vvEPA
EPA/600/R-13/093
May 2013
United Stales
Environmental Protection
Agency
Engineering «TSP^ Technical
Support ^|^ Center
Innovative Science and Technical Support
for Cost-Efficient Cleanups:
Five Year Summary Re port for 2007-2012
Engineering Technical Support Center
Land Remediation and Pollution Control Division
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
Cincinnati, OH
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Abstract
The Engineering Technical Support Center (ETSC) was created in 1987 as one of four
technical support centers to provide engineering expertise to U.S. EPA program offices
and remediation teams working at cleanup sites across the United States. Based in
Cincinnati, the ETSC's mission is to provide site-specific scientific and engineering
support to remedial project managers (RPMs), on-scene coordinators, and other
remediation personnel. The ETSC's mission allows the responsible local, regional, or
national authorities to work more quickly, efficiently, and cost-effectively, while also
increasing the technical experience of the remediation team. Since its inception, ETSC
has supported countless projects across all EPA Regions in almost all 50 states.
This report summarizes a variety of significant projects that ETSC and its colleagues in
the Land Remediation and Pollution Control Division (LRPCD) have supported during
the last five years. Projects have addressed an array of environmental scenarios, including
remote mining contamination, expansive landfill waste, sediment remediation by
capping, and persistent threats from abandoned industrial sites. A major component of
affecting meaningful remediation lies in the construction and testing of pilot projects and
new technologies. As such, ETSC also organizes and reports significant developments in
environmental engineering. In some cases, the team has gone into the field to spearhead
projects that are at the cutting edge of remediation activities. ETSC has also taken on a
selection of newer initiatives that focus on integrating sustainability into communities
and land use plans. While ETSC's principal mission of bolstering technical expertise for
site-specific remediation remains a central focus, the team is reaching out to support other
efforts that will directly prevent the problems ETSC seeks to resolve. LRPCD and ETSC
have evolved continually to meet the demands, as well as scientific and engineering
needs, of the program offices and regional personnel.
Disclaimer
Mention of company trade names or products does not constitute endorsement by the Agency and are
provided as general information only.
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Acknowledgements
John McKernan, Sc.D., CIH, Director of the Office of Research and Development (ORD)
Engineering Technical Support Center (ETSC), and the Center's matrix-managed staff
would like to acknowledge the exemplary contribution from ORD Land Remediation and
Pollution Control Division leadership and scientists for their dedication to the Center and
its mission. Additional assistance is also recognized from National Risk Management
Research Laboratory (NRMRL) personnel, and individual scientists and experts from
other ORD laboratories, Divisions, and EPA Offices. We extend our thanks to the Office
of Science Policy and Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, and
the EPA Regions (particularly the STLs, RPMs, OSCs, and their management) for their
technical and financial support. We would also like to recognize the exemplary support
provided by our contractors, namely Battelle Memorial Institute and RTI International.
Special thanks are also given to our recently retired ETSC Director, David Reisman, and
those that provide document reviews, respond to technical request phone calls, and all
manner of other assistance.
The ETSC is constantly evolving, and it re-configures its operations to better address the
myriad of site needs and requirements from regional and site personnel. The Center is
known for its punctuality, and the staff pride themselves on consistently responding
quickly to submitted requests. The ETSC ensures quality support through its internal
mechanisms and is continually adding customers and increasing the growing number of
return requesters.
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Table of Contents
LIST OF ACRONYMS 1
INTRODUCTION 2
ETSC Involvement 3
Distribution of Involvement 4
Engineering Issue Papers 4
ETSC Impacts 4
MATERIALS MANAGEMENT 6
King of Prussia (Region 2) 6
Tannery Facility (Region 1) 6
Tremont City Barrel Fill (Region 5) 7
Eastern Michaud Flats (Region 10) 8
Corrosive Drywall 8
GM Sioux City (Region 7) 9
MINING REMEDIATION 10
Basin Mine (Region 8) 10
Central City/Clear Creek (Region 8) 10
Black Butte (Region 10) 11
Back 40 Mine (Region 5) 11
Bristol Bay Watershed (Region 10) 11
Homestake Mine (Region 6) 12
Gladstone, Colorado Mines (Region 8) 13
Standard Mine (Region 8) 14
Anaconda Copper (Region 9) 15
Formosa Mine (Region 10) 16
Other Mining Demonstration and Applied Research (Region 8) 18
LANDFILLS 19
Fort Devens Landfill (Region 1) 19
Lipari Landfill (Region 2) 20
Puerto Rico Capping Project (Region 2) 20
SUSTAIN ABILITY IN THE COMMUNITY 22
Stella, Missouri (Region 7) 22
Planning Land and Communities to be Environmentally Sustainable 23
San Jacinto River Waste Pits (Region 6) 23
Chattanooga Creek Cap Monitoring Study (Region 4) 24
OTHER TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 26
Bioavailability 26
Grand Lake St. Marys (Region 5) 27
Omaha Lead Site (Region 7) 28
Remediation and Restoration Planning of Watersheds (Regions 6 and 7) 30
Restoring Degraded Industrial Waterways (Region 5) 31
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List of Acronyms
ARRA American Reinvestment and Recovery Act
ASARCO American Smelting and Refining Company, Inc.
BCEE bis(chloroethyl)ether
BCR biochemical reactor
BLM Bureau of Land Management
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act
COC contaminant of concern
DCHD Douglas County Health Department
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ET evapotranspiration
ETSC Engineering Technology Support Center
FAME fatty acid methyl ester
FS feasibility study
GI gastrointestinal
GWTSC Ground Water Technical Support Center
HAB harmful algal bloom
FDVIC Homestead Mining Company
LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
LRPCD Land Remediation and Pollution Control Division
MIW mining-influenced water
NFCC North Fork of Clear Creek
NPL National Priorities List
NRMRL National Risk Management Research Laboratory
OLS Omaha Lead Site
ORD Office of Research and Development
OSC on-scene coordinator
OSWER Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
OU operable unit
PLACES Planning Land and Communities to be Environmentally Sustainable
PRP potentially responsible party
RCTS Rotating Cylinder Treatment System
RI remedial investigation
RPM remedial project manager
SMARTe Sustainable Management Approaches and Revitalization Tools-electronic
STL Superfund Technology Liaison
TSC Technical Support Center
TSMD Tri-State Mining District
TSP Technical Support Project
WASP/METAWater Quality Analysis Simulation Program/ Water Quality Analysis
Simulation Program with algorithm to incorporate metals contamination
ETSC Report 2012
Page 1
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Introduction
In 1987, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Office of Research and
Development (ORD), Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER), and
regional waste management offices established the Technical Support Project (TSP).
EPA designed the TSP to enable ORD personnel to provide effective technical assistance,
and to ensure that ORD scientists and engineers were accessible to the Agency's
Regional decision-makers, including RPMs, corrective action staff, and on-scene
coordinators (OSCs). The TSP consists of a network of Regional forums and five major
Technical Support Centers (TSCs) within ORD:
• Engineering Technical Support Center (ETSC) in Cincinnati, Ohio
• Ground Water Technical Support Center (GWTSC) in Ada, Oklahoma
• Site Characterization and Monitoring Technical Support Center (SCMTSC) in
Atlanta, Georgia
• Superfund Health Risk Assessment Technical Support Center (SHRATSC) in
Cincinnati, Ohio
• Ecological Risk Assessment Support Center (ERASC) in Cincinnati, Ohio
ETSC provides site-specific assistance, technical support, and conducts targeted research
for EPA Regions and program offices. The center networks with EPA programs and other
federal agencies to deliver the latest methods, approaches, and technologies needed to
characterize, remediate, and manage risk at contaminated sites. ETSC's mission is to
provide scientific and engineering knowledge and expertise in soil, sediment, and mine
remediation and technology to Regional staff for risk management decisions. Services
include field evaluation and demonstration of innovative technologies, verification of
externally acquired data, development, and testing of remediation management
techniques and disposal practices, and on-call technical assistance to RPMs and OSCs. In
the past several years, the ETSC staff has also assisted in five-year Superfund site
reviews and site and technology optimization studies, and has completed applied research
projects that support site-specific technical assistance requests.
