;Long
Island
Sound
Study
A Partnership to Restore and Protect the Sound
SOUND HEALTH 2
STATUS AND TRENDS IN THE HEALTH OF LONG ISLAND SOUND
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INTRODUCTION
WELCOME
The Sound Health report tracks key measures
of the health of Long Island Sound
Sound Health 2012 provides a snapshot of the environmental health of Long Island Sound. It uses environ-
mental indicators—developed from data collected by research and monitoring programs—to provide insight
into whether waters are becoming cleaner, habitats such as wetlands healthier, and natural resources such as
fish more abundant. Sound Health 2012 considers both the science of how Long Island Sound functions and the
uses of the ecosystem valued by citizens, communities, and businesses.
But for many, the events of Oct. 29, 2012 will dominate thoughts about the health of Long Island Sound and
the communities around it. That day Hurricane Sandy made landfall in southern New Jersey with catastrophic
impacts on our region's coasts. The storm surge in parts of western Long Island Sound and the New York-New
Jersey Harbor rose as much as 13 feet above mean sea level, resulting in billions of dollars in damages to the
region's infrastructure. The surging waters overwhelmed many wastewater treatment facilities, mixed with oil and
gasoline spilled from flooded cars and homes, and altered coastal habitats.
No one can say whether Hurricane Sandy was caused by climate change. But the storm dramatized some of the
consequences that can be caused or exacerbated by it. To date, the changes to climate affecting the Sound have
been subtle relative to the natural year-to-year variability in weather and to the significant consequences of human
activity—port and industrial development, dredging, hardening of the shoreline, destruction of wetlands, diversion
of water courses, industrial and sewage pollution, and fishing pressure. But the impact of the storm surge, exacer-
bated by sea level rise, was anything but subtle.
The need to understand how climate change can affect the future state of Long Island Sound was one of the
main objectives of a new book, expected to be published in early 2013, that will synthesize and summarize the
latest science regarding the Sound. Sponsored by the Science and Technical Advisory Committee of the Long
Island Sound Study (LISS), the book, Long Island Sound: Prospects
for the Urban Sea, will provide a firmer foundation for improving
management of the ecosystem, including responding and adapting to
climate change, and will help to further develop and refine environ-
mental indicators for future assessments of the health of the Sound.
The LISS, part of the EPA's National Estuary Program, developed
a Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan for the Sound
in 1994. Since that time, much new research has been conducted, and
the National Estuary Program's approach in applying the best science
in collaborative efforts that incorporate society and the economy have
been embraced by scientists and adopted by policymakers. The synthe-
sis, combined with the community vision for the Sound developed in
2011 by the Long Island Sound Study Citizens Advisory Committee,
is particularly timely, with planning underway to update and revise
the Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan by 2014.
LONG ISLAND SOUND: PROSPECTS FOR THE URBAN SEA will be
available in early 2013. The Mill Pond, the painting on the book's cover,
is an early example of American Impressionist painter Childe Hassam's
use of industrial imagery, showing approaching trains on the Mianus
River railroad bridge in Cos Cob, CT.
A BAY SCALLOP shows its blue eyes
used for sensing light and dark.
See p. 10 for more about shellfish.
WHAT IS THE LISS?
AUTHORIZED BY CONGRESS in 1985, the Long
Island Sound Study (LISS) is a collaborative effort to
restore and protect the Sound. Sponsored by the US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the states
of Connecticut and New York, partners include federal,
state, interstate, and local government agencies,
industries, universities, and community groups. LISS
partners implement a Comprehensive Conservation
and Management Plan (CCMP) to maintain the health
of the ecosystem, improve water quality, restore
coastal habitats, and increase public awareness of the
Sound. Since the concerns affecting the Sound cross
political boundaries. LISS partners work together to
share ideas, coordinate actions, and leverage scarce
financial resources to protect an entire ecosystem. For
more information about LISS visit the About Us section
of www.longislandsoundstudy.net
VISIT LIShealth.net for additional Sound Health features.
CONTENTS
INDICATORS
Hypoxia & Nutrients 3
Toxic Contaminants 4
Pathogens 6
Marine Debris 7
Shellfish 10
Finfish 11
Coastal Birds 12
Habitats 13
FEATURES
Conditions by Basin 5
Climate Change 8
Land & People 14
Hurricane Sandy 16
ON THE COVER
A snowy egret eats an eel
at Dosoris Pond, a saltwater
pond in Glen Cove, NY.
See LIShealth.net for an
illustrated view of the
feeding relationships
that help maintain a
healthy Long Island
Sound ecosystem.
ACRONYM KEY
CTDEEP Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
EPA US Environmental Protection Agency
FWS US Fish and Wildlife Service
LIS Long Island Sound
LISS Long Island Sound Study
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NYSDEC New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
UCONN University of Connecticut
Unsure about a term used in this report? See www.LIShealth.net for a definition.
SOUND HEALTH 2012
CREDITS: Snowy Egret Eating Eel (cover), photo by Lisa Franceski; Scallop in LIS, photo by Robert Bachand
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WATER QUALITY
HYPOXIA & NUTRIENTS
JAMIE VAUDREY conducting
research on board a southern
skimmer in Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
Many factors
contribute to
hypoxia. While
nutrient load
reductions
should cause
a long-term
decline in
hypoxia, its
severity varies
year to year
depending
on nutrients
and weather
conditions.
DID YOU
KNOW?
In lay terms, severely
hypoxic waters are
often referred to as
"dead zones." In
2012, the most severe
conditions occurred
the week of Aug.
13, with nearly 18
square miles of water
containing only 1 mg/L
or less of oxygen.
HAB
EVENTS
Harmful algal
blooms (HABs) are
phytoplankton that
produce chemicals
toxic to shellfish and
to humans who eat
shellfish. HAB events
are relatively rare in
the Sound, but are
beginning to appear
regularly in the
Northport-Huntington
Harbor area in Long
Island (see HAB chart,
right). Visit LIShealth.net
to find out more about
harmful algal blooms.
One of the world's most vexing environmental problems in coastal
waters is hypoxia, the lack of sufficient oxygen. More than 500
hypoxic zones threaten coastal waters around the world, with the
number doubling every decade for the past 50 years, according to the United
Nations Environment Programme.
Estuarine coastal waters such as Long Island Sound are some of the most
productive ecosystems in the world. When estuaries become hypoxic, non-
mobile animals, such as clams or worms can die, and mobile animals, such as
fish, can be forced to seek better conditions elsewhere.
Hypoxia in the Sound occurs in the summer months, usually in the
Western Sound and Narrows (see conditions by basin, p. 5). It varies in area
and duration from year to year. After seven years of below average severity,
hypoxia increased slightly in 2011 and more significantly in 2012. The area
affected by hypoxia in the summer of 2012 was the fifth largest since 1987—
289 square miles, an area about 13 times the size of Manhattan. The duration
of hypoxia in 2012 was 80 days, 23 days more than the average between the
years 1987 and 2012.
Low-oxygen waters are linked to an increase in nutrients such as nitrogen
in a process called eutrophication, in which high nutrient concentrations
stimulate blooms of algae (see LIShealth.net for a graphic describing
the eutrophication-nitrogen cycle). In New York and Connecticut, major
sources of nitrogen include sewage from wastewater treatment plants and
septic systems, atmospheric deposition from power plants and vehicles, and
fertilizer runoff. In an effort to reduce nitrogen levels, the states, with the
cooperation of EPA, have embarked on a plan to reduce nitrogen levels by
58.5 percent by 2017.
In addition to nutrients, physical, chemical, biological, and geographical
factors also affect hypoxia. Warmer water in the summer holds less oxygen
than colder winter waters. Also, during the summer the surface water of
the Sound warms and forms a distinct layer floating over the bottom water,
which is denser due to greater salinity and cooler temperatures. This layering
(or stratification) of the water column leads to a pycnocline, a sharp density
gradient that restricts oxygen-rich surface waters from mixing with the less
oxygenated bottom. Wind intensity and direction can also affect the degree of
mixing between surface and bottom waters. Coves and protected harbors also
can restrict the circulation of oxygen-rich tidal waters.
THE NUMBER OF DAYS AND AREA OF HYPOXIA have varied from
year to year since monitoring began in 1987 (left). Shellfish areas
closed due to HAB events have occurred since 2006. Closures have
occurred in Northport-Huntington Harbor every year (except 2007)
and in Mattituck Creek in 2012.
MONITORING EMBAYMENTS
EMBAYMENTS ARE RECESSES in the shoreline
that form the bays and harbors of coastal waters.
When healthy, they support valuable habitats such as
eelgrass meadows and shellfish beds. But very little is
known about the eutrophic condition of most of the
more than 60 embayments in the Sound, even though
they are the receiving waters, for many of the man-
made sources of nitrogen delivered into the Sound. The
lack of knowledge is beginning to change thanks to a
University of Connecticut research project funded by
the Long Island Sound Study research grant program.
