.0*
STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING
RESIDENTIAL WOOD SMOKE
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
Publication No. EPA-456/B-1 3-001
Revised March 2013
STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING
RESIDENTIAL WOOD SMOKE
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Outreach and Information Division
Innovative Programs and Outreach Group
Research Triangle Park, NC 2771 1
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. REGULATORY PROGRAMS 6
A. Wood-Burning Curtailment Programs 6
B. Opacity and Visible Emission Limits 7
C. Wood Moisture Content 8
D. Removal of Old Wood Stove Upon Resale of a Home 8
E. Require EPA Certification 9
F. Ban the Use of Non-EPA-Certified Wood Stoves 1 0
G. Restrictions on Wood-Burning Devices in New Construction 10
H. Hydronic Heater Rules 1 0
I. Requirements for Wood-burning Fireplaces 1 1
J. State/Tribal/Local Wood-Heating Emission Standards 1 2
K. New Source Performance Standards for New Residential Wood
Heating Appliances 1 3
II. VOLUNTARY PROGRAMS 13
A. Wood Stove, Hydronic Heater, and Fireplace Replacements 1 3
B. Hydronic Heaters 1 5
C. Wood-burning Fireplaces 1 6
D. Particulate Matter (PM) Advance 1 6
III. EDUCATION AND OUTREACH 16
A. Burn Wise Education and Outreach 17
B. Air Quality Forecasts and Reports to the Public 20
C. Additional Resources Available to State, Tribal and Local
Governments for Public Education 20
IV. FUNDING MECHANISMS 21
A. Discounts/Vouchers 21
B. Tax Credits 21
C. Property Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) 22
D. Federal Programs to Support Replacements 22
E. Supplemental Environmental Projects and Mitigation Projects 23
V. PARTNERSHIPS 24
A. Hearth, Patio & Barbecue Association (HPBA) 24
B. American Lung Association (ALA) 24
C. Chimney Safety Institute of America (CSIA) 24
D. The Alliance for Green Heat 25
E. State Energy Departments 25
F. Other Potential Partners 25
VI. OTHER TOOLS 25
A. County-level Emission Inventory for Residential Wood Combustion 25
B. Wood Stove and Fireplace Changeout/Retrofit Emissions Calculator 25
C. Residential Wood Combustion Surveys 26
D. Residential Wood Combustion Control Measures 26
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
E. Residential/Mobile Wood Smoke Monitoring 26
F. Spatial Modeling 27
SUMMARY 28
APPENDIX A: EXAMPLE WOOD SMOKE PROGRAM 29
APPENDIX B: POTENTIAL COMPONENTS OF A WOODSMOKE REDUCTION PLAN 32
APPENDIX C: HEALTH STUDIES 35
APPENDIX D: RESIDENTIAL WOOD COMBUSTION CONTROL MEASURES 40
COVER PHOTO PROVIDED BY FAIRBANKS NORTH STAR BOROUGH AIR QUALITY DIVISION
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
INTRODUCTION
This document identifies strategies to help state, tribal, and local air
officials reduce fine particle pollution (PM2.s) that is attributed to residential
wood smoke. For areas that are not meeting, or are close to exceeding the
national ambient air quality standards for fine particles (P/V\2.5 NAAQS),
developing a wood smoke reduction plan can help achieve meaningful
emission reductions and improve public health in the local community.
Developing and implementing a plan before exceedances occur will lower
the likelihood of violations of the national standards, may limit the number
of Clean Air Act requirements that apply in the future, or can be used to
help an area comply with requirements that may apply in the future. To
learn more about EPA's P/v\2.s regulations, visit:
This document also provides education and outreach tools, information on regulatory approaches to
reduce wood smoke, as well as information about voluntary programs that communities around the
country have used to replace old, inefficient wood stoves, hydronic heaters, and fireplaces. It includes
EPA federal actions to help communities address residential wood smoke throughout the United States
(U.S.). In addition, this document includes possible approaches for funding replacement programs,
methods for calculating emission reductions, and the basic components of a wood smoke reduction plan
for fine particles in areas where wood smoke is of concern.
Y IS
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Residential wood smoke contains P/v\2.s, carbon monoxide (CO), toxic air pollutants (e.g., benzene and
formaldehyde), and climate gases (e.g. methane and black carbon). According to EPA estimates,1 wood
stoves, hydronic heaters, and fireplaces emit more than 345,000 tons of P/V\2.s into the air throughout
the country each year - mostly during the winter months. Nationally, residential wood combustion
accounts for 44 percent of total stationary and mobile polycyclic organic matter (POM) emissions,
nearly 25 percent of all area source air toxic cancer risks and 15 percent of noncancer respiratory
effects.
Residential wood smoke can increase particle pollution to levels that cause significant health concerns
(e.g., asthma attacks, heart attacks, premature death). Wood smoke causes many counties throughout
the U.S. to either exceed the national health-based standards for fine particles, or places them on the
cusp of exceeding the standards. Because wood stoves, hydronic heaters, and other similar appliances
can be used around the clock in residential areas, they can cause significant and varying health and
quality of life issues.
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There is renewed interest in burning biomass (wood, corn, switch grass) to help save money on home
heating bills, and reduce our dependence on foreign oil. The federal government and various states
have provided economic incentives to increase the utilization of renewable energy. According to the
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), wood consumption in homes rose over a 1 0 year period
(2000-201 0), reversing a trend seen in the last two decades of the 20th century. In 2009, U.S.
households consumed about 0.5 quadrillion Btu (quads) of wood. Household fuel oil consumption, by
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
comparison, was only slightly higher at 0.6 quads. In homes across the U.S., wood is most commonly used
as a secondary source of heat and is second only to electricity as a supplemental heating fuel.
CHALLENGES AND BENEFITS
Unlike other air pollution sources, such as industrial factories and commercial operations that may be
regulated by states and tribes, existing wood stoves, fireplaces, and hydronic heaters are usually
owned and operated by homeowners. This makes increasing the efficiency and decreasing the
emissions of these sources challenging. Today, we believe there are over 29 million fireplaces, 243,000
hydronic heaters, and 12 million wood stoves nationwide.
65 PERCENT (7.8 MILLION) OF THE NATION'S WOOD
STOVES ARE OLDER, INEFFICIENT DEVICES
The health benefits associated with reducing P/v\2.s emissions, including wood smoke, are significant.
Studies indicate that P/v\2.s poses a serious public health problem. Exposure to P/v\2.s can cause
premature death and harmful effects on the cardiovascular system (the heart, blood, and blood vessels).
Particle pollution exposure is also linked to a variety of other public health problems, including
respiratory diseases. People with diseases that affect the heart or lung (including asthma), older adults,
children, and people living in lower socioeconomic conditions are at greatest risk from P/V\2.s exposure.
Research indicates that pregnant women, newborns, and people with certain health conditions, such as
obesity or diabetes, may also be at increased risk. EPA estimates that if all of the old wood stoves in
the U.S. were replaced with cleaner-burning hearth appliances, an estimated $56-1 26 billion in health
benefits per year would be realized. For more information, go to:
COMPONENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL PLAN
As a first step in developing a residential wood smoke reduction plan, EPA recommends that air quality
personnel evaluate monitoring and emissions data (e.g., wintertime organic carbon) to determine the
nature and magnitude of residential wood smoke contributions in your airshed. In addition, conducting a
local survey can help estimate how much wood is burned and the percentages of homes with fireplaces,
wood stoves, and/or hydronic heaters. These specific data will prove extremely useful in planning an
overall wood smoke program.
Within this document, state, tribal and local air pollution control officials will find a comprehensive list of
strategies and associated case studies to help identify appropriate wood smoke reduction measures for
their communities. This includes:
D regulatory approaches to reduce wood smoke;
D voluntary programs to replace old wood stoves, hydronic heaters and fireplaces;
D education and outreach tools;
D air quality forecasting and public notification systems;
D funding approaches for wood-burning appliance replacement programs;
D federal actions to reduce residential wood smoke; and
D methods for calculating emission reductions.
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
EPA recommends a combination of regulatory, voluntary, and educational strategies to ensure a
successful wood smoke program with measurable emission reductions. Even communities who do not
have an air quality monitor but believe wood smoke is causing air quality problems can use the tools in
this document.
I. REGULATORY PROGRAMS
A variety of regulatory options exist to address residential wood smoke. Each community should decide
which measures are most appropriate given the nature and extent of their wood smoke problem.
Communities should also gauge the knowledge and familiarity with air quality and wood smoke issues
among elected leaders and the public. A public awareness program, along with a voluntary wood
smoke curtailment program, may be a good first step. In communities where residential wood smoke
continues to impact air quality despite active education and outreach efforts, local officials may choose
to implement a regulatory program. There are several types. Mandatory curtailment programs prohibit
the use of wood stoves and other devices under certain circumstances. Designing a curtailment program
calls for the coordination of many factors, including provisions for homes that use wood burning as their
only source of heat. Other types of regulatory programs include visible emission limits from chimneys,
setback requirements, firewood moisture content requirements, and restrictions on the use and sale of
non-EPA-certified wood stoves, all of which are discussed below.
A. WOOD-BURNING CURTAILMENT PROGRAMS
Cold weather often coincides with an increase in wood burning and air inversions which can lead
to unhealthy levels of air pollution. One of the quickest and most effective ways an air quality
agency can reduce wintertime wood smoke is by developing a mandatory curtailment program,
often known as "burn bans." Some communities implement both a voluntary and mandatory
curtailment program, depending on the severity of their wood smoke problem. Curtailment
programs often have two stages: Stage 1 allowing EPA-certified wood stoves to operate, and
Stage 2 banning the use of all wood-burning appliances unless wood burning is the household's
only source of heat. Stage 2 bans could also exempt pellet appliances, as they typically tend
to burn cleaner throughout their burn cycle and cannot be loaded with unseasoned wood, like
wood stoves.
» Although curtailment programs are not always popular with the public, this measure
can be highly effective at reducing wood smoke and has been successfully
implemented in a number of communities. While there are certainly other strategies
the Sacramento Air Quality Management District is implementing, the curtailment
program alone has resulted in 40 percent fewer days above the NAAQS for PM2.5.
" Sacramento enacted a mandatory, episodic wood-burning curtailment program.
The first stage occurs when PM2.5 concentrations are forecast to exceed 31 ug/m3.
The second stage of the curtailment program occurs when PM2.5 concentrations are
forecast to exceed 35 ug/m3. In addition to mandatory curtailment, a voluntary
curtailment begins at 25 ug/m3.
" During a Stage 1 no-burn day, burning is prohibited except in EPA-certified stoves
or pellet stoves as long as they do not emit visible smoke. During a Stage 2
no-burn day, all wood-burning is prohibited. The rule does not apply to fireplaces
and stoves that burn gaseous fuels. Also, the rule exempts burning that is the sole
source of heat or in financial hardship situations.
