both voluntary and mandatory measures; gener-
ally, a "package" of various complementary measures produces greatest impacts.
Considerations: Must obtain cooperation of majority of employers within target area in
order to effectively reduce area-wide commute trips; most effective programs result
from motivation of employer to reduce demand for limited parking or to assure ac-
cessibility of employees to workplace.
Work Schedule Changes
Definition: Changes in work schedule to provide greater flexibility in work schedule
and reduce volume of commute travel during peak periods. This, in turn, can facilitate
and encourage the development of ridesharing arrangements, off-peak commuting,
and/or reductions in total commute trips.
Examples: Telecommuting, flexible work hours ("flextime"), compressed work weeks,
staggered work hours.
There is much current interest in telecommuting, with a number of pilot and demon-
stration programs existing in the western portion of the country. Examples include the
Puget Sound (Washington State) Telecommuting Demonstration Project, the State of
California Telecommuting Project, and the Los Angeles County program in which 1,700
employees telecommute at least one day a week.
Flexible work schedules are in widespread use by many employers, both large and
small, on a national scale. An example of a city wide program is the San Francisco
California Flextime Demonstration Project. Many federal employees participate in
compressed work week programs.
Key Issues: Can support ridesharing activities by providing greater flexibility in
coordination of arrival and departure schedules by potential pool partners. Fears that
reductions in work trip VMT would be offset by increased non-work travel generally
have not been realized.
Summary 11
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Considerations: A number of important organizational and personnel issues need to be
considered and work schedule changes may not be applicable to employers involved in
certain businesses or industries whose production processes require adherence to strict
schedules. These programs, however, should be acceptable to most employers and em-
ployees if carefully developed.
Area-Wide Rideshare Incentives
Definition: Promotion and assistance through state, regional, or local efforts aimed at
encouraging commuters to use alternatives to driving alone to work and encouraging
employers to provide in-house programs that promote ridesharing, transit, bicycling,
and walking among employees.
Examples: Three broad categories of area-wide rideshare incentive programs are:
1) area-wide commute management organizations (or third-party brokerages), 2) trans-
portation management associations, and 3) state and local tax incentive and subsidy pro-
grams. Services provided include: computerized carpool matching; vanpool matching;
provision of vanpool vehicles; marketing of ridesharing; technical assistance to em-
ployers; tax credits; and financial subsidies.
Many examples of rideshare incentives and promotional programs exist on a national
scale. Promotion and computerized matching is often provided by commute manage-
ment organizations. Examples include Sacramento Rideshare (Caltrans), Montgomery
County (Maryland) Rideshare and CARAVAN for Commuters (Boston, MA). Subsidy
of vanpool participation and /or vehicle costs have been in effect in various locations
nationally. California also provides tax incentives to employers and employees who
participate in rideshare programs. Numerous transportation management associations
have been established throughout the country, including at least 50 within the State of
California.
Key Issues: Can effectively facilitate employer/developer-based transportation
management programs; recent studies have identified availability of HOV priority
treatment and guaranteed ride home programs as significant incentives to encourage
ridesharing.
Considerations: Area-wide commute management programs, transportation manage-
ment associations, and tax incentives support employer-based transportation man-
agement programs. They are particularly effective in enhancing the efforts of smaller
and mid-size employers. In evaluating the impacts of area-wide programs, though, care
needs to be taken not to double count the effectiveness of these programs with the
benefits credited to employer programs. In addition, the roles and responsibilities of
various public, non-profit, and for-profit organizations involved in promoting ride-
sharing and other travel alternatives within a region need to be carefully delineated so
that the various efforts are not perceived as either duplicative or conflicting by em-
ployers and individuals.
Summary 12
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Improved Public Transit
Definition: Implementation of new or expanded public transit services relevant to all
transit modes such as paratransit, buses, rapid transit, and commuter rail.