In late July and early August 2011 and 2012,
professors Jamie Vaudrey and Charles Yarish set out
to investigate the susceptibility to hypoxia of eight
embayments across the Sound. Their research team
started sampling as the sun was rising. After a night
of respiration, without the replenishing effects of
photosynthesis, the oxygen levels in the embayments
are generally at their lowest. Habitat characteristics
that may indicate the susceptibility to nitrogen were
also investigated, including: sediment characteristics,
dominant benthic community (organisms living on
the seafloor), and water column phytoplankton
concentrations.
In the first year of monitoring, the lowest
oxygen concentrations were found in the western
embayments, with Cold Spring Harbor exhibiting
hypoxia in bottom water throughout the embayment.
Embayments in the Eastern Sound exhibited high
oxygen levels although freshwater inputs discharging
into the embayments did exhibit hypoxia. Further
analysis of these results should elucidate the extent,
severity, and future susceptibility of these embayments
to eutrophication and provide a baseline for future
monitoring efforts.
CREDITS: Jamie Vaudrey Collecting Water Samples in Cold Spring Harbor, photo by Charles Yarish, UConn
SOURCES '.Area and Duration of Hypoxia chart, LIS Water Quality Monitoring Program/CTDEEP/HAB Closures, NYSDEC
SOUND HEALTH 2012
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WATER QUAL FY
TOXIC CONTAMINANTS
BLUE MUSSELS surround
a sea star at a beach near
Hempstead Harbor in Long Island.
Toxic
discharges
into the
Sound have
decreased
dramatically
over the past
few decades,
but persistent
legacy
contaminants
and new
emerging
toxins remain
a concern.
DID YOU
KNOW?
The osprey, a bird of
prey once threatened
with extinction, is
on the rebound in
coastal areas such as
the Sound thanks to
reduced levels of DDT,
a pesticide banned in
the US in 1972.
The discharge of toxic contaminants from factories, power
plants, automobile exhaust and other activities associated
with high population densities is a threat to marine and
coastal life. Fortunately, the amount of pollutants discharging into
the Sound has declined significantly over the past three decades.
According to EPA's Toxic Release Inventory—a database which
tracks more than 650 pollutant discharges from industrial facilities
across the US—air, water, and land discharges in the watershed
declined by 86 percent from 1988 to 2010 (from 16.5 million pounds
to 2.3 million pounds). In 2010, 81.5 percent of the pollutant
discharges (1.85 million pounds) in the Sound's six-state watershed
originated from 340 facilities in Connecticut and New York. Of
that amount, the total releases discharged directly into the water (as
opposed to air or land discharges) were about 300,000 pounds.
Product bans of toxic chemicals, tighter regulation of industrial
facilities, and a decline in manufacturing contributed to this
reduction, leading to direct benefits to animal and human health.
Using sediment core samples taken from the bottom of the Sound,
Wesleyan University scientist Johann Varekamp has shown that
amounts of heavy metals such as lead and mercury began to spike
during the beginning of the industrial age in the 19th century.
Concentrations peaked and started to fall in the mid-20th century.
Despite the declines, contaminants still pose a risk to animals
and to humans who eat contaminated fish. For example, airborne
deposits from power plant and incinerator emissions are a
continuing source of mercury to the Sound. The deposits can
become attached to fine particles of sediment and eventually settle
to the seafloor, mostly in areas of weak currents in the Western
Sound, where they are less likely to be flushed out. If they get
stirred up in the sediment and recirculate, these new sources (as
well as mercury deposited into the Sound from previous decades)
can be consumed by microscopic plant and animal life and then
move up the food chain to larger species. A 2011 report from the
Biodiversity Research Institute on mercury in terrestrial ecosystems
of the Northeast noted that mercury levels in Connecticut and New
York populations of the saltmarsh sparrow, an endangered species
that inhabits tidal marshes, pose a moderate risk for reducing
nesting success.
CHEMICAL DISCHARGES into the Sound's watershed
decreased by 86 percent from 1988 to 2010.
MUSSEL WATCH PROGRAM MONITORS
FLAME RETARDANT CHEMICAL
EXAMINING THE TISSUES of shellfish, such as mussels and oysters,
can provide scientists with a long-term record of contaminants in
coastal waters. For that reason, the Mussel Watch program of NCAA's
National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, has been monitoring
bivalves in coastal waters across the US since 1986, including nine
sites in Long Island Sound, to measure concentrations of more than
130 chemical contaminants. NOAA is also concerned about the
presence of contaminants of emerging concern, or CECs, which are
previously unknown or unidentified classes of contaminants that may
be negatively impacting the environment. Some of these chemicals
pose a threat to human health and reproduction by disrupting the
body's endocrine system. They are often found in everyday products—
including Pharmaceuticals, personal care products, furniture, and
plastics—and a number of them can enter coastal waters through the
wastewater stream.
NOAA has analyzed samples of bivalve tissues from 1996, and 2004
to 2007 for polybrominated diphenyl ethers, or PBDEs, and found that
concentrations are still widely distributed in coastal waters even though
production peaked in the late 1990s. PBDEs have been added as a
flame retardant in products, including high impact polystyrene (plastics),
foams, carpets and upholstery, textiles, office furniture, and electronic
equipment. A growing body of research, however, indicates that PBDEs
may impair liver and thyroid function and neurobehavioral development.
There are 209 unique PBDEs, referred to as congeners. In the Sound,
an area off of Throgs Neck in the Bronx had elevated concentrations of
three of the major PBDE congeners in comparison to samples taken from
across the country, but still well below the highest levels detected in
Anaheim Bay, California.
At this time no guidelines exist on concentrations of PBDEs in
mussels that are a threat to animal or human health. A number of PBDE
congeners have been banned in Europe and are also being phased out
in the US. But the continued detection of PBDEs in the Sound points
to the need for additional monitoring of these and other CECs.
SOUND HEALTH 2012
CREDITS: Blue Mussels Near Hempstead Harbor, photo by George DeCamp; Osprey, photo by Scott Kruitbosch, CT Audubon Society
SOURCES: Industrial Chemical Discharges chart, EPA Toxics Release Inventory
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WATER QUAL FY
CONDITIONS BY BASIN
While
conditions
affecting
water quality
and life on
the seafloor
are worse in
the Western
Sound, the
area has
the greatest
potential for
improvement
because of
sewage plant
upgrades.
DID YOU
KNOW?
Twice a day, 25 billion
gallons of water rush
into the Sound with the
incoming tide at the
Race in strong currents
that move faster than
5 knots (nautical miles
per hour).
The EPA's Office of Research and Development has developed
an approach to characterize water quality, the toxicity of
sediments on the sea floor, and the variety of species living
on the sea floor (the benthic community). Using an index of different
indicators for each of these measures, the Sound's western, central,
and eastern basins can be rated as good, fair, or poor.
The Western Sound is the most stressed
The densely populated and developed Western Sound is the most
stressed, with fair water quality the majority of the time, and
with sediment conditions rated as poor for half of the basin area.
Improving water conditions from west to east partly reflect the
decrease in development and population density from west to east.
(see p. 14). Developed land results in more pollutants flushed from
hard surfaces, such as roads and parking lots, into storm drains
that connect to the Sound. The higher population also contributes
more sewage to wastewater treatment plants and septic systems and
cesspools, and more vehicle emissions that deposit air pollution into
the Sound. Recent plant upgrades in Connecticut and New York
have the potential to dramatically improve water quality in the
Western Sound over the next few years.
Improving conditions toward the east reflects geological
differences. For example, the Eastern Sound, carved out from a
melted glacier, is deep, dipping to 350 feet at the Race (see map).
The narrow channel opening to Block Island Sound funnels fast
moving currents that scour the bottom and actively mix the water.
The Western Sound is shallower, generally less than 60 feet deep,
with a sea bottom of fine sand and mud. Currents are weaker,
and in the summer months there is little mixing between the
lighter, oxygenated surface waters and the denser bottom layer.
In combination with high nitrogen loads and phytoplankton
production, reduced mixing leads to hypoxia. The weak currents in
the Western Sound also make for conditions that are less likely to
flush out toxic contaminants that settle in the sediment.
AREAS IN THE WESTERN and central parts of the Sound are most frequently affected by hypoxia.
The colors on the map represent the percentage of years between 1991 and 2011 in which hypoxic
conditions have occurred in bottom waters for at least one day.
FREQUENCY OF HYPOXIA IN BOTTOM WATERS
(percent of hypoxic years, 3mg/L or less, 1991-2011)
• 0-10% #50-60
• 10-20 60-70
•20-30
• 30-40
• 40-50 • 90-100
SO-QO
SUMMARY OF RATING CRITERIA
WATER QUALITY INDEX: When nutrients, such as nitrogen, are in
excess they can stimulate the overgrowth of plants (indicated by an
abundance of chlorophyll a, a plant pigment), which can decrease water
clarity and lower concentrations of dissolved oxygen in bottom waters.
The index includes five water quality component indicators—dissolved
inorganic nitrogen, dissolved inorganic phosphorus, chlorophyll a, water
clarity, and dissolved oxygen. Monthly data (from May to October, when
pollution has the greatest effect on water quality) are summarized
Soundwide from 1991 to 2011.