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
To ensure the success of your curtailment program, it is essential to have some
enforcement capabilities and an air quality forecasting and public notification system
in place. Forecasting air quality and having a notification system in place will help
educate the public about air pollution in their community and facilitate efficient
communication about actions the public are requested to take when a voluntary or
regulatory burn ban is called. To learn more about air quality forecasting, go to the
AirNow website at:
Educating the public about the health benefits of reducing wood smoke in the
community is critical to gaining support from the public and community leaders. The
following links provide examples of existing curtailment programs:
« Puget Sound Clean Air Agency website outlines a two-stage burn ban system and
frequently asked questions like, "What is a burn ban,?" and "How can I find out
when a burn ban is called?" For more information go to:
. See also the Puget Sound Clean
Air Agency wood smoke burn ban rule language:
Sacramento Air Quality Management District implements a two-stage "Check
Before You Burn" curtailment program from November to February. For more
information, see: ; and
Jackson County, Oregon, implements a Wood-Burning Advisory Program. This
curtailment program designates days as green, yellow, or red depending on the
amount of particle pollution in the air. For more information, see:
B.
"Opacity" measures how much your view is blocked by
smoke. One hundred percent opacity means you are not
able to see anything through the smoke. At 20 percent
opacity, there is very little smoke and you can see almost
perfectly through it. A well-controlled wood-burning
appliance will have less than 20 percent opacity and
typically no visible emissions.
To help control smoke from chimneys or flues, and to encourage cleaner burning techniques,
some states and localities have laws or rules that require no "visible emissions" or that limit the
opacity of emissions. Burning dry seasoned wood in newer technology wood-burning devices
will typically limit visible emissions. Prohibiting "visible emissions" means no smoke should be
seen coming out of a chimney for a given amount of time. If smoke is seen, it could be
considered a violation.
VISIBLE EMISSION LIMITS ARE TYPICALLY EASIER TO
IMPLEMENT AND ENFORCE THAN OPACITY LIMITS
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
Opacity limits are restrictions on the percentage of light that may be prevented from passing
through the smoke plume and require personnel qualified as an opacity reader to determine
compliance. See EPA Test Method 22 for details on determination of visible emissions:
, and EPA Test Method 9:
, for details on determination of opacity.
" Effectively implementing an opacity limit or visible emissions program requires public
awareness and a trained enforcement staff. For more details about these control
measures, see section 3.7 of EPA's "Guidance Document for Residential Wood Smoke
Combustion Emission Control Measures Document" available at:
Opacity: Washington State has an opacity rule that applies to wood burning in
private residences: - . In
particular, the rule requires that "a person shall not cause or allow emission of a smoke
plume from any solid fuel burning device to exceed an average of 20 percent opacity
for six consecutive minutes in any one hour period." This program has been in effect for
more than 1 0 years.
Visible Emissions: The Maricopa County Air Quality Department in Arizona has a wood
smoke regulation that prohibits the presence of visible emissions during restricted burn
periods. For specific language, see:
C.
Wood that is not properly seasoned will burn less efficiently and release more harmful
pollutants. To increase the likelihood that stove owners will burn seasoned wood, some air
pollution control agencies have encouraged the use of wood moisture meters. Puget Sound
Clean Air Agency in Washington sends wood moisture meters to community members. For more
information go to: . Households may purchase a
basic wood moisture meter at woodworking specialty shops or
online for less than $25. Some areas deem it illegal to sell,
advertise or supply wood unless the wood moisture content is 20
percent or less. For more information on moisture meters and wet
wood, see "Wet Wood is a Waste" Brochure at:
Sacramento Air Quality Management District's regulation
requires that the wood moisture content may not exceed
20 percent. For more information, see:
(sections 214, 303,
and 501.2).
D. Of QID >TO\f ftFSAiF OF A
Old wood stoves are usually made of metal, weigh 250 to 500 pounds, and last for decades.
As a result, households are less likely to replace an old stove with newer, cleaner-burning
technology or remove the old stove - especially if they are not using it often. To help get these
old stoves "off-line," some local communities require the removal and destruction of old wood
stoves upon the resale of a home. This requirement has proven effective in locations like
Mammoth Lakes, CA; Washoe County, NV; and the State of Oregon.
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Mammoth Lakes, California, requires that all non-EPA-certified wood-burning appliances
(except pellet stoves) be removed or rendered inoperable upon the sale of a dwelling.
Since 1 990, approximately 2,500 wood stoves have been removed and 2,900
fireplaces have been retrofitted. See Town of Mammoth Lakes, California: Link to Rule
431 -Particulate Matter, section E:
Washoe County, Nevada: Link to Wood Stove/Fireplace Emissions Rule section
040.051:
Oregon's "Heat Smart" legislation requires the removal and destruction of old,
uncertified wood stoves upon resale of a home anywhere in the state.
" Legislation:
" Notification and removal form:
Disposal receipt:
Certified wood stoves must adhere to regulatory emission requirements established by EPA.
EPA is in the process of expanding its requirements to apply to other types of wood-burning
appliances beyond wood stoves. At this time, wood stove manufacturers may only sell wood
stoves and wood stove inserts that meet EPA's mandatory smoke emission limit of 7.5 grams of
smoke per hour (g/h) for non-catalytic stoves and 4.1 g/h for catalytic stoves. Wood stoves
offered for sale in the state of Washington must meet a limit of 4.5 g/h for non-catalytic stoves
and 2.5 g/h for catalytic stoves. Pellet stoves are typically cleaner than wood stoves.
Fireplaces and hydronic heaters (outdoor wood boilers) are not currently regulated by EPA.
However, manufacturers of these appliances may choose to meet voluntary emission levels set
by EPA. Appliances that meet the voluntary requirements are considered "EPA-qualified." While
these units are not certified by EPA, they do burn cleaner than older, unqualified models.
Several states currently regulate hydronic heaters emissions. To learn more, visit:
Some states have adopted laws that make it illegal to install certain hearth appliances in homes.
The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) established a law in 1 991 stipulating
that only DEQ-certified and EPA-certified stoves made after 1986 can be resold. The Oregon
State Building Codes Division passed a complementary law in the early 1990s prohibiting the
installation of any uncertified stove (pellet stoves and cook stoves are exempt) in homes or
outbuildings. Though this type of measure may be difficult to enforce over a long period, it may
result in significant emissions reductions. Washington State has a similar law. Building
department inspectors enforce wood stove certification rules in some areas. For more
information, go to: . To find a list of EPA-
certified stoves, go to:
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F, THE USE OF
For areas that do not meet the national particle standards due in part to wood smoke, the local
jurisdiction may consider banning the use of non-EPA-certified wood stoves. The case of Lincoln
County, Montana, is instructive on how to implement a ban on old
stoves. In 2005, Lincoln County first provided low-income homes full
replacement costs (which averaged $2,900) to upgrade to an
approved cleaner-burning appliance, typically an EPA-certified wood
stove. For other community members with an old wood stove or wood
furnace, the County provided vouchers up to $1,750. The goal was to
encourage all households to voluntarily replace their old wood stoves
with cleaner-burning technologies to address the county's particle
pollution challenges.
In 2006, following the donation of stoves to low-income households and cash incentives for other
homes, the County passed a regulation that banned the use of non-EPA-certified wood stoves.
The local government decided that each home using a "Solid Fuel Burning Device" (e.g., wood
stove or fireplace) must have an operating permit. To enforce the regulation, Lincoln County air
program personnel periodically look for visible emissions from chimneys. If there are visible
emissions and the household does not have an operating permit, the county may issue a notice of
violation for failure to have a permit. To read the regulation, go to:
G. ON IN
Some areas may choose to reduce or prevent further degradation of air quality by banning the
installation of any wood-burning hearth appliances in new construction, or restricting the number
and density of new wood-burning appliances in a given area. For example, see California's
South Coast Air Quality District rule: , . For frequently
asked questions related to this rule go to: .
H.
Hydronic heaters, also known as outdoor wood
boilers, are used to provide heat and hot water to
homes and other buildings. These devices can be a
significant local source of smoke - see photo at right.
EPA recommends state, tribal, and local agencies
that are in P/v\2.s nonattainment areas, or areas at
risk, to adopt regulations that use or improve upon
the emission limits in the Northeast States for
Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM)
Outdoor Hydronic Heater model rule. A 2007 study
showed that smoke from a
single old hydronic heater can cause significant air quality problems. Some local jurisdictions
have chosen to ban hydronic heaters in their townships. Other jurisdictions chose to regulate the
minimum distances these heaters must be set back from property lines to ensure the heaters are
not used in close proximity to neighbors. Several states developed proposed rules or adopted
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
emission standards. See: for the NESCAUM
model rule and the dispersion modeling analysis that supports the need for local or state
regulations to avoid exceedances of the national fine particle standards.
IT IS BETTER TO GET A PROPERLY SIZED BOILER THAN TO DEAL WITH
WOOD SMOKE COMPLAINTS LATER. MANY STATE RESIDENTIAL CODES
REQUIRE THAT BOILERS (GAS, OIL, ETC.) BE SIZED TO ACTUAL LOAD.
If hydronic heaters are permitted, EPA recommends that only EPA-qualified, Phase 2 units that
are appropriately sized be allowed and that the area incorporate setback requirements. See
NESCAUM's model rule for their setback recommendations:
. The following are examples of state
or local hydronic heater regulations:
" In March 201 1, the State of Indiana adopted a rule establishing emission limits for new
outdoor hydronic heaters. In addition, the rule includes a fuel use restriction, stack height
requirements, and a limited summertime operating ban for existing units. A copy of the
rule is available at: and a fact sheet
at:
The State of Vermont's hydronic heater rule requires the removal of, "Any OWB
[outdoor wood boiler/hydronic heater] in the state that is not certified under the air
pollution control regulations to meet the Phase I, Phase II, or a more stringent emission
limit shall be retired on or before December 31, 2012, if the OWB is located within
200 feet of a residence, school, or health care facility... or has resulted or results in a
complaint regarding emissions..."
" Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, Final Rule:
Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, List of Outdoor
Wood-Fired Boilers State and Local Ordinances:
" Town of Rosendale, NY:
" Maine Department of Environmental Protection:
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Over 29 million wood-burning fireplaces exist in homes throughout the U.S. Fireplaces should
not be used for primary heating. Fireplaces contribute significantly to air quality problems -
especially in high density urban settings. For example,fireplaces may represent as much as
75 percent of the pollution from wood-burning devices on bad air quality days in the San
Francisco Bay Area (an area that currently exceeds the PM2.5 NAAQS) and may be responsible
for 20-25 percent of ALL sources of PM2.5.