Although ETSC is primarily staffed with scientists and engineers from the LRPCD,
additional assistance is provided by National Risk Management Research Laboratory
(NRMRL) personnel from other laboratory divisions, as well as external contractors and
consultants.
ETSC Report 2012 Page 2
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ETSC Involvement
ETSC joins a project or site effort at the request of existing regional project authorities.
As a result, ETSC has become involved with projects at nearly every stage during the
remediation process, from initial site characterization to the final steps of cleanup. ETSC
matches its in-house expertise and extramural support from contractors to the specific
needs of the project. The actual involvement of ETSC staff may consist of participating
in or reviewing a remedial investigation (RI) and feasibility study (FS), as well as
advising complex onsite application of remedial methods and different soil and sediment
remediation technologies.
ETSC constantly reconfigures its operations to meet the myriad site needs of Regional
and site personnel. ETSC is known for its punctuality, and staff members pride
themselves on consistently responding within 48 hours of a request. ETSC ensures
quality support through its internal mechanisms and is continually adding customers and
increasing the number of return requesters.
As part of ORD, the ETSC staff also pursues research
projects independent of site-specific needs. These
efforts contribute to ORD's larger mission of
improving and refining the broader understanding of
land remediation strategies and developing new
innovative technologies and techniques. Through field
testing of equipment and procedures, laboratory
analyses of samples, and data analyses from
remediation sites, ETSC staff continues to evaluate
the effectiveness of existing and new treatment
technologies and methods. This larger scope of work
builds on individual site successes and uses these
experiences to contribute to the broader scientific
body of knowledge. Some of the remediation
strategies ETSC has explored include:
Figure 1. ETSC staff, their
collaborators and contractors
conduct treatment technology
research
Biochemical reactors (BCRs), a form of onsite passive treatment for mining-
influenced water (MIW) by using bacteria to assist in the precipitation of metals.
Lagoon lime treatment systems, used to treat heavy-metal contamination in water.
Thermal technologies, a method that vaporizes and collects contaminants for
disposal.
Solidification and stabilization techniques affecting the mobility of chemicals of
concern.
New developments in sediment capping techniques and technologies.
ETSC Report 2012
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Distribution of Involvement
Since 1987, ETSC has supported sites within all 10 Regions across the United States
(including our off-shore protectorates). Regions commonly seek ETSC to support
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
Superfund sites that are results of mining waste impacts, chemical manufacturing,
landfill, or other sediment and water restoration projects.
Engineering Issue Papers
As an integral part of their mission, ETSC works to make environmental engineers
nationwide aware of the techniques and technologies being used by their colleagues
elsewhere in the country. To fulfill this goal, ETSC publishes Engineering Issue Papers, a
series of technology transfer documents that summarize key developments in the field.
The documents address specific technical issues related to contaminants, their fate and
transport, selected treatment and site remediation
technologies, and other issues. Engineering Issue Papers
are meant to equip RPMs with skills and background
knowledge to help them tackle remediation projects more
quickly and more independently. The topics addressed in
these documents, which vary in length from 12 to nearly
50 pages, have included:
SEPA-
ineering Issue
[Management and Treatment of Water
from Hard Rock Mines
Fig. 2. Example of an
Engineering Issue Paper
ETSC Impacts
• In-situ chemical oxidation
• Treatment of water from hard rock mines
• In-situ treatment for contaminated soils
• Indoor air vapor intrusion mitigation approaches
Engineering Issue Papers provide a description of the
technology or remedial issue, costs, feasibility, and
other criteria. ETSC publishes these papers to assist
RPMs through technology transfer.
ETSC contributes an important layer of verification that only expert scientists regularly
engaging in these types of remediation can provide, whereas the Regions may encounter
specific cleanup techniques or field methodologies only a handful of times per decade.
The flexibility of ETSC to work nationwide on Regional remediation projects fills the
gaps, validates the planned methods and approaches, and eases the burden on RPMs.
RPMs rely on ETSC expertise to conduct field activities, recommend remedial action,
and review ongoing activities and provide onsite advice. Through careful analyses of data
and documents, site visits, and discussions with EPA site personnel, the ETSC staff
ETSC Report 2012
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provides technical, scientific, and site-specific engineering expertise in order to facilitate
effective site cleanups.
This document highlights key projects over the last five years that show the breadth of
ETSC's involvement with regional personnel and versatility in meeting requests for
assistance. The report highlights more than one year of Center activity, because the
higher-profile projects with greater impact that are presented here take more than one
year to complete. Since 2007, ETSC has worked on more than 350 sites in all 10
Regions. In conjunction with state, local, and regional leads, ETSC has been the key
component to cost-effective and time-efficient cleanups.
ETSC Report 2012 Page 5
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Materials Management
The by-products from former industrial sites can yield persistent environmental problems
that linger for decades. Improperly secured industrial waste can impact local ecosystems
through an array of transport mechanisms and media including soil, surface water, and
groundwater. More mobile media may contaminate drinking water supplies and threaten
local populations. When it comes to the origin of contamination, the causes of industrial
waste are as varied as the impacts they cause. From former chemical plants and refineries
to munitions depots and airports, ETSC has supported a large spectrum of industrial
waste sites.
King of Prussia (Region 2)
The King of Prussia Superfund site is located in Winslow Township, New Jersey.
Approximately 15 million gallons of wastewater containing toxic chemicals have been
delivered to the site. The site had buried drums and plastic containers, 6 lagoons, and 2
rusting and compromised tankers. The site was fenced in 1988 to protect public health
and to prevent further illegal dumping of waste on the site. The site is in a rural area
within the Pinelands National Reserve and is adjacent to the Winslow Wildlife
Management Area. The Great Egg Harbor River borders the property. Approximately
10,000 people live within 3 miles of the site, and 3,000 people depend on groundwater
for drinking water supplies.
In 2011, ETSC was involved in the review of a document about a capture zone
assessment, in-situ chemical reduction bench-scale testing, and the groundwater
treatment plant optimization study that were conducted at the site to improve the
effectiveness of the treatment plant to capture and treat the contaminated groundwater.
Mohawk Tannery Facility (Region 1)
Fig. 3. A waste lagoon at the Mohawk Tannery
Facility
The Mohawk Tannery Facility is set on
approximately 30 acres in Nashua, New
Hampshire and produced tanned hides
for leather for 60 years (1924 to 1984).
Wastewater at the Superfund site
contains chromium, zinc, and phenol,
threatening the Nashua River. While in
operation, the tannery deposited sludge
containing chromium, pentachloro-
phenol, phenol, and 2,4,6-trichloro-
phenol into various unlined waste
lagoons on site. The risks posed by the
site's waste disposal practices affect the
ETSC Report 2012
Page 6
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more than 5,000 people who get their drinking water from groundwater wells within a 4-
mile radius of the site.
Originally, ETSC began working with the RPM by helping to review the Region's studies
of the site. Over time, however, ETSC grew to play the lead role by developing the
remediation plan and associated studies. The ETSC coordinated onsite efforts that
included certifying a work plan and initiating both bench and pilot scale treatability
studies. In short, ETSC has served as the critical technical direction and guidance under
the work plan. The office's on-site involvement has accelerated the important planning
stages that enabled successful remediation in a shorter than expected time frame and cost
significantly less than the original estimates.
Tremont City Barrel Fill (Region 5)
Fig. 4. Buried drums at the Tremont City site
Set on an 8.5-acre section of a
larger Tremont City property, the
Tremont City Barrel Fill received
approximately 51,500 drums and
300,000 gallons of industrial
waste. After a quick stint of
operations from 1976 through
1980, the operator placed soil
covers over the site on a number
of occasions. Inorganic and
organic releases from the waste
site have migrated into soils and
groundwater, with some
concentrations exceeding EPA
maximum contaminant levels for
groundwater. Two tests that were
completed in 2006 also revealed
volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds in the water.