Examples: System or service expansion (new or extended routes, higher service fre-
quencies); system /service operational improvements (route and schedule modifications,
improved transfer procedures, schedule coordination, operations monitoring, improved
maintenance practices), and strategies to enhance market demand (marketing programs,
reduced fares, employer provided transit fringe benefit, monthly pass programs, pas-
senger amenities, parking).
Transit services are available in virtually every urban and many non-urban areas in the
U.S. Examples of improvements range from low-cost measures such as schedule
coordination to more capital intensive programs such as provision of new or extended
services.
Key Issues: Serves as the primary alternative mode to automobile use in most ur-
banized areas; must successfully compete with automobile use in terms of cost and/or
travel times in order to attract new ridership.
Considerations: Effectiveness is closely tied to land use patterns in service area and
extent to which transit services have adapted to changes in local, residential, em-
ployment, and travel patterns over time. Expansion of services can have high capital
and/or labor costs; low cost improvements are feasible through operational changes.
Because transit services seldom break even financially, a stable source of funding
support is essential. In evaluating the air quality impacts of improved transit services, it
is necessary to consider the travel mode that otherwise would be used (e.g., riders on a
new rail transit line may have previously ridden a transit bus) and the mode of access to
transit (e.g., use of a car to drive to a park-and-ride lot may eliminate vehicle miles of
travel but still incurs the vehicle start-up or cold start emissions).
High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes
Definition: Travel lanes designated for use by high occupancy vehicles (HOV) such as
carpools, vanpools, and transit vehicles.
Examples: HOV lane in a separate highway right-of-way or within freeway right-of-
way; contra-flow lane located in "off-peak" direction.
Widespread applications on freeways and arterials in many larger urban areas with
severe peak period congestion. In 1989, there were 38 freeway HOV facilities operating
in 18 U.S. metropolitan areas. New York City has implemented an extensive bus lane
program throughout the city on arterial streets.
Summary 13
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Key Issues: HOV facilities are mutually supportive with many other TCM programs
(Area-wide ridesharing, employer-based transportation management programs, trip
reduction ordinances, etc.) by facilitating higher average travel speeds and travel time
reliability for HOVs in comparison to travel via private automobile.
Considerations: HOV lanes need to operate at higher speeds relative to normal mixed
flow highway lanes in order to serve as a desirable alternative. Freeflow highway con-
ditions are a disincentive to HOV use. Enforcement of HOV restrictions is critical to
maintaining integrity of facilities. Support facilities such as park-and-ride lots, employer
rideshare programs, and downtown preferential parking are desirable components of
program. Separate HOV facilities should be developed so as to form an overall regional
system.
Traffic Flow Improvements
Definition: A range of actions that enhance the person-carrying capacity and efficiency
of the roadway system, without adding significantly to the width of the roadway.
Examples: Improved traffic signalization (such as changes to signal timing, signal
coordination, removal of signals); improved traffic operations (such as turn restrictions,
median strips, channelized roadways/intersections, roadway/intersection widening or
reconstruction) and, enforcement and management improvements (such as increased
police surveillance, incident management, and ramp metering).
Traffic flow improvements are widely applied by both state and municipal trans-
portation agencies, primarily to reduce congestion and improve travel times at specific
locations. Examples of coordinated, area-wide programs include the Back Bay (Boston,
Massachusetts) Traffic Operations and Management Study and the Sacramento, Cali-
fornia Signal System Improvement Program.
Key Issues: Reduced congestion and improved vehicle travel speeds result in reduced
emission rates per vehicle mile of operation. Reduced delay at intersections can effec-
tively control CO "hotspot" conditions. With ramp metering, it is important to consider
the emissions which may occur during excessive queuing and under high levels of
acceleration when a vehicle enters the freeway traffic stream.
Considerations: Traffic engineering measures do not necessarily reduce VMT, although
they may cause a shift of VMT from specific areas or corridors to other locations.
Measures which substantially reduce delay and improve travel speeds may attract
higher traffic volumes to the affected corridor and/ or roadways, thereby offsetting
benefits of the measures.