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FIREPLACES MAY REPRESENT AS MUCH AS 75% OF THE
POLLUTION FROM WOOD-BURNING DEVICES ON BAD AIR
QUALITY DAYS IN THE SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA
EPA has a voluntary wood-burning fireplace program that qualifies new, cleaner-burning
fireplace models and retrofit devices for existing fireplaces. Where fireplaces are allowed in
new construction, EPA recommends the installation of only EPA-qualified, Phase 2 units. If
installed and operated properly, EPA-qualified fireplaces can reduce air pollution by
approximately 70 percent. For more information go to:
. For example, beginning in January 201 3, the
Klamath Falls, Oregon area will only allow fireplaces that emit less than or equal to the Phase 2
emission level of the EPA wood-burning fireplace program in all new housing construction. For
more information go to:
EPA also recommends that air programs consider purchase
incentives for households that install EPA-qualified, Phase 2
retrofit devices on existing fireplaces. For example,
manufacturers have developed and tested catalysts, log
lighters, and other retrofit devices that may reduce P/v\2.s
emissions from existing fireplaces. For the list of EPA
qualified appliances, go to:
. See section II C
for more details.
The California Bay Area Air Quality Management District (BAAQMD) developed a wood smoke
ordinance for fireplaces and wood stoves to regulate new sources of particle pollution in their
communities. The ordinance allows the installation of only natural gas fireplaces, EPA-certified
wood heaters, pellet-fueled wood heaters, and EPA-qualified, Phase 2 fireplaces that have
emissions no greater than those of a certified wood heater. The Bay Area District calculates
significant emissions reductions due to the ordinance. For more information related to the
BAAQMD's model rule go to:
EPA is planning to revise the New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for residential wood
heaters established in 1 988 (see section K. below). In the meantime, some states and local
governments are developing regulations requiring that any wood-heating appliance sold in their
jurisdiction must meet lower emission levels than the current NSPS emission limits. For example,
since 1 995, the State of Washington has had "solid fuel burning devices" emission limits that are
more stringent than those set in EPA's wood heater NSPS.
For details on Washington's emission standards go to:
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
K. NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR NEW RESIDENTIAL
WOOD HEATING APPLIANCES
EPA is considering tightening the air pollution emission limits for new wood heaters, reducing the
types of appliances that are exempt; and adding regulations for new hydronic heaters,
furnaces, and masonry heaters. EPA expects to propose the revisions and new standards in
201 3, and anticipates that the rule will be finalized in 2014. The revised wood heater NSPS
would reduce future residential wood smoke from new appliances throughout the U.S. For more
information, go to: .. . . .
II. VOLUNTARY PROGRAMS
In addition to regulatory approaches, communities may implement voluntary wood smoke control
strategies to achieve wood smoke reductions. This section provides information on wood stove and
fireplace replacements, hydronic heaters, manufactured (low mass) fireplaces, fireplace retrofit devices,
and masonry fireplaces.
A. WOOD STOVE, HYDRONIC HEATER, AND FIREPLACE REPLACEMENTS
EPA recommends that states, tribal governments, and local communities implement voluntary
wood stove, hydronic heater, and fireplace replacement/retrofit programs to motivate
households to replace older technologies with safer, more efficient, cleaner burning technologies.
These programs are most effective when they also include education and outreach to ensure
households burn more efficiently and cleanly. Wood stove replacement programs address both
indoor and outdoor air quality, reduce fine particle and toxic air pollution, improve energy
efficiency, and reduce the risk of chimney fires. See: for
more information. Over the last several years, more state and local agencies have implemented
wood stove and fireplace replacement programs to help address wood smoke issues. EPA
estimates that more than 24,000 wood stoves and fireplaces have been replaced or retrofitted
in 50 communities, resulting in approximately 3,700 tons of fine particle emissions reduced each
year, and an estimated $1 35-329 million per year of health benefits. Communities may
consider only allowing replacement stoves that meet stricter emission standards than those
mandated by the EPA. For example, a Maryland program allows the use of wood stoves that
emit up to 3 grams of P/v\2.s an hour and pellet stoves up to 2 grams of P/v\2.s an hour.
CHANGING OUT ONE OLD, DIRTY, INEFFICIENT
WOOD STOVE IS EQUIVALENT TO THE P/M25
POLLUTION REDUCTION OF TAKING FIVE OLD
DIESEL BUSES OFF THE ROAD
Wood Stove and Hydronic Heater Changeout and Removal Program (Fairbanks,
Alaska): Leveraging local, state, and federal funds, the Fairbanks North Star Borough
implemented a wood stove and hydronic heater changeout and removal program as part of
the area's P/v\2.s reduction strategy. The Borough developed education and outreach
materials and investigated several voluntary programs, including dry kiln and utility subsidy
programs. The program also provided funds for repairs and retrofits. Visit:
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D Low-income Weatherization Program (Sacramento, California):
The Sacramento Metropolitan Air Quality Management District (SMAQMD) partnered with
the local weatherization program from 2008-201 1 to replace stoves in the areas, with
50 percent in environmental justice areas. The program paid up to $2,500 for a wood
stove/insert and up to $3,500 for a gas stove, while the low-income weatherization
program paid for installation labor. Currently, SMAQMD is continuing the low income
program as a voucher system. Vouchers are available for up to $1,500 towards the
purchase/installation of a less polluting device or removal of a wood-burning device.
More details can be found at: '>!v':,... - - ''-> '!'"-;'''.;:..:..;..;' :-.^;:;'.'i'.^;:.7. '^^'- '.':.!.
and ;;.;.(.;...:;.!'..- ...'./U.'....;..Afr ''! ^...i^;:::..:j::^::j:L::.:.:::./..:^.:-.i-.^:C:'::'.^..:l.:-Ll:.:':':::i:'\^:.::':'l-:-i''' :'''
a Entire Town Wood Stove Changeout and Emissions Reduction Data (Libby, Montana):
Using significant financial contributions from the hearth industry, U.S. EPA, Montana
Department of Environmental Quality, and funds appropriated by Congress, the Lincoln
County Health Department replaced the majority of wood stoves in Libby. EPA, the State
of Montana, the Hearth, Patio & Barbecue Association (HPBA), and the University of
Montana supported the monitoring of air quality before and after the changeout, indoors
and out.
Wintertime outdoor PM2.5 pollution levels dropped after over 1,1 00 old wood stoves were
replaced with cleaner burning technologies. The old stoves were replaced with properly
installed and vented EPA-certified wood stoves and indoor PM2.5 emissions were reduced
by 70 percent.
For a report, including air quality emissions data, testimonials and a video summarizing this
effort, go tO: . .-..:. i.-:o. -..ch- i;;y-',',L: .,.>.;,( :n-i,: v 0::;i.
D Small Town Low-interest Loan Wood Stove Changeout Program (Pendleton, Oregon):
The City of Pendleton used funds from a Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
Community Development Block Grant to provide initial funding for the purchase of new
stoves. The money was then paid back by households that participated in the program.
City contributions provided additional funding. Several programs have been implemented
in Pendleton including one in which the property owner borrows money interest free and a
lien is placed on the property pending repayment. The full principal amount of the loan is
due at the sale of the home. Approximately 1 25 wood stoves have been changed out. For
more information go to:
D Wood Stove Bounty Program (Methow Valley, Washington):
The Washington State Department of Ecology (DOE) sponsored a "woodstove roundup"
near Winthrop, Washington. Stove owners were offered up to $250 for turning in an old
wood stove. A total of 69 stoves qualified for the program and all were disposed and
recycled. Washington DOE estimates that the program has resulted in the removal of
approximately 3 tons of PM2.5 out the Methow Valley Airshed each year. For more
information, contact Sean Hopkins: :i:i;iil:;iL;^ ; " : or go to:
D Annual Wood Stove Changeout Program (Yakima, Washington):
Yakima Regional Clean Air Agency has partnered with local hearth retailers and others to
implement a recurring wood stove changeout campaign. They have changed out over 700
wood stoves. For a summary of their program go to:
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
D Air Tribe,
Washington):
The focus of this program was on Improving Indoor air quality and addressing tribal
members' asthma. Before and after stove replacements, Indoor air quality sampling was
conducted In several homes. Every tribal member's home with an old wood stove was
changed out to a cleaner burning appliance (. . . ' . . ' ).
B.
EPA's Hydronic Heater program encourages manufacturers to design cleaner and more efficient
hydronic heater models. These heaters are commonly referred to as outdoor wood boilers
(OWB). See: for more details and a current list of
the qualified models.
" EPA-qualified, Phase 2 models are 90 percent cleaner than unqualified models.
" Thirty-five models have qualified at the Phase 2 emission level.
(Circulated to and
from home)
Insulation
(surrounds Water Jacket)
\Cooled Water
(recycled back to furnace)
Forced Air Furnace
(radiant floor, radiant baseboard or
existing boiler may also be used for
internal treat distribution)
The replacement of old, inefficient hydronic heaters with new cleaner-burning units can result in
local air quality improvements. Retrofitting existing hydronic heaters to address wood smoke
emissions may be another option. Limited testing of hydronic heater retrofit devices has been
conducted and more is needed to determine if these devices can be a cost effective measure.
" The Vermont Air Pollution Control Division (APCD) has offered a voluntary OWB
Change-Out Program that provides financial incentives to encourage people to
replace their old OWBs with cleaner, more efficient heating systems. The Program
has offered $6,000 for replacement and $1,000 for a manufacturer rebate match.
For more information, visit:
NESCAUM has researched the effectiveness of retrofitting hydronic heaters to help
reduce emissions. Field tests have also been done with some mixed results. Newer
retrofit device technologies have been developed to address some of the Initial
problems. In 201 3, EPA plans to conduct limited testing to help better characterize
the overall effectiveness of hydronic heater retrofit devices. For more Information on
NESCAUM's study go to:
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
C. WOOIM-URNIN*.* FlRKfl.ftO,''.
EPA's wood-burning fireplace program encourages fireplace manufacturers to develop cleaner-
burning fireplaces for consumers. The voluntary program sets a qualifying emission level for
new fireplaces, including pre-manufactured and site-built masonry fireplaces. Similar to the
hydronic heater voluntary program the fireplace program sets Phase 1 and Phase 2 qualifying
emission limits. However, the time period for Phase 1 qualification has expired, and all 21
fireplace models qualified under the voluntary fireplace program have qualified at the Phase 2
emissions level. In communities that allow wood-burning fireplaces in new construction, EPA
recommends that homeowners and developers consider installation of cleaner-burning, EPA
Phase 2 qualified models.
EPA adopted ASTM method 2558 specifically for wood burning fireplaces when the method
was finalized in 2009. ASTM E-2558 is the recognized test method accepted for qualification
by EPA for the Wood-Burning Fireplace Program. EPA has a separate test (Method 28) for
wood heaters, including wood stoves for compliance with the NSPS.