GOOD
FAIR
POOR
SEDIMENT QUALITY INDEX: A wide variety of metals and organic
substances, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlo-
rinated biphenyls (PCBs), and pesticides are discharged into estuaries
from urban, agricultural, and industrial sources from the Sound's water-
shed. These contaminants adhere onto suspended particles and eventu-
ally accumulate in the sediments where they can disrupt the benthic
community. The index is based on three sediment quality component
indicators—sediment toxicity as measured by the survival of a marine
amphipod, the concentration of sediment contaminants, and the total
organic carbon in the sediment. Data were collected from 2002 to 2006.
BENTHIC QUALITY INDEX: The worms, dams, and crustaceans
that inhabit the sea floor of estuaries are collectively called benthic
macroinvertebrates, or benthos. Benthos are often used as indicators
of disturbances in estuarine environments because they are not very
mobile; as a result, they cannot avoid environmental problems. The
index indicates the condition of the benthic community by a measure
of benthic community diversity and the presence and abundance of
pollution-tolerant species. Data were collected from 2002 to 2006.
LIShealth.net has more information on how the indices are created
as well as links to EPA's National Coastal Condition Report.
CREDITS: Illustration for Frequency of Hypoxia map, by CTDEEP, Lucy Reading-lkkanda and Mapping Specialists;
SOURCES: Information for Frequency of Hypoxia map, CTDEEP; Water Quality, Sediment, and Benthic indices, EPA's Office of Research and Development/Office of Water
SOUND HEALTH 2012
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WATER QUAL FY
PATHOGENS
AFTER BEING CLOSED for 40 years, the
reopened Hempstead Harbor shellfishery
has yielded bountiful clam harvests.
CT and NY
have shown
that better
stormwater
management
can result
in improved
water quality
and opening
of shellfish
beds.
DID YOU
KNOW?
Most beach closures
occur in enclosed
embayments, such as
harbors and coves,
rather than at beaches
located directly on
the Sound where
there is more tidal
action to flush
pathogens.
ABOVE: A lifeguard
at Calf Pasture Beach
in Norwalk prepares a
"no swimming" sign on
June 4, 2012, following
a heavy rainfall.
Typically, Long Island Sound's 210 monitored beaches are open for
swimming in the summer. But closures do occur, caused by potential or
actual cases of pathogens in the water. 2011 was a particularly bad year
for beach closures as well as advisories warning of potential risks.
Pathogens are disease-causing organisms, including bacteria and viruses.
Health departments sample coastal bathing waters to determine whether the
water exceeds an acceptable level of an indicator bacteria, Enterococcus.
These bacteria may indicate the presence of pathogens that can lead to
gastrointestinal illnesses among swimmers.
Beach managers in Connecticut and New York close beaches preemptively
when high rainfall generates stormwater runoff that may contain animal
waste, untreated sewage discharge, or other contaminants. High incidents of
closures in Connecticut and New York in 2011, for example, were attributed
to the impact of Tropical Storm Irene and other storms. In 2010 and 2011,
Connecticut also saw an increase in beaches that exceeded the Enterococcus
standard during routine testing.
Many of the beaches that are closed preemptively are located near densely
developed communities with high levels of polluted stormwater runoff. In seven
municipalities —including New York City and six in Connecticut—where
stormwater and sanitary sewers are combined, sewage is discharged directly
into the Sound during heavy periods of rain when the combined flow of sewage
and water exceeds the capacity of the wastewater treatment plant. Sewage
discharges can also occur as a result of wastewater treatment plant disruptions,
illegal connections that discharge sewage directly into the Sound and its
tributaries, and illegal dumping from boats.
The same sources of pollution that close beaches also can result in the
closure of shellfish beds. In Connecticut, more than 6,000 acres of approved
growing areas were downgraded from 2010 to 2011, adding to the decline of
more than 16,000 acres that occurred from 2005 to 2006. These shellfish beds
are now classified as "conditionally approved," which means they remain open
unless rainfall exceeds one inch. Resource managers cited increased stormwater
runoff that resulted from coastal development as a reason for the downgrade.
In recent years, New York has issued temporary closures in a few embayments
that have experienced toxic algal blooms that can concentrate in the tissues
of shellfish. Most algal blooms, the result of waters with high amounts of
nitrogen, are not toxic (see water quality, page 3). While both states have
experienced closures they have also seen successful efforts to reopen shellfish
beds (see sidebar).
BEACH CLOSURES increase in years with frequent rainstorms. Approved shellfish beds
were downgraded in Connecticut to conditionally approved in part because of high bacteria
counts after rain events. Approved shellfish acreage increased in New York because of long-
term efforts to improve water quality in Hempstead Harbor and other areas.
SHELLFISH BEDS REOPEN
IN HEMPSTEAD HARBOR
AND WATERS OFFSHORE
NEAR WESTPORT
CITING THE POSITIVE RESULTS of sanitary surveys,
water quality monitoring, and shellfish tissue testing,
NYSDEC reopened 2,500 acres in Hempstead Harbor
for shellfish harvesting in June 2011. The area had
been closed for shellfishing for more than 40 years.
NYSDEC attributes the success to improved
wastewater treatment plants, a new Stormwater
Management Plan to reduce polluted runoff, and
a 2008 decision to create a zone prohibiting the
discharge of sewage from vessels in Hempstead
Harbor. In 2011, the New York side of the Sound
was designated as a No Discharge Zone, giving the
entire Sound protection. Connecticut received this
designation in 2007. At the time of the reopening,
the Hempstead Harbor Protection Committee, an
intermunicipal watershed group that monitors water
quality in the Harbor, and the state hailed the effort
as an example of federal, state, and local partners
working together to accomplish a significant water
quality improvement.
In 2010, Connecticut also added an additional
950 acres of approved shellfish acreage in offshore
waters near Westport. The improvements in water
quality are attributed to new sewers in Westport,
upgrades to Norwalk's wastewater treatment plant,
and identification and correction of sewage infiltration
and cross-connections between the sewage collection
system and the stormwater system.
SOUND HEALTH 2012
CREDITS: Recertified Hempstead Harbor Shellfish Beds—June 1, 2011, photo by Carol DiPaolo, Coalition to Save Hempstead Harbor;
"No Swimming Today" at Norwalk Beach—June 4, 2012, photo by Matt Vinci, the Hour
SOURCES: Beach Closures and Advisories chart, CTDEEP, NYSDEC, and EPA; Approved Shellfish Beds chart, CT Dept. of Agriculture's Aquaculture Division and NYSDEC
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WAT ER QUAL FY
MARINE DEBRIS
Most marine
debris comes
from littering,
including easily
recyclable
plastic items
such as cups,
beverage
containers,
and bags.
DID YOU
KNOW?
Nearly 8 million plastic
bags were collected in
coastal cleanups the
International Coastal
Cleanup from 1987 to
2011, according to the
Ocean Conservancy.
Locally, Westport,
Rye, and Mamaroneck
have responded to
the threat by banning
plastic bags from
retail stores.
VOLUNTEERS, such as
the Coalition to Save
Hempstead Harbor, helped
to collect plastic biodisks
accidentally released
from the Mamaroneck
wastewater treatment
plant (below).
Trash found floating in coastal waters or
washed up on the beach is called floatable
debris. Floatable debris is a unique form of
water pollution because it is readily visible to even
the untrained eye.
Most floatable debris consists of waste material
and litter from the products we use on a daily
basis—such as plastic bags, plastic beverage
containers, and cups. Whether careless disposal
occurs at the beach or waterfront area or far inland,
the litter can be transported by stormwater runoff
or wind to the Sound. In urban cities in which
sewage and stormwater runoff are discharged to
a common wastewater treatment plant, floatable
debris (and untreated sewage) could be discharged
directly into the Sound during periods of rain when
the combined sewage and stormwater exceeds the
capacity of the plant.
The unsightly appearance of garbage on the beach
and shoreline can lead to a significant economic
impact. When a small amount of medically related
waste, including syringes, washed up on ocean beaches
in Long Island and New Jersey in the late 1980s, beach
attendance in the region plummeted as did seafood
sales as the worries about polluted beaches spread to
concerns about seafood consumption. For wildlife,
exposure to trash can lead to serious problems. Birds,
fish, and other animals can become entangled in ocean trash, which could lead to drowning or
prevents them from feeding, swimming, and reproducing, according to the Ocean Conservancy. In
addition, animals can mistake objects such as bottle caps and cigarette butts for food.
Long-term efforts to develop and implement stormwater management plans are the best
ways to eliminate floatable debris. Communities and environmental organizations also operate
and organize shoreline clean-up programs. New York City, for example, operates a boom
and skim program—floating barriers that collect trash so that it can be removed by skimmer
boats—throughout its harbors, including nine sites that drain into Long Island Sound waters.
In 2010, 1,310 cubic yards of trash were collected from these sites. Each September, the
American Littoral Society and Save the Sound organize citizen beach cleanups coinciding
with the Ocean Conservancy's International Coastal Cleanup program. In 2011, volunteers
from both states collected 53,345 pounds of trash on 99 miles of shorelines, an equivalent of
539 pounds per mile. In New York, the types of debris collected included 15,261 plastic bags,
14,542 cigarette butts, and 3,650 balloons.