Summary 14
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Parking Management
Definition: The management of parking supply and demand; including public and
private parking facilities, and both on- and off-street parking. Strategies can include
pricing, zoning actions, and usage.
Examples: Preferential parking pricing programs favoring HOV's, provision of
preferential or reserved spaces for HOV's; fee structures which discourage long-term
(commuter) parking; increased parking fees or taxes; zoning regulations controlling
magnitude of parking in conjunction with new development; limitations on the devel-
opment of new public or private parking spaces.
Preferential parking for HOVs has been offered in numerous cities at municipally
controlled parking facilities. Parking pricing strategies have been applied, on a limited
scale, at selected parking facilities. Availability of parking spaces is generally regulated
by most municipalities in local zoning codes and rates have been adjusted, in various
cities to discourage single-occupant vehicle use. Controls on parking supplied have
been applied in Boston, Portland, Oregon, and San Francisco.
Key Issues: Cost and availability of parking is a key variable in determining travel
mode to work. Increases in parking costs and/or decreases in availability produce shifts
to alternative modes. Individual municipalities may have limited ability to influence
parking supply and prices at privately-operated parking facilities.
Considerations: Parking management strategies are most effective when implemented
in dense central business districts or activity centers that have limited available parking.
Patterns of dispersed development diminish the effectiveness of parking strategies. In
addition, if there is an excess of parking supply, then implementing parking actions that
only affect a portion of the spaces may simply result in a reallocation of where people
choose to park rather than in a change of mode of travel.
Implementation of parking management strategies is most successful in areas having
very high land values and a strong economic development climate that result in dis-
incentives for devoting land to parking. Relatively good transit access that provides an
alternative to automobile usage also is important.
Park and Ride/Fringe Parking
Definition: Parking facilities designed to facilitate transfer to transit services, car-
pooling, and vanpooling.
Examples: Automobile and bicycle parking at transit locations (commuter rail, rapid
transit, bus stops) remote from the downtown core or major activity centers; remote or
fringe parking facilities at highway interchanges or in heavily travelled commuting
corridors.
Summary 15
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Most large transit systems provide parking in conjunction with transit services. Park-
and-ride facilities can be informally designated or formally established by state or local
transportation agencies. Examples include the California Department of Transportation
(Caltrans) and the Connecticut Department of Transportation (ConnDOT) Park-and-
Ride Programs.
Key Issues: Can be significant incentive in formation of rideshare arrangements and use
of transit services. Provides means of intercepting vehicles before they enter congested
or core areas. Success of a given site is closely tied to the level of transit and ridesharing
service provided and the location of the site in relation to travel corridors and final trip
destinations.
Considerations: Planning of facilities should account for local traffic conditions in
vicinity of potential parking sites to avoid exacerbation of local traffic or air quality
problems, particularly as result of increased cold starts in vicinity of parking site. Lots
should be developed with consideration given to pedestrian and bicycle access, and the
availability of personal support systems such as banking, convenience stores and day-
care.
Bicycle and Pedestrian Programs
Definition: Measures to encourage bicycle and pedestrian travel as viable alternative
transportation modes to the private automobile.
Examples: Bicycle paths; secure bicycle parking/storage facilities; increased en-
forcement of traffic regulations relevant to pedestrian and bicycle movements; enhance-
ment of pedestrian crossing signalization or pavement markings; bicycle commute
education programs; removal of barriers restricting bicycle and pedestrian movements;
roadway and site design compatible with pedestrian and bicycle accessibility.
Several cities have incorporated bicycling programs into their transportation plans.
Many successful bicycling programs have been implemented. Examples of citywide
programs include Tucson, AZ, Seattle, WA, Madison, WI, Washington, D.C., and
Boulder, CO. Many examples of specific facilities such as bike paths and storage
facilities nationally. Limited examples of comprehensive pedestrian programs although
appropriate design to accommodate pedestrian movement is standard in most urban
design criteria.