EPA also recommends that air districts consider creating incentives to encourage the installation
of retrofit devices on existing fireplaces to reduce emissions. The qualifying Phase 2 emissions
level remains the same for retrofit devices as it is for new fireplaces. EPA's fireplace program
has qualified certain catalysts, log lightens and other retrofit devices that reduce fine particle
emissions from existing fireplaces to help improve air quality. For information related to the
EPA wood-burning firehttp://sa rahj.store.willowhouse.com/category.aspx?zcid=289place
program, go to:
PM Advance is a collaborative effort between EPA, state, tribal, and local air agencies to
reduce PM2.5 to help participating areas continue to meet the PM2.5 NAAQS. Areas that have
high levels of PM2.5, but not designated as "nonattainment" areas, are working with EPA and
others to reduce emissions from sources such as residential wood smoke and diesel vehicles. In
many areas, wood smoke is a major contributor to high levels of particle pollution. Go to:
to see if your area is a good candidate for participation.
III. EDUCATION AND OUTREACH
Wood smoke education is an important part of reducing PM2.5 in your community. Engaging the public
and giving them the tools to make informed decisions about what they burn and how they burn is the
first step in an overall wood smoke reduction plan. Enough education programs have been in effect
long enough that we know they are effective. With proper burning techniques and well-seasoned
wood, emissions (even in older wood-burning appliances) can be significantly reduced. While a new
wood stove, hydronic heater, or wood-burning fireplace will typically pollute less than older appliances
when used properly, it is important to emphasize that how a user operates their appliance is equally
important in maximizing energy efficiency and reducing emissions.
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
A commitment from local community leaders to support wood smoke reduction programs is important for
the success of an education campaign. A plan for education and outreach to the public should definitely
be included when introducing burn ban ordinances or wood-burning appliance replacement programs to
elected leaders. The following is an example policy statement from the California Bay Area Air Quality
Management District that could be used in other communities to help advance education and outreach
campaigns.
:". in:, i1 wr - i ii' - M .'i.i i 'in : » ' !!
EPA's Burn Wise program can be an important resource for states and communities. Burn Wise
is a way to encourage the importance of burning the right wood, the right way, in the right
wood-burning appliance to protect your home, health and the air we breathe. The program
offers a website, outreach tools and information to help consumers make informed decisions
about what it means to burn wise. For more information visit the Burn Wise website at:
KEY EPA BURN WISE MESSAGE:
IF YOU CHOOSE TO BURN WOOD, BURN THE RIGHT WOOD,
THE RIGHT WAY, IN THE RIGHT APPLIANCE
We encourage air pollution professionals to work with local hearth retailers, local firefighters,
chimney sweeps, insurance agents, doctors, teachers, and others to deliver the Burn Wise
message to the public. EPA's Burn Wise education and outreach tools promote responsible
wood-burning techniques for those who choose to burn wood. The goal is to educate people on
the connection between what they burn, how they burn, and the impacts on their health and the
environment. In addition, it promotes safety, cost savings, and energy efficiency. EPA is "fuel
neutral" and does not encourage wood heat over gas, electric, propane, or other fuel types.
However, if people choose to burn wood, it is important to provide tools and knowledge so they
burn responsibly.
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
f
Burn** Wise
Program of U.S. EPA
Sinn Hi; :< '-, »d: People should only burn dry, seasoned wood (i.e. 20 percent or less
moisture) or wood pellets. Dry hardwoods or pellets have the best combustion efficiency
and create less smoke inside and outside the home. EPA recommends that local wood smoke
reduction campaigns share information on what not to burn as well. People should never
burn garbage, plastic, or pressed and treated wood in their wood stove, hydronic heater, or
fireplace. The toxic chemicals released in the air are harmful and can potentially damage
wood-burning appliances. Also, people should never burn wet or "green" wood that is not
properly seasoned. While it may be cheaper and easily available, burning wet or green
wood is inefficient and creates more smoke and less heat when burned. To learn about four
easy steps for drying wood, see "Wet Wood is a Waste" Brochure at:
11 ; K - if.'hv V'.'V.iy. When heating with wood, people should maintain a bright, hot fire and not
let it smolder. More smoke means decreased efficiency and more creosote build-up which
could lead to a chimney fire. Wood stoves and fireplaces should be inspected each year
by a certified Chimney Safety Institute of America (CSIA) service technician. A list of CSIA-
certified technicians in your area can be found at:
11 !r, in- ftkjhi .".t;j.:lie,-n.:;:. Replacing an old wood stove (i.e. manufactured before 1990),
hydronic heater, or fireplace with an energy-saving wood pellet stove or an EPA-approved
wood stove or EPA-qualified appliance that is installed by a professional will improve air
quality and efficiency. Wood heating appliances should be properly sized for the area
they will heat. An appliance that is too large or too small will not operate at peak
efficiency and will create more pollution. To learn more about EPA certified and qualified
wood-burning appliances visit:
To support the Burn Wise education campaign, EPA, with help from the hearth industry, CSIA,
U.S. Forest Service, states, tribes, and others, developed the following tools and initiatives for
state, tribal, and local communities. Most materials are available online at:
and a few are available in hard copy. Contact the EPA
library at: to order hard copies.
*' ftum iVi;,; A/,; ijiii; - provides outreach tools, key messages, case studies and
additional information to help state, tribal and local communities reduce residential
wood smoke
111 "urn vViv/ Wu^v;!* - are small images that display wood-burning tips directly on your
Web page and link back to the Burn Wise website. Once a widget is added to your
Web page there is no technical maintenance; Burn Wise will update the content
automatically
11 i um V-MV /idf i; ('':/-,\ - promote best burn tips and can be used on websites or
television. EPA has video public service announcements (PSAs) that are available on
YouTube at:
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
Wet Wood is a Waste: ;
Split, Stack, Cover, Store: Four Simple Steps for Drying Wood:
/
The Pledge: ;
Meet Carl, Learn or Burn: ; and
Learn Before You Burn, Super Sketch:
If you would like a higher resolution video, contact Leigh Herrington,
- available in 15-, 30- or 60-second lengths, these radio
public service announcements help promote best burn tips:
- provide weekly best burn tips and wood smoke
information through and
provides over 200 wood-burning related photos that may be
downloaded for use in presentations or materials.
- Training video
module for state, local, and tribal governments to learn more about P/v\2.s
implementation and wood smoke:
- developed by EPA as a
free, 2-day online training for CSIA continuing education credits. Chimney sweeps
looking to earn or maintain CSIA accreditation may take the course that provides
information on EPA's wood heaters NSPS, voluntary programs, health effects of wood
smoke and best burn tips. The course is currently available online to CSIA members at:
- HPBA
developed several videos to promote best burn tips. Visit HPBA's Home Heating
YouTube Channel: to view the following
videos:
, and
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
You may order the complete high resolution "Burn Wise: A Video Guide to Operating
Your Wood Stove Efficiently" DVD at:
lu ft G i) A i n Y K> ft i. c A it n» A w D ?« i p o s i ff u> i H i i* u on*
EPA has tools for states, tribes, and local communities to use to help raise awareness about
wood smoke. We recommend that air agencies incorporate these tools in their education
campaigns and wood smoke curtailment programs.
provides the public with easy access to national air quality information. The
website offers daily Air Quality Index (AQI) forecasts as well as real-time AQI conditions for
over 400 cities across the U.S., and provides links to more detailed state and local air quality
websites. An AIRNow app is also available for iPhone and Android devices at
EPA recommends that air quality officials include a commitment to forecast P/V\2.s and provide
reports to the public that includes an e-mail alert system, like EPA's EnviroFlash air quality
notifications:
is a free air quality notification system that sends air quality forecasts to the
subscriber's e-mail, smart phone or mobile device. Individuals who receive EnviroFlash
notifications can adjust their wood-burning practices on unhealthy air quality days. Knowing the
air quality forecast is important for everyone. People most at risk from particle pollution include
people with diseases that affect the heart or lung (including asthma), older adults, children, and
people of lower socioeconomic status. States, tribes, and local agencies can tailor the
EnviroFlash messages and send special alerts related to smoke and wildfires. If your area does
not forecast particle pollution or use EnviroFlash, contact John White at to
learn more. EPA recommends that air quality officials include a commitment to forecast P/V\2.s
and provide reports to the public that includes an e-mail alert system like EPA's Enviroflash air
quality notifications
JUUJfTIOP'IAf HI hf'HIRC! If .WfUl AJiil M'» M M I , "JRHifU LOCAL
GOVtRNMENtS fi.»U PUblSf, DUC At«i.»N
EPA wood smoke educational materials are available for copying and distribution. Materials
may be ordered from the EPA library at: or online at:
The following are examples of resources available on the EPA Burn Wise web site:
Provides information about best burn practices, how to burn a
proper fire and keep your home and community safe from wood smoke. This full-color
fact sheet is available in English (document # 456F09004) and Spanish (document #
456F11006)at: and
- This tri-fold color brochure
and poster explain the difference between old and new stoves, health effects from
breathing wood smoke, and links to more information on the website. Both the brochure
(document #456F1 1 002) and poster (document #456H1 1 001) are available from the
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
EPA library or online at:
and
*fe-l V»«jt»o i9 u - EPA, along with the Northwest Tribal Air Group,
developed a tri-fold brochure (document #456F10003) that provides four simple steps
to dry firewood: Split, Stack, Cover, and Store. Hard copies are available through the
EPA library at at and online at
- This two-page fact sheet
developed by The Makah Nation provides a list of
materials and detailed construction diagrams to build a
modular wood shed. Plans may be printed from
IV. FUNDING MECHANISMS
Financial incentives may be a necessity to encourage households to replace or retrofit old wood-
burning appliances. Such incentives could include a low-cost means to purchase cleaner-burning
appliances. The following approaches may assist communities:
A.
The Hearth, Patio and Barbecue Association (HPBA), along with retailers and manufacturers,
works with organizations to provide discounts for wood stove changeout campaigns. In the past,
industry discounts have ranged between 1 0 to 15 percent off the price of a cleaner-burning
appliance. For more information, contact John Crouch of HPBA at
B.
Tax credits can reduce the amount of taxes owed. Periodically, state and/or federal tax credits
may apply to cleaner-burning appliances. Tax credits, deductions, and rebates can be very
effective (for example, as they are with Energy Star appliances) to steer consumers to the
cleanest and most efficient products. EPA encourages jurisdictions considering such incentives for
biomass heating appliances to focus on the cleanest devices and require appliance destruction
through recycling the metal. EPA also encourages jurisdictions that may want to use efficiency
thresholds to qualify units for a tax credit to require third party testing and use the Canadian
Standards Administration B415.1 test protocol to verify efficiency numbers.