NEW YORK CITY collects thousands of
cubic yards of floatable debris using booms,
or floating barriers, installed at 24 locations,
including nine sites that discharge into the
Sound (top left). Each year in September,
volunteers across the Sound collect
hundreds of pounds of debris at coastal
cleanups (top right). Cleanups happen in
other months too, including this one to
remove trash at Milford Pt., CT (right).
GROUPS COLLECT "GHOST GEAR" &
WHAT DO "GHOST GEAR" and disks that resemble
pasta have in common? They are both types of marine
debris that have been found in the Sound.
Ghost gear is a term used to describe recreational
and commercial fishing equipment that has been lost,
abandoned, or discarded in the marine environment. This
marine debris can destroy habitats, unintentionally trap
animals, cause hazards to navigation, and entangle and
kill protected and endangered species. At the bottom of
the harbors and bays of Long Island's North Shore lies an
estimated 260,000 pounds of abandoned lobster traps
and one ton of ropes, buoys, and other marine debris,
according to New York Cornell Cooperative Extension,
"PASTA WHEELS"
which is working on a project with former lobstermen to
retrieve the gear.
The plastic biodisks, which look like wagon-wheel
shaped pasta, are installed in wastewater treatment
plants to help break down nitrogen and other pollutants
in the wastewater. In March 2011, millions
of these disks were accidentally released at
the Mamaroneck wastewater treatment plant
during a start up test after the initial
installations. In total, about 33 million
disks were released into Long Island
Sound. An estimated 1.6 million were
subsequently collected through cleanups.
ACTUAL
SIZE
CREDITS: Coastal Cleanup at Milford Point—June 16, 2011, photo by Save the Sound/CT Fund for the Environment;
Cleanupof biodisks at Hempstead Harbor, photo by Charles Weinstein (CSHH); Biodisk at actual size, photo by Loretta Guglielmino
SOURCES: Floatable Debris—NYC, Department of Environmental Protection, Beach Debris Collected chart, Save the Sound/CT Fund for the Environment and American Littoral Society northeast chapter.
SOUND HEALTH 2012
7
-------
LAND AND WATER
CLIMATE CHANGE
A NASA SATELLITE image captured the
sediment flowing down the CT River into the
Sound on Sept. 2, 2011, six days after Irene.
Weather
varies from
year to year,
but long-
term climate
trends show
an increase in
temperature
and sea level.
DID YOU
KNOW?
According to the
NOAA Hurricane
Center, storm surge
is often the greatest
threat to life and
property from a
hurricane. Storm surge
is an abnormal rise
of water generated
by a storm over and
above the predicted
astronomical tides.
During Hurricane
Sandy, the largest
storm surge in the
Sound—12.5 feet
above mean sea
level—happened at
Kings Point, New York.
The difference between weather and climate is a measure of time. Weather is what
conditions of the atmosphere are over a short period of time (from minutes to
months); climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively long periods of
time. Some scientists, according to NASA, define climate as the average weather for a
particular region and time period, usually taken over 30 years.
In recent years, Long Island Sound has experienced extreme weather events, including a
hurricane, tropical storms, nor'easters, and a freak October blizzard. The storms have led to
power outages, flooded streets, uprooted trees, and eroded shorelines. Scientists cannot say
that any single weather event is the result of climate change. But climate change may increase
the frequency and severity of storms. Scientists and managers are also assessing impacts to
habitat quality due to long-term trends in water temperature, sea level, river flow, and other
parameters that are related to climate. Going back as far as possible helps to separate long-
term trends from naturally-occurring changes on decadal scales, such as in El Nino or the
Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (naturally occurring cooling and warming trends in the
Atlantic Ocean in 20- to 40-year periods).
Rising water temperatures may alter the fishery
In winter, temperatures of coastal waters throughout Long Island Sound and the Southern
New England region should not vary by much. As a result, the long-term temperature
datasets that exist for some locations can be used to indicate long-term temperature
patterns for the entire Sound. When plotted on the same chart (see below), the datasets do
behave similarly, providing evidence that, while temperatures varied year to year and were
oscillating, temperatures were also rising slowly over decades of time - the equivalent of
about 1 degree Celsius per century. This is consistent with the global average.
A consequence of warming temperatures might be recent changes in the abundance of
fish species that have been observed in Long Island Sound. While there are many factors
that influence fish populations, resource managers believe warming temperatures in the
Sound and the Atlantic Ocean might be favoring the growth and recruitment of southern
species over those of more cold-adapted species. Many cold-water species common in Long
Island Sound have been declining in abundance over the last two decades (e.g., lobster,
winter flounder, Atlantic herring, cunner, longhorn sculpin, sea raven, ocean pout, winter
skate, and little skate), while many warm-water fishes have been increasing (e.g., striped
bass, weakfish, summer flounder, menhaden, scup, striped sea robin, butterfish, Atlantic
moonfish, and hickory shad).
Invasive species that favor warmer temperatures might also outcompete native species.
Scientists are concerned, for example, that an invasive type of tunicate, which has been seen on
the sea bottom in the Sound since 2000, will outcompete native organisms for food and space.
• Dat:
THE SPRING FRESHET, an indicator of when winter weather turns to spring, is arriving about 10 days earlier in the Connecticut River(left).
The long-term trend of an overall increase in winter temperatures is similar at different stations in southern New England (middle). Kings Point
has experienced gradual sea level rise, an average of about an inch per decade (right).
STORM BLOWS IN AND
WREAKS HAVOC ON CT
RIVER AND SOUND
NEARLY A WEEK after Tropical
Storm Irene drenched New England
with rainfall in late August 2011, the
Connecticut River was spewing still
muddy sediment into the Sound. It is
a graphic reminder that what goes on
the ground might eventually go into
the Sound.
With its headwaters near the
Canadian border, the Connecticut
River drains nearly 11,000 square
miles (28,500 square kilometers)
and receives water from at least 33
tributaries in Vermont, New Hampshire,
Massachusetts, and Connecticut.
The 410-mile river—New England's
longest—enters Long Island Sound
near Old Lyme, Connecticut, and is
estimated to provide 70 percent of the
fresh water entering the Sound.
When Irene blew through the region
on Aug. 27-28, substantial portions
of the Connecticut River watershed
received more than six to eight inches
of rainfall and several locations received
more than 10 inches. Whole towns were
cut off from overland transportation—
particularly upstream in Vermont,
which suffered its worst flooding in 80
years. Thousands of people saw their
homes flooded, if not washed off their
foundations, at a time of year when
rivers are usually at their lowest.
8
SOUND HEALTH 2012
CREDITS: Satellite image of CT River and LIS After Tropical Storm Irene, Image by Robert Simmon, NASA Earth Observatory
SOURCES: Changes in Spring Freshet chart, James O'Donnell, Marine Sciences, UConn and Jonathan Morrison and John Mullaney, US Geological Survey;
Mean Winter Water Temperatures chart, O'Donnell; and Kings Point Sea Level Rise chart, NOAA Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services
-------
OYSTERMAN Brendan Smith's business was
impacted by the effects of Tropical Storm Irene.
Local sea level is gradually rising
Higher temperatures cause melting of polar ice caps and glaciers, and create an
expansion of seawater molecules that increase ocean volume—factors that lead
to global sea level rise, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. IPCC estimates that the global average sea level will rise between 0.6
and 2 feet in the next century.
Gradual sea level rise is already occurring along the Long Island Sound coast.
NOAA monitoring stations in the Sound have been documenting local sea level
rise for decades, although it is important to note that other factors besides
temperature, such as changes in the relative height of the land as a result of
subsidence (gradual caving in or sinking of land) and short-term climatic
fluctuations, can also play a role in local conditions. The longest documented
tidal height monitoring station in the region has been operating since 1931 in
Kings Point, Long Island. Over that time, there has been a mean sea level rise
of 2.35 mm/year (see chart, p. 8), the equivalent of almost one inch every 10
years. Other stations in Long Island Sound and the rest of southern New England
show similar trends. Tidal wetlands typically manage to accumulate enough
sediment and organic matter to keep up with this naturally-occurring, gradual
sea level rise. But resource managers are concerned that the marshes might not
be able to keep up with rise in sea level projected for the coming decades, which
will result in beach erosion and land converting to open water. They are also
concerned that sea level rise, combined with high tides and heavy rains, could
lead to dangerous storm surges similar to those of Tropical Storm Irene in
2011 and Hurricane Sandy in 2012 that would cause widespread flooding and
damage to buildings and other infrastructure. An increased volume of salty and
brackish waters flowing upstream into freshwater rivers also might alter the
types of plants in upland communities, which in turn would affect the animal
communities that depend on existing habitats.