ETSC advised Region 5 from 2008 until 2010 on various remedial options and
technology combinations proposed by the potentially responsible party (PRP) group. In
addition to reviewing existing plans, ETSC considered the short-term public health
exposure associated with proposed remediation plans. As progress continued toward
solidifying the remediation plans, the Region relied on ETSC as an experienced watchful
eye to ensure that the remediation was completed in the best interest of local residents
and the surrounding ecosystems. The final solution was to remove the waste from the
site. ETSC's review and assistance was instrumental in informing the Region's action.
ETSC Report 2012
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Eastern Michaud Flats (Region 10)
Eastern Michaud Flats extends over 2,530 acres near Pocatello in southern Idaho. Two
adjacent phosphate ore processing facilities are located on the Superfund site. The J.R.
Simplot Company has remained in continuous operation since the 1940s. Meanwhile, the
now defunct FMC Corporation site produced approximately 250 million pounds of
elemental phosphorus each year. Starting as early as the 1970s, regional groundwater
monitoring has suggested contamination has been coming from the site. In 2006, five
years after the FMC Corporation plant closure, gas was seen escaping from temperature
monitoring ports of a capped waste
pond. Further testing in June of that
year revealed that phosphine gas was
being released from one of the
hazardous waste ponds.
Region 10 officials requested
technical support from ETSC to assist
in monitoring and remediating the
phosphine gas releases. Since their
initial involvement, ETSC staff has
helped characterize the gas emissions,
reviewed the gas extraction system,
and advised on modeling. Site visits
by ETSC staff have ensured that not
only remediation plans are in order, but also that data collection and analysis are
appropriate. The ETSC continued to provide support for this site into 2012 by reviewing
over 30 deliverables from FMC Corporation to the Region. Most importantly, ETSC
involvement has added a key layer of topical knowledge by experts to ensure that the
monitoring and remediation proceeds in the most efficient and effective method possible.
Fig. 5. A view of the Eastern Michaud Flats
capped site
Corrosive Drywall
Beginning in 2008, some homeowners, particularly in the southeastern United States,
started reporting problems such as repeated failure of copper air conditioner coils,
extreme tarnishing of exposed metal surfaces, and failure of electrical appliances. Some
homeowners noted unpleasant odors, and in some cases, health impacts were reported.
The occurrence of these problems was ultimately attributed to gas emissions from
drywall imported into the United States from China and used in new home construction.
Thus, the term "Chinese drywall," motivated by reports of off-gassing from drywall
products in residential homes in the United States, has commonly been used to describe
the problematic products. In recognition that not all drywall products display the same
off-gassing potential, the terms "corrosive drywall" or "defective drywall" have also
frequently been applied.
ETSC Report 2012
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ETSC staff investigated implications of various end-of-life management options for
imported corrosive drywall. Gypsum drywall products manufactured in China and
imported into the United States have been documented to cause metal corrosion and
tarnishing in some homes. In a number of cases, this corrosive drywall is being stripped
from homes and disposed of as part of the solid waste stream. As a result, ETSC
conducted research to assess the potential implications of imported corrosive drywall
being land-filled or recycled. This research does not address issues regarding emissions
associated with corrosive drywall in homes or other structures.
The ETSC team collected five samples of corrosive imported drywall from homes in
Florida and purchased three samples of domestically produced drywall from home supply
retail outlets. ETSC processed the samples as needed to test for possible impacts if the
drywall were recycled by land application or disposed of in a landfill. In a few cases,
ETSC included testing results from other samples (beyond the eight samples collected as
part of this project) to complement the analysis.
The results of this study have broad national implications as to the disposal of the drywall
in many communities, as well as potential drywall hazards. The results may be used by
many parties within and outside the Agency to determine future disposal alternatives.
GM Sioux City (Region 7)
The General Motors Corporation (GM) plant in Sioux City, Iowa closed in 1993. The
site was used by Zenith and GM over a period of 28 years for manufacturing goods such
as parts for electronics and automobiles. An assessment of the GM plant site after its
closure showed that the groundwater extracted near the site and used as a drinking water
source for Sioux City, Iowa, was contaminated by industrial solvents.
ETSC staff reviewed work plans,
became directly involved in the
examination of the city wells, and
discussed mapping, remediation and
removal. The ETSC is supporting
the Regional On-Scene Coordinator
and RPM in conducting a removal
action. The Center is providing
groundwater modeling support to
assess the effectiveness of the
proposed removal action on
industrial solvent concentrations in
the groundwater. Modeling and
decision support for this site will
continue into 2013.
Fig. 6. A view of the GM Sioux City site indicating
its proximity to the Missouri River and city drinking
well sites on the bank of the river
ETSC Report 2012
Page 9
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Mining Remediation
Contaminants from an abandoned mine are less varied than landfills or generic industrial
waste, but their impacts on local ecosystems and residents can be just as harmful. Heavy
metals from remaining slag heaps or tailings can contaminate local water. Once mobile,
these toxic metals may impact groundwater, surface water, and soils, and contaminate the
water supply for any nearby homes or businesses. The size of mining sites can often be
daunting, particularly when mining sites are in remote locations. However, ETSC works
with the Regions to explore easily deployed and cost-effective approaches that can tackle
the challenges of a specific site.
Basin Mine (Region 8)
The Basin mining area is located in the town of Basin, Montana. The site was placed on
the Superfund National Priorities List (NPL) on October 22, 1999, due to mining-waste
problems in the watershed. Mine wastes impact Basin and Cataract Creeks and
sediments, along with the surrounding soils. Contaminants include arsenic, cadmium,
copper, lead, and other metals.
In 2011 and 2012, ETSC scientists provided expert advice to reduce the leaching of
metals into the water, suggesting the potential use of a technology to coat surfaces of
waste rock and tailing piles with encapsulating foam to keep them from oxidizing,
thereby reducing subsequent leaching of metals and metalloids into surface water in the
area.
Central City/Clear Creek (Region 8)
Gold and silver mining in Central City and Black Hawk, Colorado was profitable and
supported economic development until the early
1900s. Once mining operations in this area
ceased, it was noticed that waste rock and mine
tailings were contaminating the Clear Creek
watershed. EPA became involved in 1983, and in
2009 the site received $2.16 million in American
Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA) funding
to consolidate and cap waste rock and mine tailing
--- >—^ * ^ piles, implement sediment and drainage controls,
P^^-1 JM jpB and treat water to mitigate heavy metal impacts to
Mfj?., .- the Clear Creek watershed. The goal of the site's
"~ cleanup is to continue to protect the Clear Creek
watershed and the surrounding community.
Fig. 7. The mining industry in Black
Hawk before its crash in the early
19008 In 2011, ETSC provided technical support by
applying multiple water models to envision the impact of applying different management
ETSC Report 2012
Page 10
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techniques to the Clear Creek watershed. For example, one of the models
(WASP/META) was used successfully to determine ion concentrations downstream of
the proposed water treatment plant on the North Fork of Clear Creek (NFCC).
Black Butte (Region 10)
The Black Butte Mine Superfund Site is located near Cottage Grove, Oregon. Mercury
and other contaminants from an abandoned cinnabar mine affect creeks that flow into
Cottage Grove Reservoir and the Coast Fork Willamette River. Black Butte was one of
the largest mercury mines in Oregon, and it was in operation from the 1890's to the late
1960's.
Beginning in 2011 and continuing into 2013, ETSC is involved with discussion of several
small mercury bioaccumulation projects. In 2011, decision flow diagrams were
developed to help manage the project. Groundwater to surface water interactions and
geochemistry research are also being supported by the ETSC. One of the major issues is
to determine the production and environmental 'cycling' of mercury to methylmercury
(and back again) in the Cottage Grove Reservoir. The issue of mercury methylation is not
unique to this reservoir; therefore, the ETSC has funded this research to better understand
the mercury cycling issue and apply this knowledge to better remediate and control
mercury at this and other sites in Regions 8, 9, and 10 with similar mercury issues. This
research could potentially reduce mercury-related water issues in the 14 states that
compose Regions 8, 9 and 10.
Back 40 Mine (Region 5)
A mine has been proposed for the upper peninsula of Michigan in an area called the Back
40. In response to the proposal, citizens of the area have inquired about the mine and the
EPA's involvement with the process.