In past years, federal tax legislation has provided 1 0-30 percent tax credits for purchase and
installation expenses of up to $1,500 for cleaner wood and pellet stoves. Go to:
or for current tax credit information.
Some states have offered tax credits, which are typically limited in their duration:
" - offered an Alternative Energy Systems Credit ($500) against income tax
liability for the cost of purchasing and installing an energy system in a principal home
that uses "... a low emission wood or biomass combustion device such as a pellet or
wood stove." For more information, go to:
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c! «J - offered taxpayers who bought new wood stoves, pellet stoves, or natural gas or
propane heating units for their residences a tax deduction (up to $5,000) to replace
old, uncertified wood stoves. For more information go to:
Oregon - offered a Residential Energy Tax Credit Program for the highest energy
efficient wood and pellet stoves that meet specific criteria. The tax credit amount was
based on the estimated average first year energy savings and cost for equipment. For
wood and pellet stoves that qualified, the tax credit amount was 25 percent of the net
cost up to $300. For more information, go to:
i- I Of !, I i .-..!. , > <_ l=. .- r! L r! f - "i > f» «. L «
PACE is an innovative way to finance energy efficiency and renewable energy upgrades for
buildings and homes. Interested property owners evaluate measures that achieve energy
savings and receive 1 00 percent financing, and then must repay the funds to the local
government as a property tax assessment for up to 20 years. For detailed information go to:
The following are examples of various federally supported programs or mechanisms for
possibly replacing and/or retrofitting older inefficient or unsafe wood-burning appliances with
cleaner, more energy efficient and safer heating appliances.
'," ' ' ( ' ' ' ' r > " , enables low-income families to permanently
reduce their energy bills by making their homes more energy efficient. New EPA-certified wood
stoves are 50 percent more energy efficient than older wood stoves. Older wood-burning
appliances like wood stoves are sometimes improperly installed and vented and/or have cracks
rendering the appliance unsafe. This can cause indoor air quality problems and risk of fire.
WAP funds can be used to replace heating appliances for "health and safety" reasons. To
pursue a potential partnership with your local weatherization program to changeout old dirty
inefficient wood stoves, go to the following website:
This program is a Federally-funded program that helps low-income households with
their home energy bills. The local LIHEAP program determines if a household's income qualifies
for the program. LIHEAP may offer one or more of the following types of assistance:
11 Bill payment assistance;
* Energy crisis assistance;
11 Weatherization; and
" Wood stove energy efficiency upgrades, repairs and replacements.
To pursue a potential partnership with your local LIHEAP office to changeout old dirty inefficient
wood stoves, go to the following website:
' r . . . " " : The Rural Housing Repair and Rehabilitation Loan and Grant
Programs enable low-income, elderly (62+) households to remove health and safety hazards
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
from their homes. Changing out old or improperly installed wood stoves may be eligible under
this program. Funding availability is determined by the local service center. For more
information and to locate your service center, go to:
Department of Housing Urban Development: Several programs provide funding for
wood smoke mitigation. You can find programs located in your area at:
and click on "Information by State." You will
need to search Housing Preservation Grants, Rural Housing Development Program, Housing
Block Grant Program, and the Community Development Block Grant Program. The following are
sample programs:
11 Indian Housing Block Grants: Tribes have discretion to use these funds on most housing-
related projects. Wood stove changeouts are an eligible activity for low income
households. For more information, go to:
Rural Housing and Economic Development Program: This program provides support for
innovative housing and economic development activities in rural areas. Eligible
applicants are local rural non-profits, community development corporations (CDC's),
federally recognized Indian tribes, state housing finance agencies (HFA's), and state
community and/or economic development agencies. For more information, go to:
This program funds a variety of
community development activities, including wood stove changeouts as part of "housing
rehabilitation". For more information, go to:
Settlement agreements for violation of federal and state environmental laws may include
Supplemental Environmental Projects (SEPs) and/or mitigation projects. SEPs used to implement
a wood-burning appliance replacement/retrofit program are an effective way to leverage
resources and significantly improve public health and the environment. These types of projects
can be used to address various types of pollutants including P/v\2.s, CO, volatile organic
compounds, and hazardous air pollutants. Over the last 5 years, state and federal settlement
agreements have included more than $5.5 million for wood-burning appliance
replacement/retrofit projects.
" A SEP is an environmentally beneficial project that a violator of an environmental law
voluntarily agrees to undertake in the settlement of a civil enforcement action. The goal
of a SEP is to improve the environmental health of a community that has been placed at
risk due to a violation of an environmental law.
" A mitigation project is an environmentally beneficial project performed as part of a
settlement of alleged violations which tends to compensate the environment for past
environmental harms caused by the alleged violations. The project should be related to
the same media (e.g. air, water, waste) and should have a similar nexus (e.g. location)
as the alleged violations.
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
Several wood stove replacement SEP/mitigation projects have been implemented throughout the
country, including a $750,000 mitigation project for a coal-fired power plant that was
administered by a health organization. The project replaced 425 old wood stoves with pellet,
gas and EPA-certified wood stoves and included education on proper burning and appliance
operation. To learn more about this project go to:
Example wood-burning appliance replacement consent decree language and a mitigation plan
are available at:
EPA encourages air pollution control personnel to work with and educate air enforcement
personnel and management about the potential use of wood-burning appliance (wood stove,
fireplace and hydronic heater) replacement and/or retrofit projects in settlements. Often SEPs
and mitigation projects are finalized at the end of long settlement processes. If your community
is engaged in a settlement process, and there is interest in a wood-burning appliance
replacement project, EPA recommends that you draft a project plan to share with the company
that may want to implement a SEP in that area.
Some settlement agreements are not site specific because the company has operations
throughout the U.S. In these cases the company may choose a location to implement a wood-
burning appliance replacement project. EPA maintains a list of possible locations for a company
to implement such a project; visit . If you would like
to add an area to the list, contact Larry Brockman at . For more
information about SEPs, go to:
V. PARTNERSHIPS
To implement a residential wood stove replacement program, EPA finds that partnerships are very
helpful in leveraging resources and reaching out to the public. Below are some suggested organizations
to contact.
A. & A) is a trade organization
that represents more than 1,000 hearth retailers and manufacturers across the country. HPBA
can potentially support replacement programs and help with outreach initiatives to reduce wood
smoke emissions. Contact HPBA's John Crouch at for more information.
B. (ALA) can help bring experience to your wood
smoke public education campaign. In addition to public education, ALA has been a partner and
supporter of wood stove changeouts. Contact your local ALA office to request their assistance in
helping raise awareness about wood smoke health effects and your wood smoke control
program. Go to to find your local ALA office.
C. OF fCSIA) is a non-profit, educational
organization dedicated to chimney and venting system safety. The organization represents
more than 1,000 chimney sweeps throughout the country. Chimney sweeps are an excellent
source of information and may provide insight on local wood-burning practices. CSIA may also
assist in identifying chimney sweeps in most communities. Contact Melissa Heeke at
or go to for more information.
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
D. THE ALLIANCE HEAT is a non-profit environmental organization that
promotes cleaner-burning technology. The Alliance for Green Heat works with environmental
and forestry organizations, air quality experts, the wood and pellet stove industry, and others in
the wood-burning community. Contact John Ackerly at or go to
for more information.
E. have worked with state and local air off ices to help
fund and implement wood stove changeouts. For example, biomass programs in Maryland and
New Hampshire encourage cleaner biomass technology to reduce climate gases and improve air
quality.
F. There a re many other organizations that may be able
to offer resources and assistance in addressing wood smoke in your community:
" Firefighters;
Health Organizations;
* Environmental Groups; and
" Local Businesses.
VI. OTHER TOOLS
A. FOR
EPA, along with state, local, and regional planning organizations, created a methodology to
estimate emissions from residential wood-burning appliances for the purposes of developing an
emission inventory. The result is a tool that calculates emissions at the county level. The five
inputs to the tool include: (1) percentage of people that burn wood in each appliance; (2) the
number of occupied housing units in the county; (3) the amount of wood burned in each
appliance; (4) the density of the wood; and (5) the amount of emissions (per pollutant, in mass
units) emitted per ton of wood burned. The result is a county level emission inventory for
residential wood combustion appliances.
EPA initially populated the tool with default data based on regional averages. The tool has the
capability to use state-specific data. To date, 15 states have submitted state-specific data
which EPA has incorporated into the tool (201 1).
More information on the tool may be obtained by contacting Roy Huntley at
. The web address for the CHIEF website is:
. Any agency wanting to incorporate state-specific inputs
is encouraged to contact Roy Huntley for assistance.
CALCULATOt
EPA has developed a simple emissions calculator to estimate PM2.5 and toxic air emissions
reductions from wood stove or fireplace changeouts. Users of the calculator should use site
specific inputs (e.g., cords of wood burned) rather than the defaults in the program, if available.
However, site specific data must be added in the same units (e.g., pounds of pollutant emission
per ton of wood burned) as the default inputs to the calculator. The references for the default
inputs are defined on the readme tab of the calculator. For a copy of the calculator, go to the
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EPA web site at: , and click on "Wood Stove and Fireplace
Changeout Emissions Calculator (Excel)." Contact Roy Huntley at for
assistance.
Variables to the calculator include:
« number of stoves/fireplaces changed out;
" cords of wood burned;
" the fraction of the changeouts expected to be new certified wood stoves;
" wood stove efficiency; and
" wood density.
A wood density variable is necessary because wood is usually bought by the "cord," which is a
unit of volume, and the emission factors used in the calculator are in units of mass. Default
emission factors are included in the calculator in units of pounds of pollution emitted per ton of
oven-dried wood burned. The default density (1.1 62 tons per cord) used in the calculator
comes from the Energy Information Administration (U.S. Department of Energy).
C RF&iDFNMAL SUKVEYS
Collecting information on wood burning (e.g., number of stoves and fireplaces, amount of wood
burned) about your community is a critical step in determining whether to develop a wood
smoke reduction program. For examples of past wood smoke related surveys that may assist a
local community in developing and conducting their own survey, go to:
D,
EPA has developed a table that lists residential wood combustion control measures that air
quality officials may implement to reduce P/V\2.s and other pollutants. The table includes
estimated control efficiency and cost effectiveness numbers along with additional information.
See Appendix D of this document.
E.
Tools for wood smoke monitoring in the ambient air are
fairly limited, but a few techniques are available. Almost
all state, tribal and local monitoring programs already
employ continuous P/V\2.s monitors located at long term
monitoring stations. The monitors provide useful background
information on the PM levels for an area, but are limited in
their ability to characterize PM exposures resulting from
residential wood smoke if they are not located in the
specific neighborhood or street of concern. These monitors
typically report hourly data on monitoring agency web sites and to Airnow.gov as described in
III.B above.