The snow melt is occurring earlier
Winter snow collects in the hills and mountains of the New England
countryside instead of flowing directly into the Connecticut River. As a
result, the river, which provides 70 percent of the Sound's fresh water, usually
experiences its lowest flows from January to March. As temperatures rise in
the spring, the snow and ice melts. This leads to higher runoff and is referred
to as the spring 'freshet'. By looking at 80 years of river data, scientists at
the US Geological Survey and the UConn have determined that the spring
freshet is occurring earlier in the spring. Using measurements of river flow
from a gauge at Thompsonville, CT, (near the Massachusetts border) the
investigators identified the date that the total volume of water that has passed
by the gauge exceeds half of the total for the year. The critical date is called
the "winter-spring center of volume" or WSCV. While spring weather in
New England is quite variable, the WSCV usually occurs in late March or
early April. The green line in the graph (see p. 8) shows the five year running
average of the WSCV for the last 80 years. Despite large oscillations, the
freshet is getting to Long Island Sound on average about 10 days earlier than
it did a hundred years ago.
Changes in the timing of the freshet may have implications for some aquatic
species and human activities along the coast. Flooded fields and marshes
along the river during the freshet provide critical feeding areas for migratory
waterfowl. So if the freshet comes earlier, waterfowl could be impacted if they
do not adjust the timing of their migration. Changes in the timing of flooding
may also provide a competitive advantage to invasive plants (such as purple
loosestrife and Phragmites) in the marshes since some of these species emerge
earlier than the natives. In the past, these invasives were flooded in early spring
and often rotted due to submergence for prolonged periods. So, if the flooding
occurs earlier, the invasives (still emerging before the natives) will no longer rot
in early spring and may gain a competitive advantage over natives.
Q and A with an Oysterman
OYSTERMAN BRENDAN SMITH is the owner/operator of the Thimble Island Oyster
Co., located in the Thimble Islands off Branford, CT. Brendan works to incorporate
sustainable practices into each phase of oyster farming, including designing and
building a solar refrigeration unit, and using recycled cages and gear. Like many
shellfisherman working in the Sound, Smith faced difficult environmental conditions
as a result of Tropical Storm Irene. After this interview, Smith's oyster crop was wiped
out again as a result of Hurricane Sandy.
HOW DID TROPICAL STORM IRENE HURT THE HARVESTING
OF OYSTERS IN LONG ISLAND SOUND?
Irene brought with it the largest storm surge since 1938. Over three feet of mud
and silt came and buried my oyster cages, resulting in a loss of 80 percent of my
harvestable crop. I also lost about 40 percent of my gear and have spent months with
divers recovering my cages. Finally, the heavy rains shut down shellfish beds so there
was nothing that could go to market for several weeks.
HAVE CONDITIONS IMPROVED?
For the first few month there was still a lot of movement of the sediment, but since
November 2011 my grounds seem to be back to normal. It'll take two years to recover
back to where I was, but we're back on the right track.
WHAT CAN PEOPLE ON LAND DO TO HELP ENSURE
GOOD WATER QUALITY FOR OYSTER HARVESTING?
Nitrogen runoff from fertilizer is one of the prime polluters in the Sound. Residents
should use environmentally friendly products on their lawns. As a region we must also
ensure that our waste water treatment plants are using the latest technologies to
ensure we maintain high-quality wastewater standards in our region.
WHY IS OYSTERING GOOD FOR LONG ISLAND SOUND?
Shellfish farms significantly improve water quality and have a positive impact on our
shoreline. They extract nitrogen and carbon out of waterways as well as help restore
marshland. Oysters are considered a "keystone" species by conservation biologists
because of the critical role they play in maintaining the structure of an ecological
community. With over 80 percent of the world's oyster reefs destroyed, oyster farming
is now considered vital to saving our coastal waters and our food systems. According
to Mike Beck, lead marine scientist with The Nature Conservancy: "Shellfish farms
represent one of the most—if not the most—sustainable forms of aquaculture and fish
production." That's why oysters are now ranked as one of the top five "Super Green
Seafoods" by the Environmental Defense Fund, and Food & Water Watch Smart Seafood
Guide and Seafood Watch have both heralded locally-farmed oysters as central to any
sustainable seafood menu. At the same time, cage culture of oysters create artificial
reefs for striped bass, blackfish, and other species native to Long Island Sound.
CREDITS: Oysterman Brendan Smith, photo courtesy of Brendan Smith
SOUND HEALTH 2012
-------
LIVING RESOURCES
SHELLFISH
A HORSEHOE CRAB on Long
Wharf Beach in New Haven.
Lobster
populations
continue
to decline,
probably due
to warmer
water. Oyster
and clam
fisheries
remain viable.
DID YOU
KNOW?
A single oyster or
clam can filter up to
50 gallons of water
a day while straining
food particles such as
phytoplankton from
the water column. In
the process, they help
to remove organic
material that would
otherwise contribute
to hypoxia.
Oysters and clams are part of a rich culinary and seafaring history. By 1898, oystermen
were harvesting 15 million bushels of oysters in the Sound. But by the early 20th
century, oyster beds were closing as a result of pollution, especially raw sewage in the
era before modern wastewater treatment. Other damage came from poor land-use practices
and sedimentation following storms.
However, the industry has managed to survive through the years as water quality and
aquaculture techniques have improved. Harvests peaked in Connecticut in the early 1990s, but
were decimated in the late 1990s from high mortality rates caused by MSX, a parasitic disease,
that is not known to be harmful to humans. From 2005 to 2008, the industry rebounded and
harvests increased by 600 percent. Since 2008, Connecticut shell fishermen have not been
reporting their oysters and clam harvest data, but state managers report that efforts to rebuild
stocks through proven historical cultivation and farming practices have resulted in dramatic
increases in oyster harvests. These efforts include lining shellfish beds in tributaries and coastal
water areas known for high levels of breeding success with clean shell for oyster larvae to
attach to during their spawning period, and transplanting young seed oysters to deeper waters.
Oyster production in 2011, however, was hurt by the flow of sediment discharged into oyster
beds during Tropical Storm Irene. In 2009, New York's oyster production dropped by more
than half, possibly due to consumers buying fewer oysters during the recession and oystermen
seeking other areas on Long Island to harvest, according to New York resource managers.
Harvests started to increase again in 2010.
Lobster harvest from the Sound has also declined dramatically since 1999 when the
population suffered a die-off due to sustained stressful environmental conditions. Scientists
found evidence that lobsters, at an all-time high abundance in the late 1990s and a peak
harvest value of almost $40 million, are now
experiencing a recruitment failure with little
sign of recovery. Known stressors include
water temperatures exceeding 20°C, which are
now common in summer and cause lobsters to
hyperventilate. Weakened by these conditions,
lobsters become susceptible to several diseases and
cannot efficiently feed or reproduce. In an effort
to sustain a viable lobster stock, all states from
Massachusetts to Virginia, in coordination with the
Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, have
tightened harvest limits. New York and Connecticut
will reduce the harvest season by 11 weeks beginning
in 2013. Other invertebrates commercially harvested
from the Sound include horseshoe crab (see sidebar),
squid, and conch (whelk).
-•Manr r •
HORSEHOE CRAB POPULATIONS are increasing or remaining stable in the Western Sound, but are declining in the
east (top, right). Lobster harvests continue to decline (left). Clam harvests have been steadily increasing, while oyster
harvests are beginning to increase following a parasitic outbreak in the 1990s (middle and right).
HORSESHOE CRABS
WITH THEIR SPIKY TAILS (or tel-
son) and helmet-like shells, American
horseshoe crabs strike a unique figure
when they come ashore on Long Island
Sound beaches every spring to mate and
lay eggs. The horseshoe crab (Limulus
polyphemus) is actually an arthropod
more closely related to spiders than other
crabs and has a body form that evolved
more than 300 million years ago. These
ancient creatures are a valuable part of
the ecosystem. Their eggs are an essen-
tial food source for migrating shorebirds.
They also are valuable to humans for
their blood proteins, which are extremely
sensitive to bacteria. The extracted com-
pound, known as LAL, is used to screen
injected drugs and implanted biomedical
devices for contamination. The crabs also
harvested as preferred bait for the in-
creasingly popular whelk fishery, among
others. This species ranges from Nova
Scotia to Mexico and lives year round
in the Sound. Surveys conducted by
Connecticut and New York show stable
or increasing abundance of horseshoe
crabs in the central and western Sound
since the 1990s. Although abundance
was equally strong in the eastern Sound
and Peconic Bay in the early 1990s, it
has steadily declined since 1995, cur-
rently reaching very low levels. Resource
managers are unsure why the trends
are diverging. Since horseshoes rely on
beaches and shallow embayments to
produce their young, their abundance is
an indicator of the health and productiv-
ity of these transitional environments.
10
SOUND HEALTH 2012
CREDITS: Horseshoe crab at Long Wharf Beach, New Haven, photo by Richard Howard; Oyster Shells, photo by Tessa Gettchis, CT Sea Grant
SOURCES: Oyster and Clam Harvest charts, CT Dept. of Agriculture's Aquaculture Division and NYSDEC; Horseshoe crab abundance chart, CTDEEP NYSDEC, and Millstone Environmental Laboratory;
Lobster Landings chart, Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (American Lobster database), CTDEEP and NYSDEC
-------
LIVING RESOURCES
FINFISH
SCUP, ORPORGIES, are
increasing in abundance
in Long Island Sound.