In 2011, ETSC addressed questions posed by citizens concerned about the Back 40 mine.
The Back 40 mine may be used to produce ore for copper, gold, silver, and zinc. The
ETSC provided technical support as well as written materials for citizens to better
understand the issues related to mine site development and operations. These materials
included information on the management of potential cyanide release from gold mining
and ore refinement processes.
Bristol Bay Watershed (Region 10)
The Bristol Bay watershed is located in southwestern Alaska and is being considered for
large-scale mining activities due to its abundant supply of minerals, including gold and
copper. The watershed is also home to the largest sockeye salmon fishery in the Pacific
Northwest and native tribes who have maintained a salmon-based culture for thousands
of years.
ETSC Report 2012 Page 11
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Fig. 8. Aerial view of Bristol Bay, Alaska
(from U.S. EPA report: "An Assessment of
Potential Mining Impacts on Salmon
Ecosystems of Bristol Bay, Alaska")
In 2011 and 2012, ETSC provided
technical support for the Bristol Bay
quantitative risk assessment being
developed and led by the National Center
for Environmental Assessment. Many of
the mining scenarios in the risk
assessment were addressed by an ETSC
team. A specific example of a topic that
was discussed is the size of analogous
mines that should be used for comparison.
Additional discussion topics on mining
included mining life cycles and potential
mining footprints.
Homestake Mine (Region 6)
Located in Cibola County, New Mexico, this Superfund site was a uranium mill owned
and operated by the Homestake Mining Company (HMC). HMC operated the mill
between 1958 and 1990, until it was decommissioned and demolished between 1993 and
1995. Two tailings piles, remnants of the previous operations, remain on site. The first
stands at 100 feet high over an area of 200 acres, totaling approximately 21 million tons
of mill tailings. The second tailing pile is a small impoundment covering 40 acres at 25
feet high, containing approximately 1.2 million tons of mill tailings. The tailings piles sit
atop alluvium that overlies the Chinle and San Andres aquifers. The primary contaminant
of concern (COC) is uranium, along with other radionuclides and metals. Although the
nearest residence and drinking well are 3,000 feet away from the site, the aquifer was
used primarily for domestic water supply, affecting the 200 people who live within a mile
of the tailings piles.
Since they first became involved in 2008, the ETSC staff has coordinated with the
Region 6 RPM and onsite management. Working with partners in the Office of
Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, ETSC developed a scope of work,
issued a contractual work order, and approved a work plan for conducting a remediation
optimization study for the closed mine. The first draft was considered incomplete during
Agency and peer review, so an additional scope of work was issued, contractual work
was completed, and a final report was issued in 2009. The current remediation plan
consists of an injection of water into the tailings combined with an extraction system, a
reverse osmosis treatment facility, and onsite disposal and evaporation ponds. ETSC staff
were integrally involved in the planning, conducting a site visit and thorough site tour. In
addition, ETSC staff helped coordinate a public meeting with stakeholders. Through this
active, local involvement, ETSC helped accelerate and organize the plans for
remediation, as well as provide engineering expertise.
ETSC Report 2012
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Gladstone, Colorado Mines (Region 8)
ETSC involvement at the Gladstone, Colorado mines is a collaboration between ETSC,
Region 8, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and Golder Associates, Inc.
Together, they prepared a technology demonstration to evaluate the performance,
effectiveness, and operating parameters of the Ionic Water Technologies Rotating
Cylinder Treatment System (RCTS) in treating two distinctly different types of MIW.
Approximately 1,500 inactive mines have MIW that directly impacts surface waters
surrounding Gladstone. The concentrations of metals (e.g., aluminum, cadmium, copper,
and zinc) from MIWs have affected some receiving streams to the extent that the habitat
is no longer able to support aquatic life.
Together, the team authored a report that is now undergoing final review before
publication. The application of this technology successfully handled variable flow rates
and reduced concentrations of a variety
of metals in the MIW at high altitudes
(above 10,000 feet). The unique aeration
system of the RCTS technology appears
to offer several benefits, including (1)
lower lime consumption due to the
utilization of the available alkalinity from
the introduced lime, (2) less sludge
production resulting from less lime usage
per unit of alkalinity, and (3) a less costly
solution to treat MIW of varying
chemistries and flow rates at high
altitudes.
Fig. 9. Abandoned mine structures at the
Gladstone site This technical assistance effort involved
a joint collaboration to evaluate a
promising technology that can be extended to other EPA regions. Of the four partners in
this demonstration, ETSC is uniquely positioned to take the technology elsewhere around
the country for remediation purposes. With a firm grasp of the performance data, ETSC
can determine whether this treatment technique can be applied at other sites. In turn,
thanks to this document and future ETSC involvement, other Regions will become well
versed in the development of preliminary plant designs, system footprint requirements,
and projected capital and operating costs. As an example, ETSC is already working with
Region 3 to evaluate the efficacy of this technology in treating MIW from mountaintop
mining. In this way, the flexibility of ETSC to work with partners nationwide enables
EPA to take one-of-a-kind technical experience and quickly apply it again halfway across
the country.
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Standard Mine (Region 8)
Sitting on 10 acres in the Ruby Mining District of the Gunnison National Forest,
Colorado, Standard Mine was in operation for a 100-year period (1874-1974). The
Colorado Geological Survey identified the mine as the most environmentally degraded
mine site in the entire Ruby Mining District. At the time of its National Priorities List
(NPL) designation in 2005, the site contained approximately 53,000 cubic yards of waste
rock and 29,000 cubic yards of mill tailings, respectively, and a non-engineered surface
impoundment constructed of highly mineralized waste rock. Overflows from this
impoundment, along with water from open mine entrances, released metal-laden acid
mine drainage directly into nearby Elk Creek. The contaminants of concern at the mine
site consisted primarily of heavy metals, with elevated levels of manganese, lead, zinc,
cadmium, and copper, in particular. Depending on the season, Standard Mine releases 70
gallons per minute (gpm) during high flow and 5 to 20 gpm (low flow) of mine-
influenced water into Elk
Creek. This
contamination presents a
potential threat
downstream at Coal
Creek, which is used as a
city water supply. The
severe contamination,
remote location without
easy vehicular access,
and high elevation
(11,000 feet) combine to
make the Standard Mine
a particularly problematic
remediation site.
Fig. 10. BCR materials at Standard Mine
In 2006, ETSC initiated the remediation process by moving the tailings to a new
impoundment. The site has such limited seasonal accessibility that ETSC sought a low-
maintenance and self-sustaining treatment mechanism. In 2007, ETSC designed, built,
and monitored a low flow (1.2 gpm) passive treatment pilot study for the area. The pilot-
scale BCR conducts automated water sampling, transmits data daily via satellite, and
relies solely on photovoltaic power throughout the year. Impressively, ETSC constructed
the entire system for under $10,000. This unique pilot is a test prototype, indicating a
possibility of building future systems at many of the mine sites in the Region.
Although the BCR has contributed to a reduction in effluent metals, the work at Standard
Mine is not finished. ETSC continues to monitor BCR effluent quality, improve the
oxygenation of the effluent, and conduct other remedial tasks. However, the one-of-a
kind installation of an inexpensive and independently functioning BCR in such a
challenging location shows the promise of future remediation efforts. ETSC continues to
lead the way in alerting local and regional managers to these options and encouraging
their deployment where appropriate.
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Anaconda Copper (Region 9)
Located about 65 miles from Reno, the Anaconda Copper Mine extends over an
enormous 3,400 acres in central Nevada. The site lies in an area featuring a mixture of
private lands (including agricultural fields) and public lands managed by BLM.
Operations at the mine site began in 1918 and continued under several different owners
until its closure in 1978. Primarily a site for mining, milling, and related operations, the
open-pit Anaconda Copper processed both copper oxide and copper sulfide ores at the
facility. The operator of the mine processed copper oxide ore, which involved
manufacturing and using large quantities of sulfuric acid on site. The storage of the by-
products has resulted in 400 acres of waste rock placed south of the pit, 900 acres of
contaminated tailings, and 300 acres of disposal ponds. Since the closure of the mining
operations, varied industrial activity contributed 250 acres of heap leach piles and 12
acres of heap leach solution collection ponds until the site was abandoned for good in
2000.