To support characterizing PM exposures in locations with elevated wood smoke, monitoring
agencies can deploy temporary PM2.5 monitors; however, these are often expensive and siting
and logistics can be challenging. Alternatives to fixed site PM2.5 mass continuous monitors exist,
but the concentration units are primarily used as a screening tool and not compared to health
based standards.
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A nephelometer can be used to identify wood smoke if it is configured with a UV channel, and it
can be used to provide light scattering. NESCAUM has developed an integrated system to
measure PM2.5from wood smoke at receptor locations impacted by local wood-burning sources.
The monitoring kit can help address wood smoke complaints and for research projects. The
residential/mobile wood smoke PM monitoring kit includes: a ThermopDR-1500 nephelometer
for P/v\2.5 (BGI cyclone inlet), and a Gill 2-d heated sonic wind and sonic temperature sensor.
The kit can accommodate an additional monitor such as an electrochemical CO sensor, or a
recording GPS for mobile use.
The system is remotely accessible and designed to be deployed outside in all winter weather
conditions. It can also be used for other PM sources such as prescribed burns, wildfires, or road
dust when configured to measure PMio. Mobile monitoring of wood smoke or other PM sources
can be done with 1 -second resolution to provide larger spatial scale assessments. The kit
includes on-site training, Standard Operating Procedures, and extended support. If your
agency is interested in learning more about the kit and how to acquire one, please contact
George Allen at:
In 201 2, the Lake Michigan Air Director's Consortium (LADCO), in cooperation with the University
of Wisconsin-Stevens Point (UWSP), conducted an air quality study of RWC emissions in Grand
Rapids, Wisconsin, using fixed and mobile monitoring techniques. The final report can be found
here:
The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) commissioned a
study to evaluate the effect of wood combustion on local air quality in the Adirondacks of New
York. The study approach used topography, U.S. Census data, property assessments, and other
relevant publicly accessible databases as inputs into a geographic information system model.
The model provides a map of predicted wood smoke PM2.5 spatial variability across a region.
The predicted spatial pattern of wood smoke PM2.5 was compared to observed ambient levels
at fixed monitoring sites and with data collected using mobile monitoring to gauge the
prevalence of high wood smoke spikes. This approach may provide emission inventory
developers with a better sense of the prevalence of outdoor wood boilers and other high
emitting wood smoke sources compared to assumptions made in inventory models. The
monitoring results showed that wood combustion was responsible for most of the PM2.5 measured
in the Adirondacks during the study.
The model coupled with the monitoring field campaign demonstrates that U.S. Census
information can be combined with additional survey and property assessment data to provide a
broadly applicable estimate of wood smoke spatial patterns and population exposure in the
Adirondacks. This approach is a promising method for screening potential wood smoke problem
areas in complex terrains across the Northeast and elsewhere in the U.S. For more information
about this study contact Dr. Ellen Burkhard at
The model is available at:
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
in Outdoor Air Near Outdoor Wood-Fired Boilers
New York State Department of Health scientists investigated the potential for hydronic heaters
to increase outdoor levels of P/v\2.5. Real-time measurements of PM in ambient air at residences
near hydronic heaters were compared to levels at nearby residences. Evaluation of the
monitoring data showed statistically significant increases in P/V\2.5 at five of six study locations,
correlated to hydronic heater distance, direction and meteorological conditions. This report and
other information can be found here:
Dispersion Modeling Assessment of Impacts of Outdoor Wood Boiler Emissions in Support of
NESCAUM's Model Rule
As mentioned earlier in this document, a dispersion modeling assessment was undertaken by the
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) in 2007 to assess the air
quality impacts of existing hydronic heaters. This study was conducted in support of the
NESCAUM model rule for hydronic heaters. The results of the study show that hydronic heaters
produce 24-hr P/v\2.s air quality impacts in excess of 1 00 ug/m3 at distances up to 40 meters
from the hydronic heater. In addition, they produced air quality impacts in excess of the 24-hr
P/v\2.5 NAAQS of 35 ug/m3 at distances up to 1 50 meters from the hydronic heater. For more
information go to:
Fireplace Dispersion Modeling
A dispersion modeling study was undertaken by EPA in late 2009 to assess the air quality
impacts of the cleaner EPA Phase 2 qualified fireplaces. The results of the study show that the
corresponding modeled impact of a fireplace for comparison to the 24-hour P/v\2.s NAAQS was
approximately 2.7 ug/m3. This impact occurred at a distance of 15 to 20 meters from the
chimney. The impact of a typical fireplace would likely be twice this impact. For further
information on this study, go to:
SUMMARY
Wood smoke contains P/V\2.s and toxic air pollutants and significantly impacts air quality, both indoors
and outdoors. Depending on the circumstances in your area, EPA recommends that communities
concerned with wood smoke emissions consider the following strategies that have proven to be effective:
(1) compile wood-burning-related information; (2) take steps to implement an education and outreach
campaign; (3) provide a wood-burning appliance (wood stove, hydronic heater, fireplace)
replacement/retrofit program; (4) implement a wood smoke curtailment program; and (5) adopt the
NESCAUM hydronic heater model rule and/or a new fireplace construction rule. If your agency or
community has other suggestions or "lessons learned" about addressing wood smoke, please share your
recommendations with your EPA Regional Office. EPA will update and improve this document
periodically.
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
Appendix A: Example Wood Smoke Program
The following is an example of a fictitious community that implements most of the key steps and
components of a residential wood smoke reduction plan.
Every winter in a mid-sized, rural town, wood smoke can be seen hanging over the valley, particularly
on days with f reezing temperatures and little wind. As more information about the health problems
from breathing fine particle pollution (PM2.s) became available, the local health and air quality officials
realized that wood smoke was negatively impacting community members' health and dirtying the skies.
As you drive through, you can see smoke streaming out of chimneys and, where there is smoke, there is
an inefficient fire.
Local air quality officials decided on a multi-pronged approach for this community of 30,000 people to
address its wood smoke problem. That approach included:
D Implementation of EPA's Burn Wise education and outreach campaign,
D Incentives to replace old dirty wood stoves
D Incentives to retrofit existing fireplaces, and
D Implementation of a wood smoke curtailment program.
The 24-hour P/V\2.s design value2 for the community is 42 micrograms per cubic meter (ug/m3). This
exceeds the P/V\2.s NAAQS of 35 ug/m3. Through analysis of air quality data, emissions inventory and
wood stove survey information, officials identified the exceedances of the NAAQS in the area as
occurring in the winter and influenced by wood smoke. For the area to meet the 24-hour P/v\2.s NAAQS,
it would require a minimum reduction of 20 percent in the monitored P/V\2.s air quality concentrations.
Local air quality and health officials decided to replace 50 percent of the non-EPA-certified wood
stoves and retrofit 20 percent of the fireplaces in the area. In addition, they initiated a two stage burn
ban based on the air quality forecast made by local meteorologists and air quality public officials.
Also, to increase the likelihood that the people in the community would participate in the replacement
and retrofit program and wood smoke curtailment program, air quality officials decided to spend the
first six months raising awareness about wood smoke health effects and ways to burn cleaner and more
efficient.
EDUCATION AND OUTREACH CAMPAIGN
Establish a baseline
Before implementing the campaign, the town established a baseline assessment of residents' wood-
burning habits. They polled their local hearth retailers to see how many EPA-certified stoves were
bought in previous years. They also spoke with local chimney sweeps to understand how often people
had their wood-burning appliances inspected and maintained and the types of appliances (e.g., old
wood stoves, new stoves, fireplaces) in which people were burning the most wood. To cross check what
the chimney sweeps reported and to get additional information, they conducted informal telephone
interviews to determine people's perspectives on wood smoke (i.e., is it a health problem?), how much
wood do people burn, and what appliances are used in the community. This information allowed
officials to target their messages and their audience and provided a baseline to evaluate the program
at the end of the winter season.
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
Enlist local spokespersons
The town decided to partner with several groups to help convey the Burn Wise messages. First, they
identified physicians, particularly pulmonologists and pediatricians. They provided these physicians with
Burn Wise posters and brochures that could be handed out to patients and/or displayed in the waiting
room.
Second, they worked with the local fire department to set up two Burn Wise community workshops. The
workshop included a demonstration of an old wood stove next to an EPA-certified wood stove to show
the difference in smoke. A local retailer provided the old stove and a new stove at no cost to help
demonstrate that the new stoves can be operated with no visible emissions. A county health official
spoke about health effects from wood smoke, and a local chimney sweep provided demonstrations on
how to choose the best firewood and how to build a hot fire; the firefighter emphasized the importance
of annual chimney inspections and proper wood-burning techniques to prevent chimney fires. In addition,
they provided free wood moisture meters to anyone who showed up to the workshops.
Tap into the media
The air program officials placed scripted public service announcements (PSAs) with the local radio
station. These PSAs ran during commuting drive times and throughout the day. Air program officials
used the scripts from EPA's web site and tailored them with specific information. The local radio station
carried the PSAs for the entire wood-burning season from September through March.
The town also placed a Burn Wise banner on the town's home page. The banner listed the Burn Wise
tips and provided links to EPA's web site.
In addition to the Burn Wise workshop article, the town worked with the local newspaper to run another
story about wood-burning issues in the community. They invited the press to the demonstration at the
firehouse to take pictures and interview local citizens.
After one burn season, the town ran a follow-up survey with local hearth retailers, chimney sweeps, and
citizens. From the retailers, the officials learned that replacement sales of old wood stoves to EPA-
certified wood-burning appliances had increased. From the chimney sweeps, they learned that more
households had scheduled maintenance checks of their wood-burning appliances after hearing the radio
PSAs, and from another informal telephone survey the town found that citizens were now more aware of
the Burn Wise messages and made changes in their wood-burning habits.
The town has 3,000 wood stoves, of which 2,000 are non-EPA-certified, and 5,000 existing fireplaces.
Wood stoves in the town emit 1 23 tons per year of fine particle pollution and fireplaces 40 tons per
year. The area will use hearth industry discounts and $600,000 from a recent Supplemental
Environmental Project to changeout 1,000 old wood stoves over a four year period and retrofit 200
fireplaces to gas. The area plans to changeout and recycle 250 of these old wood stoves and retrofit
50 fireplaces each year for the next four winters. They expect that the 250 non-EPA-certified wood
stoves will be changed out for 200 EPA-certified wood stoves and 50 gas stoves before the next winter.
The resulting reduction in P/V\2.s emissions from the wood stove changeouts and fireplace retrofits will be
more than 1 0 tons each winter, or 40 tons (32.5 percent) over the four-year period. Officials
calculated the emissions reductions with the EPA Wood Stove and Fireplace Changeout Emissions
Calculator found at the EPA web site: ';;" I .'. n..-;.. . -.'.... i,;n.i .,.