Key Issues: Non-motorized transportation provides non-polluting mobility; well-suited
for short distance trips and light loads. Low user costs compared to other modes.
Considerations: Extent of participation is sensitive to trip length, topographical and
climatic factors, as well as demographics of population. Concern over personal safety
due to conflicts with motorized vehicles and security of bicycle while parked can be
major disincentives.
Summary 16
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Special Events
Definition: Special plans to manage travel demand in effect during special events,
defined as destinations for a large number of vehicle trips which occur on a one-time,
infrequent, or scheduled basis (such as athletic events, festivals, fairs, political rallies,
and major entertainment performances).
Examples: Parking management; remote parking; signage to direct motorists to ap-
propriate routes and destinations; highway improvements; public information and
communications systems; enhanced public transportation and shuttle services; increased
police presence.
These measures are an important consideration for any event likely to draw unusually
large crowds which exceed normal capacity of existing transportation systems. Specific
examples include mega-events such as the Knoxville, Tennessee World's Fair, Expo 86 in
Vancouver, British Columbia, and the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles; roadway
reconstruction projects such as Boston's Southeast Expressway; and, neighborhood
street fairs and parades.
Key Issues: Success of measures is highly dependent upon advance planning and
anticipation of transportation needs and problems. Due to short-term nature of de-
mand, emphasis should be on transportation systems management (TSM) approaches,
rather than capital-intensive strategies.
Considerations: Uncertainty in predictions of attendance at event can complicate
planning. Also, uncertainty involved in anticipating willingness of attendees to utilize
alternative transportation services and systems management measures.
Vehicle Use Limitations/Restrictions
Definition: Techniques to limit or restrict the use of certain types of vehicles in a given
geographic area or specified time period (such as peak travel periods).
Examples: Route diversions (such as auto restricted zones or ARZs, pedestrian malls,
and residential traffic controls), no-drive days, and controls on truck movements (such
as designation of truck routes, scheduling of truck operations).
Auto restricted zones and pedestrian malls have been implemented in many downtown
areas in U.S. and Europe. No-drive day programs have been implemented in Denver,
Colorado and Phoenix, Arizona. Cities have traditionally regulated the movement of
trucks on local streets by restricting trucks from certain areas of central business district
during peak hours, restricting loading zones, and scheduling deliveries. Proposals now
are being made for more aggressive truck management strategies and for broader
limitations on truck movements during peak periods.
Summary 17
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Key Issues: The development of auto restricted zone programs requires coordination
with area businesses, careful consideration of the area's economic strengths and weak-
nesses, and development of alternative means of providing access to and circulation
within the area. No-drive day programs should be integrated with other programs
which provide viable alternative transportation on affected days; no-drive day programs
require significant marketing efforts and cooperation of local media. The control of
truck movements involves legal considerations, as well as the cooperation and support
of the trucking industry.
Considerations: All programs should be designed to accommodate needs of commer-
cial interests which would require accessibility by customers/clients for goods delivery.
Auto restricted zones have been successful where there already is a stable base of eco-
nomic activity, but may not be sufficient by themselves to rejuvenate an economically
decaying area. In U.S., no-drive days are currently all voluntary. The implementation
of controls on truck movements needs to consider the time periods and routes actually
being used for current movements, the direct costs to businesses of the controls, and the
indirect costs to the economy of different patterns of truck movements.
Accelerated Retirement of Vehicles
Definition: Offer to purchase older vehicles having high emission rates in order to
remove these vehicles from the active vehicle fleet.
Examples: Unocal Corp. operated a program of this type in the Los Angeles metro-
politan area during the summer of 1990. The South Coast Recycled Auto Project
(SCRAP) offered $700 for pre-1971 model year cars that met a set of requirements to
ensure that active vehicles were being removed. Eight thousand, three hundred and
fifty autos were bought and crushed. Policy decisions include definition of the target
vehicle population to be removed, the dollar amount of the payment to be made, and
the duration of the program.