As mining operations
ceased, so did groundwater
pumping, which has
resulted in the formation of
the 180-acre Pit Lake in the
former open pit. It is now
about one mile long and
800 feet deep, and
increasing in size each year.
Leftover contaminants from
industrial activities threaten
groundwater, surface water,
air, and soils. Both uranium
and arsenic are the biggest
concerns, but the fact that
these metals are also
Fig. 11. Aerial view of Pit Lake at the Anaconda Copper site.
A large neighborhood with homes can be seen just off the
west side of the pit Source: Google Maps
naturally occurring in the region adds another layer of complexity.
The Nevada Department of Environmental Protection and EPA have taken several
emergency removal actions at the site to address immediate concerns. ETSC activities at
the Anaconda facility have been ongoing since 2005, when ETSC first got involved with
pre-RI. Since then, regional and state authorities have taken a number of remedial steps,
including dust mitigation, radiological removal assessment, investigation of fluid
migration, and soil removal.
In conjunction with the Ground Water and Ecosystems Restoration Division, ETSC
supports the decision-making process for data collection and analysis. Agency work has
led to a clearer understanding of groundwater dynamics and the extent of contamination.
Of particular concern is groundwater that has moved beyond the site boundary. As an
interim remedy for the spread of contamination at the site, the PRP has installed a series
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of extraction wells. ETSC and the PRP continue to characterize the breadth of the
problem, as the large area of contamination at Anaconda Copper means high technical
demands. ETSC's assistance with this project provides essential quality assurance for the
remedial project managers and ensures that the decision-making process is robust and
well-informed.
Formosa Mine (Region 10)
Fig. 12. Activities in progress at Formosa Mine
The Formosa Mine Superfund
Site is located on Silver Butte in
Douglas County in southwest
Oregon. The mine is near the top
of Silver Butte at about 3,600
feet above sea level. The only
access for motorized vehicles is
along a network of unpaved
BLM roads. The major features
of the site include sealed adits
(mine entries), piles of waste
rock, a former mill site, and a
large tailings encapsulation
mound. Four creeks, all
tributaries of Cow Creek (source
of public water supply for the
town of Riddle), have
headwaters near the mine,
including Middle Creek, South Fork Middle Creek, Russell Creek, and West Fork
Canyon Creek. Environmental sampling data from BLM indicated that metal-rich acid
drainage emanating from the mine is currently discharging into Middle Creek and South
Fork Middle Creek, but not into Russell Creek or West Fork Canyon Creek.
This copper and zinc mine was first operated from 1927 to 1933. No documented cleanup
took place following this first operating period. In 1990, Formosa Explorations, Inc.
reopened and significantly expanded the underground workings of the mine. This period
of operation lasted until 1994 when the mine workings (shafts and tunnels) were
backfilled with sulfide-rich tailings that included concentrated zinc, mill tailings, and ore.
The mine owners sealed the portals with limestone rock and concrete and installed drains,
but the drains soon failed. These conditions set the stage for the production of metal-rich
(especially copper and zinc) acid mine drainage.
Formosa filled in the former tailings pond with the remaining ore and waste rock, and
capped it with a bentonite/geotextile composite and drainage layer. Formosa mixed
sulfide-rich soil with limestone and placed surface soil on top of the bentonite cap. This
area is now known as the encapsulation mound. Formosa constructed the capping to
prevent oxygen and water from reaching the fill material in the pond.
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ETSC became involved with the site after a request from the region and the state of
Oregon. ETSC staff met with Region 10 EPA, BLM, and other parties for several years.
Region 10 took over the federal role in concert with BLM. ETSC staff suggested dividing
the site into two operable units (OUs) by separating surface and encapsulation mound
material and other mine piles into OU #1, and surface and groundwater into OU #2.
ETSC provided continual advice to Region 10 RPMs and their contractors, and in 2011,
the first RI was issued for Formosa Mine. A technical working group is now looking into
all aspects of the mine and related areas.
Fig. 13. An aerial view of Formosa Mine with key
locations marked in red. "MXR" is a water sampling
location about 3,000 feet west of the mine in Upper
Middle Creek.
On June 10,2008,
representatives from federal and
state agencies visited the mining
site. The mine portals have been
plugged with limestone and
concrete, though water still
drains from the adits. ETSC
staff and personnel from the
GWTSC provided expert
Geoprobe Systems® support to
the Formosa team and drilled
many groundwater wells to
collect important data for OU #
2. The drilling was difficult
because of the rocky and steep
slope conditions - an area where
other drillers may not have
achieved success. ETSC will
collect data for the next several
years. The drilling personnel at
Ada, Oklahoma and Cincinnati,
Ohio have many years of experience with contaminated sites.
In 2012, the ETSC continued to provide support to Region 10 in their efforts to remediate
the mine site. A treatability study for the MIW escaping the adit is currently being
conducted. Additionally, the ETSC is contributing expertise on how to treat ground and
surface water that will emanate from the mine once the adit is reopened in late fall, 2013.
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Other Mining Demonstration and Applied Research (Region 8)
Beyond the central role that ETSC played in the construction of Standard Mine's BCR,
the team has contributed to a number of other BCR pilots. Anaerobic BCRs process
mining-impacted water by using sulfate-reducing bacteria to convert sulfate to sulfide
with comparatively little maintenance involved.
Fig. 14. Constructed biochemical reactor (BCR)
This advantage of low maintenance is
largely due to the system's reliance on
biological processes to treat the water.
As an added bonus, BCRs do not
depend on external power and can be
installed with lower set-up costs.
Individual BCR designs cater to a
specific site by varying the flow of
impacted water and the amount of
oxygen available during treatment.
However, despite the advantages of
BCR, some concern remains over the
toxicity of water treated by the
process. Laboratory studies reveal that
the BCR process significantly reduces
the toxicity of impacted water, but does
not consistently decrease toxicity to a
level always safe for aquatic life.
To better understand the assets and shortcomings of BCR methodology, ETSC members
collaborated with outside parties to assess the effects of BCR treatment at 4 selected sites
in Region 8. ETSC's study produced the first results of successful BCR treatment in the
field. Included in the analysis were two mining impacted sites in Montana, another site in
Utah, and the Standard Mine in Colorado.
In the study, ETSC used treated effluent from the BCRs to evaluate the toxicological
effect on fleas and minnows. As the BCR operated under different conditions at each site,
ETSC hoped to glean insight on the best conditions for site treatment.
Results of the tests confirmed that some sites reduced the toxicity to safe levels, while
others corroborated previous laboratory results showing lingering toxicity for aquatic life.
The variability of the results will help determine the best design for other real-world BCR
installations.
In particular, the ETSC study indicated that the sites using an in-field aeration step had a
larger decrease in the toxicity of the BCR effluent. ETSC scientists are optimistic that
aeration will lead to a reliable, cost-effective design for BCR site remediation. The entire
study was published in the online version of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry in
November 2010.
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Site Characterization
View of Red Cove from SE Shoreline
Landfills
As disposal sites for consumer and industrial waste, landfills have a broader range of
contaminants than other cleanup sites. In addition, many retired landfills were
constructed when few containment measures were built into the landfill structure. As a
result, these landfills are beginning to see contamination migrate to their surroundings,
particularly via groundwater and surface water. These mobile contaminants can then
threaten local aquatic life, as well as drinking water supplies.
Fort Devens Landfill (Region 1)
The 84-acre Fort Devens Landfill operated for 75 years until its closure in 1992. Located
on the U.S. Army Base by
the same name, the Fort
Devens Landfill is located
20 miles northeast of
Worcester, Massachusetts
on Shepley's Hill. Nearby
Red Cove is a shallow-
water cove off Plow Shop
Pond that abuts the landfill.
The name "Red Cove" is
derived from the red
sediments, which are dyed
by the high-iron
groundwater discharging to
the cove from the landfill.
Fig.15. View of Red Cove from the southeast shoreline Arsenic ^ primary CQC
displays similar transport
characteristics from groundwater to discharge into Red Cove. Furthermore, two
municipal drinking wells draw their supplies within one mile of the landfill.