Populations
of some fish
species have
increased over
time, while
others have
decreased. The
overall biomass
of finfish,
however, has
held relatively
constant.
DID YOU
KNOW?
Diadromous fish are
fish that migrate
between the ocean and
freshwater streams and
rivers. Anadromous
fish migrate upriver
from the sea to breed
in fresh water, while
catadromous fish
migrate down river
to breed in ocean
waters. The American
eel is an example of a
catadromous fish. It lays
its eggs in the Sargasso
Sea between the West
Indies and the Azores,
which drift into the
Gulf Stream as larvae
and eventually make
their way as juvenile
fish to the Sound and
to freshwater streams
where they feed and
mature.
The waters of Long Island Sound provide
nursery and feeding grounds for over 100
species of finfish. The Sound's wide variety
of bottom types, water depths, currents, and tidal
ranges create different types of habitat that attract
this large array of species.
CTDEEP's Long Island Sound Trawl Survey
(LISTS) has tracked the abundance of all these
finfish since 1984. LISTS biologists began
generating an annual Biomass Index (average
weight of all finfish collected in each sample) in
1992 to measure overall fish abundance in the
Sound. This index shows no trend up or down,
a sign of a stable ecosystem even as some species
have increased and others declined. Another signal
of the Sound's health is the Forage Fish Index, a
composite accounting of 14 common species that
are important components of the food web. This
equally stable index indicates that the Sound has a
sufficient food base to support a wide diversity of
resident marine and migratory species.
Charts of two game fish on this page show the
abundance and variability of individual species
targeted by anglers. For example, increasing
abundance of scup (porgy) in recent years has
made this species one of the largest contributors
to the Biomass Index. At the other end of
the spectrum is winter flounder, which once
supported important commercial and recreational
fisheries, but now is in such low abundance that
harvest is severely restricted. There are several
competing reasons why some species are enjoying
record high numbers while the abundance of
others has plummeted. Coast-wide management
plans designed to protect stocks from depletion
are in place for all species subject to substantial
harvest. Managed species such as scup, summer
flounder, and striped bass have flourished coast-
wide while supporting strong commercial and
sport fisheries. These mid-Atlantic species also
may be increasing in abundance in the Sound
because they have taken advantage of increasing
water temperature. The abundance of winter
flounder, a species more common in northern
waters, may be declining because they are now
exposed to increased mid-Atlantic predators, as
well as cormorants and seals. However, not all
warm-tolerant species are flourishing; tautog
and weakfish have also dropped in abundance,
indicating that there are many other variables
playing a role in fashioning the mix of species
swimming in the Sound.
Although one or two species can be large
contributors to a year's biomass index, on average
more than 11 species are caught each time the
LISTS trawl net comes up. This relatively high
diversity is another measure of the health and
vitality of the Sound's aquatic community.
LIS FISH CONSUMPTION ADVISORIES
FISH CAUGHT FROM THE SOUND are a nutritious and flavorful food source, but
Connecticut and New York Health Department consumption advisories should be followed,
particularly by groups with the greatest risk from contaminants—women of child-bearing
age and young children. Check www.LIShealth.net for links to the full advisories.
THE BIOMASS AND FORAGE FISH INDEXES reflect ecosystem stability (top).
The decline in winter flounder and increase in scup show that abundance of individual
species can vary, even while overall abundance is stable.
CREDITS: Scup Sampled at Long Island Sound Fish Trawl Survey, photo by Richard Howard; American Eel, photo courtesy of CTDEEP
SOURCES: Scup Abundance, Winter Flounder Abundance, Fish Biomass charts, and Forage Fish Open Wafer Index, CTDEEP Marine Fisheries Division
SOUND HEALTH 2012
11
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LIVING RESOURCES
COASTAL BIRDS
ROSEATE TERNS on Great Gull Island
Concerted
efforts to
protect
beach nesting
birds have
resulted in
mostly stable
populations,
despite
increasing
threats from
habitat loss
and human
activity.
DID YOU
KNOW?
Small islands in New
York City provide
critical nesting grounds
for several waterbirds.
For example, the seven-
acre South Brother
Island in the East River
off Manhattan was
home to 387 nests of
five waterbird species in
2011, according to the
New York City Audubon
Harbor Heron project.
ABOVE: Snowy egret
on South Brother Island.
More than 400 bird species live in coastal habitats in Long Island
Sound, feeding on fish, shellfish, worms, and other wildlife in the
estuary. Because of their diverse nesting and feeding habits, birds are
important indicators of the overall health of the Sound's ecosystem.
The abundance of piping plovers, for example, indicates if there is sufficient
food as well as beach habitat on the Sound's coast. Piping plovers are small
shorebirds that nest on beaches and eat crustaceans, spiders, and insects. They
are listed as an endangered species by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Their
nesting and reproduction are threatened by human intrusion, storm tides, and
predators. Since protection and monitoring efforts began in 1984, nesting
success has improved, resulting in more returning adults. Connecticut has met
its restoration target of 30 or more pairs of plovers for the past 11 years. New
York's counts, after improving for several years, dropped in 2009, possibly due
to severe storms that may have destroyed eggs. Overall, state wildlife officials
credit intensive on-site management, including construction of predator-
proof fences around nests to protect eggs, for the improvement. Regulation
of activities that impact beach habitats, as well as the public's cooperation in
response to public education campaigns, have also helped to protect plover
populations.
Least terns live on beaches in large colonies and plunge into nearby waters to
catch small fish. They are a threatened species in New York and Connecticut.
Predators, human disturbances, and tidal flooding can disrupt tern nesting
sites, but the terns have been found to recolonize on other beaches within a
four-state region that also includes Rhode Island and Massachusetts. In 2011,
there were 7,078 least tern pairs in the region, 735 pairs above the 20-year
average. In 2011, approximately 361 pairs of least terns nested along the
shoreline in Connecticut, an increase of 401 percent from 2009 when there
were 90 pairs.
Colonial waterbirds, particularly long-legged wading birds such as snowy
egrets, great egrets, and black-crowned night herons, nest primarily in groups
on islands along the Atlantic coast. They typically nest within shrub and
woodland habitats, and often feed on estuarine fish and invertebrates in nearby
salt marshes. Although the populations have been relatively steady since 1998,
there has been a decline in snowy egrets and night herons since the 1970s.
This may be due to predation by animals associated with humans, including
rats and feral cats. Additionally, a loss of nesting habitat, including from
human disturbance, a loss of wetlands important for feeding, and exposure to
contaminants may have contributed to the declines.
PIPING PLOVERS HAVE INCREASED despite a decline in New York since 2009.
Least tern populations vary year to year because the birds colonize back and
forth between a four-state region. Colonial waterbird populations are stable
(see LIShealth.net for chart).
ROSEATE TERNS
A TINY ISLAND AT THE FAR eastern end of Long
Island's North Shore is home to almost half of the
northeast North American population of roseate terns, a
migratory bird listed as endangered by the US Fish and
Wildlife Service.
Although only 17 acres in size, Great Gull Island was
home to 1,500 pairs of summer nesting roseate terns
in 2011 compared to a total of 3,139 pairs of the birds
counted in all of the northeast US and Canada. While
roseate terns live on all continents, they nest only in
North America along the Atlantic Coast.
The roseate tern is a slender bird with a body that is
approximately 35 to 40 cm in length. Its tail is deeply
forked with white streamers. On Great Gull Island, the
birds nest under boulders that were dropped by the
US government around the edge of the island to help
stabilize the shoreline.
The island once housed a fort in the 19th century to
protect New York from British invasion. Since 1949 the
island has been owned by the American Museum of
Natural History for a bird research station and sanctuary.
Helen Hays, who has been managing the island since
1969, said that the roseate tern population on the
island has been stable for several years. She also said
that the common tern, which is listed as endangered
in New York, has seen its population rise from 2000
pairs in 1966 to 10,000 pairs in 2011. Unlike roseate
terns, common terns nest in open areas. Hays credits the
introduction of the meadow vole, which clears ground
areas by eating the grass, for the increase.
12
SOUND HEALTH 2012
CREDITS: Roseate Tern in Great Gull Island, photo by Gabriel Lugo; Snowy Egret in South Brother Island, photo by Jason Engman/Wikimedia Commons
SOURCE: Piping Plover and Least Tern charts, NYSDEC and CTDEEP
-------
LAND AND WATER
HABITATS
MOWING PHRAGMITES at
a wetlands habitat in New London.
Despite laws
to protect
wetlands,
coastal habitat
loss continues
to occur for
a variety of
reasons.
Es
f
s
DID YOU
KNOW?