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To reduce the likelihood of exceedances of the 24-hour P/v\2.s health standard, the public officials also
initiated a two stage burn ban to begin the following winter. The Stage 1 burn ban is implemented
when meteorologists and public officials forecast the next day's air quality for P/v\2.s to reach 30 g/m3.
A Stage 2 burn ban is implemented when P/v\2.s is forecast for the next day to reach 35 ug/m3. Under
a Stage 2 burn ban, no wood burning may take place, except where it is the only source of home heat.
Based on data analysis from other communities that have implemented burn bans, officials anticipate
their Stage 2 ban will reduce the concentration of fine particles in the outdoor air by approximately
1 0 ug/m3.
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APPENDIX B: POTENTIAL COMPONENTS OF A WOOD SMOKE REDUCTION PLAN
For all areas with residential wood smoke concerns, development and implementation of a wood smoke
reduction plan is vital to attaining and/or maintaining healthier air and compliance with the national
health-based fine particle standards. Wood smoke reduction plans are especially important in areas
that are designated nonattainment for the 24-hour or annual P/v\2.s NAAQS. These plans can provide
early emission reductions that may enable the area to redesignate to attainment before state
implementation plan (SIP) nonattainment planning documents need to be approved. If early
redesignation is not possible, the wood smoke reduction plan can be readily used in developing an
attainment SIP for the area.
In some communities, wood smoke is the dominant source of P/V\2.s emissions; in others, it may not be the
overriding contributor to nonattainment, but wood smoke emission reductions may provide an
opportunity to obtain air quality improvements. In addition to the regulatory measures implemented for
industrial, commercial, and mobile sources, voluntary wood smoke reduction measures may play an
important role in helping a community attain the P/V\2.s standards.
Areas designated as nonattainment for the P/v\2.s NAAQS are required to develop a SIP within 1 8
months of the effective date of the designations. In the interim, EPA encourages these areas to develop
and implement a wood smoke reduction plan expeditiously to curtail wood smoke emissions where those
emissions are a significant contributor to nonattainment. Those areas may be able to obtain 3 years of
"clean data" before SIPs are due and thereby be exempt from reasonable further progress, attainment
demonstration, and contingency measure requirements under the EPA 2004 Clean Data Policy:
. The wood smoke
reduction plan can readily be augmented for conversion to a CAA section 175(a) maintenance SIP if the
area can be redesignated to attainment. Otherwise if the area is still nonattainment, the wood smoke
reduction plan can be incorporated into attainment planning.
Below are possible components of a wood smoke reduction plan that may be useful when developing a
SIP if required:
" Description of the area (physical, topographic, common meteorology, population, economic
activity, common, and meteorological).
" Description of outreach and education efforts on wood smoke issues.
" Air quality data analysis: involves reviewing the composition of fine particle air quality
data and meteorological conditions on the highest P/v\2.s days (for example, days exceeding
25-30 ug/m3) for recent years.
o What is the design value for the area? How much does it exceed the standard?
o Do the highest days occur primarily in the winter, or during other times of year too?
o What are typical meteorological conditions (e.g. inversion conditions, wind direction)
on the high days?
o How does the composition vary on the high days? Is the same P/V\2.5 component (such
as organic carbon) always the largest component on the high days, or does it vary?
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
From composition data, conclusions can be drawn regarding key contributing
sources. For example, data showing that organic carbon is a large percentage of
the P/V\2.5 mass on the highest days is often an indicator of high wood smoke
emissions.
» Emissions inventory and survey of wood-burning devices in the area.
o See section VI for information on emissions inventory tools and related information.
o See various case studies throughout this document regarding survey techniques
successfully used in other communities.
o Characterize emissions for EPA-certified and non-certified wood stoves, outdoor
wood boilers, and fireplaces.
" Possible emission reduction measures
o See section I for regulatory measures.
o See section II for voluntary measures.
o The use of emissions and air quality data from case studies (e.g., Libby, MT) could
help identify potential emissions reductions and air quality changes that could be
expected from certain types of emission reduction programs (such as wood stove
replacements or burn bans).
o For example:
What was air quality improvement after "x" number of wood stove
replacements?
How much improvement can be attributed to a burn ban on a specific day?
» Analysis of emission reductions needed to reach attainment by the attainment date (or
target year).
o Projection of emissions and air quality in target year, with anticipated growth and
no control measures.
o Analysis of candidate measures (through modeling, emissions rollback, or other
techniques) and associated emissions reductions and air quality improvement to be
achieved by attainment/target year.
» Annual or seasonal emission reduction milestones for relevant control measures.
" Compilation of enforceable state regulations adopted to require implementation of any
mandatory programs (e.g. changeout program or burn ban.)
" Measures to track progress in terms of program implementation, emission reductions, and
ambient monitoring. Milestones could be developed for the following:
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o Number of noncompliant wood stoves taken out of use or replaced by EPA-certified
units;
o Number of wood fireplaces converted to gas;
o Number of problem hydronic heater units shutdown, moved or replaced;
o Estimated wood smoke emissions reductions;
o Target design value;
o Percent reduction in number of AQI alert days;
o Reduction in number of monitored violations; and
o Reduction of visual smoke reports on burn curtailment days.
Measures that will be implemented in the Wood Smoke Reduction Plan automatically if the
area fails to attain by its attainment date, or meet key milestones such as emission reduction
or ambient monitoring milestones. Measures could include:
o Increased funding for replacement programs;
o Increased and targeted outreach and education efforts;
o Increased enforcement efforts or fines for burn curtailment violations;
o More protective triggers for burn curtailment days; and
o If included, submit state rules for changeout program and burn curtailment.
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APPENDIX G HEALTH STUDIES3
Barregard, L, Sallsten, G., Gustafson, P., Andersson, L, Johansson, L, Basu, S. & Stigendal, L, 2006.
Experimental exposure to wood-smoke particles in healthy humans: effects on markers of
inflammation, coagulation, and lipid peroxidation. Inhalation toxicology 18: 845-853.
Bunnell JE, Garcia LV, Furst JM, Lerch H, Olea RA, Suitt SE, Kolker A. 201 0. Navajo coal combustion and
respiratory health near Shiprock, New Mexico. J Environ Public Health. 201 0;201 0:260525.Epub
2010 Jun30.
Butterfield, P., Edmunson, E., LaCava, G., and Penner, J. 1 989. Woodstoves and Indoor Air. J. Environ.
Health 59: 172-173.
Chapin, F. S. 1 974, Human activity patterns in the city. New York: Wiley-lnterscience.
Collins, D.A., Martin, K.S., and Sithole, S.D., 1 990. Indoor Woodsmoke Pollution Causing Lower
Respiratory Disease in Children. Trop. Doctor 20: 151 -155
Danielsen, P., Brauner, E., Barregard, L, Sallsten, G., Wallin, M., Olinski, R., Rozalski, R., M0ller, P., &
Loft, S., 2007. Oxidatively damaged DNA and its repair after experimental exposure to wood
smoke in healthy humans. Mutat. Res. 642: 3742.
Demarest, G. M., Hudson, L.D., and Altman, L.C., 1 979. Impaired Alveolar Macrophage Chemotaxis in
Patients with Acute Smoke Inhalation. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1 1 9:279-286.
ERMD. 2000. Characterization of Organic Compounds from Selected Residential Wood Stoves and
Fuels. Emissions Research and Measurement Division, Environmental Technology Advancement
Directorate, Environment Canada. Report ERMD 2000-01.
Hart JF, Ward TJ, Spear TM, Rossi RJ, Holland NN, Loushin BG.201 1. Evaluating the effectiveness of a
commercial portable air purifier in homes with wood-burning stoves: a preliminary study. J Environ
Public Health. 201 1 ;201 1:324809. Epub 201 1 Jan 27.
Honicky, R.E., Akpom, C.A., and Osborne, J.S., 1 983. Infant Respiratory Illness and Indoor Air Pollution
from a Woodburning Stove. Pediatrics 71: 1 26-1 28.
Honicky, R.E., Osborne, J.S., and Akpom, C.A., 1 985. Symptoms of Respiratory Illness in Young Children
and the Use of Woodburning Stoves for Indoor Heating. Pediatrics 75: 587-593.
Honicky, R.E., and Osborne, J.S., 1 991. Respiratory Effects of Wood Heat: Clinical Observations and
Epidemiologic Assessment. Environ. Health Perspect. 95:1 05-1 09.
I Barn P, Larson T, Noullett M, Kennedy S, Copes R, Brauer M. 2008. Infiltration of forest fire and
residential wood smoke: an evaluation of air cleaner effectiveness. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol.
2008 Sep;l 8(5):503-1 1. Epub 2007 Dec 5.
For more information on the science on PM and health, see the Integrated Science Assessment prepared for the recent
review of the P/Vte.s NAAQS at http://cf pub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplav.cfm?deid=216546
For risk and exposure assessments, visit http://www.epa.gOv/ttn/naaqs/standards/pm/s pm 2007 risk.html
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Kammen, D.M., Wahhaj, G., and Yiadom, M.Y., 1 998. Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI) and Indoor Air
Pollution (with emphasis on children under five in developing countries). EHP Activity No. 263-CC,
U.S. EPA.
Karr C, Demers P, Koehoorn M, Lencar C, Tamburic L, Brauer M., 2009. Influence of ambient air
pollutant sources on clinical encounters for infant bronchiolitis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.
108:995-1001.
Karr, C., 2007. Adding Fuel to the Fire: Increasing Evidence for Developmental Toxicity of Indoor Solid
Fuel Combustion. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med.
Koenig, J.Q., Larson, T.V., Hanley, Q.S., Rebolledo, V., Dumler, K., Checkoway, H., Wang, S.Z., Lin, D.,
and Pierson, W.E. 1 993. Pulmonary Function Changes in Children Associated with Fine Particulate
Matter. Environ. Res. 63:26-38.
Larson, T.V. and Koenig, J.Q. 1 994. Wood smoke: emissions and non-cancer respiratory
effects. Annual Review of Public Health. 1 5, 1 33-1 56.
Levesqu B, Allaire S, Gauvin D, Koutrakis P, Gingras S, Rhainds M, Prud'Homme H, Duchesne JF. 2001.
Wood-burning appliances and indoor air quality. Sci Total Environ. 2001 Dec 1 7;281 (1 -3):47-62.
Maclntyre, E., Karr, C., Koehoorn, M., Demers, P., Tamburic, L., Lencar, C., & Brauer, M., 201 1.
Residential Air Pollution and Otitis Media During the First Two Years of Life. Epidemiology 22: 81 -
89.
McCrillis RC, Burnet PG.l 990. Effects of burnrate, wood species, altitude, and stove type on woodstove
emissions. Toxicol Ind Health. 1990 Oct;6(5):95-l 02.