ETSC first became involved with the site when Region 1 requested technical assistance
on the fate, transport, stability, and extent of elevated arsenic in Red Cove. Region 1 was
in search of scientific findings that would provide justifications to the Army Base for
moving forward with an RI. ORD designed the field study to address initial findings
presented in the Expanded Site Investigation prepared by Region 1.
Together with other members of ORD, ETSC staff investigated the migration of mobile
forms of arsenic from the landfill to Red Cove. The study helped characterize the arsenic
contamination, define the processes governing mobility, and determine the stability of the
arsenic once in the Red Cove sediments. The investigation revealed that groundwater
contaminated with arsenic was discharging into Red Cove, despite the fact that
groundwater extraction and treatment was the landfill was undergoing as a preventive
measure. The authors also provided a number of suggestions for remedial action that
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could better contain groundwater contamination from spreading to the surface water.
With ETSC experts leading authorship, the team provided the technical experience that
was largely responsible for characterizing the threats to surface water.
Lipari Landfill (Region 2)
The Lipari landfill in Pitman, New Jersey, occupies a 6-acre area of a larger 15-acre
Superfund site. Operating between 1958 and 1971, the Lipari Landfill accepted 12,000
cubic yards and 3 million gallons of liquid municipal and industrial waste, including
chemicals. Today, half of the landfill uses soil vapor extraction to address volatile
organic compound contamination. ETSC, however, is focusing on the contamination of
bis(chloroethyl)ether (BCEE) in a plume in an underground aquifer. The primary method
for containing the problem involves treating contaminated leachate and physically
separating the BCEE. The costs of this method average $5 million per year.
ETSC has teamed up with the RPM in Region 2 to explore the feasibility of cutting costs
by using bioremediation technology. Over the course of a 16-month study, the team
concluded that BCEE could degrade aerobically on site at a rate faster than current
anaerobic degradation. Thanks to ETSC's assistance, Region 2 is implementing
bioventing field pilots at the landfill. If results from the pilots confirm ETSC's applied
research, then the approach can be considered and implemented as a cost-effective
solution site-wide.
Puerto Rico Capping Project (Region 2)
Fig. 16. ETSC and Regional staff conduct site
investigations of abandoned Puerto Rican landfills
Managing waste on a small island
with over 4 million people can
present a number of environmental
and logistical challenges. Puerto
Rico's high rainfall and dense
population have made safely
containing the waste for the
foreseeable future a challenge. In
February 2010, representatives
from ETSC and its contractors
organized a two-day workshop
focusing on evapotranspiration
(ET) covers for landfills, soil
physics, water movement, and
computer modeling. In particular,
ET covers have been identified as
potentially well suited in Puerto
Rico for isolating capped waste
from the percolation of rainfall, reducing the potential for the 'bathtub effect.'
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In addition to conducting the panel discussions and technical outreach, the ETSC and
contractor team visited seven landfill sites in Puerto Rico to make a qualitative
assessment of the condition of existing closed sites. Although the quality of the landfill
covers varied, the group came away with generally positive remarks about the
environmental condition and regular maintenance of landfill sites.
Programs such as these workshops demonstrate ETSC's important role in raising
awareness about issues. The workshops informed and empowered local authorities to
address environmental challenges independently. Beyond the meeting discussions, ETSC
created a decision tree outlining the various steps and considerations that landfill owners
or Puerto Rico regulators could consider when evaluating the use of ET covers as part of
a landfill closure process. This approach helps ensure that effective field methods are
applied from the outset, thereby saving time and money while protecting environmental
and public health.
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Sustainability in the Community
While many of ETSC's efforts focus on remedial action, the team has also taken on
projects that promote sustainable communities. Incorporating sustainability into planning
helps create a balance between a community's economic, social, and environmental goals
or objectives. The balance assures that no single element will be sacrificed for the benefit
of the others. In a way, implementing a sustainability plan acts as a preventive measure to
guard against the need for future remediation.
Stella, Missouri (Region 7)
Fig. 17. Community members/advocates for Stella,
MO involved in planning to remove an abandoned
hospital (previously a brownfields site) and
revitalize the site
Razing its asbestos-laden hospital
in 2006 marked an important
change in the 200-person town of
Stella, Missouri. Shortly after the
EPA-supported demolition was
complete, ETSC staff collaborated
with community members, Region
7, the Missouri Department of
Natural Resources, and the Office
of Brownfields to develop a
revitalization plan for the
community. Using the essential
attributes of economic, social, and
environmental systems as planning
criteria, ETSC staff developed the
"Master Plan for a Sustainable
Revitalization of Stella." By
integrating sustainable air, water,
and energy technologies along with
methods to preserve current ecosystem services, the community's revitalization plan aims
to meet current and future needs of the citizens. In addition, through a beta test of the
Sustainable Management Approaches and Revitalization Tools-electronic (SMARTe)
program, Stella residents and stakeholders had a new resource to help with funding,
additional planning, and risk management. By using SMARTe, Stella was able to locate
financial resources available through organizations such as the Department of Housing
and Urban Development and the Department of Transportation.
ETSC's involvement with the community of Stella marks one of ETSC's first ventures
outside of typical site-specific involvement. ETSC staff often advises and comments
solely during the remediation phase and does not follow into the revitalization stage. The
continued involvement at Stella will help inform ETSC's future work in supporting
sustainability planning. ETSC aims to build on this opportunity to provide guidance on
implementing sustainable practices into the growth and revitalization of other
communities as well.
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Planning Land and Communities to be Environmentally Sustainable
For a broader long-term pursuit toward sustainability, ETSC has created a certification
program to assess land uses. The initiative, known by its acronym "PLACES," is a
planned voluntary program geared towards local communities who want to certify their
sustainability efforts. The program will evaluate a host of issues that a local municipality
might take on to promote sustainability. These include land use policy, public initiatives,
public-private partnerships, sponsorship of science, water management, local ecosystem
health, and many other facets.
78 acre*
Fig. 18. A sample of design plans
potentially certified by PLACES
PLACES is built in the mold of other voluntary
certification programs, such as Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). A
well-publicized program with visible rewards
can raise awareness of sustainability issues,
increase efforts to pursue sustainability by
communities, and realize the environmental
benefits from such efforts. Therefore, like
LEED, PLACES establishes criteria that award
credit points to participants for every component
they successfully address. ETSC hopes that
those meeting certain threshold scores will be
awarded "U.S. EPA Recognition of Sustainable
Community." Depending on how high they
score, communities would receive Green,
Bronze, Silver, Gold, or Platinum recognition.
San Jacinto River Waste Pits (Region 6)
The San Jacinto River Waste Pits site is situated on a marshy 20-acre plot in the
southeastern part of Texas. The site features two waste ponds, comprising three
impoundments, which had been used to store refuse from the former pulp and paper mill.
One waste pond totals more than 132,000 square feet, while the other contains
impoundments of more than 46,000 and 188,000 square feet. Since use of the waste pits
ended in the 1960s, 2 of the 3 impoundments have been fully submerged by the San
Jacinto River. The third has been partially submerged by the river.
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Fig. 19. The San Jacinto waste pits and
adjacent terrain
The polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
and polychlorinated dibenzofurans that
contaminate the waste pits have been
found entering the San Jacinto River.
Continued submersion of the waste pits
themselves have allowed contaminated
sediment to come in direct contact with
river water.
ETSC is providing ongoing support
through a critical removal action and
subsequent RI/FS. The Agency is also
working with the Texas Commission on
Environmental Quality and the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers to safeguard
the health of the watershed. EPA is
considering remedial options that range from various containment strategies to
excavation, dredging, and treatment.
ETSC has commented on all
sampling and analytical plans and
removal proposals and has
expressed possible concern
regarding colloidal transport
through non-sealed sheet pile sec-
tions associated with a removal
action option. ETSC has proposed
and is evaluating various
containment options, such as site
capping or disposal in a Confined
Disposal Facility, and dioxin
treatment technologies, including
Fig. 20. Aerial view of the San Jacinto waste pit site the use of geosorbents.
and surrounding areas
In 2011 and 2012, ETSC continued
its support for this site by evaluating several hydrodynamic and sediment transport
models relating to the colloidal transport concern.