The first sighting of
the Chinese mitten
crab near Long Island
Sound was found in
the Mianus River in
Greenwich in June
2012. Read more
about the crab and
why it is potentially
harmful to the
Sound's ecosystem
in LIShealth.net
I stuaries, semi-enclosed bodies of water that mix salt water from the open sea with fresh water
from streams and rivers, are among the most productive environments on earth. Estuaries
/such as Long Island Sound create more organic matter each year than comparably-sized areas
of forest, grassland, or agricultural land. The tidal, sheltered waters of estuaries also support unique
communities of plants and animals especially adapted for life at the margin of the sea. The Sound,
for example, is home to more than 1,300 species of invertebrates and finfish.
Thriving estuaries contain a variety of healthy coastal habitats. The LISS Habitat Restoration
Initiative has identified 12 habitats as priorities for restoration and protection, ranging from
submerged aquatic vegetation to rivers free of restrictions for fish passage to coastal grasslands.
Among the most critical habitats are tidal wetlands. The vegetation in this habitat provides
food, shelter, and breeding or nursery grounds for many species of wildlife. The marsh
vegetation also protects the land from flooding and erosion, and filters pollutants contained
in stormwater runoff. Today, there are about 21,000 acres of tidal wetlands along the Sound's
shoreline. Federal and state agencies regulate new development on wetlands, but in the past
wetlands were filled and dredged for development. About 25 to 35 percent of the Sound's tidal
wetlands were lost before laws protecting them were enacted in the early 1970s. But despite
protection and restoration efforts, marsh grasses are still disappearing, with hundreds of acres
converting to mudflats in the past 35 years. For example, mudflats at Scott Cove in Darien,
Connecticut increased by 17 acres from 1974 to 2004, while marsh grasses declined by 17
acres. It was one of six wetland complexes in southwestern Connecticut that showed a total
decline of 53 acres of marsh grass. A similar survey in Long Island at four wetland complexes
from 1974 to 2005 revealed a loss of 88 acres of marsh grasses.
The reasons for this marsh loss are not yet understood. Possible contributing factors include
sea level rise flooding the marsh, insufficient sediment supplies to the marsh from upstream
sources to balance moderate sea level rise, erosion of sediments caused by the force of wave
action from boat wakes, and the indirect effect of local dredging. New research also suggests
that nutrient runoff from sources such as lawn fertilizer and septic tanks might play a role in
the deterioration of marshes.
Coastal forests are another important habitat. Northeastern coastal forests are home to a
rich diversity of animal species, but according to the World Wildlife Fund more than 98 percent
of the region's natural habitat have been lost due to suburban sprawl. Much of what remains
are fragmented or degraded forests. According to research done at UCONN's Center for Land
Use Education and Research, the Sound has lost about 36 square miles of coastal forested land
from 1985 to 2006.
In the water, there are also distinct habitats, including submerged aquatic vegetation such
as eelgrass meadows. Eelgrass, a rooted underwater grass, grows along our coasts, providing
food and nursery grounds for fish and protecting shorelines from erosion. It is now found
predominantly in the eastern portion of the Sound. Its abundance plummeted in the 1930s
due to a fungal disease and continued
to decline for decades as a result
of poor water quality, which has
been attributed in part to nitrogen
pollution from sewage discharges and
stormwater runoff.
A LISS-funded 2009 survey
conducted by FWS identified
1,980 acres of eelgrass, all in the
Eastern Sound, compared to 1,559
acres surveyed in 2002. Improved
monitoring techniques that may
have identified acreage unaccounted
for in the earlier survey may be
partially responsible for the increase
in acres observed. A new survey
was conducted in 2012 and will be
assessed by early 2013. Continued
monitoring will be required to
determine long-term trends.
FOREST COVER ALONG the Long Island Sound coast has declined by about 36
square miles from 1985 to 2006. Recent surveys have observed more eelgrass, but
improved monitoring techniques may have contributed to the increase. Further
surveys will help to determine the trend.
HABITAT INVADERS
PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES that
are not native to Long Island Sound
can cause environmental and economic
harm according to the Long Island
Sound Interstate Aquatic Invasive
Species Task Force.
Invasive species can range in
size from tiny parasites posing
threats to fish and shellfish to mute
swans that destroy eelgrass. If they
outcompete natives, they can harm
the environment because they often
provide less value as food or shelter.
According to a draft Task Force
report, there are at least 90 species
in the Sound that could possibly
meet the definition of invasive
species that cause environmental
and economic harm. An example is
Phragmites australis or the common
reed, considered by the Task Force to
be "one of the preeminent threats
to salt marsh habitat." Phragmites
competes with native salt marsh
grasses when salinity declines. It can
form dense colonies, creating a nearly
impenetrable barrier to the movement
of animals and large birds, such as
ducks, shorebirds, and wading birds.
According to CTDEEP, as much as 10
percent of Connecticut's tidal wetlands
are dominated by Phragmites. There
are several strategies to eradicate
Phragmites including using herbicides
and restoring saltwater tidal flow to
wetland complexes that have been
compromised by railroads, roads,
causeways, or dikes. Both Connecticut
and New York have restored wetlands
by upgrading tidal gates to allow tidal
flow to support salt marsh plants.
CREDITS: Phragmites in New London, courtesy of CTDEEP; Chinese Mitten Crab, courtesy of California Department of Water Resources
SOURCES: Changes in Forest Cover, NY and CT Coast, UConn CLEAR; Eelgrass Acreage chart, USFish and Wildlife Service SNE/NYB Coastal Ecosystems Program
SOUND HEALTH 2012
13
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CITIZEN INVOLVEMEN1
LAND& PEOPLE
People love
the coast
and the Long
Island Sound
region, but
increasing
population and
development
can impair
water quality.
DID YOU
KNOW?
Long Island Sound has
600 miles of coastline.
All around the Sound
community groups are
doing their share to
protect habitats and
wildlife, and improve
water quality. Visit
LISvolunteer.net to
learn more.
ABOVE: Volunteers
in Clinton, CT, weave
eelgrass shoots into
burlap disks to be
planted by SCUBA
divers to create
eelgrass meadows.
Long Island Sound faces
environmental pressures from the
impact of millions of people living
within a short drive of its shoreline.
For example, each day millions of
gallons of treated sewage from coastal
municipal wastewater treatment plants
are discharged into the Sound—free
of pathogens thanks to modern plant
upgrades, but not totally free of
nutrients that lead to algal blooms
and oxygen-depleted waters. But
even while coastal communities
have the most impact on the Sound,
watershed residents who live hundreds
of miles from the Sound can also
have an impact. Everyone in the
watershed shares some responsibility
for the Sound's water quality because
pollution in the watershed that
originates from industrial plants, cars,
streets, parking lots, lawns, and farms
can deposit or flow into the Sound
from storm drains, streams, rivers, and
groundwater.
What is the Long Island
Sound watershed?
The Long Island Sound watershed is
all of the land area that drains directly
into the Sound or to the bodies of
water that connect to the Sound.
The watershed of Long Island Sound
covers more than 16,000 square miles
in Connecticut, New York, and four
other states—Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, New Hampshire, and Vermont.
Connecticut has 5,375 square miles in
the watershed and New York has 428
square miles, covering mostly shoreline
communities in Long Island, Queens,
the Bronx, and Westchester. Another
way to look at the watershed is that it
consists of major drainage basins, areas
that drain into the Sound's largest river
systems, and then into Long Island
Sound. The Connecticut River basin is
the largest, delivering about 70 percent
of all of the Sound's fresh water. It
begins 407 miles north of the coast
near the Canadian border.
THE DRAINAGE BASINS with the highest
impervious cover (in red, right) indicate severe
degradation of water quality. Areas with high
amounts of impervious cover are more likely to
have streams with poor water quality.
/AT5RSHED
The watershed
population is increasing
Nearly 9 million people live in the watershed, according
to the 2010 US Census, an increase of about 3.5 percent
from 2000. This increase tracks closely with the 3.2
percent population growth for the Northeast during the
same period. About 80 percent of the population lives
in Connecticut and New York, including an estimated 3
million people who live within a few miles of the shoreline
(the Long Island Sound Study coastal study area). The
counties experiencing the greatest population growth
lie in eastern Long Island and eastern Connecticut. The
county with the highest growth rate, 12 percent from
2000-2010, isTolland County in northeastern Connecticut.
Connecticut is adding
more impervious cover
Impervious cover is any surface in the landscape (such as
streets and parking lots) that cannot effectively absorb or
infiltrate rainfall. In the watershed, New York's impervious
cover is 17 percent of its total land cover compared to
seven percent in Connecticut, a reflection of a greater
percentage of its population living in urbanized areas.
From 1985 to 2006, Connecticut added about 40 square
miles of impervious cover compared to 1.6 square miles in
New York. Population growth for both states, is about the
same, an indication that New York is adding population
mainly in its existing built environment, while Connecticut
is adding population into previously undeveloped areas.