McCrillis RC, Watts RR, Warren SH. 1 992. Effects of operating variables on PAH emissions and
mutagenicity of emissions from woodstoves. J Air Waste Manage Assoc. 1 992 May;42(5):691 -4.
Morris, K., Morganlander, M., Coulehan, J.L., Gahagen, S., and Arena, V.C., 1 990. Wood-burning
Stoves and Lower Respiratory Tract Infection in American Indian Children. Am. J. Dis. Child. 144:
105-108.
Naeher LP, Brauer M, Lipsett M, Zelikoff JT, Simpson CD, Koenig JQ, and KR Smith, 2007. Woodsmoke
health effects: a review. Inhal Toxicol 1 9:671 06
Nawrot TS., Perez L., Kunzli N., Munters E., and B. Nemery, 201 1. Public health importance of triggers
of myocardial infarction: a comparative risk assessment. The Lancet 377: 732-740.
NEIPTG. 2000. 1995 Criteria Air Contaminants Emissions Inventory Guidebook. National Emissions
Inventory and Projections Task Group. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment.
Noonan CW, Ward TJ, Navidi W, Sheppard L, Bergauff M, Palmer C; HEI Health Review Committee.
201 1. Assessing the impact of a wood stove replacement program on air quality and children's
health. Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 201 1 Dec;(l 62):3-37; discussion 39-47.
Noonan CW, Navidi W, Sheppard L, Palmer CP, Bergauff M, Hooper K, Ward TJ. 201 2. Residential
indoor PM(2.5) in wood stove homes: follow-up of the Libby changeout program.. Indoor Air. 201 2
May 1 9.
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Noonan CW, Ward TJ, Navidi W, Sheppard L 201 2. A rural community intervention targeting biomass
combustion sources: effects on air quality and reporting of children's respiratory outcomes. Occup
Environ Med. 201 2 May;69(5):354-60. Epub 201 2 Feb 1.
Pettigrew, M. M., Gent, J. F., Triche, E. W., Belanger, K. D., Bracken, M. B., and B.P. Leaderer, 2004.
Infant otitis media and the use of secondary heating sources. Epidemiology 15:1 320.
Pierson, W. E., Koenig, J. Q., and Bardana, E. J., 1 989. Potential adverse health effects of wood smoke.
West J. Med. 151: 339-342.
Rajpandey, M. 1 984. Domestic Smoke Pollution and Chronic Bronchitis in a Rural Community of the Hill
Region of Nepal. Thorax 39:337-339.
Ramage, J.E., Roggli, V.L., Bell, D.Y., and Piantadosi, C.A. 1 988. Interstitial Lung Disease and Domestic
Woodburning. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1 36: 1 486-1508.
Robin LF, Less PS, Winget M, Steinhoff M, Moulton LH, Santosham M, Correa A. 1 996. Wood-burning
stoves and lower respiratory illnesses in Navajo children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1 996 Oct;l 5(1 0):859-
65.
Sandoval,J., Slas, J., Martinez-Guerra, M.L., Gomez, A., Martinez, C, Portales, A., Palomar, A., Villegas,
M., and Barrios, R. 1 993. Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Cor Pulmonale Associated with
Chronic Domestic Woodsmoke Inhalation. Chest 1 03:1 2-20.
Sehlstedt, M., Dove, R., Boman, C., Pagels, J., Swietlicki, E., Londahl, J., Westerholm, R., Bosson, J.,
Barath, S. & Behndig, A.F., 201 0. Antioxidant airway responses following experimental exposure
to wood smoke in man. Particle and FibreToxicology 7: 21.
Sexton, K., Liu, K. S., Treitman, R. D., Spengler, J. D., and Turner, W. J., 1 986. Characterization of indoor
air quality in woodburning residences. Environ. Int. 1 2:265-278.
Straif et a I., 2006. International Agency for Research on Cancer, 201 0. Household Use of Solid Fuels
and High-temperature Frying. Monograph 95: 1475-2011.
Szalar, A. 1 972. The Use of Time: Daily activities of urban and suburban populations in twelve countries.
The Hague: Mouton
Torres-Duque C, Maldonado D, Perez-Padilla R, et a I, 2008. Biomass fuels and respiratory diseases: a
review of the evidence. Proc Am. Thorac. Soc. 5: 577-590.
Triche, E. W., Belanger, K., Bracken, M. B., Beckett, W. S., Holford, T. R., Gent, J. F., McSharry, J. E., and
B.P. Leaderer, 2005. Indoor heating sources and respiratory symptoms in nonsmoking women.
Epidemiology 1 6:377-384.
Ward T, Palmer C, Bergauff M, Hooper K, Noonan C. 2008. Results of a residential indoor PM2.5
sampling program before and after a woodstove changeout. Indoor Air. 2008 Oct;l 8(5):408-15.
Ward TJ, Palmer CP, Noonan CW. 201 0. Fine particulate matter source apportionment following a
large woodstove changeout program in Libby, Montana. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 201 0
Jun;60(6):688-93.
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Ward T, Boulafentis J, Simpson J, Hester C, Moliga T, Warden K, Noonan C. 201 1. Lessons learned
from a woodstove changeout on the Nez Perce Reservation. Sci Total Environ. 201 1 Jan
1 5;409(4):664-70. Epub 201 0 Dec 7.
Ward TJ, Palmer CP, Houck JE, Navidi WC, Geinitz S, Noonan CW. 2009. Community woodstove
changeout and impact on ambient concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
phenolics. Environ Sci Technol. 2009 Jul 1 5;43(14):5345-50.
Yu, O., Sheppard, L, Lumley, T., Koenig, J. Q., and G.G Shapiro, 2000. Effects of ambient air pollution
on symptoms of asthma in Seattle-area children enrolled in the CAMP study. Environ. Health
Perspect. 108:1209-1214.
Zelikoff, J.T., 2002. The Toxicology of Inhaled Woodsmoke. Journal of Toxicology & Environmental
Health, Part B, 5:269-282.
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APPENDIX D: PM2.s CONTROL EFFICIENCY AND COST EFFECTIVENESS OF CERTAIN RESIDENTIAL WOOD
COMBUSTION CONTROL MEASURES
Fireplaces
Use EPA Phase 2
Qualified Units
70%
$9,500**
If new fireplace construction is allowed, approve only EPA Phase 2
qualified models. Under the EPA Wood-burning Fireplace Program,
cleaner wood-burning fireplaces are qualified when their PMa.s
emissions are at or below the Phase 2 PMa.s emissions level. For a
list of Phase 2 qualified cleaner burning fireplaces, go to:
Fireplaces
Use Gas Logs in
Existing Wood-
burning Fireplaces
1 00%
$11,000
Incentives by various air districts in CA have helped retrofit
thousands of open fireplaces to gas log sets. In addition to vented
gas log sets, the option exists to install vented gas stove inserts into
a wood-burning fireplace. Unlike gas logs, which provide little
heat, a gas stove insert can be an efficient and clean way to heat a
room. The cost per ton of PMa.s reductions will likely be greater as
gas stove inserts cost more than gas log sets.
Fireplaces
Install Retrofit
Devices into Existing
Wood-burning
Fireplaces
70%
$9,500
Provide incentives to encourage use of fireplace retrofit devices.
Under the EPA Wood-burning Fireplace Program, retrofit devices
are qualified when their PMa.s emissions are at or below the
program Phase 2 PMa.s emissions level. For a list of Phase 2
qualified retrofits, go to:
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Hydronic
Heaters
(OWHH, OWB)
Install Cleaner
Wood-burning
Hydronic Heaters
vs. Old
Technology
90%
$740
If hydronic heaters are allowed, only allow EPA Phase 2 qualified
models. A Partnership Agreement (PA) is in place between EPA and
wood-burning hydronic heater manufacturers. Under this PA, cleaner
burning hydronic heaters are qualified at or below the Phase 2
particulate emissions level. For a list of Phase 2 qualified hydronic
heaters go to:
Hydronic
Heaters
(OWHH, OWB)
Install Retrofit
Devices in Existing
Hydronic Heaters
60%
$980
Provide incentives to encourage the installation of hydronic heater
retrofit devices. Retrofits may significantly reduce and even
eliminate visible smoke emissions. This measure should be
accompanied by education and outreach (e.g., burn only dry
seasoned wood).
Wood Stoves
Wood to Wood
Replacement
Program
60%
$9,900(2010$)
Implement a program and provide incentives to replace old
uncertified wood stoves with new EPA-certified wood stoves.
Education on proper wood stove use (e.g., burn only dry wood) and
maintenance is critical. See for more info:
Wood Stoves
Wood to Gas
Replacement
Program
99%
$7,200(2010$)
Implement an incentive program to replace old, uncertified wood
stoves with new gas stoves or gas logs. Incentives to switch to a
wood pellet stove are another good option. See for more info:
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
Fireplaces,
Hydronic
Heaters,
Wood Stoves
Curtailment
Program
("Burn Ban")
75%
$8,700(2010$)
Full curtailment
State and local air quality agencies forecast next day air quality
levels. When it is expected to be near or above the 24-hr PMa.s
NAAQS, limited (e.g., wood pellet only) or full curtailment of wood
burning is required. A public awareness campaign and enforcement
are critical.
Fireplaces,
Hydronic
Heaters,
Wood Stoves
Burn Dry Seasoned
Wood
n/a
n/a
Implement a program to allow only the sale of and/or burning of
dry seasoned wood (e.g., <20% moisture content) in wood-burning
appliances.
Fireplaces,
Hydronic
Heaters,
Wood Stoves
No Visible Emissions
n/a
n/a
Implement a local program that allows no visible wood smoke. This
option is typically easier to enforce/implement than an opacity
program-
Fireplaces,
Hydronic
Heaters,
Wood Stoves
Opacity Program
n/a
n/a
Limit wood smoke emissions by establishing a mandatory opacity
limit.
Wood
Combustion
Appliances
Education
Campaign
n/a
n/a
Focus the Campaign on Best Burning Practices, such as those
contained on the EPA Burn Wise web site:
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
* Control efficiency applies to an individual residential wood combustion (RWC) appliance, except for the curtailment program where it applies to the entire local
area. Inferences about adequate environmental protection should not be made from these control efficiencies.
**lndicates incremental cost of installing a Phase 2 qualified RWC appliance instead of a non-Phase 2 RWC appliance.
Other pollutants controlled by all measures may include: carbon dioxide, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, methane, toxics, and black carbon. To
review the input and assumptions into these calculations, go to: www.epa.qov/burnwise/resources.
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Strategies for Reducing Residential Wood Smoke
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Outreach and Information Division
Research Triangle Park, NC
Publication No. EPA-456/B-13-001
March 2013
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