Chattanooga Creek Cap Monitoring Study (Region 4)
LRPCD researchers are working with EPA Region 4 and with the Department of
Environmental Conservation in Tennessee to monitor an installed AquaBlak® cap, a clay
polymer composite designed to swell and form a continuous and impermeable barrier.
This section of Chattanooga Creek has seen decades of industrial pollution from coal tar
and creosote, which contain around 10,000 chemicals. This work has been implemented
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to protect the local population and to further evaluate the usefulness (benefits and cost) of
this technology.
Capping is a common strategy for decreasing the risk associated with contaminated
sediments in lakes and streams. Caps have been designed to physically isolate
contaminated sediments and prevent the transport of these contaminants from coming
into contact with the water above, aquatic organisms, wildlife, and humans in and around
the contamination.
Since 2004, ETSC sediment researchers have been evaluating how the performance of
capping technology is affected by gas generation below cap. Copies of these studies from
the Region 10 Wyckoff/Eagle Harbor Superfund site and the Region 1 capping activities
in Boston Harbor are available on the EPA website. Considering that the magnitude of
contaminated sediments sites on Superfund sites and in harbors is so large, this research
and development of technologies to manage the risk are imperative.
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Other Technical Assistance
Bioavailability Research
Researchers from ORD's NRMRL, LRPCD, National Environmental Research
Laboratory (NERL), and National Health Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
(NHEERL) have been actively collaborating with ETSC on a research program to
understand the bioavailability and fate of metal contaminants (lead and arsenic) in soils.
An understanding of the bioavailability and fate of metals is being accomplished through
spectroscopic synchrotron speciation, in vitro (fertilization of an egg in a laboratory dish
or test tube) extractions, and in vivo (in the living body of a plant or animal) mice feeding
studies. A pitfall of previous research in this area is the lack of consensus on the
experimental methods and the variability of soil samples examined. The objective of this
integrated research project is to define the soil characteristics that influence
bioavailability to develop a prognostic in vitro model validated against in vivo results.
The identification of soil characteristics governing metal bioavailability, and developing
a simple in vitro extraction test may replace the more resource intensive in vivo animal
testing currently conducted to predict bioavailability.
Regulations on the fate and effects of metals in the environment based solely on total
concentrations are no longer valid, state-of-the-art, or scientifically sound. While total
metal content is a critical measure in assessing risk of a contaminated site, total metal
content alone does not provide predictive insights on the bioavailability, mobility, and
fate of the metal contaminants. Thus, a better understanding of the nature of the chemical
and physical interactions of contaminants with soil constituents can increase the
scientific, regulatory, and public confidence in the use of bioavailability for remedial
actions. Predictions of long-term stability rely on a mechanistic understanding of how
contaminants are stored or sequestered within the soil.
In its concern with direct ingestion of soil, EPA has defined bioavailability as the fraction
of an ingested dose that crosses the gastrointestinal (GI) epithelium and becomes
available for distribution to internal target tissues and organs. Bioavailability processes
are defined as the individual physical, chemical, and biological interactions that
determine the exposure of plants and animals to chemicals associated with soils. As the
fraction of a soil element that can actually be absorbed by an organism to cause harm
depends on the chemical forms present and physical/chemical properties of the soil, in
both risk assessment and remediation evaluation, the fraction of a soil element that can
actually cause harm must be identified. This fraction is ultimately defined as the
bioavailable fraction. Because measurement of the bioavailable fraction is time-
consuming and expensive via in vivo protocols, chemical extraction methods are being
developed to estimate the bioavailable fraction. In the case of ingestion of soil, the in
vitro or chemical estimation method has been labeled "bioaccessible" and is a measure of
the amount of metal that can be liberated from the soil matrix, thus not a measure of the
amount of metal that moves across the GI epithelium to harm internal target tissues and
organs.
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Working directly with RPMs, soil samples from various project sites have been obtained
to determine a site specific bioavailability value. The research project involves careful
preparation and characterization of bulk soil properties followed by advanced
spectroscopic analysis to determine the speciation of the metals via synchrotron X-ray
absorption spectroscopy at the Advanced Photon Source of Argonne National
Laboratory. Once the soil samples that contain bioavailable metals are characterized, they
are sent for in vitro analysis. In vitro chemical extractions generally only require
knowledge of the total metal content so that a percent bioaccessible number can be
generated from in vitro extractions that simulate digestive systems or mimic responses to
sensitive ecoreceptors. In addition to an array of traditional one- and multi-step in vitro
extractions, efforts are underway to explore new method development involving the use
of historic soil extractions for nutrients.
To validate results from in vitro and soil characterization, in vivo mice feeding studies are
conducted to confirm the bioavailability of soil metals. The in vivo mouse method
utilized has many advantages over other in vivo protocols (swine or primate) in that the
costs are significantly less and a larger number of animals can be tested to improve the
statistical analysis of the data. The in vivo results are compared to the in vitro results to
identify a correlation and the in vitro results are measured against the speciation and soil
characterization data to find positive relationships. For example, factors such as metal
speciation and iron oxide content in soils have been shown to be influential in metal
bioavailability. Identification of a robust, validated in vitro procedure is vital to this
research project through carefully planned in vivo support studies and soil
characterization research.
Grand Lake St. Marys (Region 5)
Grand Lake St. Marys is a very shallow, man-made lake
in northern Ohio, the largest inland lake in the state. The
lake and 19 other nearby lakes, including Lake Erie, have
experienced increasing levels of harmful algal blooms
(HABs) along with high concentrations of cyanotoxins.
Microcystin, a toxic peptide produced by some species of
blue-green algae, is of particular concern. Potential
sources of nutrient pollution contributing to these blooms
include nonpoint source runoff from the more than 300
agricultural operations in the watershed, as well as failing
septic systems. HABs in Grand Lake St. Marys have led
to the loss of recreational uses of the lake and a decline in
tourism revenue.
The state, EPA Region 5, and a contractor have been
evaluating chemical treatment methods, such as addition
of silica or buffered aluminum sulfate (alum), to reduce
nutrient (phosphate) levels and thereby reduce the growth of HABs. To determine
whether the treatments were successful, the algal community composition was measured
Fig. 21. Grand Lake St. Marys
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and the dominant species determined. Traditionally, species identification has been done
using cell count methods, which are laborious and time-consuming. In the past, EPA has
successfully used an alternative, chemical method, fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)
analysis, to measure bacterial species composition. ETSC recognized an opportunity to
apply FAME analysis to algae to help determine whether the treatment methods being
tested were successful. The ETSC rapidly assembled a team and equipment and took
measurements inside and outside the test area throughout September 2010. To conduct
the FAME analysis, EPA's Cincinnati laboratory identified markers for blue-green algae,
green algae, and diatoms and measured the concentration of these markers extracted from
the samples. These measurements were comparable to the cell count data for the samples.
This work demonstrated that FAME analysis, compared to traditional methods, may be a
faster and more reliable method to determine the dominant species in a system. Thus, this
method has the potential to become a useful tool for states and Regions to help address
the problem of HABs in the numerous man-made lakes that have become eutrophic
throughout the country.
ETSC was continuing onsite work during 2011, with ETSC members assisting the Ohio
EPA with monitoring efforts directed at reducing or eliminating cyanobacterial blooms
and their effects. EPA and ETSC also provided technical support and assistance to the
Ohio EPA Division of Surface Water in deploying and maintaining a data sonde Econet
to monitor general water quality variables in the lake during 2011 and 2012. Ohio EPA
and ETSC installed four networked data sondes at points in the lake that provide real-
time measurements of critical variables including temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH,
turbidity, conductivity, and chlorophyll-a during a proposed 45-day, lake-wide alum
application process.
The results of this collaborative work between the ETSC and the state include protocols
for use in monitoring cyanobacteria, and alum application techniques to reduce bacterial
growth. The alum application appeared to be effective over the time the lake was treated.