Impervious cover affects water quality
Each of the major drainage basins can be broken down into smaller basins with tributaries that flow into the
larger rivers and the Sound. The basins that have high amounts of impervious cover threaten these tributar-
ies because stormwater can carry pollutants from hard surfaces directly into streams or into storm drains that
discharge into streams. An Impervious Cover Model based on hundreds of studies around the country predicts
that water quality starts to degrade when a basin has 10 percent impervious cover, and severe degradation
begins when there is 25 percent impervious cover. Based on the model, 73 percent of the Sound's 194 drain-
age basins in New York and Connecticut, covering 4,254 square miles, have impervious cover of less than 10
percent, indicating good stream quality, 25 percent of the basins, covering 1,468 square miles, have impervious
cover between 10 and 25 percent, indicating signs of degradation, and 2 percent of the basins, covering 81
square miles, have large amounts of impervious cover, indicating severe degradation and poor stream health.
Analysis of land cover data from 1985 to
2006 by UConn's Center for Land Use and
Education Research showed that four basins
totaling 119 square miles that previously
were less than 10 percent impervious cover
now fall into the 10-25 percent class—two
are along the coast in Fairfield County and
New London County and two are upland in
the Connecticut River basin.
Most of the basins with high
impervious cover are in the densely
populated area around the Western
Sound. Conditions by Basin (see p. 5)
describes how water quality is affected by
development and population patterns.
PERCENTAGE
OF IMPERVIOUS
SURFACES
(2006)
• 0.4-5%
• 5.1-10%
10.1-15%
• 15.1-20% 1
• 20.1-25%
• 25.1-28.4%
14
SOUND HEALTH 2012
CREDITS: Weaving Eelgrass Shoots, photo by Kiearran Broatch, Save the Sound/CT Fund for the Environment
SOURCES: Watershed Population, US Census, U Virginia Library Historical Census Browser, and NYS Data Center;
Impervious Cover in US Watershed and Percentage of Impervious Surfaces map, UConn CLEAR
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Long Island Sound is a highly-valued resource
People value the Sound for its recreational resources. Visit a harbor or beach on a warm day and you will likely see scores
of people boating, fishing, swimming, or simply enjoying the view. All this activity results in the Sound being a great
economic resource. Adjusted to 2011 dollars, a 1990s study estimated that water quality dependant activities, such as
boating, beachgoing, and fishing, are worth $8.91 billion dollars each year to the local economy.
"ICIPATING
O Bronx/Queens
©
©
©
•9
Millions of people fish
and swim in the Sound
In 2011, about 7.4 million fish were caught in Long Island
Sound by recreational anglers, according to NOAA, which
collects data on recreational boating and fishing of US
waters. Some of the most popular fish caught included
scup (2.3 million caught) and bluefish (2 million). These
anglers took 2.15 million boat trips in 2011 to get their
catch, according to NOAA. About 70 percent of the fish
were released back into the Sound to comply with fishing
regulations that help protect species populations.
Another popular activity is swimming at the Sound's 210
bathing beaches. Beach attendance at the six top beaches
in the watershed totaled 6.4 million people in 2010. The
beach with the highest attendance in Connecticut that year
was Hammonasset State Beach at 2.2 million. The highest
attendance in New York in 2010 was Sunken Meadow State
Beach at 1.6 million.
Passive activities are popular
Fishing and swimming were identified in a 2006 Public Per-
ception Survey, conducted by Stony Brook University's Center
for Public Survey Research, as important activities for people
who valued the Sound. But the survey also identified passive
non-water activities as even more popular among Long Island
Sound residents. For example, in Nassau and Suffolk coun-
ties, sitting at the beach, having a picnic, or enjoying the view
was the most commonly reported Long Island Sound activity
(at 70 percent) by the survey respondents followed by walk-
ing along the shore or in a natural area on the coast.
One of the most popular shoreline activities, birding, is
also a four-season activity. Audubon's Christmas Bird Count,
for example, recruits citizen volunteers to count birds as part
of a research effort to monitor the health of bird populations.
In the winter of 2010-2011, nearly 67,000 people helped to
count different bird species totaling 305,000 birds in areas
around the Long Island Sound shoreline.
The Christmas Bird Count provides an opportunity to
engage people who enjoy the Sound to volunteer to restore and
protect it. Throughout the Sound, thousands of citizens vol-
unteer each year to monitor water quality of local harbors, to
monitor the abundance of shoreline animals such as horseshoe
crabs and diamondback terrapins, work with environmental
organizations to restore habitats by removing invasive species
or planting native plants, and participate in beach cleanups.
Most residents are unaware
how behaviors affect LIS
Long Island Sound residents care
about the environment, but many
are uncertain about how their
behaviors have an impact on the
Sound. According to the 2006 Public
Perception Survey, about 70 percent
of residents said that protecting the
environment was more important than
economic growth. But many residents
reported that they engaged in activities
that were potentially harmful to the
Sound, including over fertilizing
lawns and washing cars on pavement.
Furthermore, more than 70 percent of
residents in the coastal communities
reported that they believed they did
nothing to worsen the quality of water
in Long Island Sound even though
they were just as likely to partake in
activities that were potentially harmful
to the Sound as those who said their
activities could contribute to water
quality degradation.
WHAT YOU CAN DO
THERE ARE MANY WAYS thatyOU
can help, by changing some simple
things you do around your home, com-
munity, and on the shore. Remember, we
all affect the Sound. Trash we leave on
the ground or liquids we pour down the
drain can eventually lead to Long Island
Sound and pollute it.
AT HOME: When it comes to fertilizer,
more is not better. Healthy lawns help
prevent erosion, but excess fertilizer
that is not absorbed by your lawn or
garden can be carried away with the
rain and end up in Long Island Sound.
Use organic, slow-release fertilizers,
test your soil before applying and never
fertilize before a rainstorm! Strive for
zero runoff on your property.
ON THE SHORE: Never feed geese and
other waterbirds. This encourages them
to stay through the winter and gather
in flocks. Their droppings, which contain
bacteria and nitrogen, can contaminate
shellfish beds and may cause the clos-
ing of beaches.
For more tips, go to LIShealth.net
No data for Westchester
and Bronx/Queens.
Not a significant number
of homeowners with septic
systems were surveyed.
SOURCES: Public perception survey results. Stony Brook University Center for Public Survey Research
SOUND HEALTH 2012
15
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HURRICANE SANDY
Hurricane Sandy blew into the region on Oct. 29, 2012. The
storm surges and heavy winds from the storm led to loss
of life and billions of dollars of property damage. It also
wiped away dunes, altered other shoreline habitats, and led to the
discharge of toxic contaminants and pathogens into the Sound.
Hurricane Sandy and Tropical Storm Irene, which struck in 2011,
are vivid examples of the kinds of extreme weather events that
scientists forecast will increase as a consequence of climate change.
For more information about the impacts of climate and weather to
the Sound, see pages 8 and 9.
A NASA SATELLITE IMAGE shows the eye of Hurricane Sandy on Oct. 28,
2012 approaching the coast about 575 miles from the Sound (top left).
Water pollution and shoreline destruction along the CT coast in the wake
of the storm (top right). Floods and heavy winds destroyed parts of the
boardwalk and caused other damage at Rye Playland and the Edith Read
Wildlife Sanctuary in Rye, NY (bottom left).
SOUND HEALTH 2012
MARK TEDESCO (Director)
EPA Long Island Sound Office
ROBERT BURG (Editor)
New England Interstate Water Pollution
Control Commission (NEIWPCC)
SARAH DEONARINE (Technical editor)
New York State Department of
Environmental Conservation
MARK PARKER (Technical editor)
Connecticut Department of Energy
and Environmental Protection
LUCY READING-IKKANDA (Designer)
The Long Island Sound Study is a
cooperative effort involving researchers,
regulators, user groups, and other
concerned organizations and individuals.
These people are working together to
protect and improve the health of the
Sound by implementing the Study's
Comprehensive Conservation and
Management Plan, completed in 1994.
The Long Island Sound Study (LISS)
appreciates the many people in the EPA,
CTDEEP, NYSDEC, Interstate Environmental
Commission, NEIWPCC, NYC Department
of Environmental Protection, New York
and Connecticut Sea Grant programs, and
US Fish and Wildlife Service, who assisted
in preparing Sound Health 2012. If you
are interested in receiving our newsletter,
Sound Update, or have comments or
questions about LISS and Long Island
Sound, contact us by:
E-MAIL
info@longislandsoundstudy.net
MAIL
EPA Long Island Sound Office
Stamford Government Center
888 Washington Blvd.,
Stamford, CT 06904-2152
TELEPHONE
EPA Long Island Sound Office
203.977.1541
LISS Public Outreach Coordinator/NY
631.632.9216 (NY Sea Grant)
LISS Public Outreach Coordinator/CT
860.405.9303 (CT Sea Grant)
STATE CONTACTS
NYSDEC Bureau of Marine Resources:
631.444.0430
CTDEEP: 860.424.3000
WEB
www. longislandsoundstudy. net
www.LIShealth.net
A The report was developed for the Long Island Sound Study by the New England Interstate Water Pollution
@NEIMf PCC Control Commission through a cooperative agreement with the Environmental Protection Agency.
16
SOUND HEALTH 2012
CREDITS: NASA Earth Observatory image by Jesse Allen,
Aerial assessment of Hurricane Sandy damage in Connecticut, photographs by the Connecticut National Guard,
Rye Playland and Read Sanctuary, photo by Michael Gambino
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