Key Issues: Program design variables include the age and eligibility of vehicles, the
duration of the buy-back period, and whether the program is a one-time effort or
repeated periodically.
Considerations: The average remaining life of the removed vehicle affects the number
of years over which emission reductions can be credited. Assumptions regarding the
age of replacement vehicles and the additional mileage driven by either replacement or
other vehicles affects the net magnitude of the estimated emissions to be eliminated.
Activity Centers
Definition: Urban design and transportation measures designed to reduce automobile
trips and to promote non-automobile travel associated with the use of cohesive activity
Summary 18
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centers such as office parks, shopping centers, mixed-use developments, and other
centers of vehicle activity.
Examples: Transit friendly design guidelines and ordinances; vanpool and carpool
considerations; pedestrian and bicycle design considerations; parking standards and
regulation; mixed-use development ordinances and zones; site plan review ordinances.
A number of developments planned and built in the U.S. since 1930 illustrate examples
of design guidelines intended to reduce auto dependency. Sacramento County, Cali-
fornia, is developing comprehensive "Transit-Oriented Development" guidelines as part
of that area's comprehensive plan.
Key Issues: By incorporating opportunities for alternative travel modes such as transit,
HOVs, bicycles, and walking into overall design of new development, the desirability of
these alternative modes is enhanced. Higher density of development makes use of
HOVs and transit more feasible. Mix of appropriate land uses within a development can
reduce the need for certain types of trips if need can be met in immediate vicinity of
residence or place of work.
Considerations: Rate at which measures can be implemented is directly related to rate
of new development. Generally considered a long-term strategy. Can have adminis-
trative implications for public sector due to requirements for implementing and
enforcing urban design codes and providing services/infrastructure for higher density
development. Economic trade-offs for private sector involve potentially higher devel-
opment costs and correspondingly increased market value and revenues.
Extended Vehicle Idling
Definition: Measures to reduce amount of time which vehicles spend in idle mode as
part of their overall operation.
Examples: Controls on construction and operation of drive-thru facilities such as banks
and fast food restaurants; controls on extended vehicle idling during layover time,
particularly of diesel engines used by transit vehicles and delivery trucks.
Programs to limit heavy truck idling are being considered in California. Sacramento
Metropolitan Area regulates the number and design of new drive-up window facilities.
Key Issues: Implementation of controls on vehicle operations should be at regional or
state level, rather than local. Restrictions on drive-thru facilities are local responsibility,
enforced through zoning code. Public education regarding idling emissions and their
control can be further option.
Considerations: The trade-off between idling emissions and hot start/hot soak emis-
sions generated by vehicles which have been shut off and restarted; dependent upon
vehicle age and type.
Summary 19
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Extreme Low-Temperature Cold Starts
Definition: Actions that can be taken by states, and local areas over and above the new
Federal cold temperature carbon monoxide standard and that are applicable under
extremely cold conditions; e.g., temperatures in the range of 0 degrees F to -20 degrees F,
or even colder. These measures normally are directed at reducing vehicle start-up
emissions during these extremely cold temperature episodes. Other possibilities include
incentives that would entirely eliminate the need for low occupancy vehicle use during
these periods, thereby eliminating the entire cold start phase altogether.
Examples: Mechanical devices to control CO emissions during cold starts include block
heaters, intake manifold heaters, monolithic catalysts, and multipoint fuel injection
systems. Other options include traditional transportation control measures to reduce
auto use.
Experience is limited primarily to State of Alaska. A voluntary program to encourage
use of block heaters at the workplace was initiated by the Fairbanks North Star Borough.
Key Issues: Retrofit of vehicles can typically cost $100-300 per vehicle. Also can involve
cost to operators of parking facilities to install and provide electrical power to electrical
outlets to operate block heaters.
Considerations: Technical feasibility of measures has been demonstrated for cold
climates but practical applications have been limited.
Summary
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