Research conducted at the lake is also being used to develop a correlation between sonde
monitoring data and satellite spectral analysis data (light reflection/absorption from
freshwater). The ETSC is pursuing applications of this correlation data, including the
development of an algorithm for NASA, EPA, and USGS to jointly identify freshwater
lakes in the U.S. that are candidates for harmful algal blooms. If successful, this work
will lead to the development of a national monitoring network that will help states and
other environmental and public health decision makers in identifying impaired freshwater
bodies.
Omaha Lead Site (Region 7)
The Omaha Lead Site (OLS) includes surface soils present at residential properties, child-
care centers, and other residential-type properties in the city of Omaha, Nebraska, that
have been contaminated as a result of deposition of air emissions from historic lead
smelting and refining operations. The OLS encompasses the eastern portion of the greater
metropolitan area in Douglas County. The site is located around Omaha, where two
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former lead-processing facilities once operated. American Smelting and Refining
Company, Inc. (ASARCO) operated a lead refinery for over 125 years. Aaron Ferer &
Sons Company (Aaron Ferer), and later the Gould Electronics, Inc., (Gould) lead battery
recycling plant were also located nearby. Both the ASARCO and Aaron Ferer/Gould
facilities released lead-containing particulates to the atmosphere from their smokestacks,
which were deposited on surrounding residential properties.
The ASARCO facility operated from the early 1870s until 1997 and was located on
approximately 23 acres on the west bank of the Missouri River in downtown Omaha.
Aaron Ferer constructed and operated a secondary lead smelter and lead battery recycling
plant from the early 1950s until 1963. In 1963, the facility was purchased by Gould, who
operated it until closure in 1982. During the operational period of these facilities, lead-
contaminated particulates were transported downwind in various directions and deposited
on the ground surface. The Douglas County Health Department (DCHD) performed
monitoring of the ambient air quality around the ASARCO facility beginning in 1984.
This air monitoring routinely measured ambient lead concentrations exceeding the
ambient standard for lead at that time of 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter (|ig/m3). The
highest recorded quarterly average measured in air was 6.57 |ig/m3.
The DCHD has compiled statistics on the results of blood lead screening of children less
than 7 years old for more than 25 years. Screening of young children living in several zip
codes in close proximity to the former lead refinery indicates a high occurrence of blood
lead levels exceeding 10 micrograms per deciliter (|ig/dl). Lead is classified by EPA as a
probable human carcinogen and is a cumulative toxicant.
ETSC is performing two main studies with Region 7 personnel. In the first study, ETSC's
primary objective is to provide technical support to EPA Region 7 and EPA NRMRL by
coordinating and/or conducting the identification, compilation, and analysis of
educational, social, and analytical data for the Omaha Lead Site area. These data will be
compared to lead reduction activities in the community over time including (but not
limited to) the EPA Superfund removal and remedial activities. Activities include the
following phases:
Phase 1 - Determine and access current available data sources and inputs to
evaluate the educational and social outcomes in aggregate data sets. This
information may be acquired through local government organizations, academia,
criminal data and standardized educational tests. Data gaps and source acquisition
for individual subjects and other specified cohorts shall be identified.
Phase 2 - Gather and analyze additional data based on Phase 1 recommendations,
to evaluate lead reductions and human health impacts over time, then to compile
and synthesize all collected data and information to be incorporated into a final
summary report to be delivered to EPA and collaborators.
An external technical expert in the area of lead toxicology will utilize data from multiple
sources to identify links that may exist between changes in environmental lead exposures
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and the quality of human life. These sources may include historical information about
lead refining in the Omaha area, historical information about EPA activity at the Omaha
Lead site, educational achievement tests, juvenile delinquency data, and crime statistics
data. A third party expert will work with ETSC's contractor and other parties to look for any
other available sources of data. The team is working with numerous agencies and
stakeholders and applying statistical analysis and epidemiological methodology to gain
insight and understanding pertaining to the corrective action measures.
In the second ETSC study at the OLS during the summer of 2011, ETSC collected soil
samples from residential yards before and after excavation to elucidate the extent of soil
mixing as a function of depth and excavation technique. In a specially-designed
methodological approach, ETSC staff performed laborious sampling on approximately 30
sites. The results of this study will help determine if the remedial and removal actions
undertaken 10 years ago still offer the same protection as originally designed.
Remediation and Restoration Planning of Watersheds (Regions 6 and 7)
The Tri-State Mining District (TSMD) encompasses the Spring and Neosho River
watersheds in Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, and tribal lands where mined ores containing
lead, zinc, and other metals were processed for a over a century. After processing, the
remaining waste material or chat was left on the land surface, often in large uncovered
piles. Decades of exposure to wind and water erosive processes has led to widespread
contamination of sediments in streams, rivers, reservoirs, and lakes throughout the
TSMD. Several of these areas with chat piles are on the NPL as known sources of
hazardous waste contamination. As such, cleanup of these sites and the watersheds they
are in falls under CERCLA.
Ecological risk assessment studies identified cadmium, lead, and zinc as the primary
contaminants of concern and chromium, copper, and mercury also likely contributors to
ecological receptor toxicity. Benthic invertebrate site specific toxicity thresholds for
cadmium, lead, and zinc were found to be reliable indicators and thus serve as
preliminary remediation goals for environmental risk managers tasked with developing
remediation and restoration plans for the Spring and Neosho River watersheds. The
general approach is to collect and organize relevant watershed data in a spatially explicit
geographical information systems framework. The effect of proposed remedial and risk
management actions can then be simulated via integrated hydrological, contaminant
transport, and biological response models, as well as interpreted and displayed
geospatially, facilitating the comparison of alternatives. These models, combined with
multi-criteria decision analysis methods will assist the TSMD stakeholders in making
informed decisions about mine waste risk management and remediation actions. The
approach is a powerful, transparent way of organizing and communicating complex
scientific information to a diverse group of stakeholders, as well as providing a basis for
improving communication among the stakeholders themselves. The project approach has
potential for application in watershed planning and watershed risk management decision
making in other states or regions.
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Restoring Degraded Industrial Waterways (Region 5)
The team at ETSC has explored remedial support for environmental concerns that are not
well defined as being a single "site," including ETSC's work in remedial action for rivers
and streams impacted by industrial and community waste. The team has made a
significant effort with the Grand Calumet River, outside of Chicago. Because of its
proximity to a major industrial hub, terminus at Lake Michigan, and diverse wildlife
population, the Grand Calumet River was considered a particularly important waterway
to examine.
The Grand Calumet River, which
flows through the man-made
Indiana Harbor Ship Canal into
lower Lake Michigan, has been
the site of industrial development
since the 1870s. Over the years,
wastes from steel mills,
foundries, refineries, meat
packing plants, and glue factories
have left Calumet River
sediments highly polluted. Other
significant impacts on the
hydrology of this coastal area
include the deliberate reduction
of sand ridges, once a notable
feature of this location in northern Indiana. Additionally, when EPA examines waterways
to determine impairment, 14 categories are considered, including restrictions on fish
consumption. The Grand Calumet is the only site in this area to be identified as impaired
in all 14 categories.
A primary goal of the ETSC staff was to investigate management technologies that would
be suitable for the river. These technologies could include dredging, sediment capping,
phytoremediation, or other methods that address contaminated sediments in the
waterway. One principal study by ETSC scientists involved conducting research on
sorbents and sorption capacity in the Grand Calumet River. Additional research has
examined the physical stability of various types of sediment capping in the waterway.
This method would help prevent contaminated sediments from moving vertically back up
into the water channel. ETSC has also explored another alternative for the Grand Calumet
River that involves reusing contaminated sediments. For example, ongoing research is
evaluating the reuse of petroleum compounds in the sediments for use as a fuel
supplement in asphalt plants.
Fig. 22. Floating booms on the Grand Calumet River
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Summary
Although these investigations have yet to yield substantial results, they represent the
unique role that ETSC plays as a bridge between environmental remediation and
innovative engineering.
Through its interdisciplinary background, the ETSC staff brings creative thinking to life
by testing these ideas in real-world scenarios. In addition to the promise they inspire,
these technologies have the potential to produce long-lasting dividends and, ultimately, a
cleaner environment.
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